A Sustainable Global Society
How Can Materials Chemistry Help?

A white paper from the Chemical Sciences and Society Summit (CS3) 2010
March 2011www.rsc.org/sustainablematerials

About the Chemical Sciences and Society Summit (CS3)
The annual Chemical Sciences and Society Summit (CS3) brings together the best minds in chemical researchfrom around the world and challenges them to propose innovative solutions for society’s most pressing needs inthe areas of health, food, energy, and the environment. This unique event boasts an innovative format, aiming to
set the course of international science, and rotates each year among the participating nations.
A Sustainable Global Society summarises the outcomes of the second annual CS3, which focused this time on
Sustainable Materials. Thirty top materials chemists from the five participating countries assembled in London
to identify the scientific research required to address key global challenges, and to provide recommendations topolicy makers. This report presents an international view on how materials chemistry can contribute positively tocreating a sustainable world.
The CS3 initiative is a collaboration between the Chinese Chemical Society (CCS), the German Chemical Society(GDCh), the Chemical Society of Japan (CSJ), the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) and the American Chemical
Society (ACS). The symposia are supported by the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC), the German
Research Foundation (DFG), the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), the UK Engineering andPhysical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), and the USA National Science Foundation (NSF).
This White Paper was compiled and written by Carol Stanier and James Hutchinson.

i | A Sustainable Global SocietyContents
About the Chemical Sciences and Society Summit (CS3)i

Foreword by Professor Ryoji Noyori

2

Executive Summary3

1. Energy Conversion and Storage
The Challenge		
Energy conversion		
Energy storage		
Large- and small-scale systems		

5
5
5
7
8

2. CO2 Capture, Activation and Use
The Challenge		CO2 capture, separation, and storage		
CO2 for fuels and chemical feedstocks		
CO2 as a feedstock for plastics and complex chemical structures

10
10
10
11
12

3. F
 ossil Fuel and Feedstock Replacement Materials
The Challenge
Processing low quality hydrocarbon feedstocks
Syngas as a feedstock
Methane as a feedstock
Biological feedstocks
CO2 as a feedstock

13
13
13
13
14
14
15

4. C
 onservation of Scarce Natural Resources
The Challenge
Phosphorus
Lithium
PlatinumIndiumRare earth metals
Supply and regulation

16
16
17
17
17
18
18
19

5. G
 reen Materials and Processes
The Challenge
New catalysts
Process design
Detection, management and remediation of pollutants

20
20
21
21
22

References

24

Appendix: Chemical Sciences and Society Summit (CS3) participants

28

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 1

Foreword
Since the most ancient of times, humanity has depended on the blessings of thesun and the abundant mineral and living resources of nature. These resources,
however, have always been unevenly distributed and of varying importancedepending on the times. For this reason, peoples and nations have clashedrepeatedly in their eagerness to claim them as their own.
Over the centuries, science and technology, the products of human ingenuity
and our quest for understanding nature, have enabled us to make effective
use of natural resources for the building of rich civilisations. Superior sciencebased technologies have protected fragile humanity from the dangers of nature,provided safety and security, and made possible convenient and comfortable
lifestyles. In the 20th century, science-based technologies effectively extended theaverage lifespan within the developed nations from 45 to 80 years, and provided diverse external devices that havesignificantly enhanced humanity’s inherent intellectual and physical abilities.
On the other hand, we have only achieved limited success in making effective use of our limited resources.
Humanity’s drive for an increasingly enhanced level of advanced civilisation has, ironically, led to an alarming
depletion of essential resources. And there appears to be no end to global conflicts over access to these resources.
The ideal for the 21st century is a civilised global society that respects cultural diversity. When diverse ethnic groups areallowed to make use of the natural resources in the regions where they live, it should be possible for them to maintainthe unique culture they have inherited from their ancestors and to build a rich, civilised society that does not impinge on
the rights of others. The world needs science and technologies that are firmly grounded in this premise.
Ever since the Industrial Revolution, humanity’s insatiable appetite for energy has caused us to release large
volumes of harmful carbon dioxide into the Earth’s atmosphere, and this is adversely affecting the entire world.
We need to make a major paradigm shift from one that is based on consuming finite fossil reserves to one thatis based on replacing resources as we consume them in a manner similar to, but more efficient than, natural
photosynthesis. How wonderful it would be if we could easily transform sunlight into electrical energy and freely
create useful materials from abundant elements. Innovative science and technology focused on securing thecontinuous supply and replacement of resources is what is needed to achieve a truly sustainable society.
International cooperation is clearly essential to achieving this goal, however the problems of resources andthe environment are complicated by political and economic concerns. It is heartening, therefore, to know thatchemists engaged in materials science representing China, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the UnitedStates have gathered together in London to engage in intellectual discourse and to offer policy recommendations
on the subject of sustainable materials.
Chemistry is the science of materials and substances, and the transformations they undergo. As such, chemistry
is a central science, broadly spanning many disciplines. Chemistry provides the wisdom we need to achievesustainability, to solve, in other words, the issues that threaten humanity’s continued existence. The chemist has amandate to counsel society on the possible solutions that can be achieved through chemistry. It is to be hopedthat the recommendations of the CS3 2010: Sustainable Materials summit will be widely disseminated among
governments and societies throughout the world as we strive together to achieve the ideal, and sustainable,international community.
Ryoji Noyori
President, RIKEN Research Institute
Professor, Nagoya University
2001 Nobel Laureate
2 | A Sustainable Global Society

Executive Summary
We are damaging our planet in an irreparable andsometimes unquantifiable fashion. It is clear that ourcurrent use of natural resources is not sustainable.
Although chemistry has sometimes been rightly or
wrongly blamed for damaging the environment,
it has also provided many of the material benefits
without which we could not survive today such as
pharmaceuticals, plastics and fuels.

With the aid of materials chemistry we can create aworld in which energy use need not be limited, where
we can decrease carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions,
reduce our dependency on fossil fuels and minimise
the impact we are having on our environment. We
can prevent further depletion of our scarce natural
resources, and create new consumer products thatcan enable new low-carbon and resource-efficientindustries to flourish, driving economic growth.

A Sustainable Global Society outlines five key areas inwhich materials chemists, through collaboration withother scientists, industry and policy makers, can seize
exciting opportunities to address global challenges.
Materials chemistry will underpin many of the required
solutions to some of the most important energy andenvironmental problems in today’s society:
A growing population and increasing living standards
are increasing world demand for energy. This
demand may soon outstrip the amount of usableenergy that can be obtained using currently-available
methods. Materials chemists will help to develop
new, sustainable energy conversion and storage
technologies that can meet future energy demands,
and without increasing harmful emissions of CO2.

The world’s population continues to increase and is
expected to have increased by 1.7 billion to over eightbillion by 2030, with the majority of people living incities. Cities place huge pressures on the supply ofenergy and resources, and create emissions at a ratethat is unsustainable.1•

Living standards are improving in many parts of
the world.2 If everyone today had living standards
equivalent to those prevalent in North America,
between two and three times the Earth’s natural
resources would be needed.3
The coupled effects of population growth and improved
standards of living put great strain on the planet andon our remaining accessible resources. We are rapidly
approaching the maximum rate at which we can extract
oil from the planet. Our appetite for energy is producing
increasing quantities of CO2, a pollutant that contributes
to the warming of the planet and which currently cannot
be removed or stored in any efficient way. Suppliesof other natural resources are also a concern. Current
assessments suggest that we will soon need to identify
alternative sources of a number of strategic minerals.

is projected that the Earth will likely warm by• Itbetween
2 and 4.5 °C in the next 100 years, largely

as a result of human-made CO2 emissions. Materials
chemists can help to reduce CO2 emissions byimproving carbon capture and storage (CCS)systems and developing novel ways of activating
and using CO2 as a value product for fuels andchemical feedstocks rather than waste.

