ZERO ARCTIC

Concepts for carbon-neutral Arctic
construction based on tradition
REPORT
2020

Zero Arctic

Index
Executive summary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5

Igloo (Inuit Snowhouse)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42
Igluryuaq����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 43
Qarmaq (Transitional Dwelling)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44

1.Introduction

Tupiq (tent)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 45

Background�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7

Vernacular architecture of First Nations of the North������������������������������������������������������� 46

Traditional buildings as a source of knowledge���������������������������������������������������������������������9

An example of contemporary vernacular: Nunavik’s cabins���������������������������������������������� 48

Life cycle assessment���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11

Japan���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������50

The definitions of Arctic region(s)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13

Ainu and Chise�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50

2. Climate and Population

Construction of Toi-Chise����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53

Finland������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19

Measurement of a thermal environment������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53

Canada�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������21

Measurement of Chise���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 54

Japan���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������25

Measurement of insulation retrofit Chise������������������������������������������������������������������������ 54
Measurement of Toi-Chise���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 54
Temperature difference between inside and outside��������������������������������������������������������� 55

3. Vernacular Architecture

Indoor surface temperature�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56

Finland������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������29– Zero Arctic –Construction of Chise and Toi-Chise�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 52
Insulation retrofit of Chise���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 52

Comparison of Thermal Environmental with Standard Heater������������������������������������������ 57

The Sámi����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30
The settlements������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 31
Lávvu���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32

4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation

Goahti and hirsagoahti��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32

Finland������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61

Sámi log house��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 34

Load bearing structures�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 63

Storage shelters and houses�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 34

Facades������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64

The building types of farming culture in Arctic Finland���������������������������������������������������� 36

Heating systems������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65

Smoke house (chimneyless log house)����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36

Heating consumption����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 66

Log house (with chimney)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37

Regulation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67

Storage shelters and houses�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37

Conclusions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67

Canada�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40

Canada�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68

Vernacular architecture of Inuit and their Thule ancestors����������������������������������������������� 40

Northern Governance & the controversial history of housing initiatives in the North��������� 68

Thule Winter House������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41

Description of housing building stock in Canada’s North�������������������������������������������������� 70

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition2

Typical building design and energy consumption������������������������������������������������������������ 73

Design process with Inuit of a prototype for northern housing ��������������������������������������� 104

Energy supply of the North��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75

Description of the building and its surrounding climate������������������������������������������������� 104

Japan���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78

Presentation of all studied scenarios����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 107

Housing History in Hokkaido after Japanese Restoration�������������������������������������������������� 78

Building energy demand simulations���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 107

GHG emissions in the current building stock of Hokkaido������������������������������������������������ 81

Methodology ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 107

Wood Construction in Hokkaido������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 81

Results for energy production and consumption for all scenarios����������������������������������� 109
Life cycle assessment��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110
Methodology��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110
Results for all scenarios:����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 112

Finland������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������85

Carbon emissions by life cycle stages and by materials��������������������������������������������������� 113

Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 85

Discussion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 114

Building performance���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86

Japan������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 116

Resources, transportation and processing����������������������������������������������������������������������� 86

Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 116

Service life, reusability and indoor environment�������������������������������������������������������������� 87

Results������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 117

Operational and cultural issues��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 87

Recommendations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 118

Description of the case study building����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 88
Design solutions “Traditional” and “modified”����������������������������������������������������������������� 89
Material quantities��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91– Zero Arctic –5. Case Studies

6. Conclusions and Recommendations

Energy simulation, targets and principles ����������������������������������������������������������������������� 91

Conclusions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121

Energy simulation results����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 94

Recommendations for policy-makers������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123

Methodology for Life cycle assessment and data sources�������������������������������������������������� 94

Suggestions for further research�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124

Building construction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 95

Contributions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124

Building refurbishment and material replacement����������������������������������������������������������� 98

Finland����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 125

End of building life�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 98

Canada������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 125

Benefits and load beyond the system boundaries������������������������������������������������������������� 99

Japan�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 125

Assessment results for Life cycle analyses and GHG��������������������������������������������������������� 99

Sources and literature������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 126

Discussion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100

Finland����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 126

Building materials�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100

Japan�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 126

Operational energy������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 100
Compensation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 102
Canada����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 104

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition3

– Zero Arctic –“If we are to continue to grow such contributions, academics, educators, architectural researchers and practitioners will haveto continue to break with all types of silo thinking and instead, embrace systems thinking and take onboard the learning conditions recently described by the anthropologist Henrietta Moore - the future learning will not be about the transferability ofwhole models with known outcomes, but rather about incomplete learning experimentation and collaboration”
Irina Bauman, 2015 Architecture and Resilience Conference UK Welcome

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

4

Executive summary

The project was based on three casestudies in Finland, Canada and Japan.
Each case study consisted of a surveyof the traditional Arctic dwellings, of
structural solutions and settlements,and of a review of the energy consumption of the existing building stock. In
the Canadian and Finnish case studies,a prototype building was designed andassessed.
The carbon neutrality target wasreached in the Finnish wooden casebuildings, and the Canadian cases camevery close with 98% reduction of GHG
emissions in a case building with highenergy efficiency and aggressive use ofsolar panels.
According to the Finnish assessment,
the best suggested solution for Arctic
conditions would be wood construction
with the utilization of wind and geothermal energy for the building operation.
Should the wooden materials be reusedin subsequent buildings, carbon emissions from wooden material incineration are not realized and the biogenic
carbon content from wooden basedmaterials is extended to the next building case.
The central outcome of the project
was the widened awareness of theimportance of understanding the locality of traditions and cultural aspects ofliving when designing sustainable buildings in Arctic regions.
According to the results of the
project, we suggest the following rec-Zero Arctic |ommendations for policy-makers forpresent and future Arctic construction.
1. When considering sustainability ofbuildings, the focus should be on thefull life cycle impacts.
2. Optimal energy efficiency target
should be set for new buildings. Energy
efficiency, though an important metric,
should never be pursued at the expenseof potential service life or air quality.
3. Renewable energy should be includedin the micro-grid mix.
4. Lightweight, low-carbon materials,
such as wood from sustainably grownforests, should be preferred.
5. The buildings should be designed toenable deconstruction (Design-for-deconstruction), reassembly and reuse.

