Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science

ISSN: 2164-0599 (Print) 2164-0602 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rass20

The glocalization and management of professional
basketball leagues: the Euroleague, National
Basketball League of Australia and bj-league ofJapan
Naoki Chiba
To cite this article: Naoki Chiba (2015): The glocalization and management of professional
basketball leagues: the Euroleague, National Basketball League of Australia and bj-league ofJapan, Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science, DOI: 10.1080/21640599.2015.1077576
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21640599.2015.1077576

Published online: 05 Nov 2015.

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Date: 23 November 2015, At: 21:36

Asia Paciﬁc Journal of Sport and Social Science, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21640599.2015.1077576

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The glocalization and management of professional basketball leagues:
the Euroleague, National Basketball League of Australia andbj-league of Japan
Naoki Chiba*
Department of Lifelong Sports, Hokusho University, Japan
This study examines aspects of globalization and glocalization in three professional
basketball leagues (the Euroleague, Australia’s National Basketball League andJapan’s bj-league) and considers the differences in basketball culture between
Europe, Australia, Japan and the USA. Qualitative interviews were used to accessthe perspectives of representatives of the three professional leagues. The study adopts
World-systems theory as its theoretical framework. The informants agreed that basketball has experienced globalization and indicated that the global broadcasting of
US National Basketball Association (NBA) games has facilitated this. In addition,
Japanese teams have developed their own promotional styles based on local
traditions; this is evidence of glocalization in the bj-league. It was indicated that theEuroleague style of basketball is more team-oriented than that of the NBA. On theother hand, the style of play in Australia’s NBL consists of a mix of US college
basketball, the NBA and European basketball.
Keywords: globalization; glocalization; professional basketball; sport management

Introduction
The USA men’s team, popularly known as the ‘Dream Team’ and composed of famous
National Basketball Association (NBA) players such as Earvin ‘Magic’ Johnson andMichael Jordan, won the gold medal at the Barcelona Olympics in 1992. The team’s
impressive performances stunned basketball players and observers across the globe.
After these Olympics, NBA games began to be broadcast outside North America, creating a basketball boom in some countries, such as Japan and Australia, during the 1990s.
New professional basketball leagues were established in various countries. But to what
extent, and in what ways, were these leagues inﬂuenced by NBA games? Furthermore,
how far did they reﬂect an example of globalization, namely the impact of the NBA on
basketball worldwide?
Various researchers have traced the globalization of basketball since the late 1990s(Andrews, 1996, 1997; Falcous & Maguire, 2005; Chiba, 2012). For example, Chiba(2012) investigated the increase in the number of foreign-born players playing in the
NBA and clariﬁed the global marketing strategy implemented by the NBA since the1980s. David Stern, a former NBA commissioner, improved NBA teams’ management
and also guided the development of this global strategy, which included holding exhibitions or ofﬁcial NBA games in Europe, Japan and China from the late 1980s.

*Email: naokic@hokusho-u.ac.jp© 2015 Taylor & Francis

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The basketball boom occurred in Japan during the 1980s and 1990s, as the numberof basketball players increased from some 400,000 in 1980 to a million in 1995.1
Demachi (2003) observes that the popularity of the NBA and of the comic ‘Slam Dunk’,a popular cartoon in which high-school students grow up playing basketball,2 was theprimary reason for this increase in the number of basketball players. This Japanese
cartoon was inﬂuenced by the NBA and was broadcasted in 15 countries including South
Korea, Taiwan, the Philippines and Italy. This phenomenon is an example of theglocalization of basketball culture – in this case, the integration of American andJapanese cultures.
What is ‘glocalization’? Giulianotti and Robertson (2007, p. 134) offer deﬁnitions of
the term in their study of North American supporters of two Scottish football clubs:
The word glocalization derives from the Japanese term dochakuka, meaning ‘global localization’ or, in micro-marketing teams, the tailoring of global products and services to suitparticular cultural tastes. (Robertson, 1992, pp. 173–174)

Sociological usage of glocalization highlights the simultaneity or co-presence of both
universalizing and particularizing tendencies in globalization; that is, the commonly interconnected process of homogenization and heterogenization. (Robertson, 1994; Robertson &White, 2005)