Coal

OECD
China
Other non-OECD
Inter-regional

Oil
Gas

Demand for all types ofenergy increases in nonOECD countries, while
demand for coal and oil
declines in the OECD

Nuclear
Hydro
Biomass
Other renewables
-500

-250

0

250

500

750

1,000

1,250

Million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe)

Figure 1: Incremental primary energy demand by fuel and region 2008-20354

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 3

90% of oil extracted from the Earth• Approximately
is used to produce fuel; the remainder is used tomake everything from convenience plastics to lifesaving pharmaceuticals. Materials chemists canhelp to reduce our dependency on fossil fuels andfeedstocks by developing methods to efficiently
obtain petroleum from low-quality sources, andprocesses to efficiently and sustainably utilise fossil
fuel alternatives.

of scarce natural resources are dwindling• Supplies
at an alarming rate and shortages will hit withina generation. Materials chemistry can help toreduce, replace and recycle the use of scarcenatural resources in many applications, as well as
developing alternative new materials based onearth-abundant elements.

pressures created by a growing world• The
population are damaging the environment.

Materials chemists can use the principles of green
chemistry to meet our energy, material, and waterneeds in ways that are non-harmful and sustainable.
New technologies can be developed to better
monitor and remove air, soil and water pollutantsfrom the environment.

4 | A Sustainable Global Society

Fundamental advances in science underpin manyof these proposals – support for curiosity-driven(blue-skies) research must be in place to maintain theflow of future scientific breakthroughs.5 Chemistry for
Tomorrow’s World: a roadmap for the chemical sciences,provides recommendations to create and maintain asupportive framework to address global challenges.6
A sustainable and long-term strategy for investment
in science will be vital to the continued well-being,
comfort and wealth of modern society.7,8With the aid of materials chemistry, we can create aworld in which our energy requirements are delivered
sustainably, where usable energy can be produced,
stored and then supplied wherever it is needed.
We can minimise and remove pollutants from ourenvironment as we create new consumer products
which place less of a burden upon our natural
resources. While the challenges in each geographicaland political arena may vary, it is important thatnational thinking not be limited to the challenges ofthat country alone.
Many of these goals should be achievable within arelatively short timescale, and will help to improve theworld for this generation and the succeeding ones.
Although financial investment is required, in the midto-longer term this investment can be economicallybeneficial,9 will create new, greener industries thatcreate sustainable jobs, and will ensure global security.
We must act now if we are to reap the benefitsmaterials chemistry can offer.

1. Energy Conversion and Storage
A growing population and rising living standards are
increasing world demand for energy. This demand maysoon outstrip the amount of usable energy that can beobtained using currently-available methods. Materials
chemists will help to develop new, sustainable energy
conversion and storage technologies that can meet futureenergy demands without increasing harmful emissions ofcarbon dioxide (CO2 ). Sustainable solar energy technologies
can be developed that efficiently harvest energy fromsunlight anywhere on the planet. Innovative new fuelcells can efficiently exploit renewable sources of energy.
Next-generation battery and chemical energy storage
technologies will enable us to flexibly store and transportenergy, and to fully utilise intermittent forms of energy.

The Challenge
By the year 2030 the world’s growing population andrising living standards may lead to a 50% increase in
the global demand for energy,4 and such a demand
may exceed the available conventional supply.10
Measures to meet an increasing demand for energy
must not result in a corresponding increase in CO2emissions, a greenhouse gas that contributes toclimate change. The majority of electricity generated
worldwide is currently produced in fossil-fuel-powered
power stations. Although these power stations arereliable, they produce significant amounts of CO2.
In developed countries alone, electricity generationaccounts for approximately 30% of CO2 emissions. It
should be possible to reduce CO2 emissions from fossil
fuel power stations (see Chapter Two: CO2 Capture,
Activation and Use). However, by some estimates wemay still require more energy in 2030 than may befeasibly obtained from fossil sources.11
New technologies must not leave future generations
with an unwanted legacy of additional problems.
We require improved methods of generating usableenergy from sustainable, non-polluting sources, thenstoring this energy in a form where it can be easilytransported or used. The energy from sunlight canbe converted into electricity using solar panels, forinstance, then stored by an energy carrier such as abattery.

Materials chemists, working with other scientists
and engineers, are developing new forms of energy
conversion and storage technologies that shouldhave the flexibility to meet the energy needs of bothconsumers and industrial users,12 while producing
fewer emissions than current systems.

Energy conversion
The conversion of energy from one form to anotherfrequently involves a chemical reaction. Detailed
mechanistic understanding of these chemical
reactions is vital to developing new materials andprocesses that can be used to drive them in affordable
and sustainable ways.5
Solar energy

Sunlight is abundant everywhere on Earth and is
the energy source of choice for the future. Solarenergy can be captured and converted to usefulforms via photovoltaic (PV), photoelectrochemical,
photocatalytic, or thermoelectric technologies. To havea significant impact, these technologies must be able
to harness solar energy on a large scale.13
Materials chemists can develop new, more efficientand durable PV cells made from cheap, abundant andeasily-processed materials. Photovoltaics generate
electrical power by converting solar radiation into
electricity. PV technologies are already widespread,and it is generally agreed that they will play a majorrole in harnessing solar energy for future energy
solutions.14 However, there are disadvantages withcurrently-available photovoltaics. Many current PV
technologies are based on silicon, an abundantelement that must be of very high purity for solar
power applications, making current silicon-based
technologies very expensive.
Inexpensively manufactured PV cells with greater
efficiencies are required13 – current-generation carbonbased (‘plastic’) cells, that are much more amenable toinexpensive fabrication processes, can convert roughly
8% of the solar power that falls on them; typical siliconbased solar cells can convert up to approximately 20%.
With research and investment, new technologies could
place photovoltaics at the centre of future global
energy strategies.7

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 5

Photoelectrochemical cells convert solar energy
into chemical fuel by using the energy from sunlightto drive chemical conversions of readily-available
substances such as water and CO2 to produce
useful chemicals or fuels. Photocatalysis is the rate
acceleration of such a reaction by a catalyst. These
processes are often collectively termed ‘artificial
photosynthesis’ because they mimic the way in whichplants generate chemical energy from sunlight.
Artificial photosynthesis technologies are not currently
affordable or sustainable for widespread use. New,
commercially-viable photocatalyst technologies
based on affordable, abundant materials are needed.13
The process of discovering and optimising newmaterials with desirable physical properties for solar
energy conversion to electricity and fuels will require
new systems for efficiently synthesising, screening
and optimising large numbers of new chemicalcompounds.
Thermoelectric materials, which generate electricity
directly from heat, can also be used for energy
conversion applications. Approximately 90%of the world’s electricity is generated by heat
energy, typically operating at 30–40% efficiency.15
Thermoelectric devices could convert some of thewaste heat from these processes into useful electricity.
New thermoelectric generators are required that canutilise heat energy from the sun, and waste heat fromother energy conversion processes, in an efficient andcost-effective manner.
How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will develop new solar cells with• Materials
greater efficiencies at lower cost. This will requirematerials chemists to synthesise a diverse rangeof cost-effective, new materials that absorb theentire solar spectrum and produce a high densityof mobile, long-lived charge carriers (particles thatcarry electric currents).

chemists will design and prepare• Materials
alternative, inexpensive materials that can efficiently
mimic photosynthesis, with far higher efficiency
than that of plants (~2%).

chemists will explore and optimise new• Materials
thermoelectric materials made from abundantelements that can convert solar energy, and waste
heat, into electricity.

6 | A Sustainable Global Society

Fuel cells and biological energy conversion systems

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts theoxygen in air and a fuel, such as hydrogen, methanol
or a hydrocarbon (e.g. from biomass), into electricity.
Fuel cells are different from conventional electrochemicalcell batteries in that they consume fuel from anexternal source, which must be replenished.
To become commercially feasible, more efficient andlow-cost fuel cells are required, containing
components that are made from sustainable materials.
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells, also known aspolymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, arebeing developed for transport applications as well as
for stationary fuel cell applications and portable fuelcell applications. The development of new materials
with higher catalytic activity than the standard carbonsupported platinum particle catalysts (currently-usedin PEM fuel cells) is required.
A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) has a solid oxide or ceramic,
electrolyte. Although currently-available SOFCs run atvery high temperatures, advantages of this class of fuelcells include high efficiency, long-term stability, fuelflexibility, low emissions, and relatively low cost. New,
low-cost catalysts and electrolyte materials (based onearth-abundant elements), for SOFCs that can run atlower temperature and with higher power densities,
could improve currently-available technologies.
Biological energy conversion systems are potential,
sustainable alternatives to conventional energy
supplies. Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) convert chemicalenergy from a suitable substrate into electricity using
bacteria and, as such, could supplement traditional
fuel-cell technologies in the future. With development,
MFC systems could be used to generate energy fromorganic matter in waste water and in low-grade waste.

