JAPAN INSTITUTE FOR LABOUR POLICY AND TRAINING-------------------------------------------

IMPROVING VIETNAM’S VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAININGLESSONS FROMJAPAN’S VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING POLICY

Hoa Thi Phuong DANG
Acting Editor-in-chief of the Journal of European Studies,
Institute of European Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences (Vietnam)

NERIMA, 10/2023
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviation
1. AJC
2. ESG
3. FDI
4. FOIP
5. GSO
6. HDCA
7. ILO
8. JICA
9. JILPT
10. JVET
11. MEXT12. MHLW
13. MOET
14. MOLISA
15. NPA
16. ODA
17. SME

Meaning
Southeast Asia - Japan Center
Environmental, Social, and GovernanceForeign direct investment
Free and Open Indo-PacificVietnam General statistics office
Human development capacity approach
International labor organization
Japan International Cooperation Agency
Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training
Japan vocational education and training
Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology
Japan’s Ministry of health, labor and welfare
Ministry of education and training
Ministry of labor, invalid and society
Japan National Police Agency
Official Development Assistancesmall and medium-sized enterprise

18. TTXVN
19. TVET
20. VET
21. VNVET

Vietnam News Agency
Technical and vocational education and training
Vocational education and training
Vietnam vocational education and training

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1. INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH APPROACH
1.1.

Reason for choosing the topic

In Vietnam, the field of vocational education is probably the field that has changed the least.
In terms of law, among of 230 laws, the Law on Vocational Education and Training (VET) is oneof the few laws amended in 2014 that is still in effect today. Related vocational education
activities after the promulgation of the Vocational Education Law are still controversial.
Across the country, rapid and complex changes in many fields around the world are affecting
the speed of recovery and development of Vietnam, especially investment, trade, finance,
exchange rate and job opportunities. High inflation and economic recession after COVID-19 are
causing layoffs or job losses taking place in many businesses. On the contrary, many otherbusinesses cannot find and recruit highly skilled workers 1. The key to this situation, in myopinion, lies in the human skills, working competency and ability of workers to transform andadapt to changes in socio-economic development. Furthermore, at a certain stage ofdevelopment, the business leader is required to change the way the business develops andoperates. Correspondingly, individual workers also need to change their career skills. Alongwith that, the Fourth Industrial Revolution continues to impact many fields, changing both thestructure and the labor market.
Vietnam has many opportunities to develop strongly as its economy is considered a prosperous
with high-growth market. Vietnam is the third largest recipient of foreign direct investment(FDI) in the region 2. In the context of a volatile and challenging labor market, skilled workers
with certificates and vocational certificates still have advantages. Therefore, education andtraining need to continue to be promoted and innovated to provide skilled and quality humanresources, contributing to the development of an effective labor market 3.
In the first quarter of 2023, the Vietnamese labor force aged 15 and over is about 52.2 million
workers, an increase of more than 1 million compared to 2022 4 (on average, there are 1 million
new workers each year). The proportion of young workers is high and the potential is very
promising. But this workforce does not meet the requirements of some businesses, especially
FDI enterprises. The rate of trained and certified workers in Vietnam is about 26.4%, which canbe said to be very low compared to practical requirements. Even among workers with degrees,
the proportion of workers with practical labor skills is much lower.
1 Phuong Linh (2023), Lifelong learning, increasing adaptability is the key to job transformation, https://baodautu.vn/hoc-tap-

suot-doi-tang-kha-nang-thich-ung- la-chia-science-process-study-work-d192059.html
My Hanh (2023), Upgrading skills, unlocking opportunities - The strategic key of Vietnam's labor market,
https://tapchilaodong.vn/nang-cap-ky-nang-mo-khoa-coquestion-share-science-course-cua-thi-school-lao-dong-viet-nam1327054.html
3 TTXVN (VIETNAM NEWS AGENCY) (2023), Innovating vocational training activities to meet labor market requirements,
https://tuyengiao.vn/thoi-su/doi-moi-hoat-dong-dao-tao-nghe-dap-ung-yeu-cau-thi-truong-lao-dong-145759
4 Vietnam General Statistics Office (2023), Vietnam labor market report quarter I/2023
2

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According to forecasts of the Center for Human Resource Demand Forecasting and Labor
Market Information of Ho Chi Minh City, in the second half of 2023, businesses in Ho Chi Minh
City need about 155,000-165,000 working and training places, concentrated in four key
industries: food processing, chemicals - rubber - plastics, mechanics, electronics and main
service industries such as: commerce, accommodation services, catering, transportation warehousing... Notably, the need for trained labor accounts for over 86% of the total humanresource need 5.
In Binh Duong - a locality in the southern key economic region, in the first 6 months of 2023,
the number of unskilled workers (without degrees or professional certificates) falling into
unemployment reached nearly 92% of the number of people applying for unemployment
subsidies6.
From the perspective of the International Labor Organization, the ILO believes that, Vietnam
needs to put skills training of the workforce in first priority7.
From a personal perspective, it can be seen that improving career skills is no longer an option
but a mandatory requirement for workers to be successful in their respective fields.
From a national perspective, the need for learning and education in Vietnam is not just a
temporary trend; this is the most important source for country's economic transformation. The
need for a highly skilled workforce is not only an aspiration but also a necessity for Vietnam tobecome an upper middle-income economy by 2035, as stated in the report “Education for
Development" by the World Bank8.
Japan's development history shows that, due to scarcity of resources, the Japanese have longemphasized the human factor. There is no other way to develop the country than creatingstrong and quality human resources. Focusing on human education has become the mostprominent feature of Japanese education.
This is consistent with the human development philosophy that I pursue.
Japan is considered a country with high quality education, with a modern and comprehensive
education system, focusing on practical elements, and having the best learning environment
and experience for learners. Education towards practical science for life is considered a
progressive point of Japanese education, education is associated with life benefits, therefore,
training programs are always highly appreciated. The training models deployed are always
associated with the production site, not only helping learners improve their knowledge but also
5 TTXVN (VIETNAM NEWS AGENCY) (2023), Innovating vocational training activities to meet labor market requirements,
https://tuyengiao.vn/thoi-su/doi-moi-hoat-dong-dao-tao-nghe-dap-ung-yeu-cau-thi-truong-lao-dong-145759
6 TTXVN (VIETNAM NEWS AGENCY) (2023), ibid.
7 Phương Linh (2023), ibid, https://baodautu.vn/hoc-tap-suot-doi-tang-kha-nang-thich-ung-la-chia-khoa-chuyen-doi-viec-lamd192059.html
8 Mỹ Hạnh (2023), ibid, https://tapchilaodong.vn/nang-cap-ky-nang-mo-khoa-co-hoi-chia-khoa-chien-luoc-cua-thi-truong-laodong-viet-nam-1327054.html

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creating opportunities for exposure and experience, helping students quickly adapt to theworks later. Each Japanese worker has specialized skills after receiving vocational guidance andvocational education and having a process of career building.
Furthermore, at the government-to-government level, in his first term (2006-2007), Prime
Minister Abe raised the bilateral partnership with Vietnam to an official strategic partnership.
Currently, Vietnam consistently considers Japan to be its most important and long-term
strategic partner 9. Japan considers Vietnam a "very important" partner country of Japan in
implementing the Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) strategy 10. The high frequency of mutual
visits by senior leaders of the two countries 11 shows that Vietnam - Japan relations havedeveloped to an unprecedented level, based on mutual complementarity 12. Japan has been the
country with the largest ODA to Vietnam since 1975, but for Tokyo, that is not enough andJapan wants to "enliven" more cooperation in this field with a focus on strategic infrastructuredevelopment 13.
Japan's ODA with Vietnam plays an important role in the following aspects: (i) improving andupgrading the business environment in Vietnam, promoting economic growth; (ii) improving
the social environment; (iii) promoting the development of agriculture - forestry - fishery,
contributing to hunger eradication and poverty reduction and (iv) contributing to promoting
economic restructuring towards industrialization and modernization. In June 2023, Japanannounced a new ODA policy for Vietnam. New ODA generation from Japan with low interest
rates, almost zero, is expected to promote cooperation and exchange of experience andtechnology between the two countries in the coming time.
At the local level, since 2007 up to now, 5 centrally-run cities, 11 provinces and 3 prefecturalcities of Vietnam and 16 districts, 12 cities and 1 town of Japan have exchanged a total of 37
memoranda of understanding on cooperation, economic connection, enhancing mutual
understanding, contributing to restoring the local economy and promoting culture based on the

9 The Vietnamese Prime Minister affirmed at a meeting with Member of the National Assembly, Head of the Policy Research

Department of the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan (LDP) Hagiuda Koichi on July 10, 2023, Vu Khuyen (2023),
https://vov.vn/chinh-tri/viet-nam-nhat-quan-coi-nhat-ban-la-doi-tac-chien-luoc-quan-trong-hang-dau-post1031738.vov
10 Ms. Kobayashi-Terada, Spokesperson of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, talked about the visit to Vietnam by
Japanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko on October 10, 2023, https://tuoitre.vn/nhat-ban-nhin-thay-gi-o-viet-nam20231012004110779.htm?fbclid=IwAR0oKCu9otuEmf7p2PlEoFIqcxYzHTKhY6Uz1jCcBXLapWhF96R4WDOjasc
11 On February 28, 2017, Japanese King Akihito and the Queen began an official visit to Vietnam and Thailand for 7 days and 6
nights (in fact, the King and Queen officially visited Vietnam for 6 days, on the way back to Thailand). Lan pays her respects tothe late King who recently passed away. In January 2013, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe chose Vietnam as the first country hevisited.
12 Professor Tomohito Shinoda, Japan International University, spoke at the international conference "The relationship between
Japan's 70-year post-war development path and Vietnam's international integration process" organized by the Diplomatic
Academy and the Japanese Embassy co-organized the morning of October 13, 2015 in Hanoi, https://tuoitre.vn/hop-tac-voinhat-vn-da-dang-hoa-loi-ich-kinh-te-984460.htm
13 Ms. Kobayashi-Terada, Spokesperson of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, talked about the visit to Vietnam ofJapanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko on October 10, 2023, https://tuoitre.vn/nhat-ban-nhin-thay-gi-o-viet-nam20231012004110779.htm?fbclid=IwAR0oKCu9otuEmf7p2PlEoFIqcxYzHTKhY6Uz1jCcBXLapWhF96R4WDOjasc5characteristics and potential of each region 14. The strengths of the localities are fully exploitedby both sides to enhance complementarity and create a win-win cooperation situation.
People-to-people exchanges between the two countries began with a visit to Japan in the 8th
century by a Vietnamese monk. Then, in the 17th century, when trade routes between the twocountries were opened, many Japanese merchants lived in Hoi An. By the 19th century, many
Vietnamese people came to Japan to study during the Dong Du movement. From thoseexchanges, a strong friendship has developed between the people of the two countries. Afterestablishing diplomatic relations, the Japan-Vietnam Parliamentary Friendship Alliance wasestablished in 1978. This is a friendship association with an extremely active history to this day.
The exchanges between parliamentarians of the two countries, the trusting and friendly
relationship between the two National Assemblies have greatly contributed to thedevelopment of bilateral relations.
Vietnam is an important production base for Japanese companies and one of the promising
investment destinations. In particular, as Japanese companies diversify their supply chains,
Vietnam is attracting more and more attention. The growth of Vietnam will be closely
associated with Japan's development. Japan will continue to cooperate with Vietnam to achievesustainable economic growth, help build an inclusive society, and continue to develop
together 15.
So, Japanese businesses, especially large businesses, have great interest in investing in Vietnam.
Japanese FDI is the second largest source of FDI capital into Vietnam, very suitable for thetechnology transfer in FDI linkages. In the past 20 years, direct investment by Japanesebusinesses has increased fivefold. The outstanding characteristics of the Japanese businessmodel are: (i) production orientation, (ii) always pursuing the best quality and customer
satisfaction, (iii) long-term orientation, (iv) build long-term production relationships, (v) always
be ready to impart complex skills and techniques to local companies and workers and (vi)strictly comply with local labor regulations, taxes and environment. These characteristics of FDI
enterprises from Japan need to be noted and thoroughly applied in the Vietnamese context.
The skills of workers trained in Japanese enterprises are the exact skills that need to be trainedfor Vietnamese workers.
Regarding people, in recent years, exchanges between the people of the two countries haveincreased dramatically. The number of Vietnamese people living in Japan has increased tenfold
14 2021 data from research results of State Project KX01.13/16/20 "Research on the theoretical and practical basis of economic

connection between Vietnam and Japan in the context of economic integration region”, https://vjst.vn/vn/tin-tuc/4554/ketnoi-kinh-te-viet-nam-va-nhat-ban.aspx
15 Japanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko (2023), https://baotintuc.vn/thoi-su/viet-nam-nhat-ban-thuc-day-hop-tac-trennhieu-linh-vuc-20230920130747094.htm

6within 10 years, from 50,000 people in 2012 to 500,000 people in 2022 16. The number ofworkers going to Vietnam to work in Japan accounts for over 50% of the number of workers
going to work abroad every year. The program of sending and receiving Vietnamese interns andworkers to Japan has had remarkable development. Specifically, since Japan began accepting
Vietnamese interns, over the past 30 years, there have been more than 400,000 young
Vietnamese people coming to Japan to practice skills. The number of Vietnamese interns
entering Japan, from 10,200 in 2013 to 82,700 in 2019, increased more than 8 times; In 2022,
there were nearly 68,000 interns; In the first 6 months of 2023, there are more than 35,000
Vietnamese interns going to Japan. The program to bring Vietnamese nursing and midwifery
candidates to Japan to work within the framework of the Vietnam-Japan Economic Partnership
Agreement began to be implemented in 2012. To date, Vietnam has brought 1,697 Vietnamese
nursing and midwife candidates working in Japan. Regarding the technical labor program,engineers and interpreters, there are currently about 65,000 Vietnamese people working inJapanese enterprises. Vietnam is currently the leading country sending workers to Japan among
15 countries sending workers to Japan with the total number of Vietnamese workers living andworking in Japan being 345,000 people (as of September 2019 - December 2022). There areabout 80,000 Vietnamese specified workers working in Japan, accounting for 58.7% of the total
number of foreign specified workers in Japan, of which technical intern trainees make up 81% 17.
Japanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko (2023) said that in Japan, where the birth rate isdecreasing and the population is aging, Vietnamese human resources are playing a huge role,
supporting socio-economic development. Japanese association 18.
Vietnam's vocational education policy was issued a long time ago and has been amended inboth the Labor Law, the Education Law and the Vocational Education Law. The time to amend
the law lasts many years. But the data on the structure of trained labor is not better. In thecontext of the number of FDI enterprises increasing rapidly, technology changing extremely
rapidly, countries shifting growth models, and strong climate change forcing both domestic andforeign enterprises to adapt. Foreign countries cannot recruit the desired manpower, among
many job applications. In particular, Vietnam is famous for its abundant young but unskilledworkforce, known as unskilled workers for many decades. Interestingly, during the 3 years of
COVID-19, when social distancing was implemented, the unskilled labor force from businesses
returned to their hometowns, causing unprecedented cross-regional migration, like in the war
time. The sudden increase in the number of these workers returning to rural areas shows thatwhen their hired jobs run out, unskilled workers are unable to survive in the workplace and areJapanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko (2023), Vietnam - Japan have endless potential for cooperation,
https://tuoitre.vn/viet-nhat-co-tiem-nang-hop-tac-vo-tan-20231010084816463.htm
17 Thuy Truc (2023), The Japanese labor market attracts many workers, why?, https://kinhtedothi.vn/thi-truong-lao-dong-nhatban-thu-hut-nhieu-nguoi-lao-dong-vi-sao.html
18 Japanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko (2023), ibid, https://tuoitre.vn/viet-nhat-co-tiem-nang-hop-tac-vo-tan20231010084816463.htm
167

forced to return to the countryside for help from their relatives. Clearly, the supply and demandpressures on vocational education are both greater than ever.
I think that, in terms of development needs, improving the quality of industrial humanresources is one of the focuses to promote Vietnam's economy. The surplus general humanresources in Vietnam must be more skilled and become Vietnam's high-quality industrial
human resources in the future. With the characteristics of Japanese education, Japan's
vocational education model is the right model that Vietnam needs to learn the most.
1.2.

Literature overview

Around the world, research on Japan's vocational education policy in Japanese is quite rich.
Research on this topic in English is rare, and in Vietnamese it is even rarer. One can easily findresearch on the Japanese education system, including a section on vocational education in few
rows with in. Research on Japan vocational education in Vietnamese mainly appears on the
introduction pages of businesses sending workers to Japan or of Japanese study abroad service
companies.
Within the scope of more than 10,000 document files that I have found and read in the time
doing research fellow in Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training (JILPT), there is not asingle study comparing the vocational education policies of Vietnam and Japan, in either
Vietnamese, English or Japanese, even in the data warehouse of the Center for JapaneseStudies under the Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences. Even, in preparation for amending theVietnam Vocational Education Law, in the vocational education policy overview of the Ministryof Labor of Vietnam (MOLISA), the vocational education policies of 19 countries are mentioned
according to each item. Only the Japanese concept of ‘worker’ is referenced. Therefore, theresearch gap in the field of Japanese vocational education in Vietnam is very large.
1.3.

Objectives of the study

The research objective is to understand aspects of Japan's vocational education policy that
Vietnam needs to refer to and improve in vocational education policy in Vietnam, based on
public policy approach.
1.4.

Research Methods

With a public policy approach, this report mainly uses desk research and document review
methods. Data collected from secondary documents, including: official documents on labor
policies and vocational education policies of the Vietnamese government and the Japanese
government; previous research on vocational education by the Japan Institute for Labour Policy
and Training, schools and research institutes. In all arguments and data analysis, comparative
methods and descriptive statistics are most used.
Research approach8

(1). Concepts definition used
Work. There are increasingly strong arguments that the world of work will be very different
from today, with huge implications for VET policy. This report uses the broad definition of workfrom Moodie, Wheelahan and Lavigne (2019: 23) 19, work is an activity that maintains thesustainability of an individual or society.
Vocational education is education that prepares people for a skilled craft as an artisan, trade asa tradesperson, or work as a technician. Vocational education can also be seen as that type of
education given to an individual to prepare that individual to be gainfully employed or selfemployed with requisite skill 20. Vocational education is known by a variety of names, dependingon the country concerned, including career and technical education 21, or acronyms such as
TVET (technical and vocational education and training) and TAFE (technical and further
education).
A vocational school is a type of educational institution specifically designed to provide
vocational education.
Vocational education can take place at the post-secondary, further education, or higher
education level and can interact with the apprenticeship system. At the post-secondary level,
vocational education is often provided by highly specialized trade schools, technical schools,
community colleges, colleges of further education (UK), vocational universities, and institutes oftechnology (formerly called polytechnic institutes).
(2). The context needs to improve vocational training policies
It is impossible to deny the impact of the 4th industrial revolution on people and the labormarket. Disruptive digital transformation affects every area of professional, private and social
life, especially during the Covid-19 epidemic. Advances in digitalization are changing the way welive and work, and opening up new dimensions to our understanding of learning and training.
The rapid pace of development and change continues to increase. Individuals need to embracechange and be motivated to shape new challenges within the broad scope of lifelong learning.
VET curricula and training regulations need to demonstrate a willingness to adapt. VET teachers
and trainers must be trained as change agents, aware of new technological and socio-economic
developments and able to design appropriate programs.