Giulianotti and Robertson (2007) suggest ‘a four-fold typology of glocalization projects,
with reference to relativization, accommodation, hybridization and transformation’ toclassify types of Scottish football supporters in North America. Furthermore, they proposed the notion of ‘duality of glocality’ when reviewing the literature on the glocalization of sports in Asia (Giulianotti & Robertson, 2012). After criticizing otherinterpretations of glocalization suggested by Ritzer (2004) and Connell (2007), theypresented their own understanding of glocalization in the following manner:
Glocalization is not an abstract or static category, but is instead a dynamic social processthat is of particular sociological interest when examined in operation. In our analysis, glocalization captures the complex interplay, and mutually implicative interrelationships,
between the local and the global, the particular and the universal. The ‘duality of globality’means that glocalization is a dichotomous process, in terms of registering trends towardboth social convergence or homogenization and social divergence or heterogenization.
(Giulianotti & Robertson, 2012, p. 448)

This study adopts Giulianotti and Robertson’s deﬁnition of glocalization and applies itto the case of professional basketball. It focuses on the ‘glocalization’ of basketball in
the Euroleague, Australia’s National Basketball League (NBL) and Japan’s bj-league.
The Euroleague and the NBL are transnational basketball leagues. On the other hand,the bj-league, founded in 2005, has sought to provide professional sports entertainment
with a consciously glocal or community-based focus, meaning that the teams in the league seek to contribute to community development through the business of basketballand to produce elite Japanese players potentially capable of competing even in theNBA. In other words, the bj-league has sought to facilitate the glocalization of eachmember team since the league’s establishment.
The purpose of this study is to clarify (1) characteristics of globalization and glocalization in the three professional basketball leagues, (2) the differences in basketball

Asia Paciﬁc Journal of Sport and Social Science3

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culture between Europe, Australia, Japan and the USA and (3) the management stylesof these leagues.
Methods
Interviews were conducted with Jordi Bertomeu (President and CEO of Euroleague
Basketball) in March 2009, Chuck Harmison (General Manager of the NBL) in
February 2010 and Toshimitsu Kawachi (Commissioner of the bj-league) in March
2011. Each interview lasted for one hour. The study sought to understand the characteristics of globalization and glocalization in the three professional leagues throughapplying the framework of symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1969). According to thistheoretical framework, the researcher relies on the meaning of interviewees’ observations to explain their actions and ideas. With this in mind, I sought to investigate theinterviewees’ opinions and interpretations. The interviews covered the history, development, management, globalization and glocalization of professional basketball leagues aswell as the cultural differences between leagues.
World-systems theory and sports studies
This study applies World-systems theory, developed by Immanuel Wallerstein (2004), tointerpret the structure of global basketball and to interpret the structure of the global
migration of basketball players.3 Magee and Sugden (2002) interpreted the structure ofsoccer migration using the concepts of centre and periphery, based on World-systems
theory. They classiﬁed Europe as centre, South and Central America as semi-periphery,
Africa as periphery and Asia and North America as external world in terms of thepolitical economy of soccer, the history of the sport’s diffusion and player migration(Magee and Sugden, 2002, p. 428). While soccer spread gradually from Europe to therest of the world, elite professional players tended to migrate to European countries suchas England, Spain and Italy. World-systems theory holds particular appeal because it
can contribute to the understanding of power relationships among sporting leagues andthe structure of overseas player migrations across regions.
Figure 1 illustrates the power relationships between centre and periphery in theworld of basketball and the tendencies of professional player migrations. In line with
Magee and Sugden (2002), the ﬁgure shows North America at the centre, Europe assemi-periphery, Central and South America and Africa as periphery and Asia andOceania as part of the external world. While elite basketball players aim to play in the
NBA (in-migration), American players who cannot sign with NBA teams move toEurope, Asia, South America and Oceania (out-migration).
The development and problems of Euroleague basketball
The Euroleague was established by the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) in
1958. FIBA managed the Euroleague until 2000, at which time the Union of European
Leagues of Basketball (UELB) formed Euroleague Basketball, which comprised 24
clubs from 12 European countries.4 Only the top clubs in domestic leagues can participate in this competition. Attendance at games in this league averages about 5000. The
Euroleague does not regulate a quota system for foreign players or salary caps for eachteam because of the different taxation laws and rules in each country.

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N. Chiba

Figure 1. Structure of global basketball and ﬂows of transnational basketball migrants according
to the World-systems theory.