– Zero Arctic –This report presents the results of the
project Zero Arctic: Concepts for carbon
neutral Arctic construction based on
tradition (2018–2020). The main objective of the project was to provide
research-based statements for carbon
neutral, resilient and sustainable Arctic
construction with special reference totradition, vernacular architecture andcollaboration with indigenous communities.
Zero Arctic was a consortium project
led by the Ministry of the environment(Finland) together with Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs(Canada) and the following partners:
Aalto-University (Finland), Livady
Architects (Finland), VTT TechnicalResearch Centre of Finland Ltd, Université Laval (Québec, Canada), Hokkaido
University (Japan).
The significance of tradition and vernacular architecture is best displayedin preserved examples of buildings thathave had a service life of centuries.
They form a source of knowledge ofstructural and material innovations thatcan be evaluated and used in modernbuildings. The methodological noveltyof the project was to unite architecturalhistorical and Life Cycle Assessment
approaches to develop concepts thatwould be sustainable and carbon neutral at the same time.

6. The buildings should be designed forclimate resilience. Adjustability andeasy maintenance should be pursued asa response to changing weather conditions.
7. Sensitivity towards cultural differences and the recognition of one’s culturally related assumptions are key in theprevention of building design solutions
that unintentionally modify the cultureof its inhabitants.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition5

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 1.Introduction –1.Introduction

6

Background

1 Special Report on +1.5C [IPCC SR1.5] 2018
2 UN Secretary General, 2019 Climate Action
Summit3 UNEP 2017. Global status report 2017.
Towards a zero-emission, efficient and resilient
buildings and construction sector. https://www.
worldgbc.org/sites/default/files/UNEP%20
188_GABC_en%20%28web%29.pdf

Arctic built environment must also develop a resilience to the new and everchanging conditions brought by the effects of climate change such as melting
permafrost and increased rainfall.
While several of the UN’s Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) are related
to the built environment, based on literature review and expert interviews, it
is evident that the topic of construction
has not been studied as thoroughly as
many other topics relating to Arctic sustainability. The urgency of the topic ofArctic construction is only accelerated
by the fact that people in Nordic regions
spend on average 90% of their timeindoors making them especially vulnerable to health risks caused by indoor air
quality. The quality of indoor environments has great effects on human wellbeing especially during seasons of little
or no daylight. The impacts of moisture,material and maintenance related problems are both social and economic.
The on-going Covid-19 epidemic
has served as a profound lesson on theeffects of a global crisis, revealing how
unevenly it can distribute its effects
among different communities of theworld. Circumstantially the Arctic communities’ find themselves in a vulnerable position against the effects of boththe climate change and Covid-19 crisis.

Zero Arctic |Since the beginning of the 20th century, Arctic construction has adopted
modern technology and standards ofliving. Especially in the Arctic region,
construction may lead to exceptionallyhigh energy consumption due to longtransportation distances of building materials, extreme cold winter conditions,problems in the use of some renewableenergy technologies, risks for shortservice life because of harsh environment and the low recycling potential of
the building materials in the end of thelife cycles of buildings.
Traditional and vernacular architecture provide information on local andglobal solutions that Arctic cultures
have developed to adapt to varying local
climates and resources for thousandsof years. Therefore, vernacular architecture contains a wealth of knowledge
on a global scale that can be applied tosolve present-day problems of sustainability. In the Nordic context, thepotential of traditional solutions andthe need for more research on the fieldhas been recently emphasised in the
CERCMA report.4 In addition, recent
studies in Norway indicate that it may
take decades for a new building before
the initial construction-phase emissions
are outweighed by the lower operational
4– 1.Introduction –Arctic climate warming is proving to be
amplified, non-linear and rapid. Climate
modelling timelines are being overtaken by actual pace-of-change events.
Evidence based information identifies
that under current policies Earth is on
track to pass the lower agreed 2015 Paris
Accord global average temperature riseof +1.50C in 2035 and the higher +2.00C
target in 2053.12
Current Arctic temperatures arerising at a rate two to three times theglobal average. Arctic weather patterns
are changing much faster than expectedwith recent climate warming events
beginning to have a profound impact on
the lives of the Arctic people.
The built environment, and the ways
it is constructed and maintained, has an
essential effect on climate and the useof natural resources. Construction andthe built environment consume half of
all global raw materials, use up to 40%
of all primary energy, 30% of all fresh
water and cause over 30% of greenhouse gas emissions.3
The future of building in the Arctic is
thus faced with two distinct challenges.
In addition to mitigating climate change
through a lowered carbon footprint, theCERCMA - Cultural Environment as
Resource in Climate Change Mitigation
and Adaptation. Nordic Council of
Ministers. Nordic Working Papers, 2014.
https://www.norden.org/en/publication/
cercma-cultural-environment-resource

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition7

5

Berg, Fredrik & Fulgseth, Mie, 2018. “Lifecycle assessment and historic buildings:
energy-efficiency refurbishment versus
new construction in Norway”, Architectural
Conservation 24, 152–169.
6 Huuhka, Satu & Lahdensivu, Jukka 2016.
“A statistical and geographical study of
demolished buildings”, Buildings Research andInformation 44, 73–96.

consumption, resource use and associated greenhouse gas emissions in future
Arctic construction. In this report, ourcentral outcomes are case-study buildings and assessments for Arctic regionsin Finland, Japan and Canada, wheretraditional materials and construction
meet modern standards of living.
The focus of the Zero Arctic project isto develop regional concepts for Arctic
building construction that would becarbon neutral over their full life cycle.
This is achieved by utilizing both scientific life cycle assessment and energy
simulation methods as well as learningfrom and applying traditional knowledge of sustainable construction. By doing this, the work aims to fill knowledge
gaps and to make a science-based statement for policy-makers about how weshould build in Arctic districts within
the targets of the Paris Agreement andthe warming scenario of 1.50C. Moreover, the work proposes carbon neutral
solutions that are sustainable from theangles of service life, recycling, resource efficiency and non-toxic building
materials.
In short, the overall objective of Zero
Arctic is to examine traditional Arctic
buildings to develop and assess Greenhouse Gas (GhG) neutral solutions for
Arctic construction.
Out of the three pillars of sustainability, the study focuses on that of environment and of social equality, leaving thepillar of economy for possible future

The more specific objectives of the project are:• to identify the common climatic and geographic factors and phenomena thatcharacterize the Arctic districts and affect the potential sustainable and GHG neutral
solutions• to explore the traditional Arctic construction through three case studies concerning
Japan (Hokkaido), Canada and Finland• to identify the common factors of traditional Arctic construction that may have an
impact on the sustainability and carbon-neutrality of Arctic building• the development of an assessment method for assessing GHG emissions from buildingin Arctic districts• to design and assess type buildings that fulfill the functional requirements of modern
living comfort, learning from traditional knowledge and perspectives• to discuss, through the example of Arctic construction, the possible and potential
contribution of traditional construction, building life cycles, environmental adaptationand the use of resources to present-day and future construction• to discuss the results of the assessment and examine unquantifiable factors• to formulate recommendations for policy makers for carbon neutral and resource-wise
solutions of construction in different kinds of Arctic districts

research.7 Aspects of economy, thoughpotentially very interesting, could not
be included within the confines of thestudy.
The three Arctic areas and indigenous peoples covered in this study
are not identical despite their apparent
similarities. For this reason, the evidence and solutions presented, while
over-lapping, also vary from country tocountry. Their is also variance in regional and national ways of calculating andcompliling statistics. This information
7 Strategic Framework 2017 of SDWG