19 Moodie, Wheelahan and Lavigne (2019), Technical and Vocational Education and Training as a Framework for Social Justice:
Analysis and Evidence From World Case Studies, https://issuu.com/educationinternational/docs/2019_eiresearch_tvet
Moodie, G., Fredman, N., Bexley, E., & Wheelahan, L. (2013). Vocational education’s variable links to vocations. Adelaide:
National Centre for Vocational Education Research. Retrieved from https://www.ncver.edu.au/researchandstatistics/publications/all-publications/ vocational-educations-variable-links-tovocations
20 Lawal, Abdulrahaman W. (2013-09-03). "Technical and Vocational Education, a Tool for National Development in
Nigeria". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. 4 (8): 85. ISSN 2039-2117.
21 "Career and Technical Education". edglossary.org. 15 May 2013.

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Beside, global imperatives in addressing the challenges posed by climate change and the needfor sustainable development to reduce poverty and inequality, enhance human well-being andprotect the planet from destruction ecology has profound implications for education.
Meanwhile, education is core to achieving not only Education Goal 4 of the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals but also an essential foundation of all 17 Goals (Sachs, 2016).
Let look at The 2016 Global Education Monitor with educational framework capable ofachieving sustainable development (Global Education Monitoring Group, 2016, p. 11).
Therefore, the new vocational education policy must foresee everything and contribute to acontinuous cycle of innovation in future vocational education activities.
(3). VET policy. Surely, everyone agrees that, developing appropriate VET theories for the new
era is not only an urgent task for academic purposes but also an essential foundation of the
new policies and practices needed to transform VET so that it can contribute to socialtransformation, supporting human development across the economic, environmental andsocial sectors.
In the context of new skills demands, looking back at applied theories, there is a growing sensethat the mainstream set of theories and policies for VET is ineffective (McGrath, 2012; Zancajo
and Valiente, 2018; Bonvin, 2019; McGrath et al. events, 2019, Moodie, Wheelahan andLavigne, 2019; Powell and McGrath, 2019a).
This is especially true in developing and underdeveloped countries where poverty andinequality persist, prevailing and indecent work is widespread; limited accessibility; but
government/local government there still want education retention and achievement reports tocontinue pursuing international education funding projects.
VET must be transformed to address a range of new and challenging goals.
Returning to Amartya Sen's work “Development as Freedom” (Sen, 1999), moving the VET
debate away from equality in the assessment of knowledge or qualifications to consider
equality in freedom and multidimensional human well-being. A society that develops
comprehensively prosperous and sustainable, and human resources in that society are properly
career guided and properly vocational trained is a cause-and-effect relationship. From here, it
can be considered that better learning, better work and better life are closely linked to eachother to design public policy in the field of vocational education.
Most fundamentally, what Sen draws is the argument that development is about humanflourishing. In Sen's view, individual income and national economic development are simply
means to achieve this larger end.
Education is mainly aimed at human development, not just human capital development. The
educational approach to both human development and the development of human capacities(HDCA) focuses to sustainable human development, allowing questions, how educational
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institutions succeed or fail in helping to achieve human development, ensuring theirmultidimensional freedom in an ever-changing society.
For public education policy and public policy implementation agencies, the concept of“collective capacity”, importance of “relational capacity” must be raised. Walker and McLean(2013) and Powell and McGrath (2019a) have argued that educational institutions must haveorganizational capacity. Conradie and Robeyns (2013) and Moodie (2019) noted that, schools
and community groups play a key role in developing collective and relational capacity. Here,and businesses must be included.
Applying HDCA to VET, De Jaeghere (2017), Powell and McGrath (2019a) and McGrath et al(2019b) showed that we can escape narrow focus to employment and production, trying toreturn to broader questions about the purpose of vocational education and training as part ofindividual and community efforts towards human development, explaining stronger selfdetermination, hope and personal experience of VET; wishes for future life.
Accordingly, for countries at low starting point, the VET policy takes into account the main
factors:• Multi-dimensional poverty perspective• Gender perspective• Interact with the political economy• Broader concept of work
• Focus on flourishing• Centrality of desire• Many decisive milestones in the vocational learning path. The human element as thinking
agents constructing life projects and aspirations. Human awareness determines reassessment.
It can take place at certain life milestones that individuals experience related to their learningand work trajectory.
Taking the concept from adult learning theory, the assumptions are as follows 22:
Readiness to Learn – Adults who are ready to learn are usually spurred by a specificreason, such as self-development and growth related to their work or career path.
Orientation of Learning – Adults are more prone to learning when it is applicable toeveryday lives instead of general learning about certain subjects that are unrelated to
22 Knowles, M. S. (1962) A History of the Adult Education Movement in the USA, New York: Krieger. A revised edition was

published in 1977; https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/management/adult-learning-theory/11

our lives. In general, adults will want to learn practical skills that will make their lives
and work more efficient.
Motivation to Learn – Adults require their own motivations and reasons to learn newthings. As children, the reason for learning is simply because they are directed to learn;
however, adults need to develop their own motivation.
Reason to Learn – Adults require a strong reason to learn, such as a problem that theyneed to solve and an immediate application of new knowledge.
Self–concept – Adults’ learning is much more self-directed and independent as theymature. It allows adults to decide when they want to learn, what they want to learn,
and how they want to learn. Such an assumption shows that educators need to develop
a plethora of choices for adult learners, allowing them to design their own learning
environment.
Experience – Adult learning, in contrast to children, includes a significant amount ofprevious life experiences to rely upon to assist with new learning experiences. The
previous experiences can bring a unique perspective that fosters discussions and are
valuable learning resources. However, they may also result in some biases andmisinformation.

Adult learning theory also places importance on the ability to share life experiences as adults
with each other, which can enhance the overall learning experience. Therefore, other adult12

experiences can be used as resources to learn. Furthermore, adults will base their learning on
situations that arise in their life, which they may require new learning in order to deal with suchsituations.
As an adult who progresses through life and is developing skills and their career, adult learningtheory is crucial to understand in order to develop training programs for adults. The training
programs are important for employees who are learning new skills and job functions. They arealso essential for customers who may be learning to use a new product or new technologies.
Understanding adult learning theory is important in our ever-changing society. New
technological developments, including artificial intelligence and machine learning, will reshapeboth the job market and the retail market. Effective adult learning practices can help with thetransition and ensure that the adults of tomorrow are well equipped to handle the resulting
changes23. This suggests flexibility in VET policy corresponding to learners' motivations andcalculations about when to decide to participate or stop participating in VET. To apply adultlearning theory, there are a few steps that should be loosely followed, including:
1. Analyzing learning with the theory in mind to create a learning process and overall
framework for training.
2. Foster collaboration within the learning process, which gives an opportunity for adultlearners to benefit from each other’s life experiences.
3. Create a self-directed learning experience where the learners are able to control when,
where, and how their learning is conducted. New technologies have made this selfdirected learning much easier through e-learning.
4. Examples should be derived from real-world cases. It allows the trainee to see theapplication of what they are learning.
5. Allow learners to problem solve and figure out solutions on their own. It fosters
creativity and critical thinking on a deeper level.
Trial and error is important for adult learning, allowing learners to experiment and test
different things is important to training.
• Evaluate
1.5.

Research scope

In terms of content, this report focuses on researching public policies on vocational educationin Japan and Vietnam. Labor policy and career guidance and education policies are not the main
subjects of research, but are mentioned as supporting policies for vocational education policy.
Vocational education and training facilities, organizations noted are public or government orstate-own facilities.

23 https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/management/adult-learning-theory/

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The subjects of vocational education and training are unskilled workers, mostly young (and at
middle age), because according to the structure of the Vietnamese labor market, as statedabove, the highest proportion of unskilled workers in labor market is, mainly, junior- highschool-graduated students. This proportion has little change after many revisions of vocational
education and training policy.
The research period is focused on the real time 2019-2023, when the current vocational
education policy and supporting policies are in effect.
1.6.

New contribution

Regarding theory, based on re-questioning the meaning and role of vocational educationaccording to sustainable development goals, new VET theory and adult learning theory toreveal the long-term picture and ongoing education process of a VET public policy.
This idea has not been found in any research on VET policy in Vietnam. And, certainly, this is not
mentioned in studies on vocational education of the Ministry of Labor, War Invalids and Social
Affairs of Vietnam either;
In practice, with the selection of the case of Japanese vocational education policy, the study
points out some aspects that need improvement in the implementation and enforcement ofVietnam's vocational education policy.
At the same time, unlike the explanations of many individual researchers and authorities
related to labor cooperation between Japan and Vietnam on the causes of some negative
activities in labor cooperation, based on cross-cutting argument, the author of this report foundthe cause in professional discipline and the education of professional qualities for the young
generation of Vietnam. Professional dignity in general are only formed during the careerbuilding process, as a result of decent career guidance policies and correct vocational training.
1.7.

Layout of the report

Beside from and introduction and conclusion, the report includes 4 main parts:(1). INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH APPROACH(2). JAPAN’S VET POLICY OVERVIEW(3). IMPROVING VIETNAM’S VET POLICY BASED ON JAPAN’S VET POLICY STUDIES(4). JAPAN-VIETNAM VET POLICY COOPERATION

14

2. JAPAN’S VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING POLICY OVERVIEW
With a public policy approach, my research focuses on the activities of VET governance actors.
2.1. Japan's perspective and approach to vocational training
VET: the “transition from school to mainstream society/one's profession” and the “social andvocational independence” of young people is a structural issue that runs throughout society.
Everyone must recognize each side's role and work together to find a solution 24.
The underlying trend is to support lifelong career building. Secondary education plays animportant role in this and it is essential to promote career and vocational education in schools
to facilitate a smooth transition from school to mainstream society, as well as enhancing young
people's social and vocational independence, supporting people to build careers throughout
their lives25.
The term “career” and the distinction between career education and vocational education
caught my attention. This clear definition is very basic and defines the depth and length ofeducation system and process.
Accordingly, the term “career” is referred to in school career education, meaning “a continuous
series of endeavors that enable a person to realize the value of their role as well as therelationship between themselves and their role throughout life” 26.
Career education: Education encourages career development by cultivating the abilities andattitudes necessary to enhance the individual's social and professional independence 27.
Vocational education: Education to develop the knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes needed
to do a certain or specific job 28.
Japan VET (JVET) policy shows the essentials for social and professional independence and asmooth transition from school to mainstream society/one's profession.
JVET policy defined basic competencies and general competencies in particular are essential
competencies that underpin social and professional independence regardless of the businesssector or type of work and must be at the heart of vocational education 29.

24 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

25 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

26 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

27 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

28 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

15

◆ Necessary abilities for social and occupational independence as well as a smooth transition
from school to mainstream society/one's profession are determined as following:- Basic/basic knowledge and skills- Basic and general abilities- Ability to think logically and creatively- Readiness, attitude and set of values- Professional knowledge and skills◆ Basic and general abilities are defined as following:

Ability to establish relationships and community. Ability to understand one's own situation,
participate in society through cooperation, collaborate with others while playing an important,proactive role in building one's future society country as well as understanding the ideas andsituations of many other people, listening to the opinions of others and accurately conveying
your ideas to them. Examples: Ability to understand other people's personalities, ability toencourage others, communication, teamwork and leadership skills
Ability to understand and manage yourself. The ability to control one's thoughts and emotions,as well as take positive, proactive steps that take into account ideas such as one's own future
potential and willingness to learn for future development at the same time maintain a generalrelationship with society, while examining my own sense of “what I can do”, “what I value” and“what I want to do”. For example: Understand your own role, have the ability to always lookahead, maintain self-motivation, maintain patience, manage stress and be proactive.
Ability to solve problems. Ability to detect and analyze various problems at work, solve them bydevising a suitable plan and resolve them. Examples: Understanding, selecting and processing
information, understanding the nature of the problem, pursuing causes, detecting problems,planning, focusing energy on action, evaluating and improving
Career planning capabilities. The ability to make proactive decisions to shape one's career by
understanding the value of "work", defining "work" as it relates to the various positions androles one holds perceive in life and appropriately select/use different information about diverse
lifestyles. Examples: Understanding the value and role in learning and working, understanding
diversity, planning for the future, make choices, take action, and make improvements30.

JVET policy strengthens the vocational education component, aiming to develop two types ofhuman resources: those who will enter higher education institutions to obtain more advanced
29 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

30 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

16

qualifications and be trained in knowledge and skills to become Future professionals and those
who will be employed after graduation and responsible for local industries and society31.
Therefore, vocational training is divided into two types: Advanced vocational training andconventional training.
Table 2.1. Vocational training facilities
Name of vocational
training facility
Polytechnic Colleges

Type of vocational training

Establishing entity

Advanced vocational training forsenior high school graduates, etc.
(specialized course)

Japan Organization for Employment of theElderly, Persons with Disabilities and Job
Seekers

More advanced, specific andpractical vocational training for those
who finished advanced course(applied course)
Polytechnic
Colleges

JuniorAdvanced vocational training forsenior high school graduates, etc.
(specialized course)

Japan Organization for Employment of theElderly, Persons with Disabilities and Job
Seekers Prefectures

Polytechnic Centers

Short-term vocational training for
unemployed workers and employedworkers

Japan Organization for Employment of theElderly, Persons with Disabilities and Job
Seekers

Advanced
Polytechnic Centers

Advanced and innovative vocational
training in production-related fields
mainly for middle-career engineers

Japan Organization for Employment of theElderly, Persons with Disabilities and Job
Seekers

Polytechnic Schools

Vocational training for junior andsenior high school graduates,
unemployed workers, and employedworkers, etc.

Prefectures

Vocational training for junior andsenior high school graduates,
unemployed workers, and employedworkers, etc.

The government (The operation has been
entrusted to Japan Organization for
Employment of the Elderly, Persons with
Disabilities and Job Seekers

Polytechnic Schoolsfor Persons with
Disabilities

Municipalities

Prefectures

Source: Mex (2010), Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paperon
Education,
Culture,Sports,ScienceandTechnology
2010,
https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf
31 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

17

Japan’s VET emphasizes the need to promote not only vocational education but also systematic
career education from preschool to higher education 32.
The entire Japanese VET policy document does not leave any redundant or repetitive sentences.
All terms demonstrate professionalism in delineating activities leading to exact understanding.
2.2. Select policy enforcement tools
2.2.1. Update the development context, promptly adjust/amend old standards andpromulgate new standard regulations
I would like to list the times of changes/adjustments to legal documents and policies related to
vocational training of the Japanese Government based on Saito (1993) 33 to see the timelinessof the policy with the country's development practice.
1921・Employment Arrangement Law was enacted. →Opportunity to systematize pre-war
vocational training.
1921 - Vocational assistance (unemployment support measures for the unemployed anddisabled) was implemented for unemployed people in Tokyo City.
1938・Recruitment agencies were nationalized. Short-term accelerated training begins.
1939 ・Ordinance on factory worker training based on the National Mobilization Law. →Obligation to train long-term skilled workers for medium and large factories. Full livestock
education and training cooperation.
1945 ◆Ⅰ The period of building democratic vocational training policies (1945-1957)

1947 - The Labor Standards Act is enacted and the "Skills Training System" is implemented. ・Enact the Employment Security Law. Launched "Vocational Guidance System". →Twovocational training policy systems.

1958 ◆Ⅱ Period of blossoming and development of vocational training policy = 1958 Period ofVocational Training Law (1958-1968) ・The Vocational Training Law (“1933 Law”) was
promulgated ・The vocational training system was certified
1959・Skill certification system established (fiscal year 1959)
1963・Promoting skills competition, etc. (since 1963)
1967 ・Award for outstanding technician (modern master craftsman) (since 1967)
32 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

33斎藤[1993]、職業能力開発行政史研究会[1999]、 厚生労働省職業能力開発局監修[2002]、厚生労働省職業能力開発局

編[2002]及び厚生労働省行政資料を参照。)

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1969 ◆Ⅲ Expanding vocational training policy = Early period Vocational Training Law 1969
(1969-1973) - Law was amended to become the new Vocational Training Law (``Law 1944''). A
comprehensive vocational training system is established, in which ``vocational guidance''
becomes ``public vocational training'' and ``skills training'' becomes ``internal vocational
training'' '. ・Vocational training company system
1974 ◆Ⅳ The period of adjusting vocational training policy = The final period of the vocational
training law in 1964 (1974-1978) ・ Promulgation of the Employment Insurance Law.
Establishment of a skills development enterprise as one of three enterprises under the
Employment Insurance Act.
1978 ◆Ⅴ Turning point in vocational training policy = 1979 Vocational Training Law Period(Central Enterprise Education and Training) (1979-1985) → “First amendment” of the new
Vocational Training Law. 1) Develop a vocational training delivery system, 2) Encourage private
vocational training, and 3) Develop vocational capacity development associations for the
purpose of promoting vocational training and skills testing.
1985 - The Promotion of Vocational Capacity Development Act (changes the title of the
Vocational Training Act) passed a partial amendment (second amendment) of the Vocational
Training Act (1944 Act). → Emphasis on education and training provided by the employer, etc. A
system will be established to encourage all workers to develop and improve their vocational
skills in a timely and appropriate manner throughout their working life. → Develop andenhance employees' career capabilities through building internal career development plans,
providing paid holidays, etc. → Actively use authorized training, etc.
1986 ◆Ⅵ Period of professional capacity development policy = Period of law encouraging
professional capacity development (after 1986)
April 1992・Revised to respond to the transition to a labor shortage economy due to thedecline in the youth workforce and the growing trend of skill shortages.
1997 ・Meeting the complexity of public vocational training to increase the added value ofenterprise products and expand into new fields (1997)
October 1998 ・Amendment of the Act on Promotion of Professional Capacity Development. →- Organize the vocational training system and promote international cooperation according to
the trend of young people leaving behind skills. → ・ Promote the development andimprovement of voluntary skills development, such as strengthening the education and training
leave system. ・Amendment of the Employment Insurance Act. → Build an education andtraining welfare system.
2001 ・ Assessing the ability of occupations to respond to technological innovations such as the
IT revolution, economic globalization, longer working hours of workers due to a rapidly aging
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population, and diversification of attitudes and employment patterns, especially among young
people. development ・Professional development promotion allowance (since 2001)
2002 ・Development of professional competency assessment standards (since 2002)
2006 ・As we enter a society with a decreasing population, we will face the risk of
disinheritance and loss of skilled techniques and skills due to the trend of increasing numbers ofyoung people unemployment and part-time work as well as the retirement of many people.
baby boomer generation. ・ Establish a vocational training system including practicaltraining. ・Local youth support station project (since 2006)
2008・Job card (sheet including work history, training results, etc.) *Valid for evaluation at thetime of recruitment. (From fiscal year 2008). The Job Card system is being implemented inpromoting the transition to stable employment of job seekers, students, and workers, etc. via
fostering their profession aspires and clarifying any issues through career consultations using
Job Card, providing them with the opportunity to take practical vocational training (vocational
ability development programs), and then compiling the results of the evaluations made bytraining institutions along with their work histories, etc.
2011・Establishment of job seeker support system. Under this system, vocational training (forthose who have quit their jobs) (from October 2011) - “9th Vocational Skills Development BasicPlan” (5-year plan with implementation goals, basics, etc.) (from fiscal year 2011)2013 ・Meister Production (from 2013) ・Career Improvement Allowance (from 2013)2014 ・Establish professional practice education and training benefits. From October. ・Development of vocational training courses through cooperation between local relevantorganizations (local level corporations) (from fiscal year 2014, fiscal year 2014: 10 locations, fivefiscal 2017: 15 locations)2015 ・Internal human resource development promotion subsidy (from fiscal year 2015)2016 ・“10th Vocational Skills Development Basic Plan” (5-year plan with implementation goals,
basic issues, etc.) (from fiscal year 2016) 34
Specific examples of policy adjustments:
The Standards for Establishing Universities and the Standards for Establishing Colleges wererevised in February 2010. These Standards were established to organize the system of activities