How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will design new polymer• Materials
electrolytes and high-temperature proton
conductors, which contain mobile hydrogen ions, as
charge carriers for fuel cells.

chemists will construct new mixed ion• Materials
electron conductors for solid oxide fuel cells by

discovering and optimising new catalysts with highstability and activity, made from earth-abundantelements.

scientists, biotechnologists, and engineers• Materials
will collaborate to develop MFC technologies
through fundamental multidisciplinary research.

Energy storage
There is a pressing need for robust, scalable energy
storage technologies. Many renewable energy sources,
for example solar and wind, are intermittent, generated
remotely and therefore difficult to feed directly into anelectrical grid. However, if energy can be efficiently andsafely stored, then a continuous supply is not required.
Very large-scale storage systems will enable the energy
produced from intermittent sources to be stored forlater use.
Batteries and thermal energy storage

The energy density of current battery technologies
must be improved in the short-term.† Advanced
lithium-ion batteries will be a transitional energy
storage solution. Demand for lithium may soon
exceed the available global supply, and newgeneration batteries based on other accessible, moreabundant elements will be required (see Chapter Four:
Conservation of Scarce Natural Resources).
New batteries and thermal energy storage devices
based on abundant, sustainable materials are required.
Solid-state batteries, that use a solid material rather
than a liquid to conduct electricity, are alreadyavailable and may be feasible, as will a range of othertechnologies. Thermal energy storage devices that
store heat energy in reservoirs (such as molten salts,
phase change materials, and even chemical reactions)for later use, can be developed for storing energy
from intermittent sources. A flow battery is a formof rechargeable battery in which the electrolytes
flow through the electrochemical cell. Additional
electrolyte is stored externally, generally in tanks, andis usually pumped through the cells of the reactor.
Flow batteries can be rapidly ‘recharged’ by replacing
the electrolyte liquid and hold great potential forlarge-scale applications. New materials are required todevelop improved flow batteries with higher energy
densities.
How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will provide new materials for• Materials
high-energy-density components to improvebattery performance.

chemists will help to develop an array of• Materials
new energy storage technologies as durable andsafe alternatives to conventional batteries, including
new-generation solid state and flow batteries andthermal energy storage devices.
Chemical energy storage and hydrogen

The chemical bonds in fuel molecules are an effectivemeans of storing energy because they release energy
when reacted with oxygen. Combustion (or burning)
is a means by which this energy can be released.
Chemical energy storage devices can be coupledwith an appropriate means of energy conversion(see above) to produce fuels, such as hydrogen orhydrocarbons, that can be burned when and whererequired.
Hydrogen is a highly-sustainable form of chemicalenergy because the only product released from its
combustion is water. It can be burned directly orreacted with CO2 (or molecules derived from biomass)
to produce liquid hydrocarbon fuels (see Chapter Two:
CO2 Capture, Activation and Use).
Hydrogen is usually obtained from fossil sources (suchas methane in natural gas). However, these sources areunsustainable and more energy is currently required
to produce hydrogen than would be obtained fromburning it. New methods of producing hydrogen using
a renewable energy source would enable hydrogenbased technologies to develop into more efficient andcost-effective forms of chemical energy storage.

In energy storage applications the energy density relates the mass of energy stored to the volume of the storage
equipment. The higher the energy density, the more energy may be stored or transported for the same amount of volume.

†

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 7

The electrolysis of water is a means of splitting water
into hydrogen and oxygen, and is a promising methodof producing hydrogen. Using an energy source suchas sunlight to provide the electricity to drive thereaction, water electrolysis can produce a sustainablesupply of hydrogen that does not require fossil fuels as
feedstocks. With improved efficiency of photovoltaics,
electrolysis, and gas separation technologies, waterelectrolysis could become an effective means of
producing hydrogen to store energy, to make fertiliser,and to form liquid hydrocarbon fuels.
Artificial photosynthesis applications are also
promising. These could produce natural gas (methane)or alcohols as fuels from sunlight, CO2, and water.
The use of CO2in chemical energy storage systems is
discussed in Chapter Two: CO2 Capture, Activation andUse.
How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will design new catalytic systems• Materials
to produce hydrogen from water electrolysis,
coupled with improved gas separation technologies
to harvest the hydrogen produced.

chemists will design and develop new• Materials
photocatalytic materials that can directly producehydrogen from water without an electrolyser.

chemists will help to develop innovative• Materials
new forms of chemical energy storage, includingmeans of producing fuels from sunlight, CO2, andwater (see Chapter Two: CO2 Capture, Activationand Use).

8 | A Sustainable Global Society

Large- and small-scale energy systems
Energy systems must consist of an appropriate meansof converting energy, such as solar panels, coupledwith a robust and sustainable means of energy storage(see above) and efficient transmission from the placeof production to the place of use. Both large- andsmall-scale energy systems have great room for
improvement.16 Current solar cell materials coupledwith existing battery technology, for instance,
would be acceptable for use in energy systems inthe short term.
Low-loss energy transmission systems will be
required to accommodate the mismatch between
the location of energy generation and the locationof use. Current high voltage grids are inefficient –significant amounts of energy are lost by transporting
electricity over long distances using an alternating
current and conventional conducting materials
such as copper. High voltage direct current (HVDC)
grid technologies could provide energy for Europe
from solar power stations in the Sahara Desert, forinstance.17 Before these systems become commerciallyand energetically viable, the development of
low-loss energy transmission lines fashioned
from new superconducting materials, that canconduct electricity with minimal resistance at room
temperature, will be required (currently available
superconductors work at very low temperatures).
Today’s electrical grids have little capacity to store
energy. Large-scale energy storage systems will
therefore be required if we are to increase theproportion of renewable, intermittent forms ofenergy conversion (such as wind, wave and solar) in
our energy mix. ‘Smart grids’ coupled with energy
storage devices (see Figure 2) could offer significant
improvements in performance over existing electricalgrids. The Hydrogen Office project in Scotland, forinstance, has been set up to support the accelerated
development of the renewable, hydrogen, fuel celland energy storage industries.18 Investment in thedevelopment of new and improved energy storage
technologies will enable the widespread introductionof next-generation large-scale energy systems.

Smaller energy systems can be portable and usefulin remote locations where it is difficult to maintainan electrical grid. These systems can give individuals
or small businesses independence from a grid.
Such independence has great advantages in termsof location, mobility, and security. Much of theknowledge and technology already exists to provide
short-term solutions in this area. In the long term, newtechnologies could consist of inexpensive polymerbased solar cells (with conversion efficiencies in excess
of 10%) for example, coupled with high-performancebatteries. In this way, energy from the sun may be
converted to electrical current by the solar cell andthen stored in the battery. If such energy systems wereincorporated into a fleet of vehicles, for instance, thesevehicles could not only provide energy for transport,
but could also function as a mobile electrical grid toprovide energy for domestic use.

How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will design and develop new• Materials
materials with greater efficiency, reliability anddurability to deliver new energy systems, including
next-generation solar cells and energy storage
systems.

chemists will design and develop• Materials
new materials for energy systems that areenvironmentally benign and not reliant on elements
which are in increasingly short supply (see Chapter
Four: Conservation of Scarce Natural Resources).

EnergyStorage
DemandManagement
Use shifted to
off-peak times

Low-lossenergy transmission
Generation
Renewable and low-carbon
energy sources
Efficient commercial
and domestic energy use
and small-scale energy systems

Figure 2: Smart grids coupled with energy storage devices
could offer significant improvements in performance overexisting electrical grids

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 9

2. CO2 Capture, Activation and Use
It is estimated that the Earth will likely warm by between
2 and 4.5 °C in the next 100 years, largely as a result of
human-made carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions. Althoughcarbon capture and storage (CCS) systems may help
to reduce CO2 emissions, CO2 cannot be commercially
captured at present. Materials chemists can help toimprove CCS systems and to develop novel ways oftreating CO2 as a value product rather than waste.
Sustainable methods can be developed to convert
CO2 into chemical products for fuel and feedstocks.
Technologies to synthesise new polymers from CO2 could
be available within a few years, reducing our reliance on
petrochemical feedstocks. Supercritical CO2 can be used
as a solvent in many industrial processes, as a sustainable
alternative to those derived from fossil fuels.

