Overview Study

Circular economy solutions
for critical raw materials forthe energy transition
Opportunities for German-Japanese cooperation
Prepared as part of the bilateral energy partnership on behalf of theGerman Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action

2

Impressum
Publisher:
Japanese-German Energy Partnership Team
Implementing Organization:
adelphi consult GmbH
Alt-Moabit 91
10559 Berlin
T +49 (30) 8900068-0
office@adelphi.de
www.adelphi.deAuthors
Grüning, Carolin; Martin, Kristiina; Ruthner, Lena; Beier, Jana; Berner, Richard (adelphi)
Cite as:Grüning, Carolin; Martin, Kristiina; Ruthner, Lena; Beier, Jana; Berner, Richard (2024) „Circular economy solutions for critical caw materials for theenergy transition: Opportunities for German-Japanese cooperation“. Berlin: adelphi.
Supported by:
Chika Aoki-Suzuki (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)), Heiwa Hasegawa (German Chamber of Commerce and Industry in Japan), as
well as Henri Dörr and Jana Narita (adelphi) from the Japanese-German Energy Partnership Team. We express our thanks all experts for the
successful cooperation. Your feedback and additional information enriched and improved the study.
Version:07/2024
All rights reserved.
All use of this publication is subject to the approval of adelphi consult.
This publication is only available as a downloadable pdf file.

Initiated by:

Implementing organisations:

3

Circular economy solutions for critical raw materials for the energy
transition
Opportunities for German-Japanese cooperation

4

Content
1

Executive summary ........................................................................................................................................................................... 52

Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................................... 7

2.1
2.2

Background: The role of critical raw materials in the energy transition ..................................................................................................................7
Objective and structure ................................................................................................................................................................................................................93

Critical raw materials and the energy transition ........................................................................................................................ 10

3.1
3.2

Germany ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Japan .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12

4

Circular economy solutions for critical raw materials for the energy transition ................................................................... 15

4.1
4.2

Germany ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Japan .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23

5

Existing forums of German-Japanese cooperation .................................................................................................................... 30

6Comparison...................................................................................................................................................................................... 32

7

Conclusion and topics for German-Japanese cooperation ....................................................................................................... 34

List of abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................................................ 37
List of figures ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 39
List of tables .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
8

Publication bibliography ............................................................................................................................................................... 41

1

Executive summary

As like-minded and long-standing partners in climate andenergy policy cooperation, Germany and Japan have both
recognized the potential of circular solutions to secureaccess to raw materials crucial for the energy transition while
simultaneously reducing the carbon footprint of energy
transition technologies. The underlying study analyses thecountries’ respective circumstances, existing policy
approaches as well as needs and challenges for thisundertaking. It then highlights similarities and differences incountry approaches, as well as opportunities for mutual
learnings and cooperation within and beyond the JapaneseGerman Energy Partnership. This study focuses on policy
measures to secure selected critical minerals and raw
materials for key technologies for the energy transition,
obtained through desktop research and insights fromindustry experts. The authors note limitations due to theevolving geopolitical and economic context affecting thefindings.
In order to meet their respective climate and energy goals,
both Germany and Japan need to ramp up their production
and installation of key energy transition technologies,
including wind turbines (onshore and offshore), solar
photovoltaics, battery storage and electrolyers (for the
production of hydrogen). Both countries have pledged toundertake efforts to triple global renewable energy capacity
by 2030 as part of the COP28 agreement of 2023. This will
require significant amounts of so called critical raw materials
that are essential for the production of the aforementioned
technologies. As part of the communiqué of the G7
Ministerial Meeting on Climate, Energy and Environment in
Sapporo in 2023, both countries also committed tostrengthening the supply and circular economy along the
global supply chains of these critical minerals and raw
materials in order to minimize the environmental and social
footprint of energy transition technologies while reducing
pressure on primary sources. In doing so, both Japan andGermany recognize the potential that circular economy
approaches such as "reduce by design", "repurpose", "repair"and "recycle" have for the sustainable supply of critical raw
materials for the energy transition.
Various policy strategies and frameworks in both countries
already include provisions to strengthen resource efficiency
and circular economy approaches, aiming to reduce
vulnerabilities and emissions related to raw material
extraction. Germany and Japan are both generally well
positioned in the areas of recycling and waste infrastructure.
However, there is still room for progress with regard to therecovery of critical raw materials and the further
development of targeted circular solutions for specificenergy transition technologies.

Japan made an early political commitment to promoting
resource efficiency and circular economy approaches, initially
focusing on recycling, and later including other circularbusiness models. Many Japanese companies are among thepioneers in high-quality recycling processes. Approaches
such as the circular design of solar photovoltaics andbatteries in particular are also being explored.
In Germany, too, the political focus has so far been strongly
on promoting recycling, while extended producer
responsibility systems with approaches such as end-of-lifetake-back have been established for product groups such asbatteries. Initial approaches to circular design and new
circular business models such as reuse or remanufacture are
not only being piloted by German companies, but are also
being politically promoted in initial guidelines. Various
recently adopted European directives may lead to the future
implementation of innovative approaches such as digitalproduct passports and uniform design standards for
improved recyclability, reusability and durability of e.g.
batteries and solar photovoltaics. Both, in Japan and inGermany, however, only a few initiatives have so far been
implemented in relation to the equally important energy
transition technologies of wind turbines and electrolyzers.
In summary, both countries have begun to introduce
legislation to improve the circularity of critical raw materials
relevant for the energy transition. This can be read as an
acknowledgement of the necessity for more comprehensive
action. A more targeted proactive approach would ensurethat discarded critical raw materials from energy transition
technologies are readily available for domestic recycling andreuse in the future. Recent legislative developments are
essential in securing a sustainable supply of critical raw
materials, pivotal for both countries' transition to cleaner
energy supply and the broader adoption of circular economy
principles.
The initial analysis and comparison of both countries policies
reveals key opportunities for Japan and Germany to enhancetheir circular economy strategies for securing critical raw
materials needed for the energy transition. By learning fromeach other's practices, they can:•••Recycle: Mandate the use of recycled materials inenergy technologies and enhance R&D for advanced
recycling of complex devices.
Reuse/Reduce: Implement criteria for the circular
design and material substitution, particularly inphotovoltaics, to minimize raw material use.
Promote Circular Markets: Use sustainable/circular
procurement and trade policies to foster markets forcircular technologies, including wind turbines andelectrolyzers.
Further collaboration within the Japanese-German Energy
Partnership and broader international frameworks canamplify these efforts globally, ensuring a more sustainable
and secure raw material supply.

2 Introduction
2.1

Background: The role of critical raw
materials in the energy transition

In 2015, at the United Nations (UN) Climate Change
Conference (COP21) in Paris, all parties of the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) agreed on thecommon goal of limiting the global temperature rise to
below 2° Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels. In orderto achieve this and the more ambitious 1.5° target, energy
systems around the world are transitioning to renewable
technologies (IEA 2022b). COP28, held in Dubai in 2023,
concluded with a commitment from all parties to makeefforts to triple renewable energy capacity worldwide by2030 (UNFCC 2023).
As a result, production and demand for key technologies forrenewable power, battery storage and hydrogen are
increasing worldwide. In order to focus this study on thetechnologies of key importance for the energy transition in
Japan and Germany, the following sections concentrate onwind turbines, solar photovoltaics (PVs), battery storageand electrolyzers. A number of so-called "critical" and"strategic" raw materials1 are required for the production ofthese systems. The International Energy Agency (IEA) expects
total mineral demand for clean energy technologies todouble by 2040 under current policy plans in the energy
sector and quadruple in a scenario to meet the Paris
Agreement targets (IEA 2022b). Accordingly, thecommuniqué of the 2023 G7 Ministers' Meeting on Climate,
Energy and Environment in Sapporo, Japan, emphasizes thecentral importance of strengthening "critical minerals" andmaterials supply for achieving a net-zero economy (MOE2023). The definition of which materials are considered"critical" for the energy transition is not static and changes
according to subjective and site-specific "economic,
geopolitical and technological factors" (IRENA 2023). By
screening 35 different lists of "critical materials", theInternational Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) comes tothe conclusion that 51 materials that are needed for theenergy transition are mentioned on at least one of the lists(IRENA 2023). Based on the qualitative analysis of several
studies on "critical raw materials" (CRMs) for the energy
transition, this study provides an exemplary selection of six
materials that can be highlighted as particularly relevant forthe selected energy transition technologies described above:lithium, rare earth elements (REEs), nickel, cobalt,

While all the technologies described require metals and alloys thatare obtained by processing mineral-containing ores (IEA 2022b), forthe sake of simplicity, the term “critical raw materials” (CRMs) is used1

platinum and copper (CISL and Wuppertal Institute 2023;
Systemiq 2022; Simas et al. 2022).
Figure 1: Use of selected CRMs by energy transition
technologies covered in this report

Source: Own illustration based on Simas et al. 2022, using additional
data form IEA 2022b; Kowalski and Legendre 2023

The specific types and quantities of materials required canvary significantly across the spectrum of clean energy
technologies and even within a particular technology (IEA
2022b). That said, it is evident that the mineral intensity for
REEs is particularly high for wind energy technologies. The
increasing market for wind turbines utilizing permanent
magnets, especially for offshore installations is expected tosignificantly boost the demand for REEs in the upcoming
years and decades (IEA 2022b). In solar PV, different
materials are used in different quantities depending on themodule type, with crystalline silicon-based types currently
being the most common PV technology. The IEA estimatesthat ongoing innovations could contribute to a reduction in
the mineral intensity of PV modules in the long term and, inparticular, dampen demand for silicon. At the same time, theexpansion of alternative PV technologies could lead to a
tripling of demand for copper from the industry by 2040
(IEA 2022b). Even though copper is often not included on
CRM lists, it is essential for almost all green energy/lowcarbon technologies, making it one of the potential
bottleneck materials for the energy transition (Simas et al.
2022; Kowalski and Legendre 2023). Demand for batteries isbeing driven on the one hand by the growing need forstorage systems for renewable energy installations, and on
the other hand by the shift towards electric vehicles. Similar
to PV, the need for specific materials varies considerably
depending on the battery technology. For the last decade,lithium-ion batteries were dominant, in which lithium, nickel
and cobalt play an important role (IEA 2022b). Due to thein this report to represent the entire supply and value chain of
relevant input materials.

increasing demand for and use of hydrogen, electrolyzers
and fuel cells are also expected to experience significant
expansion. Combined, these technologies may lead toincreased demand for CRMs such as nickel and platinum,
but the impact on the market will depend on the
proliferation of different types of electrolyzer (IEA 2022b). In
addition, so called “bulk materials” such as iron/steel andaluminium, which have already been used in many energy
technologies for centuries, continue to play an essential role,as they make up to around one-third of all future demand
for the transformation to a low-carbon economy (Simas et al.
2022; Kowalski and Legendre 2023).
While it is difficult to precisely calculate the future quantities
of materials required due to many unknown factors, overall,the IEA estimates that in a scenario where the Paris
Agreement targets are met, total demand for key materials
will rise to over 40 % for copper and REEs, 60-70 % for nickel
and cobalt and close to 90 % for lithium within the next two
decades (IEA 2022b).
Figure 2: Total mineral demand (Mt) from selected clean
energy technologies by scenario, 2010-2040

Source: Own illustration based on IEA 2022b

IRENA is already predicting a "mismatch between supply anddemand" for some of these key minerals, especially lithium(IRENA 2023). It has to be highlighted, however, that future
demands for certain CRMs also strongly depend on
technological choices: different chemistries e.g. forrechargeable batteries use more or less CRMs. Simas et al.
(2022) foresee that by shifting to different/new technologies,
demand for seven raw materials critical to the energy
transition (lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, REEs, platinum
and copper) can be reduced by 30 % between 2022 and2050. For example, switching to various chemistries forelectric vehicle batteries and steering away from lithium-ion
batteries for stationary uses could decrease the overall
demand for cobalt, nickel, and manganese by 40-50% of the
projected cumulative demand. compared to current

The risk of supply bottlenecks due to geopolitical tensions is
illustrated by the Chinese government's latest export restrictions. In
October 2023, Beijing announced that export licences will be
required for certain graphite products to “protect national security”.
As China dominates 90 % of global graphite processing, this may
2technologies and business-as-usual-scenarios (Simas et al.
2022).
The mining and processing of many CRMs mentioned arehighly concentrated geographically. For example, Australia
dominates the mining of lithium, Chile is leading in themining of copper and lithium. China (graphite, REEs), theDemocratic Republic of the Congo (cobalt), Indonesia(nickel) and South Africa (platinum, iridium) also play central
roles in the mining of some CRMs. In addition, China
dominates mineral processing, currently accounting for 100% of global refined supply of natural graphite anddysprosium (a REE important for wind turbines). In addition,
70 % of the refined supply of cobalt and 60 % of the supplyof lithium and manganese are produced in China (IRENA
2023).
This creates strong dependencies and increases the risk of
supply chain disruptions2 and unstable prices. Geopoliticaltensions could significantly slow down the progress of theenergy transition in many countries. Governments aroundthe world have therefore developed strategies in recent
years to secure their access to CRMs in the future, including
the promotion of circular economy (CE) solutions andapproaches (IRENA 2023).
In addition, the extraction and processing of many CRMs is
associated with high greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions andrisks of social and environmental damage. The International
Resource Panel (IRP) estimates that raw material processing
and extraction accounts for 50 % of all GHG emissions andover 90 % of global water stress and land-use-related
biodiversity loss (IRP 2020). The production of the important
CRM copper alone currently accounts for 0.2 % of global
anthropogenic GHG emissions. Given the expected increasein demand over the coming decades, some estimatessuggest that this contribution could rise to as much as 2.7%
by 2050 (The Copper Mark 2024).
However, a clean energy transition aims to decouple theincreasing demand for materials for the expansion ofrenewable energy technologies from GHG emissions andother negative environmental and social impacts. This makes
the responsible and sustainable procurement of materials an
essential prerequisite for achieving international climate
targets. As described in more detail in chapter 4, theincreased use of circular concepts is a key lever to reducing
the need for new primary materials and the associated GHG
emissions linked to their extraction and processing (EEA
2024).

lead to global graphite shortages. The restrictions are described inpart as a response to increased pressure from numerous foreign
governments on Chinese companies over their industrial practices(Liu and Patton 2023).

2.2

Objective and structureThis study aims to provide an overview of the current
challenges and approaches for the implementation of CE
approaches to ensure the most sustainable securing of CRMs
for a clean energy transition in Japan and Germany. It seeks
to identify overlaps, potential for increased cooperation andmutual learning, and to formulate recommendations.
The study first provides an overview of the role of various
CRMs in achieving climate and energy policy targets inGermany and Japan and outlines the strategies that bothgovernments have formulated to secure their access to therelevant CRMs in the future (chapter 3). The potential of CE
approaches to secure CRM for key technologies of theenergy transition and lower the overall GHG emissions in the
production of these energy transition technologies is thenpresented and an overview of existing policy instruments inGermany and Japan that aim to promote or strengthen CE
approaches in this context is given. Chapter 4 also presents
selected industry best practices from Japan and Germany,
which are already successfully applying some CE strategies
for CRMS in energy transition technologies. Chapter 5
provides an overview of forums in which both countries are
already working closely together on issues relating to thesecurity of supply of CRMs. In chapter 6, a comparative
perspective identifies common challenges and approaches
for the promotion and disruption of CE approaches tosecuring CRMs for the energy transition in both countries
and highlights differences and challenges. Building on theprevious chapters and a conclusion, chapter 7 concludes withrecommendations for topics for intesified cooperation
between Japan and Germany on the topic.
This study was prepared by adelphi with the kind support of
the German Chamber of Commerce and Industry in Japan(AHK Japan), the Institute for Global Environmental
Strategies (IGES) and the team of the Japanese-German
Energy Partnership. The results of the 13th German-JapaneseEnvironment and Energy Dialogue Forum (EEDF), the annual
policy flagship event of the Japanese-German Energy
Partnership, which took place from 25 to 26 January 2024 in
Kawasaki, Japan, were also incorporated into the finalization,in particular the conclusions and recommendations for topics
of future German-Japanese cooperation.

3 Critical raw materials and the energy
transition
3.1

Germany

3.1.1

Background of Germany’s energy policy

Germany aims to achieve climate neutrality by 2045. Incomparison to 1990 levels, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
should be lowered by a minimum of 65 % by 2030 and at
least 88 % by 2040 (BMU 2021). In order to achieve this, theGerman Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) sets a target ofan 80 % share of renewable energies in Germanys grosselectricity consumption by 2030 (BMWK 2022b). To this end,
the annual gross expansion of wind power and PV is toincrease significantly. The German government has set an
expansion target for offshore wind energy of at least 30
gigawatts (GW) by 2030, 40 GW by 2035 and at least 70 GW
by 2045 (The Federal Government 2024). For onshore wind
power, the objective is 115 GW by 2030. From 2040 andbeyond, the installed capacity is to increase to 160 GW(Bundesnetzagentur 2023). Expansion rates for PV systems
are to increase to a total of 215 GW by 2030 (The Federal
Government 2024) and 400 GW from 2040 onwards (BMWK2023b).
In 2023, the share of renewable energies of public net
electricily generation in Germany was 59.7 % (equalling ashare of 57.1 % of renewables in the load). With a share ofaround 32 % of net public electricity generation (onshore
and offshore combined), wind energy was the mostimportant renewable energy source. PV, the second largest
renewable energy source, accounted for approximately 12.5
% (Fraunhofer ISE 2024).
Additionally, to facilitate the integration of a higher share ofvolatile renewable energies, energy storage systems, such asbatteries, hydrogen or thermal storage, will play animportant role for the energy system of the future. To further
support the ramp-up of electricity storage, the BMWK
published an electricity storage strategy in December 2023,
which outlines the BMWK's intended activities in the field ofelectricity storage (BMWK 2023c). In addition, the Federal
Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) published an"umbrella concept" for battery research in 2018 (updated in2023), which describes the necessary federal funding
measures in research and development to establish atechnologically sovereign, competitive and sustainable
battery value chain for Germany and Europe (BMBF 2023a).
The concept also refers to another key area that will drive up
demand for batteries in the coming years: The
decarbonization of road transport, especially electric vehicles(EVs). Germany is aiming for 15 million EVs by 2030 (Die
Bundesregierung 2022).

In addition, the German government published a National
Hydrogen Strategy in 2020, which was updated in July 2023.
The strategy is intended to form the basis for the future
production, transportation and use of hydrogen in Germany.
The strategy formulates the goal of achieving at least 10 GW
of hydrogen electrolyzer capacity by 2030 (BMBF 2023b).
3.1.2

The role of CRMs in Germany’s energy transition
technologies

As described in chapter 2, an exact estimate of the futurenational demand for CRMs to achieve the expansion targets
for new energy technologies described in chapter 3.1.1 isproving difficult, partly due to the large number of different
technologies with different raw material requirements
currently on the market. In addition, some CRMs may be
imported to Germany and used in energy technologies thatare subsequently exported again. Nevertheless, someestimates offer a general idea of the future demand for
CRMs for the energy transition, of which a few selected
figures are presented below for illustrative purposes.
In order to achieve the target of 215 GW of installed PV
capacity by 2030, the German Mineral Resources Agency(DERA) estimates that a large number of CRMs will be
required for the necessary remaining expansion of 161 GW(based on installed capacity in 2022). These include copper(730 kt) and silicon (600 kt), gallium (12 t), germanium (25 t),
tellurium (170 t) and indium (45 t). The listed raw materials
are largely mined in China (DERA 2022a).
Based on the combined target for the expansion of offshore
and onshore wind energy of 145 GW by 2030, DERA
estimates that around 82 GW will need to be added without
repowering of existing wind turbines. This will potentiallyrequire CRMs such as REEs (5.5 kt), whose global production
is dominated by China, and chromite (40 kt), which is mainly
mined in South Africa (DERA 2022b).
Furthermore, the increased demand for batteries in themobility sector, grid storage and home storage is driving
demand for CRMs in Germany. According to scenario-based
calculations by the Öko-Institut and Prognos (2019) the
future demand for lithium-ion batteries between 2018 and2030 will require a cumulative amount of at least 74,000 tonsof cobalt and 50,000 tons of lithium (Öko-Institut andPrognos 2019).