34初谷［2001］、「第 2 章

NPO 政策の変遷」(133-229 頁)参照。

斎藤[1993]、職業能力開発行政史研究会[1999]、 厚生労働省職業能力開発局監修[2002]、厚生労働省職業能力開発局
編[2002]及び厚生労働省行政資料を参照。)

20

towards social goals and independent vocational training inside and outside the curriculum inall schools from April 2011 35.
According to the revision of the Standards for Establishing Universities and Standards for
Establishing Colleges, MEXT accelerates various supports, such as promoting the project tosupport workforce training for university students and Comprehensive implementation of
measures at all grade levels as well as systematic guidance throughout the period fromadmission to graduation, towards students' independent social and career goals 36.
In addition, regarding the five-year integrated education after secondary school graduation forcolleges of technology, MEXT conducts vocational education that is gradually and continuously
refined, in accordance with step-by-step student development, encouraging advancement inclassroom subjects with a focus on building a broader career awareness and other educational
opportunities in a variety of specialty areas37.
In order for students to have enough understanding of reality and the necessary competencies
for each job, as well as a clear sense of learning goals right from the early stages, MEXT
promotes training of lecturers to improve skills to help students gain the ability to proactively
plan their careers throughout their lives38.
The VET policy adjustment above described shows that, in Japan, social development is inagreement with the development of the education and vocation training system. VET policy islike a rudder/driving wheel, directing the entire transition system. People are the center of allactivities and are organized into a unified block.
2.2.2. Issue universal guidance and disseminate uniform information to each relevant partyon vocational education and vocational training
MEXT publishes the "Handbook of Secondary Vocational Education" to ensure that thevocational education policy is followed, representing a concrete measure to enhance vocational
education at the upper secondary level 39.
MEXT established the "Research Collaborator Meeting on the actual use of external humanresources in vocational education" to research and survey measures to help schools actively
implement vocational education. MEXT conducted a survey to better understand students'
sense of purpose related to the integrated course vision in an effort to support the needs of
35 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

36 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

37 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

38 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

39 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

21

students, their parents or guardians, and local community/society at large. Each school must
review its career orientation from a career education perspective taking into account the actual
circumstances of its students40.
MEXT plans to enhance the educational content of specialized high school courses (commercecourses, technical courses, agricultural courses, etc.) by revising the Senior High School Course
and improving education vocational education by sharing and disseminating information on
results from practical educational activities nationwide, promoting better understanding ofintegrated courses, educational activities and system improvements to help students gain asense of purpose in choosing a career. Examples of this include long-term on-site practices withlocal companies, assigning people with business experience as teachers, and collaborative
efforts with universities.
Furthermore, for subjects at specialized colleges (high school courses), there is a need to
institutionalize “credit courses” and “corresponding courses” to support academic
requirements, vary depending on the actual situation of the student. With this in mind, sinceNovember 2009, MEXT has organized the "Research Survey Collaborators Meeting on
Incentives in Higher Education and Specialized Training". MEXT has repeatedly conductedsurveys of experts and has published a draft design for the system, introducing corresponding
courses and credits, courses at specialized training colleges in March 2011 report 41.
The government and prefectures are obliged to “provide vocational training for workers who
intend to change their jobs and other persons who need special assistance for the development
and improvement of their vocational abilities” (Article 4-2 of the Human Resources
Development Promotion Act). In consideration of this provision, public human resources
development facilities are established to provide various types of vocational training to meet
individual worker's needs. In detail, there are following policies with a numbers of concretemeasures, but, I do emphasize, in entire country as a unite block:i/ Developing and improvement of vocational abilities-

Promotion of educational training conducted by employers, etc., preparation of inhouse vocational ability development plan, appointment of a vocational ability
development promoter+ Subsidies to employers that support workers' efforts in career development (careerdevelopment promotion subsidy, subsidy for career upgrading, subsidy for promotion ofhuman resources development at companies;

40 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

41 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

22

+ Facilities for educational training implemented by an enterprise or group ofenterprises (accredited vocational training)+ Support for in-house training [lending facilities, dispatching instructors, etc.]+ Guidance/advice and information provision at Vocational Ability Development Service
Centers+ Educational training at Care Worker Support Center Foundation+ Support for internationalization-aware human resources development [information
provision and consultation etc., Practical ability development combining on-the-job
training and classroom education (fixed-term practice training, practical humanresource development system)-

Implementation of public vocational training+ Training for unemployed workers, Training for employed workers, Training for school
graduates+ Training for vocational training instructors, etc.: Polytechnic University of Japan (Japan
Organization for Employment of the Elderly, Persons with Disabilities and Job Seekers), a
training school for the development of instructors, etc.

-

Implementation of support training for job seekers-

Promotion of workers' voluntary self-initiative development+ Career development promotion subsidy+ Educational training benefits (part of training expenses is subsidized when insured
person of Employment Insurance for a certain period of time takes certain training)+ Promotion of career consultations-

Career development support throughout Working Life for casual employees/NEETs:
Japanese version of dual system, Regional Youth Support Stations
Progress made in a prolonged work life and the diversity of work styles, etc. have madethe provision of support for career development throughout a person’ s vocational life,
according to the characteristics of the individual, in addition to enhanced/improved
vocational training and ability-oriented labour market development, necessary inthereby promoting the development/improvement of vocational abilities of workers in a
step-wide and systematic manner, and thus leading to the greater security anddevelopment of human resources and improved productivity, etc.

23

The following measures have therefore been promoted in accordance with the 9th Basic
Plan for Human Resources Development(1) Support for individual voluntary human resources development• Effective utilization of education and training benefits, etc.
• Development of an environment in which career consultations can be received atcertain points in one’s working life, such as when leaving/changing jobs, etc.
• Securement and improvement of human resources through the development ofability improvement systems for career consultants, etc.
• Active promotion of utilizing Job Card that can serve as effective tools in career
consultations(2) Support for human resources development of workers by enterprises• Further effective utilization of the “career development promotion subsidy”, ”subsidy
for promotion of human resources development at companies” and “accredited
vocational training systems” etc. and promotion of the development of humanresources that can lead the promotion of career development within enterprises etc.
• Further effective use of training for employed workers implemented according to theindividual needs of small- and medium-sized enterprises and a training instructor
dispatch system, etc. to make the vocational training available that is difficult toimplement within enterprises due to the lack of facilities, training instructors, or funds,
etc.
(3) Promotion of career education• Nurturing persons with expertise who support and promote career education atuniversities etc.
ii/ Vocational ability evaluation and promotion of trade skills-

Vocational ability evaluation system+ National Trade Skills Tests: The government tests workers' skills based on standards
and officially certifies them. Skills and occupations, etc. covered. Common trade skills
widely used in enterprises across the country, and occupations in which a large numberof workers are engaged.
Type of certification: A person who passed the test is given a certificate either in thename of the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare (for Special Grade, Grade 1, andsingle grade) or the prefectural governors or the head of designated test organization(for Grades 2 and 3), and is given a title “Certified Skilled Worker”.
24Eligible applicants: Persons who have practical experience in principle+ Authorized in-house trade skills tests: The Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare
authorizes in-house trade skills tests which are regarded necessary to promote skills
development.
Skills and occupations, etc. covered: Particular trade skills used in-house are subjected,
including food processing and automobile parts management, etc. are authorized.
Type of certification: Authorized in-house trade skills tests can be labeled as “authorized
by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare”.
Eligible applicants: Workers employed by enterprises conducting authorized in-housetrade skills tests
Table 2.2. Outline of skills test
Grade

Skills are required

SpecialGrade

The level of skills that managers or supervisors of each tested occupationmust have, and the level of knowledge related to the skills

Grade 1 The level of skills that advanced skilled workers of each tested occupationmust have, and the level of knowledge related to the skills
Grade 2 The level 0f skills that intermediate-level skilled workers of each tested
occupation must have, and the level 0f knowledge related to the skills
Grade 3 The level of skills that elementary-level skilled workers of each tested
occupation must have, and the level of knowledge related to the skills
Basic
The skills required to carry out basic works of the tested occupation, and theGrade 1 level of knowledge related to the skills
Basic
The essential skills required to carry out basic works of the tested occupation,
Grade 2 and the level of knowledge related to the skills
SingleGrade

The level of skills that advanced skilled workers of each tested occupationmust have, and the level of knowledge related to the skills

Table 2.3. Vocational ability evaluation standards
Standards specify the ability levels required for each trade,occupation, and duty for enabling the evaluation of the vocational
abilities of workers using common criteria.
25

Occupations,etc. covered

A broad range of trades is covered as well as cross-cutting clericaloccupations such as accounting and personnel management, etc.

Evaluatedpersons

Workers/job seekers (who should be evaluated depending on
evaluators using evaluation standards)

Evaluation
methods

The government formulates model standards for the respective
industries. These standards can be customized by the individual
enterprise. Evaluation methods used may be continuous observations
or written examinations.

Source:Human
Resources
Development
https://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/wp/wp-hw9/dl/06e.pdf

Bureau,MHLW+ Development of vocational ability evaluation system for a wide range of occupation
types-

Promotion of trade skills: Award for Outstandingly Skilled Workers, Monozukuri Nippon
Grand Award, Youth Monozukuri Skills Competition, National Skills Competition, Skills
Grand Prix, World Skills Competition, Abylimpic, etc.

-

Measures:+ Young Skilled Workers Development Support Projects: “Monozukuri meisters (experts
in manufacturing)”, who have excellent skills and experience, are sent to enterprises,industrial organizations, and educational training institutions to provide young skilledworkers with hands-on instructions using competition tasks of skills competitions, etc. In
order to develop society’s respect for skills, efforts through originality and ingenuity ofconcerned parties in regions, including the provision of opportunities to acquire skills
through the utilization of skilled workers, etc., are further promoted.
+ Youth Monozukuri Skills Competition: The Youth Monozukuri (or manufacturingrelated) Skills Competition has been held annually since FY2005 and is open to anyone
aged 20 or younger who is currently studying at a human resources development
institution, an accredited vocational training institution, or a technical high school. The
Competition was designed to set targets for any such young people and increase theirskills to get opportunities for employment.
+ National Skills Competition: The National Skills Competition has been held annually
since FY1963 with the aim of providing skilled young workers (23 or younger inprinciple) in Japan with aspirational goals via the use of a proficiency level competition
and thus appealing to the importance and necessity of skills to the general public widelyin developing a positive social feeling of respect for having obtained a skill.
26

+ World Skills Competition: The World Skills Competition was first held in Spain in 1950
and at present is held once every two years with the aim of promoting vocational
training and developing worker skills in participating countries and promotinginternational goodwill and exchanges through holding an international skills competition
among young skilled workers (22 or younger in principle).
+ National Skills Grand Prix: The Skills Grand Prix has been held annually since FY1981
and at present has been held once every two years since FY2002 as a skills competitionin which skilled workers with advanced grades of skills, 1st grade, etc., can participate
with the aim of further advancing their proficiency levels and promoting their social
status and skills.
+ Award for Outstandingly Skilled Workers: This award has been granted to
outstandingly skilled workers annually since FY1967 with the aim of developing a social
feeling of respect for skills and thus improving the status of skilled workers and theirproficiency levels, while also developing the positive social feeling of enabling young
people to become skilled workers who have pride and hope in and are devoted to theirwork.
+ Monozukuri Nippon Grand Award (Prime Minister's Commendation): The award has
been granted to individuals, groups, or organizations engaged in “Monozukuri”(manufacturing), which supported the development of industries and culture and madesuch a great contribution to the public wealth of Japan, that have had outstandingachievements (once every two years) since FY2005 and with the aim of ensuring a
succession to the next generation of the technologies and skills involved in“Monozukuri” via praising their achievements.
+ Award for Human Resource Development from the MHLW. This award is granted to
offices, organizations, or individuals that are recognized to have made an outstandingachievement in promoting the accredited vocational training and National Trade Skills
Tests that serve as a model to others and to offices and organizations that have beenrecognized to have made an outstanding achievement in promoting trade skills which
serve as a model to others with the aim of contributing to the promotion of accredited
training, national trade skills testing, and trade skills, and thereby to the advancement oftechnology levels, and disseminating/enlightening the purpose of the Human Resources
Development Promotion Act.
+ Abylimpics (National Vocational Skills Contest for the Disabled Persons): The Abylimpic
has been held since 1972 with the aim of promoting the vocational ability developmentof persons with disabilities and enabling them to participate in society with confidence
and pride as skilled workers and also facilitating the employment of persons withdisabilities through raising public awareness and understanding of them.
27III/ Welfare measures for working youth: Promotion of welfare measures at working youth
centers-

Vocational Ability Development for Persons with Disabilities+ Establishment/operation of vocational ability development schools for persons withdisabilities operated by the Japan Organization for Employment of the Elderly, Persons
with Disabilities and Job Seekers, prefectures and Prefectural vocational ability
development schools for persons with disabilities;+ Vocational ability development of persons with disabilities at ordinary vocational
ability development schools+ Diverse entrusted training according to the disability (commenced in FY 2004):
Implementation of vocational training through utilization of various entrusted entities inregions, including enterprises, social welfare foundations, NPOs, and private educational
training institutions, etc.
+ Studies on vocational ability development for persons with disabilities, etc.
+ Conducting National Vocational Skills Contest for the Disabled Persons (Abilympics)-

Set up Regional Youth Support Stations: Support for those who do not belong to labour
force is important, not only because it broadens their career possibilities, but it also
keeps them from depending on public assistance in the future and nurtures them as
supporters of the regional society by making them economically independent and next
bearers of the country’s industries. To this end, at “Regional Youth Support Stations” incollaboration with local governments (Collaboration includes financial support fromlocal governments), consultations by professionals for vocational independent, followup support for job retention and career upgrading and intensive training program foryoung unemployed people are provided, in order to help them to lead a fulfilling
vocational live and become supporters of the country’s future. (The services aretargeted at people aged between 15 and 39) (From FY 2006 on: The services areprovided by non-profit organizations (NPO) and other types of organizations, who haveexperiences and know-how in supporting young people.) 42

2.2.3. Build a cooperation system
MEXT believes that it is important for vocational education that both Japanese education andindustry share a future vision of industries and jobs, and target resources and necessary ability.
To fully promote career education and vocational education, it is important to encourage
efforts made through cooperation between schools, families, local communities, businesses,
42 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

28

economic organizations /professional associations and NPOs with a mutual understanding ofeach other's different roles 43.
JVET policy builds a collaborative system to develop resources and enhance education to foster
the skills needed to work within such a system. Accordingly, for universities and colleges, incases where universities and colleges are differentiated by function, strengthen vocational
education with clear identification of target resources and competencies to be developed.
Developing and implementing practical education through cooperation with businesses and tomeet the need for lifelong learning that allows continuous learning of skills needed for a
specific job.
MEXT supports measures aimed at students' social and professional independence, such as
promoting problem-solving learning, to enable each university and college to collaborate withother companies conduct practical educational programs.
Furthermore, for colleges of technology, MEXT promotes vocational education efforts incooperation with local industry, enhances educational content and methods, and promotes thenecessary educational organization to open up new sectors based on local and national needs.
Specialized schools enhance the educational environment so that they accommodate thedifferent lifestyles of learners and support their learning needs, such as promoting theadvancement of employability and re-education for those who have lost their jobs.
In order not to repeat the regulations and activities stipulated in Japan's VET policy, it can beseen that the assignment of activities to each subject in the VET system along with collective
responsibilities is clear, almost no overlap 44.
(i) Cooperation with local communities and industry
Effective collaboration between local schools, communities and industry is carried out, such as
the formation of a council with the help of parent-teacher associations (PTAs), principals
associations, neighborhood councils, economic organizations/professional associations andNPOs.
Creating a team of specialized lecturers for schools and the Board of Education, assigning
designated staff to the above-mentioned Board, MEXT has considered how to build a system
and apply practical measures at schools and the Board of Education when introducing external
human resources for vocational education.
(ii) Cooperate with parents or guardians of the family and children

43 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

44 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

29

The family is an important place to support children's growth and development and encourage
their independence. Parents' views on work significantly influence their children's careerdevelopment. Therefore, the school shares an understanding of each party's role and theirimpact on vocational education within the family;
The school provides factual information by taking into account various environmental factors,
developments related to employment and enrollment.
The child's parents or guardians support the child's growth and development in parallel withthe school's efforts.
The school proactively involves the child's parents or guardians in school activities by leveraging
their own experiences as working adults and professionals.
- Enhance career building support from a lifelong learning perspective 45(.) Support learners after transitioning to mainstream society/employment, support dropouts
and people who do not work(.) Establishment of a Fund to support lifelong learning about employment(.) Employment support for new graduates
Schools provide vocational education, organize and improve curricula, implement practical
vocational education activities, and engage high-caliber entrepreneurs in these activities byworking closely with local communities and relevant companies, focusing on the developmentof basic and general capabilities as outlined above.
Table 2.4. Vocational training enterprises: number of enterprises by province
code

prefecture

Fiscal year 2017

Fiscal year 2018

Total
numberoftraining
courses

Vocational
training
implementation
certificate

Vocational
training
certificate
suspendedTotal
numberoftraining
courses

Vocational
training
implementation
certificate

Vocational
training
certificate
suspended

1. Hokkaido

25

20

5

26

21

5

2. Aomori

12

7

5

12

7

5

3. Iwate

16

16

0

16

16

0

4. Miyagi

6

6

0

6

6

0

45 Educational Standards and Educational Expenditure in Japan, White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology 2010, https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab201001/detail/1326588_006.pdf

30

5. Akita

9

9

0

9

9

0

6. Yamagata

10

9

1

10

9

1

7. Fukushima

8

8

0

8

8

0

8. Ibaraki

13

9

4

13

9

4

9. Tochigi

9

6

3

9

6

3

10 Gunma

7

7

0

13

12

1

11 Saitama

10

8

2

10

8

2

12 Chiba

11

8

3

8

6

2

13 Tokyo

10

9

1

11

10

1

14 Kanagawa

8

6

2

6

5

1

15 Niigata

15

15

0

15

15

0

16 Toyama

8

7

1

9

7

2

17 Ishikawa

4

2

2

4

3

1

18 Fukui

3

3

0

3

3

0

19 Yamanashi

3

1

2

3

3

0

20 Nagano

7

6

1

8

6

2

21 Gifu

8

4

4

8

4

4

22 Shizuoka

17

14

3

16

16

0

23 Aichi

11

11

0

11

11

0

24 Mie

8

8

0

8

7

1

25 Shiga

10

9

1

10

9

1

26 Kyoto

6

6

0

6

6

0

27 Osaka

6

5

1

6

5

1

28 Hyogo

4

4

0

4

4

0

29 Nara

4

3

1

3

2

1

30 Wakayama

4

0

4

4

0

4

31 Tottori

4

4

0

4

4

0

32 Shimane

4

2

2

4

2

2

31

33 Osaka

5

2

3

5

2

3

34 Hiroshima

6

5

1

6

5

1

35 Yamaguchi

2

2

0

2

2

0

36 Tokushima

3

1

2

3

3

0

37 Kagawa

1

1

0

0

0

0

38 Ehime

3

2

1

2

2

0

39 Kochi

3

3

0

3

3

0

40 Fukuoka

4

4

0

4

4

0

41 Saga

8

8

0

8

7

1

42 Nagasaki

7

4

3

7

4

3

43 Kamamoto

6

6

0

6

5

1

44 Oita

6

3

3

6

3

3

45 Miyazaki

11

10

1

11

10

1

46 Kagoshima

6

6

0

7

5

2

47 Okinawa

1

1

0

1

1

0

Source: 初谷 勇 (2019), 職業訓練法人の課題：NPO 政策の観点から, RIETI Discussion Paper
Series19-J-005
2019年
1
月 , 大 阪 商 業 大 学 ,https://www.rieti.go.jp/jp/publications/dp/19j005.pdf
3. IMROVING VIETNAM’S VET POLICY BASED ON JAPAN’S VET POLICY STUDIES
3.1. Current status of vocational education policy in Vietnam
The national education system of Vietnam consists of pre-school education, basic
education, vocational education and training and tertiary education:– Pre-school education: nursery, kindergarten;– Basic education: primary education, lower secondary and upper secondary education;level;– Vocational education and training: elementary level, intermediate level and college– Tertiary education: university education, master and doctor philosophy.