The Challenge
CO2 is used by plants to produce sugars and isessential for their life functions. However, CO2 is alsoa growing constituent of the Earth’s atmosphere. A‘greenhouse gas’, its presence in the atmosphere
contributes to climate change. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)19 estimates that the
Earth will likely warm by between 2 and 4.5 °C in thenext 100 years, largely as a result of CO2 emissions fromhuman activity.
Estimates suggest that capture of CO2 using carbon
capture and storage (CCS) technologies may be able
to reduce emissions from coal power plants by 80–
90%.20 Materials chemists will help to develop reliable
technologies for capture, separation and storage ofCO2. However, capture alone is insufficient to meetglobal emissions targets.
Materials chemistry can also provide alternatives
to geological carbon storage. We can reduce CO2
emissions by developing alternative, carbon-neutral
ways to generate power (see Chapter One: Energy
Conversion and Storage) and by using CO2 to makefuels or as a value product in the chemical supply
chain rather than waste. This would reduce ourdependency on fossil fuels (see Chapter Three: Fossil
Fuel and Feedstock Replacement Materials) and may
avoid potential long-term problems associated with
capture such as CO2 leakage.21

10 | A Sustainable Global Society

Supercritical CO2 is a form of fluid carbon dioxidethat is already used industrially as a solvent andin purification processes. The widespread use of
supercritical CO2 as a processing fluid could reduce
the need for traditional fossil-fuel-derived solvents forchemical processes, the disposal of which often has
a negative impact on the environment (see Chapter
Five: Green Materials and Processes).
The use of CO2 to make fuels, and as a feedstock andprocessing fluid alone will not be enough to mitigate
climate change, as the volumes of CO2 that can berealistically sequestered in this way are quite small.
However, the materials chemistry solutions described
below can form part of a wider strategy to lower
global CO2 emissions. The development of industries
relying on the technologies described would provide
countless jobs, independent of local natural resources.

CO2 capture, separation, and storage
Governments around the world are now committed tothe establishment of commercial-scale demonstration
projects for CCS22 from gas- and coal-fired power
stations.19,20,23 Multidisciplinary materials andengineering research will be required to develop
reliable CCS systems.
CCS systems will require new energy- and costeffective materials, processes and technologies
for both capture and separation of CO2. Current
carbon capture techniques currently use impracticalamounts of energy and materials, and removal of
impurities from captured CO2 can render CCS systems
prohibitively expensive. Novel solutions for removing
impurities from CO2 will be required that utilise robust,
impurity-tolerant materials and membranes based onabundant elements. Next-generation CCS applications
must function both in concentrated, stationary
sources and in dilute, mobile sources.
It is recognised that CO2 stored underground today
may be mined as a value product tomorrow.24 Such a
strategy would be a temporary or transitional solution– the stored CO2 could be utilised at a later date whensuitable conversion technologies become available
and conventional carbon sources become more
scarce.

Carbon Capture

Carbon Capture

Carbon dioxide

Storage
Fuels andchemical feedstocks

Sustainable supply
of hydrogen

Useful products
eg plastics, pharmaceuticals, liquid fuels, commodity products, solvents, refrigerant, agrochemicals
Figure 3: CO2 capture, activation and use

How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will investigate and develop a• Materials
range of CO capture and purification technologies.
chemists will help to develop• Materials
commercially-viable methods of storing CO
2

2

for

future use, such as synthetic fossilisation andcarbonation of mineral rocks.

CO2 for fuels and chemical feedstocks
Although normally unreactive, it is possible tofacilitate the reaction of CO2 with other chemicals, inthe presence of a catalyst, to form chemical energystorage systems or useful new materials.25
Many of the day-to-day products we use are carbonbased or contain carbon sourced from petroleum.
Currently around 5–10% of all petroleum produced
is utilised for the production of chemicals suchas plastics, pharmaceuticals and other consumer
products. Demand for petrochemical feedstocks is
set to rise as populations increase and technologies
advance. By applying knowledge gained fromfundamental research in materials chemistry andcatalysis (see Chapter Five: Green Materials andProcesses), it may be possible to use CO2 as a raw
material (feedstock) and feed it into the chemical
supply chain.24
The commercial use of CO2 as both a fuel anda feedstock will require many of the samedevelopments. Many of the described technologies
and industries are in their infancy and the projectionof realistic timescales is difficult without further
fundamental research.

Production of methanol

CO2 and hydrogen gas can be combined to form
methanol, a liquid fuel that can be easily transported.
Methanol can then be converted by known zeolite
catalysts to gasoline. Commercialisation of methanol
production technologies can be achieved using
catalysts based on abundant elements (see Chapter
Four: Conservation of Scarce Natural Resources) anda non-fossil, sustainable supply of hydrogen (seeChapter One: Energy Conversion and Storage).
It may be possible to develop a system whereby alow-carbon energy source, such as solar energy, could
be used both to extract CO2 from the atmosphere andto provide the energy needed to drive the subsequent
reaction with hydrogen (or other hydrogen sources) toform methanol.26
The conversion of CO2 into methanoic acid, methanal,
methanol and higher alcohols by reaction withhydrogen (or other hydrogen sources) could provide
feedstocks for the production of many commodity
products currently in use on a large scale. Suchprocesses could also be feasibly introduced within a
few years by modifying existing industrial plants.
Production of methane

The efficient conversion of CO2 and water to methane
gas is a potential energy storage solution. Methane ismore energy-rich than methanol and therefore moresuitable for combustion. Current technologies forburning methane already exist and are widespread(methane is the largest constituent of natural gas).
Conversion of CO2 to methane could reduce relianceon natural gas sources and aid the transition to lowemission, cleaner fuels in the medium term.

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 11

Production of syngas

Syngas (or synthesis gas) is a mixture of carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrogen that can beused directly as a fuel or to feed into chemical
processes (e.g. the Fischer-Tropsch process) to
produce hydrocarbons (for use as fuels or chemicalintermediates). Syngas is a highly-important feedstockin the chemical industry and such processes are widelyused on an industrial scale (see Chapter Three: Fossil
Fuel and Feedstock Replacement Materials, for the useof syngas as a feedstock).
Syngas is conventionally produced from a variety ofdifferent sources including natural gas, coal, biomass
and biological waste. This flexibility delivers theadvantage of making it possible to adapt multiple
industrial plants to produce syngas with minimal
design alteration. Current syngas plants are usually
very large and expensive, whereas smaller, moredispersed plants (‘flexiplants’) may be more beneficial.
Catalytic processes are now available to convert
CO2 into syngas using a supply of hydrogen. The
widespread conversion of CO2 into syngas usinghydrogen or other hydrogen-containing materials,
could be viable in the near term through the design ofsuitable working plants.
How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will develop catalytic processes• Materials
to efficiently obtain hydrogen gas from non-fossil
sources (see Chapter One: Energy Conversion andStorage).

chemists will explore new catalysts to• Materials
efficiently convert CO and hydrogen (or other2hydrogen sources) to methanol, and CO2 and water
to methane and oxygen.

chemists can help to adapt industrial• Materials
plants to produce syngas for use as a fuel andfeedstock.

CO2 as a feedstock for plastics andcomplex chemical structures
The technology required to convert CO2 into polymers
is currently available on a small scale and could be
increased in scope and scale within a few years.
Facilities already exist to incorporate gaseous building
blocks into polymeric materials which could be
adapted to utilise CO2.
Methods to form complex chemical structuresfrom CO2, and other one-carbon building blocks,
should be commercially feasible in the longer term.
Development of these technologies may require 10
years or more – yet as a strategy for the sustainableproduction of chemical products, the use of CO2 as abuilding block should remain an ultimate goal.
How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will help develop and optimise• Materials
highly active, selective, sustainable and robust
catalysts for chemical reactions of CO2.

chemists will design and optimise• Materials
electrocatalytic and/or photocatalytic methods toincorporate CO2 into the supply chain (see Chapter
One: Energy Conversion and Storage).