Zero Arctic |is never objective or apart of culturaland local understandings. The pluralityof Artic cases aims to rather provide a
broadened perspective of various challenges in the Arctic than to provide ascientific comparison of the Arctic areas
in question.
The report is intended for policy
makers and researchers of traditionaland modern Arctic construction. However, it is at the same time written andillustrated to meet also the needs of awider audience, since private construction is an important part of the construction sector in the Arctic.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 1.Introduction –energy use.5 This throws into relief the
problem of short economic and functional service lives of buildings and thepossibilities of a circular economy ofbuilding components and materials.6
Here, the tradition opens up an archiveof knowledge that may be turned into
constructional and operational innovations that meet modern standards ofliving.
The advancement of sustainable construction in Arctic regions requires an
Arctic approach. The project Zero Arctic– Carbon Neutral Arctic building is an
endeavour to fill this gap of knowledge,
or at least take the critical first steps.
The 2-year project was launched in 2018
and works under the Arctic Council and
its Sustainable Development Working
Group. The project is led by Finland andCanada, with studies also from Hokkaido, Japan, where buildings also facesimilar challenges to Arctic regions.
The key task of Zero Arctic is toprovide research-based understanding
and approach in order to understandhow traditional and vernacular processes and building materials may beturned into modern innovations andsolutions that could mitigate the energy

8Traditionalbuildings as asource of knowledge

8

The most comprehensive volume aboutvernacular solutions, see: Oliver, P.
Encyclopaedia of Vernacular Architecture of
the World. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press 1997; for case-studies and reviews
on applying vernacular solutions to modern
construction, see e. g. Afshar, F. & Norton,J. 1997. Developmental. In Oliver, P. (ed.).
Encyclopaedia of Vernacular Architecture of
the World. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, pp. 25–27; Rapoport, Amos 2006.
Vernacular design as a model system. In
Asquith, L. & Vellinga , M. (eds). VernacularArchitecture in the Twenty-First Century.
Theory, education and practice. Taylor &Francis, London & New York. 179–198;
Ford, J., Martinez, D., 2000. Traditional
ecological knowledge, ecosystem scienceand environmental management. Ecol. Appl.
10 (5); Rashid, M. & Ara, D. R. 2015. Modernity
in Tradition: Reflections on building design
and technology in the Asian vernacular.
Frontiers of Architectural Research 2015,
pp. 46–55; Dayaratne, Ranjuth 2018. Towardsustainable development: Lessons fromvernacular settlements of Sri Lanka. Frontiersof Architectural Research 2018, pp. 334–346.

Vernacular architecture andResidential building

tradition

There have been relatively numerous
attempts to define ‘vernaculararchitecture’. Derived from the latin
word vernaculus, meaning indigenous,
the concept covers an immense
range of different building materials,
functions and social contexts. In
this report, we use the concept of‘tradition’ that also incorporates theknowledge and the cultural, symbolicand social dimensions of the use ofbuildings. It is neither possible nor
purposeful to set a timeframe for the
disconnection of traditional and nontraditional construction in the arctic(or globally). In some Arctic regions
indigenous architecture is still in use,
while in most of the Arctic regions it
has been extinct at least for decades.
Furthermore, a much more difficult
question is to define the boundary ofa ‘traditional’ and a ‘non-traditional’
building, because the transition has
also produced hybrids where bothare present (for example post-WWII“Rintamamiestalo” (veteran’s house) in
Finland).
In this rather technically andpragmatically oriented study, wedefine traditional construction
according to two factors, which are 1)
the use of local materials and manual
processing and 2) knowledge fromprevious generations in the local
cultural circumstances and social
interaction.

Zero Arctic |‘Residential building’ is a relatively
modern concept and did not emerge
in the English language until the
1910s.1 Where modern (and especiallyurban) dwellings offer unambiguous
examples of buildings that contain‘residential’ and/or ‘non-residential’
spaces, this division is not selfevident in historical and traditional
contexts. Changes in building types
and spaces for some activities, forexample the storage of food, leadto the question of what functions
and activities in a building should beconsidered ‘residential’. Also, theculturally constructed and changing
conventions that allow some animals
to live in the human residential
spaces (at present dogs, cats) andhave separate precincts for others
illustrates the problematics of creatinga universal definition for ‘residential’
spaces or buildings.
In the context of this project, it is
not purposeful to make definitions
or restrictions based on modern
technology or concepts. Therefore,
to achieve a systematic picture of the
traditional residential system basedon various livelihoods of the arctic
region, it is arguable to include all thebuildings and precincts of dwellings or
settlements into the analysis, including
unheated storehouses and all built
environments.
1– 1.Introduction –Since the 1990s, a wealth of literature
has addressed the issue of applying theprinciples of vernacular architecture
to introduce sustainable solutions incontemporary building.8 A commonly
shared standpoint is that vernacular architecture forms a source of knowledge
to resource-wise, energy-efficient andsustainable ways to organize humandwellings and settlements. The tradition
forms a large warehouse of know-how,
it provides testimony of millennia of
successful and unsuccessful examples
to build and use buildings efficiently
and in a resource-wise manner.
Integrating vernacular solutions into
the processes of industrial technology is
generally not a straightforward task.

Google Ngram viewer.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition9

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system.
10 Asquith, Lindsay & Vellinga, Marcel (eds)2006. Vernacular Architecture in the TwentyFirst Century. Theory, education and practice.
Taylor & Francis, London & New York, p. 20.

environment and thermal comfort. It isessential to understand that traditional
solutions without complex building
technology or synthetic, highly processed materials, may, in some cases,
lead to better performance, what comes
to i. e. solid structures, wooden hygroscopic surfaces and indoor quality.11
Despite the relatively numerous publications on vernacular architecture andsustainability, only an extremely small
amount of research has concentrated
on Arctic buildings.12 Therefore thereport contains a concise presentationof vernacular architecture in the Arctic.
Finally, the more general purpose of thestudy is to contribute to the academic,
governmental and public discussion
on the role of traditional knowledge indeveloping sustainable solutions. The
harsh climate and scarce resources
make the Arctic the most challenging
permanently populated region on earth.
Thus, traditional solutions of Arctic
building and living provide an illustrative example of adaptation and creativity and use of local and scarce resources
also in the global perspective.

