Manzhouguo: The True Story ofa Short-lived, Ideal State in Manchuria

By Huang Wenxiong

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter One: The Truth about Manchuria
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Chinese criticism of Manzhouguo based on falsehoods
Characterization of Manzhouguo as an illegitimate state distorts history
Communist Chinese government lives off Manzhouguo legacy
China’s ambition: the resurrection of the Chinese empire
Dispute over inheritance of Qing empire triggers the Greater East AsianWar
Potential of a united Asian state
Japan’s regret at not having forged a 100-year national strategy

Chapter Two: The Chinese and the Manchus: Two Millennia ofConflict
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Chinese accounts of Chinese history marked by arrogance
Limits of the Great Wall’s effectiveness
Manchuria’s unique history: the rise and fall of empires
Koguryo and Bohai built by antecedents of the Manchurians
Conquering dynasties that ruled China
The Manchurian Qing dynasty: halcyon days for the Chinese
Manchuria was never Chinese territory

Chapter Three: Manchuria Devastated Under the Rule of Bandits
and Warlords
Land of unions and divisions
2. Manchuria devastated by policy keeping the Han out
3. Huge waves of emigrants and refugees in the last days of the Qing
dynasty
4. Failure of the million-household 20-year plan for Japanese emigration to
Manchuria
5. Bandits and warlords controlled Manchuria
6. Former bandit rules Manchuria
7. Zhang’s son self-destructs
1.

i8. Manchurian people bled dry

Chapter Four: Behind the Manchurian-Mongolian Independence
Movement
1. Russia spends a fortune acquiring rulerless Manchuria
2. Behind the Russo-Japanese War: secret Sino-Russian agreement
3. Sun Yat-sen offers to sell Manchuria
4. The Mukden Incident cannot be fully explained by the “conspiracy
theory” alone
5. Manchu-Mongol independence and harmonious coexistence among fiveethnic groups

Chapter Five: A Harmonious Multi-ethnic State Is Born in a Land
Devastated by Civil Wars
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Ideas and ideals of Manzhouguo
Why the difference between Manzhouguo and Yungui Plateau?
So many blueprints for a new nation
Baojin anmin: the idea of Manchurian autonomy
Grassroots support for establishment of Manzhouguo
To call Manzhouguo a puppet state is to ignore history and reality
The making of a state begins with educating the people
Outrageous fabrication citing of 420,00 forced immigrants

Chapter Six: But for the Manchuria Railway and Guandong Army,
Manchuria Would Have Remained Wasteland
1. Acquisition of Siberia, Manchuria, and Mongolia Russia’slong-cherished desire
2. Secret pact concluded between Japan and Russia to divide and control
Manchuria
3. Japanese Guamdong army: an independent combat group viewing theSoviet Union as a potential enemy
4. Deadlock caused by rejecting a partnership proposal on Manchuria
Railway managementii

5. Manchuria Railway and Manzhouguo make remarkable advances inlogistics
6. Manchuria Railway the greatest contributor to the modernization ofManchuria

Chapter Seven: Miraculous Leap to a Modern Nationhood
1. Recognition of Manzhouguo and international relations
2. From exploitation of the people to land development
3. Construction of the world largest dams and electric power development
4. Aspiring to become a hub of the Greater East Asian heavy industry
5. Basis of public stability: unification of currency and establishment of financial
systemChapter Eight: A United Asian State Ceases to Exist after only 13
1/2 Years
1. Lytton Report corners Manzhouguo
2. Japan’s withdraws from League of Nations
3. Manzhouguo affected by the fortunes of the Greater East Asian War
4. Guomingdang and communists struggle over Manchuria
5. Manzhouguo achievements a modern Asian miracleiii

Chapter One: The Truth about Manchuria
1. Chinese criticism of Manzhouguo based on falsehoods
Three-all tactics are products of the Chinese culture
Certain types of descriptions are peculiar to the chronicling of modern
Chinese history. When the Chinese write history, they fill pages withrhetoric called baguwen (literally, eight-part essays, after the style
candidates taking imperial examinations during the Ming and Qing
dynasties were required to use). The facts are not important.
The dissection of Chinese historiography reveals, inevitably andunsurprisingly, a collection of compositions filled with complex, abstruse
ideographs. As one would expect, this is creative writing — no effort ismade to recount or substantiate the events of modern history.
The most convincing proof of the inaccuracy of Chinese historicalaccounts is to be found in accounts of the Mukden Incident (1931-32) andthe Sino-Japanese Incident (or Sino-Japanese War, 1937-45).
For example, the Chinese describe Japanese policy in Manzhouguo as
the “three –all policy.” A military term, “three-all” refers to directives tokill all, plunder all and burn all. In an economic context, it means “searchall, exploit all and steal all.”However, the expression “three-all” does not exist in the Japanese
language. Furthermore, the concept it denotes is alien to Japaneseculture. “Three-all” can be traced back to Guomindang and Communist
Party propaganda, used by each to vilify the other for its brutality.
But “progressive” historians in Japan enthusiastically embraced the“three-all” characterization. Moreover, to discredit militarism from apacifist standpoint, they adopted what can only be termed a morbid
stance, asserting that the Japanese Army perpetrated three-all tactics,
without even taking the trouble to verify the events in question.
In the annals of modern Chinese history, terms like “Japanesemilitarism” and “Japanese imperialism” appear countless times. Without
Japan, the archvillain, it seems impossible to describe those periods ofhistory. Accusations against the Japanese seem endless: Chinese parents,
brothers and sisters were brutally murdered by the Japanese Army.

1

Wives, daughters and sisters were raped. Women were abducted andforced to serve as sex slaves, houses were burned and land was laid waste.
Every single day, Chinese were burned to death or buried alive, died inprison, froze or starved to death. And of course, Japanese military
personnel committed all these horrific deeds.
Even today, freedom of speech is strictly limited in China. There arecertain perceptions of modern history that have been mandated by the
Chinese Communist Party. One of them, which emphasizes Japan’s
invasion of China, is conveyed as though it were historical fact.
When we read too many of these accounts written by Chinese
historians, with their perverted and twisted versions of historical events,
we lose sight of the actual facts. It is my impression that some educatedand cultured Japanese read Chinese history books and, completely
unaware of the background, believe their distorted contents. Therefore, I
will restate my point: Chinese history books, especially those dealing with
Manzhouguo, should be construed as baguwen — exercises in rhetoricthat are rife with lies.
Americans viewed Manzhouguo as the only stable region in China
Manzhouguo was indeed a short-lived nation whose history spanned
only 13½ years. But Deputy Manager Kishi Nobusuke of the Business
Division of the Management and Coordination Agency of Manzhouguo(and later prime minister of Japan) observed a nation aglow with theideal of peaceful co-existence in a utopian kingdom strongly supported byboth the Japanese and Manchurian peoples. He noted, additionally, that
the Indian religious leader Mahatma Gandhi also sent his support andencouragement to the new nation. Furuumi Tadayuki, who served as
deputy director of the same agency, contributed a chapter entitled“Manzhouguo and Japan” to Manshu kenkoku no yume to genjitsu (Thefounding of Manzhouguo: the dream and the reality).i According toFuruumi, the main task of the Guandong Army was to provide defense
against the Soviet Union. The army did not have the means tomanipulate Manzhouguo politically or administratively, nor did it everattempt to do so. And as far as “guidance from within” Guandong Army
Headquarters was concerned, Furuumi reported that the army did not
oppress or interfere with the government in any way.

2

Manzhouguo was a multicultural sphere inhabited by many peoples.
Recently, a new interpretation has been proposed, one with a focus on
Manzhouguo’s multicultural, multinational society. If we subscribe to the
traditional bipolar interpretation, which pits the Japanese against the
Chinese, we are quite likely to overlook Manzhouguo’s diversity — a very
important aspect of Manchurian society.
Furuumi did admit that, owing to the prolonged Sino-Japanese War
and the outbreak of the Greater East Asian War, Japan was in urgent
need of wartime goods, such as food and military supplies. However, he
added that at the same time, the Japanese government respectedManzhouguo’s independence, and willingly assisted the new nation as
much as possible. It was particularly generous with aid in connection
with the Northern Manchurian Railroad and efforts to abolishextraterritoriality. The Japanese government also helped with theinstitution of a yen-yuan par system to maintain the value of Manchuriancurrency, and with the issuance of Manchurian national bonds. The
five-year plan for Manzhouguo’s industrial development would not havebeen successful without Japanese aid in the form of funds, materiel,
personnel and other resources.ii
Furuumi’s recollections coincide closely with historical fact. The
relationship between Japan and Manzhouguo was that of two nations
sharing the same destiny; Japan and Manzhouguo were indivisible. To
cast aspersions on that relationship by calling it a “puppet state” istantamount to calling South Korea and North Korea puppet states of theUnited States, the Soviet Union and China.
In the fall of 1928, Thomas Lamont, CEO of American banking house
J.P. Morgan, visited Manchuria. He subsequently wrote a letter toUndersecretary of State Robert Olds, in which he commented that theJapanese presence would benefit not only Japanese nationals who settled
there, but also the Chinese people. Lamont was aware that Manchuria
was practically the only stable region in all of China, and that thanks to
the Japanese, Manchuria had been rid of elements of unrest and was
expected to become a stable power.
Lamont added that the unstable wartime situation affected the entire
vast nation of China. As a result, Chinese were flooding into southern
Manchuria by the thousands, seeking respite from the thievery and3devastation wrought by bandits, who were a threat everywhere in China.
In Manshukoku shi: soron (Overview of the history of Manzhouguo),
Hayashi Fusao wrote, “At that time, Manzhouguo represented hope for
East Asia.”iii He believed that Manzhouguo would live on as a symbol ofprogress in world history. Hayashi was convinced that those who worked
so hard to establish Manzhouguo were the pride of the Japanese people,
and that their founding ideals would shine even brighter with theadvancement of history, and endure throughout the centuries to come.
2. Characterization of Manzhouguo as an illegitimate state distorts history
Japan remodels poverty-stricken, disorderly Manchurian society
Since the dawn of history, the Tungus and Mongols had inhabited
Manchuria (for details, see Chapters Two and Three).iv Those northernnomadic tribes prospered there, building states and nations, which roseand fell just like their counterparts in other regions.
The role of the Great Wall of China, which separated North and East
Asia, as a watershed in history ended when the Qing dynasty (1616-1912)
began. North and East Asia were one continuum for 300 years of the Qing
Dynasty, but were not completely unified. During the Qing dynasty,
Manchuria was designated forbidden territory. In the middle of the 19th
century, Manchuria began to change, little by little.
With Russian influence moving southward after the Opium War(1840-42), the power map of Manchuria began to change significantly.
Subsequent conflicts, including the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), theBoxer Rebellion (1899-1901), and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
reconfigured the Manchurian map.
The dramatic transitions that occurred during the Qing dynasty
further accelerated change in Manchuria. Since the 18th century, theChinese world had been quickly collapsing, both physically and socially. A
huge influx of Chinese refugees began to change the landscape ofManchuria. The Muslim rebellions (1862-77) resulted in threats from theGreat Powers; the Qing authorities were obliged to lift the ban on
immigration into Manchuria. Until then, Manchuria was a forbidden
land. No Chinese was permitted to set foot on its soil. The prohibition
against marriage between Manchurians and Chinese was removed as4well, and harmonious relations were promoted.
Yet another sea change occurred in the form of the Xinhai Revolutionof 1911. The Qing dynasty was ousted by revolutionaries led by Sun
Yat-sen, who spouted slogans like “Expel the occupying Tartars! Reclaim
China!” and “Destroy the Qing! Revive China!” After the rebellion, thequestion of the Qing inheritance surfaced. Should all the land conqueredby the Qing in the 17th century be bequeathed to the Republic of China?
Or should it be divided among the Manchurians, Mongolians, Uighurs
and Tibetans? Once again, the Great Powers intervened.
Thus were three questions: the Manchuria-Mongolia question, theManchuria-Mongolia-Xinjiang independence question and the current
Tibet-Xinjiang independence question, born.
By the end of the Qing dynasty, Manchurians were already losing theirethnic solidarity. After the dynasty collapsed, they had no home to returnto, and became a parting gift to Chinese society. At a time when the GreatPowers were competing for hegemony, Manchuria was under the
influence of Japan in the south and Russia in the north. It became a newhaven for refugees, who poured in from China.
At the beginning of the 20th century, after the fall of the Qing dynasty,
Manchuria fell under the control of warlords, whose rapacious taxation
bled the people dry. The currency system had ceased to function, and theManchurian economy was in shambles. But the Japanese transformed
stagnant Manchurian society, in the depths of poverty, into a modern,capitalist state.
The Japanese method was completely different from the colonial
controls or the thievery that the European Great Powers employed in
Asia. With idealism and enthusiasm, it enabled backward Manchuria to
become a modern nation. Manchurian society actually achieved
modernization within the short space of 13½ years. This achievement has
great significance in the context of world history. That is why I feelstrongly that the Japanese should approach the matter of Manzhouguo
squarely, and rid themselves of perceptions involving atonement,
denunciation or nostalgia.
American expert states that Manzhouguo is not China’s offspring
George Bronson Rea, an American journalist well versed in Chinese5affairs, having lived in China for over 30 years, was the author of a bookentitled The Case for Manchouguo. In it he wrote:
The majority of states have come into existence by cutting adrift from theMother State, but even this rule does not apply to China andManchoukuo. China was never the mother state. Manchoukuo is not thechild of China. For three centuries it was the father state, and when themarriage was dissolved by mutual consent under definite divorce
agreements, the father was cheated out of and deprived by force from thepossession and enjoyment of his property.v Recognition of the father
state, therefore, is not incompatible with nor can it be considered as anaffront to the divorced mother. Both are sovereign entities entitled byevery conception and interpretation of law to separate and independent
existence and their incorporation as such in the society of nations.vi

During the Qing dynasty the Chinese people were, at least in principle,
subjects of the Manchurians. To use an analogy, Manchuria was theowner of a large store and China was its branch store. This relationshiplasted nearly 300 years. But early in the 20th century, the manager of the
branch store took control of the main store. Yet we must not assume thatthe main store will become, part and parcel, the property of the branch
store simply because a branch store becomes independent and, eventually,larger than the main store.
Today the Chinese criticize Manzhouguo, referring to it as“illegitimate Manzhouguo” on the grounds that it was a puppet stateestablished through secession from China. They further maintain that
Manchuria is part of China and absolutely indivisible therefrom. What if
the Indians had made the same claim (i.e., that Great Britain is part ofIndia) after the latter won independence from the former? Moreover, toassert that Mongolia and Tibet are also possessions of China is the sameas asserting that South Africa and Australia, having won independence
from Great Britain, are also part of India.
The ROC (Republic of China) seceded from its motherland, Qing
China, which means that the ROC is independent. In that case, why is it
necessary to obtain the ROC’s approval to reestablish Qing China?

6Manchuria was wasteland until the end of the 19th century
For comparison purposes, we might find it useful to explore borderdisputes relating to the Yungui Plateau, which comprises the provinces ofGuizhou, Yunnan and Guangxi. Though many Japanese may not be familiar
with the Yungui Plateau, it has much in common with Manchuria. First of all,Manchuria and the Yungui Plateau are situated on China’s northeastern andsouthwestern borders, respectively. Both received a considerable influx ofrefugees between the 18th and 20th centuries.
However, we notice a stark contrast between the two as far as evolution
into a modern society is concerned. How do we explain this difference? To thebest of my knowledge, no one has posed this question, which I will address indetail in Chapter Five.
But I would like to mention one important fact: China has traditionallyconsidered the Great Wall to be its northern border. The fortunes of thenorthern mounted tribes and the southern agricultural tribes have risen andfallen, but the Great Wall has always been a fortress built and maintained by
the Chinese. The purpose of the Great Wall was to protect the Chinese frominvasions from the north. It remained the traditional border, and theterritory north of it was considered foreign territory until the Mongols andManchus breached the Great Wall and conquered China.
Even after the Qing empire was established by the Manchurians,
Manchuria remained off limits not only to the Chinese, but also to Mongols
and Koreans. Manchuria, with a land area as large as France and Germany
combined, remained utterly desolate until the late 19th century.
Vying for Manchurian territory were Russia, then one of the GreatPowers, and Japan, a rising power. Powerful Russia’s southward advance
was a serious threat that the Chinese could not counter unaided. The
Japanese, emerging from victory in the Russo-Japanese War, invested theirblood, sweat and tears into the development of Manchuria to fend off theRussians. They launched modern industries and liberated the Manchurian
people from cruel exploitation at the hands of warlords Zhang Zuolin and his
son Zhang Xueliang.
Their crowning accomplishment was the creation of a utopia in a world
removed from war-weary China. Manchuria was indeed a utopia for the
million refugees per year who were fleeing from the horrors of war. This wasan unprecedented achievement, one that stands out in modern Chinese7

history. Manzhouguo resolved, once and for all, the northern issue, which
had long been plaguing the Chinese.
3. Communist Chinese government lives off Manzhouguo legacy
Japan unable to abandon civil war-torn China
After the Xinhai Rebellion, the Qing dynasty agreed to mediation frominfluential Yuan Shikai. Emperor Xuantong Puyi (known popularly as the“last emperor”) signed an abdication agreement with the provisional ROC
government in February 1912. The three-part agreement included conditions
favorable to the Qing imperial family, the nobility and the Manchurian,
Mongolian, Uighur and Tibetan peoples.
Article I of the section stating dealing with the status of the Qing
imperial family reads as follows: “His Imperial Highness, the Emperor Qing,
shall retain his royal title after abdication. The Republic of China shall treat
him with the same reverence and courtesy extended to foreign kings andnobles.” Yet only two years later, in February 1914, the Republican
government unilaterally abolished the abdication agreement simply by
promulgating a presidential decree. Article I of the decree states: “TheEmperor Qing shall be deprived of his royal title henceforth; he shall beentitled to the same rights accorded to all citizens of the Republic of China
under law.”
Understandably, Emperor Xuantong objected to the changes. However,
his request to the consuls of Japan, Britain and the Netherlands forintercession went unheeded.
Not only did the Republican government abolish the abdicationagreement, it also rescinded conditions favorable to the Emperor, as well as
to the Manchurian and Mongolian nobility. The government even ransacked
the Forbidden City in Beijing, confiscating treasures and other property
belonging to the imperial family. The Republican army excavated and robbed
the tombs of the imperial Qing ancestors. The stolen treasures were sold,and the proceeds used to finance the civil war.
It was the Japanese who stepped in to protect Emperor Xuantong andestablish a nation for the Manchurians. By then, Japan had become one of
the Great Powers and, therefore, was morally obligated to intervene in thecivil war. It was a humanitarian intervention, similar to American8intervention intended to help Kosovo, oppressed by the Yugoslav government,
win autonomy. This is a point worth making repeatedly. It was certainly anatural consequence that the autonomous nation of Manchurians bereestablished in Manchuria, away from the war-stricken world.
The concept of a sovereign state is a modern one. Nations had been
established at various times throughout Manchurian history, but none ofthem was a sovereign state. Both Gaojuli (Koguryo) and Bohai were nations;both had intercourse with Tang China, Japan and Korea. The Liao and Jin
dynasties were founded in Manchuria, and there were times when the
Manchurian people crossed the Great Wall and ruled part of China.
Therefore, the establishment of Manzhouguo was not a conspiracy whose
objective was to isolate part of China; it was the reestablishment of a nation
outside China.
I would like to emphasize, once again, that in the beginning China was acolony of Manchuria. The Manchurians ruled China in the “double empire”
style. Politically, the Qing emperor was the paramount power who reigned
over diverse ethnic peoples. However, the Qing dynasty had two separate
political systems, one governing the Manchurians, the other the Han (ethnic
Chinese). The territory of Manchurians who belonged to one of the eight
military units called “banners” (to be discussed later) was protected; there
was a prohibition against marriage between Manchurians and Han.
Manchurians were not permitted to serve as huanguan (eunuchs), while Han
women could not serve as court ladies. External treaties were not to be
written in the Chinese language. Teaching foreigners to write the Chinese
language was prohibited. Han people were prevented from immigrating to
Manchuria, Mongolia, Huibu (the present-day Uighur Autonomous Region of
Xinjiang, located in the Tarim Basin), Tibet and Taiwan. Chinese colonial
policy, more controlling than European or American colonial policy, wasrigorously implemented.
Chinese Communists devour the legacy of Manzhouguo
Nearly every Chinese has more or less the same historical recognition, i.e.,that after the Opium War, the Great Powers (the nations of Europe, theUnited States, Japan and Russia) invaded, plundered and exploited China,leaving it miserable and poor.
It is certainly true that the Great Powers were a threat to China.

9However, it is inaccurate to claim that they did nothing but rob China of its
national wealth. If we look at modern history objectively, we realize that theybuilt modern industries in China and taught the Chinese the workings ofmodern social systems. Historical fact indicates that the Great Powers did
actually contribute to the modernization of China.
In Manchuria, the enterprise of building modern industry was amazingly
successful. Ironically, it was not until after Manzhouguo’s collapse in 1945
that the extent of the state’s modernization was recognized.
The PRC (People’s Republic of China), having announced its
establishment in 1949, began a headlong drive toward building a socialist
nation, with economic aid from the Soviet Union. But that task could nothave been achieved with Russian assistance alone. The PRC feasted on
Manzhouguo’s legacy — modern industry. At the 7th National Assembly of
the Chinese Communist Party held at Yanan in April 1945, Mao Zedong said:“We will be able to accomplish a Chinese socialist revolution as long as we
retain the northeastern region, even if we lose all our other bases.” It is awell-known fact that, after having devoured the legacy of Manzhouguo, thecommunists had no alternative but to shift to new policies of reform andliberation. They attempted to modernize their country, using capital
investments and technologies supplied by more advanced economic powers.
In the early 20th century, only a few fortunate segments of Chinesesociety enjoyed the benefits of modern civilization; most of them inhabited
open-port areas, concessions of the Great Powers or property belonging to the
Manchurian Railroad. A mere 10 kilometers away from those areas was
wilderness, virtually unchanged since the chaos of ancient times. This is theperception of China shared and witnessed by representatives of the GreatPowers.
In those days, most Chinese were illiterate and uneducated. Those whorobbed and exploited the poor were not so much the Great Powers as thewarlords and a handful of learned Chinese. In fact, as rulers disappeared
and were replaced by others at a dizzying pace, taxes were doubled or even
tripled 20, 50 or even 100 years in advance. Worse still, the monies thus
ruthlessly collected were used only to keep the vicious cycle of civil wars
going. After World War I, the Great Powers began reducing their armed
forces and weapons arsenals, prompted by calls for disarmament. China was
the only exception. Civil wars among warlords intensified and spread to the10

Guomindang (Nationalist Party), ultimately pitting it against thecommunists; Chinese forces swelled to five million, then six million.
Manchuria exploited, then ruined by Communist Chinese government
After the fall of the Qing dynasty, the government of the ROC divided thearea that later became Manzhouguo into dongjiusheng, or “nine eastern
provinces.” But when the PRC came into being, the government reclassified
the five westernmost provinces into regions (the Inner Mongolia Autonomous
Region, to name one). That left only three eastern provinces (Jilin,
Heilongjiang and Liaoning).
The total area of the three provinces is 787,000 square kilometers (thearea of Manzhouguo was 1,303,000 km2). Although smaller than it was
during Manzhouguo’s existence, the region accounts for approximately 8.2%
of China’s total area. The population was 92.95 million as of the end of 1985,
or 8.9% of the Chinese population.
However, what is referred to as the northeast economic bloc (basically thesame region once occupied by Manchuria) includes East Mongolia (Humeng,
Xinganling, Zheling and Chiling) and has a total area of 1.24 million square
kilometers (12.9% of China’s total area) and a population of 105 million (10%of the national total).
The former Manchuria, though plundered by Soviet armies and laid
waste by the Guomingdang-Communist civil war after the fall ofManzhouguo, continues to be one of China’s most advanced regions and aleading heavy-industry base. It is rich in natural resources, and has awell-developed transportation network, and advanced science and technology.
The region has been supporting the PRC, as it is a major base for the steel,energy and machinery-manufacturing industries, and forestry and foodsupply. Its per-capita production has long been the highest of China’s six
major districts.
At present, industry in the northeastern region is sustained largely by arobust transportation network, in which railroads fulfill a key role. There are
more than 70 main and branch lines covering 12,000 kilometers, for thehighest density in the entire nation. In reality, however, the infrastructure of
the Manchurian district was, for all intents and purposes, completed during
the days of Manzhouguo and the Manchurian Railroad (South Manchurian
Railway & Co., Ltd.); not much renovation or updating was done after the11establishment of the PRC.
Since its foundation, the PRC had been preoccupied with an internal
struggle for power and consequently was unable to proceed with a socialist
revolution. The legacy of Manzhouguo was Communist China’s sole source of
support.
In the 1950s, the northeastern region, China’s heavy industry base, wasthe nation’s most prosperous. But in the 1960s and thereafter, Communist
China concentrated solely on despoiling that region. Its functions werelimited, by government order, to serving as a center for the heavy andchemical industries, and supplying resources. Industries with high added
value were not permitted to operate there.
The industrial enterprises in the region were mostly state-owned. For
example, the Daqing Oilfield Co. turned over 90% of its net profit to thegovernment, and was forced to pay taxes amounting to 60% of its proceeds.
Therefore, most of the businesses in the northeast were unable to reinvest
due to shortfalls in reserves. Industrial development stagnated. Thissituation is referred to as the “northeastern phenomenon.” It simply meansthat whatever profits companies might generate in the northeast would be
devoured by Beijing, sending the region into a downward spiral to ruin.
But that is the sort of nation China is. It consistently wasted the legacy of
the Qing dynasty during the 20th century — as well as the assets left by theGreat Powers and by Manzhouguo in particular — yet managed to barely
subsist on them. This is immutable historical fact.
For a time after its establishment, the PRC’s watchword was“self-revitalization,” but this campaign was a failure due to the chaosbrought about by the Cultural Revolution. Then the PRC adopted the slogan“reform and liberalization” in an attempt to lengthen its life span by creating
special economic zones and by appealing to developed nations for capital
investment and technology.
The special economic zones are merely a reincarnation of the concessions
once enjoyed by the Great Powers. Bringing in foreign capital is tantamountto inviting the economic Great Powers into China. It really doesn’t matter
what you call it. China is relying on others to attain its goals. I wonder how
many Japanese are aware how parasitic China is, and how heavily
dependent on other nations.
Since the reform-and-liberation campaign never made much headway,12

what the northeastern region is hoping is that history will repeat itself, andthere will be an influx of investment and technology from Japan, just as
there was in the days of Manzhouguo.
4. China’s ambition: the resurrection of the Chinese empire
Concept of “one absolute ruler and all people”
The perception of China as the entire world, not merely a nation, is still
entrenched in the minds of the Chinese. This becomes evident when thecharacteristics of present-day China are compared with those of modern
nation-states like Great Britain, France and Germany.
For instance, the Chinese emperor is regarded as the “son of Heaven” whorules all peoples on behalf of the Lord of Heaven. One of the greatest Chinese
intellectuals, Liang Shuming (a scholar of Indian philosophy), asserts that
Western countries are mere nations. Chinese society, however, is so
extraordinary that it has elevated itself from nation to world status; this is atruly amazing manifestation of self-confidence.
Even today, the Chinese insist that the term “nation” refers to either asmall tributary state like Korea or Vietnam, or a feudal state ruled bymembers of the imperial family in past dynasties. They say that the “son of
Heaven” is emperor (and thus ruler) of all nations. The Chinese emperor is
the world’s sole and absolute ruler.
Accordingly, appellations like Qin, Han, Sui, Tang and Qing are not thenames of nations, which stand for a land, a people and a government. They
simply denote the name of the dynasty in power at a particular time. As in
the instances of Korea and Vietnam, even nations were named by the
Chinese emperor. The history of the Chinese empire spans more than 2,000
years, but not until the establishment of the ROC in 1912 did China use acountry name.
Therefore, the Chinese empire is referred to not as a nation, but as the“world” or the “realm under Heaven.” Though the Japanese sometimes
mention “discussing the state of the world,” according to Chinese logic, only
the Chinese have the right to engage in such a discussion.
Then, what constitutes a realm under Heaven? The concept may becondensed into the expression “All things under heaven belong to theemperor.” In other words, all the land in the world belongs to China. This is13

not just a territorial perception. It is precisely the nature of the Chinesestate. China, at the center of the entire world, is ruled by the Chineseemperor, who grants the right to rule the region to local nobles, and collects
gifts delivered by emissaries from tributary states.
The ROC rejected the notion of the Chinese emperor as ruler of the entire
world, one that had persisted for more than 2,000 years. Rather, the new
republic attempted to transform China into a modern nation-state, modeled
after Great Britain and the United States.
The ROC soon became embroiled in a series of civil wars (involving first
the Beiyang Army, then the Guomindang and, finally, the Guomindang
versus the Communists) and experienced numerous changes of government.
During this chaotic period, Yuan Shikai briefly resurrected the imperial
regime. Zhang Xun even trotted out the abdicated Emperor Puyi (Xuantong)
and proclaimed the resurrection of the Qing dynasty in Beijing (theRestoration Plot). All in all, Chinese society made very little progress towardmodernization, instead sinking deeper into the quagmire of chaos.
Therefore, there was no bias in the assertion made by representatives ofJapan at a meeting of the Assembly of the League of Nations after theestablishment of Manzhouguo: “China is not a nation. China simply does notmeet the criteria for nationhood.”
During the republican era there were multiple governments. While eachof those governments claimed to represent all of China, no one of them held
itself politically responsible to foreign countries. Therefore, it was impossible
to describe China as a modern nation.
The rush to produce a multiethnic “Chinese people”; aspiring to resurrect
the “Chinese empire”
Time goes by and the world changes. Yet only China keeps reverting to
the 19th-century “realm under Heaven.” The Chinese have announced
campaigns for reform, change and revolution ad nauseam, but the PRC has
failed, just as the ROC did, to transform China into a modern nation-state.
A developed nation that has achieved modern statehood, even a
non-Western nation, should possess mature systems that reflect public
opinion. But here again, China is the exception, because public opinion is
totally suppressed by the powers that be. According to the Chinese world
view and ancient political tradition, dynasty changes are decreed by Heaven.

14When the incumbent ruler is found wanting, Heaven appoints another, andthe name of the dynasty changes. Even after the Chinese experienced power
and regime changes during the evolution of the ROC to the PRC, the old
tradition persisted. Two sayings: “The mounted man holds the power”(military force rules) and “Governments emanate from the muzzles of guns,”the latter attributed to Mao Zedong, both mean the same thing.
If one believes that power changes hands through violent revolution, thenone must maintain power through violence. Obviously, the Chinese
government’s system of reflecting public opinion in its policies is still in its
infancy.
Even in present-day Chinese society, this principle has not changed a bit.
Former Prime Minister Li Peng declared that there would be no multiparty
system, no separation of the three powers and no private ownership. His
declaration remains accurate, even in the 21st century. China will adhere to
the four principles (socialism, Communist Party leadership, democratic
dictatorship, and Marxist-Leninist and Maoist ideologies). And China will
promote Communist Party dictatorship, thus reverting to the regime of the“son of Heaven.”
A macroscopic examination of modern Manchurian history tells us thatthe conquest of China by the Manchu Qing dynasty was a historical turning
point. Of all the reigns since the dawn of Chinese history, the Qing dynasty
stands out for its just rulers and contented subjects. This fact was mentioned
by Zhang Zhitong, governor of Lianjiang, who was as prominent as Li
Hongzhang at the end of the Qing era.
Unfortunately, the more Qing China prospered, the more the population
increased, causing the natural and social environments to deteriorate
drastically. With the dawn of the 19th century, a huge number of refugees,
victims of unrest and famine resulting from unceasing internecine conflicts,
poured into Manchuria. Some of them settled in east Manchuria, where they
clashed with Koreans who were living there. Others laid waste to pastures in
the west, and clashed with Mongolians there. Still others went farther
toward the northern frontier looking for suitable land, only to despoil andruin pristine nature.
In conjunction with the extreme changes in the ecological and ethnic
environments, Russians entered Manchuria from the north, and Japanesefrom the east. Not long after the foundation of the United States of America,

15

Manchuria was already becoming the melting pot of East Asia.
Originally, the ROC’s objective was modern nation-statehood, but in theprocess, the republican government contrived to inherit the legacy of the
Qing empire. It forcibly integrated other ethnic peoples with the Chinese in
an attempt to resurrect the Qing empire of the 19th century.
The PRC, on the other hand, was intended to be a revolutionary nation,
aspiring to world revolution, human liberation and a borderless world inaccordance with the principles of socialist ideology. However, the truth isthat the PRC is trying to return to its 19th-century status as the “realm of
Heaven.” China’s current headaches (including border disputes with theformer Soviet Union and India, and problems with Tibet and Taiwan) can betraced to this agenda. By nipping public opinion in the bud, China is aiming
to inherit the legacy of the Qing (including Manchuria), and to restore the19th-century Chinese empire.
5. Dispute over inheritance of Qing empire triggers the Greater East AsianWar
Who is the rightful heir of the Qing empire?
If imperial Japan had not collapsed, Manzhouguo would be a robust nation
today. However, Manzhouguo ceased to exist when imperial Japan fell.
The primary cause of the major national and international disputes in
East Asia today is the question of inheritance of the Qing Empire after its
collapse.
As modern East Asian history tells us, the Manchus originated in thenortheastern part of the continent. Early in the 17th century, King Nurhachifounded the later Jin dynasty. During the reign of the second king, Hung
Taiji, Manchus and Mongols together consolidated the Qing empire. During
the reign of the third emperor, Shunzhi, they crossed the Great Wall, entered
China and conquered the Han. The Qing dynasty enjoyed prosperity for some
150 years throughout the reigns of three later emperors (Kangxi, Yongzheng
and Qianlong). During this period, the Qing destroyed the Dzungar empire(Zhunbu) in the west, and gained control of Huibu (today the Xinjiang
Uighur Autonomous Region in the Tarim Basin) and Tibet, previously
Dzungar territory, thus creating a huge empire.
However, early in the 20th century, the Xinhai Revolution triggered the16dissolution of the Qing empire. Mongolia and Tibet proclaimed independence
from the empire. Thus were the seeds of conflict that would plague East Asia
till this very day sown.
The source of the conflict was land and other assets of the diverse peoplesof East Asia who were conquered by the Qing empire during the 17th and18th centuries. Three separate groups were attempting to acquire the Qing
legacy.
The first group was the ROC. There were 600 political parties in China, if
we include provincial or factional blocs formed at the dawn of republican
control. Their leaders were warlord Yuan Shikai’s Beiyang Army,
restorationists like Zhang Xun, and revolutionary figures like Sun Yatsen
and Song Jiaoren, just to mention a few. There were so many parties andfactions that each government was constantly embroiled in civil wars
between warlords, between factions of the Guomindang, and between the
Guomindang and the communists. Only internecine conflicts and changes ofgovernment distinguished the republican period. Today the PRC, which
succeeded the ROC, justifies its claim to the Qing legacy by describing it assacred Chinese territory.
The second group was the Mongolians, Uighurs and Tibetans, who wereconquered by the Qing empire in the 17th century and thereafter. An
investigation into the extent of involvement of those ethnic groups with
war-torn China after they were liberated from Qing control would certainly
prove interesting.
The third group was the Great Powers, who always intervened in China’s
civil conflicts, and constantly took sides with whichever side might beamenable to their interests. They are at least partly responsible for the wars
that are still raging in East Asia today.
The age of discovery and maritime exploration spurred competition
among the Great Powers of Europe, America and Russia for colonies on a
global scale. By the end of the 19th century, the division of Africa wascomplete; East Asia was the only unexploited area. Consequently, the Qing
empire in East Asia was the last colonization target. Great Britain, France,
Germany and Russia were the first to make inroads into China, dividing thenation. The Americans were slow to encroach upon China; once they did,they could do little more argue for an open-door policy and equal privileges,
all in vain.

17

The general trend in the division of Qing China took a sudden turn of
events due to the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) and the Russo-Japanese War(1904-05). A new player named Japan joined in the battle for the Qing
inheritance.
After the Russo-Japanese War, the Russians withdrew from South
Manchuria, but they still controlled the rest of Manchuria, and Mongolianand Uighur territory; the British controlled Tibet. The legacy of Qing China
prompted each of the Great Powers to intervene in the Chinese civil wars.
On some occasions, they would side with one of the factions involved in the
struggle for power in the ROC. On others, they would take up the cause of
one of the ethnic groups fighting for independence and liberty. But they
always acted in their own interests. This situation ultimately led to theGreater East Asian War.
Han fated to clash with Manchus and Mongolians
The Qing dynasty was ousted after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, and on
January 1, 1912, the provisional government of the Republic of China wasestablished. However, Yuan Shikai, a northern warlord, and Sun Yat-sen, therevolutionary leader in the south, were still in conflict, negotiating all thewhile.
Although the Qing empire had fallen, there were still some elementsplotting to reestablish a Manchu nation. In addition to the well-known groupcalled the Zongshe Party (Imperial Family Party), there was a fairly strong
Manchurian-Mongolian independence movement for quite a while. The
Manchus and Mongols were hoping for the return of their lost country
through the establishment of Manzhouguo. Other ethnic groups were
dreaming of building a new nation, i.e., Manzhouguo, where the five peoples
could live in harmonious prosperity.
The Mongols and Tibetans, who were conquered by the Qing (Manchu)
empire in the 18th century, were to proclaim their independence following
the Xinhai Revolution.
Jabtsandamba Khutagt, an Outer Mongolian leader, declared
independence for Mongolia, supported by Russia. In December 1911, prior to
the establishment of the ROC, he founded the Mongolian empire andascended the throne. In 1924, following the death of the emperor, the nation
underwent a social revolution and became the Mongolian Republic. Inspired18

by Outer Mongolia’s independence, Hulunbeier in Inner Mongolia, west ofManchuria, attempted to follow suit. In August 1912, Horqin (head of theLeft Front Banner Army) and his men occupied Taonan, but a counterattack
by Fengtian province’s Wujunsheng Army shattered their dream of
independence.
In July 1916, Mongolian patriot Babojab took advantage of the political
disorder caused by Yuan Shikai’s death and, with the help of Kawashima
Naniwa and other Japanese patriots, raised an army along the banks of the
Halaha River. Three thousand Mongolian cavalrymen defeated the
Wujunsheng Army and occupied Guojiadian, on the main line of theManchurian Railroad. But Babojab was defeated and killed near Linxi, Inner
Mongolia; another dream of Manchurian-Mongolian independence had
evaporated.
Today, the Han insist that the Chinese are multiethnic, and that the
integration of Mongolians, Uighurs, Tibetans and Manchurians has beenaccomplished. But the ethnic minorities are not always thrilled to beincorporated into such a duplicitous “family.”
According to Sun Yat-sen’s brand of nationalism, minorities are simply
ethnic groups who must be assimilated into Chinese culture. Sun’s reasoning
was that the population of the minorities is too small. On that point, he wascorrect. But why are there so few of them? The truth is that their populations
were reduced drastically when Islamic peoples fell victim to the genocide
perpetrated by the Qing Empire in the mid-17th century. The slaughter ofMuslims (called xihui, or “cleansing China of Muslims”) by the Han Chinesecontinued well into the 20th century. In the Qing empire of the 19th century,
one out of every 10 citizens was a Muslim. The eradication of the Muslim
population continued after the nation became the People’s Republic of China;
tens of millions more Muslims were killed, which explains the drastic
population decline. Sun Yat-sen had no way of knowing about the slaughter.
The perpetrators of the massacre refuse to face historical fact, instead
spouting platitudes about a “multiethnic China.”
Uighurs and Tibetans also dream of independence from Chinese colonial
control. Precisely because the question of Manzhouguo as a nation isextremely complex, it is best to address it from a variety of perspectives.
From a historical perspective, Manzhouguo may be understood in thecontext of polarization: the traditional Chinese versus the peoples of the19north and east. Two possible approaches are examinations of (1) traditional
conflicts that pitted China, the dominant nation in the center against its
foreign neighbors, and (2) the history of civilizations and cultures. Topics likenationalism (perceived from the angle of modern ethnic groups) and the
independence and autonomy of Manchus and Mongols need further
consideration.
However, when Manzhouguo disappeared, so did the dream of
independence from Chinese control on the part of the Manchus, Mongols,
Uighurs and Tibetans. And though more gradually, the Chinese dream ofbuilding a modern nation-state disappeared as well.
Today China is aspiring to restore the “great Chinese empire” byswallowing up all the ethnic groups in the region. To maintain a state of suchproportions, the Chinese will find it necessary to bolster their dictatorship.
Tyranny will crush democracy, freedom and human rights. This is a mostunfortunate situation that will affect all of East Asia in the 21st century.
6. Potential of a united Asian state
Where China fails, Japan succeeds in only 50 years
At the end of the 19th century, young Chinese patriotic reformers andrevolutionaries staked their youth, their energy and even their lives on the
dream of building a nation-state. Bureaucrats like Ceng Guofan, Li
Hongzhang and Zhang Zhidong were more interested in westernization,
introducing western military science and other technologies to enrich the
Qing dynasty and reinforce its army. But patriots seeking reform andrevolution (Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Sun Yat-sen, Huang Xing and Song
Jiaoren) were acutely aware of the need for a modern nation-state.
Nonetheless, incidents like the Hundred Days’ Reform attempted by
Kang Youwei and others, and modeled after Japan’s Meiji Restoration and
the Xinhai Revolution, only caused further conflicts and social disorder.
A modern nation-state is not built in a day. In Europe, ever since the ageof great discovery, the concept fermented and gradually matured as
civilizations experienced religious, industrial and social revolutions.
Japan was the only exception. After emerging from isolation, Japan
initiated the Meiji Restoration, won the Sino-Japanese and Russo-JapaneseWars, and joined the ranks of the Great Powers as a competent, modern

20

nation-state. All of these achievements took place within less than half acentury. Japan accomplished in several decades what had taken European
countries several hundred years. The nations of the entire world marveled atthose achievements, and began to look toward Japan, hoping to learn from
the Meiji Restoration.
This is the historical background behind the emergence of a nation called
Manzhouguo in 1932 in the northeastern part of China, which turbulent
events had reduced to poverty and lawlessness. Although Manzhouguo waslauded as a great experiment in the building of a modern nation-state, it
made an unceremonious exit from the stage of history.
Some say that Manzhouguo was a failure. Others claim that “illegitimate
Manzhouguo,” born out of an imperial Japanese conspiracy, was fated toperish sooner or later.
We must be mindful, however, that Manzhouguo achieved a stable societythat could never exist in China. Furthermore, Manzhouguo accomplishedother feats that were seemingly impossible: the institution of central andlocal administrative structures, the integration of finance and currency, theconsolidation of transportation systems, and rapid industrial and economic
progress. A comparison of Manzhouguo society with the devastated Chinesesociety of today makes the difference in social stability acutely obvious.
A phenomenon so monumental as to deeply impress every nation of theworld actually occurred in the remotest corner of the Chinese world, andevaporated suddenly, like a mirage. This was a tragedy, not only for the
Chinese, but for the entire world.
The promise of a modern multiethnic state
Why did a modern nation-state of the likes that the Chinese had been
unable to create in 4,000 years emerge in Manchuria, only to disappear after
little more than a decade? Why did a million Chinese refugees cross theGreat Wall and pour into Manzhouguo every year? The Chinese of today are
most reluctant to accept these events as historical fact. They merely
disparage the nation as “illegitimate,” and accuse the Japanese of plunderand forced emigration. They intentionally avert their eyes from the very factthat Manzhouguo existed. Such an attitude is one of the tragedies ofcontemporary China.
If Manzhouguo had survived, the Chinese world would be completely

21different. A modern multiethnic state would have existed in northeast Asia.
Its national strength would be comparable or even superior to Japan’s. It
would abound in natural resources, and in capital and technology
transferred from Japan. This is not a totally unfeasible hypothesis. The
legacy Manzhouguo accumulated during its 13½ years of existence still
remains today. It tells the truth more eloquently than any historical accountwritten by the Chinese.
The Guomindang’s northward campaign (the battle for control against
the warlords of North China) and Communist China’s path to a socialist
state through civil war with the Guomindang and the Cultural Revolution
resulted in several million and tens of millions of casualties, respectively.
Even after this tremendous loss of life, Chinese society became (and remains)an impoverished failure. According to Lu Xun, “Understanding is achieved
only through comparison.”
China’s neighbors (Taiwan, the Korean peninsula, Manchuria and HongKong) were all much safer places than China proper. Furthermore, one could
not term the concessions controlled by the Great Powers utopias, but at least
they were stable and prosperous. Chinese society, however, was antiquatedand decayed, and its phenomenally high crime rate made it a hell on earth.
If Manzhouguo existed today, it would provide abundant lessons for the
Chinese. It would tell them what a state is, what a modern nation-state is,and what a modern society is. It would also tell them what the China
produced by China’s unification war is, and consequently help them awaken
to a new concept of statehood.
Coprosperity of diverse ethnic groups, a model for burgeoning Asian states
The fall of Manzhouguo was also the fall of the Asian ideal. Manzhouguo
was an ideal and a dream, both of which modern Asia was seeking (andcontinues to seek), because it embodied the concept of multiethnic
coprosperity.
All the new nations in Asia are multiethnic states. China is the home ofmore than 50 ethnic groups. The same is true of Vietnam and Myanmar. The
Philippines and Indonesia are even more ethnically diverse. For these Asian
countries, Manzhouguo, with its founding ideal of multiethnic coprosperity,
was truly a superior model for the building of a composite society.
Manzhouguo was also a great experiment that asked the question “Is it