32

Figure 3.1. National education system
Vietnam’s VET has long-standing history of development tied to crafts in traditional
villages and agricultural production. The VET system was officially legalized by the Law on
Education 2005 and the Law on Vocational Training 2006, Law on Vocational Education andtraining 2014.

33

National Qualifications Framework
Pursuant to the Decision No. 1982/QĐ-TTg dated October 18, 2016 of the Prime Minister,
the National Qualifications Framework includes 8 levels in which 5 related to levels of VET(Table 2).
Figure 3.2. VET levels in the Vietnamese National Qualifications Framework

Training levels
VET provides three training levels: elementary level, intermediate level, and college level.
Training duration as well as diplomas and certificates are described as in the Table below:
Table 3.1. VET levels
Levels

Entrance requirements

Training duration

Diplomas/ Certificates

From 03 months tounder 01 year

Elementary
certificate
Elementary
certificate
Elementary
certificate 3

From 01 year to 02
years depending on
the disciplines orIntermediatelevel
diploma (cannot move to

Elementary level 1
Elementary level 2

Enough health condition

Elementary level 3Intermediate level

Graduatedfromsecondary schools

lower

34

level
1
level
2
level

Graduatedsecondarysatisfiedpertaining
knowledge
secondary
regulated)

from
upper
schools(or
requirements
toculturalofupper
education as

Graduatedfromsecondary schools
College level

upper

Graduated from secondary VET
schoolsandsatisfiedrequirements pertaining tocultural knowledge of upper
secondaryeducationasregulated.

vocational training

higher training level)

From 01 to 02 years
dependingon
training occupations

Intermediatelevel
diploma (can move tohigher training level)

From 02 to 03 years

From 01 year to 02
years

College level degree(recognized as bachelorof practical training orpractical engineers)

Training areas
VET in Vietnam has the wide range of occupations in the national education system.
Besides technical fields, technology fields such as computers, information technology,
engineering; architecture and construction; production and processing; agriculture, forestry
and fisheries; environment and environmental protection etc., there are also different areas
such as teachers; culture and arts; languages (English, German, French, Japanese and so on);the press and information; business and management; legislation; health care; social services;transportation services; hotel and hospitality; security and defence, etc.
Vocational Education and training institutions
VET institutions consist of VET centers, secondary VET schools and colleges to educate
and train all levels of VET (Table 3)35

Table3.2. Vocational Education and training institutions
Colleges
Training levels– College level– Intermediate level– Basic level

Secondary VET schools
Training levels:

VET centers
Training levels:– Intermediate level– Elementary level– Elementary level– Early Education

Types of vocational education and training institutions
VET institutions are organized in the following types:
Public institutions
Public institutions include those owned by the State, those whose infrastructure isinvested and constructed by the State
Private institutions
Private VET institutions include those owned by social organizations, social-professionalorganizations, private or individual economic organizations; those whose infrastructure isinvested and constructed by social organizations, social-professional organizations, private orindividual economic organizations
Foreign-invested vocational education and training institutions
Foreign-invested VET institutions include those with 100% foreign capital; those of joint
ventures between domestic and foreign investors.
Training forms of vocational education and training
There are two training forms in VET: formal training and continuing training.
Formal training is the form of full-time training organized for elementary, intermediate
and college levels.
Continuing training is the form of training-on-the-job, distance learning or guided selflearning at intermediate and college levels, implemented in a flexible manner in term of
curricula, duration and method.

36

State management agency of central level of vocational education and training
According to the Law on Education 2005 and the Law on Vocational Education andTraining, the State management agencies of central level of vocational education and training
are the Ministry of Labour – War invalids and Social Affairs (MOLISA) and the Ministry of
Education and Training (MOET). The MOLISA manages vocational colleges, vocational secondary
general schools and vocational training centers. MOET manages professional intermediateschools and colleges.
In 2017, MOLISA was assigned by the Government to manage the VET system except thepedagogical field.
In 2019, to institutionalize the assignment of the Government, the Law on Education(Amending and Supplementing) prescribes the MOLISA responsible towards the Government
for implementation of state management in VET except the pedagogical field (intermediatepedagogical education, college-level pedagogical education).
Therefore, the Directorate of Vocational Education and Training is an unit of MOLISA
assisting the Minister in managing, implementing legal policies on VET (except for pedagogicaleducation) in the whole country; manages, carries out public services of VET as regulated by thelaw.
3.2. Government's viewpoint
Vietnam’s Socio-economic Development Strategy for the period 2021 - 2030, determines thecountry's development model in the direction of modern industry (by 2030) and becoming adeveloped country (by 2045), affirms development of human resources, especially high-quality
human resources, is one of three strategic breakthroughs and has clearly stated the orientation
to build an open and flexible vocational education system 46. Issuing Decision No. 2239/QD-TTg
dated December 30, 2021, approving the Vocational Education Development Strategy for theperiod 2021-2030, vision to 2045. The Communist Party of Vietnam and the Government ofVietnam require vocational education to:- diversify training methods;- forming new training professions, especially training high quality human resources,- Training "green" occupations, ensuring learners have professional skills, digital skills,
soft skills, creativity - entrepreneurship skills and foreign languages...
- adapt to the requirements of the domestic and international labor market.
3.3. What should Vietnam's vocational education policy improve from the case study ofJapan's vocational education policy?
The Law on Vocational Education of Vietnam was passed by the National Assembly of Vietnamon the afternoon of November 27, 2014. Of the 412 delegates participating in the vote, only
274 delegates approved (55.13%), 125 delegates did not approve (accounting for 25.15%), and13 delegates did not vote (accounting for 2 delegates). (0.62%). This is the law with the largest
46 Communist Party of Vietnam: Documents of the 13th National Congress, National Political Publishing House Truth, H.2021, t.I,

tr. 149-150.

37

number of disapproving delegates among the passed laws. This shows low consensus among
representatives of 63 Vietnamese localities.
3.3.1. Vietnam's approach to vocational training
In the Vietnam’s Law on VET, it is stated:“Vocational education is a level of the national education system that provides training atprimary level, intermediate level, college level and other vocational training programs forworkers, meeting direct needs of human resources in production, business and services, carriedout in two forms: formal training and continuing training”.
Based on the new VET theoretical perspective, it can be seen that in Japan's VET policy, theconcepts of vocational training, career building... are really accurate, specific, and practical.
Each concept specifically represents the level of expertise of vocational education activities.
Apprentices see the vocational goals, the task to acquire basic, specific skills, and the level oftraining in the vocational training policy.
The general goal of vocational education is to train human resources directly for production,business and services, with practice capacity corresponding to the level of training; have ethics
and health; have professional responsibility; have the ability to be creative and adapt to theworking environment in the context of international integration; ensuring improved
productivity and labor quality; create conditions for learners after completing the course to beable to find a job, create their own job or study for a higher level.” 47
In Vietnam's VET Law, compared with the perspective on employment, compared with the new
VET theoretical perspective, Vietnam considers VET to be a level of the education system, theconcept of VET goal is narrow (meeting production needs), only addresses one aspect of the
VET function in the current human development context.
I think that detailed criteria for each type of competency to be achieved at each level ofvocational education need to be clearly specified. Phrases such as “creativity to meet theworking environment in the context of international integration” do not need to be included in
vocational education goals. It has a too broad and too abstract macro meaning. The Law on VET
is specialized law, the number of general provisions is still quite large, so too many guiding
documents are needed, which is difficult for the implementation 48.
3.3.2. Select policy enforcement tools
3.3.2.1. Systematicity in performing state management functions
At the time of passing the Law on VET, it was unclear which ministry was in charge of state
management of VET. Implementing the resolution of Central Committee, the Government
assigned MOET to play a "leading" role in fundamentally and comprehensively innovating
education and training, but with the Law on VET, MOLISA almost takes on the presiding
47
48

Vietnam’s National Assembly (2014), Law on Vocational Education and training
Thu Phuong (2020), https://quochoi.vn/tintuc/Pages/tin-hoat-dong-cua-quoc-hoi.aspx?ItemID=44524

38responsibility to develop related policies for a series of legal regulations 49. At the time of
promulgation of the Law on VET, vocational education organizations were governed by both
ministries. But the two sets have little connection. The MOLISA is instructing 63 localities toplan a network of vocational education establishments to 2020 - vision 2030, while MOET is
also directing schools in 63 localities to report on planning and preparation to reorganize theprofessional and college education system until 2020 - vision 2030 in the spirit of theGovernment's action. Wherever there is overlap function, both ministries left it blank... 50, i.e.
unregulated sub-sector.
The state management function is a seamless system, no step can be left blank. When the
Vietnam’s education system stipulates knowledge connection between vocational education
and university education, or vocational education levels are a step to transition fromcompulsory education to university education, then the separation of management hierarchy
should not be the reason for interrupting learners' educational levels.
When the management of VET institutions belongs to MOLISA, MOET applies very rigid state
management authority, not allowing VET institutions to teach scientific knowledge, only
vocational training. At the request of the Ministry of Education and Training in Official Dispatch
No. 2857/BGDDT-GDTX dated July 31, 2020, vocational schools are not allowed to teach school
knowledge, but assign continuing education centers or high schools to teach school knowledge
to vocational school students.
This causes many difficulties for VET students, at one grade they have to go two places – onefor school knowledge (managed by MOET), and other place for vocational knowledge (managedby MOLISA), so their schedules are difficult to arrange properly because they depend on two
educational institutions places. In localities, education centers are often far from vocational
schools 51.
Across Vietnam, nearly one million students are in this situation, sending request to theGovernment to make the right and timely decision soon 52. The Association of Vocational
Schools has also "called for help" from the Prime Minister to solve this problem 53.
It is clear that Vietnam's policies are creating management conflicts. The consequence is anegative impact on learners.
3.3.2.2. Updating and issuing policy documents

49 https://tuoitre.vn/den-luot-luat-giao-duc-nghe-nghiep-730577.htm
50 https://tuoitre.vn/den-luot-luat-giao-duc-nghe-nghiep-730577.htm

Nhat Hong and Dinh Cuong (2021), What does MOET say about stopping teaching school knowledge invocational schools causing difficulties for students? https://dantri.com.vn/giao-duc/bo-gddt-noi-gi-ve-viec-dungday-van-hoa-trong-truong-nghe-gay-kho-hoc-sinh-20210329102331591.htm
52
https://dantri.com.vn/giao-duc/mot-trieu-hoc-sinh-nghe-dang-bi-tac-nghen-loi-ra-vi-quy-dinh-cua-bo-gddt20210402191405733.htm
53
Le Thu (2021), Stop teaching school knowledge in vocational schools: Many problems and complications willarise, https://dantri.com.vn/giao-duc/dung-day-van-hoa-trong-truong-nghe-se-nay-sinh-nhieu-rac-roi-phuc-tap20210329014143121.htm
5139

Number of vocational education policy documents issued. As of April 2022, Vietnam has issued
71 policy documents of all kinds at the central level on vocational education (including: 20
Decisions of the Prime Minister, many Decrees, Circulars, Joint Circulars, Executive documents).
That does not include policy documents of 63 localities.
In section 2.2.1, Japanese policies record the milestone of changing policy regulations based onchanges in the context and professional requirements, in order to develop professional capacity,that is, demonstrate focus on quality professional training. Meanwhile, a large number ofcentral-level documents in Vietnam since the promulgation of the 2014 VET Law have focusedon administrative procedures and training organization.
The VET Law was promulgated in 2014 and 71 central-level documents related to Vietnam's VET
issued from 2015 to 2021 create a legal mess. Localities, businesses, training institutions, andlearners have different understandings of the content of VET regulations.
Among the issued policies, there are no policy documents regulating periodic job market
assessment; sociological assessment of learners' needs and motivations. The criterion stated in
the policy document is "70% of workers will undergo vocational training by 2025"54 is just a
subjective number of the government, not based on people's career change trends or people's
desires. Personally, I think that without these assessments, Vietnam will not have exact input
data to continue to make the right policies on vocational education and human development
period to period. Assessments of Vietnam's human resources are just compiled from individual,
scattered studies, or from people's one-sided testimony in the Viet Nam Population and Housing
Census 55.
Still with the data presented above, if knowledge subjects are still taught separately fromvocational techniques, the vocational high school program existed more than 30 years ago isbeing repeated 56.
Japan updated the development context, promptly adjusted/amended old standards andpromulgated new standard regulations; issued universal guidance and disseminate uniform
information to each relevant party on vocational education and vocational training. Looking at
the activities of Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
and the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLM), looking at the functions of the Japan
Institute of Labor Policy and Training, the National Vocational Education Organizations, Japan
Vocational Education Development Association (JAVADA) and its local branches, we find that,
their surveys and investigations closely followed the practice of vocational education
development... are done quite meticulously and methodically. Studies by experts andresearchers from the two Ministries, and in-depth research from the Institute of Labor Policy
and Training help government agencies draft public policies with authentic practical bases todecide on any adjustments or changes57.
Communist Party of Vietnam: Documents of the 13th National Congress, National Political Publishing House
Truth, H.2021.

54

55 The way to conduct Vietnam's Population Census is that each household declares according to a prescribed form. The

individual's qualifications are listed by checking yes/no on the declaration without verification by the licensing agency.

Hoang Ngoc Vinh (2019), Law on VET, don't waste another 5 years, https://tuoitre.vn/luat-giao-duc-nghenghiep-dung-de-mat-them-5-nam-nua-20190527083704052.htm
56

57 Look further Japan Institute for labor policy and training papers, such as: Fujimoto Makoto et all. (2022), Job Change, Skill

Development, and Career Formation of Middle-Aged Workers, JILPT Research Report No.215

40

3.3.2.3. Build a cooperation system
Regarding synchronization with relevant laws. Vocational education is most closely related to
the Education Law and the Labor Law. But when the Education Law and Labor Law wereamended in 2019, the Vocational Education Law still kept the 2014 Law. There are 10 importantamendments in the Labor Law, including provisions related to the right to autonomy inparticipation of individual employees, and the freedom of business owners to negotiate
contracts. The law stipulates Clause 1, Article 61 of the 2019 Labor Code regarding theapprenticeship period. Law on Vocational Education No. 74/2014/QH13 dated November 27,
2014 of the National Assembly, effective from July 1, 2015, amended and supplemented by: 1.
Law on Fees and Charges No. 97 /2015/QH13 dated November 25, 2015 of the National
Assembly, effective from January 1, 2017; 2. Planning Law No. 21/2017/QH14 dated November
24, 2017 of the National Assembly, effective from January 1, 2019; 3. Education Law No.
43/2019/QH14 dated June 14, 2019 of the National Assembly, effective from July 1, 2020;
which is not supplemented by the Labor Law 2019.
Take another example, in the content of Vietnam's National Qualifications Framework
approved by the Prime Minister, there are 8 levels of qualifications including 2 main
components that are consistent with each other: university education and vocational education.
Of which, three levels 6, 7, 8 (undergraduate, master's, doctorate) belong to university
education presided over by MOET, the remaining five levels belong to vocational educationpresided over by MOLISA (college, intermediate, certificate 1, 2, 3). Each level of qualification isclearly described and linked together according to output standards of knowledge, skills, levelof autonomy and responsibility. Therefore, the qualification system will ensure continuity
between levels, creating conditions for qualification recognition and lifelong learning.
Vietnam's national qualifications framework has not been mentioned in any of Vietnam's
relevant legal documents, namely the Law on Education, the Law on Higher Education and theLaw on Vocational Education, other than the two documents of the 2011- 2020 Education
Development Strategy, and the Vocational Training Development Strategy 2011 - 2020, two
Decisions No. 1982/QD-TTg dated October 18, 2016 of the Prime Minister approving theVietnam Qualifications Framework and No. 1981/QD-TTg dated October 18, 2016 of the Prime
Minister approved the National Education System Structural Framework 58.
About practicality. When the Vocational Training Law changed its name to the Vocational
Education Law, some vocational training establishments were not allowed to have vocational
education activities because of the name change. For example, the Farmer Support Center with
the name Vocational Training and Farmer Support Center (established in 2009) has the function
HORI Yukie, KOSUGI Reiko, RYU Hwangseok, and OGURO Megumi (2022), Changes in Work and Consciousness of Youth inMajor Urban Areas: From the 5th “Survey on the Working Style of Young People”, JILPT Research Report No.213
IKEDA Shingou, ZHOU Yanfei et al. (2020), Combining Work and Care under the Re-familization of Elderly Care in Japan, JILPT
Research Report No.204
Hideo SHIMOMURA, Toshizumi Muta (2015), Survey of Participants in the Job Seeker Support System: Study based on a threepoint longitudinal survey comprising pre-training, post-training, and follow-up surveys, JILPT Research Report No.181
Reiko KOSUGI et al. (2013), Working Styles, Vocational Capability and Career Development: From the results of the “2nd Survey
on Working and Learning", JILPT Research Report No.152
58 http://chuongtrinhkhgd.moet.gov.vn/tintuc-sukien/Pages/tin-tuc.aspx?ItemID=4585

41

of providing elementary-level vocational training. After changing its name to Farmer Support
Center, the Center is not allowed to register vocational education activities. This wastes humanresources, while Center’s teachers with many years of teaching experience have to change jobs.
The Center loses their collaborative relationships in vocational education activities, loses theircontacts with businesses and factories for rural workers to ensure output for apprentices59.
In Japanese vocational education policy, I did not find the same case.
Lack of career-oriented policies. Vietnam has a gap in vocational education policy. Clause 1,
Article 3 of Decree 75/2006/ND-CP defines vocational guidance. Overall, it seems that career
guidance is not properly valued in the Vietnamese education system 60. As a result, for example,
in 2023, in Ba Ria - Vung Tau, nearly 1,700 students, after graduating from junior high school
this school year, do not know where to go. However, the management agency, the Provincial
People's Committee, determined that the reason why these students did not choose a directionof study was due to insufficient learning ability, difficult family economic conditions, or due totheir awareness. Students and parents still have limitations... it's not that they don't do career
guidance properly. The vast majority of students do not continue studying after junior highschool, which does not mean they study vocational education, but often choose to become
freelance workers, meaning they do whatever they hire, but do not have a training certificate.
Employers of workers in this age group may be violating child labor laws. Some students choose
vocational training as a stepping stone for the next exam, not because they want to study
vocational education. This is also the reason why many vocational training establishments open
but have no students.

Source: Khanh Chi (2023)
59 Tuong San (2023), When the VET Law was introduced, the Farmer Support Center encountered difficulties because it did notreceive vocational training, https://giaoduc.net.vn/khi-co-luat-gdnn-trung-tam-ho-tro-nong-dan-gap-kho-vi-khong-duoc-daotao-nghe-post236459.gd
60 A survey conducted from 2011 to 2016 at International Trade class of University of Economics, Hanoi National University, inan advanced class of 86 students, which included students with high university entrance exam scores. 75% of students wrote in
the form that they studied because their parents wanted them to.