– 1.Introduction –

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Besides the technological aspects,
there is an immense socio-cultural barrier between the ‘modern’ and the ‘traditional’. Vernacular building techniquesand dwellings are often appreciated ascultural heritage or in picturesque andhistoricised contexts, but seldom conceived as sources of innovation for modern construction. Sometimes traditionis even labeled as ‘primitive’ and ‘indigenous’ otherness, that is consideredinvaluable for modern construction.
As previously emphasized by Amos
Rapoport, among others, integrating
vernacular architecture and knowledge into contemporary architecture
still lacks a processual, integrativeand critical field of research.9 Insteadof romanticising the ‘traditional’ andsimply implementing physical featuresof the vernacular examples to modern
construction, the aspects of sustainability should be studied more analytically.
This means, as crystallised by Lindsay
Asquith and Marcel Vellinga, “to rid
the vernacular of its ‘thatched cottage
and mud hut’ image”, and “find out how
the accumulated knowledge, skills andexperience of the world’s vernacularbuilders may be fruitfully applied in amodern context”.10
One of the central questions is indoor
9

Zero Arctic |11 See chapters 5 and 8 of the report.
12 Nilsson, Per Olov, 2011. Rökstugan på Mattila.
Falun. *** NTNU, CERCMA ***Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

10

Life cycle
assessment

13 Figure from IMPAWATT project Factsheet“What is life cycle management” https://www.
impawatt.com/
14 ISO 14040: 2006. Environmental
management — Life cycle assessment —Principles and framework

A

B

C

°C
kWh

Figure 2.

The methodology of LCA at a glance (as a figure). Livady.

region, the study also considers the aspects of indoor environment and comfort and the building-related aspects ofcultural heritage.
ISO has also defined more detailed
requirements for the environmental
and sustainability assessment anddeclaration of buildings.15 The method
used to asses the environmental per15 ISO 21929 Part 1 Sustainability in building
construction - sustainability indicators Part 1
Framework for the development of indicators
and a core set of indicators
ISO 21931 Part 1 Sustainability in building
construction - framework for methods ofassessment of the environmental performanceof construction works - Buildings
ISO 21930 Sustainability in buildings andcivil engineering works — Core rules forenvironmental product declarations ofconstruction products and services.

Zero Arctic |formance of buildings in the Finnish
case study is specified in the standard
EN 15978. The standard presents systemboundaries for the building assessment,
life cycle stages, list of indicators andindicator calculation methods, and datarequirements. This work follows thebasic principles of life cycle assessment
as defined by ISO and EN as describedin Section 1. Based on the climatic andgeographic aspects for Arctic districts(see chapter 3), this work emphasises
certain issues when defining a method
for the GHGs assessment of Arctic
buildings:
Although the assessment follows
the principles of life cycle assessment,
the assessment method focuses on

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 1.Introduction –Life cycle assessment, LCA, is based ona philosophy that considers all environmental impacts through a product’s
life from extraction of raw materials to
disposal.13
The International Standardization
Organization (ISO) has defined basic
principles for life cycle assessment. Life
cycle assessment (LCA) compiles andevaluates the inputs, outputs and thepotential environmental impacts of a
product system throughout its life cycle.
Life cycle inventory analysis (LCI) is one
phase of a life cycle assessment involving the compilation and quantificationof inputs and outputs for a productthroughout its life cycle. LCA addresses
the environmental aspects and potential environmental impacts (e.g. useof resources and the environmental
consequences of releases) throughout aproduct’s life cycle, from raw material
acquisition through production, use,
end-of-life treatment, recycling andfinal disposal (i.e. cradle-to-grave).14
This study follows the basic principles of life cycle assessment as definedby ISO and EN standards. It focuses on
the assessment principles of greenhouse gas emissions. However, whendeveloping recommendations forcarbon neutral building in the Arctic

11

the assessment on the scale of building groups and consideration of district
scale solutions for renewable energy
supply.
When assessing net and nearly zerocarbon solutions, the method allows theconsideration of seasonal consumption
and surplus of energy.
When formulating recommendations
for carbon-neutral Arctic buildings,
this study emphasizes good energyefficiency and advanced solutions forrenewable energy considering the local
potentials, while paying attention to the
traditional ways of construction andgood indoor environment. The work
also recognizes risks of moisture andconsiders the effect of thermal mass forenergy-efficiency.

Zero Arctic |– 1.Introduction –the phases of construction, operation
and use rather than end-of-life phases(demolition, waste processes, anddisposal); end phase scenarios and longservice life are discussed, because they
form an important part of the life cycle
but are mostly difficult to quantify and/or predict.
The assessment method considers both embodied and operational
GHG emissions. When assessing theoperational impacts, we have chosen arelatively short reference study period(compared to the overall potential
service life of buildings). This is becauseof two reasons: 1) A long assessment
timespan decreases the effect of material choices and embodied emissions. The
GHG values for energy units will not
remain the same as today but the differences will be significant in following
decades, because countries aim at abandoning the use of coal in energy supply;
2) The urgency of the climate crisis calls
for rapit actions and measures.
Although the basic assessment
method focuses on buildings, it allows

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

12

The definitions ofArctic region(s)• Frozen Arctic Ocean and the glacier ofGreenland• Coastal areas and islands with marine
climates

16 https://www.britannica.com/place/
Arctic#ref518847
17 https://www.arcticcentre.org/EN/
communications/arcticregion• Tundra with permafrost without forests• Taiga or Boreal Forest
The average temperature in July is an
important environmental and biologicalindicator of ‘northernness’ as an average temperature of 10°C (the 10°C Julyisotherm) closely corresponds to thetimberline. The 10°C-July-isotherm isoften used by biologists as a definitionalboundary between the tundra and thetaiga or boreal forest. The timberline- the line beyond which there are no
significant forests or woodlands ofconiferous trees - typically formulates
the boundary between the two zones.
Coniferous woodlands seldom extend
into regions in which the mean (average) temperature for the whole of thewarmest month of the year is less than
10°C.18 On the basis of Könnig-Geiger
climate zones definitions, the Arctic
district belong to Subarctic climate andtundra (“Figure 3: Climate zones”).19
The word Tundra, which comes fromthe Sámi word meaning “barren land”,
refers to a treeless Arctic region characterized by permafrost.
Roughly 40% (13.4 million km²)
18 https://research.uarctic.org/
resources/atlas/defining-the-arctic/
arctic-as-defined-by-temperature/
19 Geiger, Rudolf (1954). “Klassifikation der
Klimate nach W. Köppen” [Classification ofclimates after W. Köppen]. Landolt-Börnstein– Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik,
Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und Technik,alte Serie. Berlin: Springer. 3. pp. 603–607.