22possible to create a nation along the lines of the United States of America innortheastern East Asia?”
In the first place, the ROC was a nation established by patriotic
revolutionaries, whose model was the United States. Before the colonies won
their independence from Great Britain, there were only 12 people who
demanded that independence. Even so, they succeeded almost immediately.
Other colonies followed suit and eventually the United States of America wasestablished.
On the other hand, there were more than 600 political parties in the ROC,
which were constantly in conflict. Under such circumstances, the nation had
to use military force if it hoped ever to form a government. Moreover,advocates of a republican government or a federal system (autonomous
federation of provinces) were in the minority. It would be simplistic toconclude that the plethora of political groups doomed the Republic of China.
The main reason for the ROC’s failure was the burden of history, which
nurtured the notion of “all subjects under one ruler” for over 2,000 years.
In this respect, Manzhouguo differed from the ROC. After all, Manchuria
had existed outside the Chinese world for 4,000 years.
There are strong resemblances between Manzhouguo and the UnitedStates of America in its early days. First of all, both countries had abundantnatural resources and vast unexploited regions.
Before the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, Manchuria had attracted
the interest of European and American geologists, who believed it was anuntapped treasure trove. The total area of Manchuria was equivalent to thatof Germany and France combined. Also, Manchuria was situated at nearly
the same latitude as those two European countries. Its land resembled the
new continent of North America before it was settled by Europeans. Mukden(today Shenyang) is situated at nearly the same latitude as Chicago, Dalianas Baltimore, and Harbin as Montreal. Manchuria’s topography and climate
were also similar to those of western North America prior to the frontier days.
These similarities alone prove that Manzhouguo harbored the potential to
become an Asian “United States.” Furthermore, both Manzhouguo and theUnited States were newly settled immigrant colonies inhabited by people
from diverse ethnic backgrounds.
Of course, there were differences as well. Manchuria had experienced thevicissitudes of glorious dynasties, such as Koguryo, Bohai, Liao, Jin and23

Qing over the past 2,000 years. Various nations and ethnic groups had risen
and fallen there, and consequently Manchuria had been enriched by theexperiences of those multiethnic states.
Manzhouguo explored the possibility of creating a multiethnic state inwhich diverse peoples could live together in harmonious prosperity. The
founding vision derives from (1) the Chinese concept of ruling by virtue, notby force, (2) the Buddhist vision of paradise, and (3) ethnic cooperation andharmony. Furthermore, in building a modern industrial society and aconstitutional state, Manzhouguo fused Western and Eastern ideas andsystems. In that sense, Manzhouguo was truly the product of theamalgamation of occidental and oriental civilizations.
Unlike the Japanese, who had successfully built an ethnicallyhomogenous state, the leaders of Manzhouguo attempted to establish amultiethnic nation. Manzhouguo was a new experiment involving thefounding of a nation with a view to bringing coexistence and coprosperity toEast Asia.
When a nation that held such promise disappeared from Asia, the dreamof founding a united Asian state died, and with it the prototype of aburgeoning Asian nation.
7. Japan’s regret at not having forged a 100-year national strategy
Japan’s huge outlay in support of Manzhouguo
The Japanese have had very few significant national strategies. During
the Edo period, foresighted patriots like Sato Nobuhiro and Yoshida Shoin
advocated various concepts of nationhood, but to this day no one has
proposed a comprehensive 100-year plan.
Although an overwhelmingly successful victor in short-term battles,
Japan would almost invariably be defeated in extended battles and,
consequently, lose everything. That is the path Japan has trod throughmodern times.
Imperial Japan was a truly magnificent, sparkling state born in East Asia,
worthy of much mention in world history. But that great country
disappeared in less than 80 years.
The Qing empire on the Asian continent endured for nearly 300 years.
The Mongolian empire had a shorter life, but was succeeded by the Russian24

empire, the Mughal dynasty and the Qing empire. Surrounded by water,
imperial Japan had a surprisingly brief life, compared with those empires,with their vast expanses of land. Was Manzhouguo born out of a sudden
explosion of Japanese energy?
Capital investment in Manchuria by the Great Powers prior to the
Mukden Incident was estimated at 2.4 billion yen, of which Japan’s
investment accounted for about 1.8 billion yen. After the establishment ofManzhouguo, Japan’s investment in Manchuria increased sharply year by
year. For example, the amount was 150 million yen in 1933, more than one
billion yen in 1939, and exceeded one billion yen during each of the four
years ending in 1942. Until Manzhouguo collapsed in 1945, the Japanese
investment in Manchuria actually amounted to between 10 and 11.7 billion
yen.
Manzhouguo’s annual budget for fiscal 1932 was 128 million yen; 10 years
later, in fiscal 1942, it was 823 million yen. By comparing these figures, welearn that Japanese investment in Manchuria was nearly equal to or evengreater than Manzhouguo’s total annual budget. Needless to say, suchinvestments greatly facilitated the industrial modernization of Manzhouguo.
China: bottomless pit for ODA (Official Development Assistance)
After the Meiji Restoration, the passion the Japanese displayed for East
Asia was truly extraordinary, and applied equally to the Korean peninsula,
Manchuria and China. This was a time when there was much conflict
between nations, and the Great Powers were in competition. Japan was
expending capital and technology, human energy, and materials in an effort
to achieve coexistence and coprosperity among Japan, Korea, Manchuria andChina. But the result was an utter failure.
When we turn the pages of modern Japanese history, we learn thateverything imperial Japan gained through consecutive victories after the
Sino-Japanese War, it lost in half a century. Following the Russo-JapaneseWar, with the concessions won from Russia and at the cost of 200,000
precious lives and two billion yen, Japan continued to expand its wealth,
only to have it wrested away by the Russian army within a single week 40
years later.
It would be impossible to explain sufficiently the degree to which Japan
had been investing capital in the Korean peninsula and Manchuria, and25

developing industry and building modern nations in both places. Yet in theend, Japan’s reward for that passion and energy was neither thunderous
applause nor heartfelt gratitude, but abuse, slander and criticism.
The Chinese are the most difficult people in the world to deal with.
According to George Bronson Rea, who lived in China for over 30 years, “Forthirty-two years, I have watched the procession of American business men,investors, concession hunters and loan agents prance through the wide open
portals into the ‘Chinese El Dorado,’ and have seen every one of them comerunning back minus his shirt, yelling to Uncle Sam for help.”vii
Mr. Rea was an American engineer, businessman and journalist; he wasalso president and editor-in-chief of the Far Eastern Review, an English
monthly published in Shanghai. As advisor to President Sun Yat-sen, Mr.
Rea made a plan for building an arterial Chinese railway line, entered into
negotiations with Europe and the U.S. concerning financial relations, andundertook many other important tasks. He was one of the China experts ofthe day.
Manzhouguo, into which the Japanese had poured so much passion andenergy, had left a monumental legacy. That legacy disappeared into Chinese
hands, perhaps because the Japanese had never forged a 100-year plan.
After World War II, having learned its lesson, Japan made a new start asa peace-loving nation. Undeterred by epithets like “economic animal,” Japan
reestablished itself as an economic Great Power. But its newly acquired
wealth vanished in the 1990s due to stagnant economic conditions referred toas “the lost 10 years” and “the second defeat.” ODA (Official Development
Assistance) to China from Japan goes unappreciated. Instead, it is labeled
partial payment of imperial Japan’s debt to China — a debt that will neverbe paid in full — such is the arbitrariness of Chinese historical perception.
Japan’s wealth has fallen prey to foreign countries, and its sovereignty is
being threatened. The Japanese people are beginning to lose their national
identity. Isn’t this state of affairs a natural consequence of Japan’s lack of anational strategy?
Since the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, the U.S. had been a staunch supporterof China, at the same time demanding an open-door policy and equal
opportunities. However, once the PRC was established, the U.S. not only lost
all former privileges and benefits, but also came to be regarded as China’s
worst enemy because of “American imperialism.” Russia and then the Soviet

26

Union also assisted both the Guomindang and the Chinese Communist Party,
respectively, in many ways after the first coalition between the Guomindang
and Communist China. But the honeymoon was very brief. At one time,
China and the Soviet Union were engaged in mutual abuse, each considering
the other its enemy.
The ROC, the PRC and all that they engendered brought nothing but
misery to the Chinese people in the 20th century.
If Manzhouguo were alive and well, or if the Chinese could at least admitthat it ever existed, the resulting stimulus might have resulted in a profoundtransformation.

i

Kokusai Zenrin Kyokai (International Goodwill Association), Manshu kenkoku no yume togenjitsu (The founding of Manzhouguo: the dream and the reality) (Tokyo: International
Goodwill Association, 1975).
ii

See pp. 126-7.

iii

Manshukoku shi hensan kanko kyokai (Committee for the Compilation of the History ofManzhouguo), Manshukoku shi: soron (Overview of the history of Manzhouguo) (Tokyo:
Kenkosha, 1972).
iv

See Chapters Two and Three for details.

v

Rea is referring to the Qing emperor’s abdication agreement with the ROC, to be discussed

in the following section.
vi

George Bronson Rea, The Case for Manchouguo (New York: Appleton-Century, 1935), p.

11.
vii

Ibid., p. 69.

27

Chapter Two: The Chinese and the Manchus:
Two Millennia of Conflict
1. Chinese accounts of Chinese history marked by arroganceA region three times the size of Japan with arable land equivalent toJapan’s entire area
First I will describe the topography of Manchuria. Approximately thesize of Germany and France combined, Manchuria was mostly wasteland
prior to the establishment of Manzhouguo. Its total area wasapproximately 1.1 million square kilometers, about three times the size ofpresent-day Japan.
The Lesser Khingan Range is situated in the north, and the Changbai
Mountains in the east. The Greater Khingan Range, stretching from northto south in the west, borders the Mongolian Plateau. These two ranges
surround the Manchurian Plain.
In the north of Manchuria, the Greater Khingan Range, which extends
to Siberia, towers over the forest regions. In the west are grasslands
leading to the Mongolian Plateau. In the east are more forests encircling
the Changbai Mountains, which continue into the Korean Peninsula. In
the south are farmlands that abut the Great Wall. Roughly 30% of the land
(into which all of Japan would fit) is arable.
The latitude of the northernmost point of Manchuria is 53° 30” N, thesame as Hamburg, Germany; the latitude of the southernmost point is 38°
43” N, the same as Ishinomaki, Miyagi Prefecture in Japan andWashington, D.C. The longitude of the easternmost point is 135° 20” E, thesame as Fukuchiyama City, Kyoto Prefecture, while that of thewesternmost point is 116° W, nearly the same as the western part ofBeijing.
Manchuria has a forbidding natural environment; the temperatures arevery low throughout much of the year.
“Sacred territory, absolutely indivisible from China”
An expression postwar Chinese enjoy using is “sacred territory,

28

absolutely indivisible from China”. They use the expression when theyrefer to Taiwan, of course, but also in connection with Manchuria,
Mongolia and Tibet.
In the mouths of a billion people, it certainly sounds impressive. The
world might take notice. But can one call this historical fact? In thischapter, I will focus on this point.
The Chinese obsession with territory is neither as old nor traditional as
one might suppose. For instance, after the Opium Wars (1840-42), China
ceded some of its territory to Great Britain and France. Following the
Sino-Japanese War, China ceded Taiwan to Japan on a permanent basis.
Even in peacetime, China ceded territory, giving Macao to Portugal at theend of the Ming dynasty. Russia acquired the vast territory east of theUssuri River, including the maritime provinces, from China as a reward for
merely mediating Qing China’s disputes with Great Britain and France.
However, during this period, Qing China was not the only state thatceded territory to other countries. Russia sold Alaska to the U.S. for the
low price of $7.2 million ($.03 per acre). Japan, just beginning to govern
Taiwan, was encountering all sorts of problems there, including guerrillaresistance and pestilence. Anxious to solve them, the imperial Diet evendiscussed selling Taiwan to France for 100 million yen at one point.
These facts give us some indication of how nations perceived theirterritory in the past. Relationships fraught with tension, in which eachnation fights desperately for even the smallest piece of land, came with theonset of the modern era.
In the 20th century, the Chinese began to acquire a modern perception of
territory. Even during the period extending from the establishment of the
PRC to the Cultural Revolution, they did not claim that anything andeverything was Chinese territory. Border disputes with Russia, India andVietnam served a useful purpose: they deflected hostile public sentimentfrom domestic political problems.
Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, China sought world revolution andhuman liberation. People still believed that there should be no borders
separating workers, and that nations themselves should cease to exist.
There was little, if any, territoriality.
For example, Mao Zedong once told leaders of the Vietnamese Labor
Party that though Sichuan province and Thailand were the same size, the29

population of Sichuan was twice that of Thailand. Therefore, to correct
injustices, the Chinese should liberate Thailand and allow Chinese
immigrants to settle there in order. At the basis of this absurd argument
lay the communist hope for world revolution. In fact, inspired by Mao
Zedong’s ideas, communist liberation struggles swept through all of Asia.
The “great Chinese people” theory
Today the Chinese claim, in an increasingly shrill voice, that certain
places are “sacred territory, absolutely indivisible from China.” This is acomplete turnabout from the days of Mao Zedong. Behind this slogan is the“great Chinese people” theory.
This theory is based on the assertion that the various ethnic groups who
inhabit China’s perimeter are all branch tribes of the great Chinese people.
At the end of the 19th century, Chinese scholars like Kang Youwei andLiang Qichao began promoting this theory. But it was not until after the
Cultural Revolution that China became persistent about it.
According to the great Chinese people theory, the respective histories of
all the peoples in adjacent areas are regarded as the history of China. That
is why the histories of the Mongolian empire, Tibet, Manchuria, and even
Koguryo and Bohai (both of which occupy very important places in Korean
history), are considered to be part of Chinese history.
If the Mongolian empire were to be incorporated into the annals ofChinese history, Central Asia and Russia (once conquered by the
Mongolian empire) would have been Chinese territory. In fact, that is what
Chinese students are taught. It is also the most convenient historicalperception for today’s Chinese Communist Party.
To begin with, Asian history is generally classified as the history of four
regions, namely, North Asia, East Asia, West Asia and South Asia.
According to Chinese scholarship, however, there is no such thing as North
Asian history; it is considered part of Chinese history.
The Chinese are basically an agricultural tribe. Because they value what
they learn through experience, they place great importance on therecording of history. Not all agricultural peoples have the same fondness
for history. East Indians, for instance, are principally a farming tribe, butthey are not much interested in history. On the other hand, the nomadic
tribes have left far fewer historical records than the Chinese. It was not30until after the Tang dynasty that the Liao dynasty Qidan (Khitan) people,
the Jin dynasty Juchen people (later called “Manchus”) and the Tangut
people of Xixia first began recording their history by devising their own
writing systems.
Consequently, the annals of the ethnic groups in regions adjacent toChina were recorded only in books (part of official Chinese historical
records) called Beidi (northern aliens), Nanman (southern barbarians),
Xirong (western aliens) and Dongyi (eastern barbarians). The Japanesealso appeared, referred to as woren in the Dongyi book. However, thedescriptions were never accurate. The accounts in Weizhi Worenchuan(History of the Wei dynasty, book of woren) generate so much controversy
in Japan because the Book of Woren is inaccurate.
The Chinese insistence that a particular place (or places) is “sacred
territory, absolutely indivisible from China” has a certain theoretical basis.
But the only proof they offer is that “the fact” is recorded in their history.
Or perhaps China once conquered or controlled that region. But in thelatter case we find sweeping generalizations (e.g., territories conquered bythose who ruled China belong to the Chinese). This is the basis of theaforementioned claim that regions once conquered by the Mongolian or
Qing empire should be inherited by the Chinese.
When discussing Manchurian history, we should be mindful of thispeculiar Chinese historical perception. Otherwise, we may unknowingly
fall into the trap — the distortion of history.
2. Limits of the Great Wall’s effectivenessThreats from the north and the Great Wall of China
In chronicles of pre-Tang Chinese history, Huns (Xiongnu) and Xianbei
often appear. Both were tribes who roamed the Manchurian Plateau and thearea around the Greater Khingan Range.
The Huns, pastoral nomads, originated in the Mongolian Plateau. During
the Han era, they established the powerful Hun empire, which contended
with the Han. They eventually split into two groups (northern and southernHuns), and were later supplanted by the Xianbei people. The Xianbei and
Wuhuan were also nomads. They originated from the Greater Khingan
Range, east of the Mongolian Plateau. The Xianbei people later founded the31Northern Wei dynasty (386-530). The Sui and Tang dynasties, which
reunited China in the late 6th and early 7th centuries, were of Xianbei
extraction.
Among threats from the north were the Tujue people. Unlike the Huns andtheir relatives, they were a group of tribes who inhabited the area near theWest Altai Mountains. From the 6th century to 8th century, the Tujue built ahuge empire that extended from Central Asia to Manchuria.
Tribes that posed a threat to the Chinese were generally referred to as
Xirong (western aliens) and Beidi (northern aliens) in Chinese historical
documents. Many tribal names were also listed, including the Quanrong,
Donghu, Huns, Xianbei, Tujue, Uighurs (Huijue), Qidan, Nuzhen (Juchen)and Mongols. Most of them spoke languages of the Ural-Altaic group;
ethnically, they were Mongols, Turks and Tungus.
Altaic pastoral nomads were not the only threat to China. The Di and He
tribes during the Five Hu (alien tribes) era and the Shiliuguo (16 states) era(304-439) were supposedly Tibetans and Persians, respectively. The
kingdoms of Tufan and Xixia (Tang and Song eras) were Tibetan.
To prevent invasions from those enemies, the Chinese had been building
the Great Wall even before the first emperor of the Qin dynasty ascended thethrone. The magnificent structure is well preserved and admired today as
the largest wall ever built in human history. Obviously, the Chinese havebeen constructing and repairing the Great Wall for centuries.
History of the world within the Great Wall
China is a land of fortresses; the word “nation” in Chinese implies theterritory inside a fortress. The Chinese character for guo (nation) has threecomponents: the pictographs for “village” and “spear,” which are surroundedby “walls.” Nomadic tribes that did not possess fortresses were traditionallycalled “wandering country people.”
The earliest constructors of the Great Wall were supposedly the Qi during
the Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn) period (770 BC-403 BC), named after thetitle of the chronicle in preparation at the time. They were followed by theHan, Ziao and Wei on the central plains along the mid-to-downstream
courses of the Yellow River (Huang he) during the Zhanguo (Warring States)
period (453 BC-221 BC). The Chu in the south also worked on the wall.
After the first Qin emperor united China (221 BC), he connected the walls

32

built by the Ziao and Yan, and completed the Great Wall. It now stretchesfrom Lintao in Min prefecture, Gansu province, in the west to Liaoyang in
Manchuria, in the east. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty,
the wall was extended further to Yumenguan in Dunhuang, in the west.
During the Qin and Han dynasties, the Great Wall was situated much
farther north than it is today. However, it was moved southward in the 5th
and 6th centuries during the Nanbei (the Northern and Southern dynasties)
era. During the Sui dynasty, the wall was rebuilt at its present location; it
was finally completed during the Ming dynasty (15th and 16th centuries).
The Great Wall is 2,400 kilometers long, extending from Jiayuguan in thewest to Shanhaiguan in the east.
The Great Wall, as constructed by the first Qin emperor, prevented a Hun
invasion. But later the Great Wall was less effective at keeping mounted
tribes from advancing southward.
The boundary between the Han and Hun empires was the Great Wall. We
know this from the description “the old record states that it is the countries
north of the Great Wall that challenge our rule” in “Biographies of Important
Huns” in Shi Ji (Historical records) by Sima Qian. The Great Wall was theofficial border finally agreed upon in a peace treaty concluded between the
Huns and the Han after repeated, fierce battles.
According to Sinocentric ideology, the entire world belongs to China. But
the world perceived here is the “inside” area south of the Great Wall; thearea outside the Great Wall is excluded.
Why was the Great Wall built? It is not a monument like the pyramids in
Egypt. It is a barrier separating the nomadic tribes from the agriculturaltribes. In that sense, it is the Chinese version of the Berlin Wall.
The Great Wall divides two different vegetation zones. North of the wall
are grasslands that are home to nomadic tribes; south of the wall is arable
land for the agricultural tribes in the central area of China. A glance at
Chinese history will make it clear that each of these two worlds (northernand southern) has taken its own peculiar course, its states and civilizations
experiencing rises and falls.
The world north of the Great Wall of China is, after all, the one that the
Chinese are absolutely unwilling to be part of. They were determined toseparate themselves from the north by building a gigantic wall. The land
north of the wall is by no means “sacred territory, absolutely indivisible from33

China,” as the Chinese insist today.
Khrushchev sees the limit of Chinese power in the Great Wall
There are only two types of Chinese history. One is the history of internal
conflicts, while the other involves struggles with the mounted tribes of thenorth. The battles between the Chinese and the Huns started as early as the
Warring States period. In 215 BC, after the first Qin emperor united China,
General Meng Tian launched an offensive against the Huns with 300,000
troops.
Since then, there have been numerous campaigns against the northern
mounted tribes on a national scale. Except for a very brief period during the
Han and Tang dynasties, most of these attempts failed.
In 200 BC Gao Zu (Liu Bang), founder of the Han dynasty, attacked theHuns continually with a multitude of armies, only to be placed under siege
by the powerful forces led by Maodun Chanyu. Liu Bang weathered the crisisby the skin of his teeth by presenting lavish gifts to the Chanyu empress.
From then on, the Han and Huns entered into a covenant of brotherhood andconcluded a peace treaty. The Han agreed to marry daughters of the Han
emperor to Huns, and to pay tribute.
The Sui dynasty, having reunited China after 360 years of fragmentation,
failed to win in a military campaign against Koguryo. The Chinese were
defeated, even though they deployed more than one million troops. Thisdefeat was the beginning of the dynasty’s ruin. A military expedition against
Koguryo mounted by Emperor Taizong (Li Shimin), of the next (Tang)dynasty, was also unsuccessful.
During the reign of Yingzong (Ming dynasty), the emperor himself led ahuge army of 500,000 soldiers to attack the Beilu (northern aliens), but hisforces were placed under siege by the Oirat army at Fort Tumu andannihilated. Emperor Yingzong was taken prisoner and sent to the north.
This defeat was later referred to as the Tumu Crisis (1449).
Since the Ming emperor had been taken prisoner, his younger brother
Daizong (Jingtai) assumed the throne. But Yingzong was set free the nextyear, upon which occasion a peace treaty was concluded. But the complicatedsituation of two emperors ruling simultaneously developed into a politicalfeud and rocked the Ming government.
The Chinese empire south of the Great Wall was not constantly threatened34

or overwhelmed by the northern peoples. For a short while during the reignsof emperors Wu (Han dynasty) and Taizong (Tang dynasty), Chinese
influence crossed the Great Wall and expanded into the western regions.
However, the Chinese could not hold on to their gains for long, andeventually were forced to retreat.
The Great Wall served not only as the defense line in struggles between
the agricultural and nomadic tribes, but also as a boundary dividing the twoworlds economically and culturally. During the Ming dynasty in particular,invasions were just as likely to come from sea (Japanese pirates) as fromland. The two types of invaders were dubbed the Beilu (aliens from thenorth) and the Nanwo (Japanese from the south). To defend themselves
against invaders from the north, the Chinese established nine military
districts called bianzhen (frontier posts), and prepared for possible
incursions across the Great Wall.
An exceedingly unreasonable claim made by the Chinese government
regarding border disputes between China and the Soviet Union prompted
Soviet Premier Khrushchev to snap, “Chinese national strength does notreach beyond the Great Wall. The Chinese border has never gone beyond theGreat Wall. If the Chinese continue to make such absurd claims and refer totheir ancient myths, we will certainly consider such a stance as nothing
short of a declaration of war.” Khrushchev gave the Chinese quite atongue-lashing, which we can interpret as the Soviet Communist Party’s
displeasure at its Chinese counterpart’s attempt to distort history.
Why the agricultural tribes could not best the nomads
With the completion of the Great Wall, the system of all subjects under one
ruler was implemented south of the Great Wall (within the wall). That was
China’s situation 2,200 years ago (2nd century BC); it was an agriculturalempire achieved by the first Qin emperor. At the same time, an empire of
nomads, consisting of the Huns and various other northern tribes, wasestablished north of the Great Wall (beyond the wall). Thus began a longstruggle, lasting over 2,000 years, between the nomads and the farming
tribes.
In macroscopic terms, there were only a few cases in which one of theadversaries crossed the Great Wall with any kind of frequency. Obviously,
there was a limit to the amount of power either a nomadic empire or its

35

agricultural counterpart could acquire.
However, there were many exceptions. Quite often an agricultural empire
took control of a nomadic empire. As previously mentioned, the influence of
the agricultural tribes during the Han dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) and theTang dynasty (618-907) extended beyond the Great Wall in the north to thewestern region, though only for a short time. During the Ming dynasty, theagricultural tribes breached the Great Wall and reached as far east as
Manchuria. But as time passed, the nomadic tribes engulfed and absorbed
China.
The Hun empire could not control the Chinese. All it could do wasthreaten the agricultural empire. But in the era of the Nanbei (Northern andSouthern dynasties), the Xianbei people established the North Wei dynasty(386-530) north of the Yangzi River. The Nuzhen (Juchen) tribe founded theJin empire (1115-1234). During the Yuan or Mongol dynasty (1279-1368),
people from the north conquered all of China for the first time. After the
Yuan dynasty, the Han people south of the Great Wall and the northern
tribes took turns controlling China. But eventually, the Qing (Manchu)
empire ruled the Chinese sphere, and continued to do so for nearly 300 years.
Why did the agricultural empires fail to conquer the northern peoples,
despite numerous attempts to defeat them militarily? Why were theysuccessful at expanding their territory, but unable to maintain control of
their new acquisitions for very long?
One reason was the difference in military forces. Most of the northern
tribes were pastoral people who had cavalry, and therefore could move very
swiftly. On the other hand, the majority of Chinese were farmers; theirsoldiers were less agile infantrymen. Moreover, the latter had thedisadvantage of being an expeditionary force and were no match for cavalry,whose quick, shrewd moves were difficult to anticipate.
Furthermore, the farmer-soldiers lived mainly on grain, and therefore
needed a large quantity of food. Without a strong guard unit to protect thelogistics squadron, they would be robbed of their food supply by agile enemy
cavalry. Furthermore, the prairie was not a suitable place to station
farmer-soldiers. These problems have remained unresolved for over 2,000
years.
During the reign of the first Xin emperor, Wang Mang (8-23 AD), a military
officer named Han Wei proposed a solution for the transport problem. “We36shall conquer the aliens by eating their flesh when hungry, and sucking theirblood when thirsty.” His proposal garnered him a promotion to general. Han
was one of the most revered ethnic heroes in China. A poem entitledManjiang hong (Bloody river) by Yuefei, which is still very popular today,
reads: “If a soldier is hungry, he will eat the flesh of aliens; if he is thirsty, hewill drink the blood of aliens.” However, it was impossible for the Chinese tocapture northern tribesmen as if they were mammals on the plains that
could be hunted and killed for their meat.
3. Manchuria’s unique history: the rise and fall of empires“Northeast China:” an absurd distortion of history
Today Manchurian history is, in most cases, dealt with as the history of aregion the Chinese call “Northeast China.” This nomenclature is the mostblatant distortion of history perpetrated by the Chinese.
When we hear “northeastern region,” we might think Manchuria is aregion situated in the northeastern part of China and, therefore, subordinate
to China. The fact is that until recently, Manchuria never belonged to China,
nor was it ever the domain of any unified Chinese dynasty.
Recently, the Chinese have been demanding that the Japanese refrainfrom using the words Manshu and Shina, meaning “Manchuria” and“China,” respectively. In fact, the Chinese government is even puttingpressure on the Japanese government regarding this matter. It makes me
wonder whether the Chinese abhor the name “Manchuria” because they hatebeing reminded of the fact that they themselves twisted Manchurian history.
At the beginning of every account of northeastern regional history, there isalmost invariably mention of the fact that the Manchurians are members of
the “great Chinese family” —descendants of Huangdi (one of China’s
mythological three emperors and five kings, and the reputed primogenitor of
the Han).
But a close examination of Chinese history books reveals the true facts.
For example, Siku quanshu (Encyclopedia of the four archives) mentions
that a Manchurian state was established in the time of Huangdi, describing
it as coeval with and independent of China. The Manchurians were notethnically identical to the Chinese. Siku quanshu was an encyclopedia
compiled during the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong. The Qing dynasty was,37

of course, established by Manchurians after they conquered China.
I question the appropriateness of declaring a people or a tribe members ofa “great family.” Common sense tells us expressions like “great family”
should be subcategories of ethnic groups or tribes. Isn’t it extraordinary thata “great family” with a billion members should exist in this world? Even if we
admit that China is an artificial state founded on socialist ideals, attempts tounite a people whose origin is much older than the concept of socialism seemfar-fetched.
Linguistically, the Manchu language belongs to the same Tungusic family
as Japanese and Korean. Ethnically, the Manchus are closer to the Japaneseand Koreans than to the Han. The Manchus, Japanese and Koreans may be
distant relatives. The argument that the Chinese are descendants ofHuangdi is, of course, groundless; it is simply a myth made up by the
Chinese to support their belief that they are ethnically superior to everyone
else.
According to Suyama Suguru, there are five tribes that speak Tungusic
languages: Siberians, Manchurians, Mongolians, the Yellow-River (Huanghe) Tungus and the Japanese and Koreans (who constitute one tribe).
According to yet another theory, the Tungusic languages can be further
subdivided into Siberian, Manchurian, North Manchurian and South
Manchurian. In short, Tungus is the name used to describe the peoples
inhabiting eastern Siberia and Manchuria, who are known for being themost heterogeneous in the world. Theories about their origins still abound.
According to one theory, the origin of Tungus is the word Tunghu (easternaliens), because of the similarities between the two words. But there isanother, conflicting opinion. According to Shiratori Kurakichi, a specialist in
East Asian civilizations, the Yakut people, who live near Lake Baikal,
contemptuously called their neighbors (who ate pork) “pigs” in the Mongolian
language, which became “Tungus.”
Sinocentrism: a blemish on history
There are many theories about the origin of the word “Manchuria.”
However, it is generally believed that it comes from the Buddhist nameMonjusri. Yasui Katsumi writes in Manchuria: People and Language that inancient times Japan called that region Mishihase. Before the Christian era it
was Manche; then it became Manshi, Moctsukitsu, Makatsu, Makuka, Bohai,

38

Manju and finally Manshu (Manchuria). All the old names, beginning with
Manche, had similar pronunciations.
Opinions about Manchurian history also diverge. One view maintains that
all the states that rose in the region were connected. Historical fact, however,suggests that a state was established in Manchuria by Mongolians or Tungus.
That state was then supplanted by another, and then another. Moreover,ethnic groups would band together for a while, and then go their separate
ways; this pattern was repeated many times. The truth is probably that
northern alien and barbarian empires rose and fell, just as Chinese empires
did in the south.
Shiratori argues that Manchuria has no coherent history, due to theceaseless struggles for control among the Manchus, Mongols and Han. This
argument is very important. Not only Manchuria, but also China has nocoherent history, due to constant power struggles.
In sum, Manchurian history is one of struggles among diverse peoples in
the north and in the south, with the Great Wall in between. Han expeditions
to the north may be very familiar to the Japanese. However, it is likely thatthe southward expeditions of the Juchens and Manchus, who more than once
conquered China, began earlier (and had longer-lasting effects).
The North Asian world bordering the Chinese cultural sphere is describedfrom the Chinese historical viewpoint as land not yet explored (by the
Chinese) and inhabited only by barbarians called Xirong (western
barbarians) in the west, Beidi (northern barbarians) in the north and Dongyi(eastern barbarians) in the east. This opinion is based on the Sinocentricidea that China is the center of the world, and all those outside its borders
are aliens and barbarians. The civilizations and plant life of North Asia are,as has been clearly demonstrated by archaeological findings from theprehistoric era, totally different from those of China. Historically, thenomadic and agricultural spheres were two different worlds confronting andcontending with each other.
Because they are completely different from the Chinese culture, nomadic
cultures are regarded as exotic and barbarian by Sinocentrics. However,there is an opposing view, i.e., that nomadic cultures are rooted in morerational standards, and richer than their Chinese counterpart. According tohistorian Arnold Toynbee, when we compare nomadic civilizations with
agricultural civilizations, we learn that the nomadic lifestyle is superior to39the agricultural lifestyle. When we compare nomads’ domestication ofanimals, to farmers’ cultivation of the soil, we realize that the nomads are
more creative and resolute than farmers. Also, the former have moresophisticated skills and aptitudes than the latter.
It is also clear from Chinese history that the Chinese were better off andhappier when they were ruled by Mongols and Manchus than when ruled by
the Han — their own people.
4. Koguryo and Bohai built by antecedents of the Manchurians
Koguryo and Bohai: close relations with JapanOn the other hand, the Manchurian historical viewpoint is that between
the 3rd and 10th centuries, two independent states existed in the region
stretching across east Manchuria, the Maritime Provinces and the northernpart of the Korean Peninsula. They were Koguryo (?-668) and Bohai(698-926), a resurrection of the fallen Koguryo. Both states had close
relations with Japan, exchanging envoys and cultural assets.
Much remains to be verified about the relationship between Koguryo andJapan, such as the unsolved mystery of the Monument of King Haotai(Guangkaitu), which provokes debate even today. The monument, built at
Tonggou in Jilin province, is a gigantic quadrangular stele, 6.12 meters longand 1.45-1.85 meters wide. This stone monument is supposedly a relic of theNorthern Megalithic Culture.
The 19th king, Haotai, who reigned from 391 to 412, was succeeded by
King Changshou, who reigned from 413 to 490. Changshou expanded theterritory controlled by his predecessor. But the inscriptions (over 1,800
characters on the four sides of the monument) refer only to the achievementsof King Haotai.
The inscriptions on the Monument of King Haotai differ in shape andusage from the Chinese writing style, and show peculiar cultural traits. Even
before World War II, there was controversy surrounding the nine occurrencesof wo in the inscriptions. In Japan woren is interpreted in the context ofdescription of the expedition to Korea in Nihon shoki (Chronicles of Japan).
However, postwar Chinese scholars and Korean scholars argue that there
were woren in the northeastern, central and southwestern regions as well.
Therefore, the descriptions of wo in the Chinese classics and historical40

documents do not refer exclusively to the Japanese. Others point out thatworen were not Japanese soldiers of the Yamato dynasty, but pirates from
northern Kyushu. Still others suggest that this may be fiction inspired by
Japanese militarism and fabricated by Japanese Army headquarters. But
the discovery of other historical material has discredited the fabrication
theory.
Descriptions in Nihon shoki tell us that there were comings and goings
between Koguryo and Japan, as well as trade between the two countries forthe nearly 400 years between 297 (the 28th year of the Ojin era) and 686 (thefirst year of the Jito era). By contemporary Japanese standards, Koguryo
was an advanced nation, culturally surpassing Baiji and Xinluo (Sinra) on
the Korean peninsula.
By about the 4th century, there were confrontations between Baiji and
Koguryo. In the 6th century, East Asian international politics essentiallyrevolved around China, pitting the northern Chinese dynasties, Koguryo andSilla (Xinluo) against the southern Chinese dynasties, Baekje (Paekche) andWo (Wa). After China was unified under the Sui dynasty, the area saw directconflict between Sui China and Koguryo.
The state of Koguryo presumably began taking shape around the end of
the first century. At the beginning of the 4th century, it attacked andcaptured the Lelang commandery. Koguryo became a vast kingdom
stretching from northeastern Manchuria to the northern Korean peninsula.
In 427, during the reign of King Changshou (who succeeded King Haotai),the capital was moved from Tonggou (Wandoucheng) to Pyongyang. The
kingdom was at its peak for some 120 years during the reigns of threesuccessive kings: Haotai, Changshou and Wenqi (from the late 4th century to
the early 6th century). Military expeditions to Koguryo, which started with
Sui Emperor Yang’s reign and continued until the reign of Tang Emperor Tai,
were well known, but all ended in failure.
If Bohai was indeed part of China, the Korean peninsula would be Chinese
territory
Chinese scholars claim that the history of Koguryo and Bohai must be
described as that of Chinese provinces. They are not willing to view Koguryo
and Bohai as northern and southern Korea.
Moreover, some ancient Japanese historical documents describe Bohai as41

equal in stature to China. But Chinese pundits assert that the Japanesedescriptions are false and, therefore, should be corrected. They demand thatthe history of Koguryo and Bohai be treated as Chinese regional history.
They also point out that although there were interchanges and trade
between Bohai and Japan, these were not the foreign affairs of a regional
government, but of China.
However, the leading Koguryo tribes were Manchus, who had noconnection with the Han. North and South Koreans proudly regard
themselves as descendants of the people of Koguryo. Moreover, the Koreansliving in northeast China today believe that they are descendants of thepeople of Bohai, and view relations with North and South Korea as more
important.
The Chinese regard Bohai as a Chinese province simply because it
straddled northeastern China and Russia’s Maritime Region. They insist
that this Russian region too was originally Chinese territory.
The Mohe tribe, which founded Bohai together with people of Koguryo,
were Tungus and ancestors of the Manchus, a minority in present-day China.

Xin Tangshu (New Tang history) and Jiu Tangshu (Old Tang history)
mention that Bohai’s king was officially designated ruler of the domain via
an official Tang imperial seal. This ceremony was known as investiture(cefeng).
If the Tang investitures meant that Bohai automatically became part ofChina, the two Koreas would be absolutely indivisible from China. But Bohai
had a discrete culture; it used different era names, and its political system
was different from that of Tang China. Bohai did not observe the Tang
calendar, and unlike Korea, it used its own era names, just like Japan.
If records of investitures make a state part of China, and therefore
Chinese history, would Japan also be Chinese territory? Remember that
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu of Japan was once designated the king of Japan by
Ming China’s cefeng.
Bohai was a Tungusic state established by Emperor Go (Da Zuorong), who
was designated prefectural king of Bohai by Tang Emperor Xuanzong after
Koguryo was destroyed by the allied forces of Tang and Xinluo during thereign of Tang Emperor Gaozong. Bohai was situated in southeastern
Koguryo. Because its leaders, who first called it “Zhen,” attempted toresurrect Koguryo, Bohai was considered Koguryo’s successor. The third42

ruler, Dae Heummu, called himself king of Koguryo in an official missive tothe emperor of Japan. Bohai endured through 15 generations of kings andmore than 200 years. During that time, envoys from Bohai made 34 roundtrips to Japan; envoys from Japan visited Bohai approximately 15 times.
Later, however, Bohai was destroyed by the Khitans (Liao dynasty).
5. Conquering dynasties that ruled China
Beginning of a nomadic dynasty that conquered China
As mentioned previously, the struggle for power between nomadic andagricultural empires continued for centuries, beginning with the Qin and
Han dynasties; most of those battles were waged near the Great Wall.
However, during the era of the Northern and Southern dynasties, theborderline of the arena of conflict between the nomadic and farming tribes
moved from the Great Wall to the Changjiang (Yangzi) River. From that timeon, the struggle entered a new phase during which there was fighting along
the Yangzi for nearly 400 years.
The rulers of the Sui and Tang dynasties, which reunited China, were
Xianbei, one of the northern Wuhu (five aliens) tribes. Empires heavily
international in character flourished temporarily. But the Tang dynasty
headed for decline after the An Shi Rebellion (755-763), during which An
Lushan and Shi Siming seized control of Luoyang and Changan. After yet
another major farmers’ uprising known as the Huang Chao Rebellion(875-884) after its leader, even Japan stopped sending envoys to Tang China.
Following the An Shi Rebellion, the Tang empire was divided andcontrolled by warlords. Inhabitants of adjacent regions took this opportunity
to create writing systems and nurture their cultures; they established ethnic
states. This trend is referred to as the “flowering of ethnic states in the
Middle Ages.”
In north China, five dynasties rose and fell: Later Liang, Later Tang, Later
Jin, Later Hang and Later Zhou. There were 10 other states (Earlier Shu,
Later Shu, Jingnan (Nanping), Min, Wu, Southern Tang, Chu, Wu Yue,
Southern Han and Northern Han) in central and south China. This period of
upheaval (907-960) is called the wudai shiguo (Five Dynasties and Ten
States) era.
Among the nation-states established in the late Tang era, the two that43

posed the greatest threat to China were the Liao (Mongol Khitans) and Jin(Juchen) dynasties. The Liao dynasty brought north China under its control,
but it is not counted among the five dynasties, according to the traditional
Chinese concept of legitimacy. The Liao dynasty evolved into the Jin dynasty,
which was supplanted by the Mongolian dynasty. The grassland empire
north of the desert became the Mongolian empire, and eventually the
mammoth Yuan empire, once the vast area stretching from central Eurasia
to the Chinese sphere in the south had been conquered. These regimes arereferred to as “conquering dynasties.”
The Tujue empire, a constant threat to the Tang empire, split into eastern
and western segments. Supplanting East Tujue upon its ruin in 657 were the
Huige (Uighurs). But the Huige state fell in 840, and North Asia was inchaos for over half a century.
In the early 10th century, the Mongol Khitans rose in the Xinganling
region of eastern Mongolia and in western Mongolia. They united the north
Asian grasslands, destroyed Bohai in the east, crossed the Great Wall andhelped establish the Later Jin dynasty, one of the five dynasties, for which
they were given territory in north China (the 16 Prefectures of Yanyun,
including Beijing, Tianjin and northern Shanxi) in 938. Furthermore, theycaptured Daliang (Bianjing), capital of Later Jin and then destroyed Later
Jin altogether. They occupied most of northern China, and officially named
their country “Daliao” (known in the West as the “Khitai” (Cathay) Empire.”
Incidentally, Khitan (Qidan) is the plural of Khitai. Present-day Cathay
Pacific Airways is named after this ancient Asian empire.
Song (Sung) China buys peace from northern empire
The Khitans appear as “Khitai” in The Secret History of the Yuan Dynasty,
and as “Qidan” in Chinese historical documents of the late 4th century.
The Liao empire established by Yelu Abaoji (Taizu), who reigned from 916
to 926, united North Asia and extended its influence to China in the south. It
contended with Song China, a newly founded Han state, which succeeded theFive Dynasties. Having fought across the Yellow River (Huang He), the Liaoand Song concluded the Shanyuan Treaty in 1004. The two parties agreed tomove the border between them from the Great Wall to the Yellow River, andentered into a fraternal relationship.
Song China was to present 200,000 pi of silk (one pi is roughly equivalent44

to 21 meters) and 100,000 liang of silver (one liang = 37.3 grams) each year
to the Liao to assist with military expenses. The Chinese empire’s basic
concept of one and only one ruler, i.e., “just as there are no two suns inheaven, there can be no two emperors on earth,” was invalidated. For the
first time, the Chinese empire paid a vast fortune to aliens and barbarians in
exchange for peace.
The Liao dynasty flourished for about 120 years — three generations ofemperors, from Emperor Shengzong (the sixth Liao emperor) to Emperor
Daozong. During this period, Liao was a vast empire, controlling North andEast Asia.
Jin dynasty: the next and second conquering dynasty
The Jin empire, ruled by the Tungusic Juchen people, destroyed andsupplanted the Liao dynasty. After Bohai was brought down by the Liao, theJuchen split into several tribes and were controlled by the Liao.
In 1115, tribal chief Wanyan Aguda united most of the Juchen tribes,
mainly in Acheng Xian (Huining fu), situated southeast of present-day
Harbin. The Juchen and their ally, the Northern Song, destroyed the Liao
empire. During the reign of Aguda’s younger brother, Emperor Taizong, theJuchen destroyed the Liao. In 1126, they took the Song capital and captured
Emperor Qinzong and his wife, ex-Emperor Huizong, the imperial family
and several hundred courtiers and exiled them to the north in what wascalled the Jingkang Incident (1126-27).
The next year, the Emperor’s brother, who had fled southward across theYangzi River to Xingzai (Hangzhou) was enthroned as Emperor Gaozong.
This was the Southern Song dynasty.
Thus, the Jin dynasty became the second conquering dynasty following the
Liao dynasty. Under its control were the Khitans, the Han and the people ofBohai. The population rose to more than ten times that of the Juchen tribes,
most of which left their homeland Manchuria and moved south of the Great
Wall, thus leaving Manchuria deserted. The Juchen made the same mistakeas the Xianbei of the Northern Wei dynasty; they allowed themselves to be
engulfed by the vast Han sea and disappeared. According to the chapter on
economics in the History of the Jin Dynasty, there were approximately fivemillion Juchen at that time.
The Jin empire was destroyed by the allied armies of the rising Mongol