How then is the Euroleague inﬂuenced by globalization and glocalization? Jordi
Bertomeu, President and CEO of Euroleague Basketball, agreed strongly that basketball
is becoming a global sport:
Since we have players from everywhere, the NBA did a great job bringing basketball tothis level because they have more than 80 international players. Today the game is much
more global. A few years ago, basketball did not exist in China. Today it is the mostimportant sport in this huge country. … So it’s becoming more and more global since we
opened all the doors, we opened all the borders, so I think it’s good. And then on the otherside we have the television games, television broadcasts our game almost everywhere. We
are in 201 countries and territories and the NBA is in more than 250 countries, whichmeans that this is becoming global.

Bertomeu indicated that basketball is becoming global because of the increased numberof foreign-born players in the NBA and because of television broadcasting of NBA andEuroleague games. However, when questioned about the world structure of basketball(as depicted in Figure 1, which originally placed South America in the semi-periphery),
Bertomeu described the role of South American players in the following manner:
I think South America is more close to the third ring than the second maybe. The typicalway of the South American players is that they ﬁrst come to Europe and then from Europe
they jump to the NBA. That’s more or less the tradition of almost all the South American
players in the NBA. … You have examples such as Ginobili, Nocioni, Oberto, we haveplenty of examples, players who ﬁrst came to Europe and then they jumped to, Scola, many
NBA players follow this path.5

The location of South America in Figure 1 was modiﬁed from semi-periphery to periphery in accordance with Bertomeu’s indication, as some South American players utilized
the Euroleague as a stepping-stone before moving to the NBA.
When asked what the biggest challenge is in relation to managing a transnational
professional basketball league, Bertomeu stated the following:Asia Paciﬁc Journal of Sport and Social Science5

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It is important to understand that there are many different cultures, because people from Spain
are not the same as people from Germany or people from Austria or Russia or Israel. So, youhave to understand all these countries and all these cultures – how these people used to run
the teams, how they approach different aspects of the business. And that is the more challenging situation, to understand each particular country and to give the prototypes to each one.

As the Euroleague is composed of 24 teams from 12 countries, it is difﬁcult to understand the different cultures of basketball in each individual country.
However, when asked about the overall difference in the style of basketball between
the NBA and the Euroleague, Bertomeu explained:
It’s a different game. … This is more sport than show. So we have both as they have both.
But here it’s more about the sport, winning and losing games. That is more spectacular. …
It’s much more technical. It’s much more a team game. That is the most important difference between European basketball and the NBA. Our game is much more a team game.
It’s not based on the one-on-one style of the players.

Bertomeu emphasized that the Euroleague’s games are much more team-oriented than
NBA games. For example, NBA rules restricted the use of the zone defence until the
2001–2002 season to preserve the high performance of star players who specialized in
one-on-one styles of play. When asked to describe further the differences in playing
style between the NBA and the Euroleague, Bertomeu answered:I think it’s always based on the same. So, in Europe the players are more disciplined, they
follow the instructions of the coach much more closely than in the NBA. Here the coach isvery important. In the NBA, there are some players that – they run the game. They are theones who decide everything about the game. So, this is the concept of the NBA game.
They are based on one or two players. It’s not our style. We have … teams and we haveclubs. Some of the clubs are 100 years old. So, then the player is never more important
than the club. In the NBA it’s different. So, Michael Jordan is much more important thanthe Chicago Bulls, but if Michael Jordan plays in Europe for Real Madrid – Real Madrid is
a 100-year-old institution, so Real Madrid will be always much more important. It’s aquestion of culture.

Bertomeu argued that star players such as Michael Jordan are more important thanteams in the NBA. On the other hand, clubs with histories of up to 100 years are more
important than players in the Euroleague. Thus, culture is an important part of managing
a team in Europe.
The next consideration was how Euroleague teams are managed. Bertomeu
explained that there are three types of basketball teams: (1) teams supported by soccer
clubs such as FC Barcelona and Real Madrid, (2) teams supported by corporations such
as Laboral Kutxa Vitoria6 and (3) teams supported by rich owners (e.g. Panathinaikos
and CSKA Moscow). Each team has a different budget for players. When asked about
the disparity in player potential among teams, Bertomeu replied:Well, the truth is that the teams that have been investing or spending money on players,
like CSKA Moscow and Panathinaikos, have more chance to win. But at the same time wehave teams like Laboral Kutxa Vitoria, which has spent half of what Panathinaikos isspending and has many more ﬁnals appearances compared to Panathinaikos. So, with lessmoney they can make a very competitive team. So, it is not always about money. So, forexample, Real Madrid and Barcelona – those teams in Spain have a higher budget because
football gives money to basketball. … Having more money doesn’t mean that you aregoing to win.