42

Figure. Number of Vietnamese students graduating from junior high school who have notfound a career direction from 2019 to 2023
Box 3.1.
Ho Thanh Thao (residing in Lang Dai commune, Dat Do district) shared: "After failing the 10th
grade public exam, I was very sad and confused. My parents let me make my own decisions, but
I can't determine what my forte is to make a choice."
Ms. Nguyen Thi Be Tu, Thao's mother, said that the family intended for Thao to learn theprofession of hair curling so that she would not waste time studying and could immediately go
to work to earn an income, but she did not agree. "My husband and I let her play for the rest of
this year and then move on," Ms. Tu said.
Nguyen K.D (residing in Vung Tau city) after graduating from junior high school, did not take thehigh school exam but went to work in a seafood processing factory near his home. My work
starts at 3 am and ends at 1-2 pm.
And L.L., a female student in Vung Tau city, chose to work as a bar hostess after graduatingfrom junior high school.
Source: Khanh Chi (2023), https://www.baobariavungtau.com.vn/xa-hoi/202309/vi-sao-phanluong-hoc-nghe-sau-JHS-chua-dat-hieu-qua- ky-cuoi-not-de-hs-tu-boi-truoc-nguong-cua-cuocdoi-991640/
In the opposite picture, it can be seen that career orientation is extremely important andnecessary for everyone. Japan is a learning society. In which, the economic impact andmedium- to long-term effects of career guidance to be prioritized 61. The public employment
service and independent qualified career guidance counsellors are delivering guidance services,but more efforts should be made to promote these services, make them more accessible andtarget them better at the needs of specific groups. As a complement to face-to-face guidance,easy-to-use online career guidance portals can support adults in their career transitions byproviding high quality information about the labour market and relevant training opportunities.
A large amount of information about careers and training is available on Japanese Government
websites. The survey shows that in Japan 74% of respondents say they participated in someform of career guidance in non-fee-paying secondary school (75% for fee-paying schools). Thisis the highest share among OECD countries included in the survey. Between 70 and 79% of
students who received some guidance at school in Japan say that it was useful, which is in linewith the cross-country average 62. Some regular career guidance activities include: Schoolmediated guidance activities, supporting internal career progression, supporting external
career transitions, career guidance for job seekers.
Temporarily summarizing, with up to 71 central policy documents related to vocational
education, Vietnam's vocational education still has important policy gaps that need to be
61 Hideo Shimomura (2018), Is career counseling effective? Japan Labor Issues, vol.2, no.4, January 2018https://www.jil.go.jp/english/jli/documents/2018/004_03.pdf

62 OECD (2021), Creating Responsive Adult Learning Opportunities in Japan, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/85953269-

en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/85953269-en

43learned from Japan's vocational education policy. That is a career guidance policy, which has
been agree by many studies to be disseminated and implemented for early age of student.
Coordination
tosolve
vocational
education
problems

Japan vocational education policies

Vietnam vocational education policies

Jointly from the Minister of MEXT, Ministerof Health, Labour and Welfare and theMinister of Economy, Trade and Industry tomajor economic organizations.

Vietnam's VET policy document mentions
and names the relevant ministries:
Ministry of Education, Ministry of Labor,
War Invalids and Social Affairs, Ministry ofIndustry and Trade, Ministry ofAgriculture and Rural Development,
Ministry of Health, Ministry of Culture
Sports and Tourism, Ministry ofInformation
andCommunications,
Ministry of Planning and Investment,
Ministry of Science and Technology,
Ministry of National Defense

Cooperation with the local community andindustrial circles (establishment of acouncil with the help of parent-teacher
associations(PTAs),
principal’s
associations,neighborhood
councils,
economic organizations / professional
associations, and NPOs. Such cooperationmust happen in more locations)

No responsibility for coordination is
Cooperation with home and children’s
specified, only related responsibilities areparents or guardians. Parent–teacher
statedassociations are also said to be active inproviding assistance with guidance.
It is the responsibility of teachers to findemployment for their students, and toassist their transition to the next stage.
Local employment offices may assist withthis task. Local authorities maintain links
with employers to encourage recruitment,
and most schools have a programme of
informative visits by employers to theschool, or of students to the workplace.
Assess andtest
vocational
skillsAlthough there is no unified system forassessing learning in vocational education,
The ministry of labour runs a system ofskills tests through its training centers.
These are intended to assist the entry of
trainees into the labour market, or to
support job changes.

There are no regulations on theparticipation of workers and businesses.

Applicable to a total of 51 occupations but
only for the first 3 of the 5 levels. The
actual assessment focuses on only a small
number of occupations, such as
undergroundmining,automotive
Large employers run systems of internal engineering and industrial electricity 63.
examinations which are available to
No businesses are licensed to assess VET
employees seeking promotion. These

63 General Department of Vocational Education and training, 2020. Vietnam VET Report 2019, https://www.tvet-

vietnam.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/220426-Vietnam-VET-Report-2019-EN.pdf

44examinations are very demanding, andemployees are generally expected to invest
their own time in preparing for them.
Suppliers to the large companies may use
the same examination system.

school.
In 2019, two new NOS test sets weredeveloped and issued, and six additional
NOS test sets were updated 64.

In some professions, for instanceaccountancy, trainees are submitted for
examinations devised by a board drawn
from the profession and from academics.
Certain occupational standards
regulated by the government.
Collaborate
with industry

areEnterprises actively and proactively Recognized as an important component inparticipate, are trainers, and co-sponsors market-oriented vocational educationof vocational education.
programs.

Industry's role as training provider.
Most Japanese people receive training
through the private sector or from theiremployers. Training at technicalcolleges is closely linked to the needs ofindustry.
Career assessments are designed bycommittees of experts from therelevant industry.

There is a tax reduction policy forparticipating businesses.

Before 2015, training facilities were
not affiliated with businesses;
Due to the increasing number ofyoung people entering the workforce,but without vocational education
credentials; Enterprises lack labor.
Since 2016, the number of enterprises
having cooperative relationships withvocational education establishments
has been increasing, especially in
localities with industrial parks or
production raw material areas.

Almost all companies train theiremployees outside of work hours:
corporatephilosophies,
personal
efficiency skills, and outdoor education
In 2019, Vietnam had a total ofdesigned to promote personal growth ≈685,000 businesses, of which 7.7%
are all popular.
said
they
had
cooperative
In addition to running training schools relationships with the VET sector, an
specifically for their employees, large increase of 0.1% compared to 2018.
Non-state-owned
enterprises
corporations sponsor a number ofcontinued to have a high proportion ofcolleges as businesses and theirbusinesses. The rate of cooperation
graduates participate in the open job with VET institutions is the lowest
market. . Such colleges, which operate (6.2%) compared to 2019; with 10.6%
as educational trusts, provide tax of foreign-invested enterprises and
64 General Department of Vocational Education and training, ibid., https://www.tvet-vietnam.org/wp-

content/uploads/2022/05/220426-Vietnam-VET-Report-2019-EN.pdf

45benefits to their host companies and 19.4% of state-owned enterprises. The
contribute to the pool of trained most popular areas of cooperation
include: i) providing information onhuman resources in the country.
the human resources needs ofCommercial companies also contribute businesses, ii) providing internshipto the education of high school aged positions for VET students andstudents, providing work experience, teachers and iii) further training forcompany visits and information enterprises' employees at VET
exchange.
establishments65.
Support andevaluate
training
facilities

To assist schools and colleges with thework of occupational guidance and job
placement, agencies of the ministry oflabour run seminars for guidance teachers,
and job interview fairs for students andemployers.
There are special measures to assist
schools in dealing with underqualified
young people who may have dropped outof education early, and to help young
people with learning difficulties and/or
disabilities find jobs

Evaluate
vocational
education
programs
Fundingguaranteed- Mostly, training institutions self-assessfollowing to the format designed by the
management agency (MOLISA) every year.
But only 26.22% complied 66.
In 2019, two independent VET
accreditation organizations were licensed
to evaluate and accredit VET facilities andprograms
accordingtocurrent
accreditation criteria and regulations. Oneof these two accreditation agencies is a
private enterprise 67.
- MOLISA sends pre-designed assessment
samplestovocational
education
institutions for self-assessment.
In 2019, only 7.2% complied with
MOLISA's requirements 68

Ministries of education and labour,
both supply some funding forvocational educations, albeit indifferent types of institution, as do
the ministries of agriculture,
construction, and health.
Publicly funded institutions receive
their running costs from either
national or prefecturaladministrations, but their students
may still pay fees. It is estimatedthat a Japanese family might spend

65 General Department of Vocational Education and training, ibid.,
66 General Department of Vocational Education and training, ibid.,
67 General Department of Vocational Education and training, ibid.,
68 General Department of Vocational Education and training, ibid.,

46

The Vietnam VET Law does not indicate
specific support funding, but is mixed withmany other programs and policies such as
hunger eradication and poverty reduction;
new rural areas, ethnic policies...
The proportion of budget spending on VET
is gradually decreasing, if in 2011 it was
9%, then by 2015 it decreased to 6%.
State budget allocated to VET throughtwo projects under the National Target
Program, i.e., the project "Innovating andup to a third of its disposable
income supporting a child throughhigher education
Annual budget for 1996 was 7.7% of
total government expenditure.

improving the quality of VET" and the
project "Improving the quality ofvocational training for agricultural
workers village” has increased steadily
since 2016, worth 2,690 billion VND (≈117
million USD) in 2019 69. Central budget
investment in VET through national target
programs for the period 2011 - 2020 is
21,575 billion VND, equal to 2,638 times
compared to the period 2001 - 2010 (inthe period 2001 - 2010 the investment
budget for the program national target is8,177 billion VND) 70.
Disbursement from other sources is small.
Ministries and local authorities inparticular can only disburse 3% of thecapital committed to the project 71.
The rate of state budget spending on VET
is tending to decrease, causing difficulties
in investing in facilities and equipment toimprove the quality of teaching andlearning at vocational schools.

3.3.2.4. Regarding the results of VET policy implementation in Vietnam
In quantity

Origin target

Results

The 2012 vocational training
strategyistoprovidevocational education to 40% of
workers

According to the 2019 Population and Housing Census
data, the proportion of workers with vocational
training (technical expertise) only accounts for
22.8%. 72

According to Decision No.
579/QD - TTg, dated April 19,
2011, of the Prime Minister, on"Approving Vietnam's humanresource development strategy

Actual 2020 statistics from the General Statistics Officeshow that only 24.1% of trained workers haveelementary degrees and certificates or higher
degrees 73.

69 General Department of Vocational Education and training, ibid.,

70 Tran Thi Van Anh (2021), To effectively use resources from the state budget for vocational education,

https://mof.gov.vn/webcenter/portal/ttpltc/pages_r/l/chi-tiet-tin-ttpltc?dDocName=MOFUCM196652

71 General Department of Vocational Education and training, ibid.

72 Vietnam General Statistics Office 2020. 2019 Population and Housing Census

73 General Statistics Office: "Press release on labor and employment situation in the fourth quarter and 2020",

https://www.gso.gov.vn/du-lieu-va-so-lieu-thong-ke/2021 /01/thong-cao-bao-chi-tinh-hinh-lao-dong-viec-lam-quy-iv-and-nam2020/47

for the period 2011 - 2020", by2020 there will be 70% of
Vietnamese
workers.
motivated through training;
In quality- Vietnam relies on degrees
and certificates immediately
after training; Not tested inpractical production, so thegap between training andproduct quality is very large.

The proportion of the workforce aged 15 years andolder with training of 3 months or more remains low at
23.68%.

Many bachelors and masters have registered to restudy secondary school and vocational colleges
because of unemployment. The professions chosen by
Japan relies on the level of many students are car repair, cooking, hotel andapplication of professional restaurant service, beauty, mechanics, programming...
theory to the production
A large number of workers with university andprocess, work operations,
postgraduate degrees cannot meet the demand for
teamwork coordination andcapacity.
product quality. It can be said
that the quality of training Apprentices do not get practical experience; practicecorresponds to the quality of results are not satisfactory; The issued certificate does
not guarantee the reliability of the learner's skills; 80%
work.
of students graduating from vocational schools findjobs, however, according to businesses, the quality ofvocational training is not high, forcing businesses toretrain. 74.
The group of workers directly involved in production
and business has the highest level of skill shortage,
followed by the group of indirect workers and thegroup of management workers.
Among all skills/competencies, foreign language skills
are lacking the most, followed by information
technology, creative thinking and autonomy, andbusiness skills 75.
Issues of physical fitness, sense of labor discipline,
professional ethics, and the ability to work in a
multicultural environment are considered weaknessesof Vietnamese workers. These qualities are notincluded in vocational education regulations. -> should
be integrated, especially from vocational education
programs.

From a VET theoretical perspective, Vietnam's vocational education policy does not achieve
human development goals and is wasting human capital. The most important policy gap is
74 State Audit Report (2023), http://baokiemtoan.vn/meo-mo-trong-trien-khai-chu-truong-xa-hoi-hoa-dao-tao-nghe-26665.html
75 Vu Ba Toan (2022), Labor skills of the Vietnamese workforce, https://tuyen Giao.vn/van-hoa-xa-hoi/xa-hoi/ky-nang-lao-dong-

cua-luc -luong-lao-dong-viet-nam-141732

48

policies and measures to coordinate career guidance from a young age. Skipping the career
guidance stage for each generation is a waste, because after that, vocational education must
persuade them to pursue a certain career. At that time, vocational education became only able
to develop human capital without developing development aspirations. As theory (2) explains,lack of pursuit of aspirations will limit creativity.
Vocational education management in Vietnam lacks a system to monitor and control thetraining improvement of vocational education institutions, leading to poor quality training
programs and learner skills that do not meet job requirements. Training facilities mainly train
according to their "supply" capabilities, but do not train according to the "demand" ofbusinesses, and make reports on functional performance according to government targets.
Employers are businesses that do not or rarely participate in quality inspection. All of thesepolicy processes have been going on for a long time in Vietnam.
While in the case of Japanese vocational education, the state management authority, theJapanese Ministry of Labor, quantifies the achieved goals; know clearly the labor market
situation: which industries are lacking workers; from there, accurately assess labor needs,
forecast needs, and orient vocational education for schools and localities; enterprises of allindustries; both short and long term. In return, the subsequent adjustment policy ensures
feasibility and reliability.
Where the quality of provision is high, it appears to be based on a sense of shared purpose,
coupled with a sense of commitment from both employers and employees, to do a job well,with the backing of adequate resources. The Japanese concept of kaizen – continuous
improvement – maintains a competitive edge in business and manufacturing, but it also has
religious overtones linked to Buddhism and the search for perfection. Attention to detail ismuch in evidence, and underpins both policies and practice. For example, the group wasimpressed by the degree of careful planning which had preceded the opening of the new
integrated high school. Punctuality is a universally exact science. 38 The characteristics mostvalued in Japanese managers are the ability to develop their staff and to encourage a spirit ofharmonious working in a team. Goals are therefore communal, rather than individual. The
improvement of quality is similarly a shared effort.
Say for example, at the Nissan Technical College, the course structure was prominently
displayed on a wall in the hallway. Each unit is regularly reviewed by the teaching staff, in
consultation with students, and updated annually. A major assessment item is a group projectin which each group member’s contribution must be successful. The course structure isreviewed by the teachers in consultation with company managers, to ensure that it continues
to meet the needs of the company. At Nissan, the concept of harmonious working wasevidenced by the mission slogan “high technology and humanity”. The training produced
technically expert personnel, but was designed to ensure that they could apply their theoreticalexpertise to the manufacturing process and develop sympathetic personal skills as employees
and members of a work-group. Their primary goal was to ensure customer satisfaction with the
products.
Most of the limitations in Vietnam's vocational education policy are not present in Japan's
vocational education policy.
49However, it should be affirmed that the quality of vocational education in Vietnam is adjustingin a positive direction. Training gradually shifts from a "supply" direction to a "demand"
direction, associated with human resource needs, labor demand of businesses and laboremploying units and job demand of the labor market.
Due to the need to recruit labor, to be proactive in labor supply, businesses participate more invocational education. The proportion of enterprises participating in vocational skills training
cooperation is about 12%, of which the proportion of state-owned enterprises, private
enterprises, and FDI enterprises participating in skills training accounts for about 31%, 10% and
16% respectively, the most common is accepting learners for internships at enterprises(accounting for 62.54%). Only 10.23% of businesses participate in evaluating the learning
outcomes of apprentices 76. The employer's responsibilities for training, fostering and improving
vocational skills for employees as stipulated in Article 60 of the 2019 Labor Code have not been
fully implemented by enterprises77.
The most obvious result is vocational training for rural workers, contributing to local socioeconomic development, poverty reduction, ensuring social security, and shortening the gap
between rich and poor between rural areas and urban areas, improving the material andspiritual lives of people, reducing social evils, and reducing pressure on employment needs in
big cities. According to the General Statistics Office, the labor force aged 15 and over in 2022 is51.7 million people, of which the rural labor force is 32.2 million people. The rate of workers
with informal jobs in rural areas is 61.9%; the unemployment rate among working age people inthis area is 6.68%. In 2020, the rate of trained workers with degrees and certificates fromelementary school or higher in rural areas will be 16%.78.
Regarding the implementation of the role of vocational education, there is a lack of consistency
in awareness and action.
As the person responsible for managing the entire society and economy, Vietnamese
government, requests and orders the direct management agency, MOLISA, to proactively carryout research on career trends, thereby shaping vocational training accordingly. In thoseimperative documents, the State stated that "vocational training establishments areencouraged to regularly review vocational training programs, thereby taking appropriate
measures to reform the training system." The writing of "encouragement to do" in imperative
documents is inconsistently understood by localities and vocational education institutions. In
fact, if the State needs statistics, there are still numbers to be counted. Direct employers must
self-train or retrain on the job after recruitment. This explains the increased number ofbusinesses involved in vocational education in recent years.
Public policy management of vocational education in Japan is exactly the opposite. This
comparison is lame because of the difference in development levels of the two countries. But
the reality of a sharp increase in comprehensive cooperation between Vietnam and Japan, and
76 Vu Ba Toan (2022), ibid.
77 Vu Ba Toan (2022), ibid.