45

Empire and the Southern Song dynasty. The Southern Song dynasty, in turn,was ruined by Kublai Khan (Shizu of Yuan). The Mongols then invaded
Europe and established the first global empire.
6. The Manchurian Qing dynasty: halcyon days for the Chinese
The Manchurian Qing dynasty destroys Han Ming dynasty
The Hongjin (Red Turban) Rebellion (1354-66) broke out at the end of theYuan dynasty and once again threw East Asia into utter confusion. It was anuprising of farmers with a core of members of the Buddhist Bailian (White
Lotus) sect. Zhu Yuanzhang, an orphan who joined the Hongjin Army, in
whose service he distinguished himself, later became Emperor Hongwu (TaiZu) of the Ming dynasty. In 1368 Zhu Yuanzhang (himself a Han) drove alien
tribes outside the Great Wall and established the Ming dynasty. The Han
were in power for the first time in 400 years.
During the Ming era, an isolationist policy banning foreign travel was
instituted. The ban lasted over 200 years, probably because the Ming rulers
were constantly worried about the Mongols in the north and the wokou(Japanese invaders) from the sea, as the expression beilu nanwo (barbariansin the north, Japanese in the south) indicates.
Ming China drove the Mongols north of the Great Wall during the reign of
Taizu, but from the reign of the third emperor Yongle (Chengzu) on, China
was invaded by Tatars and then Oirat (Wala) Mongols. For nearly 80 years,
the Mongols harassed China incessantly.
At the same time, the Chinese advanced into Manchuria in the northeast
and attempted to rule the Liaodong region. Despite the expenditure ofsignificant funds and manpower, they had to abandon the region after only
60 years. During the reigns of Taizu and Chengzu at the beginning of the
Ming era, China had controlled at least part of Manchuria over 60 to 70
years. But in the History of the Ming Dynasty, compiled during the Qing
dynasty, the section that deals with the Juchen, which would have described
the Manchus, is missing. Taiwan is included in the section on Japan as partof Japan. Even the scholars who were entrusted with the compilation ofhistory were as ignorant of Manchuria as they were of foreign lands acrossthe seas.
Though the Mongols were driven north of the Great Wall during the Ming46

era, they were not totally destroyed. Having founded the Northern Yuan
dynasty, they continued to battle with Ming China south of the Great Wall.
Nurhachi, leader of the Jianzhou Juchen (Nuzhen) in the east, establishedthe Later Jin dynasty. During the reign of the second khan, Taizong (HungTaiji), the Qing dynasty was established. Hung Taiji became emperor andfrom the Mongol Northern Yuan rulers, inherited the imperial seal, which
had been handed down from emperor to emperor, beginning with Genghis
Khan. The Qing dynasty had replaced the Yuan dynasty. Moreover, theJuchen (Nuzhen) began calling themselves Manchus during the Qing
dynasty.
Nurhachi, the founding father of the Qing dynasty, established the Later
Jin dynasty, which was succeeded by the Qing dynasty. Shunzhi, the third
Qing emperor, crossed the Great Wall and entered Beijing in 1644. But it
took the Qing rulers 40 more years to conquer all of China and supplant theMing dynasty. This grand mission was finally completed in 1683, when Qing
forces defeated the Zheng family, whose headquarters were in Taiwan.
Another 100 years of battles were fought with the grassland Dzungar empire
in the west before Outer Mongolia and Tibet were colonized and peace cameto the region.
The territory and institutions of the Qing empire were established during
the reign of the fourth emperor, Kangxi (Shengzu), who reigned for 61 years(1661-1722). However, the Dzungar empire was destroyed during the reign ofEmperor Qianlong, grandson of Kangxi.
During Emperor Qianlong’s reign, the Qing empire conquered South Asia.
It also annexed Burma and Annan, then Nepal (in 1792). After part ofSoutheast Asia had been colonized, the vast empire was complete, 200 years
after Taizu Nurhachi founded it.
The Manchu-Mongol Eight-Banner forces liberate oppressed Chinese
The Ming era was the modern version of the Dark Ages in Chinese history.
An autocracy took shape during this period, and all power rested in theemperor. The prying eyes of the espionage network, with its core ofhuanguan (eunuchs), reached every nook and cranny of China.
Even the imperial court was not exempt from the harsh penal code. If aminister did something to anger the emperor, he was immediately flogged,
right there in the court. Elderly court officials were too weak to withstand47

the ordeal, and many of them died on the spot. The Ming era was the time
when the Chinese were most ruthlessly deprived of human rights and dignity.
Toward the end of the dynasty, roving bandits were rampant and everywhere
people starved to death; cannibalism became the last resort for survival
throughout the country.
Given these circumstances, the Manchu-Mongol eight-banner forces werewelcomed as liberators. When they entered Beijing, all the officials in the
Beijing court dispatched a ceremonial squadron, with which they traveled 10
miles from the castle to welcome the army. Ordinary citizens received thebannermen with equal enthusiasm, burning incense and posting yellow
signs reading daqing shunmin (We pledge obedience to the great Qing
empire) on every house. An order to wear the “queue” hairstyle, typicallyworn by the Manchus and Mongols, was immediately promulgatedthroughout the country. A welcoming atmosphere permeated all of Ming
China.
Here I would like to add that Manchu institutions can be traced to thebanner system. Military service was compulsory for all men. The army
consisted of eight divisions, each of which was assigned one of the eightbanners. There were four solid-color banners (yellow, scarlet, white and navyblue), and four other banners in the same colors with borders. The divisions
were united under eight banners, and together were, therefore, called the“Eight Banner Army.” Each banner (division) consisted of 7,500 soldiers. All
Manchus belonged to one of the eight banners. Following the example of theManchurian eight banner system, the Mongols formed their own eightbanner system during the reign of Taizong, the second emperor.
The Chinese were happier under Manchu rule than at any other time intheir entire history. The 150 years that spanned the reigns of Kangxi,
Yongzheng and Qianlong marked an unprecedentedly prosperous andpeaceful period. Since the Chinese were, for the first time ever, not required
to pay poll taxes, they were able to lead reasonably comfortable lives.
Consequently, the population grew rapidly. At the end of the Ming dynasty,
it had dwindled, due to famines and marauding bandits. But by 1661, the18th year of the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, it had reached 24.6 million. By
1749, the 14th year of the reign of Emperor Qianlong, almost 100 years later,
it had jumped to approximately 179.49 million. In 1783, the 48th year of thereign of Emperor Qianlong, it was 284 million. For the first time, the Chinese

48

population exceeded 100 million. Under rulers who were ethnically different
from them, the Chinese were more content than they had ever been.
The power relationship between the Manchus and Mongols and the Han
was similar to that between samurai and farmers and townspeople in Japan.
The relationship can be explained by the differences in land management
and ownership between the nomads and farmers.
However, once Eight Banner soldiers became accustomed to urban life,
they gradually lost their fighting spirit and honesty. They began to acquire
bad habits, and even committed crimes, among them drunkenness, bribery,gambling and theft, just like the Han. The nomads entered the black holethat is China, and disappeared as if they had been swallowed up by the sea.
The Manchus suffered the same fate as other ethnic groups that had ruled
China; they became corrupt and lost their identity as a people.
Professor Miyazaki Ichisada, a scholar of Asian history, has analyzed thisphenomenon in detail, going back as far as antiquity in his book entitledToyo ni okeru sobokushugi no minzoku to bunmeishugi no shakai (Primitiveand civilized societies in East Asia).viii
7. Manchuria was never Chinese territory
Manchurian studies begin with Japan
Prior to the Russo-Japanese War, Manchurian studies were conducted
mainly by the Japanese military. Systematic studies by historians beganwith the economic boom resulting from Japanese development of Manchuria
after the Russo-Japanese War. The greatest impetus was the South
Manchurian Railway & Co., Ltd. (hereafter referred to as the Manchurian
Railroad).
As early as the late Edo period, research on the Manchurian language
and the general situation in Manchuria was well under way in Japan.
Among the results of that research were books by Mamiya Tomomune(Rinzo) and Kondo Morishige (Juzo), and studies by Takahashi Kageyasu.
Books written about Manchuria during the Edo period were mentioned in
the chapter entitled “History of Manchuria and Mongolia” of Meiji igo ni
okeru rekishigaku no hattatsu (Progress of historical studies from the Meiji
era onward), written by Wada Sei. Among them were the six-volume account
Dattan hyouryuki (Tartar adventure) written in the Kan’ei era (1624-1644),

49

Manbun kou (A study of Manchurian literature) by Ogyu Sorai, Manshu
jishiki (the Manchurian writing system) by Amano Sadakage, and Kenshu
shimatsuki (The story of Jianzhou) by Sorai’s brother Hokuei. Many otherbooks were published, including Tsuzoku min shin gundan kokusenya chugiden (Story of loyalist Guoxingye (Koxinga) and the Ming-Qing battles,
written in the vernacular) by Okajima Kanzan, Todatsu kiko (Journey toEast Tartary and Sakhalin) by Mamiya Tomomune, Henyo bunkai zuko
(Map of fortifications in the frontier region) by Kondo Morishige, andShinzoku kibun (Daily life in Qing China), also by Kondo.
After the Russo-Japanese War, the field of Manchurian studies was led by
Dr. Shiratori Kurakichi, who was singled out by Goto Shinpei, president of
the Manchurian Railroad and a scholar revered as the founder of Asianstudies. Other well-known, distinguished scholars were Yanai Watari, Tsuda
Sokichi, Ikeuchi Hiroshi, Inaba Iwakichi, Matsui Hitoshi, Wada Sei, Naito
Konan and Torii Ryuzo.
Among scholars of Manchurian and Korean studies, the predominant view
was that Manchuria had never been Chinese territory. The most prominentadvocator of that opinion was Dr. Yano Jin’ichi.
However, in 1932, after the Mukden Incident, Chinese scholar Fu Sinian
published Dongbei shigang (Outline of northeastern history), in which heand his co-authors attempted to prove that Manchuria had been Chinese
territory.ix But they succeeded only in confirming the history of conflicts thattook place in Manchuria between the Chinese and northern ethnic groups.
The success of Japanese enterprises in Manchuria triggered a great deal ofactivity (and significant progress) in Manchurian studies. Scholars went on
research missions to Manchuria, where they studied a wide range of naturalsciences and humanities (geology, geography, fauna and flora, history,archaeology, ethnology and anthropology). The results obtained on thesemissions were unique and unprecedented.
Prior to the Sino-Japanese War, the primary focus of Japanese historians
was the Korean peninsula. It was after the Russo-Japanese War that it
broadened to include Manchuria. There were then three main fields in
Manchurian studies, with Shiratori’s Manshu chiri rekishi kenkyu hokoku(Report on Manchurian geography and history) at the core. The first was thestudy of Manchurian history, focusing on the Qing dynasty, spearheaded by
Shiratori (University of Tokyo) and Dr. Naito Konan (Kyoto University). The

50

second was modern Manchurian diplomatic history; and the third, surveys of
conditions in Manchuria conducted jointly by the Manchurian Railroad andJapanese military authorities, in preparation for the operation of theManchurian Railroad,
Chinese begin to study Manchuria only in the wake of the Mukden
Incident
Most of the research on Manchuria done by Chinese scholars began justafter the Mukden Incident. Previously, Japanese research on Manchuria wasconsidered the best in the world. Without it, it might not be possible to evendiscuss Manchurian history.
The preface of a book entitled Toa shi kenkyu: Manshu hen (A study ofEast Asian history: Manchuria) by Wada Sei reads, in part, as follows:
Manchuria was originally an outlying region of the Far East, in the remotest
corner of the world. From the perspective of past Chinese dynasties, it was
wilderness, hardly worthy of scholars’ attention. Even after the Qing dynasty
united all of China, the very fact that Manchuria was the birthplace of the
Qing dynasty led to the suppression of research on Manchuria, for fear that
historical research might reveal ugly secrets hidden behind the glorious
success story. That is why Manchurian history has been dismissed as
worthless by the Chinese. Therefore, this discipline has been monopolized by
Japanese scholars.x

Research on Manchuria in Japan from the Meiji era onward was initiatedby pioneer scholars like Naka Michiyo, Shiratori Kurakichi and Naito Konan.
Researchers in the newly-established Scientific Research Division of theManchurian Railroad followed in their footsteps. When the division was
abolished, its work was taken over by scholars at the University of Tokyo,
which eventually published 16 volumes of Mansen chiri rekishi kenkyu
hokoku (Report on Manchurian and Korean geological and historicalresearch).
Later the Japan-Manchuria Cultural Society published Man mo shi ronso(Collected studies on Manchurian and Mongolian history). After
Manzhouguo was established, the Manchurian Cultural Society in Dalianpublished Manshu gakuho (Manchurian research bulletin). The Society for51

Manchurian Historical Studies issued Manshu shigaku (Historical study ofManchuria).
However, after World War II, Manchurian studies waned, while a new tideof research on the Japanese invasion of Manchuria swept in. Historicalresearch was supplanted by research on invasions, their focus being theverification of the criminality of Japan’s invasion of Manchuria and ofcolonial invasions. The commitment to verifying information reported as fact,
prominent in prewar studies, was abandoned. Books with titles like
Illegitimate Manzhouguo, which one would never encounter anywhere otherthan in China, began to appear in Japan as well.
If Manchuria has no history, neither does China
The assertion that “Manchuria was never Chinese territory,” made by Dr.
Yano Jin’ichi in Manshukoku rekishi (History of Manzhouguo) and Manshu

mondai ni tsuite (On the Manchurian problem), is widely known and has
attracted much criticism.
Yano maintains that Manchuria’s most significant peculiarity is that itwas not originally Chinese territory, not even during the Qing dynasty. The
reason he gives is that Manchuria was a region reserved for the Manchurianbanners to live in during the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty was a Manchu
dynasty and a Manchu empire’; it was not Chinese.
He writes, in Manshukoku rekishi, that there have been objections to theterm “Manzhouguo’s history” because it assumes that Manchuria has acoherent national history. It is true that many ethnic groups have risen andfallen, as have many states. But that does not necessarily lead to theconclusion that Manchuria has no national history. On the other hand, it isjust as unreasonable to insist that Manchuria’s history is only the story of
the Manchus.xi
If the argument that Manchuria has no national history holds water, thenusing the same logic, we can conclude that China also lacks a national
history (the reasons being that in China, many ethnic civilizations rose andfell, many dynasties prospered and perished, and many unions and divisions
took place).
Yano believes that Manchuria had existed as Manzhouguo since ancient
times. Shiratori disagrees, arguing that Manchurian history does not involve
coherent historical development and evolution. In a paper entitled “Rekishijo

52

yori mitaru Manshukoku” (Manzhouguo seen from a historical viewpoint), he
writes, “Manchuria was a land where battles for power were fought among
Manchus, Mongols and the Han. At times, waves of those three peoples
moved south instead of north, or east instead of west. Manchurian history
has been intermittent or spasmodic, and as such, lacks coherence.”xii
Siku quanshu, compiled during the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong, was,as mentioned previously, a Chinese encyclopedia. In it Manchurian history isreferred to as that of a state existing independently from China ever since
the ancient mythological Emperor Huang founded China. Yano agrees. Still,
Shiratori is correct in pointing out that Manchuria has no coherent history.
The fact that both Korea and China were frequently controlled by otherethnic groups explains the gaps in continuity. I see little difference between
the lack of coherence in Korean and Chinese history, and that in Manchurian
history.
Makeshift names: “Northeast”, “China” and “Chinese people”
Traditionally, the Chinese regarded Manchuria as a region beyond theborder, as they did Xinjiang and Mongolia. They had only a vague notion ofthat land outside the Chinese world. Their claim that there is no such placeas Manchuria, and their decision to call Manchuria “Northeast” isopportunistic and self-serving.
The name Manchuria has a place in historiography; the same cannot be
said for an overly generic place name like “Northeast,” which merely
indicates geographic location. A place inside China might be called North
China, Central China, South China, or possibly East China, but as
Manchuria is outside the Chinese world, the Chinese could not come up withanything better than “Northeast.”
I may be digressing a bit here, but not only the name “Northeast,” butalso “Zhongguo” (China) and “Chinese” were makeshift names created bypolitical campaigners in the 20th century. Originally, there were othercandidates (Daxia, Huaxia, Zhonghua or Zhendan ) as well as Zhongguo,
which was selected only after much debate. After all, Zhongguo is a productof Chinese perception, and the place name “Northeast” was invented muchlater than “Manchuria.”
After the Mukden Incident, the Chinese claimed that Manchuria had
been Chinese territory since the dawn of history. A typical example is the53

aforementioned Dongbei shigang (Outline of northeastern history). The
editors of the book were prominent scholars like Fu Sinian, Fang Zhuangyou,
Xu Zhongshu, Su Yishan and Jiang Tingfu. According to Dongbei shigang,
the claim that Manchuria and Mongolia are not historically Chinese
territory is a groundless fallacy, and the Japanese aim then was to invade
the northeast. The editors add that the question of whether the three eastern
provinces are Chinese territory should not be argued in the context ofhistorical events. The decision that a region belongs to a particular state ismade according to two criteria: first, its status is mandated by the state’sconstitution and international law and second, the decision is to be made by
the region’s inhabitants.
There are other disturbing pronouncements in the book: historically, theBohai region is the birthplace of the Chinese culture, all of the Liaodong
Peninsula has been a Chinese province or prefecture since antiquity, theGreater Changbai Range and Heilongjiang River have long been Chinese
territory, and Manchuria was a tributary state of the Ming dynasty.

Dongbei shigang contains a strong assertion, namely that North China
and Manchuria are one and the same entity in all respects (ethnicity, culture
and history), and that the region should not be called Manchuria, but“Northeast.”xiii
No one ever claimed that Manchuria was Japanese territory
The opinion that Manchuria is not Chinese territory was expressed not
only by Dr. Yano of Kyoto University, but also by Professor Wada Sei of the
University of Tokyo in a paper entitled “Rekishijo yori mitaru shina minzoku
no hatten” (Evolution of the Chinese from a historical viewpoint).xiv
To counter arguments like the one made in Dongbei shigang, Wada
contributed two papers (103 pages in all) to Manshukoku rekishi (History ofManzhouguo): “Japanese Foreign Ministry’s Statement à the League of
Nations’ view that Manchuria is part of China” and “A refutation of theassertion made by Chinese scholars that Manchuria is part of China proper.”
Although Yano insisted that Manchuria had never been Chinese territory,
he never suggested that Manchuria was Japanese territory.
Reactions to the opinion that Manchuria had never been Chinese territory
were given ample coverage in Chinese newspapers and pamphlets. European
countries and the United States published translated articles on the subject.

54

Furthermore, the matter was referred to in a memorandum stating thepolicy of Prime Minister Tanaka Giichi’s Cabinet vis à vis Manchuria andMongolia. The memorandum was presented to the Emperor of Japan, andwas soon surrounded by controversy. However, it turned out that the prime
minister’s memorandum was a Chinese forgery.
Prof. Yano commented on his own argument, saying that he intended toallow Chinese scholars who had stubbornly insisted that Manchuria waspart of China proper some time for reflection. He added that he also intended
to supply concrete, logical proof of Manchuria’s independence. His objective
was to fulfill the academic obligations that emanated from his research on
Manzhouguo.

viii

Miyazaki Ichisada, Toyo ni okeru sobokushugi no minzoku to bunmeishugi no shakai(Primitive and civilized societies in East Asia) (Tokyo: Toyo-Bunko, 1989).
Fu Sinian, et al., Dongbei Shigang (Outline of Northeastern History) (Beijing: Instituteix

for History and Philology of the Academia Sinica, 1932).
x

Wada Sei, Toa shi kenkyu (Manshu hen) (A study of East Asian history: Manchuria)(Tokyo: Toyo Bunko, 1955).
xi

Yano Jin’ichi, Manshukoku rekishi (History of Manzhouguo) (Tokyo: Meguro Shoten,1933).
xii

Shiratori Kurakichi, “Rekishijo yori mitaru Manshukoku” (Manzhouguo seen from ahistorical viewpoint) in Toyo (East Asia), vol. 36, No. 3, 1934.
xiii

Fu, op. cit..

xiv

Wada Sei, “Rekishijo yori mitaru Shina minzoku no hatten” (Evolution of theChinese from a historical viewpoint) in Toyo shi koza (Lectures on Asian history), 1941.

55

Chapter Three: Manchuria Devastated Under
the Rule of Bandits and Warlords
1. Land of unions and divisions
Autocratic Chinese, republican nomads
Chinese empires rose and fell in accordance with what were believed to be
decrees from Heaven. The nomadic empires in the north also experienced
their own vicissitudes.
What distinguishes this belief about dynasty changes is that autocratic
imperial rule and centralized systems persisted in China for more than 2000
years. The People’s Republic of China is the successor.
Conversely, most of the nomadic empires were characterized bycoexistence and co-prosperity among various ethnic groups in the form of arepublican government that resembled a confederation of kingdoms or afederal government. Consequently, unions were frequently formed. Sooner orlater, they would dissolve, and the process would begin all over again. An
ethnic group would suddenly appear on the stage of history, then exit
without fanfare.
Moreover, in nomadic societies a powerful, competent leader is chosen or
promoted as khan (leader). In contrast to the principle of bloodline
legitimacy that prevailed in China, nomadic societies seem to have placed
more emphasis on an individual’s performance and capability.
In North Asia, many ethnic groups rose and fell, e.g., the historicallyfamous Huns, Xianbei, Rouran and Uighurs. From medieval times on,
various empires came into power (e.g., Liao, Jin, Xixia and Mongolian) andlater disappeared. Geographical distribution was as follows: in and aroundthe Mongolian Plateau were the Huns, Xianbei, Wuhuan and Rouran; to theeast, in Manchuria, were first the Fuyu and Koguryo peoples, and during theTang dynasty and afterward, the Mohe, Bohai, Qidan and Nuzhen (Juchen).
The tribal distribution in North Asia tells us that there was a Turkish
sphere in the west, a Mongol sphere in the center, and a Tungusic sphere in
the east. In Manchuria, various nomadic empires waxed and waned eversince the earliest times, and besides the major Tungusic peoples, diverse

56ethnic peoples established various states there.
What is most remarkable here is that though history of this particularregion remains recorded only as a part of Chinese history, even Chinese
history reveals a very interesting fact: since the dawn of history, nomadic
empires in the north conquered and controlled China from time to time, butnever once did China conquer the nomadic world in North Asia. This is one of
the most salient facts revealed in the long history of conflicts between thenomads and the farming peoples. Specifically, the Northern Wei, Liao, Jin,
Xixia, Mongolian (Yuan) and Qing were the conquering dynasties that
controlled the grasslands along the middle and lower reaches of the Huang
River.
The rise and fall of various ethnic groups in Manchuria and Mongolia
Which ethnic groups have found their way to Manchuria, formed allianceswith other groups, severed those alliances, and then left the region since thedawn of history?
Chronologically, in the Mongolian Plateau were Huns between the 3rd
century BC and the 3rd century AD, the Xianbei between the 2nd century
BC and the 6th century AD (as far southeast as Liaoning), the Wuhuan
between the 2nd century BC and the 3rd century AD (in the southeasternpart of Mongolia), the Rouran between the 4th and 6th centuries, and the
Qidan between the 10th and 12th centuries.
In Manchuria lived Koguryo people between the 1st century BC and the
5th century AD, the Mohe in the 6th and 7th centuries, the Bohai(descendants of the Koguryo and Mohe peoples) between the 7th and 10th
centuries, and the Nuzhen (Juchen) between the 10th and 13th centuries.
Familiar to the Japanese were the Sushen (Mishihase) and Bohai. There
had been trade and other exchange between these two peoples and theJapanese since ancient times. According to one account, seven Sushen
visited to Japan in the 5th year of Emperor Tenmu (676). According to a
description in Shoku Nihongi (Second history of Japan) written in the 4thyear of Yoro (720), six Japanese envoys including Morokimi no kurao weresent to Bohai.
Very little is known about the Sushen, who appear in the classicalliterature of the Former Qin period. Suishu (Book of Sui) mentions that theMohe arrived in Manchuria later than the Sushen (here Mohe means Bohai).

57

In western Manchuria, prior to the Tang and Song dynasties, were theMongolian-Tungusic Donghu. In the east along the Liaohe River and in thenorthern part of the Korean Peninsula, were the agricultural Suibai. Southof the northernmost Songhua River were hunters of pure Tungusic
extraction; in the north of the Songhua River lived the Donghu, who both
farmed and hunted. This ethnic distribution remained almost unchanged
from the dawn of history to the Tang dynasty.
Both the Fuyu and Koguryo established powerful states in Manchuria.
The Yilou, described in “Weizhi” (History of the kingdom of Wei) of
Sanguozhi (History of the three kingdoms), as well as the Wuji people
referred to in Weishu (Book of Wei), were pure Tungus.
After Fuyu and Koguryo perished, the surviving Koguryo people and theMohe established Bohai. Those who had once been incorporated into
Koguryo, and later gained control were pure Tungusic Nuzhen people(Juchen). Therefore, the establishment of the Jin empire by the Juchen was amajor turning point in Chinese history.
After the collapse of the Jin empire (1234), the Juchen were ruled by the
Mongolian Yuan dynasty, and then by its successor, the Northern Yuan
dynasty. The Juchen were divided into three major groups: Haixi Juchen in
the region along the Songhua River, Yeren Juchen along the lower reaches ofthe Heilong River, and the Jiangzhou Juchen along the Mudan River. Amongthem, it was the Jiangzhou Juchen who produced Nurhachi, the founder ofthe Qing dynasty.
2. Manchuria devastated by policy keeping the Han out
Investiture system and robust Eight Banner Army sustain Qing empire
Nearly 200 years after Nurhachi (the first emperor of the Qing dynasty),
established the Later Jin dynasty, a vast Qing empire came into being. It wasa coalition of diverse ethnic groups, each with their own history and culture.
The system of government established in this multi-ethnic society was basedon tributary states and investiture of the rulers of those states. Under thisfundamental structure, there were various forms of government.
Having adopted the system of tributary states and investiture (cefeng), thecentral government of the imperial court exercised benign rule overneighboring countries that paid tribute to the emperor. In return, the central

58

government gave those nations the authority to rule in their respective
regions. Not everything was centralized; control was fairly loose, this being asystem of mixed (direct and indirect) control.
China proper was ruled directly by the emperor, and many of the Ming
systems were adopted.
Mongolia, Huibu (now the Uighur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang) andTibet were not included in the Chinese world. They were called fanbu(colonies). A minister holding a rank between below governor but above
ambassador was appointed to represent each colony.
Regions like Korea, the Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa) and Yuenan (Vietnam)
were regarded as tributary colonies and paid tribute to the Qing emperor ona regular basis.
Manchuria had a different system of government from China. China had acivil government, but it was martial rule in Manchuria. A general was
stationed in Shengjing (today Shenyang), Jilin and Heilongjiang; theseofficers were administrative as well as military leaders. There wereapproximately 11,000 cavalry (with infantry below them) in the entire region
during Kangxi rule (1661-1722). Their numbers increased to 37,000 during
the reign of Emperor Qianlong.
The realm of the Qing dynasty was sustained by the powerful andcompetent (though small in number) Eight Banner Army. According to a
popular saying, “There are fewer than 10,000 Manchurians, but 10,000
Manchurians would be truly invincible.” Their invincible cavalrymen wereborn and raised in the Manchurian environment. The members of the bannerarmies were instilled martial spirit on Manchurian soil.
The banners sustained the power structure. In turn, the Qing dynasty
protected the banners through a hereditary system that maintained theirmartial traditions and prohibited them from engaging in business activities.
Moreover, the banner members were not allowed to intermarry or live with
the Han; Han women could not serve as court ladies.
What the Qing dynasty feared most was that the Manchurians might beabsorbed by the Han majority. Throughout history, many nomadic tribes
succeeded in conquering the Chinese, but most of them were absorbed by thevast sea of Han people. That is exactly what happened to the Northern Wei
dynasty. The Qing dynasty wisely avoided the mistakes made by pastconquering dynasties.

59

The devastation of Manchuria
Manchuria, the birthplace of the ancestors of the Qing dynasty, wasdesignated as forbidden land. The Han people were prohibited from settling
there.
In 1621, off-limits areas were defined in the Liaodong Peninsula for the
first time. Gradually, off-limits enclosures were expanded to Shengjing(today Shenyang) and to the forest region of Jilin. The enclosures werereserved as hunting and training grounds for members of the Eight Banners.
Besides the enclosures made since the Jin empire, the government of the
Qing dynasty declared many areas restricted to protect special natural
resources like the ginseng, gold, sables, freshwater pearls and precious
stones intended for the imperial family from poachers. In addition, as
poaching by the Han and Koreans persisted, the government stationed
additional guards on the border between Manchuria and Korea, rigorously
inspected Han people passing through Shanhaiguan Gate (the easternmost
point in the Great Wall), and pronounced all of Manchuria’s forests and fields
off-limits.
However, since the times of the first emperor, Nurhachi, the Qing dynasty
was continually forced to dispatch military expeditions. As long as
Manchurians were battling the Han, young Manchurian men were organized
into the Eight Banner Army. Consequently, the once fertile Manchurianbanner land (given to banners by the emperor) was deserted and reverted towilderness.
After the Qing dynasty moved to Beijing, not only soldiers, but also theirfamilies left the Manchuria in a rush, pouring into the region south of theGreat Wall in great numbers. This population shift further accelerated thedevastation of Manchuria.
The prohibition against the Han’s settling in Manchuria was intended topreserve and maintain Manchuria as it originally had been, where thepopulation had drastically dwindled. In spite of the ban, the Han continued
to sneak into Manchuria and secretly reclaimed land there. Organized mobsof bandits stealthily dug up ginseng and gold, while prisoners held in thenorthernmost Heilongjiang and Jilin regions attempted to escape southward.
Many of the escapees ended up joining mounted bandits and other robbers in
Manchuria.

60

A policy intended to prevent the Han from illegally entering Manchuria
was implemented in the 1740s (at the beginning of Qianlong’s reign); in 1746,
an order to tighten control over passage through Shanhaiguan Gate wasissued. In 1750, security measures against refugees sneaking across theborder were bolstered.
In China, during the waning years of Emperor Qianlong’s reign, thenatural environment steadily deteriorated. Famine after famine turned asignificant portion of the population into refugees, more and more of whom
went to Manchuria. Such dire conditions prompted bans against settling in
Manchuria and private exploitation, implemented in 1803 and in 1808,
respectively, but neither measure effectively stemmed the influx of refugees.
The policy that declared Manchuria off-limits was withdrawn after the
Muslim rebellions were put down.
When the Dzungar empire was conquered by Emperor Qianlong in the
mid-18th century, scattered Muslim (Hui and Uighur) rebellions broke out.
After the historically famous Taiping Tianguo (Heavenly Kingdom of Great
Peace) Rebellion (1851-64) was suppressed, most civil disturbances were
fomented by Muslims. One rebellion that began in 1864 spread to theprovinces of Shanxi, Gansu and Yunnan; a revolt in the northern andsouthern routes through the Tian Mountains was crushed in 1878. The
provinces of Dzungar and Hui were combined to form Shinjiang Province in1882.
Why were restrictions affecting Manchuria lifted?
In order to control the Han majority and to suppress any attempts on theirpart to gain more power, the Qing dynasty designated the regions north andwest of the Great Wall, as well as Tibet and Taiwan, as off-limits areas andbanned emigration to those areas. However, after the Muslim rebellions, thefear that the Great Powers might encroach on China inspired the Qing
dynasty to gradually lift the ban and allow emigration to Manchuria, Taiwan
and other colonial regions.
For 270 years, Qing dynasty policy banning the Han from emigrating to
Manchuria lacked consistency. For about 90 years (1651-1739), i.e., from the
8th year of Shunzhi’s reign, following Qing entry into Beijing, to the earlyyears of Qianlong’s reign, such policies were instituted, then relaxed, thenreinstituted. For about 150 years (1740-1893), i.e., from the 5th year of61

Qianlong’s reign to the 19th year of Quangxu’s reign, emigration wasbanned.
Changes in the global situation following the Sino-Japanese andRusso-Japanese wars were partly accountable for changes in Manchuria
policy and for the lifting of the ban on emigration.
Throughout history, the Russians had always been eager to move eastward
to Siberia. In 1689, during the reign of Emperor Kangxi, the Chinese
concluded the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The pact temporarily prevented theRussians from advancing southward, but the threat of such an advancenever vanished.
To prepare for a possible southward Russian advance, Qing ordered Eight
Banner Army men to settle as farmer-soldiers near the Helong (Amur) andZeya rivers, as early as 1685. They were stationed there both to keep thearea secure and to reclaim the land. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong,the Qing dynasty attempted several times to send banner members to
Manchuria to farm. But those residing in Beijing had become accustomed toan urban lifestyle. Even when they were forced to move to Manchuria, theywould return to Beijing before long. The Qing government spent a vast
amount of money on these projects, but Manchurian bannermen were nolonger capable of contending with the harsh natural environment of their
homeland. Thus, the plan to return Manchurians to their native land was acomplete and utter failure.
The threat of a southward Russian advance increased in the 19th century,
and compelled Qing China to adopt an emigration policy.
Another factor was the financial predicament of the Qing dynasty
following the Opium War and the Taiping Tianguo Rebellion. Moreover, since
Manchuria was poorly armed, it was urgently necessary to increase taxes
and to encourage the Han to help reclaim the Manchurian Plain. Otherwise,
grave financial difficulties would never be overcome.
As rulers, the Manchurians enjoyed special privileges and protection.
However, with the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, a law
restricting the banners’ range of activity was abolished. Consequently,
members of Manchurian banners were allowed to dispose of their land and toengage in occupations of their choice. They no longer enjoyed privileged
status.
In 1908, three years prior to the Xinhai Revolution, the Han were62

encouraged to emigrate to the Heilongjiang region and to reclaim the land
there, and the traditional policies that isolated Manchuria were abandoned.
3. Huge waves of emigrants and refugees in the last days of the Qing dynasty
Devastation of a nation infested with bandits, beggars and refugees
The Han regarded the region north of the Great Wall as a wasteland
populated only by ogres and serpents. The region inspired so much fear that,
according to a popular saying, “People are as afraid to go beyond the gate of
Shanhaiguan (the easternmost point of the Great Wall) as they would be if atiger awaited them there.” Not until after China was conquered byManchurians did this perception change.
As we mentioned earlier, after the reign of Emperor Qianlong, both thenatural and social environments of Qing China began to deteriorate. Wars
and famines made the situation even worse; China was trapped in a vicious
cycle.
Those phenomena were already apparent in the late 18th century, during
the last days of the Qianlong era. For instance, they were mentioned inaccounts by George Macartney and other members of the British mission to
China in 1793. After Emperor Qianlong rejected their request for trading
rights, Macartney’s party traveled from Beijing to Guangzhou by land, andthen returned home by sea. According to their report, all the people theyencountered during their travels were either bandits or beggars.
In 19th-century China, hardly a year went by without civil unrest. In fact,
there were a great many uprisings, from the While Lotus Rebellion, throughthe Taiping Tianguo rebellion, to Muslim rebellions. No year passed withouta famine. Each of the major famines (1810-11, 1849, 1876-78) claimed morethan 10 million lives. It was not at all rare for hundreds of thousands or evenmillions of people to starve to death in the space of a year.
Every famine produced a huge number of refugees. According to Donghua

xulu (Annals of East China, part 2), the drought of November 1876 caused
approximately 10 million Chinese to abandon the region north of the Yangzi
River. They crossed the river and headed for Suzhou and Changzhou. Also
devastating was the 1928-30 famine in the northeast that forced two million
people from Shanxixing province (one sixth of the population) to leave theirhomes.

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Since China was afflicted with famines and wars, those who didn’t starve
to death streamed into Southeast Asia, becoming huaqiao (overseas Chinese).
Refugees from north China went to the Mongolian grasslands; Manchuria
was the chief destination for refugees from Hebei and Shandong provinces.
In 1918, the Research Department of the South Manchuria Raiway
published a report entitled “The Situation in Manchuria and Mongolia:
Population, Arable Land and Agricultural Products.” According to the report,
the population increase in Shandong province in 1918 was approximately
450,000; two thirds of that number left the province to seek work elsewhere.
Each year, about 400,000 inhabitants of Hebei province went to Manchuria
and Mongolia looking for work. More than 80% of them (approximately
300,000) remained in Manchuria.
The huge efflux of refugees was the result of a complete ecologicalbreakdown brought about by overpopulation in China. Between the Qin andQing dynasties, the population seldom exceeded 100 million. However,during the Qing dynasty, the population rose to 180 million (1749); by 1851,
it exceeded 400 million. The natural resources of the region could not support
the population explosion.
The land owned by the Manchurian banners, who had played a major rolein Nurhachi’s establishment of the Later Jin and Qing dynasties, wasmaintained by serfs. After the king, nobles and banners moved to Beijing,
within the Great Wall, there was no one left to farm. Then refugees from
China entered Manchuria and worked the abandoned farmland. When kings,
nobles and banner members sold off their land, banner system began tocollapse.
Manchurians and Mongolians driven to outlying areas and slaughtered
The population of Manchuria in the early 20th century was about 10
million. The Han were in the majority (minority ethnic groups, including
Manchurians accounted for only 10% of the population). By the time theMukden Incident occurred, nearly 30 years later, the population had jumped
to 31 million.
Many scholars believe that the population of Manchuria was no more thana million when the Sino-Japanese War broke out. That was the estimate
Matsui Kimio made in Kataribe no Manshu (Eyewitness accounts ofManchurian history).xv In any case, that was the consensus among those64

knowledgeable about Manzhouguo at the time.
The settlements of immigrants to Manchuria and Mongolia were not
restricted to unexploited land. They trespassed on pastures used by nomads,
hunting and gathering zones, and land that was already occupied. The
Tungusic and Mongol tribes were driven out of the plains and pastures toremote areas. The Mongolian plains were the scene of the most tragic turn of
events. At the height of the Qing dynasty, farmers and refugees who crossed
the Great Wall and trespassed on pastures were sent back south of the Great
Wall. But as the dynasty lost power and declined, Manchurians andMongolians were deprived of their pastures and hunting grounds by the floodof Han refugees, and driven to the frontier.
Thus, random exploitation by Chinese immigrants ruined the Mongolian
plains and forests north of the Gobi Desert. An increasing amount of land
reverted to desert, and natural forests disappeared.
As noted earlier, when Manzhouguo was founded, Manchuria already had
a population of 30 million. However, the recorded number of Han immigrants
was less than seven million. Therefore, we assume that the other 23 million
were either illegal immigrants or descendants of Han who intermarried with
Manchurians or Mongolians.
After the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, an event that astounded the entire
world took place. The Xian Revolutionary Army committed genocide against
Manchurians. Han Chinese shot, stabbed and burned Manchurians to death;they raped Manchurian women.xvi As a result of the atrocities, which lasted
for a week, 20 to 30 thousand people were slaughtered. Sun Yatsen’s
revolutionary slogan, “Drive the Manchurians out,” was acted upon in themost violent way possible.
Where did Manchurians go after the Qing Manchurian state collapsed?
Presumably, they hadn’t been swallowed up by the vast sea of Han people,
but had chosen to live in anonymity and secrecy, hiding their identity as
Manchurians. The exceptional few who dared to identify themselves were allmembers of the Zongshe Party, which advocated reestablishment of the Qing
dynasty.
I can well understand why they were reluctant to openly declarethemselves Manchurians. Even after the People’s Republic of China cameinto being, the Manchurian population did not show a marked increase until
after the Cultural Revolution.