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Bertomeu indicated that while rich teams have advantages, they do not always win thechampionship in the Euroleague or the National league. When asked about the revenuesof the Euroleague, Bertomeu explained that ‘We have our program of sponsorship andthen we run the television rights of the Euroleague games and also our events’. Thoseare the three main sources of income: the events, sponsorship, and television rights
revenues.
At the time of the interview, the Euroleague’s budget consisted of television
revenues (61%), sponsorship (22%) and events and others (17%). Furthermore, whileclubs receive 70% of the television broadcasting fees, the rest of the revenues areallocated to sports prizes and a minimum fee for each team, and to cover all operational
expenses of the organization.
The development and challenges of Australia’s NBL
The NBL was established in 1979 as an amateur league in Australia. As it gained
popularity in the 1980s, it developed into a professional league and a private ownershipsystem was adopted. At its peak, in 1984, the NBL had expanded to 17 teams; by2009, the number of teams had fallen to eight. In the 2014–2015 season, the NBL
consisted of seven Australian teams and the New Zealand Breakers.
NBL general manager Chuck Harmison agreed that basketball is becoming a global
sport and explained the reasons for this growth as the following:
There are so many kids in every country who are playing the sport now. When I was growing up in the 70s and the 80s, other countries didn’t play basketball. They played soccer.
But I think as television has gotten into every corner of the globe, the NBA has spread themessage, [and] lots of kids in every country are playing basketball.

Harmison understood that children around the world started playing basketball after
watching NBA games on television around 1990. Furthermore, he evidenced as anotherexample of globalization that the New Zealand Breakers now belong to the NBL.7
When asked about the cultural characteristics of the League, Harmison responded:
We have a cross between US college basketball and the NBA with a little bit of European
style. It’s a mix of everything. Somebody once described this as the best 6′8′′ and underleague in the world. We don’t have good, really big players. … Very fast, the game moves
up and down the court very fast. Not like the NBA where it’s one pass, shoot, one pass,shoot, and much more ball work. We look more like Europe but not as big as Europe, notas physical as Europe.

Harmison also described the inﬂuence of NBA players on Australian basketball:
The shorts, the ball handling, the dunks are very much inﬂuenced by that, and that’s a challenge for us because that’s not the style we want to see. It’s not the style that our nationalteam wants to see, but it’s what the kids watch on television a lot. So, they see it, theywant to play like that. So, the coaches have a real challenge to bring them back and focus
them on the good techniques.

We can see from Harmison’s comments that young talents in other countries tend toimitate the acrobatic style of NBA players and seem to be inﬂuenced by individualistic,
one-on-one styles of play after watching NBA games. This is an effect of globalizationin the world of basketball, disseminated through the spread of NBA broadcasting.

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When asked about the economic development of the NBL, Harmison explained theeconomic structure of the league and of each team:
Economically, we struggle a little bit. We can’t attract as many sponsors as we need. We
don’t get as much revenue from our television broadcast partner as we need. But it is still avery good basketball product. In the early days, most of the teams were run by volunteers.
They’d come out of the club structure, so they weren’t privately owned. Now all the teams
are privately owned except for Wollongong. … They are kind of a community-based team.
So, the people in the community have donated money really to help keep them going. Kindof like the Green Bay Packers in American football. They don’t really have an owner. The
town owns them, which is an interesting model. But the rest of the teams are all owned by
one man or group of men.

The ﬁnancial situation of some NBL teams is not good due largely to the limited
amount of sponsorship. With the exception of the Wollongong Hawks, all the teams arerun by wealthy owners. However, Harmison commented further on these team owners:
They don’t focus on proﬁtability. They are more focused on winning and losing. So, if acoach says, spend this much more money and I will win, but they are only bringing in thismuch money, the owner of the sports business will say, okay, I will spend that muchmoney, I am happy to lose it. But in his real business he wouldn’t think that way. If he
can’t make money in his real business, he is not going to be in business. But in sports,
these owners are willing to lose money in order to win because I think the egos get in theway. That’s a big challenge, I think, for all sports because you might have an owner that’s
happy to lose money for ﬁve years. But sooner or later they get tired of losing money.
That’s when the team falls over, that’s when the league becomes not so popular.