With regard to the expansion of the three most relevant
electrolysis technologies3 for the production of hydrogen,the research institute Ffe (2022) estimates an annual demandfor 168,000 tons of nickel, 15 to 16 tons of platinum and 20
to 267 tons of iridium per year. This is based on a necessary
global annual electrolyzer installation rate of over 400 GW
for the period from 2040 in order to achieve the 1.5° target
by 2050 (Ffe 2022; IRENA 2021).
In order to meet the above-mentioned demands for themost important CRMs for energy transition technologies,
Germany and the EU as a whole are currently dependent on
imports from third countries, as local capacities for primary
extraction andmining, refining and processing are still verylow (Carrara et al. 2023) and not all raw materials required
can be found in Germany or the EU (CISL and Wuppertal
Institute 2023; Die Bundesregierung 2023b). For 14 of the 27
raw materials declared as "critical" by the EU, both Germany
and Europe are 100 % dependent on imports, and for threeothers import dependence is at over 95 % in each case. In
addition, there are seven raw materials for which Germany iscompletely dependent on imports, while the EU as a whole is
at 80 % dependent (Menkhoff and Zeevaert 2022; BGR 2022).
These dependencies have been recognized as potential
vulnerabilities and as a risk factor for the successful
expansion of energy transition technologies, so that in recent
years policies and strategies have been formulated to secure
Germany's and Europe's future access to CRMs.
3.1.3

Policy framework for securing raw materials
supplyIn Germany, the responsibility for ensuring the security of
raw materials supply has traditionally rested with companies.
There has been no governmental investment in mining
companies, no establishment of national stockpiles, and no
development of national mining projects. This approach was
also reflected in the Federal Government's first Raw
Materials Strategy launched in 2010. The strategy wasdeveloped following the publication of the European
Commission's (EC) Raw Materials Initiative in 2008, which
focused on strengthening trade and investment measures tosecure access to raw materials, but also emphasized thepotential of recycling and resource efficiency. Recognizing
the limitations of a purely market-driven approach, in 2019
the German government formulated a new Raw Materials
Strategy (BMWi 2019), which was adopted in 2020. The aimof the Raw Materials Strategy is to support companies inensuring a secure and sustainable supply of raw materials. In
this way, a raw material focused policy, as part of industrial
policy, should contribute to strengthening thecompetitiveness of the German industry. The strategy also
addresses the climate policy benefits that result fromreducing the demand for primary raw materials in Germany,for example by encouraging the circular economy. The

The alkaline electrolysis (AEL), polymer exchange membraneelectrolysis (PEMEL) and solid oxide electrolysis (SOEL).
3

current Raw Materials Strategy consists of 17 concretemeasures. The measures address three key areas ofGermany's raw materials supply: (1) strengthening thedomestic extraction of raw materials, (2) supporting theimport and (3) recovering raw materials through increased
recycling activities (see chapter 4.1 for more details). The
strategy incorporates some of the successful measures fromthe first Raw Materials Strategy of 2010 and develops themfurther, including the guarantees for untied financial loans(UFK guarantees), the raw materials monitoring of the DERA
(see chapter 4.1.2 for more details) and the establishment of
Raw Materials Competence Centers at the Chambers ofCommerce in selected countries rich in raw materials. In
addition, a number of new measures were adopted, such as
Research & Development (R&D) funding for projects on raw
materials processing and lightweight construction. These
include the establishment of a Dialogue Forum with the aimof working out concrete measures together with industry,science and administration to increase the use of secondary
mineral raw materials from recycling. In the case of metals
and industrial minerals, improved recycling management inparticular is described as a key approach to reducecompanies’ dependence on raw material imports fromabroad and at the same time to meet the requirements of
responsible sourcing of raw materials (BMWK 2020).
The 2020 Raw Materials Strategy makes specific references
to the list of CRMs first published by the EC in 2011
(followed by updated editions in 2014, 2017 and 2020 with arevised methodology). In the 2023 edition of the EC CRM list,
34 raw materials were included, more than twice as many asin the first list (EC n.d.a). The 2020 German Raw Materials
Strategy also provides for close cooperation between theGerman government and the EC on issues relating to the
future supply of raw materials (BMWi 2019).
In 2022, the BMWK prepared a paper (Eckpunktepapier)entitled "Ways to a sustainable and resilient raw material
supply" (BMWK 2022a) to complement and refocus the 2020
Raw Materials Strategy. It comprises three central
approaches: (1) CE, resource efficiency and recycling, (2)diversification of raw material supply chains, (3) ensuring afair and sustainable market framework.
Due to the close link between German raw materials policy
and decisions at European level, the new Critical Raw
Materials Act (CRMA), which came into force in April 2024
as Regulation (EU) 2024/1252, could also play a central rolein the future (Chee and Blenkinsop 2023; Council of the EU
2023; European Parliament and Council of the EU 2024a).
The CRMA establishes a list of 34 CRMs, including 16
strategic ones, which are crucial for technologies such as
green energy and are subject to potential supply chain risks.
The regulations aims to boost the EU's self-sufficiency instrategic raw materials by setting objectives to expand its

production and recycling capacities domestically. The EU also
aims to diversify CRM suppliers (for each strategic raw
material, no single third country outside of the EU should
supply more than 65 % of the EU's total consumption) and to
introduce measures to increase the circularity andsustainability of the CRMs consumed in the EU (Council of
the EU 2023; European Parliament and Council of the EU
2024a). All EU Member States are obliged to adopt andimplement national programs with measures to achieve thecommon benchmarks formulated at EU level within two
years of the regulation coming into force (i.e. by early 2026).
Chapter 5, section 1, Article 26 of the regulation also sets out
specific requirements with regard to national measures on
circularity. To this end, a Board is to be set up as a governing
structure in which Member States and the EC will jointly
advise and coordinate the implementation of the CRMA's
measures (Council of the EU 2023; European Parliament andCouncil of the EU 2024a).

3.2

Japan

3.2.1

Background of Japan’s energy policy

In October 2020, Japan committed to carbon neutrality by
2050 and raised its 2030 greenhouse gas reduction target to
46 % from 2013 levels (IRENA 2022). Supporting theseambitions, the industrial policy called Green Growth
Strategy Through Achieving Carbon Neutrality (2021),
aims to drive economic growth alongside environmental
protection (METI 2021b). This strategy identifies 14 key
sectors, including offshore wind power, solar, hydrogen, fuelammonia, and nuclear power (METI 2023a).
Japan's Strategic Energy Plan, guided by the Basic Act on
Energy Policy (entered into force in 2002), aims to balanceenergy security, economic efficiency, and environmental
sustainability (S+3E policy) (METI 2021a). Enacted in 2021, it
targets 36-38 % renewable energy by 2030, of which 14 to
16 % should come from solar PV and 5 % from wind power;
the remaining coming from hydropower (11 %), biomass (5%) and geothermal energy (1 %) (IEA 2023; ANRE 2022). To
this end, Japan has set an expansion target for solar PV
energy to reach between 103.5 and 117.6 GW of installedcapacity by 2030 (ANRE 2021a). In terms of its wind power
capacity, a fixed target of achieving 10 GW for offshore
wind power has been set (ANRE 2021a), which includes a
focus on developing floating offshore wind power plants. In
2022, renewables accounted for 22.7 % of Japan's total
annual electricity demand, (ISEP 2023). Of this, 9.9 % was
attributable to PV and 1 % to wind energy (ISEP 2023).
Batteries are crucial for achieving 2050 carbon neutrality,
electrifying vehicles, and balancing renewable energy supply(METI 2022a). They also provide vital backup for criticalinfrastructure like 5G and data centers, bolstering digitalsociety's resilience (METI 2022a). METI's Battery Industry
Strategy (2022) aims for 24 GWh of storage batteries by2030 and to increase Japan's battery production capacity to
150 GWh (METI 2022c). The strategy also aims tosignificantly increase Japanese battery production (Japan
NRG 2022), with the domestic battery production capacity
set to reach 150 GWh by 2030 (METI 2023d).
In 2023, Japan updated its National Hydrogen Strategy(Ministerial Council on Renewable Energy, Hydrogen and
Related Issues 2023), aiming to cut carbon emissions inheating, power, and carbon recycling with products like
synthetic fuels (ANRE 2022). The strategy targets expandinghydrogen use to 3 million tons by 2030 and 20 million tons
by 2050, with an interim goal of 12 million tons, including
ammonia, by 2040 (ANRE 2023). Japan plans a 15 GW
increase in water electrolyzer capacity to increase hydrogenproduction for domestic and international use, aiming forhydrogen and ammonia to supply 1% of its energy by 2030
(Ministerial Council on Renewable Energy, Hydrogen and
Related Issues 2023).
Unlike in Germany, nuclear energy remains important inJapan's energy mix, targeting 20-22 % of electricity
generation by 2030 as it restarts safety-approved reactors(Matsudaira and Minatogawa 2024).
In alignment with the Green Growth Strategy, the IEA (2021)
forecasts that by 2050, renewables will meet 50-60 % ofJapan's electricity needs, supplemented by nuclear, thermal(with Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage), and 10% fromhydrogen (IEA and International Energy Agency 2021).
To advance new energy technologies, renewables, andcarbon reduction, Japan established a financing framework
under the Green Transformation (GX) Strategy, launchedin 2023 (Matsudaira and Minatogawa 2024). This strategy
plans to mobilize over 150 trillion JPY through public-private
investments and "GX-Bonds" within a decade (Cabinet
Secretariat 2023).
3.2.2

The role of CRMs in Japan’s energy transition
technologies

Similar to the German context, a precise estimate of Japans
national demand for CRMs for the implementation of the
expansion targets for energy transition technologies
described above is difficult. However, a few figures can becited here as examples to illustrate the dimensions of thechallenging task of ensuring a secure supply of CRMs for theenergy transition.
METI has conducted an analysis on the requirement forcopper and neodymium to cover the future expansion
requirements for wind power: for every MW of offshore
wind turbine capacity, approximately 11.5 tons of copperand 0.1 ton of neodymium are needed (ANRE 2021b). In
contrast, onshore wind power generation requires around
1.7 tons of copper and 0.07 ton of neodymium per MW(ANRE 2021b).
Similarly, Japan’s targets for expanding installed PV capacity
will lead to a notable rise in demand for raw materials likecopper, silicon, and silver, with alternative technologieshaving the potential to change the demand for CRMs
significantly (IEA and International Energy Agency 2021). In
order to reduce its reliance on certain raw materials anddecrease the dependence on China for critical PV cellmaterials, Japan has been intensifying efforts in developing
perovskite solar cell technology, which utilize iodine. This
would provide Japan leverage due to its status as a major
iodine producer and reduce dependence on certain raw
material imports (METI n.d.). The Prime Minister of Japan has
revealed plans to achieve commercial production of
perovskite solar cells by the year 2025 (The Japan News2023).
In order to achieve the expansion targets for battery
production formulated in the Battery Industry Strategy(2022), the Battery Association for Supply Chain (BASC)(2022) estimates an annual demand of approximately
100,000 tons of lithium, 90,000 tons of nickel, 20,000 tonsof cobalt, 150,000 tons of graphite and 20,000 tons ofmanganese.
While no quantitative estimates are available regarding the
raw material requirements needed to achieve the targets forthe expansion of hydrogen infrastructure set out in the 2023
National Hydrogen Strategy (Ministerial Council on
Renewable Energy, Hydrogen and Related Issues 2023) , anoverall increase in demand for CRMs needed in electrolysis,
such as REEs, nickel and platinum (IEA 2022b; DERA 2022c)
can also be expected in Japan.
Japan relies heavily on import of CRMs, predominantly from
China, a country which dominance extends across the entire
supply chain and especially in the mining, separation,
purification, and refining phases (DeWit 2021). In 2018,
Japans imported 58 % of CRMs from China, followed by
Vietnam at 14 %, France at 11 %, Malaysia at 10 %, and theremaining 8 % from various other countries (ANRE 2020).
This highlights Japan's significant reliance on a few countries
for CRM supply (DeWit 2021). The dependence on imports
from China may pose a risk in light of past geopoliticaltensions between the copuntries, prompting Japan to seek
ways to diversify its supply chains (DeWit 2021) In addition,
the overall market consentration of CRMs in a handful ofcountries, some of which face political instability, further
exacerbates supply risks (ANRE 2020). Given that increased
access to rare earths is crucial for decarbonizing thedomestic economy, Japan finds itself in a competing position
with China (DeWit 2021). In addition, competition for CRM
resources is expected to intensify among major economies
as well as emerging economies (ANRE 2020). This situation
highlights the need for Japan to diversify its supply chain for
CRMs. By adopting comprehensive strategies and navigating
global complexities, Japan aims to enhance resilience andsustainability (DeWit 2021), (ANRE 2020).
Recognizing the critical importance of CRMs for Japan’s
industrial and economic growth, the country has strategicallyfocused on diversifying its sources of supply. This
diversification extends beyond mere importation andincludes investments, processing, and recycling initiatives
and the development of alternative materials (see chapter
4.2 for more details) (ESCAP 2023).
3.2.3

Policy Framework for securing raw materials
supplyThe Japanese government's strategy for securing the supplyof critical minerals, defined in the Basic Guidelines for
Securing Stable Supplies of Specified Critical Minerals(2022), is characterized by a collaborative approach between
stakeholders in the public and private sectors, emphasizing
predictability and resilience in supply chains. According tothese guidelines, the government employs targeted national
measures tailored to the specific characteristics of eachmineral. These include grants and financial incentives aimed
at diversifying supply sources, enhancing production
technologies, and encouraging the development ofalternative materials to reduce external dependencies.
Regular supply chain surveys are conducted, incorporating
advances in digital transformation, to adapt strategies tocurrent supply and procurement realities. Minerals areclassified as critical based on their necessity for national
survival, reliance on external sources, and the impact ofpotential supply disruptions. This classification is dynamic,
with adjustments made in response to global and socioeconomic changes. The strategy includes evaluating the risksof supply disruption due to external actions, such as export
restrictions or prioritized supply within exporting countries,
to preempt potential threats to national and citizen safety(Cabinet Office Governement of Japan 2022).
Japan's international resource strategy is geared towards
securing a stable supply of these essential minerals (METI
2020b). This strategy involves an assessment of risks
associated with each type of resource, focusing on theuneven global distribution of these resources, the stability ofthe producing countries, and future supply and demand
projections. A key element of this strategy is to reinforce thestockpiling system for 34 types of rare metals, ensuring areserve in times of supply disruptions (IEA 2022a).
Japan's Policy on Measures to Ensure Stable Supplies of
Critical Minerals aims to mitigate the challenges of highdependency on imports and potential monopolization bycertain countries, especially in the context of critical minerals
like REEs (METI 2023f). To counter this, the policy focuses on
diversifying and fortifying the supply chain throughinitiatives like supporting resource exploration anddevelopment via the Japan Organization for Metals andEnergy Security (JOGMEC), and aiding the discovery anddevelopment of new mines and refining facilities. The supply
chain vulnerabilities are also mentioned in the Economic
Security Promotion Act (passed in 2022 by Japan’s new
Economic Department within its National Security
Secretariat) (CISL and Wuppertal Institute 2023). This Act
prioritizes economic security over market efficiency andprioritizes reducing Japan’s reliance on China as primary
supplier of CRMs.

The strategy Toward Strengthening the Battery Supply
Chain (BASC 2022) addresses the specific challenge of
securing minerals for battery production. It discusses
challenges and strategies related to the battery supply chain
in Japan, with a focus on securing critical battery metals andenhancing the country's battery manufacturing capabilities(BASC 2022).
Additionally, Japan emphasizes strengthening its bilateraland multilateral cooperation to secure access to CRMs. The
United States and Japan recently entered into Critical
Minerals Agreement focused on the critical minerals sector,
with the primary goal of enhancing and diversifying the
supply chains for these crucial materials (United States Trade
Representative 2023). This new arrangement builds on thefoundations set by the 2019 U.S.-Japan Trade Agreement
and places a strong emphasis on supporting the evolution
and implementation of electric vehicle battery technologies(United States Trade Representative 2023). Key aspects ofthis agreement include a mutual understanding to avoid
imposing export duties on critical minerals and to takedomestic actions to counteract non-market-oriented policies
that impact the trade of these minerals (United States Trade
Representative 2023).

4 Circular economy solutions for critical raw
materials for the energy transition
As chapter 3 shows, some of the various strategies
developed by Germany and Japan to secure the supply of
CRMs include similar approaches. One approach centres on
increasing the domestic production (extraction andprocessing) of CRMs, which is not always viable, because not
all CRMs can be found locally in Germany and Japan. In
addition, the primary production of raw materials is
associated with significant negative environmental and social
impacts, including high GHG emissions (WWF 2023). Thismight lead to resistance among communities in regions
where, for example, new mining areas are to be developed
and conflicts with the achievement of climate policy goals as
described in chapter 2.1. Another approach included inseveral strategies is the diversification of CRM supply chainsto avoid disruption. However, by importing larger quantities
of CRMs from different sources, consuming countries simply
leave the solution of the environmental and social problems
associated with primary extraction to other countries (CISLand Wuppertal Institute 2023). In addition to environmental
degradation, the development of new mining sites can spark
new conflicts over land use and expropriation: according to
IRENA (2023), approximately 54 % of minerals critical for theenergy transition are found in areas that are on or adjacent
to lands inhabited by indigenous peoples. This contradicts
the approach of a comprehensive sustainable transformationof the energy sector that involves everyone equally (CISL and
Wuppertal Institute 2023). Similarly, stockpiling CRMs is nota sound solution to mitigate supply risks, as it can exacerbate
market constraints, drive up global prices for materials inhigh demand and lead to unequal access to affordable
CRMs, which could exclude poorer countries from the energy
transition, delaying global climate mitigation action overall(IRENA 2023).
For this reason, some governmental strategies are alreadyfocussing on the potential of CE approaches. As part of theCommuniqué of the G7 Ministers' Meeting on Climate,
Energy and Environment in Sapporo in 2023, Japan andGermany, together with France, United States, United
Kingdom, Italy and Canada, made a commitment tostrengthen supply and circularity along global supply chainsof critical minerals and raw materials in order to minimize
the environmental and social footprint of energy transition
technologies and reduce pressure on primary sources. In thecommuniqué, the G7 ministers committed to the goal of
keeping products containing ciritical minerals and raw
materials in the economy for as long as possible andpromoting the recovery and recycling of CRMs fromelectronics, mine tailings, and other matrials in compliancewith strict environmental and social standards (MOE 2023).

But what role exactly can the CE play in the energy transition
in relation to access to CRMs?
While there is no standardised definition, CE approaches
generally aim to avoid or reduce material consumption andwaste (Ekins et al. 2019; CISL and Wuppertal Institute 2023).
This can be achieved through various methods andapproaches that cover the full life-cycle of a product orservice, as displayed in Figure 3.
There are different approaches to systematising the various
CE approaches (Cf. CISL and Wuppertal Institute 2023;
Systemiq 2022; Günther et al. 2019; Fichter et al. 2023), which
differ in terms of granularity and complexity. One frequently
referenced systematisation, which is also used on the United
Nations Environment Programme's (UNEP) Circularity
Platform (UNEP 2019), is the “9-R” concept, which can beapplied in various ways to the key technologies of theenergy transition:
Figure 3: 9-R concept as applied in the circularity
approach

Source: Own illustration based on information from UNEP 2019.

As a guiding principle, Reduce by design (also: Circular
Design) implies that already in the design phase of products(and services) such as wind turbines, solar panels, batteries
or electrolyzers, their reparability, dismantlability, reusability
and recyclability should be taken into account in order toachieve an extended service life and waste avoidance(Günther et al. 2019; UNEP 2019). The mixing of different
materials should also be avoided as far as possible in orderto enable recycling (without loss of quality) and easierrepareability (CISL and Wuppertal Institute 2023). Overall,design decisions can favor the Reduce approach, forexample if the material efficiency of a product is improved(i.e. less emission-intensive bulk materials such as aluminium
are used in energy technologies) or raw materials aresubstituted, i.e. with less environmentally harmful substances(CISL and Wuppertal Institute 2023; Systemiq 2022; Güntheret al. 2019). This is in line with the Refuse approach, whichaims to ensure that, for example hazardous and toxic
materials or components are used as little as possible or not
at all in products. For example, efforts are being made to
reduce or avoid the use of lead in PV modules (Gebhardt etal. 2022). Reuse and Repurpose are both approaches aimed
at extending the useful life of products (without the need to
repair damage), either in their original function or in a newone (UNEP 2019). For example, recovered electric vehicle
batteries can be re-used as second-life storage batteries forenergy surpluses from wind farms (EC 2023c) or for elertricity
storage in homes. If damage occurs during the service life ofa product (or service), it can be corrected by Repair (e.g. by
replacing a defective component). The basic prerequisite forthis is that a certain extent of modularity has been
incorporated into the design of a products, which allows
individual parts and components to be repaired or replaced.
Refurbish and Remanufacturing both address the end of a
product's life, when it is by definition already waste. The aim
is to restore or improve performance through individual
measures or a standardized industrial process, so that a
product becomes fully functional and can once again fulfil atleast the purpose for which it was originally developed(UNEP 2019). It is estimated that 45 to 65 % of the current
global PV waste stream could be avoided by repairing or
refurbishing PV modules, however there is currently still alack of a formalized and systematized processes in many
places that would allow for the application of such circularapproaches (Tsanakas et al. 2020). Lastly, Recycle covers all
operations that avoid waste disposal and that aim to closethe material loop by returning material to the cycle, e.g. byreprocessing waste into materials (Systemiq 2022; UNEP
2019). For the implementation of recycling, a collection
infrastructure is necessary and recycling itself can be done by
applying different technologies such as manual work,mechanical work, chemical and metallurgical processes(UNEP 2019). The highly specific requirements for therecycling process and the often complex material
composition mean that there are currently still major
challenges in recycling some (components of) importantenergy transition technologies, such as wind turbine blades.
Due to a lack of recycling capacity, it is estimated that by
2030 around 570 million tons of wind turbine blade waste
will be generated in the EU alone (EC 2023b). Recycling alsoentails "urban mining", in which materials are recovered fromanthropogenic deposits (material stocks of durable goods,
infrastructure, buildings and landfills) instead of naturaldeposits (Günther et al. 2019).4

Another important approach, mentioned by several studies, is thatof "Rethinking", which involves redesigning business models andmoving from a focus on products to the provision of services (shift
from "owning" to "using"). The approach is intended to reduce thedemand for new products through systemic changes in the way
demand is met, for example in the field of mobility through car

sharing services instead of individual car ownership (Systemiq 2022;
Günther et al. 2019). Rethinking approaches are not included in thisstudy due to the (so far) limited application possibilities in theenergy sector and the expected inevitable construction of newplants in the coming years, but are an important part of acomprehensive transformation towards a CE.