65

4. Failure of the million-household 20-year plan for Japanese emigration to
Manchuria
Another phase: Manchuria as home to the Korean people
Manchuria went through another phase: home to the Korean people. For atime after the collapse of Koguryo and Bohai, Koreans were reluctant tomove to Manchuria. But when the Qing dynasty came into power, farmers
began to flow into the “forbidden land” of Manchuria. Consequently, from1861 onward, there was mass immigration into Manchuria.
Around the mid-19th century, during the reign of Qing Emperor Xianfeng,
more and more Koreans ignored the ban on entry into Manchuria imposed by
the Qing dynasty. Secretly they crossed the Tumen (Douman) River andsettled near Mt. Changbai (Mt. Paekdu). They engaged in illicit trading,logging and other private exploitation of natural resources.
At first, most Korean immigrants were employed as loggers by Han
Chinese on the banks of the Hun River (a branch of the Yalu River on the
Manchurian side). Later, they began to settle near the river, having foundfertile land there. A poor harvest in the western part of the Korean peninsulain 1869 triggered a huge wave of emigration, which expanded toward theplains of Yanji. Eventually, the Jiandao region north of the Tumen River,
inhabited by Manchurians, Koreans and Han, became a battleground.
Koreans had, however, emigrated to Manchuria well before the last days of
the Qing dynasty. Before the Manchurians entered Beijing, in 1636, Qing
China had defeated the Korean Yi (Joseon) dynasty in the second Manchu
invasion of Korea. At that time, a vast number of Koreans were abducted andtaken to the north by Manchurians and Mongolians. A historical accountstates that as many as 600,000 Koreans were traded at a slave market inShengjing (today Shenyang). Once bought, Korean slaves generally became
serfs on banner land. As an indispensable labor force, they contributed
greatly to the conquest of Chinese. They remained farmers in Manchuria,
and made it their home.
At the end of the Yi dynasty, the Korean peninsula was politically unstable.
Harsh policies: land taxes, compulsory military service and grain loans (intime of need, the government supplied farmers with storage grain, which
they were obligated to return with exorbitant interest) took their toll on

66

farmers. Fleeing from hardship and merciless taxation, more and more
Koreans entered Manchuria.
Claim that Japanese atrocities spurred immigration to Manchuria, adistortion of historical fact
A large-scale northward Korean emigration began after the
Russo-Japanese War. Many of them went to Jiandao in Manchuria andDongbiandao near the Yalu River. When Manzhouguo was established, there
were already 630,000 Korean residents in Manchuria; by the late 1940s, thepopulation had doubled to 1.3 million.
Immediately after the Mukden Incident, the Office of the Korean
Governor-General, the Manchuria Raiway, Toyo Takushoku Co., Mitsui and
Mitsubishi established the Korean-Manchurian Reclamation and Settlement
Co., backed by capital of 20 million yen. The company drew up a plan thatinvolved attracting 750,000 immigrants to Manzhouguo over 15 years. By
1936, about 70,000 Koreans had settled there, followed by 30,000 more
between 1937 and 1941. According to the 1940 census, there wereapproximately 1.3 million Koreans living in Manchuria, .55 million of whom
had settled in Jiandao province.
Modern historians often describe the Koreans in Manzhouguo as people
who were deprived of their land by the Japanese, further victimized, andeventually driven into Manchuria, where they set up a base foranti-Japanese activities. But this is a distortion of history. Koreans weresettling in Manchuria when it was still a forbidden land. Therefore, theiremigration was voluntary. Once the ban against immigration was lifted,
more Koreans headed for Manchuria.
In those days, it was not only Koreans who were emigrating. Chinese andJapanese were also moving overseas. Emigration was common in East Asia,
in the 19th century and thereafter. Chinese emigrated to Manchuria by the
million every year.
Failed attempt to encourage one million families to emigrate to Manzhouguo
in 20 years
Following the February 26 Incident of 1936, Prime Minister Hirota Koki’s
Cabinet established a plan for the emigration of a million households toManchuria over 20 years, one of seven national policies. Although this plan67

was put into practice, it was a failure. By 1945, only 270,000 people had
emigrated to Manchuria.
There were reasons behind the failure of the Japanese emigration plan.
The last president of the Manchuria Raiway, Yamasaki Motoki, described
them as follows. First, it was difficult to acquire land because nationalism
was running high. Second, workers’ wages posed another problem, being halfor one third of the wages paid to skilled workers in Japan; unskilled workers
were paid much less. Third, China proper was overpopulated. The Japaneseemigration policy was crushed by a million refugees rushing into Manchuria
every year like swarms of locusts.
After the Russo-Japanese War, Japanese inhabitants of in Manchuria
rapidly increased in regions like Guandongzhou in the Liaodong Peninsula,along Manchuria Raiway lines, and also in major cities. They numbered
70,000 in 1910, and more than 220,000 in 1930. As Manchuria was controlled
by bandits and warlords, only 15,000-16,000 Japanese settled on land notbelonging to the Manchuria Raiway. State-sponsored emigration was
promoted on a large-scale after Manzhouguo was established. In 1945, when
Manzhouguo collapsed, the Japanese population was a little over 1.55
million.
In the 14 years between 1932 and 1945, Japan sent about 270,000
agricultural emigrants to Manchuria. By the time the war was over, 50,000of the 270,000 Japanese in Manchuria had been drafted into military service,and 220,000 had settled on reclaimed land. However, when Manzhouguo fell,
approximately 80,000 Japanese, mostly children, disappeared into the vast
reaches of Manchuria.
5. Bandits and warlords controlled Manchuria
Why were mounted bandits and other outlaws rampant?
As mentioned previously, Manchuria was infested with mounted bandits.
Its three eastern provinces are described as “filled with mounted bandits” inHeilongjiang shulue (The Amur River Overview), published before the
Sino-Japanese War. According to Inaba Iwakichi’s Manshu hattatsushi(Development of Manchuria),xvii since the Xianfeng and Tongzhi eras, theareas east and west of Mt. Paekdu had been at the mercy of mounted bandits.
By the middle of the 19th century, Manchuria was already controlled by68mounted bandits.
Fundamentally, China is a bandit state. That is, bandits far outnumber
soldiers. It is also a society in which the powerful win and the perceptionthat “the winners become the government army, while the losers become therebel army” is more highly valued than anywhere else in the world.
As stated earlier, after the founders of the Qing dynasty conquered China,
Manchuria was designated off-limits to protect the dynasty’s birthplace.
However, in spite of the ban, or because of it, Chinese refugees poured into
Manchuria. The Han refugees were making their livings by illegally
reclaiming land, harvesting crops or appropriating natural resources. Mostof them had entered Manchuria illegally.
When the Manchurians conquered China, they wished to take firm controlof the vast country. To that end, they realized that they, being an ethnic
minority, should appoint Han Chinese to govern their own people. But Han
officials were not sufficient in number. Consequently, most members of theManchurian banners moved to Beijing. As though they had changed places
with the Manchurians, the Han became refugees and bandits, and entered
the Manchurian plain. Manchurians became the minority in Manchuria,
which turned into a gathering place for mounted bandits and other outlaws.
Manchurian society fell under the sway of warlords and bandits (of which
there were three categories: bureaucrat bandits, military bandits andacademic bandits). In 1924 Lieutenant Colonel Takahashi Sutejiro wrote a
research report titled “Mounted Bandits in Manchuria,” in which he lists thefollowing factors responsible for the emergence of mounted bandits:
1) Chinese attributes: rugged individualism, duplicity, cunning,practicality, absence of morality except where personal gain or loss isinvolved; lack of national allegiance, lack of empathy, follower
mentality
2) Inadequate education
3) Overpopulation and natural disasters4) Lack of transportation
5) Private armies6) Corrupt civil servants and military officials
Takahashi pays special attention to the following factors, which hebelieves are responsible for the emergence of mounted bandits in northern
Manchuria:

691) Illegal mining of gold and cultivation of ginseng2) Growing of poppies (for opium)3) Illicit logging
4) Disdain for Manchurian immigration policy5) Accessibility of weaponsxviii
In Manchurian society relations among mounted bandits, other gangs ofoutlaws, the police and the military were on a middle ground — neither close
nor distant. For that reason, it was difficult to distinguish soldiers frombandits. Zhang Zuolin, one of the most prominent Manchurian warlords andonce a bandit himself, became a military man at the request of thegovernment. As his case indicates, the “heroes of the anti-Japanese
movement” as described in works of modern Chinese history were often
bandits.
Becoming a bandit the only path to success
Farmers in Manchuria, though cruelly exploited by heavy taxation andsoldier-bandits, formed a society that was uniquely Manchurian.
Most of the farmers were refugees from the provinces of Shandong andHebei or former farmers who had lost their livelihood; there were manyseasonal workers as well. The female population was extremely small. For
example, in 1909 the population of Fengtian province was approximately 2.5
million, or about 70% of the entire Manchurian population; however, thefemale population was only around 60% of the male total. Since Fengtian
province was centrally located, it is likely that there were even fewer females
in remote areas. Consequently, several men sometimes shared a wife, and inmany cases, abducted women were sold.
Farming villages were not only subject to attacks by mounted bandits,
but also levied heavy taxes by the government. It was quite common forvillagers to pay a monthly protection fee to mounted bandits. The
relationship between the villagers and bandits was one of coexistence andmutual prosperity. Bandits regularly plundered farmers’ villages; they
abducted and raped women.
Not only in Manchuria was there no clear dividing line between bandits
and soldiers. The same was true of Chinese society in general. Bandits
plundered at night and in secret, while soldiers plundered in broad daylight.
Bandits sometimes acquiesced to requests from the government, and70were assigned given military status. But after the Taiping Tianguo Rebellion,
the army was composed mainly of private soldiers hired by powerful local
figures. They were called soldier-bandits and when they were defeated in abattle, they immediately reverted to mounted bandits.
It was a time-honored rule in Manchuria that Manchurian mounted
bandit chiefs would ascend the social ladder every time they completed thecycle of surrender, obedience and rebellion. Consequently, alternating
between banditry and military services was a necessary ritual for those who
wished to establish themselves in the world. It was quite possible for a
bandit to become a warlord overnight by waiting for the right opportunityand seizing it. Zhang Zuolin, Wu Junsheng and Lu Rongting trod such apath.
An old Manchurian saying goes, “Female prostitutes, male bandits,”
meaning unless women are prostitutes and men bandits, they are unlikely to
succeed in life.
6. Former bandit rules Manchuria
Zhang Zuolin’s loyalty wins him prominence after many setbacks
In 1873, Zhang Zuolin, who came to be known as the boss of the Beiyang
warlords, was born into a farmer’s family in Haicheng prefecture, Fengtian
province. At the age of 16, he joined a group of bandits led by Li Gongsheng.
Prior to the Russo-Japanese War, Zhang submitted to the Fengtian Armywith his 200 men and became head of a LOCAL guard unit. During the
Russo-Japanese War, he was arrested by the Japanese and charged withcollaborating with the Russians. Subsequently, he shifted his loyalties to theJapanese.
After the Xinhai Revolution, he became a follower of Yuan Shikai, and was
appointed chief of the Army’s 27th Division. After Shengwu became Fengtian
general, supplanting Duan Zhigui, Zhang became the Fengtian Army’s
superintendent of military affairs and deputy inspector-general, and thenthe Fengtian Army commander and deputy provincial governor.
Joining forces with Wang Yongjiang, an advocate of civilian government,
Zhang fought against Tang Yulin. In 1917, joining Wang Yongjiang’s baojing

anmin (preserve the borders and keep the people safe) movement, Zhang
declared the three eastern provinces independent, seceding from the central

71

Beijing government.
Following Yuan Shikai’s death in 1916, China was split between the
Beijing central government army (warlords’ army) in the north and theanti-government army (revolutionary army led by the Guomindang Party)
in the south. As the north-south conflicts escalated, the Beijing government
began to change, and an age in which warlords controlled politics andentered into military conflicts with other warlords dawned. After theZhili-Anhui War in 1920 between the Anhui faction (led by Duan Qirui) andthe Zhili (today Hebei) faction (led by Cao Kun and Wu Peifu), there was aconflict in the Beijing government between Zhang Zuolin’s Fengtian faction
and Wu Peifu’s Zhili faction. That conflict developed into the First
Zhili-Fengtian War in 1922. Zhang Zuolin, having been defeated, foundhimself in a very difficult position.
The Beijing government was dominated by President Xu Shichang and theZhili Army, led by Wu Peifu. In May 1922, Zhang Zuolin was dismissed fromthe posts of touring inspector-general and commander of the Fengtian Army.
In his place Wu Junsheng was appointed Fengtian Army commander andFeng Delin, Heilongjiang Army commander. Even after his defeat, Zhang
Zuolin formed an autonomous guard unit. He also appointed himself
garrison commander in chief for the three eastern provinces and governor of
Fengtian province. For all practical purposes, Zhang was still in control ofManchuria, assisted by the Japanese Guandong Army.
The Zhili Army, having won hegemony over North China, confronted therevolutionary army in the south, and at the same time attempted to gain
total control of China. When Cao Kun was installed as president, heappointed Wu Peifu commander in chief and launched a campaign toeliminate Zhang Zuolin.
The result was the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. During that conflict, there
were series of advances and retreats in the theaters of Shanhaiguan,
Zhaoyang and Rehe. However, the Northwest Army (led by Feng Yuxiang,commander of the 3rd Division of the offensive forces) suddenly shifted its
loyalties to Zhang Zuolin’s Fengtian Army, returned to Beijing andattempted a coup d’etat. President Cao Kun was urged to order a ceasefire
and discharge Wu Peifu. Betrayed by Feng Yuxiang’s army, the Zhili Army
was attacked from the front and rear; the war ended with a victory for theFengtian Army. Zhang Zuolin now held the reins of the Beijing government72

and for a while, his influence extended from north to central China.
Bid for presidency thwarted
Zhang Zuolin received a great deal of assistance from the Japanese
government while the two Zhili-Fengtian wars were raging. During thesecond conflict, Zhang repeatedly asked Shidehara Kijuro, Japan’s foreign
minister, for help via a local Japanese government branch office. GreatBritain and the United States had been supporting Wu Peifu, while theRussians were assisting both the Beijing government and Sun Yatsen’s
Guangdong government in an attempt to convert China to a communist state.
Zhang argued that under the circumstances, Japan should assist the
Fengtian Army, given the special privileges the Japanese enjoyed in
Manchuria and Mongolia (see Chapter Four).
Meanwhile, the Japanese government had adopted a noninterference
stance toward the Chinese civil wars. Japan did not want the war to expand
to Manchuria and Mongolia, and threaten Japanese interests there. However,
the mutiny attempted by Feng Yuxiang’s army during the Second
Zhili-Fengtian War was allegedly orchestrated by Lieutenant-Colonel
Doihara Kenji of the Japanese Guandong Army, who objected to thenoninterference policy maintained by his government.
Japanese Army officials were determined to keep the chaos in China fromspreading to Manchuria. Army Headquarters in Shandong province had
vowed never to allow the Chinese Army to invade Manchuria, either from thenorth or the south.
However, in November 1925, Zhang Zuolin’s right-hand man, Guo
Songling (deputy commander of the Fengtian Army’s 3rd Division) enteredinto a secret alliance with the People’s Revolutionary Army. Suddenly raising
the enemy’s banner, Song was about to attack Fengtian with his 70,000 men.
It looked as though Zhang Zuolin’s fate was sealed.
But Zhang escaped with his life, thanks to General Shirakawa Yoshinori,
commander of the Guandong Army. Guo Songling and his wife were captured
and executed.
In 1925, following the death of Sun Yatsen, the Nationalist government
was established in Guangdong. Chiang Kai-shek was appointed commander
in chief of the People’s Revolutionary Army and proceeded to launch anorthward campaign. Though the Beiyang warlords had divided into factions,73

they set aside their differences and joined together to combat the army
advancing from the south. They formed a northern defense army, whichconfronted the People’s Revolutionary Army. In November 1926, 16
provincial governors, including Sun Chuanfang, Yan Yishan, Wu Junsheng
and Zhang Zongchang nominated Zhang Zuolin as commander in chief of theNorthern National Defense Army.
At first Zhang Zuolin had his eyes on the presidency. But because of thestrength of the revolutionary army in the south, and in light of potential
conciliation between north and south, he was made Grand Marshal instead.
He did not, however, abandon his presidential hopes. Zhang established his
government by issuing an order that proclaimed the birth of the Republic ofChina’s military government.
Despite unceasing internecine disputes, the People’s Revolutionary Armyin the south led by Chiang Kai-shek, battled warlords in various theaters
and won victory after victory. On May 1, 1928, as Jinan in Shandong
province surrendered, the national defense army suffered a definitive defeat.
Realizing that it would be difficult to correct the grave situation, Zhang
issued a statement to the effect that his forces would retreat from Beijing.
On June 4, on his way back to Fengtian (Mukden), an explosion on his train
brought his eventful life to an end.
7. Zhang’s son self-destructs
Emergence of a new powerful figure, Zhang Xueliang
Civil wars waged in China after the Xinhai Revolution fall into three
categories. The first is the wars among the Beiyang warlords. The second iswars among the revolutionaries, i.e., Nationalist Party (Guomindang)elements. The third was tripartite wars among the autonomous federate
advocates (federal government advocates) in the middle and southwesternregions, the southern government and the northern government.
During the northward campaign of the Chiang Kai-shek’s People’s
Revolutionary Army, there was much conflict within the Guomindang itself.
The disputes extended to the various governments established in succession,
pitting the Nanjing government against the Wuhan government, or the
Beijing government.
The largest-scale Guomindang civil conflict was the Central Plains War74

in 1930, fought between a group headed by Yan Xishan, Feng Yuxiang and Li
Zongren, and Chiang Kai-shek’s army. The number of troops deployed was
1.5 million in total, with estimated casualties of 300,000. It was thelargest-scale civil war ever fought in the Republic of China. Chiang Kai-shek
won the brutal conflict. The Fengtian Army, led by Zhang Xueliang (Zuolin’sson), assisted Chiang’s army and was instrumental in its victory.
After the great Central Plains War, Zhang Xueliang’ s army obtained land
north of the Huanghe (Yellow River). Zhang was entrusted with the vicecommandership of the Army, Navy and Air Force by Chiang Kai-shek. A new
powerful figure had emerged in Manchuria.
Born in 1898, Zhang Xueliang was the eldest son of Zhang Zuolin. He later
acquired fame for a major role in the Xian Incident of 1936 (Chiang Kai-shek
was arrested because of an argument over which enemy to confront: thecommunists or the Japanese). After Zhang Zuolin was killed in a train
explosion, Zhang Xueliang became deputy director of Fengtian province, andthen garrison commander in chief for the three eastern provinces.
According to one theory, Guo Songling’s 1925 attempted mutiny was insupport of Zhang Xueliang. During the struggle for power after Zhang
Zuolin’s death, Zhang Xueliang assassinated faction leaders Yang Yuting andChang Yinhuai, who had conspired with Bai Chongxi of the Guangxi faction.
Now their power was in Zhang’s hands.
On December 27, 1928, Zhang Xueliang called an executive meeting of the
Fengtian faction. On December 29, he issued an order to hoist Guomindang
flags (a white sun on a blue background) in place of every five-colored flag
previously used in the three eastern provinces (except for the Guandongzhou
region and property belonging to the Manchuria Raiway).
Then, a statement to the effect that Zhang Xueliang, Zhang Zuoxiang(governor of Jilin province and vice commander of the Northeastern Regional
Defense Army), Zhai Wenxuan (governor of Fengtian province), Wan Fulin(governor of Heilongjiang province), Tang Yulin (governor of Rehe province)
and Chang Yinhuai would recognize the Guomindang government, signed by
the aforementioned governors, was distributed throughout China. This
statement signaled what was referred to as the “changing of the flags in thethree eastern provinces.”
With only 15,000 troops, Guandong Army occupies Manchuria

75

The Mukden (Liutiaohu) Incident, triggered by a plot involving the use of
explosives to sabotage a section of the Manchuria Railway, occurred in
November 1931 in the suburbs of Fengtian. Japanese Army officials reacted
by ordering the Guandong Army, which had only 15,000 troops at its disposal,
to occupy all of Manchuria. The primary reason for the success of theoccupation was Manchurian support of the Japanese.
In Manchuria at that time, warlord Zhang Xueliang commanded an armyof 15 to 50 times more men than the Guandong Army. Historical factindicates not that they failed to resist the Japanese occupation, but rather
that they were forsaken and expelled by the Manchurian people themselves.
Russia was preoccupied with its first Five-year Plan then, and made clear
its intentions to remain neutral. Both Great Britain and the United States
were still recovering from the Great Depression. Moreover, the Guomindang
Army, led by Chiang Kai-shek, gave priority to unifying the country under
the slogan of “first internal pacification, then external resistance.” They
claimed to be advocating non-resistance (to the Japanese). But, in actuality,
they were unable to resist, and were afraid that a confrontation with theJapanese Guandong Army would further decimate their ranks.
Zhang Xueliang’s troops, hoping to keep their forces intact, preferred to
avoid a Guandong Army offensive or any confrontation with that army.
However, they were also loath to welcome Chiang Kai-shek’s army toManchuria, the homeland of the Zhangs, father and son.
The details of the expulsion of Zhang Xueliang by the Manchurian
warlords, were described by Zhao Xinbai, mayor of Fengtian, the capital
after the Xinhai Revolution (Zhao had earned a law degree at Meiji
University, and was legal adviser to Zhang Xueliang) in December 1931.
Zhao wrote: “Zhang Xueliang slept during the day; he spent his nights
womanizing, gambling and smoking opium. He was mentally unstable.
Holding sway over the four northeastern provinces, he exploited the people
so he could indulge in selfish pleasures. He randomly issued inconvertible
notes, which he forced farmers to accept for the crops they had worked so
hard to produce. Zhang exchanged the crops for foreign currency, which headded to his store of assets. He also taxed the people beyond their ability topay, using the revenue to buy weapons and ammunitions. He ordered hisarmy to slaughter hundreds of thousands of their fellow citizens, expanded
his territory and amassed more and more power. To satisfy his own desires,76

he gladly sacrificed lives and property of 30 million people in the northeast.
During the four years after Zhang became military head of the four
northeastern provinces, many residents of the region lost their homes andfortunes. Countless shops suffered tremendous damage and were forced toclose down. It was a living hell for those 30 million people in the northeast.”
Mayor Zhao expressed his appreciation to Japan: “We are deeply gratefulto the Japanese Army for having eliminated Zhang Xueliang and his army,
thus saving the people of the northeast from the hands of the evil
arch-villain.”xix
8. Manchurian people bled dry
Military budget shortage offset by funds obtained from abductions,
extortion and blackmailAs we have seen so far, words cannot express the suffering of theManchurian people under Zhang Zuolin’s rule; they were forced to endureboth exploitation and looting. Manchuria was a land of immigrants, but alsoa land of outlaws. For example, the number of mounted bandits and otheroutlaws was estimated at somewhere between 300,000 and three million.
Looting, arson, rape and abduction were unexceptional events. It took all theenergy of ordinary citizens simply to survive each day.
There was no firm distinction between mounted bandits and the military.
Soldiers were even referred to as “soldier-bandits.” The only difference
between the two was that military bandits publicly robbed people, while
mounted bandits did so privately. Every once in a while mounted bandits
were invited by the government to serve in the army, but once they were
defeated in a war, they immediately reverted to their former “professions.”
Upon examination, ethnic heroes praised as anti-Japanese patriots in thecontemporary Chinese history texts often turn out to have been mounted
bandits or other types of outlaws. This fact cannot be overemphasized.
In fiscal 1929, prior to the Mukden Incident, income for all of Manchuria(the three eastern provinces) was 121 million yuan, and expenditures wereapproximately 148 million yuan, resulting in a deficit of 27 million yuan.
About 102 million yuan (approximately 80% of total revenue) was allotted tomilitary expenses. To maintain 250,000 troops, a huge military budget wasneeded.

77

Income came mainly from the salt tax and opium. Shortages were offset byappropriation of private property, blackmail and abductions.
But why was it necessary to appropriate such a huge sum of money for the
military budget? The answer is that the Chinese people of the 20th century,whether government officials, warlords or revolutionaries, depended solely
on military power for survival. Defeat in war or the loss of military forces
was tantamount to losing everything.
Originally, Zhang Zuolin had held up the slogan “Preserve the borders andkeep the people safe.” He believed that all the Manchurians needed to do was
keep Manchuria safe. After all, other warlords south of the Great Wall lacked
the forces nor to encroach on Manchuria. Moreover, the Japanese hadinterests in Manchuria; with the Guandong Army backing him up, Zhang
Zuolin could well afford to play the part of a king and the strongest man in
Manchuria. However, Zhang never gave up his dream of becoming emperorof China. He took part in the struggle to gain hold of the Beijing government,
and in the two Zhili-Fengtian wars.
To make up for the revenue deficit, the government kidnapped the wealthy,
executed them and then confiscated their fortunes. But they didn’t stop there.
Not only did they levy taxes on farmers’ crops and domestic animals, theyalso collected those taxes five years in advance. The salt tax was five times
higher than in the Japanese concession in Guandong province.
Random, numerous issuances of currency lead to hyperinflation
When Manchuria was in the hands of warlords Zhang Zuolin and his son
Xueliang, prior to the establishment of Manzhouguo, one of the worst aspectsof their monetary system was currency chaos.
Each Manchurian province had its own paper currency, issued by its ruler.
These notes did not, of course, circulate in other provinces. There were,reportedly, perhaps as many as 100 types of currency — international,
domestic, public, and private.
The value of each type of currency changed constantly. In particular, notes
were issued by the central bank owned by the ruling warlord in eachprovince, at the behest of that warlord. Consequently, oftentimes the value of
paper currency plummeted until it was worth no more than the paper it was
printed on. Every time a powerful figure in a province or region took up thereins of government, he would issue new currency at will, exploit the people78until their money was gone, and amass a tremendous fortune. Currency wasissued at harvest time in autumn. The new money would buy freshly
harvested grain, which was sold to foreign customers. The proceeds would be
used to equip the army and further expand the ruler’s power.
The only way to make up for a shortage of cash was to issue additional
notes in great numbers, an act that accelerated inflation and threw the
Manchurian economy into utter confusion.
Even in Fengtian, the richest province, the staple food for 40% was millet;
60% made their living by bartering goods. Under Zhang Xueliang’s rule, thefate of the Manchurian people worsened with each passing day. These werethe circumstances that prompted local warlords and citizens to expel Zhan
Xueliang after the Mukden Incident.
Zhang Zuolin, Zhang Xueliang and their relatives were not the only ones
who accumulated tremendous wealth in Manchuria. Wu Junsheng and Wan
Fulin of Heilongjiang province, Zhang Zuoxiang of Jilin province, Tang Yulin
of Rehe province and others used their military power to acquire mammoth
fortunes.
For example, the Industrial Bank of Rehe, owned by the Rehe provincial
government, issued three different types of “Rehe notes” on three occasions,starting in 1926. Each time they issued new notes, they declared all old notes
invalid, thus robbing people of their assets.
When a currency is unstable, modern industry is unlikely to develop.
Capital cannot be accumulated, except for real estate. Industrial investment
is required to accumulate capital. However, in that era, the augmentation of
military strength eclipsed everything else.
Onerous taxation
While Manchuria was ruled by warlords, one of the easiest ways to raise
funds was taxation. The monopoly system also helped line their coffers.
The idea behind taxation was to collect as much money as possible, and thetax- farmer system (entrusting tax collection to private citizens or groups)
was introduced as the easiest way to collect taxes. It was what was called“surplus incentive fee system.” A percentage of any surplus amount collected
would be returned to the collector as an incentive fee; a certain portion of thecollected taxes was earmarked for the collector’s salary. Therefore, collectors
were motivated to secure as much revenue as possible.

79

Serving as director of the Tax Agency was the quickest way to make hugesums of money. Since the position was bought, every time the directorshipchanged hands, the entire office staff (the boss’s relatives) would be replaced.
The auctioning off of the directorship also furnished additional income towarlords.
The taxation system in every province of Manchuria was complex, andtaxes were numerous (taxes were collected on about 130 items!).
The loss of the national wealth of Manchuria was not entirely due toexploitation by and the struggle for spoils among the warlords and tax
collectors. Whenever a social problem arose, outlaws and rioters ransacked
the tax office and stole grain and salt from storehouses. The sheer numbersof bandits — officials, the military and local thieves—made it extremely
difficult for the Manchurian economy to grow.
George B. Rea, the aforementioned China specialist,
criticizes American policy toward China at that time in The Case for

Manzhouguo, as follows.
[The Stimson doctrine]xx has inspired every free-lance bandit chief andwar-lord from Hopei to Kwangsi to look forward to restoring his rule over themost prosperous provinces of China, so rich in loot that the Chang [Zhang]régime squeezed out of their thirty million people revenues equal to, if not
greater than those collected by the recognized government at Nanking. It has
emboldened native bandits to continue their raids, massacres and generallawlessness in order to discredit the new state and make difficult theestablishment of orderly government. It has sown the seeds of a new war in
China that every radical leader south of the Yangtsze [Yangzi] River is now
preparing for.xxi

xv

Matsui Kimio, Kataribe no Manshu (Eyewitness accounts of Manchurian history)(Tokyo: Ginga Shobo, 1980), p. ??.
xvi

Rea, op. cit., p. 206

xvii

Inaba Iwakichi, Manshu hattatsushi (Development of Manchuria) (Tokyo: Nippon

Hyoronsha, 1935), p. ??.
xviii

Takahashi Sutejiro, Gendaishi shiryo 32: Mantetsu 2 (Modern historical resources

32: the Manchuria Raiway 2) (Tokyo: Misuzu Shobo, 1966), pp. 795-805.

80

xix

Committee for the Compilation of the History of Manzhouguo, Manshukoku shi: soron(Overview of the history of Manzhouguo) (Tokyo: Manmo Doho Koenkai, 1972).
xx

Policy proposed by U.S. Secretary of State Henry. L. Stimson in 1932, and incorporated

into the Treaty for the Renunciation of War signed by 15 nations in Paris in 1928, which
advocates not recognizing Manzhouguo. Also known as the “doctrine of nonrecognition.”xxi

Rea, op. cit., p. 14

81

Chapter Four: Behind the Manchurian-Mongolian
Independence Movement
1. Russia spends a fortune acquiring rulerless Manchuria
Delusion that Siberia too is Chinese territory
The Russian Empire’s eastward and southward advances began during the rule ofIvan III (1462-1505). However, the Russians were checked by a campaign led by Qing
Emperor Kangxi. In 1689 the Nerchinsk Treaty, which established the border between
the two empires, was concluded between the Chinese emperor and Peter the Great.
The Chinese (mistakenly) perceive Russian development of Siberia as Russian
encroachment on Chinese territory, a view that is stated in Chinese history textbooks.
However, this perception is the result of a persecution complex, which in turn is a
product of Chinese misconceptions about what constitutes China proper. In actuality,
during the Ming dynasty, north of the Great Wall were Northern Yuan territory andManchuria, neither of which belonged to China. Even during the height of theManchurian dynasty’s Qing Empire, Emperor Kangxi did not expand his sphere farther
north than the Amur River. Historical sources indicate that there were Sino-Russian
confrontations that straddled the Amur River.
Two hundred years later, the Qing Empire was defeated by Great Britain in the First
Opium War (1840-42). Then Qing China sustained another defeat in the Arrow War or
Second Opium War (1856-1860); subsequently Beijing was occupied by Anglo-French
forces.
For mediating between Qing China and Great Britain and France, Russia acquired
the region north of the Amur (Heilong) River and a region on the coast of the Sea ofJapan (today Primorsky Krai) under the Convention of Peking (1860). Moreover, asecret pact between Li Hongzhang and A.B. Lobanov-Rostovsky (the Sino-RussianSecret Agreement of 1896) gave Russia the right to build the Chinese Eastern Railway,
which runs obliquely across Manchuria via Harbin from Manzhouli to Vladivostok. The
railroad was completed in 1904. In 1898, by signing the Russo-Qing Treaty, Russia
gained 25-year leaseholds in the Liaodong Peninsula, Lushun (Port Arthur) and Dalian,
as well as the right to build a branch line of the Chinese Eastern Railway extending
from Harbin to Dalian and Lushun. The leased territory was named Guandongzhou.
Thus, both the Russian and Qing empires were contending for control of Siberia andManchuria. Territory has changed hands when empires wax and wane from time
immemorial. The current pet Chinese claims that certain regions are part of “China

82

proper” are not based on territorial acquisitions by their forebears, but arbitrary
definitions fashioned by the Chinese of today or, more simply put, opportunism.
The Treaty of Shimonoseki concluded after the Sino-Japanese War was affected by the
Tripartite Intervention (by Germany, France and Russia). The war had resulted in thepermanent cession of Taiwan to Japan. Criticized for having taken too much territory
from Qing China, Japan found itself obligated to return the Liaodong Peninsula, eventhough the cession pact had already been signed. Meanwhile, Russia obtained special
privileges in the Liaodong Peninsula from China as a token of gratitude for its
intervention.
The Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) was an uprising against Western civilization andChristianity effected by a religious group called Yihetuan (or the Boxers), whose main
activity was honing their boxing skills. Acting on their slogan “Support the Qing,
annihilate the Western powers,” they demolished Christian churches, killed Christians
and also ravaged modern railroad and electric communication facilities.
Many of the Chinese today laud the Boxer Rebellion as an anti-imperialist,
nationalistic movement that evolved around a core of farmers. In fact, it grew out ofcountless uprisings of secret societies, which had been going on ever since the White
Lotus Revolution in the late 18th century.
After the Boxers entered Beijing, the Qing government declared war against all
nations of the world on June 21, 1900, with the support of Empress Dowager Cixi. The
allied forces of Japan, Great Britain, the United States, France, Germany, Russia, Italy
and Austria attacked Beijing to protect their consulates and citizens living in theconcessions. This incident became known as “55 Days at Beijing.”
Of the eight allied powers involved in the Boxer Rebellion, the Russian Army was
guilty of the worst acts of plunder. At the same time, we acknowledge that Russia
sustained the most serious damage to its railroads and other real estate during theensuing uprisings of Boxer-related bandits, which spread to Manchuria.
“Yellow slaves” more fortunate than refugees
According to C. F. Remer’s Foreign Investments in Chinaxxii, the investments in Qing
China by the Great Powers in 1902 amounted to $788 million. The amount invested in
Manchuria was the largest, accounting for 27.4% of all investments in China.
Russia was the leading investor in Manchuria. Moreover, 98% of the funds spent in
China by the end of 1903, or 550 million rubles, was earmarked for Manchuria. Most of
it was used to build the Chinese Eastern Railway and the ports of Dalian and Lushun.
In this respect, Russia was perhaps hit hardest by the Boxer Rebellion. Since Russia

83spent its entire military budget of 100 million rubles to suppress the Boxers, its
occupation of Manchuria after the incident is quite understandable. The Russian
empire used up a tremendous amount of energy and national wealth in its attempt toacquire Manchuria.
Meanwhile, the Han continued to invade Manchuria, but there was a significant
difference between Russian and Han invasions. Most of the Han invaders were refugees
who intended to poach in Manchuria or secretly exploit its natural resources, while theRussian invaders were building cities and railroads with a definite national strategy inmind.
For example, Russia recruited 200,000 railroad workers to construct the Chinese
Eastern Railway. Most of the applicants were starving Chinese refugees from Shandongand Hebei provinces.
The construction of the Siberian Railroad was just as laborious as railroad
construction in the U.S. Chinese workers sought jobs in both places. In those days, they
were sold to Americans as “yellow slaves.” As many as 500,000 Chinese workers weresent to the European front during World War I. But they were more fortunate thanthose refugees enduring civil wars and famines at home.
Readers of northeastern regional history (Manchurian history) written by the
Chinese government will find pages filled with phrases like “slave labor,” “miserable
lives,” “anti-imperialist struggle,” “heroes defending their nation,” “armed suppression
by invaders,” “merciless exploitation,” “plunder of resources.” The accounts in whichthese terms appear are more myths about nationalist heroes fighting imperialists thandescriptions of historical fact.
The Russians were just as enthusiastic about building Harbin. Hoping to create a
Moscow of the East, they spent 260 million rubles in all between 1895 and 1917. They
spent 500 million rubles on the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway, while
using half that amount to build just one city. The other Great Powers were amazed at
the Russian commitment to urban development along the Chinese Eastern Railway,
which surpassed that of development in the American West.
Russia was planning an emigration of 600,000 to populate the areas near the railroad
lines after completion. Accordingly, the Qing government made it known that there
would soon be a flood of immigrants into Manchuria, and lifted the entry ban. The
result was a huge influx of refugees into Manchuria.
It was in 1907, after the Russo-Japanese War, that the three eastern provinces ofManchuria officially became local administrative governments of China.

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2. Behind the Russo-Japanese War: secret Sino-Russian agreement
Japanese privileges in Manchuria and Mongolia
Japanese special privileges in Manchuria-Mongolia mentioned thus far were
established by two treaties: the Sino-Japanese Treaty Concerning Manchuria (1905,
details to follow) based on the Treaty of Portsmouth (signed following the
Russo-Japanese War), and by the Twenty-One Demands (1915). Specifically, theprivileges included the right to build railroads, operate mines; lease land, reside andoperate businesses in specific areas.
As U.S.-Japan relations worsened because of the Twenty-One Demands, theIshii-Lansing Agreement, which gave the Japanese special privileges, was signed in
1917. In it the U.S. recognizes Japanese special interests in China, given thegeographical proximity of the two nations, as long as they do not compromise China’s
independence.
Japanese special interests are the key to understanding the establishment ofManzhouguo. The conflict between Japan and the Republic of China, the former
attempting to protect its privileges and the latter to eliminate them, worsened as theperception that Manchuria was Japan’s lifeline took hold.
Before Manzhouguo was established, the Republic of China constantly encroached onJapanese privileges. For instance, Japan’s railroad rights and mine operation weresabotaged, taxes were arbitrarily imposed, lease rights were violated and residential
rights were constrained. All of these obstacles stemmed from the Washington
Conference in 1921, which rejected portions of the Twenty-One Demands and abrogatedthe Ishii-Lansing Agreement.
Any account of the establishment of Manzhouguo should begin with the
Russo-Japanese War, the outcome of which established the privileges in question in thefirst place.
Secret Sino-Russian pact
In the previous section, we mentioned the Russian southward advance policy. Similar
to the situation on the continent, Russia was also approaching Japan by way of the
Korean peninsula and the Kuril Islands prior to the Meiji Restoration. Such behavior
posed a serious threat to the very existence of Japan as a nation. It was one of the great
external pressures that prompted Japan to emerge from isolation and undergorenovation at the end of the Edo Period.
After the Sino-Japanese War, Japan was obligated to return the Liaodong peninsula85

to Qing China (said peninsula had been conceded to Japan by the Treaty of
Shimonoseki) due to the Tripartite Intervention. As a result, in the Korean peninsula,
the conflict between Japan and China was being replaced by a new conflict between
Japan and Russia, whose repercussions were felt in Manchuria.
After the Boxer Rebellion, the Russian Army succeeded in occupying Manchuria. Qing
China, while protesting against this action, seemed to have yielded Manchuria to
Russia. Great Britain and the United States also protested, but neither nation seemed
motivated to use force. According to the Memoirs of Count Witte, Russia intended togain control of Manchuria at that time. But for the Russo-Japanese War, Manchuria
would have been merely an extension of Siberia, in an inevitable historical process.
Traditionally, Chinese national strategy has advocated befriending distant nations
and antagonizing neighboring states. After the Sino-Japanese War, the Sino-RussianSecret Treaty of 1896 was concluded to counter the perceived Japanese threat.
The Japanese invested their national destiny in the Russo-Japanese War. If they had
lost, all of Japan would have been annexed to Russia, not to mention the Korean
peninsula. That thought was in Ito Hirobumi’s mind and in that of almost everyone inJapan at the time. Furthermore, Manchuria remained in Russian hands. Great Britain
was Japan’s ally, but British influence in Asia was diminishing. It was practicallycertain that Russia, France and Germany would become increasingly interested in Asia.
The war was inevitable, as Russia had been a potential enemy ever since Japanemerged from isolation. It was essential that the conflict not be fought on the main
Japanese islands. Victory would be impossible unless China remained neutral. Because
Germany, France and Russia had been allies since the Tripartite Intervention, Japan
choices were limited to Great Britain and the United States.
Japan had the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and Russia had huge powers behind it; thetwo nations were to clash on Manchurian soil. Only 30 years out of isolation, Japan wasforced to engage in modern, full-scale warfare.
The Russo-Japanese War was fought within China, but Qing China, incredibly, openly
declared neutrality. But China, actually Russia’s ally by virtue of the secret pact,
opposed Japan behind the scenes.
What did China do in the Russo-Japanese War?
Ultimately, Japan emerged victorious from the war. Not only was Russia driven out of
East Asia, but also for the first time in modern history, the yellow race had prevailed
over the white, overturning the notion of white supremacy.
The land battles of the war were fought mainly in southern Manchuria. Therefore,86most modern Chinese historiography criticizes Japan and Russia for using the sacred
land of China for its battle arenas. But this historical perception is not at all accurate.
As Qing China was a Manchurian empire, the sovereignty of Manchuria at that time
was in China’s hands. But we should not forget about the secret agreement between
Russia and China.
According to the Russo-Qing Treaty of 1898, Russia leased the Liaodong Peninsulaand Manchuria. After the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, those regions were practically under
Russian control. As the postwar peace treaty indicated, Japan fought the
Russo-Japanese War to resolve serious problems concerning Manchuria and the Korean
peninsula.
It behooves the Japanese of today to face their own modern history a little moresquarely. They seem to have completely forgotten about the Sino-Russian Secret
Agreement.
Article Three of that agreement (signed on May 22, 1896) states that during military
action, all ports in China shall be available to the Russian Fleet as necessity arises.
Articles Four and Five regulate the building of railroads, provision of food,transportation of military supplies. Japan’s and Russia’s reasons for fighting in
Manchuria were clear; there was never any violation of sovereignty.
As a result of the Russo-Japanese War, Japan expelled Russia from southern
Manchuria. Moreover, after the Portsmouth Treaty was concluded, Japan and Russia
paid 1.5 million yen and two million rubles, respectively, to China for having used its
land as battlefields. Any war causes casualties and damage among not only the
combatants, but also those who became its victims involuntarily. However, once
battlefield fees had been paid, China couldn’t claim that its sovereignty had been
violated from the viewpoint of international law. Postwar procedure had been duly
observed.
With the forces Japan had at that time, the Russo-Japanese War was won only at
great cost, after Japan had made all possible sacrifices. The number of war dead,including those who died of illness, amounted to 120,000. War expenditures totaled 1.5
billion yen. The Japanese government did not have sufficient resources to support a warof that magnitude. They experienced great difficulty procuring 800 million yen indomestic bonds and 700 million yen in overseas bonds. Yet the Treaty of Portsmouth fell
far short of rewarding Japan enough to make up for the monumental cost of the war.
Such an outcome would certainly generate discontent and disappointment among theJapanese people.
However, since then the Chinese have launched into tirades about Japanese87imperialism every time the subject of Manchuria has been raised. They have notdemonstrated the least bit of gratitude to the Japanese for having recovered Chinese
territory from the Russians. In those days, the following question was often posed inJapan: “Exactly what did the Chinese do during the Russo-Japanese War?” It is nowonder that those angry voices eventually influenced the acquisition of special
Japanese privileges in Manchuria and Mongolia.

3. Sun Yatsen offers to sell Manchuria
Sun Yatsen overrated by historians
Not only Chinese, but also Japanese scholars have often misinterpreted(unintentionally and intentionally) the Xinhai Revolution and the establishment of the
Republic of China. For instance, the revolutionaries are more appreciated than thereformers. Among the revolutionaries, Sun Yatsen’s faction receives the most praise.
The Beiyang warlords, however, are treated as if they had actually caused the
disturbances that plagued the Republic of China.
However, such views can, for the most part, be traced to propaganda produced by
Chiang Kaishek’s faction after the Northern Expedition. They are yet another exampleof the distortion of modern Chinese history.
The reformers active during the last days of the Qing dynasty were mostly membersof the established intellectual class who had passed the imperial examinations. Amongthe leaders of the Beiyang Army were uneducated men like President Cao Kun, butmany of the officers were graduates of the prestigious Military Academy.
In contrast, the revolutionaries were mostly men who had failed the imperial
examinations or underachievers, far removed from the mainstream of dynasty officials.
Before the Huangbu Military Academy was established, the revolutionaries werelargely unknowns who belonged to clandestine organizations in the south or other illicit
groups. Sun Yatsen took charge of those people and trained them.
Consequently, Sun Yatsen raised an army on 10 occasions, in attempts to bring about
revolution, only to fail each time. The Xinhai Revolution, with which he was not
involved, was the only one that succeeded. Sun also established a government threetimes in Guangzhou. Though he loudly proclaimed that his government would represent
all of China, it would collapse every time because of internal conflicts. It would be fair tosay that he was somewhat lacking in the ability to form a government.

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Sun’s empty promises fill revolutionaries’ coffers
Sun Yatsen’s revolutions were characterized by his fundraising methods: he madepromises that he could not keep, offering mining concessions and railroad construction
opportunities to the Great Powers. Most of the mines and railroads in question werelocated in regions that the revolutionaries did not yet control.
Using the same tactics, Sun Yat-sen approached Kodama Gentaro, the fourth
governor-general of Taiwan, to solicit support for his troops and war chest, prior to the
Xinhai Revolution. Furthermore, after the Russian Revolution, Sun asked the Soviet
Union for financial assistance for the southern revolutionaries. He also negotiated withJapan about the sale of Manchuria. The Japanese should pay more attention to thisfact.
The “Twenty-One Demands,” which Japan presented to Yuan Shikai, the firstpresident of the Republic of China, are supposedly the key to the conflict between Japanand China. However, the 21 demands were originally the conditions for the transfer ofconcessions in a secret agreement between Sun Yatsen and the Japanese government.
Sun was soliciting support for his revolution, while in exile in Japan, after the second
revolution against Yuan Shikai in 1913 failed. Therefore, the author of those demands
was none other than Sun Yat-sen.
The secret agreement between Sun Yatsen and the Japanese government was
exposed on an NHK television program entitled “Contemporary History Scoop: An
Account of Sun Yatsen’s 933 Days in Exile and His Pact with Japan,” broadcast on April
20, 1991. This was probably the first time that the topic, which had previously been thepurview of historians and scholars, was brought to the attention of the general public.
When Sun Yatsen established a revolutionary group called Xingzhonghui (Revive
China Society), later incorporated into the Revolutionary Alliance, he was alreadyadvocating a policy that would expel the Manchurians and revive China. Like Sun, atthe beginning of the Xinhai Revolution, the majority of Revolutionary Alliance members
advocated an ethnic revolution. They referred to the Manchurians as an “outcaste racein the eastern region,” “descendants of the worthless,” “Manchurian inferiors” and“Tartar savages.” Furthermore, Sun and his followers accused the Manchus of having
usurped the sacred land of China, oppressed the Han people (the descendants of
Yanhuang, the mythological Han founding father), and autocratically deprived the Hanof their dignity and rights. As these aspersions imply, Sun Yatsen never considered
Manchuria part of China.
Though Sun secretly negotiated with Japan for the sale of Manchuria, the influential
Yamagata Aritomo flatly declined his offer. Kita Ikki’s book Shina kakumei gaishi

89

(Private history of the Chinese revolution) denounces Sun Yatsen to the point of calling
him a traitor, because Sun sold Chinese concessions to Japan, the United States andRussia.
Twenty-One Demands the work of Sun Yat-sen
Sun Yatsen exiled himself to Japan after his second revolution failed; there he asked
leaders of prominent ultranationalist groups Genyosha (Toyama Mitsuru) Kokuryukai(Uchida Ryohei) for their protection. Contemplating a comeback, Sun concluded thatwithout ample resources, he would not be able to contend militarily with the Beiyang
Army, then holding the reins of the Beijing government. To obtain aid in the form ofmoney and arms from the Japanese government, Sun’s group was obligated to offer theJapanese government many concessions.
Sun Yatsen held secret negotiations with Koike Chozo, director of the Political Affairs
Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, on behalf of Foreign Minister Kato Takaaki on
March 14, 1914.
Sun Yatsen’s party proposed a list of 11 concessions, including expanded Japaneseprivileges in connection with Manchuria and the Manchuria Railway and succession toprivileges in the Shandong Peninsula (including Qingdao), recently recovered from
Germany.
Sun and Chen Qimei signed that secret document and affixed their seals to it. The
Japanese signatories were Inuzuka Shintaro, director of the Manchuria Railway, andYamada Junzaburo, the railroad’s representative in Shanghai.
The secret document was signed and sealed on February 5, 1915 in Sun Yatsen’shiding place at the back of Toyama Mitsuru’s house. Others present were Chen Qimei,
Wang Tongyi (commander in chief of the Revolutionary Party’s navy) and Yamada
Junzaburo. The pact was discussed and signed. It is likely that the document was
penned by Admiral Akiyama Saneyuki, renowned for his service during the
Russo-Japanese War and an ardent advocate of the third revolution.
To this day, Guomindang government officials in Taiwan stubbornly deny theexistence of any such pact between Sun Yatsen and Japan. They insist that theJapanese invented it, and that they used Sun Yat-sen as a pawn in their plans to invade
China.
But according to the recollections of Yamanaka Minetaro, Yamanaka introduced Sun
Yatsen to Lt.-Gen. Uehara Yusaku, with whom Sun met in secret at the residence ofWang Tongyi in 1914. At that meeting Sun offered special privileges in Manchuria toJapan in exchange for military aid in the form of Japanese reserve officers and troops,

90and enough weapons to equip three divisions.xxiii
The Japanese government weighed the pros and cons of supporting the government inBeijing and the revolutionary forces in Guangzhou. Ultimately, it decided against Sun’soffer, since he was not yet in power. Instead, the Japanese amended the conditions
stated by Sun Yatsen and addressed the Twenty-One Demands to President Yuan
Shikai.
American journalist’s biting criticism of Sun Yatsen
American journalist, George Bronson Rea, who maintained contact with Sun Yatsen
until the latter’s death, once served as Sun’s advisor. Rea wrote about Sun Yatsen, whoconstantly made empty promises on revolution-related privileges, in his book entitled

The Case for Manchoukuo as follows.
Dr. Sun Yat-sen at Nanking tried desperately to raise a foreign loan that would have
Enabled him to hold out against Yuan Shih-kai. Realizing that he could expect nodirect assistance to his government, he sought by indirect methods to obtain funds.
All the important public utilities and commercial undertakings in Central and South
China were willing to give their properties as security for loans whose proceeds could
be employed to tide Sun Yat-sen and the Republic over this crisis. The Kiangsu andChekiang Railway Companies, the China Merchants Steam Navigation Company,
operating the largest mercantile fleet in the country and the Hanyang Iron & SteelWorks, with its iron mines at Tayeh and coal fields at Pinghsiang, offered theirproperties as security for such loans.