Zero Arctic |of Arctic districts are land areas andcorrespondingly 60% are water bodies(roughly 20 million km²)20. The stateswith districts located north from the
Arctic circle are Canada, the UnitedStates, Russia, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Greenland (Denmark), Iceland andthe Faroe Islands.
The bedrock of the land varies
between the old rock formations of Canada, Greenland and Fennoscandia toyounger sedimentary rocks and volcanically active areas in Iceland, Jan Mayenand the Aleutians island. Much of theice-covered areas are in the perch.
The Fennoscandian – Finland, Sweden and Norway and the Kola Peninsula– Subarctic climate is affected by theatmospheric western currents and thewarm Gulf Stream branch of the North
Atlantic. Because of the mild climate,large areas are covered by a northernconiferous forests or transient zones
between forest and tundra. The area isalso characterized by the large proportion of lakes. The Northern Boreal coniferous forest is the prevailing vegetation type in Finland (50,000 km²), whilebald areas represent about 16% (15,500
km²) and swamps roughly 34%.21
Arctic areas are inhabited approximately by four million people according
to the AHDR (Arctic Human Development Report) definition of the Arctic.

– 1.Introduction –There are several definitions of the Arctic region. Geographically it means areas north of the Arctic Circle. The Arctic
Circle is the parallel of latitude that runs
66.56083 degrees north of the Equator(in 2000). All regions north of this circle
are known as the Arctic.16 The Arctic
Circle determines the southern extremity of the polar day (24 hours of daylight)
in June and the polar night (24 hours
of no daylight) in December. Within
the Arctic Circle, the Sun is above thehorizon for 24 continuous hours at least
once per year and below the horizon
for at least 24 continuous hours. For
example, in Finland, the Arctic regionis the northern part of the Province of
Lapland above the Arctic Circle. In thenatural sciences, this area is called thesubarctic region.17
However, the oceanic currents andcoastal and continental climate factors
affect Arctic climates. Thus, the Arctic consists of four different climatic
regions, where the flora and fauna (andalso the livelihoods and vernaculararchitecture) differ remarkably:

20 https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arktis
21 https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arktis

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition13

– 1.Introduction –Frozen Arctic Ocean
and the glacier of Greenland
Coastal areas and islands
with marine climates
Tundra with permafrost
without forests
Figure 3.

Climate zones. Livady.

Taiga or Boreal Forest

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

14

Human-induced drivers- CO2
2 and black carbon

Arctic Climate Changes(observed):

emissions- Warming of land and sea- Land-cover changes- Reduced sea-ice

Impacts in the Arctic
Environmental- Marine ice connected ecosystem is threatened byacidification of ocean water- Melting glaciers- Shrinking snow cover- Permafrost degradation- Tundra is retreating and the tree line moving northwardchanging bird and reindeer habits- Changes in water cycle release of methane that is trapped in
ice and topographic change.
-Increasing local emission sources due to new human activities,
e.g. shipping and oil extraction

ArcticEconomic and Social

Feedback
Effects- Northern Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
maritime activites (e.g. tourism)- Increased access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
resulting in increased economic growth opportunities, also for
local population-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities
towards more international influence, from subsistence
activities towars more wage labour

Policy Responses (including EU)
Mitigation and Adaption- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withpotentially adverse impacts on health.

- Climate policies- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt

- Energy policies- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.

- Environmental policies- Sectoral policies

Figure 4.

– 1.Introduction –The settlement area stretches over eight
Arctic countries; Canada, United States,
Russia, Finland, Sweden, Norway,
Iceland and Denmark. The circumpolar
region is extremely sparsely populated.
With the broader definition of the Arctic
by the University of the Arctic Atlas,
there are approximately 13.1 million
people living in the area of the circumpolar North.
During the 1950s and 1960s, thenumber of Arctic people started to growrapidly because of improved health carefor indigenous populations and the discovery of vast natural resources locatedin the North, which led to a large influxof immigrants. Recently, population
growth in the Arctic has slowed down ingeneral and in some cases (e.g. Russian
North), the total population has beeneven declining. It is estimated that two
thirds of the total population live in relatively large settlements. Settlements ofindigenous people living in circumpolar
countries are characterized by small,widely scattered communities.22
The cultures in the region and of
Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted
to its cold and extreme conditions. The
Arctic region is in a key position fromthe perspective of the physical, chemical and biological balance in the world.

- Adverse impacts on human health.

Climate in the Arctic – Impacts and Drivers.

22 https://www.arcticcentre.org/EN/
communications/arcticregion

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

15

Figure 6.
Comparison of current annual horizontal global solar radiation in kWh/m2, day(Canada – Quataq, Finland- Sodankylä, Japani - Asahikawa).

The Arctic is quick to react to changes in the climate, which reflect extensively back on the global state of theenvironment. Within climate change research, the Arctic region is considered a
so-called-early warning system.23
The Arctic is the most rapidly changing climate region on Earth. Thereis clear evidence of change that has

have risen +250C within a twenty four
hour period. Examples of record Arctic
summer highs matching southern European temperatures are being recorded.
It is anticipated that this region will berain dominated - not snow dominated by the 2030s.24
Changes in the Arctic ecosystem dynamics have global consequences.25 The

consequences will include rising sea
levels, changes in climate and precipitation patterns, increasing severe weather
events, and loss of fish stocks, birds andmarine mammals as claimed by WWF.26
People will directly feel the effects ofchange as permafrost melts, sea ice
disappears and as the circumstances forsome of the traditional life style of liv-

24 Lynas 2020 Our Final Warning
25 https://www.arcticinfo.eu/en/eu-arctic-impactassessment-factsheets-climate-change

26 https://arcticwwf.org/work/climate/

23 What is the Arctic region? https://www.
arcticcentre.org/FI/arktinenalue

already occurred due to human activities. These affect the fundamentals of
Arctic ecosystems and the lives of Arctic
peoples. The Arctic is a particularly
fragile region where strong ecosystem
feedbacks accelerate changes comparedwith other regions; an effect called“Arctic amplification”. Extreme warming through amplification is affecting all
year round temperatures. On a numberof occasions since December 2015,
North Pole midwinter temperatures

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 1.Introduction –Figure 5. Comparison of current annual temperature in oC(Canada – Quataq, FinlandSodankylä, Japani - Asahikawa).

16

ing is threatened.27
There is no typical “Arctic” anywhere,
but there are different regions with relatively different environmental, social,political and cultural conditions.
However, there are specific featuresthat typically characterise Arctic districts as listed in the following. Manyof these significantly affect the ways of
27 http://www.cambridgeblog.org/2016/07/howis-climate-change-affecting-polar-regionspart–1-professor-david-walton/

Inuvialuit igluryacbuilding and construction and also thepotential solutions for carbon neutral
building.
In terms of vernacular architecture,
there are no well-established definitions for ‘Arctic construction’ or ‘Arctic
vernacular architecture’. In this project,
the concept of Arctic includes both Arctic and Sub-arctic areas, where one of
the key factors are nomadic or huntergatherer livelihoods, except for theNordic countries, where also cultivation

Ainu Toi-Chise

extends to the (geographically defined)
Arctic region.
To provide an overall scope ofArctic circumstances, the case studiesof this research project were chosenfrom different regions of the northernhemisphere. Nordic countries, Eastern
Canada and Hokkaido represent different ways humans have adopted to Arctic
climate in varying climates and availability of resources.