4

Many of the above-mentioned approaches provide a double
contribution to the climate goals of countries; not only can
CE approaches secure access to CRMs, which are needed forthe expansion of sustainable energy technologies. Replacing
primary raw materials with secondary ones can also cuts
down GHG emissions, as recovering materials, for example
through recycling, is significantly less energy-intensive thanmining and transporting primary raw materials (EEA 2024). If,
for example, primary aluminium is replaced by secondary
material, 95 % of the energy consumption can be saved (CISLand Wuppertal Institute 2023).
Circular approaches also aim at retaining products andmaterials in use for as long as possible, thus reducing thedemand for new primary materials and the GHGs emitted
during their extraction and processing (EEA 2024). Simas etal. (2022) estimate that the demand for seven raw materials
that are critical for the energy transition (lithium, cobalt,
nickel, manganese, rare earth elements, platinum andcopper) could be reduced by 18 % between 2022 and 2030
through the application of circular approaches. The report
also expects that 20 % of the total mineral demand could be
supplied by recycling between 2022 and 2055. In addition, it
is projected that by 2050, a significant portion of theminerals necessary for the green transition could beobtained from recycling efforts (Simas et al. 2022). In thisway, the promotion of circular approaches contributes to theoverall climate policy goal of reducing the carbon footprintof energy transition technologies and thus achieving theParis climate target.
Some CRMs posess a significant potential for both technicaland economically viable recycling, however recycling rates
worldwide are generally still low for various reasons andcannot adequately meet the growing demand for CRMs withsecondary raw materials. One of the reasons for this is thatcurrently, cost-effective sorting and recycling technologies
for many CRMs are not yet developed, and a large portion of
CRMs remain in use within long-lifespaninfrastructures.(Gislev et al. 2018; IRENA 2023). For example,
for wind turbines (currently installed in Europe), Gislev et al.
(2018) assume a service life of 30 years. Batteries fromelectronically powered vehicles, for example, are generally
available to the recycling market after 10 to 15 years(possibly even later if refurbishment approaches are used)
and PV modules are assumed to have an initial service life of
up to 25 years (after which the modules could be used for afurther 10 to 15 years in second life applications at aperformance of 80 %) (Fichter et al. 2023).
In order to implement the aforementioned CE approaches, a
suitable institutional framework and incentives forcompanies are needed to make CE solutions possible andviable. This chapter aims to shed light on the current
regulatory framework in Japan and Germany on CE
approaches (for CRMs) so that, in chapter 5, overlaps andgaps in the approaches can be identified.

4.1

Germany

In order to achieve its climate-neutrality objective and thegoals of the energy transition, Germany will require large
quantities of CRMs in the future. Per capita raw material
consumption in Germany is already well above the global
average (UBA 2023b). Overall, Germany already has a welldeveloped and high-quality waste management system andstructures for waste collection, sorting and recycling as wellas comprehensive product responsibility, which would
generally allow for the introduction of CE approaches (BMUV
2023e). For example, a total of over 899,000 metric tons ofelectrical and electronic equipment was recycled in Germany
in 2020, which corresponds to an increase of 11.2 %compared to 2019 (DESTATIS 2022).

At EU level, recycling already accounts for between 35 and
44 % of the demand for the CRMs vanadium, tungsten andcobalt (based on data from 2015/2017; for other CRMs suchas antimony, magnesium and natural graphite, the rates
range from 0 to 17 %) (Gislev et al. 2018). However, these
rates are not sufficient to reliably cover rising demand in the
future.
4.1.1

Policy framework for circular approaches forcritical minerals

Potential demand bottlenecks, vulnerabilities and negativeenvironmental impacts of a growing primary raw material
use as described above have been recognized both inGermany and at the European level, which is why various
policy goals, strategies and instruments have been issued inrecent years to strengthen circular approaches to meet CRM
needs.

According to EUROSTAT, however, the share of secondary
raw materials in total raw material consumption in 2022 wasonly around 13 % (within the EU, this puts Germany at 8thplace, with the Netherlands having the highest circularmaterial use rate at 27,5 %) (EUROSTAT 2022). With regard
to the recovery and reuse of metals, high rates are achievedin Germany for so-called bulk raw materials (iron/steel, nonferrous metals) and precious metals (gold, platinum). The
recycling rate for steel, for example, is at around 90 % andsteel scrap accounts for around 43 % of all input materials insteel production in Germany (BMWK 2020; BGR 2022).
Aluminum recycling rates even range from 90 to 95 %depending on the area of application (BMWK 2020) and theshare of secondary raw materials in copper production was
at approximately 38 % in 2021 (BGR 2022). However, only
low rates are realised in the recovery of special metals andsome industrial metals, as these materials pose major
logistical and technical challenges in the economic
organisation of collection, processing, recycling and use ofrecyclates (BMWK 2020; Kreibe et al. 2020). The BMWK
points out that the recovery of special metals such as REEs,
indium, gallium, germanium and lithium still poses technicalchallenges due to complex alloys, which require further
advances in processing technology and the implementationof new metallurgical processes (BMWK 2020).

In various strategies and laws, the German government has
committed itself to overall promotion of CE approaches:
Germany's current National Sustainable Development
Strategy (last updated in December 2020, updated version
adopted in March 2021), contains the clear goal of
decoupling the demand for raw materials from economic
growth via the implementation of CE approaches (The
German Federal Government 2021). In accordance with thelatest coalition agreement, the German Federal Government
has also started working on a National Circular Economy
Strategy (Nationale Kreislaufwirtschaftsstrategie, NKWS) in
2022, which is based on the CE vision as described in the EU2020 Circular Economy Action Plan (CEAP).5 The strategy isintended to harmonise all existing goals and approaches for
implementing circular approaches and resource efficiency inGermany in order to provide a “framework for thegovernment to define goals, basic principles and strategic
measures that support all strategies relevant to raw material
policy” (BMUV 2023d). In June 2024, the Federal Environment
Ministry (BMUV) published a draft of the NKWS, on whichstakeholders from industry, society and science were invited
to submit written comments by the beginning of July 2024.
Among other things, the proposal stipulates that the annual
primary raw material consumption per capita should be
reduced to 8 tons by 2045 (for abiotic and biotic primary raw
materials combined). The draft emphasizes the need to closematerial cycles, particularly with regard to CRMs for energy
transition technologies, in order to contribute directly toresource and climate protection and at the same timeincrease the resilience of supply chains for the industry.
Against this backdrop, a number of specific measures andinstructions are listed to strengthen CE approaches,particularly for critical and strategic metals; for example, theGerman government wants to support the introduction of

The 2020 CEAP aims to reduce the European industry's
dependence on raw material imports and provides for 35 actions tostrengthen the CE, including for certain product groups with aparticularly high potential for circularity (including batteries andvehicles) (CISL and Wuppertal Institute 2023; EC 2020b). As an action

plan, the CEAP does not contain binding requirements for
implementation at national level, but encourages all EU member
states, including Germany, to implement its objectives and retains
the right to use the EC's enforcement powers in future if necessary(EC 2020a).

5

Figure 4: Overview of policy frameworks in Germany

Source: Own illustration.

so-called Digital Product Passports (DPP) at EU level (seemore under the “Batteries” section in this chapter), expand
and further develop suitable funding programmes, support
standardization processes for increased recyclate qualities
for metals and introduce separation obligations for strategic
metals from commercial waste. In addition, the draft
provides for a strengthening of international cooperation in
the further development and promotion of the circular
economy and resource efficiency to solve global
environmental crises and also explicitly addresses thecontinuation and strengthening of bilateral cooperation withJapan (see Chapter 5 for more on existing cooperation
formats) (BMUV 2024).
The primary regulation that currently provides the framework
conditions for the promotion of CE approaches in Germany
is the Circular Economy Act (Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz,
KrWG), which was originally adopted in 2012. It contains thebasic provisions for handling waste and promotes theprevention, recovery and disposal of waste. In 2020, the
KrWG was updated to implement the requirements of theamended European Waste Framework Directive (Directive
2008/98/EC on waste, amended by Directive 29018/951/EU).
The update aims to strengthen CE approaches, in particularthrough waste prevention and increased recycling, also withregards to CRMs. The KrWG refers to the EU definition of
CRMs and introduces certain restrictions on the use andhandling of products containing such CRMs. This means thatcertain products containing CRMs may only be placed on themarket with labelling that specifically indicates the need toreturn them to the manufacturer, dealer or specified third
parties. In addition, the amendment extends the productresponsibility requirements to CRMs. Specifically, theamended text states that CRMs should be used sparingly andthat all CRMs contained in a product must be clearly labelled
in order to prevent the products from becoming waste
without the CRMs contained in them being recovered. The
amendment also introduced new requirements forsustainable public procurement for German federal
authorities. Among other things, authorities are obliged tofavour products that are "characterised by durability, ease of
repair, reusability and recyclability", which can be especiallyrelevant in the context of purchasing electrical appliancesthat often contain CRMs (BMUV 2020). The requirements for
public procurement in the KrWG thus replace the previous
guiding obligation to assess whether environmental
considerations can be taken into account when making
purchasing decisions and awarding contracts (= obligation
to assess), which was formulated in the Act against Restraintsof Competition (Gesetz gegen Wettbewerbsbeschränkungen,
GWB). Instead, the amendment to the KrWG introduces apreference obligation (sustainable products and services
must be given preference). The obligation to assess had
previously been implemented by a number of mandatory
regulations, for example via the Public Procurement
Ordinance (Vergabeverordnung, VgV) in the area of vehicle
procurement (Vergabeblog.de 2021).
In addition to these overarching regulations for the
implementation of CE principles, some of the key strategy
papers on securing Germany's future supply of raw materials
presented in chapter 3.1.3 contain specific obligations for the
implementation of CE approaches. Both the German
government's 2020 Raw Materials Strategy and the BMWK's
supplementary Eckpunktepapier of 2023 describe theexpansion of recycling and the CE as key pillars of Germany's
future raw materials supply. With regard to CE approaches
for CRMs, the 2020 Raw Material Strategy envisages,
among other things, that the German government will
promote R&D in the field of processing technology andmetallurgy in order to optimize complex recycling processes
and increase economic efficiency, particularly for raw
materials relevant to the future such as REEs, lithium or
indium. New business models for extending the use of
products and the raw materials they contain andcorresponding research projects are also to be promoted.
While the formulated goals focus strongly on innovations in
the field of recycling, the strategy emphasizes that CE
approaches also go beyond this and that the dialogue on
possible further circular solutions is supported (BMWK 2020).

The Eckpunktepapier published in 2023, which is intended
to supplement the Federal Government's raw materials
strategy with further measures, continues to focus on"circular economy, resource efficiency and recycling" as oneof three key pillars. For example, lead markets are to beestablished through quotas for recycled raw materials andrecyclates, legal hurdles, norms, standards, approval andplanning procedures are to be adapted so that recycledmaterials can be used more effectively and innovation, R&D
on resource efficiency and recycling are to be supported
through minimum regulatory requirements and financing
instruments (BMWK 2022a). While the regulations andinstruments mentioned so far do not contain any specificrequirements for individual energy technologies and theCRMs they contain, such requirements for PV systems, windturbines, battery/storage systems and electrolyzers alreadyexist to some extent in the German policy context.
Batteries
Among all energy transition technologies covered by thisstudy, Germany has adopted the largest number of policy
instruments that actively promote the implementation of CE
approaches for batteries: The Batteries Act (Batteriegesetz,
BatterieG), which transposes the European Battery Directive
2006/66/EC into German law, first came into force in 2009
and was updated in 2021 (BMUV 2021). The Battery Act
regulates the placement on the market, take-back andenvironmentally sound disposal of batteries in Germany. All
types of batteries are covered, i.e. both rechargeable
batteries (accumulators) and non-rechargeable batteries. All
manufacturers who place such batteries on the Germanmarket commercially have to be officially registered,participate in take-back systems and fulfil certain labelling
obligations. All retailers (including online retailers) must takeback all batteries they sell free of charge from consumers
after use and hand over the waste portable batteries to the
manufacturers for recycling or disposal (IHK Köln n.d.). Withthe 2021 update, various changes were introduced thatfavour the recycling of batteries and the recovery of CRMs
they contain. For example, the update increased theminimum collection rate that take-back systems mustachieve annually from 45 % to 50 %. In addition, battery
manufacturers are obliged to increase the durability,
reusability and recyclability of portable batteries (UBA
2020a).
As another key product group for the recovery of CRMs, thedisposal of batteries from electric vehicles is regulated by the
End-of-Life Vehicles Ordinance (Altfahrzeug-Verordnung,AltfahrzeugV). The automotive sector consumes about halfof the total EU consumption of some CRMs, but currently
some of these, such as REEs in electric traction motors or
palladium in embedded electronics, are not recovered after
shredding (BVSE 2023). The AltfahrzeugV provides rules foran environmentally sound disposal of end-of-life vehicles inGermany and has been in force since 2002. The AltfahrzeugV
obliges vehicle manufacturers to take back all end-of-life
vehicles of their brand and to create comprehensive return

options. In addition, the AltfahrzeugV stipulates that from2015, manufacturers, commercial importers, distributors, theend-of-life vehicle disposal industry and motor vehicle
insurance companies must jointly ensure that at least 95 %of the average empty weight of an end-of-life vehicle isrecycled. Up to and including 2021, this target was achieved
every year with the exception of 2019 (BMUV 2023a). Whendisposing of electric vehicles, both the AltfahrzeugV and theBatterieV apply. Accordingly, vehicle batteries may not be
incinerated or disposed of in landfill, but must be removed
and recycled (Sonderabfallwissen 2020).
As another important framework strategy for the future
development of the battery industry in Germany, the BMBF's“umbrella concept” for battery research aims tostrengthen the research fields of recycling and the CE andformulates clear goals, including that by 2030 the number ofcompanies involved in battery recycling should be over 40
and at least 90 % by weight of materials from end-of-lifebatteries at the cell level should be recycled back into the
production of battery cell (BMBF 2023a). In addition, the
BMUV supported the development of a Standardisation
Roadmap Circular Economy, which was drawn up jointly by
experts from industry, academia, the public sector and civilsociety and published in January 2023. The roadmap makes
proposals on which standards and specifications need to beadapted and which new standards need to be developed inorder to implement CE approaches in seven thematic areas(digitalisation, business models and management, electronics
and ICT, batteries, packaging, plastics, textiles, consumption
and municipalities) (BMUV 2023c).
In addition, to the existing German regulations, two recently
adopted European legislations introduce new requirements
for the recycling and circularity of batteries, which will have asignificant impact on securing CRMs from batteries inGermany. The new EU Batteries Directive, which came into
force in August 2023, is the first European legislation to
adopt a "full life-cycle approach in which sourcing,
manufacturing, use and recycling are re addressed andenshrined in a single law" (EC 2023d), in line with the targetsof the 2020 EU CEAP. From 2025 onwards, targets for i.e.
efficient recycling, recovery of materials, and recycledcontent will be introduced. In particular, high recycling rates
must be achieved for CRMs such as cobalt, lithium and nickel(through collection and more strict targets for recycling
efficiency and material recovery). The directive alsoprescribes mandatory minimum levels of recycled content,
which are initially set at 16 % for cobalt, 85 % for lead and 6% for respectively for lithium and nickel. The Batteries
Directive also introduces a Digital Product Passport (DPP),
which is intended to provide detailed information on thecomposition of the battery via a QR code and thus facilitate
recycling management. The law now is to be applied in theMember States, including Germany. To this end, the EC will
prepare further secondary legislation (implementing anddelegated acts) with more detailed provisions (EC 2023d).
Likewise, the updated Ecodesign for Sustainable Products
Regulation (ESPR), which came into force on July 18, 2024

as Regulation (EU) 2024/1781 and thus replaces the old
Ecodesign Directive, mentions the introduction of a DPP as a
key tool to enable the traceability of products and theircomponents. The DPP is intended to create the legal basis
for introducing binding requirements, such as therecyclability of products and possible bans on products that
do not allow the CRMs they contain to be recycled. The ESPR
contains further requirements for product design and theprovision of information to improve the reparability,
durability and recyclability of products (CISL and Wuppertal
Institute 2023; EC 2022). Overall, the ESPR does notdetermine specific measures, but rather creates a framework
for their subsequent implementation. The requirements forcertain products or product groups will be defined in asecond phase by several delegated acts, which are expected
to be developed and adopted between 2024 and 2027. The
delegated acts are to be drafted in close consultation with
the Member States and a group of experts and stakeholders
in the so-called “Ecodesign Forum” (Boewe and Rasche 2024;
European Parliament and Council of the EU 2024b).
PV/solar panels
For PV/solar systems, the number of policy instruments that
promote CE approaches for CRM recovery to date are
significantly lower than those providing incentives forbatteries: The Electrical and Electronic Equipment Act(Elektro- und Elektronikgerätegesetz, ElektroG) first enteredinto force in 2015 and was last amended in 2022. It
transposes the European Directive on Waste from Electricaland Electronic Equipment (WEEE Directive 2012/19/EU) into
German law (BMUV 2022). It is intended to implement waste
product responsibility for manufacturers of electrical andelectronic equipment, which also entails solar modules, byensuring the proper collection and return of old appliancesand reducing the amount of waste through reuse,
preparation for reuse or recycling, among other things. Withthe 2022 amendment, the obligations of manufacturers werecomprehensively extended to cover the entire life cycle ofsuch devices. The ElektroG also stipulates that all
manufacturers of electrical and electronic equipment mustregister before placing their products on the German market.
In addition, consumers are obliged to dispose of oldappliances separately from household waste. Old appliancesfrom private households can be handed in free of charge atcollection points run by public waste disposal organisations,where some of them are collected by the manufacturers for
professional disposal. The amendment also obliges retailers
with a certain sales area that offer electrical appliances to set
up free take-back collection points. All properly collected
waste appliances must be tested in certified primary
treatment facilities to determine whether the entire
appliance or individual components can be reused or
recycled. In addition, certain recycling quotas must be
achieved during final disposal (UBA 2021): Since 2019, atleast 65 % of electrical and electronic appliances placed on
the German market in the last three years (measured by total
weight) are to be collected via take-back systems. In 2021,
however, this target was clearly missed with a collection rateof only 38.6 %. The ElektroG also stipulates that between 55
and 80 % of the waste appliances collected each year must
be prepared for reuse or recycled, depending on theappliance category. These quotas were met in all six
appliance categories in 2021 (UBA 2023a). The 2021 update
also introduced new rules specifically regarding recycling of
old PV modules. For example, silicon-based and othermodules must be treated separately and certain limit values
for lead, selenium and cadmium, for example, must not be
exceeded (energie-experten.org 2022).
Other technologies: Wind power &hydrogen/electrolyzers
The research team is not aware of any comparable
nationwide guidelines or policy instruments that promote
the implementation of CE approaches for wind turbines. The
disposal of waste resulting from the dismantling of windturbines in Germany is regulated by the KrWG. However, thedismantling process itself is subject to various regulations set
by different federal states (Otto et al. 2023). Additionally, theGerman Federal Immission Control Act(Bundesimmissionsschutzgesetz, BImSchG) mandates that
operators are responsible for the dismantling and recyclingof their turbines. This means that each operator must
develop individual dismantling and recycling plans to meetthe specific technical requirements of the diverse range ofturbines and locations (UBA 2020b). This diversity
complicates the establishment of a uniform and generalapproach to the end-of-life (EOL) management of windturbines. A 2023 study commissioned by the Federal
Environment Agency (UBA) on the development of goodpractice measures for the dismantling and recycling of windturbines also describes that there is usually little or no
relevant manufacturer information available at the time ofdismantling that would allow for efficient recycling. As aresult, there are also no general specifications for therecycling of CRMs from wind turbines (Otto et al. 2023).
Similarly, no specific requirements for electrolysis stacks
were identified that would demand or promote theintroduction of CE approaches. However, the updated
German government's National Hydrogen Strategy
formulates the goal of promoting basic research into energy
materials in order to significantly reduce the consumption of
CRMs for hydrogen production or to substitute these raw
materials (BMWK 2023a).
4.1.2

Coordination bodies, engagement in multilateralformats and international cooperation

In Germany, issues relating to the supply of CRMs are mainly
dealt with by the BMWK. The German Mineral Resources
Agency (DERA) was founded in 2010 as part of theimplementation of the first Raw Material Strategy in order tosupport the ministry's work on these key issues. DERA forms
part of the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural
Resources (BGR), a technical-scientific higher authority
within the BMWK’s portfolio. DERA is responsible formonitoring price developments, supply and demand trendsfor mineral raw materials and selected intermediate
products. This information is intended to help German
companies to identify potential price and supply risks as wellas critical developments on the markets at an early stage andto develop suitable alternative strategies. In addition, there is
R&D funding for projects on raw material processing andlightweight construction, as well as a new dialogue processwith businesses, representatives from scientific institutions
and the administration (Presse- und Informationsamt der
Bundesregierung 2023). In addition, the German Resource
Research Institute (GERRI) supports the implementation of
the German Raw Materials Strategy. GERRI is supervised by
the Federal Insitute for Geoscience and Natural Resources(BGR) and is made up of eight research institutes that advise
the German government (BGR 2020).
The transformation towards a CE is a cross-cutting issue thatis being addressed by various actors in Germany, with therelevant ministries within the federal government regularly
coordinating their efforts. To this end, a cross-departmental
transformation team on the topic of the CE was set up aspart of the German Sustainability Strategy, for which theFederal Chancellery is responsible. The preparation of the
NKWS is also accompanied by a stakeholder process, which
includes a dialogue forum with representatives of German
umbrella organisations under the leadership of the BMUV,
among others (BMUV 2023b).
In 2015, the German Federal Government initiated the G7
Alliance for Resource Efficiency as an international forum
for political decision-makers, companies and researchers topromote regional and global resource efficiency (G7 Alliance
on Resource Efficiency n.d.). At the 2017 G20 Summit inHamburg, Germany, the G20 Resource Efficiency Dialogue
was established, which also promotes the sustainable use ofnatural resources and has held regular meetings since then
(IGES n.d.).
In addition, the Federal Government supports the activitiesof the EC and is involved in various committees and working
groups at EU level. Among other things, the BMWK is amember of the Raw Materials Supply Group, where experts
from EU member states, industry, research and the civil
sector advise the EC on the sustainable supply of raw
materials (BMWi 2019). As part of the multi-stakeholder
initiative European Innovation Partnership (EIP) on raw
materials, industry representatives, public sector officials,
academics, and NGO members also provide guidance to theEC, EU member states, and private stakeholders on
innovative strategies to address challenges associated withraw materials. (EC n.d.b). In addition, EIT RawMaterials wasfounded in 2015 as an innovation community within theEuropean Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT) to
support the sustainable supply of raw materials for the EU.
EIT RawMaterials brings together over 300 partners fromindustry, academia, research and investment and is also
intended to support Europe's transformation to a CE (EIT
RawMaterials 2023a). EIT RawMaterials leads the European
Raw Materials Alliance (ERMA), which was founded in2020 as part of the EU CRMA. In the initiative, industrial
actors along the value chain, Member States and regions,trade unions, civil society, research and technology
organisations, investors and NGOs are working together toresolve regulatory bottlenecks and provide investment tostrengthen circularity approaches for access to CRMs in theEU, among other things (EIT RawMaterials 2023b).

