IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2010) 1–1

Research article
erd

Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge - A Sample of Practicein Northeast Thailand
ANAN POLTHANEE
Department of Plant Science and Agricultural Resources, Faculty of Agriculture,
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
E-mail: panan@kku.ac.th
Received 29 December 2009

Accepted 5 March 2010

Abstract The Northeast is the largest region of Thailand with approximately one third ofboth the total land area and population of the country. However, the region has the lowest
per capita income. This is due to the region’s agricultural systems being dominated byrainfed farming, poor soil quality and fluctuation in market demand and price for the
agricultural produce. In general, more than 50% of farm income is earned from the crop
sector rather than livestock. In a risky business, farmers have learned to understand theirenvironment which includes physical, biological and socio-economic and site-specificfactors. In response to the environment, farmers have adapted their practices and this has
been given the name “indigenous agricultural knowledge” to improve crop yield andhousehold income. This paper illustrates the overview of indigenous agricultural
knowledge in Northeast Thailand which includes land preparation, pre-germinated seeds,
thinning buds, detaching flowers, decreasing leaf area, suppressing weeds, alleviation of
insect damage, improving soil quality, post-harvest techniques and multiple cropping.
Indigenous agricultural knowledge has not been systematically recorded in written form
and therefore is not readily accessible to agricultural researchers. Indigenous agricultural
knowledge is an immensely valuable resource that provides farmer-to-farmer training or
local technology transfer.
Keywords indigenous agricultural knowledge, farmer training, Northeast Thailand

INTRODUCTION
Amongst the four regions of Thailand, Northeast Thailand has the most land devoted to agriculture(Office of Agricultural Economics, 2008). The region is considered an integral component inagricultural production with rice being grown on 65% of the arable land. Other major crops include
sugarcane, cassava, rubber and peanut. Indigenous knowledge is local knowledge unique to a given
culture or society. Indigenous knowledge is an immensely valuable resource that provides small
holders and resource-poor farmers with insights on how they have interacted with their changing
environment for survival (Chamber et al., 1989; Reijntjes et al., 1992; Bouguera et al., 2003; Cools
et al., 2003). It is not possible in such a brief paper to give a full inventory of the indigenous
agricultural knowledge in Northeast Thailand. However, a sample of practices will serve tohighlight the good sense shown by farmers.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this paper is to give some examples of indigenous knowledge and practices inNortheast Thailand to illustrate that farmers have a holistic understanding of the specificenvironment and how they adapt with limited resources for survival.