CO2 as processing fluid and solvent
Supercritical CO2 is a form of fluid carbon dioxidethat is already used industrially in many processes, forexample in the removal of caffeine from coffee beans,
and as a refrigerant.27 It has the favourable propertiesof low toxicity, low reactivity, and can be used atnear-ambient temperatures. The widespread use of
supercritical CO2 for the purification of synthetic andnaturally-occurring chemicals should be possible inthe short term. This would replace the use of more
toxic, complex and expensive solvents. The designof new processes will require collaboration between
materials chemists and engineers.
How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will develop and optimise• Materials
methods for using supercritical CO as a solvent for2

known or new chemical reactions, as a refrigerant
and in materials processing.

12 | A Sustainable Global Society3. Fossil Fuel and Feedstock Replacement Materials
Approximately 90% of oil extracted from the Earth isused to produce petroleum. Oil is an integral ingredientto make everything from convenience plastics to lifesaving pharmaceuticals, and the demand for petroleum
is set to rise. Materials chemists can help to reduce ourdependency on fossil fuels and feedstocks in a numberof ways. Methods to efficiently extract petroleum from
low-quality sources can be developed. Improved catalytic
and separation processes can be designed and optimisedthat enable us to efficiently and sustainably utilise syngas,
methane, biological feedstocks and even carbon dioxide
as fossil fuel alternatives. Polymers made from new andunique biomass feedstocks may eventually overtake
petrochemical-derived plastics in terms of superior
properties and functionality.

The Challenge
Our modern society depends on carbon-based fuels
for generating electricity, heat and propulsion andas chemical feedstocks to produce materials andcommodities. Burning fossil fuels for their energy
produces CO2 that contributes towards climatechange, and we may be approaching the maximum
rate at which we can feasibly extract oil from theplanet. We should seek to reduce our dependency on
fossil fuels for generating useable energy (see Chapter
One: Energy Conversion and Storage) and diversify
the feedstocks we use to produce materials andcommodities such as pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals
and polymers.
New strategies to mediate the transition away fromfossil fuels will be required. These must ensure that thewealth, security and living standards of an increasing
world population do not suffer.7
New carbon sources should be renewable and notincrease CO2 emissions. Sustainable methods to extract
petrochemicals from low-quality feedstocks, however,must be a short-term priority. Syngas and methane
hold significant potential as alternatives to petroleum
and coal in the short- to medium-term. The utilisationof biomass as a feedstock is a longer-term goal that
could deliver processes to exploit the molecularcomplexity of nature for new and improved materials
and polymers.

Complete independence from petroleum as afeedstock for polymers and other chemicals should be
the ultimate objective. The use of CO2 as a feedstock
has the longest development time but would be ahighly sustainable solution (see Chapter Two: CO2
Capture, Activation and Use).

Processing low quality hydrocarbon
feedstocks
Technologies to utilise the low- and high-sulfur
feedstocks in low-quality crude oils are needed.
Materials chemistry can enable clean, efficient andsecure production of fuels and chemicals from lowquality fossil sources. Fundamental advances may beachievable in 10 years through focused collaboration
between chemists, engineers and other physicalscientists.
How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will conceive of and develop new• Materials
catalytic processes to mitigate the environmental
impact of low-quality hydrocarbon use.

chemists, working with engineers, will
• Materials
design and optimise improved engineering andreactor materials.

chemists will design and develop new• Materials
chemical separation technologies to purify lowquality fossil fuel feedstocks.

Syngas as a feedstock
With the appropriate technological developments,
syngas could be a sustainable chemical feedstockof the future. The chemistry of syngas, a mixture ofcarbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen, is very wellunderstood and has long been used in the chemicalindustry as a fuel and feedstock. The production ofelaborate chemical structures from syngas requires
complex, sometimes energy-intensive processes
and, as such, the use of syngas as a feedstock has notbeen fully exploited. The design of new catalysts andprocesses could deliver significant advancements (seeChapter Two: CO2 Capture, Activation and Use, for the
production of syngas from CO2).

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 13

How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will design and optimise• Materials
selective and robust catalysts (see Chapter Five:
Green Materials and Processes) for efficiently andselectively producing new high-value, functionalised
products from syngas with low energy input.

Methane as a feedstock
Methane can be used as a fuel and as a chemical
feedstock. It is the principal constituent of natural gas,and can also be produced from syngas. It can also
be collected from landfills. Methane often surfaces in
conjunction with oil drilling which occurs in remoteareas; consequently it is often flared off or re-injected
rather than collected and used. Sustainable routes tohigh-value products from methane are required (seeChapter Two: CO2 Capture, Activation and Use, for
production of methane from CO2).
How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will design and optimise efficient• Materials
and selective new catalysts for converting methane
to liquids such as methanol, which can be used asa fuel, converted to gasoline, or used as a building
block in the chemical industry

chemists will develop and optimise• Materials
efficient and selective methods for the direct
catalytic conversion of methane to higherhydrocarbons.

Biological feedstocks
Biological feedstocks (from living or recently livingorganisms) may help to reduce our fossil fueldependency in the long term by providing biomass
for fuels and chemical feedstocks. Sources of biomass,
however, must not compete with the crops required
to provide food for an increasing world population.5
It is important that any process to produce chemicals
or fuels from biomass is subjected to a full lifecycle
analysis28 before being commercially developed.
Sustainable processing of non-food crops,‡ agricultural
waste or marine biomass such as algae, could deliver
both fuels and chemicals.
The use of biomass as a feedstock offers theopportunity to exploit the molecular complexitythat exists in nature. Such complexity could greatly
enhance the practical uses of chemicals available
from biomass. With the development of new efficient
catalytic processes, the manufacture of these products
could be more sustainable than their synthesis fromoil.
Bacterial processes could be improved to provide
useful chemical feedstocks from biomass. Industrial
processes exist to convert corn syrup into highvalue polymer components using geneticallymodified bacteria. However, the efficient separationof chemicals produced from the salty fermentation
mixture is a challenge. As a result, energy-intensive
purification steps, in addition to large waterrequirements, can negate possible savings achievableby this route. Technological advances could deliver
improved processes which use less energy and water
than conventional procedures from petrochemicals.

Non-food crops such as switchgrass or Miscanthus and the robust, high oil-yielding Euphorbiaceae family of plants
are a source of biological feedstocks that require minimal cultivation.

‡

14 | A Sustainable Global SocietyHow will materials chemistry help?

chemists, biotechnologists and process• Materials
engineers will develop and optimise new methods

How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will design new, high-efficiency,• Materials
highly selective catalysts for polymer production

to enable the selective separation and conversionof recalcitrant lignocellulosic (woody) and otherfeedstocks into commodity chemicals, polymers,
and fuels.

chemists, biotechnologists and engineers• Materials
will collaborate to develop new copolymers,

nanostructures, to deliver more highly functionalised
compounds from biomass.

chemists will improve our understanding• Materials
of structure/property relationships to better tailor

chemists will devise and implement• Materials
solutions that allow the retention of inherent

chemists will design more active and• Materials
selective catalytic or chemical methods to separate
and utilise entire biomass-derived materials
completely and efficiently.29
Biopolymers with enhanced performance

The performance of biologically-derived polymers
is often less desirable than those produced frompetrochemicals. Extensive research and development
will be required to improve currently-available
materials. Collaboration between materials chemists,
biotechnologists and engineers will enable newhigh-value products to be designed from existingbio-feedstocks and new, improved crops to be
developed.7,8from biological feedstocks.

modified biopolymers, (nano)composites andblends for new materials, and improved crops for
new biologically-derived polymers.

plastics for different applications.

CO2 as a feedstock
Sustainable production of high-value chemicals,
plastics and fuels from CO2 is a scientifically andtechnologically feasible goal (see Chapter Two:
CO2 Capture, Activation and Use). New methods
to incorporate CO2 into the supply chain must be
sustainable and cost-effective.