4.1.3

Industry best practices for circular economy
solutions for CRMs for energy transition
technologies

A number of German companies are already successfully
applying some of the CE strategies described in chapter 4 tokeep CRMs for the energy transition in the loop (Fichter et al.
2023). The info boxes below present some examples of
selected best practices. The selection aims to cover as manydifferent energy transition technologies and CE approaches
as possible, but is not comprehensive.

Refurbish & Repurpose: Used traction batteries asstationary power storage units – Voltfang GmbHOld lithium-ion traction batteries can be used in theirsecond life as stationary power storage units, which areused to, for example, supply primary control power toelectricity grid operators or for self-power optimisation,load management and peak load capping in the private,commercial and industrial sectors. As the availability of
end-of-life vehicles from the electric vehicle market is still
limited (due to the only recent uptake in electrical vehicle
sales/production), most second-life batteries have so far
mainly come from test fleets or are B-goods that haveaccumulated during the production of new battery
modules, because they did not meet the technicalrequirements of the car manufacturers. In the future,
however, the availability of used batteries is expected toincrease overall with the expansion of e-mobility (Fichteret al. 2023).
Founded in Aachen in 2021, the start-up company
Voltfang GmbH is the leading provider of stationary
second-life batteries for industrial and business customers
in Germany. Voltfang buys used battery modules that still
have a capacity of at least 80 %, tests them anddetermines the available service life.
The second-life batteries are then refursbished andoffered to customers within a 10-year flat rate system. If
battery modules fall below a critical minimum
performance value within this period, they are replaced by
Voltfang. To date, Voltfang has primarily offered its
second-life batteries as stationary storage systems tocompanies with a wide network of branches. In the future,
however, the company also wants to expand into the fieldof grid-connected battery storage systems in order toestablish a virtual power plant that integrates
decentralized energy generation and consumption units.
By November 2023, Voltfang had saved 600 highperformance battery modules from premature recycling
by refurbishing and reusing them (Fichter et al. 2023).

Reuse: Second Life usage of photovoltaic modules –2nd Life Solar GmbH & Co. KG

In Germany, the recycling of PV modules has so far been
carried out in rather informal structures, dominated byindependent private companies that do not co-operatewith the original manufacturers of the modules. Similarly,
the second life market for solar modules is still small,because many consumers lack confidence in theperformance of refurbished and used solar modules, there
are no standardised reliability tests and the design often
does not take sufficient account of dismantlability.
However, the waste stream of solar modules will growstrongly in the coming years, with up to one million
metric tons of old modules expected to accumulateannually by 2030 alone, meaning that the recycling andreuse infrastructure will have to expand accordingly(Fichter et al. 2023).
The company 2nd Life Solar GmbH & Co. KG, which was
founded in 2023 in Hamburg as part of the family-run
waste disposal and environmental services provider Buhck
Group, is the first German waste disposal company tofocus intensively on the reuse of PV modules. 2nd Life
Solar buys used solar modules primarily from large solarparks, which generally replace their modules after 10-12
years in order to keep pace with technologicaldevelopments. Another important source are PV modules
with production defects that are sorted out right after
production during quality checks. Old modules fromrecycling depots however often cannot be refurbished
due to broken glass. 2nd Life carries out an extensive
quality check on the performance level and sells modules
that still prove to be efficient in cooperation withwholesalers, installation companies or non-profit
organizations at a price that is often 30 to 50 % belowthat of new modules. By November 2023, 2nd Life wasable to test 120,000 modules per year at its Hamburg sitealone. However, the approach also has its limits: due tothe costly set-up of the process, performance level testingis only worthwhile for large quantities of identicalmodules; testing many individual modules from privatehouseholds is not yet economically viable. 2nd Life is also
cooperating with the German Association for Electrical,
Electronic & Information Technologies (VDE) on thedevelopment of standards for the recycling and reuse of
PV modules, in order to establish standardised guidelines
for ensuring quality and sustainability of second life
modules (Fichter et al. 2023).

Recycle: Recovery of platinum from fuel cell andelectrolysis stacks – Robert Bosch GmbHElectrolyzers and fuel cells contain, amongst other things,
platinum group metals (DERA 2022c), which have a very
high technological and economic recyclability. At 95 %,for example, almost all of the platinum can be recoveredfrom fuel cell stacks. Demand for the valuable metals is
also high; according to Marscheider-Weidemann (2021),
global demand for platinum could increase by 20 % by2040 compared to 2018 production levels.

The German company Robert Bosch GmbH, founded in
1886 and based in Stuttgart, produces a wide range ofmobility solutions, industrial technology, consumer goods,
and energy and building technology, also including fuelcell stacks. In September 2023, Bosch signed a contract
with mobility provider Hylane, which rents out hydrogenbased trucks, to arrange the return of fuel cell stacks at
the end of their life. The contract model guarantees Boscha buy-back option for the stacks for mobile applications
and could, in the longer term, also be applied to the endof-life handling of electrolysis stacks. Bosch plans to havethe stacks recycled by a third-party provider after thebuyback. The recovered platinum will then be used by
Bosch in the production of new stacks. Bosch has also
invested in R&D in order to monitor the service life andfunctionality of future electrolysis stacks and fuel cells
during operation, i.e. by means of digital twins (Robert
Bosch GmbH 2023).

4.2

Japan

Similarly, to Germany, Japan will require large quantities of
CRMs in the future in order to achieve its national
decarbonisation targets. Securing access to various CRMs
have been an early priority for Japan and this aspect ishighlighted in several policy documents. Japan has arealtively high recycling rate of metals, where it recycles 98 %of its metal waste (Benton and Hazell 2015).
When it comes to recycling of e-scrap6, Japan is one of the
top OECD countries, recycling both domestic e-scrap as wellas imported. In 2020, 340,000 tons of scrap was recycled inJapan, which corresponds to a reduction of approximately 8% compared to 2019. In addition, several companies in Japan
have built technologies for recovery of different metals,
among them copper and nickel (Yoshida 1/25/2024).
JOGMEC provides data on the recycling of different minerals,
including nickel, cobalt, and copper, highlighting the amountand rate of recycling - the proportion of waste generated
that is successfully recycled (JOGMEC 2024). In 2020, therecycling rates for these minerals stood at approximately 1%, 0.5 %, and 42 % respectively (JOGMEC 2024).
Additionally, statistics on other materials like lithium, nickel,
and copper, including their recovery rates, are madeavailable through Material Flow Analysis by the Mitsubishi
UFJ Ginkō (MUFG) bank (MFUG 2023). The 2023 data fromMUFG reveals that the total amount of lithium found ingenerated process waste and used products was estimatedto be 838 tons (net). For nickel, out of the 73,000 tons
recovered from used products, about half (30 kt) was
redirected into the production of special steel, with 10,000
tons estimated for reclamation and the remainder utilized invarious othermaterials. Furthermore, 15,000 tons was mixed

E-scrap or e-waste or electronic waste can include different metals
like copper, gold, platinum and rare earths.
6

into ordinary steel electric furnaces or used in production ofother materials. In the case of copper, the MFA indicated thatout of 1,174,000 tons of recovered copper, 182,000 tons wasrecycled and utilized as electrolytic copper, while theremaining was used as input for the production of products
in industries such as automobiles, electric machinery, andothers (MFUG 2023).
4.2.1

Policy framework circular economy approach for
critical minerals

Japan has rolled out policies, strategies, and measures aimed
at enabling CE approaches methods to meet the demand for
CRMs. According to Benton and Hazell (2015) several factors
have contributed to Japan's early adoption of the CE, which
include its high population density and limited landfill space,
the lack of domestic metal and mineral resources, and abusiness culture that emphasizes collaboration. This has led
to a comprehensive and consumer-friendly approach torecycling, where consumers play an active role in theprocess, and recycling infrastructure is jointly owned andoperated by consortia of manufacturers, benefiting from therecovery of materials and parts. Furthermore, Japan's focus
on developing electronics that are easier to disassemble andrecycle, avoiding the mixing of different materials, showcases
the countries commitment to a sustainable CE (Benton andHazell 2015).

Figure 5: Overview of policy frameworks in Japan

Source: Own illustration.

The first major political CE related strategy paper Act on
Promotion of Use of Recyclable Resources was launched
as early as 1991 (Cabinet Secretariat 2002). This paper
targeted the recycling (1R) of different products as well as
covered design for environment topics for dproducts several
products, including vehicles. In 1999 the Circular Economy
Vision was published by the METI (Tanaka 6/15/2023). The
vision marks the transition to the promotion of the 3Rs:
reduce, reuse, recycle and included goals to reduce waste
generation, improvement of recycling rates, the expansion ofenvironment-related businesses and also the including of
more EPR systems for products. The formulation of thisvision has led to a consistent reduction in waste generationand significant improvements in recycling rates, supported
by recycling laws (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industryof Japan 2020). Key aspects of Japan's CE approach include astrong emphasis on recycling initiatives, advancements inenergy conversion technologies, economic development,
and creative innovations (Utrecht University 2023). The
Vision was translated into the Basic Act for Establishing aSound Material-Cycle Society in 2001 (Wuppertal Institute2007), aligning with their broader environmental andeconomic strategies (Arai et al. 2023). This concept aimed totransition from the traditional linear economic model to amore sustainable, and circular one. This was achieved byeffectively implementing the three core principles of
reducing, reusing, and recycling, coupled withenvironmentally responsible waste management
practices (MOE 2014a). Furthermore, the strategies´ goal
was to reduce GHG emissions by minimizing incineration andlandfilling of carbon-containing substances. It also focusedon decreasing energy consumption in production, increasing
biomass use, and shifting to renewable energy in processing.
In addition, in year 2001, the Resource Effective Utilization
Promotion Act was published which targets the creation ofa sustainable material-cycle economy (MOE 2001) andsignifies a step forward from the 1R approach to 3R

approach. This is achieved through enhanced recycling by
businesses, promoting product longevity and resource
efficiency, and reusing components from discarded items.
This policy integrates the 3Rs throughout the productlifecycle, from design to waste management. The Circular
Economy Vision, which was updated in 2020, emphasizes amore integrated approach, blending environmental
considerations into the economic system (METI 2020a). It
advocates for industries to voluntarily incorporate CE
practices into their corporate and business strategies, aiming
to extend the reach of circular products and businesses to
the global market (Nagasaki 2024). In addition, the vision
underscores the importance of re-establishing a resilient
circular system, designed to endure and thrive in both the
mid and long-term perspectives (Nagasaki 2024). Later inMarch 2023, METI introduced the "Strategy for a GrowthOriented, Resource-Autonomous Circular Economy" toadvance innovation in technology and regulations, whichaims to establish a self-reliant domestic resource circulation
system (METI 2023c). The strategy strives to deepen the 4R(Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Renewable) policy and strengthen
the overseas cooperation. Business-wise it offers CE
investment support, as well as digitalization, standardizationand start-up venture support. It is also committed to CE
partnerships between the industry, the government andacademia (METI 2023c). The MOE's Fourth Fundamental
Plan for the Establishment of a Sound Material-Cycle
Society, approved by the cabinet in 2018, focuses onachieving comprehensive resource circulation across allstages of a product's lifecycle (MOE 2018). There is anestablished reporting process, where the government has tosubmit annual reports, has to clarify the policies it will adopt
to achieve the goals of the act and has to review the Plan for
Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society every five years.
Following Japans 4th Fundamental Plan for Establishing aSound Material-Cycle Society, the resource productivity roseabout up 58 % between the years 2000 and 2015 and thefinal disposal amount shrunk by 74 % due to the efforts ofreducing, reusing and recycling (MOE 2018).
In addition to the overarching strategies, visions and policis,
Japan has set policies which target the CE of specific productgroups. For example, Japan's Home Appliance Recycling
Act, implemented in 2001, mandates manufacturers andretailers to recycle household appliances, resulting in highrecovery and reuse rates of materials. In addition, the Endof-Life Vehicle Recycling Act, enacted in 2005, promotes
initiatives to enhance circularity in automobile industry
through MFAs, recycling advancements and the promptionof material recycling (Yoshida 1/25/2024).
Similarly, to Germany, Japan has legislation for green public
procurement. The Act on Promoting Green Purchasing
was enforced in 2001, however green purchasing practices
go back until late 1980s. Solar Panels are included among
the list of designated procurement items in the frame of this
GPP policy as of 2016 (MOE 2016).
Japan's long-standing role as a major manufacturer of hightech, mineral-intensive goods has necessitated a strategic
approach to managing critical mineral resources (IEA andInternational Energy Agency 2021). Since the 1980s, Japan
has been proactive in identifying critical mineralvulnerabilities, leading to a strategy focused on designating
critical minerals, managing supply risks, and investing inoverseas projects, advanced recycling, substitution, andstockpiling resources (IEA and International Energy Agency2021). The countries expertise in recycling and substitution(as seen in the case of perovskite PVs) is internationallyrecognized (Benton and Hazell 2015). Advanced recycling isa major priority, with efforts to expand the collection ofrecyclable materials both domestically and internationally.
There is specific focus is on critical minerals like tungsten,cobalt, and select rare earths (Benton and Hazell 2015). For
example, the Policy on Measures to Ensure Stable
Supplies of Critical Minerals (2023) targets, among otherthings, advancing recycling technologies to reduce relianceon raw minerals (METI 2023f).
The 6th Energy Plan of Japan (2021) emphasizes thecritical importance of securing a stable supply of mineral
resources, such as copper and other CRMs, which are vitalfor the manufacturing of batteries, semiconductors, andmotors (METI 2023f). The plan acknowledges the necessity of
mitigating risks associated with the supply of these resourcesfrom overseas sources, and highlights the importance ofpromoting resource recycling from used products to alleviate
dependency on external supplies. However, the plan does
not set uniform targets for securing overall REs; instead, it
focuses on ensuring the supply for each specific type of ore.
Batteries
In addition to the Battery Industry Strategy, Japan has
developed a roadmap Toward Strengthening the Battery
Supply Chain (BASC 2022) which includes the importance ofstable CRM procurement, and mentions investments inrecycling technology to support the growing demand forbattery metals essential for electric vehicles and otherapplications.
By 2035, the country aims for all new passenger vehicle sales
to be electrified (METI 2022c). However, specific policy forrecycling of EVs have not been yet established. Japan has an
End-of-Life Vehicle Recycling Act, however the necessity fora reliable disposal system for used lithium-ion car batteries
was highlighted by a combined working group of theAutomobile Recycling Law Council in 2015. Following this,the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.
(JAMA) endorsed the creation of a recycling and collection
network. A collection system was initiated in October 2018,
overseen by the Japan Auto Recycling Partnership, tofacilitate this. Currently, these batteries are treated as
specially controlled industrial waste. However, with only 12
companies in Japan capable of processing automotive
lithium-ion batteries, there are concerns that the existing
infrastructure may not be adequate to handle the anticipatedincrease in battery disposal needs (Yano Research InstituteCo., Ltd. 2022).
The topics of reuse, recycling, and repair of batteries are
currently under discussion by METI's "Study Group on
Sustainability of Storage Batteries" (METI 2022b). This groupis actively exploring policy goals and strategies to enhance
the sustainability of storage batteries used in vehicles. A key
focus of these discussions is the development goals outlinedby the Green Innovation Fund Project for next-generation
storage batteries. An integral part of this initiative is theadvancement of storage battery recycling technology. The
targeted aim of this technology is to achieve low-cost, highquality recovery of rare metals, a crucial aspect for thesustainable use of these resources. Specifically, thedevelopment goals include achieving a recovery rate of 70 %for lithium, 95 % for nickel, and 95 % for cobalt (NEDO n.d.).
PV/solar panels
Japan, similarly to other countries utilizing solar panels, faces
the challenge of handling the eventual disposal of solar
panels, which are expected to generate significant industrial
waste in the coming decades. It is estimated that the amountof PV panel waste should peak between years 2035 - 2037
with up to 280 thousand metric tons of disposed panels per
year (Bangert 2020).
In 2015, the METI and MOE published a report on reuse,recycling, and proper disposal of PV-equipment. which
includes a roadmap with a set of activities between 2015 –2023 which cover, among others, the following aspects: (1)Improvement and establishment of collection, proper
disposal, and recycling, (2) Support for technology
development, (3) Promotion of eco-friendly design, (4)Guidelines for removal, transport, and disposal of PVs (MOE
2014b). This roadmap established the basis for later
developed guidelines for the Promotion of Recycling of PV-

Equipment which was published in 2016 and later updated in
2018. Japan does not have laws specifically tailored to PV
waste management (Kobayashi 2023). End-of-life (EOL) PV
modules are currently governed under the Waste
Management and Public Cleaning Act, categorizing themas either industrial or general waste. The aforementioned
guidelines addressed this gap in 2018. A second edition ofguidelines aimed at facilitating the proper end-of-life
management of PV systems (Kobayashi 2023). These
guidelines are a step towards ensuring environmentallysound disposal and recycling practices for PV modules,aligning with the broader goals of sustainable energy andwaste management. Since 2022, Japan’s FIT (feed-in-tariff)
scheme requires a levy to fund the waste management of
EOL PV in advance. Owners of PV systems and plants,
excluding residential PV systems (less than 10 kW), areobliged to comply (IEA PVPS 2022). In addition, for PVs theJapan Photovoltaic Energy Association (JPEA) issued in 2016
Guidelines for Assessment of Environmentally Conscious
Design of PV-Modules in 2016, and in 2020, the MOE
issued Guidelines for Environmentally Conscious Designof PVs.
Other technologies: Wind power &hydrogen/electrolyzers
In 2023 METI and MOE started the Study Group on the
Disposal and Recycling of Renewable Energy Power
Generation Facilities. This Study Group held several key
meetings to address the sector's challenges with the firstmeeting focusing on the overall state and issues of disposing
and recycling renewable energy facilities. During the second
meeting conversation shifted to solar energy, with the JPEA
discussing the proper disposal and recycling of solar panels,
highlighting the specifics of solar panel lifecycle
management. The later meetings focused on wind energy,
led by the Japan Wind Power Association (JWPA) and theJapan Small Wind Turbine Association (JSWTA), discussing
disposal and recycling strategies for wind power generationequipment, including small wind turbines. These meetings
throughout 2023 underscored a concerted effort to establish
sustainable practices for the end-of-life management of
renewable energy facilities, crucial for the sector's
environmental sustainability and resource efficiency.
The future plans of the Study Group on the Disposal andRecycling of Renewable Energy Power Generation Facilities
cover targeted strategies for photovoltaics and wind power
generation (METI 2023e). For photovoltaics, the Group is
considering an update to the Renewable Energy Special
Measures Law to include provisions for disclosing
information about substances contained in solar panels. This
step aims to enhance transparency and safety in PV materials
usage. Additionally, there is a focus on institutional support
to encourage safe delivery and recycling of used PV panels,
particularly after businesses discontinue operations. Thiseffort might lead to the introduction of a mandatory
recycling system, ensuring responsible end-of-life
management for solar panels.