When the State Department turned it down, the Chinese tried to raise the money inEurope. Failing there, they went to Japan and obtained Yen 25,000,000 on the
security of the Han-Yeh-Ping properties. The contract and terms were perhaps themost favorable ever recorded in Chinese commercial loan transactions.xxiv

Sun Yatsen attempted to sell Chinese privileges, which were not yet his to sell,piecemeal. Ultimately, he sold concessions that had been rejected by European
countries and the United States to Japan.
Rea describes Sun’s character as follows: “Somewhat of a dreamer, highly
impractical in administration, with little executive ability and a strong leaning towards
socialism, Sun Yat-sen was above everything else, all that an honest man and a patriot
should be, yet quite incapable of mastering the overwhelming task of unifying
China.”xxv

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4. The Mukden Incident cannot be fully explained by “conspiracy theory” alone
Look at historical fact, not historical perceptions
Any discussion of the establishment of Manzhouguo is sure to include mention ofincidents such as the one in which Zhang Zuolin was killed in a train explosion in 1928,
or the Liutiaohu Incident in 1931. An accurate understanding of Manzhouguo certainly
requires knowledge of the events that culminated in the Mukden Incident and of theincident itself.
At the same time, it is equally important to learn about the Wanbaoshan Incident andthe murder of Captain Nakamura. There is little historical significance in viewing theestablishment of Manzhouguo as a Japanese Guandong Army conspiracy and declaring
Manzhouguo illegitimate.
As we stated previously, the historical background of Manzhouguo involves both
Japanese interests as a nation and the Zhang family (Zuolin and Xueliang), who hadgreat influence over Manchuria at that time. The direct cause of the Mukden Incident
was the fact the Zhangs went too far in their methods of controlling Manchuria andtheir oppression of the Japanese (including Korean Japanese), against which theJapanese Army retaliated. The establishment of Manzhouguo was an ideal born out ofsuch historical circumstances and the desperate hopes of everyone concerned, including
the Manchurian people.
Behind the Mukden Incident are conflicting objectives like Japan’s desire to protect
its special privileges, and the desire of the Manchurian warlords and the Guomindang
government to take away those privileges. There was one more factor that should not beignored, i.e., ethnic strife between the Chinese and the Koreans, as illustrated by the
Wanbaoshan Incident.
Wanbaoshan Incident: Oppressed Koreans strike back
The Wanbaoshan Incident broke out in July 1931 at Wanbaoshan in the suburbs ofChangchun (Xingjing). It was triggered by a clash between farmers when the irrigation
canal built by Korean farmers for their rice fields was destroyed by Chinese farmers,
and developed into a full-scale confrontation between Han and Korean farmers.
In almost all the accounts of modern history written after World War II, theWanbaoshan Incident is described inaccurately. In the first place, it is depicted as ananti-Chinese incident caused by Koreans instigated by the Japanese government(typical of the historical perception of Koreans as fools). Moreover, the Japanese areaccused of having contrived to exacerbate the antipathy between the Chinese and92

Koreans (alienation, according to the prevailing historical perception). Judging fromthese accounts, one cannot help wondering whether historians are so incompetent theycannot understand history except when presented in the context of conspiracies likeagitation and alienation.
Over the centuries the Chinese had driven the Koreans out of their home in the
Liaodong peninsula in Manchuria to the Korean Peninsula, and turned their country
into a tributary state. They had also been abducting Koreans since ancient times.
Koreans engaged in farming in Manchuria were oppressed by Chinese government
officials, discriminated against as outcastes, deprived of their land, and expelled from
Manchuria.
Cases where Koreans retaliated against the Chinese, as in the Wanbaoshan Incident,
were natural outbursts of emotions that had long been brewing through historicalconflicts between the two peoples. Such confrontations occurred not because Japaneseimperialism hindered friendship between the Chinese and the Koreans, capitalized on
their mutual antipathy, and thus contrived conflicts. History is not so simple as to be
driven by human conspiracies alone.
The Chinese continue to disparage the Korean people, even to this day, although theJapanese are not informed about this phenomenon. For example, during the Cultural
Revolution, there were many cases involving Koreans in Jilin province who fled to
North Korea to escape attacks from Red Guard soldiers. Historical fact cannot be
rescinded.
Japan tries to protect the Koreans
Korean farmers were engaged mainly in the cultivation of rice paddies, while Han
farmers in Manchuria, most of them from North China, cultivated field crops because
they did not know how to grow rice. Moreover, the literacy rate of Han farmers was
extremely low, while that of Korean farmers was estimated at around 50%, even in the
1920s.
By the 19th century, Korean farmers were living and growing rice in every part ofeast Manchuria. They were oppressed by Chinese government officials in a multitude ofways. Some of them were bans against tenant farming contracts, residence restrictions,prohibitions against the opening of schools, closing down of schools, illegal arrests,
forced naturalization and breaches of the Jiandao Agreement. The oppression worsened
as time passed.
After Japan annexed Korea in 1910, the Japanese often clashed with the Chinese inattempts by the Japanese to protect the Koreans, who were now Japanese citizens. The

93

Japanese government could not help but take firm action against Manchurian officials
to safeguard its people’s lives. Beginning in 1928, there were more than 100 skirmishes
between the Koreans and Chinese over three years. The biggest among them was the
Wanbaoshan Incident.
As soon as the news of conflict between Chinese and Koreans in Manchuria reached
the Korean peninsula, angry Koreans in Seoul, Pyongyang, Inchon and Sinuiju
launched a massive attack on Chinese residents. In Pyongyang alone, 94 Chinese were
killed and 118 wounded; 40 police officers were also injured.
However, Han farmers regarded their Korean counterparts as deadly foes andobstinately attempted to get rid of them. Manchurian warlord Zhang Zuolin wasnotorious for his hatred of Koreans. He openly made remarks like “Let not one Korean
enter Manchuria” and “Since Koreans are evil-minded, not one of them shall tread on
Manchurian soil.” When there was a revenue deficit, land reclaimed by Koreans was thefirst to be confiscated. Koreans were robbed of their land and then expelled.
Discrimination against and oppression of Koreans were pervasive in Manchuria.
Despite protests from the Japanese government in Guandong province, Manchurian
farmers and Chinese government officials continued to oppress Korean farmers.
Since Korean peoples were Japanese nationals after Japan’s annexation of Korea, theproblem of the oppression of Koreans became a major issue involving the Japanese
government, the Guandong Army and Zhang Zuolin’s government. By killing Zhang, theGuandong Army was also protecting the 400,000-600,000 Koreans in Manchuria.
Chinese witch hunts of Koreans
Japanese imperialism, now censured by North and South Koreans, once provided
Koreans in Manchuria with funds and enabled them to buy land owned by the Chinese.
However, Chinese and Korean scholars alike now claim that Koreans were pawns of theJapanese used to help Japan invade Manchuria.
However, this matter deserves more consideration. What does the claim that every
year tens of thousands of Koreans were exploited by Japanese imperialism, serving in
advance parties in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria indicate?
South Korean history textbooks will tell you how gallantly the Koreans fought
resisting the Japanese. However, isn’t the notion of so many Koreans working as
running dogs for Japanese imperialism a little bit embarrassing? Or does it perhaps
contradict current historical accounts?

94

Chinese oppression of Koreans in Manchuria is traditional and cultural. Many
scholars blame Japanese imperialism for the oppression. They certainly would do well
to study history more thoroughly.
The Chinese still hate the Koreans. They believe Koreans are shifty, cowardly andbullies of the weak. Traditionally, the Chinese fear Mongols and Manchus, who wereonce known as Tartars, but their sentiments toward Koreans are in diametric
opposition.
After Japan annexed Korea, Koreans became Japanese nationals. They acquired new,Japanese names in accordance with the decree regarding Korean family names, which
permitted Koreans to assume Japanese names. They then began to retaliate against the
Chinese, tormenting them as they had been tormented. The Chinese called theJapanese “Japanese devils,” and referred to the Koreans as “No. 2 devils.” Koreans werefeared even more than Japanese by the Chinese inhabitants of Manchuria.
Korean farmers were very industrious. Chinese settlers in Manchuria perceived themas threats. When Zhang Zuolin came into power, the oppression and repudiation of
Koreans in Manchuria took extremely violent forms. A Korean youth was murdered, hisbody crushed and disemboweled, then abandoned in the middle of a main street. In
some cases, the beheader of a Korean was given two pairs of shoes and 40 yuan uponpresenting the head to the authorities. In others, the capture of a Korean was rewarded
with 20 yuan. When Chinese captured the children of Korean farmers, they cut off theirfingers so they would never be able to farm.
In protest against the witch hunts perpetrated by the Chinese, a demonstration
marking the launching of a campaign to save fellow Koreans in Manchuria was staged
at Iri, Jeollabukdo province on December 6, 1927. On December 9, a movement to save
Koreans in Manchuria was founded in Seoul. It gave impetus to other movements
intended to halt Chinese oppression of Koreans; nationwide organizations were formed
and campaigns of protest spread to major cities like Osaka and Tokyo in Japan, andNanjing and Shanghai in China.
After the Wanbaoshan Incident, Chinese residents of Korea were frequently attacked
or killed by Koreans. Concluding that those incidents were products of conspiracies andagitation on the part of the Japanese government is tantamount to fabricating history.
It is impossible to analyze those events without knowledge of the history behind theconflicts between the Chinese and the Koreans.
Murder case of Captain Nakamura induced by “Expel and repudiate the Japanese”
campaigns

95

Another immediate cause of the Mukden Incident was the murder of Captain
Nakamura Shintaro in 1931. An expedition party led by Captain Nakamura was on its
way to a location east of the Greater Khingan Range to perform a military geologicalsurvey. On June 27, the party was captured by Guan Yuheng, deputy chief of the 3rd
Division of Khingan farmer-soldiers and killed.
The incident was made public by the Japanese in August. Envoy Shigemitsu Mamoru,
then stationed in Nanjing, issued a strong protest to the Foreign Affairs Department of
the government of the Republic of China. The response from department chief Wang
Zhengting was that the incident had been fabricated by the Japanese Army. Since the
Wanbaoshan Incident had also occurred at about that time, Japanese public opinion
became increasingly anti-Chinese. In early September, the ROC government admitted
that the incident had actually taken place, for the first time, and arrested andcourt-martialed Guan.
This incident was typical of the chain reaction whereby the ROC government’s
anti-Japanese campaign forced the Japanese Army to take military action against the
Chinese, which in turn further augmented the tension between the two countries.
It might as well be argued that the greatest factor lying in the background of the
Mukden Incident was the campaign to expel and repudiate the Japanese conducted by
the ROC government. The anti-Japanese slant on education thoroughly distorted
historical fact. The idea behind it was to eliminate the Japanese presence while keeping
Chinese failures and wrongdoings secret, blaming the Great Powers for
oppression-induced disasters, and instilling xenophobic, Sinocentric ideas in Chinese
minds. That propensity has remained basically unchanged to this day.
The ROC’s anti-Japanese curriculum included subjects such as the Chinese language,
history, civics, sound practical judgement and singing. The headquarters of theanti-Japanese movement was the People’s Foreign Relations Association established in
1929. The Association’s branches numbered more than 40 in 1931.
The ROC government had a political agenda: immediate reacquisition of Japaneseconcessions (the Manchuria Railway, Lushun and Dalian) and nullification of the
Sino-Japanese Treaty concluded in May 1915. Therefore, as a national policy, theanti-Japanese campaign gained further momentum.
Outnumbered Guandong Army defeats Zhang Xueliang’s troops
The Mukden Incident was triggered by a military clash at Liutiaohu in the suburbs ofFengtian, in September 1931. The Guandong Army expeditiously expelled Zhang
Xueliang’s army and occupied all of Manchuria.

96At the time of the Mukden Incident, the Guandong Army was not huge. The
Sino-Japanese Treaty of 1905 stipulated that only 15 soldiers per kilometer would
guard the Manchuria Railway. Accordingly, the length of the Manchuria Railway trunkline between Lushun and Changchun being 764.4 kilometers, the Japanese werepermitted to deploy a total of 14,419 troops, including commanding officers.
During the Mukden Incident, approximately 300,000-450,000 troops from Zhang
Xueliang’s army were instantly defeated and driven out of Manchuria by the Guandong
Army with only 15,000 soldiers. Of course, the Chinese fought back. Then why was
Zhang’s army, with perhaps 60 times more men than the Guandong Army, defeated?
Zhang’s troops were boasting about their modern military equipment and fighter
planes, purchased using more than 80% of the annual Manchurian budget. The answer
is that the best and strongest of them were fast asleep when the Guandong Army
attacked with its 30-centimeter cannons. Surprised by the resonant sound of thecannons, Zhang’s men scattered. Modern Chinese history refers to this battle as an
instance of Chiang Kaishek’s philosophy of non-resistance. One can only laugh at theabsurdity of this blatant distortion of history.
Zhang Xueliang’s army was intent on recapturing Japanese interests for China; it
was so caught up in the anti-Japanese movement that it totally underestimated the
Guandong Army. Never in his wildest dreams did he imagine that the Guandong Armywould strike back. Zhang’s soldiers had been taught to hate Japan, but their fighting
ability was no better than that of a band of marauders. Zhang’s army was in such sadshape that its officers, fearing mutiny or misuse of arms, ordered that all weapons be
kept in storage at night. It was no wonder that they lost the battle.
After the bulk of Zhang’s army fled, the balance of power in the region became clear.
Warlords in various parts of Manchuria extricated themselves from Zhang’s influenceand declared independence. Thus, in a natural way, the stage was set for theestablishment of Manzhouguo.
5. Manchu-Mongol independence and harmonious coexistence among five ethnic groups
Establishment of Manzhouguo not part of Ishihara Kanji’s original plan
The ROC, which supplanted the Qing at the turn of the 20th century, never exercised
its sovereignty in Manchuria. Nor did the ROC ever have the opportunity to intervenein the Manchurian problem.
After the Boxer Rebellion, Manchuria was under Russian influence. The outcome of
the Russo-Japanese War was the north-south division of Manchuria by the Russians

97and the Japanese. Even after the ROC was founded, Manchuria was ruled by Russian,
Japan and Manchurian warlords. Manchuria and China were completely different
spheres.
Reflecting this historical background is Prof. Yano Jinichi’s claim that Manchuria
was not, traditionally, Chinese territory and his defense of special Japanese privilegesin Manchuria and Mongolia.
Ishihara Kanji, staff officer of the Guandong Army at that time, investigated thepossibility of obtaining sovereignty over Manchuria, and concluded that solving theManchu-Mongol problem was key to Japan’s survival. He also argued that Japanesepossession of the region would solve that problem, an idea that had tremendous impact
on the Japanese people. Ishihara did not, however, conceive of establishing ofManzhouguo. Some say the mastermind of that plan was Kanai Shoji, deputy chairmanof the Manchurian Youth Federation and senior advisor to the Guandong Army.
In Genzai oyobi shorai ni okeru Nippon no kokubo (Japan’s national defense today
and tomorrow), Ishihara states, “It is essential to acquire Manchuria and Mongolia, andto institute governor-generalships there similar to those in Korea and Taiwan. By doing
so, we may find a new way to both revitalize Japan and consolidate a strategic plan.” At
the time there was a need to revitalize a stagnant economy and to combat
overpopulation and a food shortage.
Moreover, in Kantogun Manmo ryoyu keikaku (Plan for the acquisition of Manchuria
and Mongolia by the Guandong Army), Ishihara argues that “the only way for Japan tosurvive, given the current domestic unrest, is the resolution of the Manchuria-Mongolia
problem. That resolution lies in the acquisition of Manchuria and Mongolia, which canbe accomplished admirably by the Imperial Japanese Army.”
Ishihara had been stationed in Manchuria, where he served the Guandong Army as
chief of staff for strategy, since October 1928, after Zhang Zuolin was killed in a train
explosion. At the time Chinese nationalism was at its height, and public sentiment wasvehemently opposed to special Japanese privileges in Manchuria and Mongolia. And
back in Japan, there were many activists who, believing that it was a matter of life anddeath for Japan, called for the resolution of the Manchu-Mongol problem.
The Japanese believed that the price of their special privileges in Manchuria andMongolia had been huge: 200,000 precious lives and two billion yen during the
Russo-Japanese War and the subsequent advance toward China. They also felt that it
was their responsibility to protect those hard-won privileges. Such a historicalperception was quite common in those imperialistic days. The plan to acquire
Manchuria and Mongolia was strongly supported by the leaders of the Guandong Army.

98Modern historical accounts of Manchuria generally conclude that the Guandong Armyran rampant in the reckless and violent execution of Ishihara’s plan. In actuality,
however, the Manchu-Mongol policy formulated by Tanaka Giichi’s cabinet collapsed
due to the attempt to kill Zhang Zuolin in a train explosion. The perpetrators were agroup led by Colonel Komoto Daisaku, senior staff officer of the Guandong Army.
Komoto was replaced by Colonel Itagaki Seishiro, who arrived in Manchuria in May
1929.
Resolving the Manchuria-Mongolia question once and for all
In his plan for the acquisition of Manchurian and Mongolia, Ishihara states, “If Japan
resolves the Manchuria-Mongolia question by acquiring and developing that region,
Japan will be able to weather global economic recession, and also to stanch theanti-Japanese movement in China proper.” Natural resources in Manchuria andMongolia would have allowed imperial Japan to become self-sufficient. Conversely,
without Manchuria and Mongolia, Japan would be hard put to find a way to survive.
Ishihara was contemplating military occupation as a means of resolving theManchuria-Mongolia question once and for all. That required taking risks, perhaps
even the determination to eventually wage war with the United States. On the other
hand, Ishihara believed that the USSR was so preoccupied with post-revolution
economic reconstruction to meddle in Japan’s resolution of the Manchuria-Mongolia
question.
However, the United States continued to insist on equal opportunities and an
open-door policy in China. Americans objected to the special Japanese privileges inManchuria and Mongolia, and supported Jiang Kai-shek’s goal of unifying China. This
is why Ishihara believed that war between Japan and the U.S. was inevitable. He
believed that the final struggle for the integration of the Western and Eastern
civilizations was drawing closer by the minute.
A confrontation between the Western and Eastern civilizations was already being
advocated by Okakura Tenshin, Naito Konan, Mitsukawa Kametaro and Okawa
Shumei.
For Ishihara, a military historian and a Buddhist of the Nichiren sect, it was quite
natural to think that the clash between the Western and Eastern civilizations would
culminate in a final war between Japan and the U.S. After the war, the civilizations of
the world would unite, and all living beings under heaven would embrace the wondrous
Dharma, in accordance with Buddhist belief.

99Ishihara also maintained that the possession of Manchuria and Mongolia was not
only necessary to Japan, but also would be most welcome to many Chinese. Japan
should accomplish this task in the cause of justice.
In war-ridden China, the creation of a paradise free of wars, a place of refuge, waswhat most people longed for. The fact is that every year a million refugees were crossing
the Great Wall to Manchuria.
Postwar historians, whether Japanese, Chinese or Korean, have repeatedly criticizedJapanese imperialism. But if equipped with a very basic perception of Chinese history,
they would realize that acquisition of Manchuria was a just cause.
Ishihara had advocated revolution in China since his school days. However, theXinhai Revolution resulted in nothing but strife among warlords. Ishihara ardently
believed that in order to bring true happiness and peace to the Chinese people, a heroshould emerge to oust professional soldiers and professional politicians. Otherwise, theonly choice would be to entrust national security to foreign powers. About happiness for
the Chinese, he felt that the Japanese had been entrusted with the mission of
overthrowing the military bureaucrats, the enemies of 30 million Manchurians.
Historically, the happiest times the Chinese experienced were under foreign(Manchu) rule. In reality, however, decent social order was maintained only inconcessions inhabited by foreigners. This is the truth about the modern Chinese history,
regardless of how reluctant the Chinese are to admit it.
Evolution of the concept of peaceful coexistence among ethnic groups and independence
for Manchuria and Mongolia
In January 1932, prior to the establishment of Manzhouguo, Lt.-Col. Ishihara wrote:
Since the last days of the Qing dynasty there have been frequent domestic conflicts in
China. I have come to doubt the political capability of the Chinese people, andthought it impossible for the Chinese to build a modern nation on their own.
Consequently, I advocated the Japanese occupation of Manchuria and Mongolia, as
the sole solution of the Manchuria-Mongolia question, since it would ensure Japan’ssurvival and bring happiness to the Chinese. However, by the end of 1931, theMukden Incident had taught me that Manchurian and Mongolian independence,with the diverse ethnic groups living in peaceful harmony, would be preferable. Oneof the major reasons for my change of heart was my discovery of politically competent
Chinese. Furthermore, during the Mukden Incident, I observed influential
Manchurians readily and actively cooperating with the Japanese Army. They were100

striving ardently to overthrow the warlords and, above all, exercised remarkable
political acumenxxvi.

Ishihara once thought that Manchuria and Mongolia were not originally Han
territory, and that the Chinese lacked the ability to govern. He realized that if theJapanese population continued to increase, there would certainly be food shortages.
Under those circumstances, it was quite reasonable for Ishihara to attempt to seize
opportunities on the Chinese continent to exploit privileges in Manchuria and Mongolia,
which had been obtained at huge cost. But his ideas changed as time passed.
China has a difficult time establishing its sovereignty because it is always in the
midst of civil warfare. If Japan is responsible for maintaining security in China, andthe various ethnic peoples can coexist and prosper together, development in theregion is sure to succeed. Japan’s objectives are loftier than national interest. When
Manchuria and Mongolia have been acquired, Japan will establish agovernor-generalship. The Japanese will be in charge of military affairs andlarge-scale enterprises. The Chinese will engage in commerce and agriculture, theKoreans in rice cultivation, and the Mongols in pasturage; each people can exercise
its traditional activities to advantage. Consequently, the purpose of Japaneseacquisition of Manchuria and Mongolia is to overthrow the northeastern warlords,
the enemy of all 30 million residents of Manchuria. Moreover, its objectives should be
the happiness and prosperity of each and every ethnic group. The present inhabitantsof Manchuria are ethnically closer to the Yamato people (the Japanese) than to theHan.xxvii

Both Ishihara’s historical perception of Manchuria and his concept of a new
Manchu-Mongol nation speak to the true nature of history. It was a magnificent idea for
the future of East Asia, and there was no other path for Manchuria to take.
In peacetime, the Guandong Army, stationed along the Manchuria Railway track fora stretch of 1,000 kilometers south of Changchun, had only 15,000 troops with equally
meager equipment at its disposal. Yet neither Zhang Xueliang’s Dongbei Army norother forces deployed mainly in Fengtian (but also in Changchun, Yingkou andFenghuangchen) ever succeeded in defeating the Guandong Army. Under ordinary
circumstances, even the most competent commander with the most effective strategy
could not have routed Zhang’s army with its 300,000 to 400,000 men.
Following Zhang Zuolin’s death, Zhang Xueliang inherited control of the Dongbei
Army and was watching intently for a chance to drive the Guandong Army out of
Manchuria and deprive the Japanese of their privileges in Manchuria and Mongolia.
But together, Ishihara Kanji, staff officer of the Guandong Army renowned for his

101wisdom, and Itagaki Seishiro, a resilient man of action and certainly Ishihara’s equal,
had taken charge of the Guandong Army. Zhang Xueliang’s hands were tied.

C. F. Remer, Foreign Investments in China (Tokyo: East Asian Economic Researchxxii

Bureau, 1934).

Ozaki Hokki, Yume imada narazu: hyoden Yamanaka Minetaro (Dream yet to bexxiii

realized: A critical biography of Yamanaka Minetaro) (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1983), pp.
167-178).
xxiv

Rea, op. cit., pp. 75-76.

xxv

Ibid., p. 102.

xxvi

Manshukoku shi hensan iinkai (Committee for the Compilation of the History ofManzhouguo), Manshukoku shi: soron (Overview of the history of Manzhouguo) (Tokyo:
Manmo doho koenkai, 1970), p. 116.
xxvii

Takemori Kazuo, Mantetsu kobo shi (The rise and fall of the Manchuria Railway)(Tokyo: Akita Shoten, 1970), p. 88.

102

Chapter Five: A Harmonious Multi-ethnic State Is Bornin a Land Devastated by Civil Wars
1. Ideas and ideals of Manzhouguo
A nation established under Confucian ideas and modern ideals
The establishment of Manzhouguo was proclaimed on March 1, 1932. The founding
principles were 1) peaceful governance of the people in accordance with the will of
Heaven, 2) virtuous rule, 3) cooperation among diverse ethnic groups and 4) an
open-door policy. Since the first two principles were based on Confucian ideas, Datong
was designated as the era name, after another Confucian ideal meaning “great
harmony.”
Why did Manzhouguo make the Confucian principles of peaceful governance of thepeople following Heaven’s way and virtuous rule its national concepts? At the same time,
the ROC was boasting about being a people’s republic with a strong progressive tinge.
Did Manzhouguo’s leaders adopt Confucian principles because they were keenly awareof its being the successor state to the Qing dynasty?
Cooperation among ethnic groups and an open-door policy were not necessarily rooted
in Confucianism. Rather, they were principles that signified the forging of a new era.
They were adopted because Manzhouguo was a new, immigrant nation about to becomea multiethnic state.
The idea of cooperation among ethnic groups can be traced to the special situation in
Manchuria: there were Mongol tribes in the west, Tungus in the east, as well as othersmaller tribes. Additionally, Han and Korean immigrants had settled in Manchuria,
followed by Japanese immigrants, and Russians from the north. Manzhouguo aimed toachieve cooperation among all those groups.
The other idea, the open-door policy, was supposedly the result of American influence.
The Americans were slow to join in the partition of China in the late 19th century. At
that point, all they could do was demand equal privileges and an open-door policy. Of
course, Manzhouguo, aspiring to become a modern nation-state, had no intention ofisolating itself in accordance with East Asian political tradition. An open-door policy
was indispensable to emergence from isolation.
The ROC had not yet acquired complete statehood, although 20 years had alreadyelapsed since the republic was established as a result of the Xinhai Revolution (1911-12).
Warlords ran rampant and civil wars grew worse and worse, while the powers in thenorth and south were busy playing at forming governments. Moreover, from one

103political party rose two governments, which battled each other incessantly. Multiple
governments remained the status quo. Anyone aware of those disorderly andcomplicated conditions in China would understand how natural it was for the majorityof the people to support the establishment of a new nation, dreaming of the creation of autopian state in the land of Manchuria.
The principle of virtuous rule vs. the Three Principles of the People and Marxism
At that time, a principle for unifying China already existed in the form of the “Three
Principles of the People” (ethnic independence, government by the people, and social
welfare) espoused by the Guomindang government in Guangzhou, South China, fortheir northward military campaign. The fact that even Manchurian warlord Zhang
Xueliang embraced this principle, raising the Guomindang flag with its white sun in ablue sky, indicates that it had become mainstream in China.
The Three Principles of the People had a formidable rival: Marxism/Leninism, which
had become very popular. Besides being a major revolutionary force, it presented a hugethreat to East Asia. (In those days, the world trend was shifting slightly toward
parliamentary democracy.)
The guiding principle of Manzhouguo was virtuous rule. This was the principle used
to legitimize the Chinese empire before nationalism became the major current in theworld. It was also the principle of the Chinese world. There was probably no otherchoice but virtuous rule to counter the Three Principles of the People advocated by the
Guomindang, and the socialism to which the communists aspired after the revolution.
At first, Manzhouguo’s founding principle was the creation of a utopian state rooted in
Confucianism. Then, as the international situation changed, it shifted to kan nagara of
Shintoism, meaning the “divine way,” then to “a united Manchuria and Japan” andfinally, to the “Greater East Asian Coprosperity Sphere,” the ideology of the
Confucianism-based emperor system.
Thus the principles on which the development of Manzhouguo and the unification of
its people were based were in constant flux. However, we must remember that the
inhabitants of Manzhouguo enjoyed a remarkably stable lifestyle, especially comparedwith the war-ridden ROC.
Manchuria had been a totally chaotic society, being as it was a constant target of
exploitation, plunder. It was also the arena of conflicts instigated by warlords, local
marauders and mounted bandits. The creation of a utopian state was a dream shared by
all immigrants in Manchuria, one in which warlords would be expelled, marauders andbandits subdued, and the people freed. But before Manzhouguo was established, that104

dream remained unfulfilled.
It was quite natural the Manchurians of that time to try to avoid the confusion they
believed would result if Manchuria were to be controlled by the ROC government, as
China was.
To inform the public and promote the guiding principles of the establishment ofManzhouguo, a society called Kyowakai (Concordia Society) was organized in July 1932.
The Society’s parent organization was the Republican Party, a political party organizedin April 1932, and working toward the establishment of a new nation. Among theSociety’s leaders were Yamaguchi Juji and Ozawa Kaisaku of the Manchurian YouthFederation.
The honorary president of the Society, which aimed to create a utopian state andpromote cooperation among Manchuria’s ethnic groups, was Puyi; the commander of the
Guandong Army was honorary advisor. Membership was approximately 300,000 in 1934.
It grew to 800,000 in 1937, one million in 1938, 2.8 million in 1941, 3.2 million in 1942,
and finally to 4.3 million in 1944 (one tenth of the total population of Manzhouguo).
Subduing bandits and expelling warlords
Until the late 19th century, Manchuria was a forbidden land where no one waswelcome except for Tungus and Mongols. The Han inhabitants in Manchuria weremainly exiled prisoners, refugees engaged in illegal farming, logging, mining or
poaching, and bandits.
All inhabitants of Manchuria, except for the natives, were related to or descended
from marauding hordes or mounted bandits. Often desperate, poverty-stricken farmers
joined groups of mounted bandits and attacked other farmers in the vicinity. There weremany kinds of bandits: former government officials, soldier bandits, and even scholar
bandits. Manchurian society was not different from its Chinese counterpart: a living
hell rife with rampaging bandits and warlords.
When Manzhouguo was established, there were an estimated 0.36 to 3 million
bandits in Manchuria. According to Manshukoku shi: kakuron (Details of the history ofManzhouguo), in addition to the professional mounted bandits who roamed over all of
Manchuria, the following bandits were secretly active.
1) Part-time bandits (farmers who were good citizens at times and bandits at others)2) Religious bandits (bandit groups organized by secret religious societies like
Dadaohui (Large Sword Society) and Hongqianghui (Red Spear Society)3) Political bandits (after the Mukden Incident, ex-soldiers in the former Dongbei
Army, local guard corps and private groups who attempted coups and created105disturbances
4) Communist bandits (guerrillas engaged in communist activities and attempting toorganize political and local bandits)xxviii
There were also Korean and Mongol bandits. Basically, there were two types ofbandits in Manchuria: local and political. However, in accounts of modern Chinese
history, there is no distinction made between them: all bandits are lumped together
as anti-Japanese guerrillas. Whatever one calls them, the residents of Manchuria
suffered terribly because of the bandits.
Political bandits can be classified as communist or anti-Manchu and anti-Japanesebandits. Communist bandits were working toward world revolution and the end ofprivate land ownership. The anti-Manchu and anti-Japanese bandits were former
Dongbei Army soldiers who, together with the local bandits, attempted to regain
their lost influence and fought for their respective causes.
Most of the mounted bandits and marauding hordes in Manchuria roamed mainlyin the mountains and forests, or along the remote national, provincial and prefecturalborders, where it was almost impossible for troops to reach them. During the summer,
when the corn and reeds grew tall and thick, the bandits would approach villages
near the railroad or cities, and launch frequent attacks at night under the cover ofovergrown vegetation. In fiscal 1933 alone, 27 attacks on cities and 72 raids on trains
were reported. By fiscal 1933, the number of mounted bandits had declined
drastically to about 52,000 (except in the province of Rehe). That figure indicates thatthe military campaign to subdue them had almost ended, but the number of bandits
was still considerably high.
2. Why the difference between Manzhouguo and the Yungui Plateau?
Make a simple comparison between the two
Soon enough, Manchuria ceased to be monopolized by mounted bandits andmarauding hordes. A huge influx of refugees from China began arriving there. After the
Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), the number of Chinese immigrants into Manchuria
surpassed a million per year.
The Han were foreigners in Manchuria. If the Russo-Japanese War had not beenfought, what would have become of Manchuria? It is most likely that Manchuria today
would be filled with Russian immigrants, just like present-day Siberia. Manchuria
under Japanese influence received millions of immigrants from China, but the Russians
would never have allowed Chinese to settle there.

106

I would recommend comparing immigration into Manchuria with immigration into
the Yungui Plateau (Yunnan and Guizhou province and part of Guangxi province). The
Yungui Plateau experienced a similar, coeval wave of Chinese immigration. The
relationship between Manchuria and the Yungui Plateau is closely similar to thatbetween Taiwan and Hainan Island. Another study likely to produce interesting results
would compare Manchuria with the current Tibet problem.
Chinese advances into (or invasions of) Guangxi province and the Yungui Plateau
date back to the 18th century. During the Ming dynasty in the 17th century, there werefew Han inhabitants in the region. The percentage of Han immigrants into Guizhou
province during the Ming era is estimated at less than 10% of the entire population.
Even in Guangxi province, the Han accounted for only 20% of the population.
It was after the gaitu guiliu policy (involving replacing hereditary native leaders with
Han officials) was fully implemented in the early 18th century that Han people moved
to the Yungui Plateau in great numbers. The policy was adopted during the Yuan, Mingand Qing dynasties in an attempt to subjugate the various ethnic peoples in thesouthwestern region. Consequently, in Guangxi province between the late 19th andearly 20th centuries, the Han came to account for 60% of the population of the province.
The Han immigrants and local minorities coexisted, but in fact lived separate lives.
For instance, the Miao lived in the mountains, the Buyi near water, and the Hakka(Han) people in towns.
When the European Great Powers began to advance eastward and colonize Asian
territory, Chinese began a very active advance toward South China. The land belonging
to minorities was usurped by the Han, who then became landlords, reducing the former
land owners to tenant farmer status.
The upshot was unceasing ethnic conflicts and anti-Han rebellions demanding thatthe Han return the land they had stolen. There were frequent Miao rebellions during
the 18th century, desperate anticolonial struggles against the Chinese empire.
At around the time when the First Opium War was fought (1840-42), ethnic
minorities often revolted. In 1820, a Buyi rebellion broke out in western Guizhou
province, followed in 1832 by a Yao rebellion along the borders of Hunan, Guandong andGuangxi provinces. The Yao also revolted in 1836 and 1847 in southern Hunan province,
as did the Miao in 1855 in southeastern Guizhou province. All of the uprisings wereanti-colonial struggles against Han rule, struggles that had the same structural
attributes as today’s Tibet and Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous Region questions.
Victory in the Russo-Japanese War enabled Japan to drive the Russians out of
Manchuria and keep them from advancing further southward. Then, in a totally107

desolate land, Japan constructed a railroad and developed modern industries. At first,
only about 10,000 Guandong Army troops were stationed in Guangdong province, butthey were effective in preventing local warlords from exploiting the region. And soon,
more than a million Chinese refugees were pouring into that region every year.
When the Siberian Railroad was completed, prior to the Russo-Japanese War, thepopulation of Manchuria was not known with any certainty, but was estimated at about
one or two million. However, by the outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution, it was 18 million,
and it reached 30 million when the Mukden Incident occurred. Now there are more than
130 million people living in Manchuria, more than the total population of Japan. We
must remember that it was the Japanese who built the modern infrastructure thatfacilitated such remarkable development.
Though the Yungui Plateau has abundant natural resources, the Chinese have yet tobuild a basic infrastructure there. On the contrary, pristine nature was ruined, and therich soil rendered barren by the hordes of Chinese refugees who poured into the region.
At present, society there remains at a primitive level, in stark contrast to Manchuria.
Why the great difference between Taiwan and Hainan Island?
I would like to refer those who believe that Manzhouguo was a Japanese colony to therespective histories of Taiwan and Hainan — two diametrically different islands.
The area of Taiwan is 35,873 square kilometers, while that of Hainan is 35,730 square
kilometers. The islands are situated to the southeast and the south of China,
respectively. Both are islands of about the same size as Kyushu, Japan. As recently as
100 years ago, both Taiwan and Hainan had extremely poor agricultural societies.
However, in 1999 Taiwan’s per capita GNP exceeded $16,000, and is now about $24,000.
China’s per capita GNP is less than $1,000, about 1/20 of Taiwan’s. Furthermore,
Hainan province is one of the poorest regions in China, with GNP about half theChinese average.
Geographical and environmental conditions were the same in Taiwan and Hainan 100
years ago. What factors determined the huge difference between the two today?
When asking questions like “What constitutes colonial rule?” or “What is the natureof Japanese civilization?” Taiwan and Hainan provide us with interesting clues to theanswers. Similarly, those two islands hold the key to an understanding of the“Manzhouguo” question.
A comparison of Taiwan and Hainan tells us that conditions in Hainan (history,geography, natural environment, etc.) were far more favorable than Taiwan.
For example, Hainan has 1,500 kilometers of coastline and over 60 ports. It is near

108

Guangzhou, which is the largest port in South China and has been a busy gateway formore than 1,000 years, since Arab and Persian traders began to use it in the Tangdynasty. Even before the days of great voyages dawned, Hainan was perfectly situatedfor maritime expeditions and development.
Hainan is closer to China than Taiwan. Besides being blessed with thehighest-quality iron ore in all of China, the island has over 30 types of subterranean
resources like coal, oil, aluminum, manganese, tin, gold, uranium, rock crystal andgemstones. In the waters that surround it are oil and natural gas mines; the island
itself is covered with rain forests. It is China’s “treasure island” both in name andreality.
However, Hainan today is the least-developed, poorest region of all the administrative
districts in China.
Looting the Japanese legacy and Nature’s bounty in the name of liberation
For 2,000 years, Hainan had been under Chinese influence, but after the Treaties of
Tianjin concluded between China and France in 1858, following the Arrow Incident, itcame under French influence. Not until Japanese “militarists” invaded the island in1941 did Hainan begin to develop rapidly.
In 1950, after Japan was defeated in World War II, the PLA (People’s LiberationArmy), not yet equipped with a navy, approached Hainan on board 300 junks and rafts.
Having landed, the soldiers joined forces with the islanders and expelled 100,000
Guomindang Army troops in only two weeks. The PRC refers to this as the “liberation of
Hainan.”As soon as the island was returned to China, officials began plundering the modern
industrial facilities and equipment there, as well as strategic supplies that theJapanese had left behind. As a result, Hainan reverted to its previous backward state.
After Hainan was “liberated”, the legacy of modern industry disappeared, and natural
resources became the next target of the plunderers. Virgin forests covering 860,000
hectares in 1956 were reduced to a mere 240,000 hectares by 1978, and the area they
covered from 27.7% to 7.05%. Now Hainan’s forests are smaller than those in the
People’s Republic of Mongolia, a desert country.
As the natural environment deteriorated, agriculture faltered and water resources
became scarce. Floods became more devastating, and the desert area expanded further
toward the coasts. Underground resources were sold for a pittance by the PLA.
Agricultural and industrial output per capita are 50% of the national average. Even
today, the living standards of 80% of the people of Hainan are primitive; they have no109

electricity.
China’s modernization attempts sure to failI find it intriguing that the post-colonial social development of a region under colonial
rule differs greatly from that of another region that was not colonized. Why does thishappen? Of course, there is no single answer. The Chinese have applied modernizationaccording to the philosophy whereby both Chinese traditional culture and Western
technology are embraced. The two are in conflict, which explains why policy after
modernization policy has failed. Western medical practices were adopted, but they
proved to be ineffective when the Chinese failed to sterilize hypodermic needles andkeep medical records.
But one cannot manage a colony in that way. Not only politics, but also every aspect of
economic, social and cultural activity must be conducted in accordance with a modern
value system. Nothing is achieved unless the building of the social infrastructure,investment, organization, control and management all go hand in hand.

3. So many blueprints for a new nation
Japanese grand design for Manzhouguo
Many Japanese were thinking of modeling the new state, Manzhouguo, after theUnited States. Among them was Dr. Yano Jin’ichi. In Manshukoku rekishi (The historyof Manzhouguo), he writes:
Canada and several midwestern U.S. states were once desolate and undeveloped
regions. But members of the Anglo-Saxon race turned them into world industrial
centers, as well as hubs of Western capitalist civilization in only 100 years. These
achievements brought home to me the difference between Westerners and Asians.
Manchuria and Mongolia were under the influence of Asians for several thousand
years, but remain desolate and undeveloped, left to the mercy of local marauders andmounted bandits. But now, by establishing Manzhouguo in Manchuria and Mongolia,
we are about to realize East Asian government based on the principle of virtuous rule.
In doing so, we will adopt the admirable aspects of Western culture and learn from its
failings.xxix

After the Mukden Incident, the Japanese discussed many ideas relating to theestablishment of a new state in Manchuria. For instance, Col. Doihara Kenji, a staff
officer of the Guangdong Army, advocated cooperation among the five ethnic groups,

110with the Japanese taking the lead. Maj.-Gen. Tatekawa Yoshitsugu of Staff
Headquarters proposed establishing a pro-Japanese government with Emperor
Xuantong (Puyi) as its head.
Manchurian Youth Federation members Nakanishi Toshinori (manager of theArchives Department, Head Office, Manchiria Railway) and Shoha Kurakichi(Manchiria Railway employee) proposed a free state called “Northeast” (to be renamed“Manchuria-Mongolia”). Tachibana Shiraki, editor-in-chief of the Manshu hyoron(Manchurian review) championed an ethnic federal state. Takagi Shonosuke,
secretary-general of the Citizens’ Diplomatic Association, suggested an independent
Manchu-Mongol republic, meaning a constitutional republic under which Japanese,
Manchurians, Han and Mongols would be united. Other ideas, such as a decentralized
autonomous state and an autonomous, democratic state of farming villages werebroached.
After the Mukden Incident, there was a major change in the views of Japanese
residents of Manchuria. Until then, the mainstream attitude was patriotism devoted toprotecting the Japanese concessions in Manchuria at all costs. But the trend shifted
toward the advocacy of the establishment of a new independent state and of
Manchu-Mongol independence.
Chinese concepts for a new state
It was not only the Japanese who worked hard to establish Manzhouguo.
Manchurians, Mongolians and Chinese were also enthusiastic participants in the granddesign. Among them were hardliners who were determined to preserve the ancientregime, as well as those who were committed to reforming old, bad habits and building a
new state.
An agreement concerning the administrative framework of the new state was reached,
designating Puyi as its head. But opinions were divided about the name of the new state,
the era name, the national flag, the type of state and form of government. Zhang
Yanqing, Xie Kaishek and Shao Lin advocated imperial statehood, while Zhang Jinghui,
Zang Shiyi and Zhao Zhongren supported a constitutional republic.
Dazhongguo (Greater China), Datongguo (Unified State), Manmeng Ziyouguo(Manchu-Mongol Free State) and Manzhouguo were the leading candidates for thename of the new state. There were arguments on behalf of an imperial state, as well as
those for a monarchy and a republic. Both monarchic and democratic governments were
proposed. As far as the head of state was concerned, an emperor, president and othertypes of leaders were mentioned.

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Even before the Mukden Incident, Zhang Gu, a political commentator in Tianjin,presented the following argument: Japan, China and Russia are struggling for control
over Manchuria and Mongolia. Therefore, there is only one way to achieve a lasting
peace in East Asia, i.e., is to protect the region from the three competing nations andestablish a peaceful unified state populated by six East Asian peoples.
At the same time, in Manchuria, there were groups that advocated baojing anmin(providing good lives for the people and protecting them from outside invasions), as did
Wang Yongjiang and Yu Chonghan. Others wished to see the Qing dynasty revived.
Mongol youth groups wanted independence for the Mongols. All of these elementsplotted to overthrow warlord Zhang Xueliang.
In that Wang Yongjiang, Yu Chonghan and their followers were strong advocates ofManchu autonomy and independence, they had something in common with those who
favored a federation of provinces in China.
Demands for federalism had already been made at the time of the Xinhai Revolution.
The post-revolutionary commander-in-chief of the Army, Li Yuanhong (who later
became president), once polled each of the provinces about the establishment of a
Chinese federal republic. Other ROC political leaders with federalist leanings were
Zhang Binglin, Chen Duxiu and Li Dalie.
In his youth, Mao Zedong was also an autonomist. He advocated “people’s autonomy
for every province” in 1920, arguing that the 22 provinces, three special districts andtwo tributaries (27 regions altogether) should become 27 independent states.xxx Mao
also spoke in favor of the establishment of a Hunan Republic.
After the Xinhai Revolution, there were as many as 600 political groups in the ROC,
including political parties; a wide range of opinions was voiced.
Chinese history at that time was one of unending conflicts. However, the Japanese do
not know what those conflicts were really like. Books written by China experts often
mislead readers into believing that there was strife between the Beijing government
and the Nanjing-Guangzhou government in the south, and that north-versus-south civil
wars were fought between the Beiyang Army and the Southern Revolutionary Army.
In actuality, in addition to the north-south conflict, there was a third axis ofcontention involving advocates of a federation of provinces. In particular, central Chinaalong the Yangzi River, and the southwestern region were the stronghold of thefederalists. The war between Hunan and Hubei provinces in 1922 was waged between
federalists and the Beijing government. Moreover, the Guangxi-Guangdong War wasfought between autonomists and Sun Yatsen’s Guangzhou government. China in thosedays had reverted to the Sanguo (Three Kingdoms) era of the third century.