New biologically-derived polymers can be designedthat are biodegradable, with thermal and mechanicalperformance that is competitive with conventional
petrochemical-based plastics.30
In the first development stages, biologically-derived
polymers will likely complement petrochemicalbased plastics rather than directly compete withthem. In the longer-term, however, biologicallyderived plastics could be utilised to produce highervalue products where a cost premium is justified for
additional functionality. Scientific advances in current
technologies are necessary to achieve replacement of
petrochemical products on a broad scale.

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 15

4. Conservation of Scarce Natural Resources
Supplies of scarce natural resources are dwindling at an
alarming rate and many vital, rare minerals are often
obtained from politically turbulent countries. Shortages
will hit within a generation. Materials chemistry can help
to reduce, replace and recycle the use of scarce natural
resources. New methods to extract phosphorus from soil,
rivers and oceans can be developed. Alternative energy
storage technologies can be designed that do not rely on
supplies of lithium. Materials chemists will design new
catalytic processes that do not require platinum, together
with new materials for appliances and solar cells thatare free from indium. Alternatives to rare earth metals
in a range of applications should also be considered. A
concerted global strategy to optimise the supply of scarcenatural resources is urgently required in the interim, until
technological alternatives can be delivered.

The Challenge
Metals and other minerals are essential to almost
every aspect of modern life. Phosphorus (P) is oneof the main constituents of fertiliser, in the formof phosphates, and is necessary to life throughincorporation into DNA and bones. Without suppliesof phosphorus it would be impossible to live – it is an
essential element. Metals such as lithium (Li), platinum(Pt), palladium (Pd), indium (In) and rare earth metals(a collection of 17 chemical elements) are used in avariety of applications such as batteries, catalysts tofacilitate complex chemical transformations (including
the removal of pollutants from the air), components
for computers, solar cells and mobile phones, and inmagnets for motors such as those in wind turbines.
The use of many scarce elements in catalysts enables
industrial processes to operate efficiently at lower
temperatures and with less energy.

The total stock of elemental resources in the Earth’s
crust is finite, but may be large. A ‘reserve’ is the stockof metal for which the location and tonnage is known
and which can be extracted economically using
existing technology. As such, reserves of an element
typically represent a small fraction of the total amountin the Earth’s crust. Unlike fossil fuels, which areconverted to CO2 and water when burned, elemental
resources are not destroyed and can often be recycled
and reused. However, efficient recycling depends
critically on product design to enable elemental
resources to be recovered at the end of a productlifecycle.
Decreasing world supplies of elemental resources
is a reality and a potentially more pressing concern
than the decreasing supply of oil.31 It is likely thatknown reserves of phosphate minerals, for instance,
will be depleted within the next 30–100 years.32 It isa national security concern for many nations that asmall group of countries control the remaining stocks
of many precious and vital resources. National policies
restricting export of certain minerals are already being
put into practice. Limited availability and high pricesof scarce natural resources will quickly start to affectindustries across many different sectors.
Materials chemistry can provide ways to reduce,
replace and recycle the use of scarce natural resources.
New solutions can be developed to replace scarceelements in technologies and processes with moreabundant materials. These solutions should besustainable – we must not initiate a dependency onother resources that may be in short supply in the
future.33
Legislation to regulate the supply and use of
scarce natural resources must be applied in the
short term. However, it is vital that these measures
be complemented by support for research anddevelopment of sustainable technologies in themedium to long term. We must act now if we are to beable to respond when shortages occur.
Security of carbon feedstocks such as petrochemicals
is also of concern. This is discussed in Chapter Three:
Fossil Fuel and Feedstock Replacement Materials.

16 | A Sustainable Global SocietyPhosphorus
Technological breakthroughs to guarantee suppliesof phosphorus for the survival of future generations
are needed. There is currently no practical methodof ensuring a supply of phosphorus without a steadysupply of phosphate minerals. Phosphorus is present insoil, rivers and oceans, often originating from fertiliser
run-offs. There is potential to extract phosphorus
from these sources, however there are physical andenergetic barriers limiting the development of suchprocesses. Fundamental research is urgently required
to develop sustainable solutions.

How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will investigate the potential• Materials
replacement of lithium in batteries with sodium
sulfide (Na2S), magnesium, nitrogen-doped
graphene§ or other materials.

chemists will enhance the efficiency and• Materials
lifetimes of batteries for longer use – a five- to tenfold improvement on current lifetimes should beachievable.

will investigate new technologies to• Chemists
extract lithium from oceans using main group metal
coordination chemistry.

How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will conceive of and develop• Materials
new materials that are able to selectively bind toand remove phosphorus-containing species such as
phosphate from water and soil using host-guest andmetal coordination chemistry.

engineers and biotechnologists will
• Chemists,
develop and optimise membrane technologies toselectively concentrate phosphate from water.

Lithium
Lithium is the most commonly used metal in batteries,
and will continue to form part of future energy storage
technologies in the short to medium term (seeChapter One: Energy Conversion and Storage). Lithium
also has important pharmaceutical applications. New
technologies to reduce and replace the use of lithium
are required.
It is unclear how long known lithium reserves will
last. Estimates of the size of lithium deposits thatare accessible with existing extraction technologies,
together with the rate at which they are being
consumed and the threat of reduced supply, suggestthat supplies will last around 45 years. This may
be shorter if lithium-ion batteries become moreprevalent.34,35 Although it may be possible to develop
improved techniques for recycling lithium frombatteries as usage increases, methods to obtain lithiumfrom alternative sources are required.

Platinum
Platinum is currently used as a key constituent of
low temperature fuel cells (see Chapter One: Energy
Conversion and Storage). Leaching of the metal is acommon problem in fuel cell applications, resulting
in lower efficiencies and a loss of the metal to thesurrounding environment. Cheaper, more durable fuelcells, made from a stable supply of earth-abundant raw
materials are required.
Platinum is also used in catalysts for diverse andimportant chemical transformations on a large scale,and in catalytic converters for emissions control.
New sustainable catalytic processes based on moreabundant chemical elements are required (see Chapter
Five: Green Materials and Processes).
How will materials chemistry help?

will explore and develop alternatives to• Chemists
platinum in fuel cells which are based on moreabundant elements.

will explore and develop alternatives• Chemists
to platinum in fuel cells which are based on
nanomaterials including nitrogen-doped grapheme.

chemists will undertake the rational design• Materials
and realisation of nanoscale multimetallic systems,
such as alloys, with favourable catalytic properties.

Graphene is a carbon-based electro-active material composed of a single layer of graphite. Graphene is currently amuch-studied material for its interesting physical properties and the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to its
discoverers.

§

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 17

Indium

Rare earth metals

Many current solar cell technologies rely heavily on theuse of indium (see Chapter One: Energy Conversion
and Storage), as do many components of electronic
appliances, for instance flat-screen televisions.

Rare earth metals, for example neodymium are usedin magnets for many industries and technologies,
including the communications and energy sectors.
A stable supply of magnets for a variety of applications
is required. With targeted research, the replacementof rare earth metals in magnets may be achieved inless than five years. New technologies to efficiently
extract rare earth metals from different sources will be
required in the interim.