Regarding wind power generation, future plans of theGroup are two-fold. Firstly, there is an emphasis on staying
informed of the latest recycling technology developments
for large wind turbine blades, which are expected to be
introduced in the future. The Group plans to assess andimplement necessary measures based on these technologicaladvancements. Secondly, for small wind turbines, they aim to
examine and establish appropriate disposal measures,considering the actual industry status and disposal practices.
This approach is designed to ensure that both large-scaleand smaller-scale wind power installations are managed
sustainably throughout their lifecycle. These future initiatives
reflect a proactive and comprehensive strategy by the Groupto address the sustainable management of various
renewable energy technologies.
The National Hydrogen Strategy (2023) recognizes theneed to establish policy measures for recycling of RE andrare metals which are required for water electrolysis
equipment and construction of fuel cells (Ministerial Council
on Renewable Energy, Hydrogen and Related Issues 2023). In
addition, the development of innovative technologies which
would reduce rare metal consumption is mentioned.
For financing, in 2017 the MOE launched the Green Bond
Guidelines to mobilise private investments into green
projects. The guidelines explicitly mention renewableenergy and CE projects. The scope has been expended in
an update of 2020, since then it also covers green loans(MOE 2017).
In 2021, METI and MOE jointly compiled the Disclosure andEngagement Guidance to Accelerate Sustainable Financefor a Circular Economy. Companies at the forefront oftechnological innovation and financial institutions that
allocate and manage capital are crucial in driving the shift
towards a circular economy. Following directives from theJapanese government, this guidance aims to foster
meaningful conversations between businesses and investors,
focusing on disclosures and engagements that specificallyadvance CE objectives. (MOE 2017).
4.2.2

Coordination bodies, engagement in multilateralformats and international cooperation

The Sound Material-Cycle Society (SMCS) initiative,
spearheaded by Japan's Ministry of the Environment(MOE), is dedicated to addressing pressing socioenvironmental challenges both within Japan and globally.
This strategy adopts a holistic framework, integrating thethree foundational pillars of sustainability—environmental,
economic, and social—to ensure comprehensive andbalanced progress (see chapter 4.2.1). The MOE is focusedon building international collaborations to address societal
challenges associated with the CE. The SMCS plan aims toinclude the participation of citizens, local governments,
NGOs, and the private sector (Arai et al. 2023). To this end,
MOE is promoting several specific projects, such as ademonstration project for the early social implementation ofa decarbonized metal recycling system (MOE 2020a), or a

demonstration project for the establishment of a recycling
system for plastics and other resources to support a
decarbonized society (MOE 2020b)
Ministry of Economy and Trade and Industry (METI) is
the second major coordinating body for CE solutions. METI
published the Circular Economy Vision 2020 to emphasize
the need for Japan's transition to a CE. The EU policies on CE
had a significant impact on the development of the Japanese
CE Vision 2020 (Arai et al. 2023). The METI states that
implementing a CE enhance the competitive edge of Japan's
industries while fostering a mutually beneficial relationshipbetween environmental conservation and economic
development (METI 2020a). The measures proposed by METI
include improving resource efficiency, transitioning to highly
circular business models, and encouraging companies toengage in voluntary CE initiatives - all with limited regulatoryintervention (Arai et al. 2023). In the strategy for a growthoriented, resource-independent economy (see 4.2.1), METI
states that it will provide policy support to the private sector
in the areas of CE investment, digitalization, standardizationand support for start-ups (METI 2023c).
The interpretation of CE by METI differs from the SMCS
concept introduced by the MOE. METI's strategy for CE
places significant emphasis on economic considerations andinvolves a broad range of participants and value chains (METI
2020a). CE is seen “a virtuous cycle of environment andgrowth“ (METI 2020a, p. 4). This differs from the SMCS
discourse of the MOE, which places greater emphasis on
ecological and also social dimensions (Arai et al. 2023) (MOE2018). However, both the MOE and METI have stated thatthe two concepts should be promoted in parallel, as theyshare the same goal: circularity (Arai et al. 2023). METI
established a 2 trillion JPY Green Innovation Fund as part of
the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development
Organization (NEDO) (METI 2023b). NEDO is a national R&D
agency that accelerates technology development andinnovation for a sustainable society.
The Japan Organization for Metals and Energy Security(JOGMEC) was established in 2004 as a key coordinating
body in Japan's strategic approach to securing essential
metals and energy resources (JOGMEC n.d.). Operating as a
subsidiary of the METI, JOGMEC functions independently asa government-administered institution, primarily executing
METI's policies while supporting private Japanese companies.
JOGMEC plays a critical role in assisting Japanese companies
to mitigate various risks related to the exploration of criticalresources as well as their acquisition. Its support ismultifaceted, encompassing three primary measures: (1)providing financial assistance, (2) facilitating joint venture
explorations, and (3) fostering international cooperation. The
organization particularly focuses on joint exploration
ventures in resource-rich regions like Africa and SouthAmerica, seeking to expand Japan's access to crucial
minerals and energy resources. One of JOGMEC's notable
investments includes a substantial financial commitment of
AU$ 200 million in Lynas Rare Earths Ltd., an Australianmining company (CISL and Wuppertal Institute 2023). This
investment exemplifies Japan's broader strategy of securing
essential resources through international partnerships andstrategic financial engagements.
In February 2021, the Global Alliance for Circular Economy
and Resource Efficiency (GACERE) was launched. The
alliance includes members from Japan, the EU, and othercountries from the global North and South. Its purpose is toshare good policy practices, support partnerships, andfacilitate global conversations on the governance of natural
resources (Ito 2022).
Other multilateral cooperation formats, in which Japaneseministries are highly involved, focus on high-level policymakers, such as the Regional 3R & CE Forum in Asia andthe Pacific (MOE o.J.) as well as more local approaches toknowledge sharing, such as the African Clean Cities
Platform (ACCP) (UNEP 2022).
The Japan Partnership for Circular Economy (J4CE),
initiated by the METI, and the Japan Business Federation,
showcases Japan's collaborative business approach as well as
collaborative approach towards sustainability. Launched in
March 2021, J4CE aims to enhance public-private
partnerships, promoting the circular economy's
understanding across various stakeholders. With over 100
companies joining shortly after its inception, J4CE showcases
a commitment to advancing circular economy initiatives,
focusing on prioritiy sectors of global interest, among thembatteries (J4CE 2021).
4.2.3

Industry best practices for circular economy
solutions for CRMs for energy transition
technologies

There are a number of Japanese, companies, thatsuccessfully apply CE strategies in their business model
described in chapter 4, which by extention leads to keeping
the CRM in the loop for as long as possible. The info boxes
below present some examples of selected best practices. The
selection aims to cover different energy transition
technologies and is not comprehensive.

Reuse, Remanufacture & Recycle: New life for broken
solar PV panels and impure silicon – Eiki Shoji Co Ltd
As described in chapter 4.2.1 Japan, as other countries
which utilize solar energy, faces challenges in managing
PV waste, with rapid growth in solar energy installations
leading to increasing volumes of end-of-life solar panels.
This issue poses a challenge for waste management andresource recovery, as discarded panels contain valuable
materials that can be reused or recycled. However, thecountry has been proactive in addressing these challenges
through innovative approaches to recycling andrepurposing PV panels.

Eiki Shoji Co Ltd is a Japanese renewable energy
company with its headquarters in Tokyo and has 91
employees. The company operates a business focused onreusing, repairing, and recycling solar PV panels. Theyacquire defective panels or excess inventory frommanufacturers, systematically sorting and dismantling
them for subsequent repair and restoration. The
revitalized panels find new use, including deployment inCongo, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, and Uganda (Bangert
2020). Furthermore, the company is also active inrecycling of office automation equipment and personal
computers. The therefore sort out the valuable materials
such as circuit boards and LCD panels and resell them,including overseas. The recycled products are also sold on
their e-commerce site, leading to the reuse and effective
utilization of resources. The company also purchases
silicon that is no longer utilizable from silicon refiners andrecycles it as a raw material for solar power generationequipment. Silicon, as an essential material for
semiconductors, must be refined to an ultra-pure level ofalmost 100 %. In contrast, the purity required as a raw
material for solar power generation equipment is slightly
less, but still way over 99.99 %. Hence, the material canstill be of use there (Eiki Shoji 2023).

Recycle: Valuable metals from electronic components– Astec-irie Co., Ltd.
The generation of e-waste is expected to exceed 75
million tons by the year 2030, wih Asian countries being
one of the major contributors to the e-waste generation(Yoshida 1/25/2024). However, this scrap contains various
precious and rare earth metals which can be utilized as
input for production of other technologies. Japantargeted this issue by establishing relevant policies
supporting recycling of e-waste, such as the Small home
appliances recycling act, 2013 and the Home appliances
recycling act 2001 (Nagasaki 2024) and is the frontrunnerin recycling of e-waste (Yoshida 1/25/2024).
Astec-irie Co., Ltd. has over 740 employees and islocated in the city of Kitakyūshū. The company offers
different products and services, from support tosteelmakers in the production process to producing steel
pipes themselves, used for example for the automotive or
petroleum industry.
Alongside, the company is active in so-called urban mines
recycling, meaning they conduct recycling processes toextract metals from waste electronics, like circuit boards incomputers or mobile phones. Used electronic devices
contain many electronic components and are fixed withsolder, etc., so they must be removed (Astec irie 2023).
Furthermore, since the amount of useful substances suchas repellent substances and precious metals contained
differs depending on the type of electronic part, it isnecessary to further sort the removed electronic parts.

Astec Irie Co., Ltd. has developed a method that combinesiron chloride recycling and superheated steam to extractand sort these electronic components, contributing to therecycling of valuable metals like gold, copper, nickel andpalladium. The company also applies AI technology tosort small electronic parts, that would not have enoughvalue to sort by manual labor. The AI is still in thedeveloping phase, but able to select parts with aprobability of 90 % (Takahashi et al. 2021).

Reuse & Recycle: Second life for lithium-ion battery
cathodes – JERA Co., Inc. and Sumitomo Chemical Co.,
Ltd.
With the expected increase in electric vehicles to achievecarbon neutrality, Japan, a country with scarce natural
resources, must prioritize the separation and collection ofrare metals from used batteries. in an efficient andenvironmentally friendly way in order to reuse them asbattery materials (JERA Co., Inc. 2022).
JERA Co., Inc. and Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd. havereceived a grant from NEDO's Green Innovation Fund
Programme to carry out a project to develop a process forreusing parts of the lithium-ion batteries for electricvehicles (JERA Co., Inc. 2022). The existing recycling
methodology not only contributes to GHG emissions but
also leads to the oxidation and breakdown of materials,
thereby hindering the efficient recovery of rare metals.
This initiative focuses on overcoming these obstacles bycreating a green process for recycling lithium-ion
batteries from electric vehicles. The endeavor is scheduled
to progress from 2022 through 2030 (JERA Co., Inc. 2022).
JERA is developing a new method for separating andcollecting battery materials in collaboration with Waseda
University and Kumamoto University (JERA Co., Inc. 2022).
Sumitomo Chemical, in collaboration with Kyoto
University, will develop a new technology to recycle thecathode materials separated and collected by JERA
without returning them to metal (JERA Co., Inc. 2022).

Reuse, Refurbish, Recycle: Japan's first solar panel
reuse platform – Marubeni Corporation and Hamada
Co. Ltd.
In anticipation of a large volume of used material as
Japan's early solar installations are phased out, recycling
companies estimate that 800,000 tons of solar panels will
be retired each year from 2040 (Hamada Co. Ltd. 2022).
So far, initiatives for reuseing solar panels in Japan havestalled due to difficulties in guaranteeing their quality(Marubeni Corporation et al. 2022).
Marubeni Corporation, and Hamada Co. Ltd., areforming Rexia Corporation to provide reuse and recycling
services for solar PV panels, including the purchase andresale of used panels (Marubeni Corporation 2023). A key
part of the solution will be an online platform for buying

and selling used panels (Bourne 2023). The platform willcontain information such as panel specifications, usage
history and performance data, and also support requests
for recycling services (Bourne 2023). Rexia aims to provide
services to evaluate and purchase panels based on an
established performance testing methodology. Panels canthen be sold with a product warranty (Marubeni
Corporation et al. 2022).

5 Existing forums of German-Japanesecooperation
Germany and Japan have already developed various
dialogue platforms for bilateral and multilateral exchange on
issues relating to the sustainable supply of CRMs, particularly
in light of the rising demand for raw materials for the energy
transition. In some instances, CE is already being discussed
as one solution.
In March 2023, the governments of the Federal Republic of
Germany and Japan published a joint declaration as part of
the first German-Japanese government consultations, inwhich greater cooperation in securing access to sufficient
supplies of CRMs, explicitly also for clean energy andbatteries, was agreed. In this context, the CE is alsomentioned as a strategy for promoting access to CRMs. The
joint declaration stipulates that the respective national
resource agencies (JOGMEC in Japan and BGR in Germany)
will cooperate more closely and exchange knowledge on
issues relating to the secure supply of critical minerals (Die
Bundesregierung 2023a).
The Japanese-German Energy Partnership was establishedbetween BMWK and METI in 2019 to strengthen thecooperation between both countries on the energy
transition. During the Energy Partnership’s cooperationcommittee meeting in November 2023, the topic ofalternative PV technologies such as perovskite solar cells was
put on the agenda for the future cooperation with the target
to exchange on possible ways to reduce dependence insupply chains and related CRM. Additionally, the 13th editionof the German-Japanese Environment and Energy Dialogue
Forum (EEDF), the flagship public event of the Energy
Partnership, was dedicated to the topic of “circular economy
for climate action” in January 2024, with two dedicatedsessions on the nexus of the energy transition and circular
economy.
During the two consecutive G7 presidencies of Germany(2022) and Japan (2023), the two governments have also
reinforced their intention to strengthen cooperation in thearea of economic security (Die Bundesregierung 2023a).
Under the German G7 Presidency in 2022, for example, theso-called "Berlin Roadmap" was adopted, in which the G7
member states committed themselves to jointly
strengthening resource efficiency and the CE and set targets
for the period 2022 to 2025, including increased exchanges
between member states on topics such as the eco-design ofproducts, circular business models and green public
procurement (GPP) (G7 2022). In 2023, under the Japanese
G7 presidency, the Circular Economy and Resource
Efficiency Principles (CEREP) were adopted, a set of

behavioral guidelines to promote the CE and resource
efficiency in the private sector (G7 2023).
During its G7 presidency in 2015, Germany also initiated theG7 Alliance on Resource Efficiency (ARE) as a voluntary
forum, placing resource efficiency as a fixed topic on the G7
agenda. Within the framework of the G7 ARE, Japanese,
German and other G7 policy makers are working together topromote international dialogue on issues of resource
efficiency and CE and to bring experts on the topic together.
During the 2023 G7 ministerial meeting on climate, energy
and environment in Japan, a five-point plan for CRMs
security was announced, in which the G7 members recognise
recycling as a central strategy for securing access to CRMs, inparticular the recycling of old lithium-ion batteries andneodymium magnets (G7 Ministers 2023). The G7 ARE also
co-operates with other international forums on this topic, inwhich Germany and Japan are also represented (G7 Alliance
on Resource Efficiency n.d.). These include the G20 Resource
Efficiency Dialogue, which was launched in 2017 under theGerman chairmanship at the G20 summit in Hamburg. In
2019, the G20 Resource Efficiency Dialogue took place inTokyo under the Japanese chairmanship and, with thesupport of the MOE, a website was set up for the exchange
of information within the framework of the G20 dialogue,
which is managed by IGES. The G20 Resource Effiency
Dialogue also promotes sustainable use of natural resources
and holds regular meetings (IGES n.d.).
Both Japan and Germany have also been steering committee
members of the International Resource Panel (IRP)
established under UNEP since 2007. IRP is a global sciencepolicy platform for the exchange of knowledge on theutilisation of natural resources. The common goal is todevelop approaches to move away from excessive resource
consumption by implementing resource efficiency. As part ofits programme "Building Resilient Societies after the COVID19 pandemic", among other things, the implementation of
circular approaches as a concrete approach to reducing theconsumption of primary raw materials is being discussed(UNEP n.d.).
Germany and Japan are both members of the Minerals
Security Partnership (MSP), which was announced in 2022
under US leadership. The MSP aims to establish robust
supply chains for CRMs while protecting the environment.
Participants in the MSP have committed to funding
international endeavors across the entire supply chain,including the advancement of recycling technologies. (CISLand Wuppertal Institute 2023; U.S. Department of State n.d.).

In addition, Japan is a close cooperation partner with the EU
in various formats on issues of raw material security and CE.
Most recently, an Administrative Arrangement was signed
between the EC and JOGMEC at the EU-Japan summit on
July 6, 2023, reinforcing the bilateral cooperation on CRM
supply chains (EC 2023a).

6 Comparison
Japan and Germany are both among the countries with thehighest energy consumption worldwide (Enerdata 2023).
Both countries have set clear targets to achieve climate
neutrality - by 2045 for Germany and by 2050 for Japan. This
goal is to be accomplished through the significant expansionof renewable technologies, including on-shore and off-shore
wind and solar power. Germany has led this transition,
initiating its shift towards renewables earlier with ambitious
targets, especially in wind and solar energy. In contrast,
Japan, while also aiming for a significant renewable share by
2050, is also incorporating nuclear energy and Carbon
Capture and Storage (CCS) into its decarbonization strategy.
Despite differing paces and strategies, both countries
acknowledge the essential role of CRMs to achieve theirclimate goals.
With regards to key CRMs, necessary for clean energy
transition technologies, neither Japan nor Germany havesignificant local mining capacity and are therefore heavily
dependent on imports from third countries, particularly
China. Both governments have recognized supply security
and the high greenhouse gas emissions associated with theprimary extraction and processing of CRMs as significant
challenges. These concerns are reflected in recent strategies
aimed at securing future sustainable access to CRMs, such as
Germany's Raw Materials Strategy of 2020 and Japan's Policy
on Measures to Ensure Stable Supplies of Critical Minerals of2023.
In Germany, this represents a somewhat new approach, as
the security of commodity supply has traditionally been seen
as a responsibility of the industry, with little state
involvement (for example, there are no significant public
participations in mining companies, no establishment of
national stockpiles, etc.). This is also reflected in the fact that
central coordination bodies such as the DERA were only
founded in 2010.
Partly due to experiences with supply bottlenecks caused bygeopolitical tensions with highly important suppliers
compounded by the country’s isolated location, Japan
introduced relevant policy frameworks and financial support
measures to stabilize access to CRMs and prioritizes general
supply security over market efficiency in its raw materials
policy. For example, the 2020 International Resource Strategy
provides for the development of national stockpiles. In
addition, the central Japanese coordination body JOGMEC
has been providing financial support to mining companies
since 2004 and in some instances also participates directly inmining projects abroad.
Despite the described differences in their overall approaches
to securing access to CRMs, both Japan and Germany haveidentified dependencies on imports and high GHG emissions
associated with the extraction and processing of virgin CRMs
as key challenges for the clean energy transition. In response,
both countries have developed strategies that recognoze thethe potential of the CE to reduce import dependencies andachieve parallel reductions in GHG emissions. This sharedpolitical vision is also reflected in the close cooperation
between Germany and Japan in various bilateral andmultilateral forums. During their successive G7 presidencies
in 2022 (Germany) and 2023 (Japan), the topic of CE andresource efficiency for CRMs was recently consolidated as a
topic on the multilateral agenda.
As illustrated by Figure 4 and Figure 5, in both countries,
various policies, strategies and instruments have been
adopted that strengthen the concept of CE overall andalready contain some approaches for implementing CE tosecure the most sustainable access to CRMs in importantenergy transition technologies. With the publication of the
Act on Promotion of Use of Recyclable Resources (1991) (1R),
the first Circular Economy Vision in 1999 (3Rs) (updated in2020) and the Basic Act on Establishing a Sound MaterialCycle Society in 2001, along with the Law on Promotion of
Effective Utilization of Resources, Japan was early inestablishing the CE as a guiding political principle in its
sustainability policies and can therefore be described as apioneer in the political promotion of the "3Rs" reduce, reuse
and recycle. The Japanese infrastructure is particularly
advanced in the area of recycling: 98 % of all metal waste isrecycled and Japan is recognised globally for its expertise in
the field of recycling and substitution. Japan has
implemented several policies and measures targeting therecycling and reuse of electronics, automobiles, and othercritical components. The Home Appliance Recycling Law,
enacted in 2001, mandates the recycling of major appliances,while the End-of-Life Vehicles Recycling Law (2005) aims to
make the automotive industry in Japan the leader in CE
promotion of material recycling of vehicle parts. The issue of
waste and challenges of waste management for clean energy
technologies as well as storage technologies are underdiscussion in several METIs study groups. For example, theissue of increasing PV-waste has been recognized andaddressed by developing targeted guidelines for waste
management of solar PVs. Similar discussion is in progress
for wind turbines. While the stable CRM procurement forbattery production is included in Japan’s Battery Industry
Strategy (2022), the end-of-life treatment of batteries isunder the discussion by METI's "Study Group on
Sustainability of Storage Batteries."
Furthermore, Japan's strategic emphasis on innovation andtechnology for sustainable CE practices is evident in the"Strategy for a Growth-Oriented, Resource-AutonomousCircular Economy" launched in March 2023, aiming toestablish a self-reliant domestic resource circulation systemand deepen the 4R policy. This strategy supports CE
investment, digitalization, and start-up ventures, whichhighlights Japan's approach to CE and CRM. The role offinancing in supporting Japan's CE and CRM initiatives ishighlighted by the Green Bond Guidelines and the Disclosureand Engagement Guidance to Accelerate Sustainable Financefor a Circular Economy, demonstrating the significance offinancial mechanisms in advancing sustainable resource
management.
Germany overall has a good collection and recycling
infrastructure, which in principle allows for the introductionof CE approaches, and good recycling values are achieved
already in the area of bulk metals. While overall recovery
rates for special and some industrial metals are currently low,some German companies are piloting innovative processes
for the high-quality recovery of CRMs, including from energy
transition technologies (cf. chapter 4.1.3). The framework
conditions for this are provided by a wide range of different
political programs and funding instruments: The firstcomprehensive legislation on CE approaches in Germany, theCircular Economy Act (KrWG), was passed in 2012 (updated
in 2020). Requirements for the return and recycling of CRMs
with particular significance for energy transition technologies
are also described by an increasing number of different
product-specific regulations such as the Batteries Act (2009,
updated 2021) and the Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Act (2015, updated 2022), which includes provisions for the
EOL treatment of solar PVs. A number of initiatives todevelop sector-specific regulatory changes and regulations
for a holistic approach to CE (e.g. with regard to ecodesign)
have also been launched at European level, particularly since
the beginning of the Russian war of aggression on Ukraine inearly 2022, which has put a renewed focus on thevulnerability of global supply chains in Europe. Both theGerman Standardisation Roadmap Circular Economy
published in 2023 as well as the National Circular Economy
Strategy (2022) and the EU 2020 Circular Economy Action
Plan (CEAP) make proposals on how the various approaches
and strategies for achieving closed loop production circles
and resource efficiency can be streamlined. This can also
help to disseminate various CE business models that are
being piloted in Germany (e.g. testing and distribution ofSecond Life batteries and solar panels), as described inchapter 4.1.3.
The overview of policies and industry best practices inGermany and Japan shows that traditionally, theunderstanding of circularity was often limited to recycling,with many previous policies specifying only quantitativecollection and recycling quotas (Tedesco et al. 2023; CISL
and Wuppertal Institute 2023). However, as described inchapter 4, a fully functional CE model also entails more
holistic approaches such as Remanufacture, Rethink,Refurbish etc. which have not been sufficiently encouraged
by policies (CISL and Wuppertal Institute 2023). It can beobserved that more recent policies recognise this and are

introducing new provisions and supporting schemes for the
implementation of a wider range of CE approaches to CRMs
and energy transition technologies. This trend is reflected,
for example, in the provisions of the German Batteries Act
and the Electrical and Electronic Equipment Act requiring
battery and solar PV manufacturers to increase the durability
and reusability of their products. Another example is theintroduction of preferential principles for sustainableproducts in public procurement decisions in the Circular
Economy Act and several pieces of legislation
proposed/adopted at EU level in recent years. These include
the new EU Battery Directive which, amongst other things,
introduces a digital product passport (DPP) or the proposalof an updated Ecodesign for Sustainable Products
Regulation (ESPR) which introduces product design
provisions that allow for improved reusability of products.
In Japan, too, where CE policies have historically focusedheavily on recycling (1R), new policies, measures andinitatives recognize the importance of other lifecycle aspects
of products. For example, in Japan, the importance of circular
design is recognized with the 2020 Guidelines forEnvironmentally Conscious Design of PVs. Additionally,
efforts are being made to use alternative materials for
producing solar panels, such as perovskite PVs, to substitute
CRMs. The National Hydrogen Strategy (2023) emphasizes
the importance of policies for recycling renewable energy
and rare metals, crucial for electrolysis and fuel cells, andadvocates for technology that reduces rare metal use.
Furthermore, policies related to the repair and recycling ofbatteries, including targets, are currently under discussion.
Similar to Germany, Japan promotes the procurement ofenvironmentally friendly products through its green public
procurement policy, the Green Purchasing Act (2001).
While both Japan and Germany have introduced initial policy
measures and instruments to promote CE solutions
specifically for batteries and solar PVs, there arecomparatively few approaches for wind energy andhydrogen/electrolyzers, which are also key technologies inthe energy transition in both countries. While generalcommitments to promoting R&D for resource efficiency andCE are included in the national hydrogen strategies of bothcountries, there are currently no comprehensive roadmaps
available that define a longterm and standardized approach.
Overall, Japan and Germany show an equal level of ambitionin the targets they have formulated for strengthening CE
approaches to CRMs for energy transition technologies. This
invites to further knowledge exchange and cooperation
between Japanese and German stakeholders in order tosupport the further development of specific approaches toenhance CE in the field of CRM for the clean energy
transition.