Zero Arctic |– 1.Introduction –Sámi goahti

Characteristics of arctic
districts:• seasonal variations in daylight hours• sparsely inhabited• windiness in many regions• potentially high snow loads and icing
of structures• permafrost or seasonally frozen
ground• the most rapidly changing climate

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

17

(of Finland, Canada and Japan)

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 2. Climate and Population –2. Climate and Population

18

Finland

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

28 Ojanlatva, Eija, 2013. “Mitä on saamelaisalueen
arkeologinen kulttuuriperintö”,
teoksessa Magga, Päivi & Ojanlatva,
Eija (toim.), Ealli Biras – Elävä ympäristö.
Saamelainen kulttuuriympäristöohjelma.
Saamelaismuseosäätiö, Inari, 41.

Figure 7.

Köppen-Geiger climate classification map for Finland.

– 2. Climate and Population –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

Arctic Finland is located in Northern
Finland between the Arctic Circle and70 degrees latitude north. The climaticand biomic conditions are subarctic,
characterized by boreal taiga, cold
winters and mild summers. The oldest archaeological testimony of humanpermanent settlements dates28 back to
the post-glacial era ca. 8 000 BC.
Northern Arctic Finland contains
four municipalities: Inari, Enontekiö,
Utsjoki and Sodankylä with a population of 18 297 inhabitants (Table 1). In
total this region of Arctic Finland includes 20% of the Sámi population (Table 2). The majority of this population is
between the ages of 15 – 64 (Figure 8b).
According to recent estimates, the total
population will decrease approximately
3% per every ten years (Figure 8a) in
Arctic Municipalities of Finland and theonly Sàmi demographic that is estimated to increase is that of people aged
over 66 (Figure 8 b).
The Sámi are the indigenous peopleof Finland. They are the only indigenous people in the European Union
that have a common history, tradition,
lifestyle and community. The status of
the Sámi was written into the Constitution of Finland in 1995 and the Sámi
have constitutional self-government in

Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution”. Nature Scientific Data.: Beck,
H.E., Zimmermann, N. E., McVicar, T. R., Vergopolan, N., Berg, A., & Wood, E. F

the Sámi Homeland in the spheres oflanguage and culture since 1996. This
self-government is managed by the
Sámi Parliament established by law.
Procedures exist for seeking the free,prior, and informed consent of the Sámi
from the Sámi Parliament in Finland

Zero Arctic |for research projects dealing with Sámi
cultural heritage and traditional knowledge and other activities that have or
may have an impact on this heritage
and knowledge.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

19

ic

nerability of existing
infrastructure on land due
Sodankylä
8 239
7 577
7 017
and permafrost melt
Total
18 29717 79117 187
ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.
Table 1. Population forecast for Arctic Municipalities, Finland (Inari, Enontekiö,
cts on humanhealth.Sodankylä).
Utsjoki,Municipality

%

Inari

30%

of the Inari population

Enontekiö

19%of the Enontekiö population

Utsjoki70%of the Utsijoki population

Sodankylä

4%of the Sodankylä population

Total

20%

of the total population above

Table 2.

Share of Sámi in the total population by municipality.

Series2

2020
18 297

Year

2030

2040

17 79117 187

Demographic structure in the Sami communitiesb)

12 000
10 000Population amountdrbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
forecast (all inhabitants)
aterncycle release of methane that is trappedPopulationinaphic
radationchange. Municipality\ year
2020
2030
2040
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
Inari
6 988
7 197
7 234
d
s moreoil extraction
wage labour
Enontekiö
1 849
1 842
1 786
oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on
health.
Utsjoki
1 221
1 175
1 150

18 40018 20018 00017 80017 60017 40017 20017 00016 80016 600Estimation of Municipal population,
Arctic Finland (all residents)– 2. Climate and Population –Population amount

a)

8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
0

<14

15-64

Age

>65
2020

2030

2040

Figure 8. a). Estimate of Municipal population. b) Demography for Arctic Municipalities, Finland(Inari, Enontekiö, Utsjoki, Sodankylä).

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition20

According to the Köppen-Geiger climateclassification system, there are 12 different types of climate in Canada29.
The geographical distribution of theseclimates is presented in Figure 9. In
di se sesp-u c-eu
the north, two climate types are mainly
re opsleare use
present: the subarctic and the tundra
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
climates.
re opslearseee-suese
Subarctic climate is defined by a
ddi is resp
lalong, cold winter season with shortcedays. There are 5 to 7 months where theaverage temperature is below freezing
efurbishment
perative
water
and temperatures can drop to below
ic
ClimateChangesand blackcarbon–50°C during that period.30 Summer- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies
lasts between 1 to 3 months and average- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, temperatures rarely exceed 16°C, except
changing bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also
- Environmental
policies
forforinterior regions where tempera- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped intures close to 25°C are possible. These- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities
annual temperature ranges are larger-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
than those found in any other climate
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with type. Humidity level is relatively low
potentially adverse impacts on health.
and there is little precipitation, which- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on landmostlyduetakes the form of snow. Annual
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
precipitation totals are usually below- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
380 mm. Away from the coasts, precipirequire humans to adapt.
tation occurs mostly during summer,- Adverse impacts on human health.
while in coastal areas the precipitationheavy season is during the autumn
months when the difference of temperature between the land and the seas is
at its annual peak. Vegetation is generally of low diversity, since few species
re-useCanada29 Kottek et al. World Map of the KöppenGeiger climate classification uptated. DOI:
10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130
30 The Physical Environment. Subarctic climate.
https://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooks/
tpe_3e/climate_systems/subarctic.html

Figure 9.
system.