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INDIGENIUS AGRICULTURAL PRACTICESLand preparation
Increasing cropping intensity by planting on the residual moisture left in fields following the rice
harvest presents a challenge in which farmers demonstrate considerable imagination. Soil
preparation for rice involves puddling to reduce water loss and the leaching of nutrients throughpercolation. To plant a second crop like peanut, this surface, which becomes hard as it dries, mustbe broken to aerate the seed zone and allow oxygen to penetrate the water free macro pores. This is
critical to germination but must be done at exactly the right time. If the soils are too wet and top
dry it is not possible to obtain a good tilth. Land preparation is again dictated by measuring soil
moisture. Once the monsoon has passed it is important to start preparation as soon as possible. To
encourage soil drying to optimum levels, field tests were carried out by the scientist under theconditions indicating that the soil moisture is close to field capacity. Farmers cut the rice straw as
close as possible to the ground, and then put it on the bunds of the paddy fields, to allow sunlight to
dry out the soil surface. The ground is ploughed and harrowed three to four times. After eachploughing the land is harrowed several times. Therefore, time devoted for land preparation could beshortened, thus allowing adequate soil moisture for peanut without irrigation throughout thegrowing season. Good land preparation also provides water-free macro pores with advantages toconserve soil moisture in deeper soil layers by cutting capillary rise to the soil surface.
Pregerminated seed
Peanut grown after rice harvest in the post-monsoon period requires rapid seed germination andseedling growth in order to reach maturity before the plants are subjected to water stress andreduced yield.
To receive rapid seed germination, farmers soak peanut seeds in water for 1-2 days before
seeding. Some farmers soak the seeds for 24 hours and subsequently place them in a wet sack for
another day before seeding. This results in a quick and uniform peanut germination. Pre-soaking of
peanut seeds before seeding is very useful for promoting seed germination especially when seeds
are sown in slightly dry soil (Chippendale, 1934). Pre-germinating seeds before planting minimizes
the lag period between sowing and seedling establishment. Moreover, pre-soaked seeds will not beeasily exposed to pests, especially rats and ants. The early emerged seedlings also have acompetitive advantage over associated weeds.
Re-nutrition of planting material
Mature stems of cassava after harvest is used as planting material. Normally, farmers do not plantcassava soon after harvest due to unfavorable weather conditions. Mature stems are, therefore, kept
in the shade for 1-2 months prior to planting. During this period, axillary buds initiate at the upper
nodes. Most of the food reserves will be used during this period. To solve this problem, farmers dip
stem cuttings (15-25 cm long) into an aqueous solution containing 13-5-5 (N-P2O5-K2O) fertilizer,
some farmers use liquid fertilizer diluted in water before planting. Dipping stem cuttings into
nutrient solutions will restore nutritional status in stem tissues. This results in an increasing rate andpercentage of shoot emergence, early rooting and fast shoot growing. CIAT (1981) reported thatthe nutrient status of stem cuttings influences their development. Cuttings of stems taken fromplants grown on fertilized plots give an early shoot growth and higher yields when these cuttings
are planted in an infertile soil.
Eliminating buds
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increase farm income. To increase tuber yield, farmers eliminate bud from stem cuttings used asplanting material. Normally, stem cuttings used for planting are around 15-25 cm long. Nowadays,
farmers use stem cuttings around 50 cm long and eliminate buds before planting. The longer stem
cutting as planting material means that there are more buds and consequently increased number oftubers in the soil. However, deep plowing, animal manure and chemical fertilizer application are
required to obtain a high tuber yield. Deep plowing improves soil aeration and facilitates thegrowth of tubers in the deeper soil layer. Adequate amounts of nutrients need to be applied to thesoil in order to increasing root (tuber) weight per plant.
Detaching flowers
In crop plants, the fully expanded mature leaf is a major “source” of food (photosynthates) for theplant. The organs which store or use photosynthates are known as a “sinks”. In yambean plants,
tubers, flowers and fruit are important sinks. Therefore, flowers and developing fruits have asignificant effect of the distribution of assimilates in the plant. The supply of photosynthates isfinite and competition between sinks will eventually occur. Therefore, detaching flowers to prevent
fruit development leads to greater allocation of assimilates to tubers. When yambeans begin toflower, the farmers use a long bamboo stick striking the top of plant to detach the flowers for
improving tuber yield.
Decreasing leaf area
Cassava grown on soils containing high levels of organic matter or nitrogen, in general, produce
excessive leaves but low tuber yield. To solve this problem, farmers cut the tops off young shoots
at 2-3 months before harvesting to improve tuber yield. Cock (1985) reported that heavy
applications of fertilizers, particularly nitrogen, can stimulate top growth. Although total plantweight increases, the yield of tubers may decrease. Top cutting is a manipulation of the source-sink
relationship. If cassava has a leaf area index (leaf area/unit of land area) over the optimum value,
mutual shading will occur. Photosynthates will be allocated to lower shade leaves where therespiration rate exceeds the photosynthetic rate. As a result, there will be less allocation ofphotosynthates to tubers. Farmers also practice top cutting young shoots of rice at the vegetative
growth stage to improve grain yield similarly to cutting the tops of young cassava shoots.
Suppressing weeds
Dry direct-seeding or broadcasting rice utilizes rain from the first peak of the region’s bimodal
rainfall pattern for crop establishment. This allows the early planting of rice at a time when rainfall
is often insufficient for transplanting, thus guaranteeing a crop and also reducing the yield losses
often associated with late transplanting of the photo-sensitive rice varieties used in rainfed areas in
the Northeast. To maintain a satisfactory yield, however, an effective weed control method isrequired in dry direct-seeded or broadcasting rice. In general, farmers practice weed control by
cutting rice and weeds using a hand lawn mower at the vegetative growth stage. Rice stubble andweeds are cut around 5-10 cm above the ground surface. The rice regrows faster than the weeds
and cutting results in better competition with associated weeds.
Polthanee (2006) conducted an experiment to study the effects of cutting rice and weeds on
subsequent weed growth and grain yield of dry-direct-seeded broadcast rice. Rice and weed cutting
at 30, 45 and 60 days after seeding reduced weed dry weight as compared with that from the uncutunweeded treatment. Grain yields following cutting after 30 or 45 days were significantly higher
than from the uncut-unweeded treatments (Table 2).

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Table 1 Weed dry weight (g/m2) after regrowth at flowering growth stage as affected by
cutting dates at 30, 45 and 50 days after seeding (DAS)
Treatment
Uncut-unweeded
Cut 30 DAS
Cut 45 DAS
Cut 60 DAS
F-testC.V.(%)
1

Grass 1
66.2a
19.9b
49.9b
49.7a
**
18.1

Weed species
Grass 2
Broadleaf 3
a
89.1
3.9
47.9b
2.3
21.2c
3.1
14.7c
3.5
**
NS
27.2
24.7

Sedge 4
4.7
3.4
3.6
1.7
NS
21.4

Total
163.9a
73.5b
76.8b
69.6b
*
31.4

Ischaemum rugosum, 2Panicum repens, 3Ludwigia sp., 4Fimbristylis miliacea

Table 2 Yield and components of rice as affected by cutting dates at 30, 45 and 60 days after
seeding (DAS)
Treatments
Uncut-unweeded
Cut 30 DAS
Cut 45 DAS
Cut 60 DAS
F-testC.V.(%)