7 Conclusion and topics for GermanJapanese cooperation
As like-minded partners, both Japan and Germany havefundamentally committed to strengthening CE approaches
within their economies and have also recognized thepotential of CE to secure sustainable access to CRMs.
Both countries have begun to introduce legislation that also
covers CRMs relevant for the energy transition. Thisacknowledgment of the necessity for more comprehensive
action underscores the importance of comprehensive
solutions that involve circularity. Such foresight ensures that
CRMs from energy transition technologies are readily
available for low-emission domestic recycling and reuse in
the future. Recent legislative developments as described indetail in chapters 4.1.1 and 4.2.1 are essential in securing asustainable supply of CRMs, pivotal for both countries'
transition to cleaner energy supply and the broader adoptionof CE principles. However, there are few technology-specificregulations along with concrete targets for disposal, reuse
and recycling of energy transition technologies at their EOL
stages, especially in the case of wind power andelectrolyzers. With regards to EV batteries and PVs there are
requirements regarding EOL management which does
strengthen the recycling, however other approaches likereuse or refurbish, are less promoted by the existing
regulatory framework.
Overall, it is important to highlight that strengthening CE is acomplex endeavour, as many different areas either require atightening of existing regulations (such as regulations
regarding the export of EOL solar PVs, so that recycling does
not take place abroad and thus CRMs are lost), or an
adjustment (for example, some guidelines on EOL treatment,
e.g. of batteries, would need to be adjusted to enablereprocessing and reuse). Additionally, many of thesetechnologies are undergoing continuous change: thecomposition and use of various CRMs can differ significantly
between individual technologies, and therefore very specificguidelines, for example regarding recovery rates of individual
raw materials, might not prove to be beneficial. Nevertheless,there are several areas where policymakers can act tostrengthen the implementation of CE approaches. Table 1
outlines key recommendations for cooperation and mutual
learning between Germany and Japan.
As global frontrunners for the use and production of certain
energy transition technologies and in high-quality recycling,
policy decisions made in Japan and Germany on the topic
can influence the global market and technological pathways
in recycling CRMs and energy transition technologies. For
wind turbines and electrolyzers in particular, Japan andGermany can provide impetus for the global promotion anddesign of CE approaches for the preservation and recovery
of CRMs, as they dominate significant shares of global
production in these areas. Against this background, politicaldecision-makers participating in the dialogue areencouraged to discuss innovative approaches forstrengthening recycling technology, infrastructure andquality:
•

•

•

•

Joint identification of specific energy transition
technologies for which there is the greatest potential for
influence through the introduction of CE approaches
due to the market shares etc. of Germany and Japan.
Exchange on the introduction of mandatory levels ofrecycled content under specific technologies, as
contained in the new EU Battery Directive, for example,
and necessary accompanying support measures for
implementation.
Exchange on the design and effective implementation ofcollection and recycling quotas at the EOL as well as
product-specific EPR with take-back systems, as
contained i.e. in the German Batteries Act and theElectrical and Electronic Equipment Act.
Exchange on the effective design of investment
strategies and financial mechanisms such as public loans
to support R&D in high quality recycling, collection,sorting and processing.

In addition, Japanese and German policy makers should
discuss enforcement strategies to ensure that, for example,
politically defined recycling quotas are actually met. This can
include public awareness campaigns, incentives for recycling,
and more convenient recycling infrastructure as well as
robust monitoring systems. Learning from each other's
policy successes and setbacks can lead to the developmentof more effective political frameworks and interventions. The
similarities and differences in legislative and policy
frameworks that support recycling initiatives, including theeffectiveness thereof, can serve as discussion point formutual learning.
In the area of reuse and reduce, both countries have begun
to implement initial ideas and approaches, including circular
product design. An exchange on uniform design standards,
for example, can provide important insights at an early stageand enable international standards to be aligned as closely
as possible. In particular, the following topics arise for an
exchange between the responsible ministries and authorities:•

Exchange on and harmonization of the creation of
mandatory design criteria and standards for producers
to design and manage their products dureable, reusable
and recyclable, e.g. based on the example of Japan’sGuidelines for environmentally conscious design of solar
installations (published by MOE in 2020) and initialsuggestions provided in the German Standardisation
Roadmap Circular Economy of 2023, and expected
provisions for solar PVS in the updated EU Eco-design
Directive.
Both countries could engage in a structured comparison andexchange of their design requirements and initial findings
related to environmentally conscious and circular productdesign. Understanding the specifics of Japan's guidelines,
including criteria and implementation strategies, could
inspire similar or complementary guidelines within theGerman context. Similarly, Japan can benefit from insights
into Germany's initial design considerations. Through thecomparison and exchange of design standards andguidelines, Germany and Japan could identify areas forcollaborative development of global standards forsustainable and circular product design. Collaborating on
global standards could facilitate trade, ensure compatibilityof solar installations across markets, and encourage theglobal adoption of environmentally friendly and circular
design practices.
In order to target the reduced use of CRMs in energy
transition technologies, their substitution with i.e. moreeasily recyclable materials could be discussed. A particularlyinteresting topic for bilateral exchange could be:•

Exchange learnings from alternative materials research.
Japan has been the long time global leader in patentfilings for the manufacturing of “next generation”
perovskite PV modules to replace CRMs (Kusashio andFukui 2023) and could also share interesting findings
from the implementation of R&D funding andsupport inthis area, i.e. via the NEDO Green Innovation Fundprojects.

In addition to the selected approaches for promoting specific
CE approaches for CRMs for energy transition technologies,
there are some more general policy measures that canenable or strengthen the implementation of CE approaches
overall. Here, too, German and Japanese policy makers canlearn from each other:••

Exchange on how sustainable public procurement
requirements can further boost the market forsustainable and circular products, for example, whenpurchasing solar PVs or storage systems for installation
on and in public buildings.
Exchange ideas on how the governments of bothcountries could jointly work together to promotedemand for circular products and establish "circular leadmarkets" (based on debates on "green lead markets").
Especially for energy transition technologies such as
electrolyzers and wind turbines, Japan and Germany
have good opportunities to lead the discussion e.g. on
standardized definitions of "circular wind turbines" andto develop policy instruments that strengthen demand
and trade in such technologies.

According to the OECD, in 2021, public procurement
amounted to around 18 % of GDP in both Germany andJapan, well above the OECD average of 12,7 % (OECD 2023).
Sustainable or green public procurement thus has great
potential to play a pioneering role in sustainable purchasing
decisions and can strengthen new, circular business models.
In addition, there is potential for cooperation and exchange
between the two partners in the following fundamental area:•

Exchange on policy measure that improve theinformation base and data compatibility for circularity,
i.e. via the introduction of Digital Product Passports(DPPs) as foreseen in the new EU Battery Directive andmentioned in the EU ESPR draft.

The transparent and standardized provision of product datato all stakeholders along a product's life cycle and supply
chain can not only boost material and energy efficiency andrecyclability, but also enable new business opportunities,
such as extending product life through product-as-service
activities or repair and remanufacturing. Improved
information provision can further support consumers inmaking sustainable consumption decisions and empower
authorities to more easily verify compliance with legal
obligations. The establishment of a DPP can thus be aninteresting topic for Japanese stakeholders to consider.
Furthermore, it should be ensured that the requirements forfilling the DPP, for example for batteries, are compatible withinternational standards and norms so that battery
manufacturers can develop compliant approaches. An earlyexchange between Germany and Japan can avoid
compability issues later on.
Furthermore, Germany could learn from Japan's collaborative
business model, as exemplified by the Japan Partnership for
Circular Economy (J4CE). This initiative demonstrates how
fostering public-private partnerships can promote a deeper
understanding of the circular economy among a broad
number of stakeholders. Germany, with its strong industrial
base and commitment to the energy transition, could learn
from Japan's approach by enhancing cooperation between
government, industry, and academia. Such collaboration
could accelerate Germany's own circular economy initiatives,
ensuring a secure and sustainable supply of CRMs and aclose collaboration with the industry.
The discussion of CE and CRM topics can be facilitatedthrough a variety of formats designed to foster collaboration
between Germany and Japan. These can range from policy
exchanges at the working level of public administration,
supported by policy analyses prepared by German andJapanese research teams with coordinated funding. In
addition, practitioners from business and civil society
organisations should be included in bilateral exchange
formats. This is already successfully done within the twoworking groups established within the Japanese-Germany
Energy Partnership on topics regarding the “Energy
Transition” and “Hydrogen”. A dedicated sub-working groupon issues regarding “CE approaches for the energy
transition” or “Secruing CRMs for the energy transition” orbroader on “Resilient and Sustainable Supply Chains for the
Energy Transition” could provide a suitable framework for across-stakeholder exchange on these topics. Additionally, theestablishment of joint expert pools, policy dialogues, andbusiness dialogues can further enrich the conversation.
Long-term sustainability and circularity partnerships between
researchers, underscored by research dialogues, also play a
critical role. Japanese researchers' involvement in various EU
Horizon 2020 projects exemplifies the potential for deep
collaboration and shared learning in advancing CE and CRM
initiatives (EU-Japan Centre for Industrial Cooperation 2022).
The other existing policy dialog formats between Japan andthe EU are also to be continued and expanded to include
discussions on the application of CE for CRMs relevant to theenergy transition. The Administrative Arrangement between
the EC and JOGMEC from July 2023 (EC 2023a) provides asuitable starting point and framework for this.

Table 1: Areas for Japanese-German cooperation and mutual learning
Key CE
approaches

RecycleRecommendations/tools to strengthen CE approaches
•
•
•
•

•
Reuse /
Reduce

•

•
Other

•
•

Examples/initial approaches

Mandatory levels of recycled content
Mandatory collection & recycling quotas at the EOL
Extended Producer Responsibility with take-backrequirements
Investment in R&D and public loans supporting highquality recycling, collection, sorting and processing➔ EU Batteries Directive: mandatory minimum
levels of recycled content for CRMs
➔ Japan’s Green Bond Guidelines: R&D
investments

Creation of mandatory design criteria & standards for
producers to design and manage their products durable,
reusable and recyclable
Substitution of CRMs with materials that are more easily
recyclable➔ German Standardisation Roadmap Circular
Economy & EU ESPR draft; Japanese
Guidelines for Environmentally Conscious
Design of PVs➔ Japan: NEDO Green Innovation Fund
Projects and R&D for next generation PVs(perovskite)

Use the potential of sustainable/green public
procurement as a booster for ircular and sustainableproducts
Establish “circular lead markets” for innovative energy
transition technologies
Improvement of information base & data compatibility
for circularity➔ Germany’s Circular Econoy Act and Japan’sGreen Purchasing Act➔ EU Batteries Directive: Digital ProductPassport (also mentioned in EU ESPR draft)List of abbreviations
3Rs

reduce, reuse, recycle

ESPR

Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation

3R ActResource Effective Utilization Promotion Act

EVs

Electric Vehicles

ACCP

African Clean Cities PlatformGACERE Global Alliance for Circular Economy and Resource
Efficiency

ARE

G7 Alliance on Resource Efficiency

BASC

Battery Association for Supply Chain

BGR

German Federal Insitute for Geoscience and Natural
Resources

GERRI

German Resource Research Institute

GHG

Greenhouse gas

GPP

Green Public Procurement

BImSchG Federal Immission Control Act

GW

Gigawatts

BMBF

German Federal Ministry of Education and Research

GWh

Gigawatt-hour

BMUV

German Federal Environment Ministry

GX

Green Transformation

ICT

Information and communication technology

IEA

International Energy Agency

IGES

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

IRENA

International Renewable Energy Agency

IRP

International Resource Panel

BMWK German Federal Ministry for Economy and Climate
Action
CCUS

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage

CE

Circular Economy

CEAP

EU Circular Economy Action Plan

CEREP

Circular Economy and Resource Efficiency Principles
J4CE

Japan Partnership for Circular Economy

COP

Conference of the Parties/ United Nations Climate
Change Conference

JAMA

Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

CRMs

Critical Raw Materials

JOGMEC Japan Organization for Metals and Energy Security

CRMA

Critical Raw Materials Act

JPEA

Japan Photovoltaic Energy Association

DERA

German Mineral Resources Agency

JPY

Japanese Yen

DPP

Digital Product Passport

JWPA

Japan Wind Power Association

EC

European Commission

JSWTA Japan Small Wind Turbine Association

EEDF

Environment and Energy Dialogue Forum

KrWG

Circular Economy Act

EEG

German Renewable Energy Sources Act

kt

kiloton

EIP

European Innovation Partnership

METI

Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry

EIT

European Institute of Innovation and Technology

MOE

Japanese Ministry of the Environment

ElektroG Electrical and Electronic Equipment Act

MSP

Minerals Security Partnership

EOL

MUFG

Mitsubishi UFJ Ginkō bank

End of Life

Mt

Megatontton (metric)MW

Megawatt

TWh

Terrawatt hour

NKWS

National Circular Economy Strategy

UBA

Federal Environment Agency

NEDO

Japanese New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization

UN

United Nations

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

PVs

Photovoltaics

R&D

Research and Development

REEs

Rare Earth Elements

UNFCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
ChangeList of figures
Figure 1: Use of selected CRMs by energy transition technologies covered in this report .........................................................................................7
Figure 2: Total mineral demand (Mt) from selected clean energy technologies by scenario, 2010-2040 ............................................................8
Figure 3: 9-R concept as applied in the circulairty approach ................................................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 4: Overview of policy frameworks in Germany .............................................................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 5: Overview of policy frameworks in Japan ..................................................................................................................................................................... 24

List of tables
Table 1: Areas for Japanese-German cooperation and mutual learning .......................................................................................................................... 36

8 Publication bibliography
ANRE (2020): Japan’s new international resource strategy to secure rare metals. Agency for Natural Resources and Energy. Available
online at https://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/en/category/special/article/detail_158.html, updated on 9/6/2022, checked on 2/22/2024.
ANRE (2021a): Outlook for energy demand and supply in 2030 (2030年度におけるエネルギー需給の見通し). Agency for Natural
Resources and Energy. Available online at https://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/category/others/basic_plan/pdf/20211022_03.pdf,
checked on 2/22/2024.
ANRE (2021b): Mineral resources policy towards a carbon-neutral society in 2050. Agency for Natural Resources and Energy.
Available online at https://www.meti.go.jp/shingikai/enecho/shigen_nenryo/kogyo/pdf/007_03_00.pdf.
ANRE (2022): Japan's Energy. 10 Questions for understanding the current energy situation. Agency for Natural Resources andEnergy. Available online at https://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/en/category/brochures/pdf/japan_energy_2022.pdf.
ANRE (2023): Overview of Basic Hydrogen Strategy. Agency for Natural Resources and Energy. Available online athttps://www.meti.go.jp/shingikai/enecho/shoene_shinene/suiso_seisaku/pdf/20230606_4.pdf, checked on 1/17/2024.
Arai, Risa; Calisto Friant, Martin; Vermeulen, Walter J. V. (2023): The Japanese Circular Economy and Sound Material-Cycle Society
Policies: Discourse and Policy Analysis. In Circ.Econ.Sust. 3 (4), pp. 1–32. DOI: 10.1007/s43615-023-00298-7.
Astec irie (2023): Urban Mines Recycling. Available online at https://www.astec-irie.co.jp/recycle/nonmetal_en, checked on
12/20/2023.
Bangert, Helene (2020): JAPAN’S CIRCULARITY. A Panorama of Japanese Policy, Innovation, Technology and Industry Contributions
Towards Achieving the Paris Agreement. Edited by EU-Japan Centre for Industrial Cooperation.
BASC (2022): Towards strengthening the battery supply chain. Battery Association for Supply Chain. Available online athttps://www.meti.go.jp/policy/mono_info_service/joho/conference/battery_strategy/0005/03.pdf, updated on 7/26/2022, checkedon 1/17/2024.
Benton, Dustin; Hazell, Jonny (2015): The circular economy in Japan. Edited by The institution of environmental sciences. Available
online at https://www.the-ies.org/analysis/circular-economy-japan#6, updated on 12/18/2023, checked on 1/17/2024.
BGR (2020): BGR koordiniert das Deutsche Forschungsnetzwerk Rohstoffe: Das Know-how von „GERRI“ unterstützt den Übergang ineine ressourceneffiziente Kreislaufwirtschaft. With assistance of Dr. Volker Steinbach. Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften undRohstoffe. Hannover. Available online at https://www.deutscherohstoffagentur.de/DE/Gemeinsames/Oeffentlichkeitsarbeit/Pressemitteilungen/BGR/bgr-2020-02-13_forschungsnetzwerkrohstoffe.html, updated on 2/13/2020, checked on 11/3/2023.
BGR (2022): Deutschland – Rohstoffsituation 2021. Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe. Hannover. Available online
at https://www.bgr.bund.de/DE/Themen/Min_rohstoffe/Produkte/produkte_node.html, checked on 12/8/2023.
BMBF (2023a): BMBF-Dachkonzept Batterieforschung. Souveränität für eine nachhaltige Wertschöpfung von morgen.
Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung. Bonn. Available online athttps://www.bmbf.de/bmbf/shareddocs/downloads/files/bmbf-dachkonzept-batterieforschung2023.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=6, checked on 2/9/2024.
BMBF (2023b): Update der Nationalen Wasserstoffstrategie: Turbo für die H2-Wirtschaft. Bundesministerium für Bildung und
Forschung. Available online at https://www.bmbf.de/bmbf/de/forschung/energiewende-und-nachhaltiges-wirtschaften/nationalewasserstoffstrategie/nationale-wasserstoffstrategie_node.html, updated on 7/26/2023, checked on 1/6/2023.
BMU (2021): Lesefassung des Bundes-Klimaschutzgesetzes 2021 mit markierten Änderungen zur Fassung von 2019. Edited by
Bundesmisiterium für Umwelt, Natzurschutz und nukleare Sicherheit. Available online athttps://www.bmuv.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Klimaschutz/ksg_aendg_2021_3_bf.pdf, checked on 10/31/2023.
BMUV (2020): Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz. Gesetz zur Förderung der Kreislaufwirtschaft und Sicherung der umweltverträglichen
Bewirtschaftung von Abfällen. Lesefassung mit Änderungen des neuen Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetzes. Bundesministerium für Umwelt,
Naturschutz, nukleare Sicherheit und Verbraucherschutz. Available online athttps://www.bmuv.de/gesetz/kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz, updated on 9/13/2022, checked on 12/11/2023.
BMUV (2021): Gesetz über das Inverkehrbringen, die Rücknahme und die umweltverträgliche Entsorgung von Batterien und
Akkumulatoren. Batteriegesetz. Gesetze | BattG. Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, nukleare Sicherheit undVerbraucherschutz. Available online at https://www.bmuv.de/gesetz/gesetz-ueber-das-inverkehrbringen-die-ruecknahme-und-dieumweltvertraegliche-entsorgung-von-batterien-und-akkumulatoren, updated on 1/1/2021, checked on 12/11/2023.
BMUV (2022): Richtlinie 2012/19/EU über Elektro- und Elektronik-Altgeräte. WEEE-Richtlinie. Richtlinien | RL 2012/19/EU.
Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, nukleare Sicherheit und Verbraucherschutz. Available online athttps://www.bmuv.de/GE778, updated on 7/28/2022, checked on 12/15/2023.
BMUV (2023a): Altfahrzeug-Verordnung. Gesetzgebung in Deutschland. Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, nukleare
Sicherheit und Verbraucherschutz. Available online at https://www.bmuv.de/themen/kreislaufwirtschaft/abfallarten-undabfallstroeme/altfahrzeuge/gesetzgebung-in-deutschland-altfahrzeug-verordnung, updated on 11/10/2023, checked on
12/11/2023.
BMUV (2023b): Nationale Kreislaufwirtschaftsstrategie (NKWS). Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, nukleare Sicherheit
und Verbraucherschutz. Available online at https://www.bmuv.de/themen/kreislaufwirtschaft/kreislaufwirtschaftsstrategie, updated
on 4/18/2023, checked on 12/11/2023.
BMUV (2023c): Standardization Roadmap Circular Economy: New options for action for the green transformation. Joint press
release of the BMUV, DIN, DKE and VDI. No. 006/23. Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety andConsumer Protection. Available online at https://www.bmuv.de/en/pressrelease/standardization-roadmap-circular-economy-newoptions-for-action-for-the-green-transformation, updated on 2/19/2023, checked on 12/11/2023.
BMUV (2023d): Fundamentals of the National Circular Economy Strategy (NKWS). The process of transforming to a circular
economy. Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection. Available online athttps://www.bmuv.de/en/download/fundamentals-of-the-national-circular-economy-strategy-nkws, checked on 12/8/2023.
BMUV (2023e): The National Circular Economy Strategy. Fundamentals for the process of transforming to a circular economy.
Bundesmisiterium für Umwelt, Natzurschutz, nukleare Sicherheit und Verbraucherschutz. Available online athttps://www.bmuv.de/en/download/fundamentals-of-the-national-circular-economy-strategy-nkws, checked on 11/28/2023.
BMUV (2024): Entwurf einer Nationalen Kreislaufwirtschaftsstrategie (NKWS). Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, nukleare
Sicherheit und Verbraucherschutz. Available online at https://www.bmuv.de/download/entwurf-einer-nationalenkreislaufwirtschaftsstrategie-nkws, checked on 7/19/2024.
BMWi (2019): Rohstoffstrategie der Bundesregierung. Sicherung einer nachhaltigen Rohstoffversorgung Deutschlands mit
nichtenergetischen mineralischen Rohstoffen. Edited by Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie. Available online athttps://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Publikationen/Industrie/rohstoffstrategie-derbundesregierung.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1, checked on 10/31/2023.
BMWK (2020): Rohstoffstrategie der Bundesregierung. Mineralische Rohstoffe sind unverzichtbar für Deutschland – alsTechnologiestandort und als Exportnation. Available online at https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Schlaglichter-derWirtschaftspolitik/2020/03/kapitel-1-10-rohstoffstrategie-der-bundesregierung.html, updated on 2/25/2020, checked on
10/31/2023.
BMWK (2022a): Eckpunktepapier des Bundesministeriums für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz (BMWK): Wege zu einer nachhaltigen undresilienten Rohstoffversorgung. Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz. Available online athttps://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Downloads/E/eckpunktepapier-nachhaltige-und-resilienterohstoffversorgung.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1, checked on 10/24/2023.
BMWK (2022b): Fakten aus Eröffnungsbilanz Klimaschutz. Edited by Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz. Available
online at https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Infografiken/Energie/fakten-aus-eroeffnungsbilanzmarginal.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1.
BMWK (2023a): National Hydrogen Strategy Update. NHS 2023. Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz. Berlin.
BMWK (2023b): Photovoltaik-Strategie. Handlungsfelder und Maßnahmen für einen beschleunigten Ausbau der Photovoltaik.
Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz. Berlin. Available online athttps://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Publikationen/Energie/photovoltaik-stategie-2023.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=8, checkedon 2/9/2024.
BMWK (2023c): Stromspeicher-Strategie des BMWK vorgelegt. Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz. Available online
at https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Artikel/Energie/Energiespeicher/stromspeicher-strategie.html, updated on 12/8/2023,
checked on 1/6/2024.
Boewe, Marius; Rasche, David (2024): EU's Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation - the essentials. Edited by Herbert Smith
Freehills LLP. Lexology. Available online at https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=4debb5af-4e1c-4108-8fb8ab2315110c4a, updated on 6/21/2024, checked on 19.94.2024.