Climate types of Canada according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification

can survive the long winters. Trees aremostly conifers, with few broadleaved
trees surviving the harsh conditions.
Despite the low diversity of species,
vegetation is quite widespread. Witha surface area of 307 million hectares,
Canada’s boreal forest, the forested area
within the subarctic climate, represents

Zero Arctic |75% of all forests and woodlands foundin Canada.31
The tundra climate is a transitional
climate between the subarctic and ice
cap climates. The climate is characterised by very cold and generally dry
conditions. Temperatures rarely rise– 2. Climate and Population –structionnd of life

31 Natural Resources Canada. 8 facts about
Canada’s boreal forest. https://www.nrcan.
gc.ca/our-natural-resources/forests-forestry/sustainable-forest-management/borealforest/8-facts-about-canadas-borealforest/17394

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition21

re-usedi

sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese

structionnd of life

efurbishment
perativewater

ic
ClimateChanges- CO2
and blackcarbon- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts
in
the
ArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating and the tree line moving northward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also for- Environmental
policies- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withpotentially adverse impacts on health.
- Increased
vulnerabilityof existing
infrastructure
on landdue
Figure 10.
Distributionof permafrost
in Canada
andposition of the treeline across the country.
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
- Adverse impacts on human health.

above 10°C during the summer32. Frostand snow are possible any month of theyear. The very low temperature reduces
the absolute humidity and consequently, precipitations are characteristicallylight (usually less than 250 mm peryear). However, eastern and westernreaches receive more precipitation (up32 The Physical Environment. Tundra climate.
https://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooks/
tpe_3e/climate_systems/tundra_1.html

to around 500 mm) due to the influence of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
In the northern regions of the tundra
climate, there are days in winter where
the sun never rises above the horizon
and days in summer where it never sets.
For these reasons, the tundra climate isa region that is almost entirely devoidof trees (the treeline of Canada can beseen in Figure 10). Hardy flora survive
in places by growing in rock depres-Figure 11.
Road and marine transportation network in the north of Canada. Red dots represent
the various communities located in the five regions and territories (only municipalities are shownfor Yukon).

sions, where it is warmer and they are
sheltered from the wind.
For both of these climate types, allmoisture in the soil and subsoil freezes
up to several meters’ depth in winter.
The summer season is too short andcold to thoroughly thaw the frozen soil,
so permafrost prevails everywhere in
the tundra climate and for a major partof the subarctic climate. Depending on
the latitude and type of ground, perma-

Zero Arctic |frost can reach a thickness of many meters. The distribution of permafrost in
Canada is shown in Figure 10. Continuous permafrost refers to a continuous
sheet of frozen material that extends
under all landscapes except large bodies
of water. Discontinuous permafrost is
broken up into separate areas. Permafrost is present in specific areas (e.g.
in the shadow of a mountain or thickvegetation), but not everywhere since

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 2. Climate and Population –pe u
ddi is resp
la
ce

22

re-usestructionnd of life

2018 Statistical Addendum. https://www.tc.gc.
ca/eng/policy/transportation-canada-2018.
html
34 Statistics Canada. Transportation in the North.
https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/16002-x/2009001/article/10820-eng.htm

service. To compare the two realities,
Nunavut receives 153.2 thousand tonnes
per year in shipment by boat versus 36.4
for the Northwest Territories, despite
the latter having a larger population
than the former.35 In fact, 90% of thetonnage handled in Nunavut is related
to importations via marine cargo. In the
Northwest Territories, this proportionis 32%.
Air transportation is the common
way of travel for individuals. In Iqualuit(Nunavut), Yellowknife (Northwest Territories) and Whitehorse (Yukon), thenumber of annual aviation passenger
trips per capita respectively are 17.9,
15.1 and 6.636. For the sake of comparison, Calgary is the city in the “south of
Canada” with the biggest propensity
to travel by airplane with 10.3 aviation
passenger trips per capita. Calgary is
an aviation hub with increased numberof connecting flights, but cannot match
the figures of Iqualuit and Yellowknife
even with this upward effect. Becauseof the small population, the cost of flying is bigger in the North. The average
household in Nunavut spends $1,803

35 Statistics Canada. Transportation in the North(Table 3 – Domestic shipping-tonnage handled,by territory, 2006). https://www150.statcan.
gc.ca/n1/pub/16-002-x/2009001/tbl/transpo/
tbl003-eng.htm
36 Statistics Canada. Transportation in the North(Table 4 – Propensity to travel by airplane,2006). https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/
pub/16-002-x/2009001/tbl/transpo/tbl004eng.htm

Zero Arctic |per year on air travel. For all of Canada,
this figure is $436.37
Topographic and demographic
overview

Northern Canada refers to the vast
northernmost region of the country,
represented politically by Canada’s
three territories (Yukon, Northwest
Territories (NWT) and Nunavut), and by
Nunavik and Nunatsiavut in the provinces of Quebec and Newfoundland andLabrador, respectively. These territories and regions are shown in Figure
12. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the
portion of the Arctic between 60°W
and 141°W longitude (the Atlantic andPacific Coasts), extending all the way to
the North Pole. Canada’s North is typically divided into two distinct regions,referred to by biologists as biomes,
comprising the Boreal Forest and theTundra. The two biomes are separated
by a transitional tree line many kilometers wide, which can also be viewed
as the southern limit of the Arctic; theboundary between the Arctic and theSubarctic.38– 2. Climate and Population –1,300 km (100% unpaved) in Nunavut.33
the warmer climate is able to entirely
thaw frozen soil for several weeks durOnly two highways connect the northing summer.
of Canada with the south and both are
Most Arctic communities in Canada
found in the west of the country. There
are located in areas where permafrost
is no road that connects Nunavut, Nunadi se seseuu
p- cis present
to at least to some extent.
vik and Nunatsiavut with the rest of there opsleare use
Constructing
infrastructuressuchascountry. Rail network is also minimal
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
buildings
onpermafrost
ischallenging,since the northern population is widely
re opslearseee-suese
becauseanyheatreleasetothegrounddispersed – only 0.2% of Canada’s rail
ddi is resplaor changein the thermal balance can
network is found in Yukon, the Northce
result in permafrost thawing, and thus
west Territories and Nunavut.34 The cold
create instabilities or even destruction
climate, uneven geography, great disefurbishment
perative
waterof the infrastructure. Melting permatances and small populations make theic
ClimateChangesandblackcarbonfrost
islandalso
undesirable
onis athreatenedlarger by
construction and maintenance of road
- Warmingofandseaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationwater- Climatepolicies
scale,
asofitocean
wouldraise water levels andand rail infrastructure difficult.
- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policiesincreaseerosionin
additiontoaffectingSince northern communities have litLand-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resultinginincreased
economic
growth opportunities
alsofor- Environmental
policies
local
ecosystems.
Two
commonsolutleaccess to these two modes of trans- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped intions
todegradation
prevent
buildings from thawing
portation, a greater emphasis is placed- Sectoral
policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
change.
-Changein economic
local activities
permafrost
arestructure
to placefrom
the small-scalefoundations
on marine and air transport to bring in-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
thetowars
buildingonwood
or steel piles or
supplies and goods, and to satisfy thee.g. ofactivities
shipping
and more
oil extraction
wage
labourtoinsert
a
thick
(1–2
m)
gravelpadthat- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with travel needs of individuals. The Northpotentially
impacts
on health.
blocksadverse
the heattransfer
between thewest Passage, seen in blue in Figure 11,- Increased
vulnerabilityof existing infrastructure on landconnects
duebuilding
and the ground.
all presented communities of
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
Figure 11 displays the road andthe north. Not all territories are able to- Changes
in snow/ice
dependent
transport
and foor sourcesmarineinfrastructure
foundin Canada’s
take advantage of this passage. Approxirequire humans to adapt.
North. One of the more important difmately half of the population of the- Adverse impacts on human health.
ferences between Canada’s northern
Northwest Territories lives in Yellowterritories and the rest of the country isknife, which does not border the ocean.
the absence of a road network for many
Whitehorse, the capital city of Yukon,
isolated communities. There are 6,100
accounts for 75% of the territory’s
kilometres of road (59% of roads are unpopulation and has no regular marine
paved) in Yukon, 5,400 km (78% are unpaved) in the Northwest Territories and
33 Transport Canada. Transportation in Canada –37 Statistic Canada. Transportation in the
North (Table 6 – Household spending ontransportation, Canada and the North, 2005).
https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/16002-x/2009001/tbl/transpo/tbl006-eng.htm
38 The Canadian encyclopedia, John U. Bayly,
Published Online February 7, 2006. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/
northConcepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition23