78 General Statistics Office: "Press release on labor and employment situation in the fourth quarter and 2020",
https://www.gso.gov.vn/du-lieu-va-so-lieu-thong-ke/2021 /01/thong-cao-bao-chi-tinh-hinh-lao-dong-viec-lam-quy-iv-and-nam2020/50

the reality of a large number of young Vietnamese workers becoming industrial workers in theJapanese labor environment (not to mention other reasons) force Vietnam's vocational
education policy must adjust this gap as much as possible.
Regarding vocational training establishments, because they are 'encouraged' by the State inlegal documents, they only act when there are additional orders from local authorities in theirareas. Therefore, disseminating information about the changing situation of professional areas,
reviewing the operating training program system, and promptly restructuring the system to suitneeds: eliminating the programs are outdated, building new programs to serve the labor needsof newly arising occupations is not frequent. From there, updating and innovating the content
of teaching materials; Retraining and improving the professional qualifications of vocational
teachers also rarely occurs. Many former vocational teachers are unemployed. Students whowant to learn a new profession must go to big cities or businesses or work as interns in Korea,
Japan, or Taiwan. Of course, funding for education is the biggest obstacle for their families.
On coordination of relevant parties in vocational education. Links between schools and related
professional sectors in Vietnam only take place at the initiative of certain businesses, usuallybusinesses investing in localities that need local workers. Training institutions and businesses
will advertise joint activities to increase tuition fees. Vietnamese apprentices are willing to pay
high fees for this activity.
According to the assessment of the provincial competitiveness index (PCI - VCCI) in 2014, when
FDI enterprises are less satisfied with the quality of local vocational training, they have to spend
more on retraining new workers recruited. 2014 witnessed a sudden decrease in vocational
training quality ratings of FDI enterprises and a sudden increase in their internal training costs.
The assessment of FDI enterprises also coincides with the assessment of businesses in general
about the quality of vocational education in the provinces. Although the quality of vocational
education in the provinces has tended to improve in 2016-2017, compared to 2012-2013, theproportion of businesses evaluating the quality of vocational education in the province has
decreased. This is not necessarily due to the decline in the quality of vocational education, but
due to the increasing labor requirements of businesses, while vocational education has not kept
up with these requirements79. Because the quality of labor does not satisfy businesses, it tends
to increase, causing the proportion of business costs that businesses have to spend on labor
training to also increase. This will increase business costs of businesses, increase financialpressure on businesses, and have a certain impact on production and business activities ofbusinesses. Therefore, there needs to be changes in vocational education so that the quality ofvocationally trained labor can meet the requirements of businesses. The solution to thissituation is to attract the participation of businesses in the vocational training process,promoting the connection between businesses and vocational schools.
In Japan, businesses and vocational education institutions clearly understand this activity.
Although it is not mandatory, when providing it, businesses do so responsibly. Enterprises
79 Thu Phuong (2020),
https://quochoi.vn/UserControls/Publishing/News/BinhLuan/pFormPrint.aspx?UrlListProcess=/content/tintuc/Lists/News&Ite
mID=44788

51

coordinate with the provincial government to organize skills competitions and issue certificates.
Enterprises and the government clearly understand the strengths and limitations of the locality,
and cooperate with localities in other countries on vocational education and labor recruitment.
From the analysis of sections 3.2 and 3.3., from the perspective of public policy management
for Vietnamese vocational education policy, looking from Japanese vocational education policy,
it can be seen that although Vietnam's vocational education has improved a lot towards
reaching the ASEAN level, it is necessary to adjust vocational education goals to be more
realistic; Improve the detailed regulations and assignment of responsibilities to relevant parties,
in particular, add clear regulations on the rights and responsibilities of parties in vocational
education, and cooperation mechanisms between parties. Vocational education policies mustspecify in detail vocational education activities and the person in charge of each activity, thelevel of participation of each party, resources for each activity, mechanisms for using resources,
and reporting mechanism. The keywords are systematic, consistent, responsible, practical toSupport People for Lifelong Career Building. In particular, because Vietnam's level of integrationis very high, employment standards and vocational education must quickly move towards
international standards. This forces MOLISA to have many specific and verified studies andsurveys.
From my short time working at JILPT, there are some observations that I would like to share. Allassessments here are not intended to praise or criticize, but are based on new VET theory andfollow the logic of minimizing the development gap in vocational education view point andactivities to facilitate upgrading the quality of Vietnamese labor as well as contributing to better
equipping the young Vietnamese workforce when going abroad to work or live.
Japan's vocational education policy demonstrates• the belief that high levels of education are an essential prerequisite for a successful economy
and are accompanied by high levels of investment by individuals and countries• the diversity of general and vocational education in post-compulsory education in Japan, andhigh participation rates• relatively low levels of public funding for vocational training. Industry and commerce played
an important role in financing, both directly and through the tax system. Individuals and theirfamilies contribute significantly to the costs of their own education• the meticulous attention to detail that characterizes preparedness for change, is wellresearched, well-resourced and ultimately successful• carefully designed teaching methods and changing social attitudes can help students withlearning difficulties and/or disabilities• Group responsibility for quality assurance is part of a long tradition of tight working teams,
shared skills and the highest product quality. This is both a Japanese social tradition and an
industrial concept.
Vietnam's vocational education policy shows:
There are many risks in a market-oriented approach without quality assurance measures.
52

As public management, policy must include clear and specific measures that provide important
protections for both quality and professional discipline. Networking between government
agencies, between local and national authorities, which can avoid excessive duplication or gaps
in provision, incorporating a national inspection system for vocational education, including
rigorous self-assessment, established in consultation with suppliers.
Teachers have no professional experience, harming overall quality. There should be high status
for teachers and good support for them.
The quality of the profession is guaranteed by active management, commitment and good
teamwork with a clear focus. Quality control is applied in any field, it must be applied to thatfield of study to train learners right from school.
Application equipment is important. Always high quality with advanced technology.
Culture and history have an important influence on practice. Both parents and students need tounderstand the nature of the changes if they want students not to lose motivation and be
conscious of nurturing their careers and vocational skills. Responsibility for quality assurance
must be established in each Vietnamese person from now on. To be established uniformly, it
must be a main content besides career building task in the vocational education policy
framework.

53

4. VET COOPERATION WITH JAPAN4.1. Japan-Vietnam relation context
4.1.1. Government – government (G2G) cooperation
After establishment of diplomatic relations in 1973, the Japanese government implemented
foreign policy according to the Fukuda doctrine, which advocated that Japan plays a bridging
role and actively contributes to maintaining peace and stability in Southeast Asia, and believes
that Vietnam will play an important role in this cause.
In November 1992, Japan resumed Official Development Assistance (ODA) to Vietnam, Japan
continuously provided aid to meet Vietnam's reconstruction and development needs based on
its view point that Vietnam's growth will not only lead to Vietnam's own growth but also to thedevelopment of the entire region and the development of Japan 80.
Besides infrastructure development, completing basic laws, ordinances and standards on
business, tax policies, intellectual property, etc. is essential to promote foreign investment.
Since fiscal 1996, Japan began implementing the technical cooperation project "Supporting theformation of important government policies on the legal system", and over the course of 10
years has introduced the legal system, Japan's laws and human resource training regime,
consulting on contents related to amending the Civil Code. With Japan's support, the revised
Vietnam’s Civil Code was promulgated in 2005. After that, Japan continued to support theformation and implementation of laws such as Vietnam’s Civil Procedure Law,
Japan's approach here is not to impose improvements in policy mechanisms but to support
Vietnam in the process of self-reform, helping Vietnam choose, develop, and apply newlaws/policies quickly, proactive way through information sharing and dialogue. For many years,
the Central Ministry of Law, the Supreme Court, the Japan Bar Association and Nagoya
University, etc. have been systematically supporting Vietnam. These supports make the twopartners increasingly trust each other, creating a premise for implementing technicalcooperation with Vietnam's central legislative, judicial and administrative agencies such as theGovernment Office, National Assembly, Ho Chi Minh National Academy of Politics andAdministration in human resource training.
(1) For Japan, Vietnam has an important position in both geography and diplomacy, and is acountry with third largest population in Southeast Asia. Therefore, supporting Vietnam to carryout national reconstruction and economic growth is an important mission of Japan. Japan has
applied an approach based on three economic pillars: Trade - Investment - ODA.
(2) Not only is the largest donor, Japan also attaches importance to coordination with other
donors. From 1995 until now, Japan has always been the largest ODA donor among bilateral
donors to Vietnam. From 1992 to 2011, Japan's total ODA aid to Vietnam in the fiscal year 1992
- 2011 amounted to more than 2 trillion yen, accounting for 30% of the total aid capital thatinternational donors give to Vietnam. In the spirit of respecting Vietnam's self-reliance, 78% of
80 Japanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko (2023), https://tuoitre.vn/viet-nhat-co-tiem-nang-hop-tac-vo-tan-

20231010084816463.htms

54the total ODA capital was provided by Japan in the form of ODA loans. Japan and other donors
have deployed sub-sectors to provide effective support.
(3) Support for both hardware and software aspects. Not only providing hardware support,
Japan also helps Vietnam create an environment that encourages foreign investment withprojects on strategic planning for market economic development and improvement of policy
mechanisms. In the field of social security, Japan also focuses on supporting both aspects ofinfrastructure construction and human resource training with projects at 3 central hospitals:
Cho Ray Hospital, Bach Mai Hospital, and Ho Chi Minh City Hospital, Hue Central Hospital;
improve capacity to prevent infectious diseases such as measles and bird flu; environmental
protection of Ha Long Bay, etc.
(4) With the spirit of learning from Japan, Vietnam has actively used ODA capital and applied
Japanese technology to industries. Vietnamese people inherently have a high ability to absorb
technology, so technology transfer in projects is highly effective.
(5) In the field of legal system reform, cooperation is carried out based on the experiences thatJapan has drawn when building its legal system since the Meiji period - a legal system that has
many advantages. Improving the legal system in Vietnam - an area that Japan has focused on
developing for nearly 30 years. The cooperation is carried out in the following manner: theJapanese side provides information related to its country's legal system; In addition, Japanese
legal experts will provide professional and technical comments on draft laws that Vietnam
develops.
For example, on cooperation in the field of State Administration
Project Supporting the formation of important government policies on the legal system Phases
1,2,3 (FY 1996 - 2006)
Project on Improving Capacity to Implement Competition Policy and Law (FY 2008 - 2012)
To support Vietnam's industrialization policy, Japan also implements software projects such as:
1. Institutional reform (Modernizing industrial property management, etc.),
2. Strengthen the standard system operating mechanism,
3. Strengthen the capacity of government financial and monetary institutions such as the StateBank of Vietnam,
4. Support the development of small and medium enterprises, and supporting industries,
5. Human resource training for industry.
Example of human resource cooperation: Technical human resource development project at
Hanoi University of Industry (FY 2009 - 2012) 81

81 Japan International Cooperation Agency (2013), Vietnam - Japan partnership from past to future,https://www.jica.go.jp/Resource/vietnam/office/others/pamphlet/ku57pq0000221kmaatt/Japan_Vietnam_Partnership_To_Date_and_From_Now_On_vie.pdf

55Currently, Japan-Vietnam relations are said to be at the best stage ever. Japan considers
Vietnam a "very important" partner country of Japan in implementing the Free and Open IndoPacific (FOIP) strategy. High-level visits between the two countries continuously take place, andthe two countries' heads of state have also built a special relationship of trust 82. Japan-Vietnam
relations contain infinite potential for further outstanding development, looking towards the
future, reaching the world as partners with equal status 83. Japan always wants to further
promote efforts to contribute to regional peace and prosperity together with Vietnam.
From 2023, Japan wants to further promote Japan-Vietnam relations. Vietnam is becoming animportant production base for Japanese businesses in the process of promoting supply chain
diversification after experiencing unprecedented difficulties due to the COVID-19 epidemic. On
the other hand, in Japan, where the birth rate is decreasing and the population is aging,
Vietnamese human resources are playing a huge role, supporting Japan's socio-economic
development. The relationship between Japan and Vietnam can be compared to sincere friends
who always need each other. Vietnam's growth will be closely linked to Japan's development.
Japan wants to strengthen cooperation in regional and international forums, including ASEAN,
in a context where the foundation of the international order is shaken with many divisions andconflicts. Located on the Pacific and Indian Ocean sea routes, Vietnam is an important partner
in realizing this goal. The next prospect is to strengthen cooperation in the field of environmentand clean energy to solve global problems such as climate change, cooperation in the spacesector and cooperation in using the latest technology is also very important role. The potential
for cooperation in these fields is still great, confirming that the relationship between the twocountries will become even closer 84.
Local – local (L2L) relation
Exchange and cooperation between localities of Japan and Vietnam has been a new trend since2007. Up to now, 5 centrally run cities, 11 provinces and 3 provincial cities of Vietnam are
together. Japan's 16 prefectures, 12 cities and 1 town exchanged a total of 37 cooperation
memoranda. Expanding exchange and cooperation at the local level has a meaningful andimportant role in promoting economic connections between Vietnam and Japan on a national
level in general and locally in particular through increasing Strengthen mutual understanding
between the people of the two countries, contribute to restoring the local economy andpromoting culture based on the characteristics and potential of each region. The strengths ofthe localities are fully exploited by both sides to enhance complementarity and create a winwin cooperation situation 85.
However, the trend of local cooperation is still only concentrated in certain areas of Vietnam
and Japan that have long-standing historical and economic understanding and relationships anddeveloped economic conditions such as Hanoi and Japan. Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang, Hai
Phong... Up to now, although 37 memorandums of cooperation between Vietnamese and82 https://japanvietnam50.org/vi/concept
83 https://japanvietnam50.org/vi/concept

84 Japanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko (2023), ibid.

85 Research results of project KX.01.13/16-20: "Research on the theoretical and practical basis of economic connection between

Vietnam and Japan in the context of regional economic integration"

56

Japanese localities have been signed, this number is still very small with great potential
cooperation between the two countries86.
4.1.2. Business relation
The friendship between the two countries today has been cultivated through a long history of
exchanges spanning more than 1,000 years. From the 16th to the 17th century, many Japanesetrading ships visited Hoi An, which was once a busy trading port in Central Vietnam, and formed
the Japanese quarter.
Vietnam is an important production base for Japanese companies and one of the promising
investment destinations. In particular, as Japanese companies diversify their supply chains,
Vietnam is attracting more and more attention 87.
Recent survey results conducted by JETRO show that Vietnam is the second most popularcountry in the world, after the United States, for Japanese businesses to expand their businessin the future 88.
Japanese businesses increase investment in Vietnam and implement new projects, thereby
creating an even more positive cycle in the economies of both countries.
According to Vietnam’s Lao Dong (labor) newspaper, in the first 6 months of 2021 (data as ofJune 20), out of 33,787 projects with a total capital of 397.89 billion USD by investors from 140
countries and territories in Vietnam. , Japan is the second largest foreign investment (FDI)
partner with 4,716 valid projects with a total registered investment capital of more than 63
billion USD. Many large Japanese enterprises invested in Vietnam early on, such as Toyota,
Honda, Panasonic, Canon. Not only in industry, Japanese investors also penetrate other fields
such as retail, food... with "big men" in the retail sector such as AEON, Uniqlo. That is not tomention FII capital flows into the Finance - Banking sector, such as Mizuho owning shares ofVietcombank, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking owning shares of Eximbank89.
The M&A market continues to be led by investors from four countries: Japan, Korea, Thailand
and Singapore. The period 2019–2020 recorded many M&A deals by Japanese investors in themain fields of real estate, construction, finance - banking and pharmaceuticals - healthcare 90.
Some notable M&A deals of Japanese investors include Mitsubishi Corporation and Nomura
Real Estate acquiring 80% in phase II of Vingroup's Grand Park Project; Aozora Bank buys 15%
shares of Orient Commercial Joint Stock Bank; Haseko Real Estate Group bought 36% shares of
Ecoba Construction Company; ASKA Pharmaceutical Company bought 24.9% shares of Ha Tay
Pharmaceutical Company 91.
Japanese businesses will further strengthen cooperation between the two countries in areas
such as infrastructure, ODA, digital transformation (DX), green transformation (GX),
86 Research results of project KX.01.13/16-20: "Research on the theoretical and practical basis of economic connection between

Vietnam and Japan in the context of regional economic integration"

87 Japanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko (2023), ibid.
88 https://japanvietnam50.org/vi/concept

89 https://japanbiz.vn/viet-nam-mieng-banh-mau-mo-voi-nha-dau-tu-nhat-ban/
90 https://japanbiz.vn/viet-nam-mieng-banh-mau-mo-voi-nha-dau-tu-nhat-ban/
91 https://japanbiz.vn/viet-nam-mieng-banh-mau-mo-voi-nha-dau-tu-nhat-ban/

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modernization/industrialization, development human resources to create momentum topromote the relationship between the two countries.
Creating an investment environment that encourages private sector investment between Japan
and Vietnam is important. Japan believes that a mature economic relationship means
companies can conduct healthy economic activities in each other's countries without
government intervention. Japanese companies will increasingly invest in Vietnam. It is essential
for the development of economic relations between the two countries to mature that the
governments coordinate and establish an investment environment that helps create a mutually
beneficial relationship for the companies of the two countries, as well as benefit the twocountries 92.
4.1.3. People to people (P2P) relation
Relations between the two countries are increasingly close and developing rapidly. The
foundation for the development of Japan-Vietnam relations is understanding and sympathy
between people. This relationship is also strengthened by the activities of all those who havecontributed in the different fields. Originating from the long historical and cultural connection
between Japan and Vietnam, there is an anecdote that in the 8th century, the monk Phat Trietcame from Lam Ap (now Central Vietnam). ) performed “Lam Ap music”, a form of courtly
music, at the Opening Ceremony of the Great Buddha statue at Todaiji Temple. Besides, there isalso the love story between merchant Araki Sotaro from Nagasaki and princess Ngoc Hoa of the
Nguyen Dynasty during the Asia-India ship trade period from the 16th to the 17th century. Thisis proof of the connection of long history from ancient times of Japan and Vietnam 93.
In the current period, many Vietnamese people come to Japan to study, work, Japanese people
come to Vietnam to invest..., contributing to strongly promoting cultural exchange, creatingcloseness and connection between the two countries. In the field of cultural preservation, many
Japanese experts and universities have actively and effectively supported Vietnam in large
projects such as excavating and preserving Thang Long Imperial Citadel relics, restoring thevalue historical value of Hoi An, especially of Hue citadel 94.
Japan always cherishes the historical past between the two countries to draw practical lessons,considering it the foundation for sustainable development today. With the spirit of "closing thepast, looking forward to the future", Japanese historians actively cooperate with Vietnam toresearch and sociologically investigate historical issues during the period of World War II95.
- Vietnamese in Japan
People-to-people exchanges between the two countries began with a visit to Japan in the 8th
century by a Vietnamese monk. Then, in the 17th century, when trade routes between the twocountries were opened, many Japanese merchants lived in Hoi An. By the 19th century, many
92 Japanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko (2023), ibid.
93 https://japanvietnam50.org/vi/concept

94 https://dangcongsan.vn/hiep-hoi-doanh-nhan-viet-nam-o-nuoc-ngoai-ket-noi-doanh-nhan-kieu-bao-voi-doanh-nghiep-

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95 https://dangcongsan.vn/hiep-hoi-doanh-nhan-viet-nam-o-nuoc-ngoai-ket-noi-doanh-nhan-kieu-bao-voi-doanh-nghiep-

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58Vietnamese people came to Japan to study during the Dong Du movement. From thoseexchanges, a strong friendship has developed between the people of the two countries. Afterestablishing diplomatic relations, the Japan-Vietnam Parliamentary Friendship Alliance wasestablished in 1978. This is a friendship association with an extremely active history to this day.
The exchanges between parliamentarians of the two countries, the trusting and friendly
relationship between the two National Assemblies have greatly contributed to thedevelopment of bilateral relations. Especially in recent years, exchanges between the two
peoples have increased dramatically. The number of Vietnamese people living in Japan has
increased tenfold in 10 years, from 50,000 people in 2012 to 500,000 people in 2022 96.
The Vietnamese community in Japan is the second largest foreign community in Japan and has
become an indispensable factor in Japan's socio-economic development process 97.
Vietnamese human resources working in Japan are also very diverse, including technical interns,
specific technical interns, international students, midwives, nurses...
As the number of Vietnamese people in Japan increases, the number of Vietnamese restaurants
and grocery stores in Japan also increases, and opportunities to interact with Vietnamese
people also increase, making Vietnam a very diverse country, friendly to Japanese people.
In Vietnam, Japanese cultural features such as manga comics and anime cartoons or Japanesedishes such as sushi and yakitori grilled skewers are also very popular with Vietnamese youth. I
am extremely happy to see our two countries becoming closer and closer to each other 98.
-

Japanese in Vietnam

During a short period from the 16th to the 17th century, the Japanese community, known as
Nihonmachi, in Hoi An consisted of several dozen households. During the 17th century, theJapanese community in Hoi An gradually dwindled and disappeared, blending into the local
Vietnamese community. Intermarriage not only took place in the Nihonmachi community, butalso between Japanese and Vietnamese people (including the case of marriage with Lord
Nguyen aristocrats). This is evidenced through records, tombstones, and other related evidence.
Descendants of these families still keep artifacts related to their connection to Vietnam.
During World War II, the Japanese invaded Vietnam, then protected by France, and beganbuilding bases to fight the Allies in Southeast Asia. The Japanese army remained in Vietnam
until Japan surrendered to its allies in 1945. This operation left behind many intermarriages
between Vietnamese and Japanese soldiers; and there were many Japanese soldiers whostayed in Vietnam and fought in the Viet Minh ranks against the French 99.