NBL owners seem to regard operating a basketball team as a hobby or a gamble rather
than a business. Thus, they tend to make uneconomic decisions even though they would
never invest money in unproﬁtable ventures when operating their for-proﬁt businesses.
David Stern, former commissioner of the NBA, similarly commented on challenges
facing owners in the league (Chiba, 2012).
The development and problems of the bj-league
The Japanese Basketball League (JBL) was founded in 1967 as a semi-professional league. Teams were supported by Japanese corporations such as the Toyota motor company
and Panasonic, which used the teams to promote their brands. These corporations madeno direct proﬁt from elite basketball competitions and, in fact, subsidized the teams withannual contributions of US $3.75 to $6.25 million to cover, amongst other things,
players’ salaries and travelling expenses.8
The Japan Basketball Association (JBA) drew up plans to develop a professional
league in 1995 and again in 2004. However, this was not possible because of objections
from certain corporate teams in the JBL (Harada, 2009), some of which also ran professional soccer teams in the J League that operated with ﬁnancial deﬁcits. Consequently,
these corporations were reluctant to also run professional basketball teams.9 As a result,
two teams withdrew from the JBL and, in 2005, formed the ﬁrst professional basketballleague in Japan – the ‘bj-league’ – which consisted of six teams during its ﬁrst season.
Thereafter, the number of teams gradually increased, reaching 22 as of the 2014–2015
season. On the other hand, the JBL was reorganized to become the National Basketball
League (NBL), which consisted of ﬁve corporate teams and seven professional teams

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N. Chiba

during the 2013–2014 season. Thus, there are now two elite basketball leagues inJapan.
When asked about the integration of the two elite basketball leagues in 2013,
Toshimitsu Kawachi, commissioner of the bj-league, answered that it would be difﬁcult
if corporate teams in the JBL did not become professional. However, he also indicatedthat there might be friendly matches and a championship series between the two leagues
in future. Kawachi added that the bj-league planned to expand to 24 teams. Moreover,following expansion, the possibility of the bj-league changing from two conferences toseveral divisions, as the J League has done,10 would be examined.
FIBA asked the JBA to have the NBL merge with the bj-league by October 2014.
However, the JBA could not establish a single Japanese league by that date because ofrestrictions related to the names of the corporate teams and the professionalization ofeach team. The bj-league argued that each of its teams is professional and excludes theoption of having teams named after corporations. On the other hand, corporate teams in
the NBL object to this bj-league policy, because big businesses such as Toyota want tocontinue supporting corporate teams to advertise their brand. As a result, FIBA inﬂictedindeﬁnite qualiﬁcation suspension of the JBA licence because there were two elitemen’s basketball leagues in November 2014. All ofﬁcers of the JBA were resigned en
masse and Saburo Kawabuchi (former chairman of the J League) took ofﬁce as chairman, supported by the FIBA. It was decided that NBL of Japan and the bj-league would
integrate in one professional league from October 2016.
When asked why the number of teams in the bj-league increased so rapidly (fromsix in the 2005–2006 season to 16 as of 2011–2012), Kawachi explained that the management costs of bj-league teams were relatively low compared with those in professional baseball and the J League. Annual costs were about US$1.5 million to US$3
million. Furthermore, Kawachi noted that the bj-league had imitated the communitybased business model developed by the J League and the centralization of power practised by American professional leagues such as the NBA and Major League Baseball.
For example, each team has a hometown and competes in home and away games. The
league has adopted a salary cap system. It negotiates with sponsors and sells television
broadcasting rights, distributing the earnings to each team. Since the Japanese economy
was depressed when the bj-league was established in 2005, it was difﬁcult to attract big
businesses such as Panasonic as corporate owners. However, each team was able topursue local sponsors that had gained from the information technology revolution.
When asked about the economic situation of bj-league teams, Kawachi indicated that
10 of the 16 teams were proﬁtable as of March 2011. While local teams such as Akita
and Okinawa made proﬁts, teams located in large cities such as Tokyo and Osaka were
losing money, mainly due to expensive arena rental fees. It is relatively easy and cheap
to use public gymnasiums in small towns because of the lesser frequency of entertainment events. On the other hand, the Tokyo Apache team’s games took place on
Wednesday and Thursday nights because of overcrowding of other events at weekends.
Public gymnasiums are constructed by municipalities and the Japanese government forcompetitive and lifelong sports activities. In many cases, they are managed by Japan’s‘third sector’ (a business venture jointly ﬁnanced by the public and private sectors).
Thus, the capacity of local gymnasiums is often no more than 1000 spectators. On theother hand, professional teams in the bj-league need arenas that can attract 3000 fans.
For example, Xebio Arena Sendai was constructed as a multipurpose arena with 4009
seats and managed by the Sendai 89ers in the designated administrator system. Kawachi