Fundamental materials research could deliver viable
alternatives to the use of indium in the next five to ten
years.
How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will research and develop• Materials
cheaper, more stable supplies of materials for solar

How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will enhance our capabilities in• Materials
the area of rare earth metal magnetic properties, tocells, organic light-emitting diodes, and for betterand cheaper display technologies

chemists will design and optimise new• Materials
light- and heat-stable transparent, electrically

improve magnet performance and to reduce therare earth content.

chemists will enhance our capabilities in• Materials
the area of rare earth metal coordination chemistry,

conducting materials with favourable properties
for multiple applications

to facilitate the design of improved capture
methods.
Many energy storage
technologies currently rely
on Lithium; alternativetechnologies are needed

1

2

H

He

1.008

4.003

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Li

Be

B

C

N

O

F

Ne

6.941

9.012

10.81

12.01

14.01

16.00

19.00

20.18

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Na

Mg

Al

Si

P

S

Cl

Ar

22.99

24.31

26.98

28.09

30.97

32.07

35.45

39.95

19

36

20

21

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

K

Ca

Sc

Ti

V

Cr

Mn

Fe

Co

Ni

Cu

Zn

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

Kr

39.10

40.08

44.96

47.88

50.94

52.00

54.94

55.85

58.47

58.69

63.55

65.39

69.72

(72.64)

74.92

78.96

79.90

83.8

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

Rb

Sr

Y

Zr

Nb

Mo

Tc

Ru

Rh

Pd

Ag

Cd

In

Sn

Sb

Te

I

Xe

85.47

87.62

88.91

91.22

92.91

95.94

(98)

101.1

102.9

106.4

107.9

112.4

114.8

118.7

121.8

127.6

126.9

131.3

55

56

57

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

Cs

Ba

La

Hf

Ta

W

Re

Os

Ir

Pt

Au

Hg

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

132.9

137.3

138.9

178.5

180.9

183.8

186.2

190.2

192.2

195.1

197

200.6

204.4

207.2

209

(209)

(210)

(222)

87

88

89

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

Fr

Ra

Ac

Rf

Db

Sg

Bh

Hs

Mt

Ds

Rg

Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

(223)

(226)

(227)

(261)

(262)

(266)

(264)

(277)

(268)

(281)

(272)

(285)

(284)

(289)

(288)

(292)

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

Ce

Pr

Nd

Pm

Sm

Eu

Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm

Yb

Lu

140.1

140.9

144.2

(147)

150.4

152

157.3

158.9

162.5

164.9

167.3

168.9

173

175

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

22

23

0

Th

Pa

U

Np

Pu

Am

Cm

Bk

Cf

Es

Fm

Md

No

Lr

232

(231)

(238)

(237)

(242)

(243)

(247)

(247)

(249)

(254)

(253)

(256)

(254)

(262)

Serious threat in
the next 100 years

Rising threat fromincreased use

Figure 4: Endangered elements: the periodic table in short supply36

18 | A Sustainable Global Society

Limited availability,
future risk to supply

Phosphorus is an essential
plant nutrient and a major
constituent of fertilisers;
new methods to obtainphosphorus are needed

294

Indium is commonly usedin solar cells and display
technologies; alternative
materials are neededSupply and regulation
Strategies to acquire and regulate the use of scarcenatural resources are urgently required. Many countries
are now legislating to mitigate the effect of dwindling
supplies.
A report produced for the Japanese government
in 200737 lays down four principles for the use of
scarce metals and regulated elements: reduction,
replacement, recycling and regulation. On the basisof these principles, Japan has defined its element
strategy as one of the most important priorities forscience and technology research.
A similar programme began in the EU in 2009,38 where
it has been agreed that information on known reservesof many elements is lacking, and therefore further
information should be obtained and catalogued.
In the UK, the House of Commons Science andTechnology Select Committee launched an enquiry
into strategically important metals in November 2010,
and will report to the UK Government in early 2011.39
Similarly, the US Department of Energy released
a report detailing its Critical Materials Strategy inDecember 2010.40
Measures to guarantee appropriate global suppliesof scarce natural resources, and to regulate their use,must be replicated in other countries.

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 19

5. Green Materials and Processes
The pressures created by a growing world population aredamaging the environment. We must meet our energy,material and water needs in ways that are non-harmful
and sustainable, using the principles of green chemistry.
Materials chemistry can help to develop new catalysts
that do not rely on scarce or toxic chemical elements while
delivering high yields of product and generating minimal
waste. New large-scale industrial processes can be designedthat are energy- and water- efficient yet avoid fouling of
the environment. New technologies to better monitor andremove air, soil and water pollutants from the environment
can be designed for both developing and developed
countries. New generations of plastics can be designed thatare safe, easily recyclable or fully biodegradable, to have aminimal impact on the environment.

The Challenge
Sustainable and environmentally-benign processes
will be required to satisfy human energy, material
and water needs as the world population continues
to grow. These processes can be designed using the
Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry (see Box 1) todeliver significant energy and financial savings. Thesesavings should be an incentive for industries, as well as
academic researchers, to invest time and resources indeveloping new green materials and processes.

Box 1
The Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry:41• prevent waste;• design safer chemicals and products;• design less hazardous chemical syntheses;• use renewable feedstocks;• use catalysts, not stoichiometric reagents;• avoid chemical derivatives;• maximise atom economy;• use safer solvents and reaction conditions;• increase energy efficiency;chemicals and products to degrade after• designuse;• analyse in real time to prevent pollution;• minimise the potential for accidents.

20 | A Sustainable Global Society

New and improved catalytic processes are neededthat take place at lower temperatures and pressures,and in benign solvents. As already noted in previous
discussion, catalysts are able to direct selective
chemical processes while significantly reducing
the required energy and increasing throughput.
Approximately 90% of all chemical products used inour daily lives are produced with the aid of catalysis
and, as such, the impact of catalysis on modern society
cannot be overstated.42 New approaches to catalytic
process design are required, together with innovative
methods, to identify ways to improve industrial-size
processes.
Emissions of air, soil and water pollutants remain anissue worldwide, especially in urban areas including
highly populated megacities, and plastics continue
to pollute our environment. We must act to remove
those that are currently present and every effort
must be made to avoid the generation of waste in
the future. The detection, control and remediation ofpollutants in air, water and soil is a prerequisite for acleaner, more hospitable planet.
There is a growing pressure to design synthetic
materials that are produced using sustainable
resources, and that have little or no long-term
environmental impact, in a world where consumers
demand products made from ‘natural’ materials.
Materials chemists can deliver new functional
materials, for multiple applications, that meet thesedemands.

New catalysts
Catalysts make a vital contribution to our daily lives.
Applications range from the manufacture of polymers
and bulk chemicals (such as ammonia, polyethylene
and acetic acid) to the synthesis of pharmaceuticalintermediates and catalytic converters for emissions
control. Many catalysts in current use are basedon scarce elements such as platinum (see Chapter
Four: Conservation of Scarce Natural Resources).
New catalysts are required that deliver high yields ofproducts, without forming harmful by-products, andthat are composed of earth-abundant elements.
Fouling of catalysts and environmental contamination
are problems with many current industrial processes.
New processes must enable catalysts to beregenerated, and unused starting materials to berecycled.
Catalysts that can effectively utilise chemicals frombiomass will be required as alternatives to traditional
processes that use petroleum feedstocks (see Chapter
Three: Fossil Fuel and Feedstock Replacement
Materials). Materials chemists will design families ofcatalysts for new bio-based feedstocks that function
effectively in water, with good levels of efficiency,
activity and selectivity.
Immobilised (or anchored) catalysts have thepotential to revolutionise many industrial processes.
These catalysts are bound to an insoluble solid andtherefore easily removed and recycled after use. In
this way, drugs and materials can be synthesised
in high purity and free from the problem of metal
contamination often associated with more traditional
catalytic procedures that produce metal-containing
wastes. More systematic approaches to the design of
new immobilised catalysts are required to facilitate
breakthroughs in this area.
Significant breakthroughs in the design of new
catalytic processes could be achieved within five toten years.

How will materials chemistry help?

will design and develop new catalysts that
• Chemists
can be used in benign solvents such as water, ionicliquids and supercritical CO2 (see Chapter Two: CO2
Capture, Activation and Use).

catalysts will be designed and optimised, with• New
favourable activity and selectivity that don’t require
scarce elements.

chemists will design and optimise new• Materials
chemical transformations that take place without
solvents or in a medium which acts jointly as solventand catalyst.

will design and optimise new catalysts that
• Chemists
can convert biomass into new materials to replacepetrochemical products (see Chapter Three: Fossil
Fuel and Feedstock Replacement Materials).

chemists will develop systematic and• Materials
rational approaches to the design of immobilised

catalysts such as cluster catalysts and nanoparticles.

Process design
There are several issues associated with increasing thesize of chemical processes from pilot to industrial scale.
Loss of process efficiency is commonly encounteredand identifying appropriate solutions is also a challenge.
Manipulating the properties of materials during
production for large-scale applications is difficult.
Greater control over the physical properties of materials
for applications such as large-area solar cells is required.
Commitment from industry leaders will be required to
implement new strategies.
How will materials chemistry help?

chemists and engineers will develop• Processintensification techniques that employ bundlesof micro-scale units (for example micro-reactors)
for large-scale processes, to minimise mass andenergy transport limitations which degrade process
efficiency.

and engineers will develop new• Scientists
molecular-modelling theories and simulation

techniques, to design better industrial processes.

and process chemists will design processes• Materials
that deliver greater control of the size, shape,morphology, surface structure and porosity ofmaterials.