96 Japanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko (2023), ibid.
97 https://japanvietnam50.org/vi/concept

98 Japanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko (2023), ibid.

99 A 1642 report to the Dutch East India Company by a Japanese inhabitant of the port describes a Chinese population of 4,000-

5,000 and a Japanese population of 40-50. (Laarhoven, Ruurdje (trans.) "A Japanese Resident's Account: Declaration of theSituation of Quinam Kingdom by Francisco, 1642." in Li and Reid (eds.) Southern Vietnam. p31.)59

During the Vietnam War, many Japanese visited North Vietnam and a significant number ofJapanese went to South Vietnam to work in service construction companies. Recently, many
Japanese people have come and stayed in Vietnam for many different reasons 100.
In addition to the positive progress of relations in many of the above fields, the visit to Vietnam
in 2017 of Emperor Akihito and Empress of Japan (currently Emperor and Empress of Japan)
and the cooperation between Cooperation between the two countries in measures to deal with
the COVID-19 pandemic since 2019, and the visit in early 2023 of Crown Prince Akishino and the
Crown Princess are events that have a strong impact on the Japanese people.
The number of Japanese people in Vietnam is also recorded as the highest compared to othercountries in Southeast Asia until 2019. According to statistics published by the Japanese
Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 2019, the number of Japanese people living and working in
Vietnam has increased sharply compared to many years ago.
Accordingly, by the end of September 2018, the number of Japanese people in Vietnam was
updated to 22,125 people, an increase of 28.1% compared to the statistics for the same period
in 2017. This growth rate is also recorded. Recognition is the largest in Asia as well as
worldwide, counting in countries with over 150 Japanese people living and working. Based onclassification by region and country, the number of Japanese people in Vietnam is the 14thlargest in the world, surpassing both Indonesia and New Zealand 101.
Based on this data, the average number of Japanese people in Vietnam increases by about
4,859 people each year, ranking second only to the US with 20,719 people. By the end of 2020,
there were nearly 23.4 thousand Japanese people living and working in Vietnam, doublingcompared to 2013 102.
Source: https://japanbiz.vn/nguoi-nhat-co-thuc-su-thich-viet-nam/Figure 4.1. Number of Japanese living in Vietnam
According to statistical data calculated based on management data of Japan's official diplomatic
representative agencies abroad, classified based on the living areas of Japanese people inVietnam, Ho Chi Minh City is a location with largest concentration of Japanese people living more than 11,000 people, ranking 22nd among the total number of Japanese people living inmajor cities in the world 103. The number of Japanese people living in Hanoi is estimated atnearly 8,000 people in 2019 104.
A survey was conducted online by AJC in collaboration with Marketing Voice Co., Ltd. in January
2021, with the participation of 10,000 people across Japan, of which 8.9% had been to Vietnam,
showing that, 70 % of Japanese people who have been to Vietnam want to return 105.
100 Chuong, Thau. "Bridge of Friendship." in Ancient Town of Hoi An. p209

101 https://japanbiz.vn/nguoi-nhat-o-viet-nam-va-cac-thong-tin-cap-nhat-moi-nhat/

102102 https://japanbiz.vn/nguoi-nhat-o-viet-nam-va-cac-thong-tin-cap-nhat-moi-nhat/
103103 https://japanbiz.vn/nguoi-nhat-o-viet-nam-va-cac-thong-tin-cap-nhat-moi-nhat/
104104 https://japanbiz.vn/nguoi-nhat-o-viet-nam-va-cac-thong-tin-cap-nhat-moi-nhat/

105 https://baotintuc.vn/du-lich/khao-sat-70-so-nguoi-nhat-ban-tung-toi-viet-nam-co-y-dinh-quay-lai-20210713181009578.htm

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4.2. Current cooperation on VET
4.2.1. Overview general Japan’s international VET cooperation-

Technical cooperation through international organizations, etc.
+ Skills evaluation system transfer promotion projects+ Cooperation with ASEAN countries+ Cooperation with APEC economies-

Inter-governmental technical cooperation+ Cooperation in establishing and operating overseas human resources development
facilities+ Dispatching experts in the field of human resources development+ Acceptance of trainees in the field of human resources development-

Accepting foreign national technical interns, etc.

The Technical Intern Training program was created in 1993 as a new system for transferring
trade skills to foreign people. The program was revised by the “Immigration Control andRefugee Recognition Act” which was promulgated on July 15, 2009, and the current
program has come into force from July 1, 2010. The program enables technical interns toacquire technologies and skills, etc. in an employment relationship after entering Japan withthe residential status of “Technical Intern Training, Item 1.b.” and receiving training for acertain period of time (a program that enables the acquisition of technologies and skills, etc.
while working). Those that passed certain skills tests (equivalent to the Basic Grade 2 ofNational Trade Skills tests) and are deemed to be willing to acquire further practical skills,
etc. can change their residential status to “Technical Intern Training, Item 2.b.” and stay inJapan for up to 3 years, including the period “Technical Intern Training, Item 1.b.”, At
present 71 occupations and 130 tasks are applicable to “Technical Intern Training, Item2.b.”.
The Technical Intern Training system was revised in the revised Immigration Control andRefugee Recognition Act etc. that was promulgated on July 15, 2009, with the current
systems being in force as of July 1, 2010. The figures for 2010 indicate the total number ofregistered foreign nationals with the residential status of “Designated Activities (TechnicalIntern Training)”, “Technical Intern Training, Item 1.b.” and “Technical Intern Training, Item2.b.” The figures for the period of 2011 through 2014 indicate the total number of foreign
nationals residing in Japan (registered foreign nationals for 2011) with the residential status
of “Technical Intern Training, Item 1.b.” and “Technical Intern Training, Item 2.b.”+ Appropriate and smooth promotion of technical intern training program+ Acceptance of government-sponsored foreign national students+ Capacity building of vocational training instructors in developing countries
4.2.2. Japan-Vietnam cooperation in VET

61

In the modern period, Japan chose the path of self-reliance, self-reliance, the path of reform,the "Meiji" path. It is an example for Vietnamese people, especially in the context that Vietnam
is still in a backward, outdated feudal regime and closed to the outside world... Many
Vietnamese patriots have looked at Japan as a mirror to study, like Mr. Phan Boi Chau with theDong Du movement 106…. During the peak period of the Dong Du movement, nearly 200 young
Vietnamese people came to study abroad in Japan. Shizuoka province is also the place thatwitnessed the exchange between revolutionary Phan Boi Chau - the founder of the Dong Du
movement - and doctor Asaba Sakitaro.
Many generations of Vietnamese people have chosen Japan as a destination to study, researchand develop their careers. The first generation of Vietnamese students came to Japan to study
in the 1960s and 70s, including many who achieved success and fame in Japan such as Professor
Tran Van Tho and the ventilator inventor. Chairman Tran Ngoc Phuc of Metran company. Since
2000, the number of international students in general and the Vietnamese community has
continuously increased over the years, currently reaching nearly 500,000 people, becoming thesecond largest foreign community in Japan. Among these are many people from the younger
generation, many of whom have studied, researched and worked in Japan for the past 15-20
years, and are now holding important positions in teaching and research, manager at
prestigious universities and leading Japanese businesses in many fields such as information
technology, electronics-microchips, robotics, agriculture, health, economics-law-societyhumanity literature...(many people hold positions of Professor, Associate Professor, business
manager, research Lab head) 107.
Intellectual community, especially the Association of Vietnamese Intellectuals in Japan, theVietnamese Academic Network in Japan (VANJ), the Community of Vietnamese Experts in Japan(VPJ), the Youth and Student Association Vietnam in Japan (VYSA) and the Vietnam - Japan
Innovation Network (VJOIN) have successfully organized many events attracting a large number
of Vietnamese and Japanese intellectuals and businessmen to participate such as Vietnam
Summit. 2019, 2021, VANJ, VJSE scientific conferences... 108
Together with the force of young intellectuals, start-up entrepreneurs and a large number ofenthusiastic international students, they are playing a leading role in the development of theVietnamese community in Japan, actively contributing to development. Japan's socio-economic
development, becoming a bridge for friendly cooperative relations between the twocountries 109.

106 https://dangcongsan.vn/hiep-hoi-doanh-nhan-viet-nam-o-nuoc-ngoai-ket-noi-doanh-nhan-kieu-bao-voi-doanh-nghiep-

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107 Bui Hung (2023), Vietnamese intellectuals in Japan actively contribute to the country's development, https://vov.vn/chinh-

tri/tri-thuc-viet-nam-tai-nhat-ban-dong-gop-tich-cuc-cho-phat-trien-dat-nuoc-post1022943.vov
108 Bui Hung (2023), ibid.
109 Bui Hung (2023), ibid.

62

According to Japanese Deputy Ambassador to Vietnam Watanabe Shige, in the current
development context, human resources is a very important issue for both Vietnam and Japan toensure human resources for society110.
Labor cooperation between Vietnam and Japan officially began in 1992. In order to establish aframework for cooperation in the field of labor and social affairs, MHLW and many Japaneseministries and agencies have signed cooperation agreements on vocational education, labor
safety, bringing interns and workers to Japan to study and work, vocational education, andwelfare society. Since fiscal 1996, Japan has introduced the system, Japan's laws and humanresource training regime. Vietnam and Japan are coordinating to implement the project"Supporting connection of job information for Vietnamese workers working abroad undercontract" with the goal of supporting Vietnamese workers to find suitable jobs; Adapt and work
abroad according to your needs; Support service businesses to have better access to workers
wishing to work abroad; and support domestic businesses to access and connect directly withreturning workers... 111
Through accepting Vietnamese interns to practice skills in Japan, the results of laborcooperation between Vietnam and Japan are increasingly better and constantly developing,
bringing many economic benefits to the people and businesses of both countries. By December
2022, the total number of Vietnamese workers living and working in Japan is 345,000 people.
Vietnam is currently the largest sending country among the 15 countries participating insending workers to Japan. Japan's latest survey shows that: Vietnam is the country with theability to expand, as well as the highest rated in the world for businesses wishing to invest in
Vietnam by Japanese companies. Vietnamese human resources are considered very industrious
and have made great contributions to the economic and social development of Japan today.
Beside from interns receiving, Japan has supported the completion of a vocational skills
assessment system to meet the needs of supporting industries and develop human resources
with elite skills in Vietnam. In recent times, the Japanese Government has supported Vietnam in a
number of projects, specifically as follows:

Financial support projects• Project "Demand-based vocational training to reduce poverty in the Mekong Delta" using
non-refundable capital from the Japan Poverty Reduction Fund, was implemented from 20082012.
The main content of the Project is to improve the quality of life of the poor and ethnic
minorities by equipping them with the necessary skills to find jobs and create their own jobs,
contributing to the implementation of strategic goals of the Government on hunger eradicationand poverty reduction and reducing the gap between regions. The project is implemented in
two provinces of Tra Vinh and Soc Trang.

110 Nhat Anh (2023), Vietnam - Japan promote cooperation in labor, employment and social security, https://nhandan.vn/viet-

nam-nhat-ban-thuc-day-hop-tac-trong-lao-dong-viec-lam-va-an-sinh-xa-hoi-post769213.html
111 Thanh Hoa (2023), https://nhandan.vn/nhieu-ket-qua-tich-cuc-trong-hop-tac-lao-dong-viet-nam-nhat-ban-post751277.html

63

* Project "Strengthening the field of vocational education" (loan project) invests in facilities for3 fields of Mechanical, Electrical and Electronics at 13 beneficiary schools in the North, Central,
South, and Central regions expected to be implemented within 5 years after the Loan
Agreement takes effect. This is a large-scale project with the participation of many vocational
education institutions across the country and has a long implementation period. The modern,synchronous equipment system invested in by the project along with a team of highly qualified
teachers will be the foundation for schools to provide high-quality human resources to meetthe requirements of the labor market in Vietnam and especially Japanese businesses are aiming
to export labor in the near future. That is consistent with the policy of developing supporting
industries, a priority area in the Vietnam Industrialization Strategy within the framework of
Vietnam - Japan cooperation towards 2020, vision 2030.
*In parallel with the project "Strengthening the field of vocational education" (loan project),
JICA agreed to sponsor the project "Technical cooperation on vocational education" using nonrefundable aid capital Aims to improve the quality of teachers and administrators in vocational
colleges. The two sides agreed to select 03 core schools to replicate the vocational training
model according to Japanese standards (Vocational College of Engineering and Technology,
College of Engineering II and Hanoi University of Industry). Japanese experts will transfer
technology and guide teachers and administrators of these three schools on how to use,
operate, and maintain equipment invested in the project according to Japanese standards.
After being trained, teachers and administrators will become core teachers to continue sharing
knowledge with teachers and administrators of the remaining schools in the project throughtraining courses. .
*In addition to ODA projects, the Japanese side also supports Vietnam through technicalsupport activities such as: Dispatching long-term experts to work at the General Department
from 2002-2018 to support in assessment activities, develop vocational skills. Cooperate with
JAVADA in training assessment skills for vocational teachers in Vietnam: Organize training
courses for assessors for the professions of Turning, Milling, Installing information network
cables, and Mechanical testing at the level of 2.3; Pilot assessment of vocational skills in Lathe,
Milling, Installing information network cables, and Mechanical testing at level 2 and 3 (total
number of participants in the assessment is 248 people and the number of people meeting therequirements according to Japanese standards is 118); Recognizing milling (5 people) andturning (9 people) assessors.
Based on the results of cooperation between the two countries, in order to further improve
quality and international integration, on July 1, 2019, the General Department of Vocational
Education and KOSEN Organization signed a Memorandum of Understanding on continue
cooperative activities aimed at applying the KOSEN education model in Vietnam. Accordingly,
the two sides will coordinate to establish a KOSEN Representative Office in Vietnam; Organize
the development and implementation of training programs according to the KOSEN Education
Model for 3-year and 5-year systems at pilot schools; Deploying short-term and long-term
training for managers and teachers on training according to the KOSEN Education Model at
KOSEN pilot schools in Vietnam; transfer teaching methods and teaching materials according to
the KOSEN Education Model; promote cooperation and engagement between training schools
64following the KOSEN Education Model and businesses of the two countries; Research andestablish KOSEN Certification Committee in Vietnam...
KOSEN Office has been established and actively participates in Vietnamese conferences andseminars to share Japanese experience in training according to the KOSEN model, training highquality human resources. The General Department of Vocational Education has coordinatedwith the Ministry of Industry and Trade and schools organized by JICA and KOSEN to choose anorganization to pilot training according to the KOSEN model (including a 3-year program torecruit high school graduates and a program to 5-year program to recruit students graduatingfrom secondary school), connecting the above schools with schools in the KOSEN system andJapanese businesses to improve teaching programs and develop curriculum; complete thehandbook "Program Design Guidebook according to the KOSEN Model"... The two sides willcontinue to coordinate to implement activities according to the signed Memorandum ofUnderstanding.
In addition, the program to bring Vietnamese nursing and midwife candidates to work in Japan
under the Vietnam-Japan Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) has been implemented since2012. Up to now, the two sides have cooperated in organizing 11 training courses forcandidates in Vietnam, bringing 1,696 Vietnamese nursing and midwife candidates to work inJapan. Vietnamese candidates, after coming to practice and work in Japan, are highly
appreciated by receiving facilities and nursing homes in this country for their expertise, foreign
language skills, personality, and positive sense of work... Outstanding cooperation programs tobring Vietnamese interns to Japan are: cooperation program with the Japan International
Training Cooperation Organization (JITCO); Cooperation program with the Human Resources
Development Agency of Japan (IM Japan) 112
In addition, Vietnam has also provided highly skilled technical workers, information technology
engineers, and people with university and postgraduate degrees in various fields to Japan;
Implementing the Program to bring nursing and midwife candidates to work in Japan 113…
According to research by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), with the current
population decline, by 2030, Japan may need an additional 630,000 foreign workers.
Vietnamese workers as well as other foreign workers are an important driving force,
contributing to the recovery process of Japan, the world's third largest economy, after the
COVID-19 pandemic114.
Working Group No. 11 was established by the MOLISA and the Japanese Chamber of Commerceand Industry in Vietnam (JCCI) with the goal of developing highly skilled human resources.
Group 11 activities aim to develop high-quality human resources, with the main cooperation
contents being:i) Strengthening mutual understanding between Japanese investors and vocational education
institutions about the need for high-quality technical human resources of Japanese investors;
112 Thanh Hoa (2023), ibid.
113 Thanh Hoa (2023), ibid.

114 Long Nguyen (2023), https://vtv.vn/the-gioi/lao-dong-viet-nam-dong-gop-tich-cuc-tai-nhat-ban-20230128064020408.htm

65ii) Cooperation between the above organizations to improve the balance between supply anddemand of technical human resources;iii) Support the development of a skills certification system;iv) Support the development of highly skilled human resources, and a skills certification system.
Kosen office for transferring JVET model•

KOSEN Office has been established and actively participates in Vietnamese conferences
and seminars to share Japanese experience in training according to the KOSEN model,
training high quality human resources.

•

to choose an organization to pilot training according to the KOSEN model (including a 3year program to recruit high school graduates and a program to 5-year program torecruit students graduating from secondary school),•

connecting Japanese businesses to improve teaching programs and develop curriculum;
complete the handbook "Program Design Guidebook according to the KOSEN Model"...

The two sides will continue to coordinate to implement activities according to the signed
Memorandum of Understanding
4.3. Obstacles in Japan- Vietnam cooperation in general, VET cooperation in particular
On October 10, 2023, the Japanese Foreign Minister wrote in Vietnam Youth newspaper that
Vietnamese criminals in Japan have increased. A group of technical intern trainees fell into adifficult environment. The Japanese government wants to further strengthen efforts between
Japan and Vietnam to ensure this situation does not affect the friendly relationship between
the two countries and so that Vietnamese people feel satisfied when coming to work inJapan 115.
This reflects that this issue is a fact, not a rumor, and is affecting the good relations of the twocountries. More specific data may be announced. The number of Vietnamese people living inJapan increases every year. The number of Vietnamese people in Japan next year is higher thanlast year. As stated above, the Vietnamese community is considered to be the fastest growing
among foreign communities in Japan 116, Vietnam's Ministry of Public Security reported that inJune 2022, Vietnamese criminals topped the list of countries with citizens violating Japaneselaw 117. The website 日本総合情報チャンネル 118, Vietnamese people coming to Japan are
divided into two stages. One is the number of Vietnamese people who came to Japan after
1975, when the war ended, and became refugees.
When the press reported on these boat people, Japan decided to accept refugees. By the mid1990s, when the temporary shelter for Indochinese refugees was officially closed, Japan had
received 11,231 people, including 8,587 Vietnamese. The Vietnamese group of 625 people wereinternational students during the Republic of Vietnam who were trapped in Japan when Saigon
115 Japanese Foreign Minister Kamikawa Yoko (2023), ibid.

116 https://honto.tv/vi-sao-so-nguoi-viet-pham-toi-o-nhat-tang-cao-xung-dot-giua-cac-nhom-toi-pham/
117 Duc Trung (2022), ibid.