Grain yield(kg/ha)1,814b2,159a2,138a2,075ab*
19.1

Panicles(no./m2)
163.5b241.0a233.8a223.3a*16.3

Filled grain(no./panicle)
64.7b
80.9a
74.1ab
66.4b
*
11.6

1,000 grain weight
(g)
25.4
27.4
26.5
26.1
NS
7.5

* = Significant at 5% by DMRT, NS = Not significant

Improving soil quality
Rice in Northeast Thailand is normally planted on undulating land which includes upper paddy andlower paddy, on sandy loam or sandy clay loam soil of low fertility. To solve this problem, farmers
collect the fallen leaves from the forest area near the village and/or village settlement area. The
leaves are incorporated into the soil during land preparation to improve soil fertility. Sae-lec at al.
(1992) reported that tree leaves provide several important nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca and Mg but
the concentration varies between tree species. Some farmers apply rice husks and incoporate theminto the soil in order to improve rice yield when grown on saline soil.
Most sugarcane in Northeast Thailand is grown on coarse textured soil with sandy and sandy
loam textures and having low fertility. To maintain soil fertility and maintain the sugarcane yield ata satisfactory level, farmers grow peanut as crop rotation after harvesting sugarcane (over a cycleof two years). The peanut crop is incorporated into the soil after removing the pods from the plant
before planting sugarcane. Hemwong (2008) reported that peanut residues returned about 146
kgNha-1 to the soil and increased sugarcane tillering and yield.
Integrated farming is a system which combines the activities of agriculture, animal husbandry,crop production, fisheries, forestry and other sciences related to agriculture in one area of land.
Some farmers manage the nutrient cycle to maintain soil fertility using crop residues and weed
residues available on the farm to produce compost fertilizer for application to the soil.
Alleviation of insect damage
Subterranean ants are normally a major pest causing damage to peanut pods and consequently
reduce peanut yield. To solve this problem, farmers use mature coconut fruit after removal of husk
and place it in the soil in the area where peanuts are grown. Subterranean ants usually enter thecoconut fruit to feed on the coconut meat through the coconut’s eye. The ants become trapped in
the fruit and are brought out of the field and destroyed by burning. Keerati-Kasikorn and Singha(1985) reported that the strong smell of coconut meat in a coconut fruit as a bait is more attractive
to ants than peanut pods.

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Post harvest technology
Harvesting of sesame cannot be delayed until all the seed capsules reach the fully ripened stage.
This is because the capsules mature unevenly and some seeds in fully ripened capsules may be lost
through shedding. To solve this problem, farmers estimate the optimum time to harvest the cropfrom experience. When a crop is mature enough for harvesting, they observe that most of the leavesof the sesame plant have turned yellow. At this point they open the third or fourth seed capsulefrom the top. If the seeds inside the capsules are brown, they decide that it is time to harvest thecrop. The plants are cut with a sickle or pulled from the soil by hand and stacked into a small heap.
Each heap is covered with rice straw or dry coconut leaves for 7-10 days. Then, they tie the sesame
plants together to make bundles. Three bundles are tied together to form a tripod-like structure. The
plants in the tripod-structure are left and dried in the field under the sun until the capsule tips open.
The farmers then turn the bundles upside down and let the seeds fall on to plastic sheets. They
found that the technique allows them to harvest all mature seed capsules and to obtain a maximum
yield from the crop.
Multiple cropping
A form of intercropping is practiced by the farmers. Maize and cucumber are planted together inJanuary after rice harvest under irrigated conditions. The maize is planted in rows by hand.
Cucumber seed is then seeded into the soil near the maize seeds. The two crops have quite adifferent growth habit and maturation period. The maize matures first. The two crops grown
together use solar radiation, water and nutrients more efficiency during the dry season.
Other forms of relay intercropping are practiced. Peanut or mungbean are planted with maize
under rainfed conditions. The peanut or mungbean seed is planted with zero-tillage between rowsof mature maize. If the maize is harvested early then the more profitable peanut which requires
more moisture and a longer growing period will be planted. If the harvest is likely to be delayed
farmers grow the quick maturing mungbean.
Other legumes are also grown with maize, maize and rice bean planted together in the one hole.
The corn matures first and provides stalks for the rice bean to climb. The bean provides nitrogen to
the maize through symbiotic fixation, provides a ground cover which protects against erosion andleaves a residue of nitrogen for the next crop.
CONCLUSION
A case study of indigenous agricultural knowledge practiced in Northeast Thailand has shown that
farmers have an intimate understanding of their biophysical and socio-cultural environments, andhave the capability to develop new technologies by trial and error, in order to improve production
systems with limited resources.
To achieve better outcomes in agricultural development for small holder farmers, researchers
need to take full advantage of any opportunity to receive information and learn from local
knolwedge. A full exchange of information will enhance both the knowledge of scientists and theirability to design suitable ways of improving the lot of small holder farmers.
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