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As if in response to the triangular conflict in China proper, Manchuria became thescene of ceaseless struggles between those who advocated baojing anmin and thewarlords, which continued until the establishment of Manzhouguo.
4. Baojin anmin: the idea of Manchurian autonomy
Influence of the advocates of a federation of provinces in Manchuria
Here I would like to examine once again the relationship between the advocates of afederation of provinces, who have been underestimated in Japan, and the idea of theestablishment of Manzhouguo, together with the state’s actual development.
As I mentioned in the previous section, post-Xinhai Revolution China, there was anautonomist group that advocated a federation of provinces, apart from the struggle
between the Beiyang Army and the Southern Revolutionary Army. The federalists
wielded a great deal of influence in central and southwestern China. However, in the
1920s, they were obligated to keep a low profile because of civil wars among warlords
that lasted for ten years, and the Guomindang’s forced unification of China.
The federalists were a covert influence in Manchuria. As mentioned previously, after
defeat in the first Zhili-Fengtian War, Zhang Zuolin declared the three eastern
provinces independent, based on demands made by advocates of a federation ofprovinces.
For example, immediately after the Mukden Incident, the October 16, 1932 issue ofManshu nippo (Manchurian daily) reported: “The authorities of the four northeastern
provinces have decided to build a great independent state, with Emperor Xuantong(Puyi) as president and Yuan Jinkai as prime minister.” Imperial Manzhouguo with
Puyi as emperor actually came into existence later on. This historical material tells us
how influential the supporters of a federation of provinces were in Manchuria.
After Zhang Xueliang’s army was expelled, leaders in various parts of Manchuria
united and began to work vigorously toward the establishment of a new state. Finally, aplan to establish Manzhouguo was devised that would unite the provinces of Jilin,
Heilongjiang and Liaoning.
The greatest contributor to the establishment of Manzhouguo was Yu Chonghan, who
was highly praised by Ishihara Kanji. Like Yuan Jinkai and Wang Yongjiang, Yu was an
advocate of baojing anmin, and argued for Manchurian autonomy and independence
from war-ridden China proper. Once a Chinese instructor at the Tokyo College of
Foreign Languages, Yu joined the Japanese Army during the Russo-Japanese War andwas given an imperial award (Order of the Rising Sun, Silver Rays). He had close ties

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with Japan. Yu also served as advisor to Zhang Zuolin and was well acquainted with
Honjo Shigeru, commander of the Guandong Army.
Yu Chonghan was a central figure among the advocates of baojing anmin, theoverthrow of the warlords, an end to cruel taxation, the cultivation of popular strength,
and reform of the police system. He even opposed the training of soldiers, believing inabolishing military service and entrusting national security to Japan.
He may be called the originator of the unarmed neutrality concept, which was
adopted by the Japanese Socialist Party and many other progressive intellectuals after
the World War II. Yu proposed establishing a neutral, independent state like
Switzerland by separating Manchuria from China proper and instituting virtuous rule
there.
Baojing anmin and the abolition of defense forces
The ideal for the establishment of Manzhouguo was, in a sense, the Monroe Doctrine.
It involved implementing the baojing anmin philosophy and applying the Monroe
Doctrine in the four northeastern provinces. Using terms popular in those days, it was
the “creation of a utopian state”, where there exists neither conflict nor discrimination,
where everyone is equal and content.
Yu Chonghan was not the only leader who broached the idea of doing away with
defense forces. Yuan Jinkai also stated that he would nurture an efficient police force tomaintain security, but not an army.
The idea of not having an army was not heresy at that time. The first prime ministerof Manzhouguo, Zheng Xiaoxu, wanted the fighting to stop. Therefore, he favoredabolishing troops and advocated the principle of virtuous rule. Such was the idealism
embraced by the Manchurians and born out of the disasters resulting from the arms
race among the Great Powers and civil war in China. This idealism never took root in
Manchuria. But in post-war Japan it became the basis for single-state pacifismxxxi andnominal pacifism. The post-war Japanese entrust their national defense to the UnitedStates, just as Manzhouguo used to entrust its to the Guandong Army. How many
Japanese are aware of these facts today?
The preparations for the establishment of Manzhouguo were made with the concept ofa virtuously ruled federation, proposed by Tachibana Shiraki, as one of the founding
ideals. Manzhouguo would be more than a paradise for its inhabitants, and more than alifeline for imperial Japan; it would not be an arena for fascism. Its founders wished tocreate a virtuously ruled Asian society whose inhabitants would coexist harmoniously
and enjoy coprosperity. That was in line with the “East Asian federation” concept114

espoused by Ishihara and the Manzhouguo Cooperation Society.
Wang Yongjiang, Yuan Jinkai and Yu Chonghan were called the troika of theautonomists. They were determined to achieve Manchurian autonomy and baojing
anmin. The latter stemmed from the earnest desire of the Manchurian people to prevent
Chinese civil war from spreading to Manchuria.
Manchurian warlords also enthusiastic about statehood
Manchurian warlords like Zhang Zuolin used more than 80% of the wealth they had
unduly acquired in Manchuria for military expenses, and fought each other unceasingly
in their quest for power. The funds procured through the ruthless taxation of theManchurian people were all used exhausted during those civil wars.
After he lost the first Zhili-Fengtian War, Zhang Zuolin went back to Manchuria
temporarily and proclaimed the three eastern provinces independent in May 1922. He
was proposed as general commander in charge of security for the three eastern
provinces by the congress of the Federation of the Three Eastern Provinces, which
hoped he could achieve baojing anmin. However, Zhang had not yet abandoned his
ambition to unite China. Therefore, Guo Songling opposed Zhang Zuolin in 1925. Citing
all the mistakes made by Zhang during his rule of Manchuria, Guo made an attempt to
win independence for Manchuria, his cause being baojing anmin.
Modern appraisals of those competing figures vary. Among them, Ma Zhanshan iscelebrated in Chinese school textbooks as a hero in Manchurian history who wasanti-Manchu and anti-Japanese. He was even glorified in a Japanese song of his time.
Also, his biography, written in Japanese, was published.
General Ma was influential in the region as commander in chief of the Heilongjiang
Army. When Manzhouguo was established, Ma was persuaded by Zhang Jinghui to join
the council for the establishment of Manzhouguo. According to an anecdote, Ma
produced 100,000 yen from his pocket at a council conference, and instructed that it beused for preparations: “Without money, it is impossible to build a state.”
However, he left the Manzhouguo government later and became a leader of theanti-Manchu and anti-Japanese movements. As Ma was illiterate, he would draw apicture of a horse on a document instead of signing it. According to another anecdote, he
was ridiculed by Xi Qia (an influential Manchurian bannerman) for this “signature”;
humiliated, Ma left Manzhouguo.
5. Grassroots support for establishment of Manzhouguo

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Influential Manchurian leaders declare independence
Zhang Xueliang’s military government has been criticized by historians because itdevastated the vast, fertile land of Manchuria and used the proceeds for the training ofprivate soldiers and other military expenses; mercilessly squeezed the last drop of bloodfrom the poor people (70-80% percent of this plunder went into the military budget); andbankrupted 30% of the region’s merchants and drove them out of their homes. The
Manchurians were overjoyed and grateful beyond description when the Japanese
Guandong Army overthrew Zhang’s government. This is another undeniable historicalfact.
In the city of Fengtian, Zhang Xinbai, Zhang Zuolin’s legal advisor, was recommended
for the position of mayor. Then the commercial representatives of Fengtian province, in
cooperation with the autonomists, organized the Fengtian Autonomy Preservation
Committee with Yuan Jinkai as chairman and Yu Chonghan as vice-chairman. Secedingfrom China proper, and aspiring to establish a new government that reflected public
opinion, the members reorganized the committee as the Liaoning Province Regional
Maintenance Committee, which was to become the province’s administrative body.
Their ultimate goal was to win independence for Liaoning province. Their guiding
principles were ethnic self-determination, respect for public concerns, and theestablishment of an independent republic.
Jilin province also declared independence. As Zhang Zuoxiang, head of Jilin province,
was in Tianjin at the time of the Mukden Incident, Xi Qia (then deputy commander of
the Northeastern Frontier Army and government chief of staff) expelled Cheng Yun andFeng Zhanghai (followers of Zhang Xueliang who were intent on reviving the Qing
dynasty) from Changchun, and declared independence.
Simultaneous to Jilin province’s declaration of independence, the Liaoning Province
Regional Maintenance Committee issued its own declaration of independence. The
announcement was made in cooperation with the Interim Liaoning MaintenanceCommittee Representing Four Peoples, which was organized by a group favoring a
military government, one of whose members was Kan Zhaoxi, former
commander-in-chief of Rehe province.
Liaoning’s declaration of independence states: “We northeastern people have been
under the vicious influence of a military government for more than a dozen years. Now
we have a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to defeat this malicious power (…) we were left
with no other choice but to establish a new independent government. For this purpose,
this committee has resolved to reject the ridiculous statement made by the governmentof Jinzhou, which has ties to Zhang Xueliang, the evil Chiang Kaishek and others.”

116Col. Itagaki Seishiro persuaded Zhang Jinghui, mayor of Harbin (a special easternzone), to organize a security preservation committee and declare independence on
January 1, 1932.
Yu Zhishan, the security commissioner of the eastern region, was regarded asfavoring Manchu-Mongol independence. He observed the situation in the aftermath of
the Mukden Incident, and eventually sided with the baojing anmin advocates.
After Zhang Xueliang and others were expelled from Manchuria by the Japanese
Guandong Army, a grassroots movement seeking the establishment of a new state swept
the region.
In February 1932, the All-Manchuria Joint Convention for the Establishment of a
New State was held in the Autonomy Guidance Division auditorium in Fengtian Castle.
In addition to representatives from each province, about 700 people attended. Also
represented were Mongolia, various organizations, the Manchu-Mongol YouthFederation, Koreans from Jilin province and the Special Eastern Zone. Together, theattendees resolved to establish a Manchurian state.
The four Manchurian leaders, Zhang Jinghui, Xi Qia, Ma Zhanshan and Zang Shiyi
met at the residence of Fengtian mayor Zhang Zinbai to discuss the establishment of
the new state. They decided on the founding principles and general framework, but
could not reach an agreement about the type of state or government, despite heateddiscussions that continued all through the night. However, they did set up theNortheastern Administrative Committee, electing Zhang Jinghui chairman andappointing six committee members; Zang Shiyi, Xi Qia, Ma Zhanshan, Tang Yulin, Qi
Wang and Ling Sheng.
The government of Manzhouguo announced the establishment of Manzhouguo in
March 1932. The declaration reads, “In response to the hopes and desires of 30 million
people, we hereby secede from the Republic of China and establish Manzhouguo.”
Puyi earnestly desires imperial throne
There were many opinions about the type of state to establish when Manzhouguo wasin its infancy.
The Chinese call a government born of strong influence or support from foreign
powers “illegitimate” or a “puppet state.” Since the Later Jin dynasty, one of the Five
Dynasties, was established with the help of the Liao (Mongol Khitans), the Chineserefer to it as a “puppet dynasty.” When East Pakistan became independent from West
Pakistan, Premier Zhou Enlai disparaged the new nation, describing it as the Indian
version of “Manchuria.” But even he could not resist the trend of the time for long. As

117soon as Bangladesh won its independence, Zhou was among the first to recognize it.
The ROC government also characterized the PRC government as “illegitimate,” and“Russia’s puppet.” On the Korean peninsula, where Chinese influence has been
particularly strong, the Republic of Korea regards North Korea as a Russian puppet
state, while North Korea labels South Korea as an “American colony.”Those examples clearly indicate that Chinese perceptions of order and history do notreflect reality, and that the Chinese stubbornly regard governments they do not wish torecognize as illegitimate or puppet states. Anyone who believes claims made by Chinese
scholars (who are beholden to the authorities) denying Manzhouguo’s legitimacy will
never be able to look squarely at historical facts pertaining to Manzhouguo
When the Japanese Guandong Army attempted to restore Puyi to the throne, it ran
into opposition even within the Japanese government. For instance, Matsuoka Yosuke,
former president of the Manchuria Railway, Army Minister Minami Jiro and Foreign
Minister Shidehara Kijuro strongly opposed the plan. They believed that Puyi’s
assumption of the throne would be misinterpreted as an attempt to restore the Qing
dynasty.
Army Staff Officer Itagaki consulted with Puyi at Lushun on January 29, 1932 underorders from Commander Honjo Shigeru of the Guandong Army. At that time Puyi
insisted on restoration of the Qing dynasty, primarily for the following reasons:
1) Both Manchus and Mongols wanted an imperial regime.
2) When the last emperor (Xuantong) was ousted, Puyi had retained his royal title
under conditions favorable to the Qing imperial family. Therefore, he was stillemperor.
3) Since the cultural level of the Manchurian people is low, an imperial regime wasappropriate.
4) Puyi wished to form a cabinet, which would be supervised by a higher governmental
body directly under the authority of the emperor.
Puyi’s desire to restore the imperial regime was strongly supported not only by his old
subjects like Zheng Xiaoxu and Lu Zhenyu, but also by restorationist Xi Qia.
Manchurians support founding of Manzhouguo
At a Fengtian Regional Maintenance Committee meeting held on November 24,1931,
several decisions were made. Those present agreed to establish a federation of fourautonomous provinces (Fengtian, Jilin, Heilongjiang and Rehe), and to hold aconference attended by representatives of those provinces. At a conference (held on
December 15 at Fengtian Castle) attended by representatives of Fengtian, Zang Shiyi

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was proposed as provincial governor. Zang was former government head of the Liaoning(now Fengtian) province.
In Jilin province, on September 26, immediately after the Mukden Incident, Xi Qia,
deputy commander of the Northeastern Frontier Army, established a provincial
government and took the lead in declaring independence. In Heilongjiang, Ma
Zhanshan at first put forth some resistance, but when the overall situation became clear,
Ma became Heilongjiang provincial governor, with Zhang Jinghui’s support. Zhang
became director of the Special Eastern Zone. The two men conferred about building a
new state. Tang Yulin, governor of Rehe province, kept close watch over the activities of
Zhang Xueliang and the Guomindang government, as well as those of the Japanese
Guandong Army, maintaining relations with all three entities that were neither close
nor distant.
Here the greatest impetus to the establishment of Manzhouguo was provided by thefact that the Manchurians did not regard the Japanese Guandong Army as their enemy.
Since the Russo-Japanese War, the Japanese Army was strictly disciplined, unlike theRussians and the Manchurian warlords, and its men never looted or plundered. On thecontrary, after being victimized by the brutal rule of the warlords, the people welcomed
the Guandong Army as liberators.
Today, descriptions of Manzhouguo often end with the phrase “Guandong Army
conspiracy.” But however well equipped with state-of-the-art arms the Guandong Armymight have been, it could never have accomplished such remarkable feats without
popular support.
What modern Chinese historians refer to as anti-Japanese guerrillas are simply
soldier-bandits who ruthlessly robbed innocent people. They were hardly any different
from the ubiquitous local bandits, politician-bandits and scholar-bandits in Manchuria.
No matter how loudly the Chinese shout anti-Manchu and anti-Japanese slogans, theycannot transform bandits into an army battling for justice. Moreover, the Guomindang
and the Communist Party were behind the anti-Japanese campaigns. Behind them, inturn, were the United States and Great Britain, not to mention the Soviet Union andComintern. Under those circumstances, Japanese military force alone could not havesucceeded in establishing Manzhouguo.
What made Manzhouguo a reality was support from all quarters —local influential
figures, powerful mounted bandits and the people.
6. To call Manzhouguo a puppet state is to ignore history and reality119Is it irrational for a new, independent state to accept guidance?
It is often mentioned that the Japanese government and military officials provided“guidance from within” to the bureaucrats of Manzhouguo, manipulated their politics
and forced a national strategy on them. This may be the main reason why Manzhouguo
is called a puppet state so often.
Research by historian scholar Awaya Kentaro reveals that by 1940, as many as 420
Japanese high-ranking bureaucrats (senior civil servants) had resigned and thenbecome government officials of Manzhouguo. Eventually, 72 of their number returned totheir former positions in Japan.xxxii Therefore, Manzhouguo became known as the“training center for Japanese bureaucrats.”
It is true that Japan had tremendous influence in Manzhouguo. However, from aworld history perspective, that was not an unusual phenomenon, and the labeling ofManzhouguo as a “puppet state” is hardly appropriate. There are many ways in which
cooperation of and guidance from other countries are indispensable to a new nation atits birth and for a time afterwards.
After the Soviet Union was founded, communist parties in various nations of theworld (including the parties in Eastern Europe and the Chinese Communist Party) were
under the guidance of the Comintern. In Chiang Kaishek’s ROC government, the army
received guidance by the Comintern at first, and later from German and American
military advisors. After World War II, many burgeoning states received “guidance fromwithin” from America and their European mother states. This practice was certainly not
peculiar to Manchuria.
Guidance from within was necessary to build a modernized society. The Japanese
were correct in providing it.
Manzhouguo desired cooperation among its various ethnic groups, but all important
posts were occupied by the Japanese. This system may have provided ammunition for
the “puppet state” accusation. But it was practically impossible to assign positions inaccordance with the percentage of the population accounted for by each ethnic group.
The Japanese had far more experience in every aspect of modern society (personnel,
practical and financial matters) than the majority ethnic group, the Han. In fact, theJapanese had built a modern nation-state more than 60 years before Manzhouguo wasestablished. Japan was blessed with ample human resources and financial capital.
On the other hand, most of the Chinese residents were uneducated refugees who were
not capable of founding a nation. Moreover, China had a 5,000-year history of rapacious,
corrupt officials. If the Chinese were to be given control, politician-bandits would berunning rampant in no time, thus destroying the new state. In actuality, the ROC was120

deep in a quagmire of multiple governments and civil war, which proves my hypothesis.
The Manchurian people were united in their desire to prevent the wars in the ROC fromreaching Manchuria, if possible.
Is Dr. Yanaihara’s criticism justified?
Colonialism specialist Yanaihara Tadao argues that Japan had full control ofManzhouguo. His reasons: The government of Manzhouguo was administered by theJapanese, and most of the civil servants were Japanese. The Japanese Guandong Army
was responsible for national defense, supplemented by the Manzhouguo National Army.
Furthermore, Japanese Army officers joined the national army. Wasn’t Manzhouguo a
Manchu-Japanese coalition? All capital used to build industries came from Japan; theManchurian Telephone & Telegraph Co. was financed 100% by Japanese capital. The
government, military affairs and the economy were all in the hands of the Japanese.
If we think objectively, however, Manzhouguo was like a newborn baby. It had noexperience as a modern state. Manzhouguo was a new nation of immigrants fromdiverse ethnic groups that were to coexist harmoniously. It would be rather illogical for
the Japanese, with all their experience managing a modern nation-state, to withhold
guidance.
However competent some Chinese might be, one couldn’t expect them to be good
leaders. No one had demonstrated the ability to cope effectively with the problem of civil
war.
Militarily, it made good sense for the superior Guandong Army to protect the infantManzhouguo.
If the presence of the Guandong Army was proof of a Manchu-Japanese coalition orunion, how about post-war Japan? Japan concluded a security treaty with the UnitedStates, which provides for Japanese national security. Shouldn’t we conclude, then, thatJapan and the United States are a union?
When it was established, Manzhouguo could not obtain sufficient income from tax
revenue alone. To build an infrastructure, a vast amount of capital was required.
Therefore, Manzhouguo issued official bonds, nearly all of which Japan purchased.
Industrial development was made possible by Japanese investments. Should this becalled a Japanese invasion? Wasn’t the nurturing of industry in Manzhouguo Japan’s
greatest contribution to Manchuria?
The Japanese are to be commended for their investments for several reasons. First, atthat time the Chinese had only a small amount of commercial capital; there was very
little capital accumulation in all of China, and capital investment for building an

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infrastructure was virtually impossible.
Second, not only during the life of Manzhouguo, but also today, half a century later,
China still depends heavily on foreign capital and technology. Still one of the poorest
nations, China is being supported by ODA from Japan, loans from international
financial institutions, and assistance from the United Nations. The fact that Japan
monopolized industrial investment in Manzhouguo indicates that the Japanese laid thefoundation for modern industry and modern society in the new state. If we awakened tothe scarcity of accumulated capital in China in those days, we would offer praise to
Japan, not criticism.
7. The making of a state begins with educating the people
Why teach the Japanese language?
Most of the inhabitants of Manchuria were uneducated refugees from North China.
Private schools did exist in China, of course, in the form of xuetang (academies) andshufang (schools that taught reading and writing). But it was not until 1904, when the
Official Education Act was promulgated, that a school system designed to educate themasses was established.
After the Russo-Japanese War, in addition to schools for Japanese residents,
institutions schools for the Han were founded in Guandong province and on property
belonging to the Manchuria Railway. The 1920s, when Zhang Xueliang held sway over
Manchuria, saw the introduction of an educational system regulated by the ROC
government’s Bureau of Education in Nanjing. There education was based on the Three
Principles of the People.
In the early days, education in Manzhouguo was patterned after the school
curriculum used in the ROC. In July 1932, a Bureau of Education was established.
Independent of the civil government, the bureau conducted a survey on education invarious parts of Manchuria. The survey results convinced officials that the ROC systemshould not be used in Manzhouguo. As I will discuss later, a new school system and ateacher-training program were introduced.
The building of any new state begins with education. To nurture the people ofManzhouguo, it was necessary for them to acquire a common language, culture andknowledge, and to cultivate uniformity and a sense of nation among them.
In Manzhouguo’s infancy, the guiding principle of education was virtuous rule, which
was also the founding ideal. The purposes of education in accordance with the Three
Principles of the People were to instill nationalism and the concept of nationhood. In its

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place a decree was promulgated that required schools to teach sishu wujing (the Four
Books and Five Classics of Confucianism).
However, as the international situation changed, so did the governing principle ofManzhouguo, which became Manchurians and Japanese cooperation for mutual benefit.
Education followed suit. Changes were made, among them the combining of subjects
like ethics, language, history and geography into one discipline: Manchurian civilizationand culture. In addition to the history of Manzhouguo, Japanese history was taught.
Manzhouguo was a multilingual state. The Beijing dialect of Chinese, Mongolian andJapanese were designated as the official languages. Incidentally, there were 240,000
Japanese in Manchuria (less than 1% of the total population) when Manzhouguo wasestablished. Those who alleged that Manzhouguo was an illegitimate state were (andstill are) critical of the fact that Japanese was the first national language.
Perhaps this matter requires a bit more explanation. There was no such thing as the
Chinese language at that time. The Han constituted the absolute majority of the
population, but their language had not been unified. Chinese classics existed, but there
was no common Han language. Even today, dialects of the Chinese language differ fromplace to place, to the extent that in their spoken form, they are not mutually intelligible.
On the other hand, the Japanese language has a completely unified system. Since
Japanese was the most modern language in all of East Asia, there was no alternative
but to use it as a tool to modernize and unify education.
Manzhouguo was a composite state populated by multiple ethnic groups with diverse
languages, customs and history. Therefore, like other new nations (the United Statesand Australia, for instance), it had no national tradition. It was necessary for eachethnic group to abandon its ethnocentrism and work together with the others. To that
end, it was necessary to conduct the nation’s education in a language that had been
unified.
In traditional Chinese education, literary achievements were more highly valued
than business acumen. The new school system abandoned traditional Chinese
educational priorities, including the near-worship of the study of law. Instead, it
concentrated on practical education, offering complete curricula at each stage.
There were three stages: elementary and middle school (three levels), high school(including a high school for girls) and university. Also available were teacher training
and vocational education.
One of Manzhouguo’s objectives as a new state was the elimination of illiteracy. The
plan was to achieve a school attendance rate of 70% by fiscal 1950, but the nation
collapsed 13½ years after its establishment. Nonetheless, the school attendance rate at123

the end of 1936 (22%) had swelled to 45.5% by April 1, 1941. Compare this with theliteracy rate in China, which was then below 20%.
University established to nurture human resources for Manzhouguo
From the outset there was a plan to establish a university in Manzhouguo to facilitate
national growth. The first proposal involved founding an “Asian university” that could
contribute to the restoration of Asia, offered by Col. Ishihara Kanji of the Guandong
Army’s General Staff Office. Maj.-Gen. Itagaki Seishiro, chief staff officer of that army,
approved the proposal and ordered Capt. Tsuji Masanobu of the Staff Office toformulate a detailed plan.
Capt. Tsuji presented a draft to the Japanese Army Ministry, which appointed
scholars Hiraizumi Kiyoshi, Kakei Katsuhiko, Sakuda Soichi and Nishi Shinichiro to
the Steering Committee. Many opinions were presented, and many debates held overthe policies that would govern the foundation of the university. Discussions dragged on
until Maj.-Gen. Tojo Hideki, chief staff officer of the Guandong Army, was appointed
chairman of the Steering Committee after Maj.-Gen. Itagaki was transferred.
As a result, the argument that it was Japan’s responsibility to gather as many
students as possible from all over Asia and educate them at an Asian University began
to dominate the discussions. Committee members believed that priority should be given
to nurturing human resources for the building of a new state and decided, unofficially,
to name the institution National Foundation University.
In August 1937, legislation decreeing the establishment of National Foundation
University was enacted. Zhang Jinghui, premier of Manzhouguo, was appointed
president, and Dr. Sakuda Soichi vice-president.
The National Foundation University began accepting applications from students infiscal 1938. The ethnic distribution of the 150 students to be admitted was to be 75
Japanese (50%), 50 Manchus and 25 each Koreans, Mongolians and White Russians.
That fact that 10,000 Japanese students applied for the 75 available slots shows how
popular the new university had become.
The purposes of the National Foundation University were to nurture humanresources capable of building Manzhouguo and to enrich cultural life in the new nation.
These purposes went beyond the concept of other modern universities, which placed too
much emphasis on learning for learning’s sake. Japanese higher education had beenmodeled after modern university education in Western nations since the Meiji
Restoration. Therefore, the new university in Manzhouguo was quite different, andunique in this respect. It began with the common recognition that a national university

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should, in all ways, belong to the nation in which it was founded.
The university provided standard education for the first three of six years, andspecialized education for the second three. During those six years, students studied
politics, economics or literature and pedagogy. Regardless of their ethnic backgrounds,
all students lived in the same dormitory for six years and were given guidance about
studying and living together. Aiming for higher education the likes of which had neverseen before, the university endeavored to cultivate well-rounded adults. Its curriculum
accomplished that goal by teaching students the basics of ethnic harmony andcooperation through daily experiences, and helping them understand the founding
ideals of Manzhouguo.
8. Outrageous fabrication citing 420,000 forced immigrants
Why the rush of Chinese into a state under Japanese imperial control?
As I mentioned earlier, Manchuria was a forbidden land. Immigrants in the era before
the ban on entering Manchuria was lifted were mainly from China and Korea; they
made their livings by farming and mining illegally, and poaching. In today’s terminology,
they were “illegal aliens.” We can only estimate how many there were, except for
statistics obtained from occasional censuses.
According to a book by Tsukase Susumu entitled Chugoku kindai keizai shi kenkyu(History of the modern Chinese economy), the population was about 5 million in 1898.
By 1915, it had jumped to 20 million, and by 1930, to 30 million.xxxiii
Prior to the Mukden Incident (1932-33), the population was 30 million. By 1941, it
had increased to 43 million.xxxiv Although it is nearly impossible to obtain accurate
statistics, the influx of immigrants into Manchuria between 1927 and 1929 is estimatedat approximately one million per year.
For a time after the establishment of Manzhouguo, the number of immigrants was
restricted for security reasons, dropping temporarily (to 320,000 in 1937). As the needfor a labor force soon arose, recruitment of workers resumed in 1938, when the numberof immigrants increased sharply. The largest influx (1.3 million) was in 1940.
It is commonly believed that Manzhouguo was then controlled by “Japaneseimperialism,” and that its people were oppressed, massacred, persecuted and expelledby the Guandong Army. Nonetheless, each year more than one million Chinese flooded
in. What does this fact imply?
Human beings will move from a dangerous place to a safer one, just as water flows
downward. In that case, why did a million people rush into a living hell year after year?

125It is hardly convincing to conclude that Chinese traveled all the way to Manchuria toexperience colonial exploitation under Japanese imperialism. Could they have been
motivated by patriotism? Were they so eager to risk their lives for the anti-Japanesecause that they crossed the Great Wall to form a human wave against Japaneseimperialism? Or did the Japanese coerce Chinese to move to Manchuria at the rate of amillion per annum, as some die-hards who cling to the forced immigration theory would
have us believe?
Only haven on a continent rife with civil war
The Chinese harbor strong anti-bureaucratic perceptions and are extremely skepticalof their rulers. Also, they trust no one implicitly. They are indifferent to politicalmatters and show little interest in their country. All they want is to have enough to eat.
They do not wish to be burdened with national awareness.
Han farmers were the overwhelming majority in Manzhouguo; they regarded
Manchuria as a foreign land. Therefore, they did not think of themselves as citizens ofManzhouguo.
In 1939 Japanese miners earned 2.33 yen per month compared with their Korean andChinese counterparts (1.30 and 0.98 yen, respectively). These wages were not governedby any ethnic bias, but were determined after an evaluation of the workers’ capabilities.
After the Boxer Rebellion, Manchuria was occupied by Russia, which had sustainedhuge damage to its railroad and other facilities perpetrated by the Boxers. Four years
later, the Russo-Japanese War broke out and Russian influence was swept out of South
Manchuria. Japan made huge sacrifices to win that war. Consequently, the Japanese
became acutely aware of their identity; nationalism was flying high. It was natural forthem to think, “What were the Chinese doing during the Russo-Japanese War?” or “The
Chinese are indebted to the Japanese for their peaceful and prosperous lives inManchuria today. We Japanese have given our lives to rid Manchuria of Russian
influence. Since China is plagued with wars and famine, Manchuria is the only place
where Chinese can live and conduct business safely. All these benefits are the result ofJapanese sacrifices.” The Chinese were preoccupied with civil war; only Manchuria wasfree of war.
Accusations like manhunts and forced immigration distort history
Historians sometimes criticize the Japanese in connection with events in
Manzhouguo during the Sino-Japanese wars (1937-45). They say that refugees fromvarious parts of China were packed into freight cars or otherwise abducted and126

transported to Manchuria. There they were forced to do hard labor; they were provided
with very little sustenance, and were forbidden to eat rice. Chinese modern history
sources even state that 420,000 of the workers who poured into Manzhouguo in 1940
were “victims of forced immigration.” Is any of this true? Isn’t it time for China toreexamine its modern history?
First of all, if 420,000 out of 1.3 million immigrants in 1940 had been taken to
Manchuria against their will, what sort of people were the remaining 880,000? Why did
they choose to head for a place that Japanese imperialists had to resort to abduction to
populate?
As the Chinese mistrust everyone, it would have been difficult to talk them into goingto Manchuria. To persuade them, one would need to be fluent in the Beijing dialect, as
well as in several local dialects. It is very unlikely that any Japanese was that wellversed in the Chinese language then. Common sense tells us that even an expert
Japanese scholar of the Chinese language would not succeed in persuading a Chinese
into moving to Manchuria if abduction was his true intention.
It is only natural that refugees from a China plagued with wars and hunger would be
attracted to Manchurian society, which was safe and stable. Forced immigration was
not necessary.
Moreover, most of the Chinese refugees in Manchuria were from Hebei and Shandong
provinces. They grew grains like barley, corn and millet, not rice. Therefore, unlike theJapanese and Koreans, they rarely ate rice.
An immigration agreement was concluded between the Manzhouguo and North
China governments in 1941. A workers’ association in North China sent 0.91 million
Chinese to Manchuria in 1941, 1.06 million in 1942 and 0.78 million in 1943.
I must mention here the postwar Chinese practice of distorting history by describing
those immigrants as victims of manhunts or forced immigration. In actuality, as wasoften the case in China, bosses pocketed a percentage of coolies’ wages. The same wastrue of the refugees who poured into the special maritime economic zones after reformand liberalization. They were not exploited by the Japanese.

xxviiiManshukoku shi hensan iinkai (Committee for the Compilation of the History ofManzhouguo), Manshukoku shi: kakuron (Details of the history of Manzhouguo) (Tokyo:
Manmo doho koenkai, 1971), pp. 303-311.
xxix

Yano Jin’ichi, Manshukoku rekishi (History of Manzhouguo) (Tokyo: Meguro Shoten,

1271933), p. 308. This excerpt was broadcast on the last day of the National Convention
Commemorating the Establishment of Manzhouguo.
xxx

Wang Wuwei, Hunan zizhi yundong shi (History of the Hunan self government

movement) (Shanghai: Taidong Tushuju, 1920), p. ?.
xxxi

Term used to describe a nation that embraces pacifism in the hope that all the world’s

nations will follow suit.
xxxii

Imai, Seiichi, Taiheiyo senso shi 3: Nitchu senso II (History of the Pacific War, vol. 3:

Sino-Japanese War II (Tokyo, Aoki Shoten, 1979), p. ?.
xxxiii

Tsukase Susumu, Chugoku kindai keizai shi kenkyu (History of the modern Chinese

economy) (Tokyo: Toho Shoten, 1993), p. 30.
xxxiv

Manshu keizai sanko shiryo (Reference sources on the Manchurian economy) compiled

by Statistics Division, Administrative Agency, State Affairs Authority in 1943.

128

Chapter Six: But for the Manchuria Railway and Guandong
Army, Manchuria Would Have Remained Wasteland
1. Acquisition of Siberia, Manchuria and Mongolia Russia’s long-cherished desire
Reason for construction of Trans-Siberian Railroad
In the late 19th century, the world entered the age of long-distance railroads. Nations
competed to construct the longest, farthest-reaching railroad.
The first transcontinental railroad in the United States was completed in 1869. In
Russia, a plan to build the Trans-Siberian Railroad was drafted during the 1850s.
Surveying of constructions site began during the 1870s, and construction began in May
1891, four years prior to the Sino-Japanese War.
The Trans-Siberian Railroad was a colossal national project into which Russia poured
all of its energy. When the Great Powers held sway, railroad construction was promoted
for economic, but also political and military reasons. This was true of transcontinental
American and other railroads as well.
There were three major objectives behind the construction of the Trans-Siberian
Railroad:1) Support the Russian Navy in the Far East
2) Prevent Great Britain from advancing toward the Far East3) Establish a political alliance with Qing China
The axis of conflict among the Great Powers over the Far East at that time pitted
Russia against Great Britain. It explains the conclusion of the Anglo-Japanese Allianceprior to the Russo-Japanese War. Similarly, Russia was attempting to join forces with
Qing China to counter the Japanese threat.
Russia succeeded in defining the Amur (Heilongjiang) and Agrun rivers (upstream of
the Amur) as the border between Russia and China. Furthermore, in accordance with
the Aihun Treaty (1858), the region east of the Ussuri River was designated as a zone tobe jointly managed by the two nations. Through the Beijing Treaty (1860), Russia
acquired the region east of the Ussuri. In 1901, Russia completed the East China
Railroad, which extended from Manzhouli at the western end of Manchuria to Suifenhe(Pogranichnaya) in the eastern end; it reached Vladivostok by 1904. Now Paris and
Vladivostok were connected via the Trans-Siberian Railroad.
Emperor Nikolai II’s dream was to acquire Manchuria and expand Russian influence
to Manchuria, Mongolia and Xinjiang, and then farther southward beyond the Great
Wall of China. For that reason, the Russians took great interest in the management of129

their part of the region. As mentioned previously, Russia invested approximately 700
million rubles in projects involving the construction of railroads, cities and ports.
Russia leaves “invader” legacy in Manchuria
Harbin today enjoys the dubious honor of being China’s biggest crime haven. When
the Russians first built it, Harbin was so beautiful that it was called the “Paris of theEast.” Moreover, Dalian and Lushun, ports that served as bases for the southward
Russian advance, were modern cities of great economic and military importance.
Chinese books bearing titles like History of Russian Invasions of China and the likecontain criticism after criticism castigating Russia for its frequent invasions of Siberia
and Chinese territory over several centuries, beginning with the era of the grand dukesof Moscow. However, as mentioned earlier, the power of previous Chinese dynasties was
rarely felt beyond the Great Wall. Is it logical, then, for China to claim the Siberian
tundra as Chinese territory? Furthermore, Russia neither plundered nor exploited
Manchuria, but created many valuable assets there.
In November 1897, the Jiaozhou Bay Incident broke out, which involved the murderof a German missionary. Under the pretext of controlling the moves of the British
Eastern Fleet, Russia occupied Lushun. In March of the following year, Russia
successfully obtained 25-year lease rights in Lushun and Dalian from China. Afterattaining its long-cherished desire, i.e., a warm-water seaport, Russia began
constructing a new branch line of the East China Railroad from Harbin to Lushun and
Dalian across central Manchuria. This was only three years after the Tripartite
Intervention. In Japan, the East China Railroad’s southern branch line from
Changchun southward is called the “South Manchuria Railway.”
The realization that Japan had objectives in Manchuria annoyed the Russians. One of
the causes of the Russo-Japanese War was the need to prevent Japan from advancing
into Manchuria. The East China Railroad was completed remarkably quickly — only
three years after construction commenced — and operations began in October 1903. In
the course of its construction, the Boxer Rebellion broke out (1900). Consequently, 960
kilometers of railroad (out of a total length of 1,387 kilometers) was destroyed during
the revolt. Not counting these losses, Russia was forced to spend 100 million rubles tosuppress the Boxers.
Then came the Russo-Japanese War. At each decisive point of the war (the attack on
Lushun, the Battle of Mukden and the naval battle on the Sea of Japan), Japanemerged victorious.
In September 1905, at the American naval port of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, a130peace treaty was signed; U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt mediated. The
ambassadors plenipotentiary representing Japan and Russia were Foreign Minister
Komura Jutaro and Finance Minister Sergei Witte, respectively. Russia conceded its
privileges in South Manchuria to Japan. It also ceded South Sakhalin to Japan, whichobtained the railroad interests south of Changchun as well.
In December of the same year, Komura Jutaro concluded the Sino-Japanese Treaty inBeijing and obtained Chinese approval of the privileges won from Russia. In the
Sino-Japanese Treaty, Qing China granted Japan (1) the right to lease Guandong
province, (2) railroad privileges between Changshun and Lushun (including branchlines), and real property belonging to the railroad, (3) mining rights to coal mines
belonging to the railroad, (4) the right to reside and conduct business in cities in South
Manchuria, and ban on entry within 80 kilometers of the Japanese Army station posts
along the railroad on the part of the Qing Army.
2. Secret pact concluded between Japan and Russia to divide and control Manchuria
Russo-Japanese secret pact that divides Manchuria north and south
After the Russo-Japanese War, though Russia conceded its privileges in South
Manchuria to Japan, North Manchuria remained under Russian influence. Afterwards,
up until the Mukden Incident in 1931, for nearly a quarter century, the status quo of
Russia’s North Manchuria and Japan’s South Manchuria endured unchanged.
After the Russian Revolution, the Soviet government once declared that it would
renounce all concessions held in China. That was the declaration made by Foreign
Minister Karakhan in 1919, whereby all unfair treaties Czarist Russia had concluded
with China would be abolished.
Nevertheless, Russia did not abandon the East China Railroad between Manzhouli
and Pogranichnaya or Harbin and Changchun. Nor did it relinquish its mining andforestry rights along the railroad or its railroad business rights. Finally, in 1920, therailroad came under the joint management of the Chinese government and the
Russo-Asian Bank, and was privatized in 1924.
After the Russo-Japanese War, Japan and Czarist Russia held four conferences
regarding the division of the Korean peninsula, Manchuria and Mongolia, andconcluded an agreement.
The first conference was held in 1907 after the Russo-Japanese War. All present
confirmed that the Portsmouth Treaty would be respected and approved the
independence of Qing China and the preservation of its territory, as well as equal

131opportunities for commerce and industry in China among the Great Powers.
At the same time, a secret Russo-Japanese pact was signed. Russia agreed not tointerfere with Japanese plans for the Korean peninsula; Japan agreed not to interferewith Russia’s plans for Outer Mongolia. Both nations recognized Russian interests innorthern Manchuria and Japanese interests in southern Manchuria. The dividing line
was clearly defined to avoid future disputes.
The United States managed to insert itself into a project involving the constructionof the Huguang Railroad (from Sichuan to Hankou and Guangdong), becoming one of
the investors, along with the Chinese government, Great Britain, France and Germany.
Then, America proposed rendering the Manchuria Railway politically neutral, andplanned to construct the Jinai Railroad (between Jinzhou and Aihun). It would cover
1,200 kilometers upon completion. Since this enterprise went against Russian andJapanese interests, those two nations opposed it. France and Germany did not side with
the United States in light of opposition from Russia and Japan.
The Russian Revolution voids secret pact dividing Manchuria and Inner Mongolia
In 1910, under tense and urgent circumstances, Russia and Japan concluded a second
agreement in the hope of keeping the Americans out of Manchuria. The two nations
pledged they would honor the first agreement, and maintain the status quo in
Manchuria. The American neutrality proposal was rejected.
After the Xinhai Revolution, Russia and Japan concluded a third agreement, whereby
Inner Mongolia would be divided into an eastern part and a western part by themeridian at 116°27′E. Japan would control the eastern part and Russia the western
part. Signatories approved concessions in the respective regions and agreed to respectthem.
During World War I (1914 –18), Japan occupied Qingdao, a German leasehold on
Jiaozhou Bay, in accordance with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Japan also presented
the Twenty-One Demands to President Yuan Shikai in 1915.
Great Britain and the United States showed a great interest in this move on the partof Japan, and tried to forestall it. But Russia supported Japan in an attempt to promote
closer ties between the two nations. One year after the Twenty-One Demands were
issued, the fourth Russo-Japanese agreement was concluded.
This time the agreement covered all of China, including Manchuria. It stipulated that
if territorial or other concessions in the Far East were encroached upon, Russia andJapan would discuss what action to take. This was a mutual defense agreement. It is
likely that the agreement was concluded because both Russia and Japan believed the132United States might encroach upon their concessions.
Nonetheless, the secret agreements that Russia and Japan laboriously concluded
more than four times, dividing Manchuria north and south, and Inner Mongolia east
and west, were nullified by the Russian Revolution.
The area north of Changchun was under Russian influence, with Harbin as its center.
At that time, Harbin was the biggest stronghold of the Chinese Communist Party. In
1929, Zhang Xueliang attempted to suppress the Communist Party and gain control of
the East China Railroad by force to rid northern Manchuria of Russian influence. But inthe face of powerful Russian military campaigns, Zhang Xueliang’s ambition wasshattered.
At the time of the Mukden Incident, the Japanese Guandong Army attempted totransport forces north of Changchun, but was thwarted because the East China
Railroad was under Soviet control. In March 1935, after the establishment ofManzhouguo, Japan acquired the right to manage all of the East China Railroad lines.
Russia conceded these rights to Japan with the intention of unifying railroad
management.
3. Japanese Guandong Army: an independent combat group viewing the Soviet Union
as a potential enemy
Guandong Army originally a railroad guard unit
I would like to once again list Manchurian interests conceded to Japan by Russia
under the Treaty of Portsmouth.
1. Leased territory on the Liaodong peninsula, including Dalian and Lushun
2. East China Railroad (southern branch line) and other railroad interests involving
764.4 kilometers of track between Changchun and Lushun
Moreover, through the Beijing Treaty concluded with Qing China, Guandong province
at the south end of the Liaodong Peninsula and the East China Railroad (South
Manchuria Railway), which were both conceded by Russia, as well as the right to leaseproperty along the track belonging to the railroad were officially granted to Japan.
Thus, part of the Liaodong peninsula, which Japan was forced to abandon due to the
Tripartite Intervention after the Sino-Japanese War, was once again in Japanese hands.
The Portsmouth Treaty clearly states that the Japanese had the right to station 15
guards per kilometer to protect the railroad. Therefore, the maximum number of guards
permitted was 14,419, or two divisions. This right is reiterated in Article One of theensuing Sino-Japanese Treaty. The railroad guards were the origins of the Guandong133