Bourne, Matthew (2023): Solar panel recycling industry is born in Japan. Edited by Clean Energy Revolution. Available online athttps://cleanenergyrevolution.co/2023/07/27/solar-panel-recycling-industry-is-born-in-japan/, checked on 12/20/2023.
Bundesnetzagentur (2023): Changes to the laws affecting wind power. Electricity market topics. Available online athttps://www.smard.de/page/en/topic-article/5892/209964, updated on 1/26/2023, checked on 2/9/2024.
BVSE (2023): Innovative Anforderungen könnten die Kreislaufwirtschaft von Kunststoffen und kritischen Rohstoffen in Fahrzeugen
fördern. bvse-Fachverband Schrott, E-Schrott und Kfz-Recycling. Available online at https://www.bvse.de/schrott-elektronikgeraeterecycling/nachrichten-schrott-eschrott-kfz/9971-innovative-anforderungen-koennten-die-kreislaufwirtschaft-von-kunststoffenund-kritischen-rohstoffen-in-fahrzeugen-foerdern.html, updated on 7/21/2023, checked on 12/11/2023.
Cabinet Office Governement of Japan (2022): Basic guidelines on ensuring a stable supply of specified critical materials. Available
online at https://www.cao.go.jp/keizai_anzen_hosho/suishinhou/doc/kihonshishin1.pdf, checked on 1/2/2024.
Cabinet Secretariat (2002): Act on the Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources. English translation. Cabinet Secretariat Japan(CAS). Available online at https://www.cas.go.jp/jp/seisaku/hourei/data/peur_2.pdf, checked on 2/22/2024.
Cabinet Secretariat (2023): Grand Design and Action Plan for a New Form of Capitalism 2023 Revised Version. Cabinet Secretariat
Japan (CAS). Available online at https://www.cas.go.jp/jp/seisaku/atarashii_sihonsyugi/pdf/ap2023en.pdf, checked on 2/22/2024.
Carrara, Samuel; Bobba, Silvia; Blagoeva, Darina; Alves Dias, Patricia; Cavalli, Alessandro; Georgitzikis, Konstantinos et al. (2023):
Supply chain analysis and material demand forecast in strategic technologies and sectors in the EU. A foresight study. Luxembourg:
Publications Office of the European Union (31437). Available online at https://op.europa.eu/o/opportal-service/downloadhandler?identifier=9e17a3c2-c48f-11ed-a05c-01aa75ed71a1&format=pdf&language=en&productionSystem=cellar&part=.
Chee, Foo Yun; Blenkinsop, Philip (2023): EU agrees mineral supply targets to cut reliance on China. Available online athttps://www.reuters.com/sustainability/eu-set-okay-rules-secure-critical-raw-materials-eu-official-says-2023-11-13/, updated on
11/13/2023, checked on 11/15/2023.
CISL; Wuppertal Institute (2023): Embracing circularity: A pathway for strengthening the Critical Raw Materials Act. University ofCambridge Institute for Sustainability Leadership; Wuppertal Institute; CLG Europe. Cambridge, UK. Available online athttps://www.corporateleadersgroup.com/files/cisl_embracing_circularity_report_v5.pdf.
Council of the EU (2023): Council and Parliament strike provisional deal to reinforce the supply of critical raw materials. Withassistance of Ferran Tarradellas Espuny. European Council; Council of the EU. Available online athttps://www.consilium.europa.ehttps://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2023/11/13/council-and-parliamentstrike-provisional-deal-to-reinforce-the-supply-of-critical-raw-materials/u/en/press/press-releases/2023/11/13/council-andparliament-strike-provisional-deal-to-reinforce-the-supply-of-critical-raw-materials/, updated on 11/13/2023, checked on
12/11/2023.
DERA (2022a): Chart des Monats, April 2022. Rohstoffe für Photovoltaikanlagen. Bundeskanlzer bei BGR. Deutsche Rohstoffagentur.
Available online at https://www.deutscherohstoffagentur.de/DERA/DE/Downloads/DERA%202022_cdm_04_Energiewende_in_Deutschland.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2,
checked on 10/31/2023.
DERA (2022b): Chart des Monats, März 2022. Rohstoffe für Windkraftanlagen. Deutsche Rohstoffagentur. Available online athttps://www.deutscherohstoffagentur.de/DERA/DE/Downloads/DERA%202022_cdm_03_Energiewende_in_Deutschland.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=5,
checked on 10/31/2023.
DERA (2022c): Mineralische Rohstoffe für die Wasserelektrolyse. Deutsche Rohstoffagentur. Berlin (DERA Themenheft). Available
online at https://www.bgr.bund.de/DERA/DE/Downloads/DERA%20Themenheft-01-22.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3, checkedon 12/18/2023.
DESTATIS (2022): 11,2 % mehr recycelte Elektroaltgeräte im Jahr 2020. Recyclingquote gegenüber 2019 leicht gestiegen.
Pressemitteilung Nr. 058 vom 11. Februar 2022. Statistisches Bundesamt. Available online athttps://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2022/02/PD22_058_321.html, updated on 2/11/2022, checked on
7/12/2024.
DeWit, Andrew (2021): Decarbonization and Critical Raw Materials: Some Issues for Japan. In The Asia-Pacific Journal 19 (2), pp. 1–
13. Available online at https://apjjf.org/2021/3/DeWit, checked on 12/11/2023.
Die Bundesregierung (2022): Nachhaltige Mobilität: Nicht weniger fortbewegen, sondern anders. Available online athttps://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/schwerpunkte/klimaschutz/nachhaltige-mobilitaet-2044132, updated on 12/23/2022,
checked on 3/5/2024.

Die Bundesregierung (2023a): Gemeinsame Erklärung. 1. Deutsch-Japanische Regierungskonsultationen. Tokyo. Available online athttps://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/aktuelles/deutsch-japanische-regierungskonsultationen-2171896, updated on
3/18/2023, checked on 12/22/2023.
Die Bundesregierung (2023b): Neu denken bei der Rohstoffversorgung. Available online at https://www.bundesregierung.de/bregde/schwerpunkte/klimaschutz/rohstoffversorgung-2166232, checked on 11/3/2023.
EC (n.d.a): Fifth list 2023 of critical raw materials for the EU. European Commission. Available online at https://single-marketeconomy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/areas-specific-interest/critical-raw-materials_en, checked on 7/19/2024.
EC (n.d.b): The European innovation partnership (EIP) on raw materials. European Commission. Available online at https://singlemarket-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/eip_en, checked on 12/11/2023.
EC (2020a): A new Circular Economy Action Plan: For a cleaner and more competitive Europe. COM(2020) 98 final. Communicationfrom the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committeeof the Regions, 3/11/2020. Available online at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?qid=1583933814386&uri=COM:2020:98:FIN, checked on 12/15/2023.
EC (2020b): Communication from the commission to the european parliament, the council, the european economic and social
committee and the committee of the regions. Stepping up Europe’s 2030 climate ambition Investing in a climate-neutral future forthe benefit of our people. Edited by European Commission. Brussels. Available online at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52020DC0562, checked on 11/1/2023.
EC (2022): Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation. European Commission. Available online athttps://commission.europa.eu/energy-climate-change-environment/standards-tools-and-labels/products-labelling-rules-andrequirements/sustainable-products/ecodesign-sustainable-products-regulation_en, checked on 11/15/2023.
EC (2023a): EU and Japan boost strategic cooperation on digital and on critical raw materials supply chains. European Commission.
Brussels. Available online at https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_3831, updated on 7/13/2023, checkedon 2/9/2024.
EC (2023b): More circular, less carbon: chemical recycling holds promise for wind-turbine blade waste. European Commission DG
Environment News Alert Service, edited by the Science Communication Unit, The University of the West of England. European
Commission. Bristol (Science for Environment Policy, 611). Available online at https://environment.ec.europa.eu/news/morecircular-less-carbon-chemical-recycling-holds-promise-wind-turbine-blade-waste-2023-10-19_en, updated on 10/19/2023,
checked on 2/12/2024.
EC (2023c): Renewable energy storage from second-life batteries is viable but may benefit from subsidies. European Commission
DG Environment News Alert Service, edited by the Science Communication Unit, The University of the West of England. European
Commission. Bristol (Science for Environment Policy, 609). Available online at https://environment.ec.europa.eu/news/renewableenergy-storage-second-life-batteries-viable-may-benefit-subsidies-2023-09-13_en, updated on 9/13/2023, checked on 2/12/2024.
EC (2023d): Circular economy: New law on more sustainable, circular and safe batteries enters into force. European Commission.
Available online at https://environment.ec.europa.eu/news/new-law-more-sustainable-circular-and-safe-batteries-enters-force2023-08-17_en, checked on 11/15/2023.
EEA (2024): Capturing the climate change mitigation benefits of circular economy and waste sector policies and measures. Briefing.
European Environment Agency. Available online at https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/capturing-the-climate-changemitigation#:~:text=The%20circular%20economy%20is%20an,the%20challenge%20of%20quantifying%20impacts., updated on
2/22/2024, checked on 7/12/2024.
Eiki Shoji (2023): Semiconductor & Silicon. Available online at https://www.eikishoji.co.jp/en/recycle/semiconductor.php, checkedon 12/20/2023.
EIT RawMaterials (2023a): About EIT RawMaterials. Available online at https://eitrawmaterials.eu/about-us/, checked on 12/11/2023.
EIT RawMaterials (2023b): European Raw Materials Alliance (ERMA). Available online at https://erma.eu/workstreams/, checked on
12/11/2023.
Ekins, Paul; Domenech, Teresa; Drummond, Paul; Bleischwitz, Raimung; Hughes, Nick; Lotti, Lorenzo (2019): The Circular Economy:
What, Why, How and Where. Background paper for an OECD/EC Workshop on 5 July 2019 within the workshop series “Managing
environmental and energy transitions for regions and cities”. Paris. Available online athttps://www.oecd.org/cfe/regionaldevelopment/Ekins-2019-Circular-Economy-What-Why-How-Where.pdf, checked on
11/13/2023.
Enerdata (2023): World Energy & Climate Statistics. Yearbook 2023. Total energy consumption. Available online athttps://yearbook.enerdata.net/total-energy/world-consumption-statistics.html, checked on 12/21/2023.

energie-experten.org (2022): Entsorgung von Solarmodulen. Vorschriften, Rückgabe & Kosten. Available online athttps://www.energie-experten.org/erneuerbare-energien/photovoltaik/solarmodule/entsorgung, updated on 2/21/2022, checkedon 12/18/2023.
ESCAP (2023): Implications of the Energy Transition on Sustainable Critical Minerals Development in Asia and the Pacific. Aligning
Extractive Industries with the Sustainable Development Goals. Edited by United Nations. Economic and Social Commission for Asiaand the Pacific. Available online at https://www.unescap.org/kp/2023/implications-energy-transition-sustainable-critical-mineralsdevelopment-aligning, checked on 2/21/2024.
EU-Japan Centre for Industrial Cooperation (2022): The EU and Japan open Horizon Europe association talks. Available online athttps://www.eu-japan.eu/news/eu-and-japan-open-horizon-europe-associationtalks#:~:text=Under%20the%20previous%20EU%20research,and%20renewable%20energy%20(biofuels)., checked on 2/22/2024.
European Parliament; Council of the EU (2024a): Regulation (EU) 2024/1252 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11
April 2024 establishing a framework for ensuring a secure and sustainable supply of critical raw materials and amending
Regulations (EU) No 168/2013, (EU) 2018/858, (EU) 2018/1724 and (EU) 2019/1020Text with EEA relevance. Edited by Official
Journal of the European Union. Available online at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1252/oj, updated on 4/11/2024, checkedon 4/19/2024.
European Parliament; Council of the EU (2024b): Regulation (EU) 2024/1781 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13
June 2024 establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for sustainable products, amending Directive (EU)2020/1828 and Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 and repealing Directive 2009/125/ECText with EEA relevance. Edited by Official Journalof the European Union. Available online at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32024R1781&qid=1719580391746, updated on 6/28/2024, checked on 4/19/2024.
EUROSTAT (2022): Circular material use rate. Online data code: cei_srm030. Available online athttps://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/cei_srm030/default/bar?lang=en, updated on 11/14/2023, checked on 12/8/2023.
Ffe (2022): Beitragsreihe Wasserstoff Deep Dives. Rohstoffbedarf der Wasserstoffproduktion. Forschungsstelle für Energiewirtschaft
e. V. Available online at https://www.ffe.de/veroeffentlichungen/beitragsreihe-wasserstoff-deep-dives-rohstoffbedarf-derwasserstoffproduktion/, updated on 12/6/2022, checked on 2/9/2024.
Fichter, Klaus; Neumann, Thomas; Clausen, Jens; Widrat, Alexandra; Pantermöller, Alicia; Kelkar, Oliver; Appel, Simon Alexander(2023): Green Tech Made in Germany. Best Practice Geschäftsmodelle zur Erschließung grüner Wachstumsmärkte. Edited by MHP
Gesellschaft für Management- und IT-Beratung mbH. Available online at https://www.mhp.com/de/insights/was-wirdenken/greentech-made-in-germany-2023, checked on 12/15/2023.
Fraunhofer ISE (2024): Public Net Electricity Generation 2023 in Germany: Renewables Cover the Majority of the Electricity
Consumption for the First Time. Available online at https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/en/press-media/press-releases/2024/publicelectricity-generation-2023-renewable-energies-cover-the-majority-of-german-electricity-consumption-for-the-first-time.html,
updated on 1/15/2024, checked on 2/22/2024.
G7 (2022): G7 Berlin Roadmap on Resource Efficiency and Circular Economy (2022-2025). G7 Germany 2022. Available online athttps://www.bmuv.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Europa___International/g7_berlin_roadmap_bf.pdf, checked on
2/9/2024.
G7 (2023): Circular Economy and Resource Efficiency Principles (CEREP). Fostering Business Leadership, Action, and Partnerships. G7
Japan 2023. Available online athttps://www.env.go.jp/en/press/press_02234.html#:~:text=CEREP%20is%20a%20set%20of,efficiency%20in%20the%20private%20se
ctor., checked on 2/9/2024.
G7 Alliance on Resource Efficiency (n.d.): About us. Available online at https://www.g7are.com/about-us, checked on 12/11/2023.
G7 Ministers (2023): Five-Point Plan for Critical Minerals Security. Annex to the Climate, Energy and Environment Ministers’Communiqué. Meeting on Climate, Energy and Environment. Available online athttps://www.meti.go.jp/information/g7hirosima/energy/pdf/Annex005.pdf, checked on 12/19/2023.
Gebhardt, Paul; Hoffmann, Stephan; Wenzel, Timo; Friedrich, Lorenz; Herceg, Sina; Subasi, Silara Maria et al. (2022): Lead-free PV
modules. Industrial realization and evaluation of environmental impact. Presented at the WCPEC-8, 8th World Conference on
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, 26-30 September 2022, Milan, Italy. Edited by Fraunhofer-Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE.
Freiburg. Available online at https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/conference-paper/wcpec8/Gebhardt_3DV328.pdf, checked on 2/12/2024.
Gislev, Magnus; Grohol, Milan; Mathieux, Fabrice; Ardente, Fulvio; Bobba, Silvia; Nuss, Philip et al. (2018): Report on critical raw
materials and the circular economy. Edited by Publications Office of the European Union. Luxembourg. Available online athttps://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/d1be1b43-e18f-11e8-b690-01aa75ed71a1, checked on 12/8/2023.

Günther, Jens; Lehmann, Harry; Lorenz, Ullrich; Purr, Katja (2019): A resource efficient pathway towards a greenhouse gas neutral
Germany. Dessau-Roßlau: Umweltbundesamt. Available online at https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/a-resourceefficient-pathway-towards-a-greenhouse, checked on 11/13/2023.
Hamada Co. Ltd. (2022): Solar panels in Japan. Available online athttps://www.jica.go.jp/Resource/activities/issues/env_manage/jcci/uurjcd000000fna0-att/presentation_05.pdf, checked on
12/20/2023.
IEA (2022a): International Resource Strategy - National stockpiling system. International Energy Agency. Available online athttps://www.iea.org/policies/16639-international-resource-strategy-national-stockpiling-system, updated on 10/27/2022, checkedon 10/24/2023.
IEA (2022b): The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. World Energy Outlook Special Report. International Energy
Agency. Available online at https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf, checked on 10/30/2023.
IEA (2023): Sixth Strategic Energy Plan. 2050 Carbon neutral. Japan. International Energy Agency. Available online athttps://www.iea.org/policies/14391-sixth-strategic-energy-plan-2050-carbon-neutral, updated on 10/31/2022, checked on
12/11/2023.
IEA; International Energy Agency (2021): The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. Available online athttps://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a52b6d9a86fdc/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf, checked on 12/11/2023.
IEA PVPS (2022): Status of PV Module Recycling in Selected IEA PVPS Task12 Countries. International Energy Agency Photovoltaic
Power Systems Programme. Available online at https://iea-pvps.org/key-topics/status-of-pv-module-recycling-in-selected-ieapvps-task12-countries/, checked on 3/5/2024.
IGES (n.d.): About G20 Resource Efficiency Dialogue. Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. Available online athttps://g20re.org/about.html, checked on 12/11/2023.
IHK Köln (n.d.): Das Batteriegesetz (BattG). Industrie- und Handelskammer zu Köln (IHK Köln). Available online athttps://www.ihk.de/koeln/hauptnavigation/umwelt-und-energie/umwelt/das-batteriegesetz-battg--5161000, checked on
12/11/2023.
IRENA (2021): World Energy Transitions Outlook. 1,5°C Pathway. Edited by International Renewable Energy. Abu Dhabi. Available
online at https://www.irena.org//media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Jun/IRENA_World_Energy_Transitions_Outlook_2021.pdf, checked on 3/5/2024.
IRENA (2022): Socio-economic footprint of the energy transition: Japan. International Renewable Energy Agency. Available online athttps://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2022/Sep/IRENA_Socio-economic_footprint_Japan_2022.pdf,
checked on 12/11/2023.
IRENA (2023): Geopolitics of the Energy Transition. Critical Materials. International Renewable Energy Agency. Aub Dhabi. Available
online at https://www.irena.org/Publications/2023/Jul/Geopolitics-of-the-Energy-Transition-Critical-Materials, checked on
12/6/2023.
IRP (2020): Resource Efficiency and Climate Change. Material Efficiency Strategies for a Low-Carbon Future. With assistance ofHertwich, E., Lifset, R., Pauliuk, S., Heeren, N. A report of the International Resource Panel. Edited by United Nations Environment
Programme. International Resource Panel. Nairobi, Kenya. Available online at https://www.resourcepanel.org/reports/resourceefficiency-and-climate-change, checked on 7/12/2024.
ISEP (2023): 2022 Share of Electricity from Renewable Energy Sources in Japan (Preliminary). Institute for Sustainable Energy
Policies. Available online at https://www.isep.or.jp/en/1436/, checked on 12/11/2023.
Ito, Takaaki (2022): Circular Economy in Japan. Office for Promotion of Sound Material-Cycle Society, Ministry of the Environment ofJapan. Available online at https://www.jica.go.jp/Resource/activities/issues/env_manage/jcci/uurjcd000000fdjeatt/presentation_11.pdf, checked on 12/20/2023.
J4CE (2021): Initiatives in the Circular Economy by Japanese Companies. Japan Partnership for Circular Economy. Available online athttps://j4ce.env.go.jp/top/J4CE_NoteworthyCases2021.pdf, checked on 2/23/2024.
Japan NRG (2022): Japan’s Battery Future: METI Sets Goals for Developing Burgeoning Industry. Japan National ResponsibilityGroup. Available online at https://japan-nrg.com/deepdive/road-to-japans-battery-future-meti-sets-goals-for-developing-theburgeoning-industry/, checked on 1/2/2024.