118 https://honto.tv/vi-sao-so-nguoi-viet-pham-toi-o-nhat-tang-cao-xung-dot-giua-cac-nhom-toi-pham/66

fell in 1975; 3,536 boat refugees were picked up by Japanese ships at sea; 1,820 people
evacuated from refugee camps in Southeast Asia, and 2,606 people entered Japan as a United
Nations ODP reunification 119. Refugees from Vietnam after 1975 largely settled in Kanagawa
and Hyōgo districts where the original temporary camps were located. When they left the camp,
Vietnamese people often went to areas where many Korean-Japanese people lived (Zainichi
Korean). However, they still do not have much sympathy for people of Korean descent because
Koreans have been deeply integrated into Japanese society while Vietnamese people are still ayoung immigrant community120. The two districts of Kanagawa and Hyōgo until 2018 are still
the places with the largest concentration of Vietnamese people: 4,962 and 3,692 people 121.
Refugees have endured many difficulties adapting to Japanese society, especially in the areas ofeducation and employment; In addition, the high school attainment rate for Vietnamese people
is only about 40% compared to 96.6% for Japanese citizens. The reason for the difference ispartly because the Japanese education system cannot adapt to foreigners, and partly becauseof cultural differences. In the second generation, there is even more of a gap between young
people raised in Japan who are fluent in Japanese, while the group of parents who grew up in
Vietnam still have language barriers. Most people of Vietnamese descent keep theirVietnamese names instead of taking Japanese names. Even if they take Japanese names tomake a living, they still think they are treated differently because they use "katakana names".
The Roman Catholic Church plays an important role in the Vietnamese community in Japan 122.
The second generation of refugees faced discrimination from the Japanese at school or where
they lived. They cannot share with their parents, and it is difficult to find good jobs when theygrow up. Just like that, one person then two people, they gradually lost their way. And so, acriminal gang appears that is the second generation of refugees. They concentrated mainly inTokyo, Kanagawa and Osaka, then began doing business with the Southeast Asian communities
in these areas. Collecting protection money at bars for foreigners, transporting contraband,
hooking up illegal labor, prostitution, drug trafficking... They started with activities forSoutheast Asians in Japan and competed with violent gangs123.
However, there are also Vietnamese people who come to Japan in another way. After 1990,
mainly people came to Japan to work and make money. Currently, there are people who go to
Japan as technical intern trainees, but most come from poor families in Northern Vietnam. They
went to Japan to work for a few years to earn enough money to pay off their debt in Vietnam,
then they returned home. However, not everyone saves enough money and returns home asplanned. There are people missing due to trouble at the intern reception facility, there arepeople residing illegally because their visas expired, and there are people who decided to stayin Japan. And there are even people who have to "dive in" just for money.

119 "Indochinese Report"” (PDF). Bản gốc (PDF) lưu trữ ngày 3 tháng 10 năm 2016.

120 Shingaki, Masami; Asano, Shinichi (2003), “The lifestyles and ethnic identity of Vietnamese youth residing in Japan”, inGoodman, Roger (edit), Global Japan: The Experience of Japan's New Immigrant and Overseas Communities, Routledge,tr. 165–176, ISBN 0-415-29741-9
121 NEWS, KYODO. “Vietnam temple offers spiritual support for Japan community”. Kyodo News+.
122 Shingaki, Masami; Asano, Shinichi (2003), ibid.
123 https://honto.tv/vi-sao-so-nguoi-viet-pham-toi-o-nhat-tang-cao-xung-dot-giua-cac-nhom-toi-pham/

67

Such people become a new group of criminals. That is, there are two different groups ofcriminals. One is a group of criminals descended from Vietnamese refugees who came to Japanafter the war. The second is a group of young criminals who came to Japan after 1990 to makemoney. The complicated thing here is that the characteristics of each group are different due togenerational differences124.
Post-war refugees are often proud that they are the first generation to have poured their sweat
and tears into building the Vietnamese community in Japan and expanding the market.
Therefore, they do not have a sympathetic attitude towards the group of Vietnamese people
who came from Northern Vietnam, the group of people who came later and often commit
crimes because of illegal residence 125.
On one side is a gang of people who followed refugee families to Japan and lived and knew
each other in areas reserved for refugees in Kanagawa and Hyogo. The other side is a gang of
unrelated people who came to Japan and met each other through social networks. Thus,
differences are natural.
In addition, the group of refugees after the war will be the group that holds power in the
Vietnamese community. They collude with violent Japanese gangs to smuggle drugs or organize
gambling, even a black credit fund for foreigners in Japan. Northerners still occasionallyparticipate in these illegal activities as customers126.
Giving a similar description, Dr. Tuan Anh, an expert at the Southeast Asia - Japan Center (AJC),
living in Tokyo for 10 years, said that this situation has deep roots, related to the regime.
Interns to labor export activities "promoting 'dream' jobs, painting a rosy life, working
comfortably and earning 40 million/month in Japan to send home" 127.
According to data from the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), by June 2021, there
were about 202,000 Vietnamese technical interns studying in Japan, accounting for 63.8% ofinternational students accepted vocational training in this country. To pay for the fees to go to
Japan, 80% of Vietnamese interns borrowed an average of 674,000 yen, according to a Nikkei
survey. However, some interns, upon arriving in Japan and facing a reality that was moredifficult than they imagined, fell into the path of crime. They take a debt to Japan but thenbecome disillusioned. The pressure to repay the debt is great, often leading to a mentality thateasily commits crime. According to Hiromu Shimada, 31 years old, manager at a foreigner
support company based in Tokyo, it cannot be denied that the selection of interns to Japan is
not strict. Many of them are manual workers, have difficult starting points and are
disadvantaged in terms of education. "When they come to Japan, they suffer extremely poor
treatment, with large debts on their shoulders128.

124 https://honto.tv/vi-sao-so-nguoi-viet-pham-toi-o-nhat-tang-cao-xung-dot-giua-cac-nhom-toi-pham/

125 https://honto.tv/vi-sao-so-nguoi-viet-pham-toi-o-nhat-tang-cao-xung-dot-giua-cac-nhom-toi-pham/
126 https://honto.tv/vi-sao-so-nguoi-viet-pham-toi-o-nhat-tang-cao-xung-dot-giua-cac-nhom-toi-pham/

127 Duc Trung (2022), Overseas Vietnamese are sad because their compatriots are breaking the law in Japan,
https://vnexpress.net/viet-kieu-buon-vi-tinh-trang-dong-huong-pham-phap-o-nhat-4507756.html
128 Duc Trung (2022), ibid.

68

According to Japan Today on March 27, citing data from the National Police Department, out of
9,884 arrests of foreigners in 2013, 4,047 involved Chinese, 1,118 were Vietnamese and 936
were Korean. The number of crimes committed by Vietnamese people in Japan has increased
nearly 60% in the past 9 years, from 713 people arrested in 2004 to 1,118 people in 2013 129
In 2014, Japan welcomed 20,000 workers of Vietnamese origin to work. The number has
increased to about 50,000 workers from Vietnam, accounting for 18.8% of the total number offoreign workers in Japan and second only to the Chinese. Among Vietnamese criminals, theproportion of people who study abroad accounts for 54.2%, and the proportion of people who
go to Japan for vocational training accounts for 12.9%. In particular, criminals with student visas
increased 1.8 times. However, a large number of Vietnamese workers work without a permit,
partly because brokerage companies take advantage of recruitment to make money, partly
because Japanese factories want to reduce salary costs when hiring foreigners. In 2016 alone,
Japanese authorities discovered that Satoshi Kogyo had exploited 4,000 Vietnamese people towork illegally as laborers130.
In 2016, Vietnamese people top the number of crimes in the foreign community living in Japan,
with 5,140 crimes committed by Vietnamese citizens, up from 3,177 cases in 2016 andaccounting for 30.2% of the total. Stealing is the most common behavior among Vietnamese
people, with about 3,080 cases, including 2,037 cases of shoplifting and 477 cases of housetheft. Among Vietnamese criminals, 41% are students, 29% are technical interns 131.
Kyodo News Agency in April 2018 quoted Japanese police data showing that in 2017
Vietnamese people ranked first in the number of crimes in Japan 132.
Many overseas Vietnamese and even Japanese people believe that "everywhere there are suchand such people" and that not every Vietnamese who is a trainee will commit illegal acts133.
Inevitably, people with understanding will not generalize above negative facts. Vietnamese
people who live upright lives do not need to be embarrassed or awkward when interacting withJapanese people.
Remedial measures
From April 1, 2019, Japan has applied a new visa system to facilitate recruiting more foreign
workers to cope with the labor shortage. The new visa system also recognizes a significant
policy shift in traditionally strict immigration regulations by officially opening the door to skilledworkers 134
Currently, according to Japanese Minister of Health, Labor and Social Welfare Kato Katsunobu,
Japan is conducting research to amend current legal regulations related to the Program foraccepting interns and workers. Foreigners come to Japan to practice and work (framework
129https://www.bbc.com/vietnamese/vietnam/2014/03/140327_japan_foreign_crimes

130 https://www.voatiengviet.com/a/nhat-phat-hien-duong-day-nghi-co-hang-ngan-lao-dong-chui-nguoi-viet/3718299.html

131 https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di_Vi%E1%BB%87t_t%E1%BA%A1i_Nh%E1%BA%ADt_B%E1%BA%A3n

132 https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di_Vi%E1%BB%87t_t%E1%BA%A1i_Nh%E1%BA%ADt_B%E1%BA%A3n
133 Duc Trung (2022), ibid.

134 "In 2019, the number of Vietnamese workers in Japan increased the highest." Nhan Dan Electronic Newspaper. January 31,

2020. Accessed March 30, 2023.

69

program). In the process of researching and amending this regulation, the Japanese expert
council paid special attention to the goal of technical transfer, ensuring the training of quality
human resources, not only contributing human resources to Japan but also internationally 135.
Regarding the issue of changing the technical intern trainee program and specified skilledworkers, Japan is aiming to build a new system to "protect and develop" human resources.
This is considered a new turning point for Japan in accepting foreign workers. MHLW iscompleting the final report to submit to the Japanese Government on changes to this technicalinternship program.
MOLISA and MHLW regularly exchange and share experiences in the cooperation process
between the parties to jointly solve issues related to the field of human resource developmentin the coming time. In addition, to protect the rights of Vietnamese workers living and working
in Japan, the MOLISA has signed cooperation agreements with many Japanese provinces.
In 2018, the Prime Minister of Vietnam requested MOLISA to reorganize all sending businesses
to ensure that interns can work in Japan in the best conditions. MOLISA will stop cooperating
and not allowing businesses and unions with a high rate of interns to participate in this program.
In addition, MOLISA is also trying to negotiate with Japan to soon introduce specific standards
for sending businesses. Accordingly, businesses with a 6-star or 5-star rating according to thecode of conduct in the field of labor export will be sent to work in specific occupations with ahigh risk of escape.
Mr. Katsuaki Suga, President of the International Labor Cooperation Association (IRO), said that
inadequate training is also the reason why interns run away in Japan. Because they were notfamiliar with the Japanese working style, the interns could not keep up, so they became boredand tried to escape. They need to be properly and thoroughly trained down to every small
detail before coming to Japan. Including learning how to walk, talk and especially Japaneseculture of behavior, office culture and factories. That way, new interns will be less confused andstart working right away. Among the countries that send interns to Japan, we still highly
appreciate those from Vietnam because of their diligence, diligence and quick learning 136.
The IRO Chairman also emphasized that the Vietnamese Government needs to take strong
measures to force labor-sending businesses to seriously and fully implement the criteria set
forth by the program. Businesses must also bind specific responsibilities if they let the interns
they send escape 137.
Looking more broadly, across Vietnam, as mentioned above, Japan is the supplier of more than
30% of the world's bilateral ODA to Vietnam. This huge amount of capital is for:- Implementing large-scale infrastructure development projects (such as airports, seaports,
bridges and roads, urban infrastructure...) has created a driving force to promote sustainablesocio-economic development. .
135 Thanh Hoa (2023), ibid.

136 https://dantri.com.vn/viec-lam/thuc-tap-sinh-bo-tron-tai-nhat-ban-vi-sao-20180827080946214.htm )137 https://dantri.com.vn/viec-lam/thuc-tap-sinh-bo-tron-tai-nhat-ban-vi-sao-20180827080946214.htm )70

- Support the transfer of advanced technology and human resource training through theimplementation of ODA loan projects and JICA training programs. Many advanced technologies
will also be transferred to Vietnam such as satellite assembly (through the project on Natural
Disaster Prevention and Climate Change using earth observation satellites), bridge and road
construction techniques (especially for large bridges).
- Indirectly or directly create conditions to attract foreign investment, especially investment
from Japan.
The characteristic of Japanese ODA is that it is used for large-scale infrastructure construction
projects in important fields such as power generation, water supply and drainage, andtransportation, thereby improving socio-economic infrastructure and has a huge impact inattracting FDI in Vietnam.
- Directly or indirectly contribute to hunger eradication and poverty reduction. Direct impact ofJapanese development aid through small-scale economic infrastructure development projects,
investment in construction of schools, hospitals, rural roads, small bridges and other emergency
works, water and electricity for daily use in poor localities.
Behind Japan's ODA disbursement activities, we can see a huge indirect impact. Large-scale
infrastructure ODA projects contribute to attracting domestic private investment and FDI,
creating jobs for the workforce in rural areas; Non-refundable aid projects, technical assistancein the fields of health and education as well as sending volunteers to work in Vietnamese
localities have helped improve the capacity of grassroots-level officials. ... 138
It is true that besides the achieved results, there are still difficulties and problems with some
programs and projects, requiring both sides to make more efforts to resolve. For example, inthe process of implementing large infrastructure construction in Vietnam and disbursing
Japanese ODA capital, the history of relations between the two countries has recorded anumber of extremely large corruption cases. But ODA is an area that is not approachedtransparently by businesses, its scope is limited to large state-owned enterprises in the above
fields. Therefore, after handling these cases, transparency in state-owned enterprises is an
important requirement because ODA capital and foreign concessional loans continue to be
identified as necessary and important during the period. Vietnam's new development,
especially the implementation of 3 strategic breakthroughs, including the strategy ofdeveloping high-quality human resources139.
Personally, I think that today's fruits are the consequence of the environment, seeds, andplanting methods of many previous generations. In the negative phenomena mentioned above,
especially in Japan, the cause does not lie in the lack of money, the trainee regime, or the debt
before leaving. The core cause is the foundation of education, culture, ethics, and discipline.

138 Thanh Hoa (2023), ibid.

139 Linh Ly (2023), Mr. Tran Quoc Phuong - Deputy Minister of Planning and Investment responded to an interview with

Monetary and Financial Market Magazine, https://thitruongtaichinhtiente.vn/viet-nam-nhat-ban-nhieu-du-dia-cho-phat-trienquan-he-hop-tac-tren-cac-linh-vuc-kinh-te-thuong-mai-va-dau-tu-44638.html

71Returning the new VET policy theory proposed in the beginning, policy-makers should take into
account broad poverty dimensions, emphasis has been placed on educating about selfdiscipline and early work discipline and accompanying the vocational guidance process. Simply,
that is the principle of education. Human quality education must go hand in hand withbehavioral education. And behavioral education must be carried out from the beginning of each
person's life with the participation of both the school, family and guardians. Public policy on
education cannot state the educational goal as human resources 'must be obedient', 'must be
kind'. Dogma and sloganeering are not consistent with educational principles, analyzed in thesection on setting vocational education goals of Vietnam's VET policy. One reason that experts
say has a significant impact on this is the lack of information transparency in the recruitment
market as well as the sharing of the meaning of the internship program has not been given due
attention. Due to lack of information, it is difficult for interns to know which businesses arecapable of dispatching; What are the criteria and goals that the program sets to ensure
employment conditions as well as learning opportunities? Therefore, interns and international
students must go through brokers or meet sending businesses that charge high fees if theywant to participate in the program. This leads to many trainees having to take out loans as well
as being pressured to repay debt in the early stages of work, causing them to lose focus on
acquiring skills, creating the risk of running away.
Thus, overall, Japan's great cooperation for Vietnam is comprehensive strategic cooperationand mutual benefit. The process of cooperation develops from projects to participating in
supporting the improvement of Vietnam's legal policies. In the hierarchy of the theory ofinternational economic relations, when two countries have institutional and politicalcooperation, it is no longer mere cooperation, but has moved towards integration andharmony 140, demonstrates a high level of trust and legal rigor. This relationship, according tologic, can only become tighter, due to the binding interests of social elements such as people,
the business community and other interest groups. Applying to the case of Vietnam, this is also
the only solution that I propose in my lectures to graduate students in the provinces of Vietnam,
the solution to combat the sabotage of countries having political conflicts with Vietnam,
because of the matrix of their interests with other countries that have relations with Vietnam 141.
Applying to the case of VET cooperation, Japan has had 50 years of official relations with
Vietnam with huge sponsorship. Japan has more than 30 years of cooperation in humanresources. Vietnamese human resources are working at many Japanese businesses both insideand outside Japan. The Japanese vocational education model has been piloted in Vietnam at
Hanoi University of Industry. Japan's ideas of implementing the vocational education process in
the right direction for human development should be expanded in Vietnam. Awareness of
140 Hoang Khac Nam (2017), The development of international relations theory, Journal of Social Science Information, no.7.2017,p.3-14.
141 In many studies on regional and international integration in the early 2000s, a bowl of spaghetti was symbolically describedas the phenomenon of massive regional integration. When Vietnam signed many multilateral integration documents, there
were also opinions that Vietnam participated too much. I think that, at the current stage, when the global supply chain is inserious crisis after the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical conflicts around the world, Vietnam's participation in many
multilateral agreements has been are the most useful legal solutions. From here, Vietnam's customers and partners also benefit
greatly indirectly.

72career guidance education from an early stage will gradually be opened. This improvement inbasic thinking will help the Vietnamese vocational education system managed by MOLISA solve
input bottlenecks for vocational education institutions throughout Vietnam.

73

5. CONCLUSION
The report is presented in 4 main parts.
•

1. INTRODUCTION explains the reason for choosing the topic, approach to vocational
education policy, and scope of approach.

•

2. JAPAN’S VET POLICY OVERVIEW describes some main contents related to public policy
in vocational education in Japan.

•

3. IMPROVING VIETNAM’S VET POLICY. The idea of this section is to analyze andcontrast the vocational education policies of Vietnam and Japan, finding the cause of
the paradox of a young, well-receptive, industrious workforce with little vocational
education. .

•4. JAPAN-VIETNAM VET POLICY COOPERATION. The goal of this section is to findsustainable solutions to upgrade the industrial skills of Vietnamese workers, gradually
increasing confidence in the quality of people (in the broad sense), based on the qualityof work (in the broad sense). broad), not based on diplomatic sentiments;

Initial conclusion of each part shows the foundation of VET must be vocational guidance
education must be underlined. Without career guidance from a young age, forming
responsibility, professional qualities, and professional personality will be more difficult at postsecondary school age. The attitude of considering a job as a career will create more creativity.
Japanese VET educators should help Vietnam from the foundation of Japan’s vocational
guidance policy with experience.
Young Vietnamese must learn self-discipline and acquire professional discipline from a youngage, and most uniform way through career building process in their school life.
The foundation for successful public policy implementation is transparency of policy
information. Cooperation activities are being carried out with great efforts from the Japanese
Government, localities and businesses.
But imperfect information is an opportunity for profiteering for interest groups, and in the
Vietnamese environment, only when it happens loudly will there be intervention frommanagement agencies.
Therefore, transparent information on VET cooperation policy and policies related is neededby all means.
This brings benefits to everyone, making the cooperation process smoother because it isaccepted and trusted by the public.
If people is determined as beneficiaries of the G2G cooperation, the information of thatcooperation must be publicly disseminated, transparent, and easily accessible. This is the best
way to fight profiteering and corruption in policy implementation process.
From the above preliminary research, it can be seen that, in the long term, many issues need to
be updated and adjusted for Vietnam's VET policy.
74

For a sustainable future of a civilized developed society, fundamental education thinking nature of education, basic Instinct needs to be thoroughly grasped, deeply understood,
specifically stated, and consistently informed to all Vietnamese citizens, regardless of age
because mutual social influence. It is integrated and goes hand in hand with education on living
behavior, working behavior, and professional practice of all citizens in that society.
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