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Asia Paciﬁc Journal of Sport and Social Science

9

indicated that it is difﬁcult for indoor professional teams to make a proﬁt in cities that
do not have arenas like Xebio Arena Sendai.
When established in 2005, the bj-league emphasized three objectives: to be professional, to provide sports entertainment, and to be both glocal and community-based.
When asked what it meant to be glocal and community-based, Kawachi stated thatteams had to become active in their own communities, ﬁrst as professional basketballbusinesses and then by fostering the development of elite players who could competeinternationally in Asia and even in the NBA. Kawachi added that he considered eachteam’s 26 home games to be like local festivals for the team and its fans. Traditionally,
there are local festivals in each Japanese town and village, and many residents of big
cities such as Tokyo return to their hometowns to visit their family members’ graves
and participate in these Bon festivals around mid-August. Kawachi hopes that bj-league
teams’ home games can become similar events.
Each team has its own ways of attracting interest. For example, Osaka Evessa
invites local comedians11 to perform during the half-time show. The Ryukyu Golden
Kings use BGM, including music played on a three-stringed Japanese banjo, before
games. The bj-league encourages each team to develop its own promotional style basedon local traditions, consistent with the league’s philosophy of being glocal andcommunity-based.
Conclusion
Representatives of the three professional leagues agreed that basketball has experienced
globalization and indicated that the global broadcasting of NBA games facilitated thisphenomenon. We can see evidence of this globalization in the foundation of theEuroleague and in the participation of the New Zealand Breakers in Australia’s NBL.
Young talent worldwide is inspired by the acrobatic style of NBA stars and inﬂuenced
by the individual style of play that is observed in NBA games – a direct effect of the
globalization of basketball through NBA broadcasting.
Furthermore, the three leagues have imitated NBA games in including other formsof entertainment, such as half-time shows and dance performances by young women.
However, Japanese teams have also developed their own promotional and entertainment
styles based on local traditions. This is an apparent instance of glocalization in the
bj-league. Finally, Euroleague games are much more team-oriented in style than NBA
games. On the other hand, the playing style in Australia’s NBL is a mix of US college
basketball, the NBA and European basketball.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI [grant number 19700514].

Notes
1.
2.
3.
4.

The data are derived from documents of the Japan Basketball Association (JBA). Afterreaching the peak, the number of Japanese players decreased to 620,000 by 2007.
This comic was written by Takehiko Inoue and published serially in a magazine from 1990
to 1996. The ‘Slam Dunk’ books sold more than 140 million copies in Japan.
See Chiba (2012, pp. 146–7) for an explanation.
The 12 countries are Spain, Italy, Greece, Israel, Germany, Turkey, Poland, Russia, Croatia,
France, Lithuania and Serbia.

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5.

These players from South America signed with NBA teams after playing for European
teams. For example, the Argentine star Manu Ginobili played for Kinder Bologna (Italy) in
the Euroleague for two seasons and then signed with the San Antonio Spurs in 2002. In
addition, Andres Nocioni, Fabricio Oberto and Luis Scola are also Argentine and transferredto the NBA teams after playing for European clubs.
6. Laboral Kutxa Vitoria is the name of Saski-Baskonia, a professional basketball club from theBasque city of Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain. Saski-Baskonia was called TAU Cerámica Baskonia(derived from the name of its Spanish sponsor company) until 2009.
7. Harmison also noted the participation of the Singapore Slingers in the NBL from 2006 to
2008. However, this team dropped out of the NBL because of high travel expenses.
8. Nihon Keizai Shinbun, evening edition, 2 August 2010.
9. Asahi Shinbun, 17 February 2011.
10. J League has three divisions from J1 to J3, which can replace teams according to ranking
between divisions. On the other hand, bj-league has two conferences, which cannot replace
teams according to ranking.
11. Osaka is called the ‘holy place of comedy’ and residents of Osaka attach high importance tothe art of making people laugh.

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