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 21

Detection, management andremediation of pollutants
Air pollutants

How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will develop methods for• Materials
detecting sulfur dioxide (SO ), nitrogen oxides (NO ),2

Air pollutants continue to cause environmental andhealth problems in both developing and developed
countries (see Box 2). Air pollution sensors forstationary, transportation, and industrial sourcesof pollution must be developed to better monitor
air quality on a continuous basis. Chemists and thechemical industry are already developing innovativetechnologies to reduce emissions of air pollutants,43
however further breakthroughs are needed. Meansof capturing air pollutants already present in theatmosphere are also required.

volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and ozone(O3), and will develop chemical- and size-resolved
measurements of particulate matter.

xchemists will aid the design of new• Materials
industrial and energy conversion processes that do
not emit pollutants into the atmosphere including
SO2, NOx, VOCs, O3 and particulate matter.

chemists will design new materials that
• Materials
more effectively remove air pollutants from theenvironment.
Water pollutants

Box 2
Common air pollutants:

dioxide (SO ), a component of acid rain, is• Sulfurproduced in various industrial processes. Levels
2

•
•
•
•

of SO2 are increasing overall but are decreasing
in developed countries due to governmental
regulation over the past 30 years.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced from thereaction of nitrogen and oxygen gases in the air
during combustion, particularly in motor vehicles,
and contribute to smog and acid rain. Emissions ofNOx are increasing throughout the world.44
Black carbon emissions, created from combustionof many materials, contribute to climate changewith a magnitude estimated to be similar to thatof CO2.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can enter theenvironment from a number of different sources
and contribute to both indoor and outdoor air
pollution. VOCs can be associated with respiratory,
allergic or immune effects in humans.
Ozone in the upper atmosphere protects theearth by absorbing harmful ultra-violet (UV)radiation. Ozone forms in the lower atmosphereby the reaction of sunlight on air containinghydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. In the lower
atmosphere, ozone is an air pollutant that canhave harmful effects on the human respiratory
system and plants.

22 | A Sustainable Global Society

We need improved processes to monitor and reduce
the levels of pollutants entering our water supplies.
The United Nations estimates that approximately 1.1
billion people (18% of the world’s population) do nothave access to safe drinking water.45,46 Contaminationof water supplies can result from both human activity
and natural sources.
The water quality issues in developing countries areoften very different from those in developed nations.
Pollution from arsenic, agricultural and industrial
waste, and pharmaceuticals are widespread problems.
Technologies to monitor and remediate many known
pollutants exist, but need to be robust, portable andinexpensive.47
Materials chemistry can help to develop technologies
that remove and even utilise pollutants present inwater supplies. Solutions could be delivered withina relatively short timescale through multidisciplinary
research and with appropriate industrial incentives.

How will materials chemistry help?

and analytical chemists will develop and• Materials
optimise sensors for the continuous monitoringof multiple, low-level pollutants in complex
environments.

and engineers will design and optimise• Scientists
processes to reduce water pollution caused byhuman activity at the source, including new waterbased chemical processes that can be coupled witheffective methods for purifying water after use.

chemists will help to develop and optimise• Materials
sustainable sorption, membrane and biodegradation
technologies for the removal of pollutants fromwater, both in the environment and from drinking
water supplies.

chemists and process engineers will design• Materials
and implement new processes for convertingorganic pollutants in wastewaters to fuels (seeChapter One: Energy Conversion and Storage).
Production of plastics

A sustainable source of plastics will be required associetal needs grow. In some countries, such as India,
waste generated by use of non-degradable plastics isof national concern. Even where recycling schemes
exist, recycling processes are often resource-inefficient,requiring a large energy input and resulting in loss ofmaterial. New biodegradable materials will be madeusing building blocks derived from biological sources(biomass). More effective recycling systems are alsoneeded.
Biologically-derived plastics in current use can be
disruptive in the recycling system as they are difficult
to separate from non-degradable plastics. Better
societal education and willingness to participate inrecycling schemes will facilitate the isolation andreuse/recycling of differently degradable plastics. Good
progress is already being made in many countries– the current recycling quota in Germany is 55% byweight; glass, paper and metal is over 90% recycled.48

The development of plastics that degrade to usefulor harmless products (functional biodegradation)
should be a high priority. A greater considerationof the full lifecycle of products is needed to ensurethat the materials used have a demonstrably low
environmental impact.28 A product that is derived frombiomass is not necessarily ‘safe’ – all materials withwide application should be innocuous to both theenvironment and humankind.
In the future, polymers and plastics will be themost popular production material for many objects
and components, from packaging to construction
to consumer goods. They will be used to create
inexpensive products that are durable and safe whenin use, and which degrade quickly into innocuous byproducts when no longer required.
How will materials chemistry help?

chemists will design and optimise new• Materials
biodegradable plastics made from biologicallyderived building blocks.

working with engineers, will help to• Chemists,
develop and implement new detection systems
and separations technologies to ensure that
biologically-derived plastics can be recycled without
contaminating existing waste streams.

the help of materials chemistry, it will be• Withpossible to design and commercialise fullyrecyclable or degradable materials that haveminimal environmental impact.

and biotechnologists will help to develop• Chemists
and optimise polymer building blocks, using
fermentation or biochemical technologies, which
will help reduce the prices of the resulting polymers.

How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 23

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How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 25

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26 | A Sustainable Global Society

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How Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 27

Appendix: Chemical Sciences and Society Summit (CS3) 2010 Participants
Dongyuan Zhao
Xiaogang Peng
Lei Jiang
Lizhong Zhu
Buxing Han
Lin Zhuang

Fudan University, Shanghai
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou
Institute of Chemistry, CAS, Beijing
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou
Institute of Chemistry, CAS, Beijing
Wuhan University, Wuhan

Markus Antonietti
Walter LeitnerBernhard Rieger
Michael Fröba
Andrea Kruse
Regina Palkovits

Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces
RWTH Aachen University
University of Technology, Munich
University of Hamburg
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
Max Planck Institute for Coal Research

Kazuhito Hashimoto
Hideo Hosono
Eiichi Nakamura
Takuzo Aida 	Morinobu Endo
Tadahisa Iwata

University of Tokyo
Tokyo Institute of Technology
University of Tokyo
University of Tokyo
Shinshu University
University of Tokyo

Steve Howdle
Karen Wilson
Andrew Cooper
Neil Champness
Ton Peijs
Matt Davidson

University of Nottingham
Cardiff University
University of Liverpool
University of Nottingham
Queen Mary University of London
University of BathTobin Marks
Mike Heinekey
Vicki Grassian
Emily Carter
Luke Achenie
Marc Hillmyer

Northwestern University, Illinois
University of Washington, Seattle
University of Iowa
Princeton University
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
University of Minnesota

Richard Miller
Carol Stanier

Head of Sustainability, UK Technology Strategy Board
Science Writer

ORGANISING COMMITTEE

Zhigang Shuai
Hans-Georg Weinig
Markus Behnke
Nobuyuki Kawashima
Yoshio Okahata
Richard Pike
James Hutchinson
Katie Daniel
Brad Miller
Katharine Covert

Chinese Chemical Society
German Chemical Society
German Research Foundation (DFG)
Executive Director, The Chemical Society of Japan
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
Chief Executive, Royal Society of Chemistry
Royal Society of ChemistryEngineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, UK
American Chemical Society
National Science Foundation, US

28 | A Sustainable Global SocietyHow Can Materials Chemistry Help? | 29

Chemistry for
Tomorrow’s WorldA roadmap for the chemical sciences
July 2009This publication uses paper produced with recycled fibre together with virgin FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) fibre from sustainable forests.
The laminate used on this publication is produced from refined wood pulp from timber harvested from SFI managed forests. This laminate is sustainable, compostable and can be recycled.

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