Army.
The Guandong Army was an independent combat group, which viewed the Soviet
Union as its potential enemy. It was officially inaugurated in 1918 with the Siberian
campaign at the end of World War I.
The appellation “Guandong” comes from the guan of Shanhaiguan and dong (east),
and signifies a location east of Shanhaiguan (situated near the Great Wall). It wasapplied to the Guandong Army by the Japanese, who also named the area “Guandong
Province,” when they established the Governor-General’s Office there in September
1905. The Guandong Governor-General’s Office was under direct supervision of theEmperor. Army Gen. Oshima Yoshimasa was the first governor-general. In Septemberof the following year, the Governor-General’s Office was renamed the “Guandong
Governor’s Office.” The office reported to the Army minister and the chief of the General
Staff for military administration and operations, and to the foreign minister for politicalmatters.
Manchu-Japanese Allied Forces and Guandong Army’s guidance from within
For 19 years prior to the Mukden Incident, the Guandong Army consisted of one
division, independent guards, a heavy-artillery battalion and military police, all ofwhich were dispatched from Japan in rotation. Since the army was originally formed toprotect the areas along Manchuria Railway lines, it could not easily augment its forces.
However, as circumstances changed after the Mukden Incident, the army’s numbers
increased every year, reaching 80,000 in 1936 and 300,000 in 1941. Its commanders
were Tachibana Koichiro, Kawai Misao, Ono Minobu, Shirakawa Yoshinori, Muto
Nobuyoshi, Muraoka Chotaro, Hata Eitaro, Hishikari Takashi and Honjo Shigeru.
When Manzhouguo was established, a Manzhouguo Army was also formed. Its
members consisted of soldiers who had served former warlords and mounted bandits.
Besides its usual duties, the Guandong Army was put in charge of the Manzhouguo
Army. Consequently, the commander of the Guandong Army became, for all intents andpurposes, the commander in chief of the Manchu-Japanese Allied Forces.
At the time of the establishment of Manzhouguo, there may have been as many as
three million bandits in Manchuria. The Manchu-Japanese Allied Forces had to concern
itself not only with the nation’s defense but also with the major task of suppressing thebandits. The Manzhouguo Army belonged to the military administration division; its
first president was the famous Ma Zhanshan, a former mounted bandit.
When the Manzhouguo Army was first established, it numbered around 130,000
troops. During Operation Rehe, conducted in 1933 to expel Zhang Xueliang’s Army,134which had by then retreated to Rehe province, the national army was augmented to150,000. In 1934, the imperial regime was installed in Manzhouguo and Emperor Puyi
enthroned. The national army became the Independent Imperial Army, andsubsequently a conscription system was instituted. Incidentally, when Manzhouguo wasestablished, the Guandong Army defined its jurisdiction as extending as far south as
Rehe province. “Mongol,” as in the “solution of the Manchu-Mongol question,” referred
mainly to Rehe province.
In Manchuria, there was talk of a quadrumvirate. This implied that the government
had four heads: the commander of the Guandong Army, the consul, the secretary of the
Guandong Office and the president of the Manchuria Railway. However, after
Manzhouguo was founded, all authority and power was rested in the commander of the
Guandong Army. That is why the Guandong Army was said to provide “guidance fromwithin.”After the Mukden Incident, the command headquarters of the Guandong Army was
moved to Xinjiang (formerly Changchun, the city was renamed when Manzhouguo wasestablished). The commander, who also served as ambassador plenipotentiary andsecretary of the Guandong Office, became very powerful.
Following the founding of Manzhouguo, the Guandong Army not only defended the
new nation, but also helped in many ways to build Manzhouguo. However, as the
Sino-Japanese Incident in 1937 expanded to the Greater East Asian War, the strongest
20 divisions of the Guandong Army were transferred to the southern front. Immediately
before the end of the war, the army was attacked suddenly and overwhelmed by 1.74
million Russian troops.
4. Deadlock caused by rejecting a partnership proposal on Manchuria Railway
management
Railroad magnate Harriman proposes joint management of Manchuria Railway
Having wasted the middle of the 19th century on the Civil War, the United States
began expanding overseas in the early 20th century, with a view to catching thecoattails of imperialism. The primary American target in East Asia was Manchuria. The
Americans announced they would join in the Russo-Japanese struggle over Manchuria,
not with military force, but with financial strength. The first American to take action
was railroad magnate Edward Henry Harriman.
Harriman bought Japanese wartime bonds worth 10 million yen during the
Russo-Japanese War. Immediately after the conclusion of the Portsmouth Treaty, he135

visited Japan, having obtained an introduction through American Minister Griscom(who was stationed in Japan). There he proposed a partnership in the management of
the South Manchuria Railway, offering financial assistance of 100 million yen, an
extraordinary amount at the time.
Japan’s reserves had been totally depleted by the war. Though it had obtained theManchuria Railway from Russia, Japan lacked the financial wherewithal to operate therailroad. When world-famous railroad magnate Harriman, backed by the American
national strength, made his offer, Prime Minister Katsura Taro, South Manchuria
Railway (hereafter Manchuria Railway) executives and many others were very excited.
At that time, influential veteran politician Inoue Kaoru was also thinking about joint
Japanese-American management of the railroad. Shibusawa Eiichi was equallyinterested in the project. The only opponent to Harriman’s proposal in the Japanese
government was Minister of Posts Oura Kanetake, whose objection was instantly
silenced by harsh words of rebuke from Inoue. Amid the fever engulfing political andfinancial circles, the Katsura-Harriman Preliminary Memorandum was signed in 1905.
The Japanese political and financial circles, drawn in by the American open-door
policy, broached ideas like international management of the Manchuria Railway.
International cooperation became the new direction of Japanese diplomacy as
expectations of capital investment from Europe and the United States rose.
However, Foreign Minister Komura Jutaro who returned from the United States after
the conclusion of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty strongly opposed to the whole concept.
The Katsura-Harriman Preliminary Memorandum was cancelled by the transmission ofa single telegraph in what is called the Harriman Incident.
Rejection of partnership ruins comprehensive 100-year plan
The memorandum was rejected supposedly because there were already prospects ofprocuring the funds in the United States. Others believe the rejection stemmed from theAmerican failure in connection with the construction of the Yuehan Railroad. The
Americans had ventured into Qing China armed with watchwords like “open-door
policy” and “equal opportunity,” but they became a target of the Chinese people, whowished to recover interests enjoyed by foreigners. The United States no longer intended
to get involved in railroad management in Manchuria, and thought it inadvisable forHarriman to invest capital there. These intentions were conveyed to Japanese officials
and convinced them to turn down Harriman’s offer.
Moreover, the unwillingness in American political and financial circles to invest in
Manchuria can be partly explained by vehement anti-American sentiment welling up in

136

China, triggered by the enactment in 1902 of a law that permanently restricted thenumber of Chinese immigrants. The Americans had lost interest in joint operation of
the Manchuria Railway.
President Roosevelt did not want to openly take a stand against China. He believedthat in the absence of outdoing Japan in Manchuria, the United States should notinterfere with Japanese operations there. At the time, it made sense for the Americans
to leave Manchuria to the Japanese.
In actuality, however, the Americans did not need to abandon their ideas of advancing
into Manchuria. Even after the Harriman memorandum was nullified, Harriman again
negotiated with Qing China and devised a plan to construct a railroad between
Xinmindun and Fakumen, which he would then extend to Qiqihar and Aihun. But thisrailroad, which would run parallel to the Manchuria Railway, would violate the
Sino-Japanese agreements stating that China could not construct any railroad parallelto the Manchuria Railway. When both Japan and Russia protested to China, Harriman
withdrew his proposal.
Two years later, a provisional contract for a railroad line between Jinzhou and Aihun
was signed by Great Britain, the United States and Qing China. American Secretary ofState Knox also proposed managing all railroads in Manchuria jointly andinternationally. These attempts show that the Americans had by no means abandoned
their ambitions in Manchuria.
More than a few Japanese believe that the rejection of Harriman’s offer was one of the
distant causes of war between Japan and the United States. Whatever the case, it was
Japan’s first mistake in Manchuria. In fact, some suggest that a statesman with
foresight, with a comprehensive 100-year plan, would certainly have favored joint
Japanese-American operation of the Manchuria Railway.
If Japan and China were to go to war, Japan would also have to contend with
American and British backing of China. Moreover, Russia might take Japan by surprise(this is exactly what happened). On the other hand, if Japan had run the Manchuria
Railway jointly with the United States, China would have behaved differently. It is
possible that there would have been no Mukden Incident, and no war between theJapanese and the Americans.
.
5. Manchuria Railway and Manzhouguo Make Remarkable Advances in Logistics
Modernization made possible by Manchuria Railway’s unified management
South Manchuria Railway & Co., Ltd. was founded in 1906 with 200,000 yen in137

capital, an unprecedentedly colossal amount. The chairman of the founding committee
was Kodama Gentaro (chief of staff of the Manchurian Army and the fourth
governor-general of Taiwan). When Kodama died suddenly in July, he was succeeded byArmy Minister Terauchi Masatake. The company’s first president was Goto Shimpei,
previously director of the civil administration in Taiwan. During an inspection tour ofManchuria, Goto noticed that the railway was the very lifeline to development.
Accordingly, he offered advice to Gen. Kodama who was engaged in peace negotiations
with Russia: “We absolutely must control the Manchuria Railway. The railroad is
everything.” In the railroad, Goto envisioned prosperity for the Japanese people.
There were three major railroad systems in Manchuria’s transportation network at
the time of the Mukden Incident:
1) Japanese-run South Manchuria Railway
2) Railroads run jointly by China and foreign partners: the East China Railroad(with Russia) and the North Ning Railroad (with Great Britain)3) Railroads run by Manchurian warlords in Sitao, Taoang, Qike, Huhai, Jichang,
Jidun, Fengji and Datong
When the Mukden Incident occurred, Japan had constructed 2,361 kilometers of
track, Russia 1,789, China 1,186 and Great Britain 890, for a total of 6,226 kilometers.
Japan, Russia, Great Britain and China invested in the railroads, to varying degrees.
Rivalry was fierce among those nations, and the railways were managed in irrational
ways. For instance, even in railways supported by Chinese capital, management
methods varied according to which local warlord was in charge. In one city, stations
were constructed at random. The gauge of any given railway’s rolling stock was notcompatible with that of any other. Communication was inefficient, and classifications
and tariffs varied widely.
Therefore, after Manzhouguo was established, Premier Zheng Xiaoxu and Guandong
Army Commander Honjo Shigeru concluded an agreement in August 1932 whereby therailroads, ports, waterways in Manchuria would be managed by the Guandong Army
and, in turn, by the Manchuria Railway.
A contract concerning the management by the Manchuria Railway of railroads in
Manzhouguo was concluded between the Manzhouguo government and the Manchuria
Railway in February of the following year. On March 1, 1933, the Manchuria Railway
established the General Railroad Authority.
The Manchuria Railway thus modernized railroad transportation by managing all
domestic railroads on commission from the Manzhouguo government. No other entity in
Manchuria had practiced modern business management. Nor had any corporate group138implemented unified management. Had management been entrusted to Chinese
bureaucrats or officials, deception and corruption would no doubt have been rife. And
just like failed westernization movements in the past, railroads would most certainly
have done poorly and eventually gone bankrupt.
Zhang Xueliang’s attempt to gain control of railroad interests thwarted
When the Manchuria Railway was entrusted with the management of all railroads by
the Manzhouguo government, it took charge of railroads covering 4,098.2 kilometers,
about 66.9% of the entire network. When it bought the North Manchuria Railroad (East
China Railroad), which covered 1,932.8 kilometers, and the British-funded North Ning
Railroad, nationalization and unified management of the railroads were accomplished.
After the Mukden Incident, the Manchuria Railway made a huge contribution not only
to military transportation, but also to the development and modernization of Manchuria
and Mongolia. After Manzhouguo was established, the company constructed many new
railroad lines throughout Manchuria, and invested its resources (human, technologicaland financial) to nurture industry, becoming the leading force for modernization in
Manchuria.
The Manchuria Railway set a goal of 25,000 kilometers for railroad construction, andplanned to install new, 4,000-kilometer-long lines in the first 10 years. In actuality, itlaid over 10,000 kilometers of track by October 1939. Manchuria has one of the mosthostile natural environments. In winter, the soil froze; in summer, rivers flooded.
Plagued with the worst hygienic conditions and ubiquitous bandits (1,475 raids werereported between February 1931 and April 1939), railroad workers somehow managed
to lay as much as 600 kilometers of track per year.
The Fengshan Railroad, constructed with British capital, was confiscated by the
Fengtian provincial government, which declared independence immediately after the
Mukden Incident. After Manzhouguo was established, an official statement regarding
repayment of company loans was issued by the central government, solving the problem
with Great Britain peacefully. Later, the railway was incorporated into the national
railway (the North Manchuria Railroad).
Zhang Zuolin took advantage of the inexperienced Soviet revolutionary government
after the Russian Revolution, and succeeded in convincing the Russians in agreeing tojoint Russo-Chinese management of the Russian-built East China Railroad, although
the actual operation rights belonged to the Soviets.
After succeeding Zhang Zuolin, Zhang Xueliang attempted to appropriate northern
Manchurian interests. He joined in the movement to recover Chinese sovereignty, and139

took advantage of a weakened Soviet Union. Infuriated by Zhang’s move, the Soviets
sent the Red Army’s strongest tank unit into Manchuria in what was referred to as the“Russo-Chinese dispute.”
Zhang Xueliang’s army turned out to be unexpectedly vulnerable. Maj.-Gen. Han
Guangdi, the best commander in Manchuria, was killed abruptly in a single attack fromthe Red Army. After his death, northern Manchuria was at the mercy of the Red Army.
Zhang Xueliang was overwhelmed by Soviet power, and had no choice to acquiesce toSoviet demands.
Subsequently, Manzhouguo repeatedly asked the Soviet Union, through Japanese
mediation, to surrender the railroad. Once negotiations almost broke up over thepurchase price. Finally, on March 2, 1935, an agreement was reached between
Manzhouguo and the Soviets: Manzhouguo would purchase the railroad for 140 million
yen. The management of this railway too was entrusted to the Manchuria Railway.
A typical Chinese trait surfaced during the Russo-Chinese dispute, i.e., the Chineseneither abide by their treaties nor keep their promises. When they speak of unequal
imperialist treaties, they are simply being opportunistic. Treaties become valid only
when both parties agree; whether or not they are equal depends on the relative strengthof the nations involved. Treaties are always products of compromise, and yet the
Chinese just do not understand that nothing is equally satisfactory to both parties.
As mentioned previously, in the abdication agreement of Qing Emperor (which
promised conditions favorable to the imperial family) officially concluded between thegovernment of the ROC and the Qing dynasty, Emperor Xuantong Puyi was to betreated with the same respect and courtesy extended to foreign kings and nobles. But itturned out that the agreement was only temporary; the ROC unilaterally abrogated theabdication agreement, expelled Emperor Xuantong from the Forbidden City, and robbed
him of his property. Some disloyal patriots demanded that he be executed without trial.
Treaties concluded with China do not last long. Nor did the Chinese government havethe strength to enforce its treaties. There were several reasons for this failure. First,
even after the ROC was established, the government was unstable. To make mattersworse, a number of governments were formed simultaneously. Every political force
established a government whenever it liked. For example, Sun Yatsen established agovernment once in Nanjing and three times in Guangzhou.
In the ROC, there were often two or more governments “ruling” simultaneously. Not
only at the state level, but also at the party level, the one true party always had two or
more governments. Take the Guomindang, for instance. Ever since it established two
governments in Wuhan and Nanjing, there were constantly two or more opposing140

governments being formed.
Moreover, though the ROC formed governments, it was totally negligent of its
international responsibilities, possibly because it did not have the strength to assume
them.
Construction of waterway traffic infrastructure and roads
Manchuria has a short coastline. When it was founded, it had only three commercial
ports on the Bohai and the Yellow Sea: Yingkou, Dalian and Andong (later called
Dandong). Most of the sea transportation was handled at Dalian.
Construction of Huludao in front of the Fuxin coal mine, in preparation for thedevelopment of heavy industry in the Jinzhou area, was launched in 1936. The firstphase was completed in 1940 by the Manchuria Railway, which had set a goal of traffic
capacity of 4 million tons.
The inland waterways were accessible, because there had been bustling river trafficsince antiquity on the Liao, Yalu, Songhua, Heilong, Wusuli (Ussuri) and Tumen(Douman) rivers.
Though the situation differed slightly in northern and southern Manchuria, rivers
froze between November and March; therefore, there was no river traffic during thattime. After Manzhouguo was established, bandits were suppressed to the extent thatthe river traffic covered approximately 10,000 kilometers and steamship routes
lengthened to 4,500 kilometers.
Roads in Manchuria froze in winter. In the rainy season, they became so muddy thatwheel shafts would sink into them. In spring and autumn, the roads became so dry thatcarriage tracks were the only visual guideposts, and yellow dust devils plagued
travelers. Worse still, as marauding bandits appeared frequently, the roads were
extremely dangerous. During busy farming and harvesting seasons, horse-drawn
carriages were the primary means of transportation. When winter came, it was afamiliar sight to see horses galloping over the frozen land in front of carts filled withfarm products. There were about 400,000 carts in Manchuria, each drawn by seven oreight horses.
Bandits were so rampant that as soon as Manzhouguo was established, the Guandong
Army asked its government to build 10,000 kilometers of secured roads.
According to the first five-year road construction plan submitted to Manzhouguo by
the Guandong Army in late September 1932, 25,000 kilometers of roads was to becompleted in the first three years, and 34,000 kilometers in five years.
Manzhouguo established the National Road Agency (a branch of the Traffic141Department). The agency’s main task was the construction of roads. A first-phase plan
was formulated for the construction of national roads. Since they are the nation’sarteries, Manzhouguo planned to build 60,000 kilometers of national roads. Accordingly,
local roads, roads to use when suppressing bandits, and frontier roads were constructed.
The original plan involved constructing 60,000 kilometers of roads over 10 years.
That plan cut back somewhat during the preparatory stages of the First National Road
Plan. But in 1945, when the war ended, 60,000 kilometers of national roads had been
completed. Steady progress was made on local roads as well (50,000 kilometers). All ofthese roads were eventually handed over to China as Manzhouguo’s monumental legacy.
During the Qing era, some major roads (for horse traffic) connecting the capital,
provincial roads and northern main roads existed. But they deteriorated because they
were not maintained properly. When the ROC was established, the only roads that could
handle vehicular traffic were in the cities and suburbs. Only 10% of them were open to
automobile traffic during the rainy season. There were very few bridges spanning rivers,
and passenger traffic was limited to a few ferry boats.
In Manzhouguo, bridges longer than 30 meters were built at 300 locations.
Furthermore, 24 bridges were built on the Yalu and Douman rivers on the
Manchurian-Korean border.
Super-express train “Asia” and first Asian highway
The Japanese authorities running the Manchuria Railway changed frequently. In
1907, when the railroad began operating, the minister of posts was the supervisor of thenational policy enterprise. But in 1908, the prime minister began overseeing railroad
operations, then the Railroad Authority, then the Development Agency. In 1920, control
shifted back to the Railroad Authority, to the Development Ministry in 1929, and backto the prime minister in 1934. Finally, the ambassador extraordinary andplenipotentiary to Manzhouguo (concurrently commander of the Guandong Army)
became the supervising authority, with ultimate authority resting in the prime
minister.
Among the achievements of the Manchuria Railway, the one that won it the mostglobal notice was the super-express train “Asia,” which was also very popular among theJapanese.
In 1913, the Manchuria Railway launched a research project with the intention ofdeveloping high-speed trains. Special express train Asia began operating in March 1934.
Asia had a maximum speed of 150 kilometers per hour, with a peacetime speed of 130km/h and an average speed of 81 km/h. In Japan at the time the fastest train ran at a142

speed of 70 km/h, so the Asia was truly a remarkable super-express train. It traveled
the 704 kilometers between Xinjing and Dalian in seven and a half hours, making only
four stops on the way. This superb technology was handed down to the postwar
developers of the even faster Bullet train.
Innovations were not limited to railroads. Nearly 20 years prior to the advent of the
Meishin Expressway in Japan, the first full-scale highway in Asia, the Hada Road, wasbuilt by the Japanese in Manchuria. It was the main artery connecting Harbin, Xinjing,
Fengtian and Dalian.
The population in the area along the tracks (excluding Guandong province), at 10.33
million, accounted for about 30% of all Manchurian residents. There were 4,655
factories adjacent to the railroad tracks in fiscal 1936, about 70% percent of the total
number in Manchuria. Annual production was 277 million yen (nearly 80 % of theManchurian total). Construction of the Hada Road began in 1942; when it was partly
completed, the war ended and the Chinese government took possession of the road.
In 1990, 45 years since the end of the war, the 375-kilometer-long road between
Shenyang (former Fengtian) and Dalian was finally constructed by the Traffic Agency of
Liaoning province and named Shenda Expressway. This was the first expressway
completed by the PRC. Japan was asked for technical cooperation, which took the formof ODA (Official Development Assistance). It makes perfect sense to claim that the roadwas built by the Japanese.
In 1945, the Manchuria Railway and the National Railway together owned 47,166
railroad cars, the equivalent of 3.9 cars per kilometer. When we compare this figure
with the average of 1.6 cars per kilometer at the time Manzhouguo was established, we
realize how dramatically human and material logistics changed in the mere 13 1/2 yearsof Manzhouguo’s existence.
6. Manchuria Railway the greatest contributor to the modernization of Manchuria
More than railroads
Postwar Japanese history specialists sweepingly describe Manchuria as one of thethree main colonies of imperial Japan, the other two being Taiwan and Korea. But thisis a grave mistake.
Taiwan was Japan’s overseas territory, permanently ceded to Japan after the
Sino-Japanese War. Korea was a coalition that came into being after annexation by
Japan at the dawn of the 20th century. Manchuria was a new state established with thehelp of Japan (like the former East Germany).

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Manchuria was not so much a Japanese colony as a receptacle for Chinese
immigrants. As the Manchuria Railway grew, Manchuria became a real colony ofChinese immigrants. But for the Manchuria Railway, Manchuria today would be largely
undeveloped, just like present-day Yungui Plateau.
Without a stable society, modern economies never flourish. The best way tounderstand the Manchuria Railway’s role in Manchurian development is to be familiar
with Manchuria at that time (excluding Guandong province and property belonging to
the Manchuria Railway, which was protected by the Quandong army). Since that part ofManchurian society was overrun by bandits and warlords, the people’s lives andproperties were never safe. One step out of Guandong province and Manchuria Railway
property was a terribly dangerous region. The people were defenseless against themarauding hordes, and were victims of cruel, exorbitant taxation as well.
In the living hell that was Manchurian society, the Manchuria Railway built modern
industrial areas. During the period between the end of the Russo-Japanese War and theoutbreak of the Mukden Incident, Japanese investments in Manchuria totaled nearly
1.5 billion yen. Investments made in the Manchuria Railway and its 57 affiliatedcompanies, which had surpassed 700 million yen by the end of 1929, greatly contributed
to the accommodation of a huge number of immigrants from the Chinese society, thedevelopment of remote areas, and the promotion of agriculture, technology, commerce
and industry.
For example, the Manchuria Railway established a world-class central research
center and agricultural laboratories, and conducted research on agriculture, mining andindustry in Manchuria and Mongolia. Improved soybeans created through artificial
species improvement were widely grown throughout Manchuria, which eventuallybecame the world’s largest exporter of soybeans. An enormous amount of effort went
into the management of coal mines and iron manufacturing. The coal mines in Fushun
and Yantai, and ironworks in Anshan are now internationally known.
Manchuria Railway modernizes education, culture and medicine
The Manchuria Railway contributed greatly to the development and modernization ofManchuria. The company constructed not only the arterial railroad, but also helped
construct branch lines. It completed the Jichang, Sitao, Taoang and Jidun lines andestablished multiple direct connections between all Manchurian provincial capitals andthe coast.
Excluding air traffic, all transportation networks in Manchuria, (marine and landtransportation operations of railroads, waterways and roads), were managed in a144

unified manner by the Manchuria Railway. The International Transport Company(warehouses and non-railroad freight forwarders), Dalian Steamship (marine transport),
and Dalian Dockyards & Iron Works (shipbuilding) were all capitalized by the
Manchuria Railway. The railroad also built and maintained all major roads in
Manchuria.
The largest and finest pier in Asia was completed at the port of Dalian in 1913. Soon
thereafter, foreign trade increased, reaching a figure ten times that of Chinese foreign
trade. Prior to the opening of the port, the revenue from marine duties was only 20
million tael (liang). However, in 1929, it rose to 7.55 billion tael, an incredible 38-foldincrease. Dalian was the tenth largest port of trade in all of China in 1907, but grewlarger and larger until it ranked second only to Shanghai in 1917.
The Manchuria Railway’s contribution to Manchuria was not only its rapid
development of modern industry, but also invaluable cultural and social achievements.
For a very long time the Chinese had regarded Manchuria as a remote wasteland.
Actually, Dalian was practically the only city in Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese
War.
The Manchuria Railway established cities (modern urban and rural hubs) and built
roads. The company brought electricity, a water supply, sewer systems, gas, sanitation
services, markets, parks and stadiums and other public facilities to Manchuria.
One especially valuable contribution was made in the area of medical insurance work.
The Manchuria Railway constructed and operated a modern general hospital in Dalianand company-run hospitals in cities along its routes, a research center specializing in
infectious diseases, the Manchurian Society for Prevention of Tuberculosis and nursing
homes. By doing so, it helped prevent epidemics and encouraged medical professionals
to make the rounds of remote areas.
There were other contributions. The Manchuria Railway established educational andcultural institutions like schools and libraries. It also owned the central research centerand agricultural laboratories. Also, we must mention the famous Manchuria Railway
Research Division, a geology laboratory, a railroad technology research laboratory, apublic health laboratory, a veterinary laboratory, the coal mine at Fushun, theiron-manufacturing research institute at Anshan, the Manchurian Resources Centerand the natural history museum at Lushun. The Manchuria Railway was truly thedriving force behind medical, scientific and cultural developments in Manchuria.
Manzhouguo disappeared forever, leaving behind this monumental legacy. The PRC
took possession of all those modern resources. And yet, China continues to accuse Japan(the bearer of those resources), of imperialism, invasion, exploitation and massacre.

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Chapter Seven: Miraculous Leap toward Modern Nationhood
1. Recognition of Manzhouguo and international relations
International reaction to Manzhouguo
Once Manzhouguo was established, heated debates erupted in Japan over whether or
not to recognize the new nation. But when the government of national unity headed by
Saito Makoto was established after the May 15 Incident in 1932, in which the prime
minister was killed, early recognition became the majority opinion. On June 16, a Houseof Representatives resolution in favor of expeditious recognition of Manzhouguo passed
unanimously.
The 63rd Imperial Diet session began on August 25. In a speech concerning foreign
affairs, Foreign Minister Uchida Yasuya stated: “All action taken by the Japanese Army
since September 18 last year (the Mukden Incident) was defensive in nature. The
Kellogg-Briand Pact does not restrict the right of self-defense. As the establishment ofManzhouguo can be traced to the secession movement in China, Japan’s recognition ofManzhouguo is not a breach of the Nine-Power Treaty. Chinese should not be prohibitedfrom establishing an independent state, and Japan is in no way violating the
Kellogg-Briand Pact or the Nine-Power Treaty.” Uchida concluded his speech as follows:“Even if the nation were reduced to ashes, we would stand up for the independence ofManzhouguo.”
At first, elements in Manchuria like the Guandong Army insisted that Manzhouguo
be recognized immediately. The Army and Army Minister Araki Sadao also argued for
immediate recognition. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, however, fearing that othernations might misinterpret the establishment of Manzhouguo as a union of two states,
objected, stating that it was too early. The debate continued, nationwide.
On August 8, prior to the 63rd session of the Imperial Diet, the Japanese
government appointed Gen. Muto Nobuyoshi commander of the Guandong Army andambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary in Manchuria. On September 15, theManchurian-Japanese protocol whereby, for all intents and purposes, Japan recognizedManzhouguo as an independent state was signed and sealed by Ambassador Muto andPrime Minister Zheng Xiaoxu.
On January 20, 1933, Prime Minister Zheng proclaimed that Manzhouguo would
have an imperial government to the governments of 71 nations of the world, excluding
Japan.
Next to recognize Manzhouguo was El Salvador in Central America. Recognition146

came in April 1934 from the Vatican, and then between 1937 and 1938, from Italy, Spain(Franco’s regime) and Nazi Germany. In October 1938, Poland recognized Manzhouguo.
From 1939 afterwards, Scandinavian and East European nations (Hungary, Slovakia,
Romania, Bulgaria, Finland, Croatia and Denmark) also recognized Manzhouguo.
Though Dominica, Estonia and Lithuania did not officially recognize the new state, theyexchanged diplomatic credentials.
During the Greater East Asian War, Thailand, Burma, the Philippines and theprovisional government of Free India recognized Manzhouguo. But after the League of
Nations decreed that the establishment of Manzhouguo was not legitimate, only 18
nations recognized Manzhouguo.
Relations with the Soviet Union, China and Mongolia deemed important
After the Mukden Incident, the country most closely involved with Manzhouguo was
the Soviet Union, which up until then had held sway over northern Manchuria. The
Soviet Union declared itself neutral toward Manchuria and promised not to interfere
there.
At the time, the Soviet Union was in the midst of promoting its first five-year
economic development plan, and could not spare the time or energy to meddle in theaffairs of the Guandong Army. As I will discuss in the next chapter, the Soviet Union
offered little cooperation to Lytton’s investigators. Despite the fact that the Soviet
Union had not officially recognized Manzhouguo, in June 1932, it approved theestablishment of Manzhouguo consulates in the cities of Blagoveshchensk and Chita.
With its peace policy toward Japan, the Soviets seemed to have recognizedManzhouguo.
Moreover, the Soviet Union proposed concluding a Russo-Japanese non-aggression
pact, which was nevertheless rejected by the Japanese government. Consequently, theSoviets approached China, and in December of the same year, the two countries agreed
to resume diplomatic relations in Geneva. In 1934, the Soviet Union joined the Leagueof Nations, now opposing Japan and Germany.
As it gained acceptance internationally, Manzhouguo placed a high priority on
recognition by the ROC.
For instance, there was the case of Rehe province. The Rehe operation previously
mentioned ended with the Tanggu cease-fire agreement of May 1933, when Reheprovince was annexed to Manzhouguo. As a result, Manzhouguo lay adjacent to theROC, bordering on the Great Wall.
Furthermore, from late 1934 to 1935, Manzhouguo and the ROC came to agreements

147

about reciprocal train transportation, postal services, telegraph and shipping. Fromthem we can conclude that the government of the ROC approved of Manzhouguo’s
statehood for all practical purposes.
However, when the Sino-Japanese conflict broke out in 1937, the relationshipbetween Manzhouguo and China began to worsen. Nevertheless, the provisional
government of the ROC, established in Beijing in December 1937, opened a trade
representative office in Manzhouguo.
In March 1940, Japan issued a joint communiqué with Manzhouguo and China (theNanjing government led by Wang Jingwei, who had united several governments). On
December 1, 1940, the three parties agreed to mutual recognition; in 1941, theyexchanged ambassadors.
However, among the multiple governments existing in the ROC, the Chongqing
government of Jiang Kaishek consistently refused to recognize Manzhouguo.
The diplomatic policy of Manzhouguo was politically, economically, culturally andmilitarily so closely related to Japan’s that the two nations were to share the same fate.
Therefore, it is no wonder that some have labeled Manzhouguo a puppet state of Japan.
Manzhouguo regarded neighboring China and the Soviet Union as important neighbors,at the same time paying careful attention to relations with Inner and Outer Mongolia.
A border conflict with Outer Mongolia, triggered by an incursion by the Mongol Army,
culminated in the Nomonhan Incident. Between May and early September of 1939, theGuandong Army and Soviet-Mongol Allied Forces clashed; the Guandong Army was
defeated. Relations with Inner Mongolia were better. The Mongol autonomous coalition
government, established in September 1939 and headed by Dewang, paid a courtesy
visit to Manzhouguo on the occasion of the 10th anniversary of the nation’s founding.
2. From exploitation of the people to land development
Development plan first great milestone in Manchurian history
After the establishment of Manzhouguo, the building of an infrastructure and landdevelopment on a national scale began in earnest (see Chapter Six).
The land development plan covered not only the railroads, roads, ports and airports,
as mentioned previously, but also urban planning (water supply, sewers, electric power),and the care and maintenance of mountains and rivers.
In March 1933, Manzhouguo announced an economic development plan for
Manzhouguo, which described the principal national land development policies.
Chapter Four (“Improvement of Transport”) touches upon plans for building the nation’s148infrastructure. Chapters Five (“Development of Agriculture”) and Six (“Promotion of
Mining and Manufacturing”) outline the new nation’s industrial development plans.
Readers may take the work of developing a social infrastructure for granted. But
when the Manchurian warlords were in power, they were too busy spending money on
factional conflicts among themselves to even think about national development, letalone develop an infrastructure. The Journal of the Three Eastern Provinces publishedin Fengtian makes sarcastic mention of the only construction projects during Zhang
Xueliang’s reign: several dance halls in Fengtian, Beiping and Tianjin. Nearly all
revenue, at least 70-80%, was wasted on armaments and civil wars.
The biggest difference between the era of Manzhouguo and that of the Manchurian
warlords was that the former focused on national development, while the latter focusedon exploiting the people.
The water in Manchuria’s rivers is generally not plentiful, but floods are frequent
once the rainy season sets in. But no effective plan was made to tame the rivers. Nor
was there basic data or information about the rivers to use to formulate methods tocontrol them. No observations had been made regarding rainfall or water levels in therivers.
After Manzhouguo was established, flood-control research and construction work
relating to the three major waterways (the Heilong, Liao and Yalu rivers) began. The
area of land that is home to the Songhua River (a tributary of the Heilong River), is
twice as large as Japan’s main island. After the Transport Department established a
Waterways Office in July 1937, research was conducted on methods to prevent floods
and landslides, as well as the building of dams and embankments.
The Songhua River, which runs through the great plains in North Manchuria, would
frequently flood. A dam was built upstream, and vast areas of land were reclaimed
through draining. Downstream, embankments to protect against floods, and ponds toaccommodate surplus water were built. On the border between Manchuria and the
Korean peninsula, the Yalu River Hydroelectric Company was founded, and dams werebuilt, among them Shuifeng Dam. In August 1941, 200,000 kilowatts of electric power
reached Manchuria. See the next section for more about electric power development.
Construction of modern cities
The most remarkable facet of land development in Manzhouguo was the building of
cities and a new capital, and the redevelopment of old cities. That work wasaccomplished in accordance with a modernized land-development plan, and with thehelp of Japanese talent, nurtured during the Meiji Restoration, and great enthusiasm

149

for building a new state. With modernization and urbanization as goals, spacious parks
and greens cropped up in urban areas, while in the suburbs, vast green areas were
preserved.
The first-phrase plan was for Xinjing (formerly Changchun), Fengtian (formerly
Shenyang) and Harbin. The second-phase plan targeted for eight cities: Jilin, Qiqihar,
Chengde, Yingkou, Jinzhou, Mudanjiang, Beianzhen and Sipingjie. One hundred ninecities were to be built by the end of 1942.
The initial plan to build large cities was made by the Guandong Army’s Special
Agency and the Economic Research Department of the Manchuria Railway. Then the
final plan was drafted after consultations with the Public Works Office of the Civil
Administration Department.
Soga Kensuke, then construction manager of the Capital Construction Agency,
discusses existing government office buildings in Pictorial Diary: “They were ugly,
unsanitary, small, cramped and inconvenient, being scattered over a wide area.” Four orfive staff members were forced to squeeze into tiny rooms, each 2.7 meters square.
In their existing state, the traditional Chinese office buildings and residential
quarters were totally unsuitable for the cities of a burgeoning nation.
Through the efforts of talented Japanese architects, beautiful, modern cities
blossomed in the wilderness of Manchuria. One might describe them as a manifestationof the powerful desire to construct a new nation.
During the first phase of the project, the population of Xinjing, the new national
capital, grew rapidly from 120,000 to 500,000. Construction beginning in 1942 was done
according to a plan to build a city that could accommodate 1,000,000 people. Electricity,water supply and sewers were improved. The first flush toilet in East Asia made its
debut in Xinjing.
At the end of World War II, Xinjing was in the midst of the second phase of theconstruction plan. Today the city boasts of a beautiful, rich green environment, and is
known as the “park city.”
3. Construction of the world’s largest dams and electric power development
Electric power in postwar China a gift from Manzhouguo
Manchuria had abundant resources, one of which was coal. It was obvious that
thermal power generation was the best option for Manzhouguo. The region’s majorrivers (the Songhua, Yalu and Liao) were potential sources of water power.
The first electric power plant in Manchuria started operation in 1900, when the150

Russians installed three 250-kilowatt generators in Dalian. In Guandong province andon Manchuria Railway property under Japanese control, there were power generators.
Other cities also had an electric power industry, though it was run rather haphazardly.
In November 1934, after Manzhouguo was established, all thermal power companies
in all of Manchuria were incorporated into the Manchurian Electric Enterprise Co., Ltd.
By the end of 1938, there was a 600,000-kilowatt supply of electricity, including
electricity generated by the Manchuria Railway.
The annual rainfall in Manchuria is 300-500 millimeters, nearly one third of that inJapan. Moreover, 70-80% of the rainfall occurs in July and August. Therefore,
Manzhouguo’s river development plan gave priority to building dams. The dams were
for multiple purposes, among them hydroelectric power generation, irrigation, flood
prevention and river transport.
In November 1936, a five-year industrial development plan for Manzhouguo wasdrafted. The goal for electric power supply was 1.4 million kilowatts, of which 590,000
kilowatts were slated for hydroelectric generation. But soon total electric power supply
was corrected upward to 2.57 million kilowatts, 2.24 million kilowatts of which wasaccounted for by hydroelectric generation. As a result of later surveys, 50 locations wereselected in Manchuria, and potential generating capacity was estimated at 7.5-10
million kilowatts.
Total electric power generated in 1928 throughout China was 380,000 kilowatts,
while 20 years later, in 1947, the total was barely 1,006,700 kilowatts, according to theChinese Administrative Authority Newspaper Bureau. Almost all of it was the legacy of
the Great Powers concentrated in Manchuria.
In Manchuria, development began with the most feasible sites: Fengman Dam on theSecond Songhua River, the Jingbohu Dam on the Mudan River, and the Huanren Damon the Hun River, followed by the construction of the Shuifeng Dam for hydroelectric
generation on the Yalu River.
Dam construction went smoothly. Power was first transmitted from Shuifeng Dam on
the Yalu River in August 1941, from Jinbohu Hydroelectric Station in June 1942 andfrom Fengman Dam in March 1943. These three dams alone were capable of generatinga total of 800,000 kilowatts. In March 1944, the Economic Department Waterpower
Construction Agency and Manchuria Electric Enterprise Co., Ltd. jointly established
Manchuria Electric Co., Ltd., with capital of ¥640 million, of which each company
providing half. It was another national company like Manchuria Railway andManchuria Heavy Industrial Development (to be discussed later).

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Construction of the world’s leading dams
Fengman Dam was a huge project that symbolized the fervor and enthusiasm forbuilding Manzhouguo. It was a multi-purpose dam designed for controlling the volume
of water (to prevent floods) in the Second Songhua River. It also provided water for
irrigation and industry, drinking water, river transport and electric power generation. It
was also the largest dam in Asia, and one of the finest in the world. The estimatedconstruction cost was ¥100 million at first; it then rose to ¥200 million. The dam wasconstructed over five years, with total electricity output of 700,000 kilowatts and annual
electric power generation of 3 billion kilowatts per hour. When the irrigation aspect wascompleted, it was anticipated that rice production would increase by 220,000 tons per
year.
Fengman Dam is located 20 kilometers upstream of Jilin City. The gravitation-type
concrete dam (90 meters high and 1,100 meters long) was constructed with a reservoir
area of 620 square kilometers. Lake Songhua, a man-made lake as large as Lake Biwa
in Japan, suddenly appeared in the center of Manchuria. The power generators andwater turbines were the largest ever made. Three were manufactured in the U.S., threein Germany, and two in Japan. In 1939, Germany invaded Poland and World War II
broke out. A converted cruiser carrying the power generators from Germany sailed
around the southern tip of Africa. It was bombarded by the British Air Force and barely
made it to Port Dalian, having been severely damaged. The power generators shipped in
the hold of the vessel were intact. Out of eight generators five were transported to theSoviet Union by the Soviet Army stationed in Manchuria after the war. But later, they
were returned to China in response to demands from the Chinese government.
When the Philippine Foreign Minister inspected Fengman Dam after its completion,
he was totally amazed at the grand scale of the dam and its effectiveness. According to
the recollections of Hirashima Toshio, then managing director of Manchuria ElectricEnterprise Co., Ltd., and the minister’s guide during the inspection tour, the former wasamazed. “The Philippines were a colony of Spain for 350 years, and then under
American control for 40 more. Yet nothing has been done to improve our people’s living
conditions. How did Manzhouguo accomplish such a miracle a mere 10 years after its
establishment!”xxxv
Lake Jingbo is a huge, man-made lake, lying upriver of the Mudan, a branch of theSonghua River, near Dongjing (the capital of the ancient kingdom of Bohai). On the lake
is a dam that controls the volume of water, which is kept on the average at the height ofone meter and the length of about 500 meters. Twenty-thousand-kilowatt generators
were installed there that generate 550 million kilowatts per hour; electricity has been152

transmitted from there since June 1942.
The Yalu River is a huge river covering 500 kilometers along the Manchu-Koreanborder. The total area of the river is 50,000 square kilometers. Ships can go as far as 300
kilometers upriver. Huanren Dam is on the upstream of the Hun River, a tributary of
the Yalu River. The dam embankment is 91 meters high and 1,018 meters long. The
reservoir has an area of 209 square kilometers; the ultimate goal for power generation
was set at 280,000 kilowatts.
Shuifeng Dam, 106 meters high and 898 meters long, was constructed on the upper
reaches of the Yalu River. In August 1941, 200,000-kilowatts of electricity weretransmitted to Manchuria for the first time.
On September 7, 1939, a 200,000-kilowatt hydroelectric dam was constructed by acompany established jointly with capitalization of ¥50 million provided by Korean Yalu
River Hydroelectric on the Korean side and ¥50 million provided by Manchuria Yalu
River Hydroelectric on the Manchurian side. The work was supervised by Noguchi
Shitagau, managing director.
4. Aspiring to become the hub of Greater East Asian heavy industry
Manchuria developed through Japanese investment
Prior to the establishment of Manzhouguo, there was little modern heavy industry in
the region, except for Japanese companies related to the Manchuria Railway.
The leasehold in Guandong province, which Japan acquired following the Portsmouthand Sino-Japanese treaties after the Russo-Japanese War, covered only 1,300 square
miles and the Manchuria Railway property only 120 square miles. But from the end of
the Russo-Japanese War to the outbreak of the Mukden Incident in 1931, this small
area became the leading modern industrial region, through the efforts of the Japanese
government and private sectors for 25 years. The difference between it and Manchurian
land controlled by local bandits and warlords was as distinct as that between heavenand hell. For that reason, Guandong province and Manchuria Railway property under
the control of the Guandong Army became a haven for Manchurian refugees. The
population jumped to 1.32 million (there were only 220,000 Japanese residents there).
The mining and manufacturing industries in Manzhouguo depended almost
completely on Japanese investments. For instance, statistics on investments in
manufacturing, mining and transport in 1943 indicate that Japanese private
investments accounted for 97% of investments there.xxxvi
Prior to the Russo-Japanese War, besides agriculture, Manchuria had only family-run

153manufacturing industries. Some of them involved making cooking pots and polishing
them; others involved raising silkworms and spinning silk thread. Industry at that time
was comparable with industry during the Edo period in Japan (1600-1868).
Most of the mining and manufacturing industrial development in Manchuria was
begun by the Manchuria Railway, beginning with the management of the railroad andrelated businesses. As I mentioned in Chapter Six, without the Manchuria Railway, themodernization of Manchuria would have never taken place. The company was, without
question, the sole engine of progress.
After Manchuria Railway took over Russian interests in Fushun Coal, iron ore wasdiscovered in Anshan in 1909. Discoveries of other mines, e.g., Gongchangling followed,
forming the foundation for iron manufacturing.
Okura-Gumi set up a Sino-Japanese joint venture, Benxihu Coal and Iron Company,
and began mining coal and iron. The exploitation of Manchuria’s abundant natural
resources drew world-wide attention.
Advent of conglomerate Mangyo
After the Russo-Japanese War, the Manchuria Railway began research on soybean
processing, chemicals, electricity and gas, which were followed by production. But owing
to the global recession in the 1920s and oppression from the warlords, thosedevelopment efforts were restricted to Guandong province and Manchuria Railway
property. It was not until after Manzhouguo was established that Manchurian mining
and manufacturing industries were developed on a national scale.
In April 1936, the first five-year industrial development plan was finalized and slated
to commence the following year. Items earmarked for production increases in themining and manufacturing categories were electric power, iron and steel, coal, liquid
fuel, aluminum, lead, zinc, gold, asbestos, salt, soda ash, pulp, livestock processing,
weapons, aircraft, automobiles and rolling stock. Total investments were ¥2.5 billion,
an amount equivalent to the total Japanese national budget. Expenditures totaled ¥2.4
billion, of which ¥1.4 billion was allocated to mining and manufacturing. Manzhouguo’s
first five-year industrial development plan made remarkable progress, due to Japanese
investment and technical assistance, and Japanese companies established to complete
special assignments.
In July 1937, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident broke out. Public opinion was strongly
in favor of a union between Japan and Manchuria. After several revisions, investments
totaling ¥4.96 billion were planned. Investment in mining and manufacturingindustries amounted to ¥3.8 billion, or 78% of total investments.