JERA Co., Inc. (2022): JERA and Sumitomo Chemical Start a Demonstration Project to Develop a Low Environmental Impact
Recycling Process for Electric Vehicle Lithium-ion Batteries. Available online athttps://www.jera.co.jp/en/news/information/20220419_885, updated on 4/19/2022, checked on 12/20/2023.
JOGMEC (n.d.): Overview. About Us. Japan Organization for Metals and Energy Security. Available online athttps://www.jogmec.go.jp/english/about/about001.html, updated on 12/11/2023, checked on 12/11/2023.
JOGMEC (2024): 出版物・レポート一覧. Mineral Resources Information. Japan Organization for Metals and Energy Security.
Available online athttps://mric.jogmec.go.jp/report/?category%5B0%5D=material_flow&doing_wp_cron=1708617236.8663880825042724609375,
updated on 2/22/2024, checked on 2/22/2024.
Kobayashi, Saki (2023): Photovoltaic (PV) Module Waste Regulaions - Japan. Edited by EnerScale Knowledge. Available online athttps://enerscale.biz/jekyll/PV_Module_Waste_Regulations_Japan/, checked on 12/19/2023.
Kowalski, Przemyslaw; Legendre, Clarisse (2023): Raw materials critical for the green transition. Production, international trade andexport restrictions. Edited by OECD (OECD Trade Policy Papers). Available online at https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/trade/rawmaterials-critical-for-the-green-transition_c6bb598b-en, checked on 12/15/2023.
Kreibe, Siegfried; Berkmüller, Ruth; Förster, Andreas; Peche, René; Reinelt, Birgit; Krupp, Michael et al. (2020): ILESA - Edel- undsondermetallhaltige Abfallströme intelligent lenken: Bündelung, Zwischenlagerung, Rückgewinnungsgrad. Abschlussbericht. Editedby Umweltbundesamt. Dessau-Roßlau (TEXTE, 178/2020). Available online athttps://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/376/publikationen/2020_10_19_texte_178_2020_ilesa.pdf, checked on
12/8/2023.
Kusashio, Takuro; Fukui, Kento (2023): China nips at Japan's heels in patents for bendable solar panels. Edited by Nikkei Asia.
Available online at https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Energy/China-nips-at-Japan-s-heels-in-patents-for-bendable-solar-panels,
updated on 11/29/2023, checked on 3/6/2024.
Liu, Siyi; Patton, Dominique (2023): China, world's top graphite producer, tightens exports of key battery material. Edited byReuters. Available online at https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-require-export-permits-some-graphite-products-dec-12023-10-20/, updated on 10/20/2023, checked on 12/15/2023.
Marscheider-Weidemann, Frank (2021): Rohstoffe für Zukunftstechnologien. Auftragsstudie. Datenstand: Mai 2021. Deutsche
Rohstoffagentur. Berlin (DERA Rohstoffinformationen). Available online at https://www.deutscherohstoffagentur.de/DE/Gemeinsames/Produkte/Downloads/DERA_Rohstoffinformationen/rohstoffinformationen-50.pdf, checkedon 12/18/2023.
Marubeni Corporation (2023): Launch of Reuse and Recycling Services for Used Solar Panels. Available online athttps://www.marubeni.com/en/news/2023/release/00076.html, checked on 12/20/2023.
Marubeni Corporation; Sompo Japan Insurance Inc.; Sompo Risk Management Inc (2022): Memorandum of Understanding for
Appropriate Reuse and Recycling of Used Solar Panels. Available online athttps://www.marubeni.com/en/news/2022/release/20221121E.pdf, checked on 12/20/2023.
Matsudaira, Sadayuki; Minatogawa, Tomohei (2024): Energy Laws and Regulations 2024 | Japan. Global Legal Insights. Available
online at https://www.globallegalinsights.com/practice-areas/energy-laws-and-regulations/japan, checked on 1/17/2024.
Menkhoff, Lukas; Zeevaert, Marius (2022): Deutschland kann seine Versorgungssicherheit bei mineralischen Rohstoffimporten
erhöhen. In DIW Wochenbericht (50), pp. 667–675. DOI: 10.18723/diw_wb:2022-50-1.
METI (n.d.): Renewable Energy. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry.
METI (2020a): Circular Economy Vision 2020. May 2020. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of Japan.
METI (2020b): Japan’s new international resource strategy to secure rare metals. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Available
online at https://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/en/category/special/article/detail_158.html, updated on 9/6/2022, checked on 12/11/2023.
METI (2021a): Cabinet Decision on the Sixth Strategic Energy Plan. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Available online athttps://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2021/1022_002.html, updated on 10/22/2021, checked on 1/17/2024.
METI (2021b): Overview of Japan’s Green Growth Strategy Through Achieving Carbon Neutrality in 2050. Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry. Available online at https://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2020/pdf/1225_001a.pdf, checked on 3/7/2024.
METI (2022a): Battery Industry Strategy. Interim summary. Available online athttps://www.meti.go.jp/english/report/pdf/0520_001a.pdf, checked on 3/7/2024.

METI (2022b): First Meeting of the Study Group on Sustainability of Storage Batteries to be Held. Available online athttps://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2022/0121_003.html, updated on 12/8/2023, checked on 2/23/2024.
METI (2022c): Green Growth Strategy Through Achieving Carbon Neutrality in 2050. Automobile, Storage batteries. Ministry of
Economy, Trade and Industry. Available online athttps://www.meti.go.jp/english/policy/energy_environment/global_warming/ggs2050/, updated on 10/17/2022, checked on
12/11/2023.
METI (2023a): Green Growth Strategy Through Achieving Carbon Neutrality in 2050. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry.
Available online at https://www.meti.go.jp/english/policy/energy_environment/global_warming/ggs2050/index.html, updated on
12/4/2023, checked on 12/11/2023.
METI (2023b): Green Innovation Fund. Edited by Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of Japan. Available online athttps://www.meti.go.jp/english/policy/energy_environment/global_warming/gifund/index.html#:~:text=Outline,(NEDO)%20to%20it
s%20operation., updated on 2/3/2023, checked on 12/20/2024.
METI (2023c): Growth-oriented resource-autonomous economic strategy. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of Japan.
Available online at https://www.meti.go.jp/shingikai/energy_environment/shigen_jiritsu/pdf/20230331_1.pdf, checked on
12/20/2023.
METI (2023d): Progress on the relevant measures of the Storage Battery Industry Strategy and the way forward in the immediate
future. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of Japan. Available online athttps://www.kansai.meti.go.jp/3jisedai/battery/231003/01.pdf, checked on 1/2/2024.
METI (2023e): Renewable energy generation equipment Disposal and recycling. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Available
online at https://www.meti.go.jp/shingikai/energy_environment/disposal_recycle/pdf/001_02_00.pdf, checked on 1/17/2024.
METI (2023f): Policy on initiatives to ensure stable supply of important minerals. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Available
online at https://www.meti.go.jp/policy/economy/economic_security/metal/torikumihoshin.pdf, checked on 1/17/2024.
MFUG (2023): 令和4年度鉱物資源リサイクルフロー・ストック調査. Mitsubishi Tōkyō UFJ Ginkō. Available online athttps://mric.jogmec.go.jp/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/survey_mineral_recycling_flow_stock_r4.pdf, checked on 2/22/2024.
Ministerial Council on Renewable Energy, Hydrogen and Related Issues (2023): Basic Hydrogen Strategy. Available online athttps://www.meti.go.jp/shingikai/enecho/shoene_shinene/suiso_seisaku/pdf/20230606_5.pdf, checked on 1/17/2024.
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of Japan (2020): Circular Economy Vision 2020. Available online athttps://www.meti.go.jp/shingikai/energy_environment/junkai_keizai/pdf/20200522_03.pdf.
MOE (o.J.): Regional 3R Forum in Asia and the Pacific. Ministry of the Environment of Japan. Available online athttps://www.env.go.jp/recycle/3r/en/, checked on 12/19/2023.
MOE (2001): Law for the Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources. Ministry of the Environment. Available online athttps://www.env.go.jp/content/900452886.pdf, checked on 1/17/2024.
MOE (2014a): History and Current State of Waste Management in Japan. Ministry of the Environment of Japan. Available online athttps://www.env.go.jp/content/900453392.pdf, checked on 1/17/2024.
MOE (2014b): Reuse, recycling and proper disposal of photovoltaic equipment etc. Report on the Reuse, Recycling and Proper
Disposal of Photovoltaic Equipment. Study Group on Reuse, Recycling and Proper Disposal of End-of-Life Renewable Energy
Equipment. Ministry of the Environment. Available online at https://www.env.go.jp/press/files/jp/27415.pdf, checked on 1/17/2024.
MOE (2016): Introduction to Green Purchasing Legislation in Japan. Available online athttps://www.env.go.jp/content/000064788.pdf, checked on 2/22/2024.
MOE (2017): Green Bond Guidelines. Ministry of the Environment of Japan. Available online athttps://www.env.go.jp/content/900453296.pdf, checked on 12/19/2023.
MOE (2018): The 4th Fundamental Plan for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society. Ministry of the Environment of Japan.
Available online at https://www.env.go.jp/content/900535436.pdf, checked on 12/19/2023.
MOE (2020a): Demonstration project for early social implementation of a decarbonised metal recycling system. Ministry of theEnvironment of Japan. Available online at https://www.env.go.jp/content/900441877.pdf, checked on 12/20/2023.
MOE (2020b): Demonstration project for the construction of a recycling system for plastics and other resources to support a
decarbonised society. Ministry of the Environment of Japan. Available online at https://www.env.go.jp/content/900470639.pdf,
checked on 12/20/2023.

MOE (2023): G7 Climate, Energy and Environment Ministers’ Communiqué. Ministry of the Environment of Japan. Available online athttps://www.env.go.jp/en/earth/g7/2023_sapporo_emm/, updated on 4/16/2023, checked on 7/12/2024.
Nagasaki, Daisuke (2024): Circular Economy in Japan.
NEDO (n.d.): Next-generation Storage Battery and Motor Development. NEDO Green Innovation Fund Projects. New Energy andIndustrial Technology Development Organization. Available online at https://green-innovation.nedo.go.jp/en/project/nextgeneration-storage-batteries-motors/summary/, updated on 1/19/2024, checked on 2/23/2024.
OECD (2023): Government at a Glance 2023. Paris: OECD Publishing. Available online at https://www.oecdilibrary.org/governance/government-at-a-glance-2023_3d5c5d31-en, checked on 2/21/2024.
Öko-Institut; Prognos (2019): Rohstoffbedarf im Bereich der erneuerbaren Energien. Endbericht. Available online at https://deiti.de/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Rohstoffbedarf-im-Bereich-der-erneuerbaren-Energien.Langfassung.pdf, checked on
2/9/2024.
Otto, Sven-Joachim; Meyer, Simon; Helmes, Sebastian; Schmelting, René; Rohde, Mareike; Rubner, Philipp et al. (2023): Entwicklungeines Konzepts und Maßnahmen zur Sicherung einer guten Praxis bei Rückbau und Recycling von Windenergieanlagen. Edited by
Umweltbundesamt. Dessau-Roßlau. Available online at https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/entwicklung-eineskonzepts-massnahmen-zur-sicherung, checked on 2/9/2024.
Presse- und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung (2023): Neu denken bei der Rohstoffversorgung. Available online athttps://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/schwerpunkte/klimaschutz/rohstoffversorgung-2166232, updated on 2/17/2023,
checked on 10/31/2023.
Robert Bosch GmbH (2023): Bosch closes the circle: almost all the platinum in fuel-cell stacks can be recovered. With assistance ofAnna Schmatz. Available online at https://www.bosch-presse.de/pressportal/de/en/bosch-closes-the-circle-almost-all-theplatinum-in-fuel-cell-stacks-can-be-recovered-258048.html, updated on 9/14/2023, checked on 12/18/2023.
Simas, Moana; Aponte, Fabian; Wiebe, Kirsten (2022): The Future is Circular. Circular Economy and Critical Minerals for the Green
Transition. 1st ed. Edited by SINTEF Industry. Available online athttps://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/the_future_is_circular___sintefmineralsfinalreport_nov_2022__1__1.pdf, checked on
12/14/2023.
Sonderabfallwissen (2020): Entsorgung von E-Autos: Wer trägt die Verantwortung? Elektromobilität und Recht. Available online athttps://www.sonderabfall-wissen.de/wissen/entsorgung-von-e-autos-wer-traegt-die-verantwortung/, updated on 8/1/2020,
checked on 12/11/2023.
Systemiq (2022): Critical raw materials for the energy transition in the EU. How circular economy approaches can increase supply
security for critical raw materials. Available online at https://www.systemiq.earth/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Systemiq-2022.Circular-Economy-CRM-Resilience-Summary-Presentation_final.pdf, checked on 11/1/2023.
Takahashi, Hiroyuki; Inoue, Eiji; Inoue, Nobuyuki; Komori, Yuji; Konishi, Masakazu; Noda, Mizuki; Mizue, Taichi (2021): “Urban Mines”
Recycling in Astec-irie Co., Ltd. In J. Japan Inst. Metals 85 (8), pp. 279–284. DOI: 10.2320/jinstmet.JA202103.
Tanaka, Shogo (2023): Circular Economy in Japan. Circular Economy and Resource Efficiency (CEREP). - The Strategy of ResourceAutonomous Circular Economy for Growth -. The EU-Japan Centre for Industrial Cooperation ZOOM webinar. ZOOM, 6/15/2023.
Available online at https://www.eu-japan.eu/sites/default/files/imce/METI%202023.6.15.pdf, checked on 2/22/2024.
Tedesco, Rita; Kostrowski, Andrea; Bodo, Edoardo (2023): How to reduce our dependency on critical raw materials by stimulating
circularity. ECOS, DUH and RREUSE position on the Critical Raw Materials Regulation proposal. ECOS; DUH; RREUSE. Available
online at https://ecostandard.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Position-Paper_Critical-Raw-Materials_Final.pdf, checked on
1/2/2024.
The Copper Mark (2024): Decarbonizing the Copper Sector. Discussion Topics and Considerations for a 1.5°C-aligned Trajectory
and Target-setting Methodology. Available online at https://coppermark.org/wpcontent/uploads/2024/05/CopperMark_DecarbonizingTheCopperSector_2024.04.18.pdf, checked on 7/12/2024.
The Federal Government (2024): Climate Action Programme 2030. The Federal Government Germany. Available online athttps://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/issues/climate-action, checked on 1/2/2024.
The German Federal Government (2021): German Sustainable Development Strategy. Update 2021 - Summary Version. Available
online at https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/themen/nachhaltigkeitspolitik/deutsche-nachhaltigkeitsstrategie-318846,
checked on 12/8/2023.
The Japan News (2023): Kishida Aims for Commercially Viable Flexible Solar Cells by 2025. Available online athttps://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/politics/politics-government/20231003-140791/, updated on 10/4/2023, checked on 2/22/2024.

Tsanakas, John A.; van der Heide, Arvid; Radavičius, Tadas; Denafas, Julius; Lemaire, Elisabeth; Wang, Ke et al. (2020): Towards a
circular supply chain for PV modules: Review of today's challenges in PV recycling, refurbishment and re‐certification. In Progress in
Photovoltaics 28 (6), pp. 454–464. DOI: 10.1002/pip.3193.
U.S. Department of State (n.d.): Minerals Security Partnership. Available online at https://www.state.gov/minerals-securitypartnership/#:~:text=MSP%20Launch%20%E2%80%93%20Canada,mining%20event%20in%20the%20world, checked on 1/2/2024.
UBA (2020a): Das neue Batteriegesetz. Umweltbundesamt. Available online at https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/abfallressourcen/produktverantwortung-in-der-abfallwirtschaft/batterien/das-neue-batteriegesetz, updated on 12/17/2020, checked on
12/11/2023.
UBA (2020b): Windenergieanlagen: Rückbau, Recycling, Repowering. Umweltbundesamt. Available online athttps://www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/abfall-ressourcen/produktverantwortung-in-der-abfallwirtschaft/windenergieanlagenrueckbau-recycling-repowering, updated on 7/20/2020, checked on 7/12/2024.
UBA (2021): Elektro- und Elektronikgerätegesetz. Umweltbundesamt. Available online athttps://www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/abfall-ressourcen/produktverantwortung-in-derabfallwirtschaft/elektroaltgeraete/elektro-elektronikgeraetegesetz#sinn-und-zweck-des-elektrog, updated on 12/17/2021, checkedon 12/11/2023.
UBA (2023a): Elektro- und Elektronikaltgeräte. Umweltbundesamt. Available online athttps://www.umweltbundesamt.de/daten/ressourcen-abfall/verwertung-entsorgung-ausgewaehlter-abfallarten/elektroelektronikaltgeraete#wo-steht-deutschland9, updated on 9/19/2023, checked on 12/11/2023.
UBA (2023b): Indikator: Rohstoff-Fußabdruck. Umweltbundesamt. Available online athttps://www.umweltbundesamt.de/daten/umweltindikatoren/indikator-rohstoffkonsum#die-wichtigsten-fakten, updated on
10/20/2023, checked on 11/28/2023.
UNEP (n.d.): The International Resource Panel. United Nations Environment Programme. Available online athttps://www.unep.org/explore-topics/resource-efficiency/what-we-do/international-resource-panel, checked on 1/2/2024.
UNEP (2019): Understanding circularity. UNEP circularity platform. United Nations Environment Programme. Available online athttps://buildingcircularity.org/, checked on 12/18/2023.
UNEP (2022): African Clean Cities Platform. United Nations Environment Programme. Available online athttps://www.unep.org/ietc/news/blogpost/african-clean-cities-platform, updated on 5/5/2022, checked on 12/19/2023.
UNFCC (2023): COP28 Agreement Signals "Beginning of the End" of the Fossil Fuel Era. Edited by United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change. Available online at https://unfccc.int/news/cop28-agreement-signals-beginning-of-the-end-ofthe-fossil-fuel-era, updated on 12/13/2023, checked on 7/12/2024.
United States Trade Representative (2023): United States and Japan Sign Critical Minerals Agreement. Available online athttps://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/press-releases/2023/march/united-states-and-japan-sign-critical-mineralsagreement, updated on 12/11/2023, checked on 12/11/2023.
Utrecht University (2023): Unpacking the circular economy in Japan: what can be learned and improved on? Available online athttps://www.uu.nl/en/news/unpacking-the-circular-economy-in-japan-what-can-be-learned-and-improved-on, checked on
12/19/2023.
Vergabeblog.de (2021): Nachhaltige öffentliche Beschaffung – neue Regelungen schaffen mehr Rechtssicherheit. Nr. 46173. Withassistance of Anja Mager. Deutsches Vergabenetzwerk (DVNW). Available online at https://www.vergabeblog.de/2021-0204/nachhaltige-oeffentliche-beschaffung-neue-regelungen-schaffen-mehr-rechtssicherheit/, updated on 04.02.201, checked on
12/11/2023.
Wuppertal Institute (2007): Dematerialisierung und Ressourceneffizienz in Japan. Wuppertal. Available online athttps://epub.wupperinst.org/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/2700/file/2700_Dematerialisierung.pdf, checked on 1/17/2024.
WWF (2023): Circular Economy in Minerals for Green Transition. Business Brief. World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF) International.
Available online athttps://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/business_brief_for_circular_economy_in_minerals_for_green_transition_compressed.
pdf, checked on 12/18/2023.
Yano Research Institute Co., Ltd. (2022): Li-ion battery proper treatment facility demonstration (Li-ion 電池適正処理施設実証).
Available online at https://j-far.or.jp/wp-content/uploads/2022report_LiB.pdf, checked on 2/23/2024.

Yoshida, Satoshi (2024): Transition to a Circular Economy as a National Strategy. 13th German-Japanese Environment and Energy
Dialogue Forum. Ministry of the Environment (MOE) Japan. Kawasaki, 1/25/2024. Available online at https://gjeedf.org/system/files/document/04.-moej_mr.-yoshida.pdf, checked on 3/15/2024.