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The second five-year industrial plan was forged in September 1941. By then, war had
already broken out in Europe (World War II). In December of the same year, Japan
entered the Greater East Asian War and a wartime regime. The industrial developmentof Manzhouguo was incorporated into the general category embracing development inJapan, Manchuria and China, and subsequently further consolidated into theJapan-Manchuria economic bloc.
Under a wartime economic structure, it made sense to adopt the principle of “onecompany for each industry.” Important industries, such as national defense industries
were mainly companies with special or quasi-special status under state control.
The first special company was the Manchuria Central Bank, established inaccordance with the Manchuria Central Bank Law in 1932. Quasi-special corporate
entities like the Manchuria Airway Company and Fengtian Munitions Factory were
founded. Other companies representing one industry were Manchuria Telegraph andTelephone Company, Manchuria Petroleum, Dowa Automobile Industry and Manchuria
Coal Mines.
In 1937, after implementation of the first five-year industrial development plan,development methods were adopted and a national company focusing on heavy industry
was established.
In December 1938, Nippon Industry Co., Ltd. (Nissan) Chairman Ayukawa Yoshisukeand others established a special corporation called Manchu Heavy Industrial
Development Co., Ltd., commonly referred to as “Mangyo,” with capital of ¥450 million.
Nissan moved its operations to Manchuria, where it operated as Mangyo, serving as anumbrella corporation for large companies like Manchuria Railway’s Showa Steel
Factory, Manchuria Coal Mines, Manchuria Light Metal Manufacturing, Manchuria
Automobile Manufacturing and Manchuria Aircraft Manufacturing. Afterwards,
Mangyo took control of other major companies in Manchuria (Dongbiandao
Development and Benxihu Coal and Iron). In March 1943, Mangyo had 38 affiliates andcapital amounting to the mammoth sum of ¥327 million, thus becoming the center
figure in the development of heavy industry.
At that time, there were only two major automobile manufacturers in Japan, Nissan
and Toyota. The transfer of Nissan Konzern to Manchuria was an epoch-making event
for Manzhouguo. It was welcomed with loud cheers and great expectation from all
sectors but the Manchuria Railway, its main rival.
In Japan, Mangyo remained the leading and most influential shareholder of major
firms like Nippon Mining, Hitachi, Ltd., Nippon Fisheries, Nissan Chemicals andNissan Shipping.
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Unfortunately, Mangyo ceased to exist when the war ended, only two years after its
foundation. A flourishing center of heavy industry in Asia had disappeared forever withJapan’s defeat.
5. Basis for public stability: unification of currency and establishment of a financial
system100 currencies in circulation
When East Asian countries other than Japan attempt to modernize their economies,
they inevitably face a problem that is as intransigent as a chronic, incurable disease:unification of the currency system. There was no unified currency system in China, theKorean peninsula or Taiwan, even in the modern age.
Before Taiwan became Japanese territory, about a hundred types of silver and copper
coins from all over the world were in use. These coins were mainly used to pay taxes, notfor business transactions, and their value varied from region to region. Since thecurrencies in use ranged from that of neighboring Japan to that of remote Mexico, theirface values had no meaning. Silver coins were weighed before use.
Under such circumstances, a currency economy never materializes, nor does acommodity economy. The best one could hope for would be primitive bartering or asimilar premodern economy. It was only after Taiwan adopted the gold standard andbegan to use the Japanese yen as its currency that the nation was able to modernize.
Both China and the Korean peninsula were much like Taiwan, and in Manchuria,
each province had its own currency. It was not until after Manzhouguo was establishedthat the currency in Manchuria was unified.
The Han Chinese generally distrust governments and bank notes. Traditionally, they
stored their money not in a bank account, but in some secret place like a chest of
drawers. For example, in 1944, toward the end of Manzhouguo’s existence, though theHan were in the majority, they made only 37% of all bank deposits. Deposits made by
Japanese residents, who were clearly in the minority, accounted for 63% of all
deposits .xxxvii
Unified currency system still viable after fall of Manzhouguo
In Manchuria, about 100 currencies were in use, and the financial and monetarysystems were in utter chaos. Both the currency and commodity economies wereimmature. Therefore, it was of urgent importance to unify the currency, issue new banknotes and control financial activities after Manzhouguo was established.

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Up until then in Manchuria, credit drafts, various silver coins, military notes, banknotes with yen-silver parity called shaopiao issued by Yokohama Shokin Bank, old
Russian bank notes, notes issued by the various provinces, and many other currencies
were all in circulation at the same time. The most troublesome notes were those issued
by provinces at the whims of warlords. The use of military notes by warlords to wrest
crops away from farmers made society all the more chaotic.
Banks under the control of warlords did not even begin to focus on the banking
business. They were involved in everything under the sun, from the manufacture of oil,flour and sugar, through the fermenting of liquor and weaving, to electric power
generation and mining. Rumor has it that the only business they did not engage in was
the operation of public baths.
Currencies used prior to the establishment of Manzhouguo fall mainly into thefollowing categories:
1) Notes issued by each Manchurian province2) Notes (non-convertible) for defrayment of military expenses issued by anti-Japaneseforces3) Other currencies (e.g., silver yuan)
4) Foreign currencies (the Japanese silver yen, Mexican silver, Bank of Japan notes,
Bank of Korea notes and Japanese military notes)
Old notes transferred to the Central Bank of Manchuria by former official and private
financial organizations included 15 types of currency and 136 types of bank notes.
In the “Afterword” of Manshu dasshutsu: Manshu Chuo Ginko kanbu no taiken(Escape from Manchuria: the former manager of the Issuance Department, Central
Bank of Manchuria tells his story), author Takeda Hidekatsu writes: “We former staff
members take pride in the fact that for more than two years after the Central Bank was
dissolved, its notes remained in circulation. In any nation, bank notes usually stop
circulating the moment the issuing bank ceases to exist. In Manchuria, that was thefate of Russian military notes and old Chinese bank notes.”xxxviii
The currency of Manzhouguo continued to circulate in Manchuria after the war at thesame value. In the spring of 1947, Manchurians were allowed to exchange it for Dongbei(northeast) notes of equal value issued by the Central Bank upon request, within a fixed
period of time.
Though Manzhouguo currency lasted only 15 years after it was first issued in 1932, itenjoyed unprecedented credibility. This achievement should never be forgotten, andshould be a source of pride to the former employees of the Manchuria Central Bank, aswell as the entire nation of Japan.

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Japanese currency system functions well in occupied territory
In Chinese society, no one trusts anyone else, much less a government. The stability
and reliability of the Manzhouguo currency can attributed to the Japanese capability
used to full advantage. The power of their currency and financial policies was far more
effective than anyone could have imagined.
It was astute financial policy-making that enabled Japan to develop modern industry
for the first time in East Asia. The Japanese proved this again and again, not only inareas where they were in control (Taiwan, the Korean peninsula and Manchuria), butalso in “enemy territory” during the Sino-Japanese War. In regions occupied by theJapanese Army, the financial system set up by the Japanese worked so well that
commodity prices were extremely stable, and local residents benefited from the system.
These facts are rarely mentioned, but they must be emphasized.
For instance, in the regions that were taken over by Chiang Kaishek’s Guomindang
government after the war, there was astronomical inflation, and currency values
plummeted.
According to the recollections of someone who experienced that inflation, the price of abowl of Chinese noodles in a restaurant in Shanghai at the time he finished eating it
was higher than the price at the time he entered the restaurant and ordered the dish.
Consumer prices were rising by the hour.
In Manchuria at that time, it was virtually impossible for banks to function normally.
The Central Bank of Manchuria was founded in June 1932, three months after theestablishment of Manzhouguo. The Currency Law and the Central Bank of Manchuria
Law were enacted, and the Central Bank was established with capital of ¥30 million.
One hundred percent of that capital was provided by the government of Manzhouguo,
which had acquired the assets and liabilities of four local issuing banks.
Since the 19th century, the world’s financial systems were shifting from the silver
standard to the gold standard, due to the instability of the former. Japan adopted thegold standard sometime after 1897. China was the only country in the world that
insisted on adhering to the silver standard.
There was disagreement over whether the Manchurian currency should be based on
the gold standard or the silver standard. In favor of the silver standard was Finance
Minister Takahashi Korekiyo, while Kato Keizaburo, President of the Bank of Korea,
supported the gold standard. Eventually, the silver standard was adopted, in accordancewith Manchurian tradition.
Banking experts studied ways of preventing the forgery and alteration of paper

158currency. To guard against the Chinese government plots to destroy Manzhouguo’s
financial system, Shikata Masuzo, vice president of the Asian Academy of Science andan expert on fibers, formulated a plan. He invented a method that involved dyeing a
special type of algae, a species that lives only on the bottom of a salt lake in Inner
Mongolia, and then mixing it with fibers to make paper for notes issued by the central
bank.
Capitalizing on confusion caused by runs on banks to unify currency in only two years
The unification of the Manzhouguo currency was accomplished within two years after
withdrawing the old currency and stabilizing the new currency. This feat was
accomplished through the strenuous efforts of the founding fathers of the Central Bankof Manchuria.
Business hours were extended at main and branch offices to include Sundays andholidays. Bank clerks visited even the remotest villages to give villagers the opportunity
to exchange the old currency for the new. The new currency was advertised in every
medium (films, newspapers, radio and even matchboxes) in the Japanese, Chinese andRussian languages. At local fairs and rallies, airplanes and musical ensembles helped
spread the word. All possible steps were taken to inform people of the currency
exchange plan.
Two years later, in June 1934, the withdrawal rate reached 93.1%. The withdrawal
deadline was extended by 14 months to ensure the disposition of the remaining old
notes. Finally the withdrawal rate for old bank notes was 97.2%, an unprecedented
achievement in world history.
The Manchurian people were originally very skeptical about their government andcurrency. There were often runs on banks. Once a rumor spread that banks would
exchange currency for silver, which prompted depositors to rush to the Central Bank,
where they demanded silver. They kept the silver thus acquired at home or, more often,
sold it to private money-changers.
The Central Bank of Manchuria regarded the confusion caused by runs on the bankas a wonderful business opportunity, and made the most of it. The bank allowed people
to exchange currency for silver whenever they liked. Soon the market rate for silver
coins declined, and an increasing number of people used silver coins at train stations,tax offices and customs. As a result, the exchanged silver was returned to the Central
Bank, where it gained credibility.
Before Manzhouguo was established, the value of paper money issued by local
governments on practically an annual basis dropped drastically until it became as159

useless as waste paper. Laboriously accumulated fortunes were absorbed by thegovernment. Society was devastated, and the people refused to trust their governments.
Therefore, maintaining an adequate currency value became a priority for the newcountry.
The Central Bank acquired not only the assets of provincial banks, but also their
liabilities. The shortfall of capital, resulting from the difference between total assets
and total liabilities, was corrected by government bonds.
In the early days of Manzhouguo, anti-Manchu and anti-Japanese forces in various
regions randomly issued their own currency, with which they purchased goods or hired
people. These rebel armies forced the local people to use their currency or to provide
goods or manpower. Every time a rebel army lost power and retreated, its currency
became valueless rubbish.
The Central Bank had to deal with not only paper money issued by warlords large
and small, but also notes issued by the leaders of rebel armies like Mazhanshan andTang Yulin. The bank exchanged notes issued by former warlords and rebel armies forthe currency of Manzhouguo, taking into account their circulation and their value at thetime. This method of withdrawing old notes helped bring security to Manzhouguo at avery early stage, and enabled its people to live in peace.
xxxv

Matsui Kimio, Kataribe no Manshu (Accounts of Manchuria) (Nagano: Ginga Shobo,1980), p. 90.
xxxvi

Kyu Manshu keizai tokei shiryo (Manchurian economic statistics from the past) (Tokyo:

Kashiwa Shobo, 1991), p. 28.
xxxviiManshu Chuo Ginko Kenkyukai (Central Bank of Manchuria research group),

Manshu Chuo Ginko shi: tsuka, kin’yu seisaku no kiseki (History of the Central Bank ofManchuria: currency and financial policy) (Tokyo: Toyo Keizai, 1988), p. 152.
xxxviii

Takeda Hidekatsu, Manshu dasshutsu: Manshu Chuo Ginko kanbu no taiken (Escapefrom Manchuria: the former manager of the Issuance Department, Central Bank ofManchuria tells his story) (Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1985), p. ?.

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Chapter Eight: A United Asian State Ceases To Exist After
only 13 ½ Years
1. Lytton Report corners Manzhouguo
The Lytton Commission: experts on colonial administration
Manzhouguo had overcome many obstacles, and was beginning to take shape as anation. However, its domestic success notwithstanding, the new nation wasinternationally isolated and, together with its only ally, Japan, was becoming an orphan
state.
In this last chapter, we will examine why Manzhouguo perished and what became of
East Asia after its demise. Let us begin with the international situation when
Manzhouguo was established.
The well-known Lytton Commission, an investigative team, was formed in accordancewith a resolution of the League of Nations after the Mukden Incident (September 1931).
Members of the commission were Sir Victor Bulwer-Lytton of Great Britain, Gen.
Henri Claudel of France, Count Ulisse Aldrovandi of Italy, Dr. Heinrich Schnee ofGermany, Gen. Frank McCoy of the United States; Yoshida Isaburo, Japaneseambassador to Turkey; and former Foreign Minister Gu Weijun of the ROC. Lytton waselected chairman.
Bulwer-Lytton was born in 1876. His father was viceroy of colonial India, and Lytton
himself served as governor of Bengal, and later as deputy viceroy. He was a senior
representative of India at the League of Nations from 1927 to 1928; in 1931, he became
a representative of Great Britain.
Gen. Claudel was an Army lieutenant-general, a commander of troops stationed inWest Africa; he also served in China and Indochina. He headed the French colonial
defense committee. Aldrovandi was a diplomat who eventually became ambassador toGermany. Schnee was a Prussian diplomat who once served as viceroy of Germany’s
East African domain; he wrote many books about colonial affairs. McCoy was an Armymajor-general from Pennsylvania, who was sent to Cuba, served in the Philippines andbecame an advisor to President Theodore Roosevelt. He visited Japan after the Great
Kanto Earthquake on a mercy mission, and had many Japanese friends.
The five members, all in their fifties and sixties, were professionals with muchpractical experience, and experts on colonial administration.
The investigative team arrived in Tokyo on February 29, 1932. After received an
audience with the Emperor, they met Prime Minister Inukai, Foreign Minister165

Shibusawa, Army Minister Araki, Navy Minister Osumi and dignitaries from thebusiness world. They listened to what the Japanese had to say and exchanged opinions.
As soon as the team entered Manchuria, they heard that Manzhouguo had been
established.
Upon arrival in Tokyo, Lytton made a statement to the effect that team was toinvestigate the recent situation in Manchuria and Shanghai, and that its main purpose
was to provide the League’s assistance to both Japan and China so that the two nations
might find common ground that would lead to a permanent agreement.
The Lytton Commission, Manchuria Railway president Uchida Yasuya and Guandong
Army Commander Honjo Shigeru met to discuss the resolution of the Manchurian
problem. After the meeting, Uchida said, with emphasis, “The only solution is torecognize Manzhouguo. Manzhouguo is not a puppet state of Japan and has never been
Chinese territory.” Commander Honjo Shigeru added: “Manchuria is a lifeline for Japan.
To defend Manchuria is to protect not only Japan but also the entire civilized world fromthe Red revolution of the Comintern.”
Lytton Report recommends international control of Manchuria
The Lytton Report covers 10 chapters (148 pages in English and 289 pages in theJapanese translation done by Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs).
The Report lists the points about which Japan and China are in disagreement, as
follows:
1) China’s present and future
The Japanese position: China does not have a viable government. Therefore, China
is not eligible for membership in the League of Nations. China is not heading towardunification, but toward disintegration and decline.
The Lytton Report: The Commission concluded that despite of various hardships
and failures in China, China should gradually achieve statehood, and therefore ispresumably on its way to unification.
2) The Liutiaohu Incident and ensuing military actions by the Japanese Army
The Lytton Report: If any damage was done to the railroad, it was minor. The
military actions taken by the Japanese Army, starting with the attack on Beidaying,continuing with the occupation of Fengtian, and finally, developing into theoccupation of all of Manchuria were not in self-defense; they were acts of aggression.
The Japanese position: The Japanese protested the Report’s conclusions on four
grounds. First, the Japanese Army, with its 10,400 men, was far smaller than the
Chinese Army, which had 220,000 men. Second, the Japanese Army was responsible

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for the protection of more than a million Japanese nationals in Manchuria. Third,
the order of non-resistance issued by China was spurious. Lastly, theKellogg-Briand Pact recognizes the right of self-defense.
3) The Lytton Report: Manzhouguo was not born out of a true grassroots independence
movement; it is a puppet state of Japan. The investigative team received many
letters during their stay in Manchuria, and reported that all but two out of 1,550
opposed Manzhouguo.
The Japanese position: The letters were Chinese propaganda, and the writers
represented only one in 20,000 of the 30 million Manchurian citizens.
The Lytton Report: The Manchurian problem is hardly moving toward solution. The
Lytton Commission fears that mere restoration to conditions prevailing prior to the
September 18 Incident (Mukden Incident) may cause more friction between the two.
As a permanent solution, Chapter IX: “Principle and Conditions of Settlement” andChapter X: “Consideration and suggestions to the Council” were proposed. The twochapters stated that in Manchuria, an autonomous government under Chinese
sovereignty with far-reaching powers would be established. Foreign advisers led by
the League of Nations would provide guidance and advice to the government. A
special police force would be organized, and entrusted with maintaining security inthe region. All armed forces were to be withdrawn, and the region graduallydemilitarized. Japan, China and the Soviet Union would conclude a treaty thatprevented any of the three nations from invading Manchuria. A national security
plan for Manchuria was also proposed.
However, Japan opposed the investigation team’s proposal, on the grounds that it
put Manchuria under international control, a notion that was utterly unrealistic.
An American supports the Japanese position
George Bronson Rea was extremely critical of the Lytton Report:
I had my own views about Japan’s rights in Manchuria based on the facts ofhistory, which I still hold and which no arguments can shake. I firmly believe
what I have already made clear that, by all just law and the rules of war,
Japan is entitled to receive from China a full cash compensation for her partin the Russo-Japanese War or, in lieu of this, the territory that was lawfully
ceded to her in 1895 and which she was coerced by overwhelming force toreturn.39

In other words, Rea argues that Qing China was practically fighting in the167

Russo-Japanese War. Japan had the right to receive reparations, but China paid
nothing. At one time, part of Manchuria had been officially conceded to Japan, andtherefore Japan still possessed the right to the region.
When, however, Japan announced that she waved [sic] her legal and justclaims and would recognize the absolute independence and sovereignty ofManchoukuo and support the new state to defend its independence, it
seemed to me that far from being an act of aggression or territorial conquest,
it constituted one of the most striking gestures of self-denial and altruistic
statesmanship recorded in modern history.40

Japan had the right to possess Manchuria, but it abandoned that right and instead
advocated independence for peoples like the Manchus. This was not an act of invasion orconquest; it was a restrained, altruistic act that Rea appreciated.
Japan has announced that her basic policy in Manchoukuo is a most
scrupulous regard and respect for its independence and sovereignty, andthere is no more reason to doubt her pledged word, question her intentions
or impugn her motives than other nations have to be skeptical of our own
promises to grant ultimate independence to the Philippines.41

The United States promised the Philippines autonomy in 1934, and independence 10
years later. The independence and sovereignty of Manzhouguo were what Japanpromised the world. Why was Japan’s promise regarded as dubious, while the world
believed the promise made by the United States to the Philippines? Here, Rea points
out the contradiction.
2. Japan withdraws from League of Nations
Matsuoka says “Japan is the victim of a confused China”
The League of Nations was established on the basis of the tragic, bitter experiencesof World War I as a system to resolve international disputes through cooperation among
the Great Powers. The postwar world that Great Britain and France had been
researching and blueprinting during the War began to take shape following the Peace
Treaty of Versailles in June 1919.
On the basis of the 14 Points proposed by United States President Woodrow Wilson,
the League of Nations was established in January 1920. The organization was effective
in resolving disputes among weak and small nations, but it could not control the GreatPowers. This is the same problem the United Nations, established after World War II,
faces today.

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The League continued to exist until after World War II, but the United States, its key
advocator, did not become a member on account of isolationism. Though the Soviet
Union and Germany later joined, Japan and Germany withdrew from the League in1933. In 1937, Italy followed suit and left the League. In 1939, the Soviet Union wasousted after it attacked Finland. Consequently, the organization was a league of nationsin name only.
On November 21, 1932, the fifth meeting of the Board of Directors of the League washeld to discuss the Lytton Report. Well before the meeting began, it was predicted thatJapan would be in a very awkward position. The Japanese representative in Geneva;
Nagaoka Kansuke, ambassador to France; and Sato Naotake, ambassador to Belgium,
sent a telegram saying “League likely to press Japan to accept Manchurian autonomy”(the essence of the Lytton Report).
The senior delegate from Japan at the General Assembly of the League of Nations
was Matsuoka Yosuke. Also present were delegates to the Geneva Disarmament
Conference: Army Lt.-Gen. Matsui Iwane, Navy Vice-Admiral Nagano Osami; Maj.-Gen.
Tatekawa Yoshitsugu, senior attendant from the Army; and Col. Ishihara Kanji, seniordelegate to the League. Additionally, over 100 members of Japan’s Diet and reportersfrom newspapers and news agencies crowded into the venue.
Matsuoka reiterated previous assertions, i.e., that Japan was not to be blamed forwhat had happened in Manchuria, that Japanese action was taken in self-defense, andthat the Manchurian people wanted independence. Chinese delegate Gu Weijuncountered with an accusation of Japanese aggression.
The Board of Directors submitted the considerations in the Lytton Report to theGeneral Assembly on December 6. On December 15, the 19-member committee formed
to analyze the report unofficially presented a recommendation that expresseddisapproval of Manzhouguo, based on Article 15, Section 4 of the Covenant to both
Japan and China.
Delegate Matsuoka gave a speech before the General Assembly on February 24. He
said that the ROC was not a state in the European sense, that the chaos in the Far East
derived from disorder in the ROC, and that Japan, its nearest neighbor, was theprimary victim of that situation.
League fails to understand Japan’s position
I have stated repeatedly that the rare references to the relationship between the ROC
and Manchuria when Manzhouguo was established have been extremely distorted. The
true relationship can be summarized as follows.

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Although the ROC was established after the Xinhai Revolution, the Beijing
government and other opposing each claimed to be the sole government of China.
Moreover, there was neither constitution nor law regulating relations among provinces.
It was not clear which government was the legitimate one. Consequently, any
government that could defeat an opposing government and unite the nation by force
ultimately became the legitimate government. There were five million troops in China,
a number that climbed exponentially once the forces of armed bandits were included.
Each force was engaged in a power game orchestrated by the Great Powers, whichthrew China into utter chaos.
According to scholar Lin Yutang, Chinese civil wars fought up until the Mukden
Incident claimed 30 million victims. By another account, 30 million people died in the
Guomindang civil wars that pitted Chiang Kaishek against Yan Xishan, Feng Yuxiang
and others.
In any case, “civil-war republic” seems to be the only accurate description of the ROC.
The people had no idea what a republic is. Furthermore, 96% of the population was
uneducated, and hadn’t the slightest idea what their rights were.
Warlord Zhang Zuolin, who held sway over Manchuria, and Zhang Xueliang, who
succeeded him, became rulers of Manchuria after the Xinhai Revolution. But their lives
ended in little more than 20 years. However, the Zhangs were certainly not sovereignsof Manchuria. Moreover, the Beijing government never laid a finger on Manchuria.
Even when the Fengtian Army was defeated in the twice-fought Zhili-Fengtian conflict,
Beijing did not get involved. This is historical fact.
Just as the United States freed Cuba from Spanish control, the Guandong Army
expelled the Zhang family from Manchuria, and liberated its 30 million people from thewarlords.
However, when the United States took the Philippines from Spain, it also took away
Filipinos’ independence. In contrast, the Guandong Army expelled the Zhangs from
Manchuria and restored the nation to the Manchus. The League of Nations did not
appreciate the Japanese position; the Lytton Report was adopted. Before long, Japan
would withdraw from the League.
3. Manzhouguo affected by the fortunes of the Greater East Asian War
Chinese military expansion
In 1937, five years after Manzhouguo was established, the Sino-Japanese Incident (orthe Sino-Japanese War) broke out. Five years later, in 1941, the Greater East Asian War

170

commenced. These two wars drastically changed Manzhouguo.
It is not a coincidence that the all-out conflict between Japan and China caused
Japanese-American relations to worsen. During any discussion of the path to theGreater East Asian War, countless “if” arguments are broached: war might have been
averted or, conversely, war was inevitable.
For example, what if Japan had agreed to American railroad magnate Harriman’s
proposal for joint investment in the Manchuria Railway? What if the Anglo-Japanese
Alliance had remained in force? What if the Triple Alliance among Japan, Germany and
Italy had never been concluded? What if Japan had acquiesced to the Hull Note? The
response to all these questions is, some argue, that there would have been no war
between Japan and the United States.
After World War I, arms reduction and war prevention became mainstream topics asa result of the Nine-Power Treaty and the Washington Conference. Accordingly, sincere
efforts toward arms reduction were being made by the Great Powers. The ROC,
hell-bent on military expansion, was the sole exception to that global trend.
Even today, China is the one nation in the world heading for military expansion.
Since the Cold War ended, Europe, the United States and Russia are working to achievearms reduction. China alone is busy increasing its defense budget, developing means totransport nuclear missiles, and augmenting its marine defense.
The civil wars in China during the republican period began with conflicts among theBeiyang warlords, then erupted within the Guomindang, finally expanding into a
conflict between the Guomindang and the communists. As mentioned previously, after
the Mukden Incident, Chinese warlords had more than five million troops under theircontrol. Although the Great Powers had concluded an agreement whereby no weapons
would be provided to Chinese warlords, they seldom honored it.
The post-revolutionary Soviet government, then Great Britain and the United States
all found ways to give China economic assistance and weapons. They feared Japanese
influence, on the rise after the Russo-Japanese War, and probably believed it necessary
to help China become a powerful ally against Japan. This notion developed into the viewthat a final war between Japan and the United States of America, a clash between theWestern and Eastern civilizations, was inevitable, just as Ishihara Kanji had predicted.
Manchuria at peace during Sino-Japanese War
Progressive Japanese intellectuals refer to the Sino-Japanese War as the “eight-yearwar” or the “15-year war” (when they include the Mukden Incident). However, theselabels do not even begin to reflect an accurate comprehension of historical fact.

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Full-scale war between Japan and China began with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident(July 7, 1937) and lasted for 18 months, ending with the surrender of Wuhan (October
27, 1938). Afterwards, only three-way civil wars were waged among the various local
governments, such as those led by Chiang Kaishek in Chongqing, Wang Jingwei in
Nanking and Mao Zedong in Yanan.
The regions controlled by Wang Jingwei’s government were called “enemy territory”
by Chiang Kaishek and Mao Zedong. But they were more stable economically andfinancially than they had been during the years of civil war between warlords and theGuomindang government. There were also fleeting halcyon days shared by the Nanking
government and the Manchurian government through trade.
The Sino-Japanese Incident further consolidated the political relationship between
Japan and Manchuria. In Manzhouguo, five years after its establishment, the basis for
economic cooperation between Japan and Manchuria was confirmed. In September 1936,
a five-year plan for industrial development in Manchuria was devised. In the following
year, the Sino-Japanese Incident broke out. Although there were some modifications to
the plan, it was an era of great progress and prosperity for Manzhouguo.
In December 1941, Japan declared war against the United States and Great Britain,
entering into the Greater East Asian War. Although Manzhouguo did not declare war on
America and Great Britain, it joined forces with Japan and China, further
strengthening the relationship with Japan under the policy of a controlled wartime
economy to support the war. In 1942, at a high point, Manzhouguo celebrated its tenthanniversary.
In the early stages of the Greater East Asian War, Japan won victory after
overwhelming victory. Southeast Asian regions that had been European and Americancolonies for centuries were liberated. However, in 1943 and thereafter, the JapaneseArmy suffered setbacks and defeats at the hands of the American and British. The
Soviet Union was waiting for an opportunity to strike the archipelago of Japan, which
was about to lose the war.
In accordance with the Greater East Asian Coprosperity Zone proposed by Japan,
Manzhouguo entered into wartime economic order. Under the slogan of “Japan,
Manchuria and China united”, Manzhouguo became a base for heavy industry in thatorder.
Iron-manufacturing in Anshan and Benxihu, artificial petroleum manufacturing
using coal and shale oil from Fushun, magnesium extraction at Yingkou; lead, zinc,tungsten and molybdenum refiners at Bohai Bay; and aluminum development in South
Manchuria are all well-known. Automobiles, weapons, ammunitions and even aircraft

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were produced. Manzhouguo has 18 million hectares of arable land, nearly three times
more than Japan. A plan was made to produce 10.8 million tons of food in this vast land,
more than twice as much the Japanese yield.
From July through December 1944, a huge formation of American B-29 bombers took
off from Kunming Base, located deep in the Chinese hinterlands, and began bombarding
Manchurian heavy industry bases like Anshan and Fengtian.
However, Manchuria was peaceful throughout most of the Greater East Asian War. It
became a battlefield only when the Soviet Army invaded Manchuria six days before theend of the war, and during the ensuing civil war between the Guomindang and thecommunists.
4. Guomindang and communists struggle over Manchuria
Massive looting by Soviet Army; 600,000 Siberian detainees
On August 6, 1945, an American bomber dubbed the Enola Gay dropped an atomic
bomb on Hiroshima. Three days later, at midnight on August 9, the Soviet Army
invaded Manzhouguo via the eastern border, and other locations.
The Japanese government had asked the Soviet government to mediate peace
negotiations with the United States and Great Britain. However, what Ambassador
Sato received in Moscow on August 8 was not the response to his request, but adeclaration of war against Japan reading, “As of midnight on August 9, the Soviet
Union shall enter the war against Japan.”
Soviet troops invaded Manchuria, approaching from four directions. In their forceswere 1.75 million soldiers, including 80 land divisions, 40 tank units, a mechanizedbrigade and 32 air divisions, together with 5,250 tanks equipped with armored artillery
weapons, and 5,071 aircraft.
In June 1941, the Guandong Army mobilized more than 300,000 troops from Japan to
conduct special military maneuvers, augmenting the Guandong forces to 700,000
soldiers. The purpose was to defend against the Soviet aggression. However, as thesouthern front deteriorated, most of the powerful Guandong Army units were sent south.
As many soldiers as possible were recruited to meet quotas, but in actuality, there werefewer than eight divisions. Some units had to fight without even small arms. The
Guandong Army did not possess enough military power to defend itself or counterattack
the Soviet Army, though its soldiers fought desperately and honorably.
After having occupied Manchuria, Soviet troops went on a looting spree andcommitted plunder, and then turned to abductions. It is estimated that 600,000-700,000173Japanese were forcibly transported to Siberia. According to the Ministry of Welfare’s
War Relief Bureau, 575,000 Japanese were abducted.
The Japanese population in Manchuria was estimated at about 1.55 million when the
war ended. The sixth volume of Showa shi no tenno (The Emperor in Showa era history)
states that by the end of October 1946, 1,010,000 Japanese (65% of Manchuria’s
Japanese population) boarded ships bound for Japan. They arrived home within thespace of a year, a journey made possible mainly by assistance from civilians.42
When it occupied Manchuria, Soviet troops plundered the vital industrial facilities
throughout Manchuria, and sent their trophies home to the USSR. According to a reportissued by an American investigative team (the Bawley team), they were worth the
mammoth sum of $895 million.
It was Soviet custom to forcibly transport the soldiers of defeated nations to the USSR,
and intern them in labor camps. At that time, 3,150,000 German, 220,000 Italian, and20,000 French soldiers had been taken to the USSR and detained there.
Mao Zedong : northeastern region key to a successful revolution
When the Emperor delivered his address on August 15, the Guandong Army lost
power in Manchuria. Soon, on entering Changchun, occupying Soviet Army commander
Gen. Kowaryov ordered Manchuria Railway President Yamazaki Genkan to have his
employees keep working as before. But owing to looting by Soviet troops, and by rioterseverywhere, the trains stopped running between August 19 and 23. When the war
ended, approximately 80,000 Japanese railwaymen remained.
On August 27, an agreement concerning the Changchun Railroad and Port Dalian
was concluded between China and the Soviet Union.
Soviet forces occupying the cities of Changchun, Shenyang and Anshan begantransferring important mining, manufacturing and transportation facilities to the
USSR. The Manchuria Railway was ordered to transport those facilities, along withJapanese prisoners of war. In 1946, repatriation for former Manchuria Railway
employees and Japanese residents of Manchuria began. In 1947, when repatriation was
nearly completed, President Yamazaki and his staff returned to Japan.
When Manzhouguo collapsed, heavy industry in Manchuria accounted for nearly 90%of heavy industry in all of China; it was, for all intents and purposes, China’s lifeline. In
April 1945, at the seventh National Assembly of the CCP (Chinese Communist Party),
Mao Zedong said, “We can accomplish a socialist revolution as long as we retain thenortheastern region, even if we were to lose all our other bases.” The CCP issued theorder to occupy the northeastern region a day after the Soviet Army invaded

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Manzhouguo.
CCP forces rushed into the northeastern region from all over China. By the time theGuomindang Army took Shanhaiguan in December 1945, the Communist Army had
already occupied 154 prefectures and some 70 cities.
Replacing the Soviet Army, the Chinese Communist Army stayed temporarily in
Manchuria. But in October 1945, the Guomindang Army entered Manchuria. As the
Guomindang Army occupied the region, the Chinese Communist Army retreated from
cities to farming villages, and then to the forests and mountains. In due time, thecommunists returned to strike back. Thus began a full-scale civil war between the
Guomindang and the communists.
In mid-October 1945, the 13th Guomindang Army was transported to Dalian and
Yingkou on American warships, and attempted to land in the northeastern region.
However, they were prevented from doing so by the Soviet Army and landed in
Qinhuangdao and other locations, where they fought with the Communist Party Armyfor occupation of the northeastern region.
Subsequently, the Guomindang and the Communist armies clashed all acrossManchuria. On November 19, 1945, the Soviet Army informed Peng Zhen and Lin Biaoof their retreat plan and turned over the Changchun railroad line and the city of
Changchun to the Guomindang Army. The communists temporarily retreated from therailroad area to the countryside. On November 26, the Communist Army retreated from
Jinzhou, which was then occupied by the Guomindang Army.
Unprecedented blood bath determines Manchuria’s fate
On January 10, 1946, the Guomindang and the communists agreed to a ceasefire, but
the fighting resumed in early February. In March, Soviet troops retreated from
Manchuria. Some of the weapons they had confiscated from the Guandong Army were
given to the Chinese Communist Army. In the early battles, the Guomindang Armyprevailed (it was well equipped with American-style weapons), driving the communists
away from the railroad area and the big cities.
In June 1946, the nation-wide civil war between the Guomindang and thecommunists resumed. Between July 1946 and June 1947, 1,120,000 Guomindang
soldiers were annihilated by the communists in battles fought in various parts of China.
At that time, the Guomindang Army had nearly 480,000 troops in Manchuria, while theCommunist Army had 460,000. Their forces were well-matched. After the summer
offensive in 1947, the Communist Army gained the upper hand, occupying 36 cities,
while the Guomindang held on to only nine large cities.

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In August 1947, Chiang Kaishek appointed Chen Cheng general commander of thenortheastern military government in place of Xiong Shihui. On January 1, 1948, Chiang
Kaishek addressed the military men and citizens of the entire nation: “We will
annihilate the main force of the Communist Army within one year.” However, theGuomindang could not prevail in the civil war with the communists in Manchuria. The
general commander of military operations was replaced by Wei Lihuang.
After March 1948, both the Guomindang and communist armies changed greatly. The
Guomindang Army commanded 550,000 troops, while the Communist Army steadily
increased its forces to 700,000 men, plus an additional 330,000 local guerrillas. On
August 14, 1948, the Northeastern Field Operation Army was formed. After October ofthe same year, the Communist Army won consecutive victories in the battles of Jinzhou,
Changchun and Shenyang; most of Manchuria fell into communist hands. According to
the Liao-Shen War Report presented by Lin Piao, Luo Ronghuan and others to the
CCP’s Central Military Committee on February 8,1949, more than 400,000
Guomindang soldiers had been killed, while there were 60,000 communist casualties.
However, no statistics can adequately express the suffering of the people. The civil
war fought in Manchuria between the Guomindang and the communists pitted Chinese
against Chinese under the most horrible circumstances. It was a tragic prelude to thereincorporation of Manchuria into the Chinese world.
5. Achievements in Manzhouguo a modern Asian miracle
A grand experiment: a multi-ethnic modern state
I do not deny that the Japanese performed the leading role behind the scenes in
Manzhouguo. But it should be also understood that Japanese management ofManzhouguo was a far cry from any colonial management by the Great Powers, for it
reflected the Japanese experience of managing Taiwan and the Korean peninsula. To
Asia, Manzhouguo was a great experiment in the building of a modern, multi-ethnic
nation-state.
The dream of ethnic cooperation has not yet been successfully realized by any state.
Even the United States, though regarded as a melting pot, has been having difficulty
overcoming various ethnic problems involving the black, Hispanic and Oriental (East
Asian) peoples.
The Soviet Union, its socialist ideology notwithstanding, failed to solve its religious
and ethnic problems. The socialist nations secretly dubbed “the prisons of ethnic
peoples” have disintegrated because of their corrupt bureaucracies. Ethnic issues today176are smoldering everywhere like live coals about to flare up, not just in East Europe butin every nation throughout the world.
It has been indicated that though Manzhouguo advocated ethnic cooperation, it wasmarked by an obvious racial hierarchy, with the Japanese at the top, the Koreanssecond, and the Han and Manchu third.
However, when it comes to ethnic segregation, there is nothing as totally exclusive as
the Sino-centric perception. According to the traditional Chinese way of thinking, theChinese are superior to all other peoples, whom they regard as pitiable beings akin toanimals or half-humans.
Modern inhabitants of the Manchurian region are mostly foreign immigrants like theJapanese, the Koreans and the Han, except that there are Manchus, Mongols andMongolian or Tungus minorities. The situation is more like that in the United States orin Central and South American countries.
The governing officials and organizations, as well as the engineers of Manzhouguo
were mainly Japanese. There was no other way of doing things, even though the Han
were in the absolute majority, demographically. If it is true that the Chinese are an
agricultural and commercial people, then it follows that the Japanese are technicalpeople. Moreover, unlike China, whose national literacy rate was under 20%, Japan
prided itself on high education level of its people achieved in the Edo period and further
improved after the Meiji Restoration. The Japanese had had a modern industrial society
for more than 60 years. We are not talking about unfairness here.
Testimonies by those concerned with Manzhouguo should be heard
The leading players in Manzhouguo were Japanese. This is a fact. In terms of
population ratio, the Japanese represented only 1/30 of the total, but without them,
Manzhouguo would have never come into being, for several reasons. First, but for thestrong Guandong Army, Manzhouguo would have never been able to maintain national
security in the face of Russia and Chinese warlord governments. Additionally, among
the various peoples who resided in Manzhouguo, human resources were found nowhere
but among the Japanese, with their high educational standard. Industrial investments
came mainly from Japan. Manzhouguo’s government bonds were purchased withJapanese capital.
In order to issue those bonds, the Japanese government enacted Law No. 87 in May
1938 (Law Concerning Foreign Bonds To Be Purchased in Japan). The Manzhouguo
bonds were regarded as Japanese government bonds for taxation purposes.
Hoshino Naoki was Manzhouguo’s director of public management, and was appointed

177president of the Planning Bureau and minister of state after he returned to Japan. In
the “Afterword” of Mihatenu yume: Manshukoku gaishi (A dream unrealized: an
unofficial history of Manzhouguo), Hoshino writes:
During that time [1932-1940], conditions in Manchuria changed
dramatically. Public order was maintained perfectly; not a single
soldier-bandit was to be seen in the country. Manchuria had beentransformed from an agricultural state to an industrial one; the grossnational product doubled. The standard of living there had improved
remarkably. People came from all over East Asia to settle here. The
population, once 30 million, now surpassed 50 million. Extraterritoriality
had been abolished, as had the exclusive status of Manchuria Railway
property. The Japanese were ordered to pay taxes and obey the laws andregulations, just like other Manchurians.
Japanese young people voluntarily went to Manzhouguo to help the newstate grow, not just for the sake of Japanese leaders, but in fullcooperation with the peoples of East Asia. The idea was to share thebenefits equally and widely, and to create a new paradise there. Whatdrew those people to Manchuria was neither self-interest nor honor. It waspure passion: the passion that inspired them to discover a new land and toparticipate in building a new nation. Owen Lattimore called Manchuria
the cradle of the East Asian struggle. He was describing pre-Manzhouguo
Manchuria perfectly. Those who were motivated to help build
Manzhouguo shared the goal of making the new nation a cradle of peace in
East Asia.
In the history of Manzhouguo, there had been no scandals relating to overseas
territories or colonies. That is probably why the bureaucracy remained clean.
After too short a life, only 13 1/2 years, the building of Manzhouguo ended, thedream unrealized. The efforts made by Japanese young people during thisperiod must be remembered for all time with pride by the Japanese people.
Surely I am not the only one who is happy to have participated in the great
work of building Manzhouguo.43

I have included this lengthy quote to illustrate my point. I think it important to knowthat there are Japanese like Hoshino who are proud to have been among those who took178

part in building Manzhouguo. They are perhaps the antidote to “progressive” pundits
and scholars who do nothing but characterize Manzhouguo as a “puppet state” and a
product of aggression, exploitation and massacre committed by Japanese imperialism,
and claim that the history of Manzhouguo is a fabrication.
Miracle of Manzhouguo still shines
Here I would like to add some modern achievements of Manzhouguo that have been
completely neglected up to now. One of them is the consolidation of the police system.
Traditionally, the land of Manchuria had been ruled not by appropriate government
entities, but by warlords and bandits. What changed that was the Guandong Army, amodern military organization, and the newly implemented police system. Ultimately,
public order in Manchuria was maintained by the Guandong Army and the police. Thenmodern industry advanced smoothly.
The building of Manzhouguo ended abruptly after 13 ½ years, at which point it wasannexed by China. As a nation, Manzhouguo had had too short a life. But its history
should not be forgotten. Remember that this short-lived nation transformed the oldsociety of warlords and bandits into a modern one almost overnight. It is not an
exaggeration to call Manzhouguo a miracle in modern Asia (in the modern world, forthat matter).
After the Meiji Restoration, exuberant Japanese energy created a new Taiwan, andthen a modern Korean peninsula. Moreover, the final concentration of that power was
the work devoted to building a modern society in Manzhouguo. In Asia, over the past
century and a half, only the Japanese people have demonstrated the potential to create
a new state.
What on earth was the source of that explosive energy? Regrettably, not one
Japanese has come up with the answer to this question. On the contrary, most Japaneserefuse to face it squarely.
The Japanese are quick to adapt and react; their efforts toward self-improvement are
remarkably prompt. These qualities were evident in their management of Taiwan, theKorean peninsula and Manzhouguo. They continually refine their management
methods, and make improvements. Their ability to respond to changes quickly andrationally helps them stay on top of any situation. The Japanese do not cling totradition; they are always pursuing new concepts and creative innovations. I sincerely
hope that the Japanese will maintain their energy at a high level, and invest it inanother restoration — the Heisei Restoration.

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39

Rea, op. cit., pp. 102-103.

40

Ibid., p. 103.

41

Ibid., p. 103.

42

Yomiuri Shinbunsha, Showa shi no tenno (The Emperor in Showa era history), vol. 6(Tokyo: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, 1968-76).
43

Hoshino Naoki, Mihatenu yume: Manshukoku gaishi (A dream unrealized: an unofficial

history of Manzhouguo) (Tokyo: Diamond-sha, 1963).

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