re-useCanada’s tundra is known for its
review of traditional indigenous archifreezing temperatures, with strong
tectures will only account for its mostwinds and blizzards characteristic of the northern regions, the northern boreal
region’s long winters. The short sumwoodland, closest to the three territomers are characterized by almost conries (Yukon, NWT & Nunavut), Nunavik
di se seseuu
p- c- daylight and its winters by longtinuousin Quebec and Nunatsiavut in Newre opsleare usenightsfoundland and Labrador. Even thoughdidis re- with only occasional daylight.
di sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceuthe Arctic’s patchy vegetation andGiven
the region is characterized by almost
re opslearseee-sueses e- annual precipitation, it is often
itsddisilow
continuous permafrost, the climate in
r
pl
39
a
referred
to as the “Polar desert”. Canathe northern boreal woodlands is not asceharsh as in the Arctic regions and does
da’s Arctic region is sparsely populated.
allow for the development of widely
As
of
2016,
only
about
129,352
peopleefurbishment
perativewater
spaced evergreens (coniferous trees that
resided there; less than 1% of Canada’s
40
ic
ClimateChangesandblackcarbonkeep their foliage year-round).42
total
population.
A quantitative
de- by- Warmingofland
and seaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
is threatenedacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidification
of
ocean
water
- Climatepolicies
scriptionof Canada’s
North population
Indigenous groups make up more
- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policies
isdetailed
in
Chapter2of
thisreport.
thanhalf of the population in the three
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resultinginthe
increased
economic
growthopportunities
alsofor- Environmental
policies
On
other
hand,
the
Borealzone
territories
combined (85% in Nunavut,- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in(Taiga)takes up
55% of the Canadian
25.1% in Yukon, 50.3% in the NWT),- Sectoral
policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changeeconomic
structurefrom small-scaleland inmass
and isthe country’s
largest local activities
which are home to hundreds of dif-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
It extends
ferent communities of varying sizes.
e.g. vegetation
activities
shipping
towarsand zone.
more
oil extraction
wage
labour from Yukon
andnorthern
BritishColumbia
inthe- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with In both Nunavik and Nunatsiavut,
potentially
impacts on andhealth.
west toadverse
Newfoundland
Labrador in
the share of indigenous people in the- Increased
vulnerabilityof existingdue
the east.
The regionis alsoinfrastructure
divided intoon landpopulation
is above 90%. Arctic peoples
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
three ecological subzones: the northern
are one of the most culturally diverse- Changes
snow/ice dependenttransport
foor sources
borealinwoodland,
the mainborealand
forestgroups.43 Commonly, Indigenous peorequire humans to adapt.
41
and the southern boreal forest. Given
ples are classified using three major- Adverse impacts on human health.
groups; the Inuit, First Nations & Métis.
Zero Arctic’s scope and objectives, this
Although these broad categories will be
used for classification purposes within
39 The Canadian encyclopedia, J. Terasmae,
Andrew Reeves, Published Online April 20,
the typology of vernacular architec2009.
https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/
article/tundra
40 Government of Canada, Statistics Canada(8 February 2017). “Population and DwellingCount Highlight Tables, 2016 Census”. www12.
statcan.gc.ca.
41 The Canadian encyclopedia. Article by George
H. La Roi Published Online June 20, 2013https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/
article/boreal-forest

42 The Canadian Encyclopedia, Article by John N.
Owens. Published Online April 9, 2012https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/
article/coniferous-trees
43 Government of Canada, Statistics Canada(15 January 2008). “Statistics Canada: 2006
Aboriginal Population Profile”. www12.statcan.
gc.ca.

Figure 12. Map of Canada showing Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik andNunatsiavut.

tures, it should be stressed that community members are more likely to define
themselves as members of a specificnation, or communities within those nations, since the culture, languages andpractices differ immensely amongst andwithin these categories.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 2. Climate and Population –structionnd of life

24

di

re-useJapan

sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sesection
f lifement
water

Changesandblackcarbonrming
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ment
arine
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connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
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ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts on health.

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

■Dfa, Cold, no dry season, hot summer■Dfb, Cold , no dry season, warm summer■Dfc, Cold , no dry season, cold summer■ET, Polar tundra

Fig.11 Köppen-Geiger Klassifikation of Hokkaido

Wakkanai
30
20
10
0
-10
-20

200
150
100
50

J FMAM J J A S ON D

0Asahikawa
30
20
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– 2. Climate and Population –pe u
ddi is resp
lace

The island of Hokkaido is located at
the north end of Japan. It has coastlines on the Sea of Japan, the Sea of
Okhotsk, and the Pacific Ocean. A
mountain range and a volcanic plateau
run through the center of the island.
Hokkaido has multiple plains such as
the Ishikari Plain 3,800 km², Tokachi
Plain 3,600 km², the Kushiro Plain is thelargest wetland in Japan 2,510 km² andSarobetsu Plain 200 km². Hokkaido is83,423.84 km² which makes it secondlargest island of Japan, and also the 21stlargest in the world. The Tsugaru Strait
separates Hokkaido from Honshu.44
Hokkaido has relatively cool summers and cold winters. The island falls
in the humid continental climate zone
with Köppen climate classification Dfb(hemiboreal) in most areas but Dfa(hot-summer humid continental) insouthern areas. The average August
temperature ranges from 17 to 22°C,
while the average January temperature
ranges from −12 to −4°C, in both cases
depending on elevation and distancefrom the ocean. Temperatures on thewestern side of the island tend to be alittle warmer than on the eastern. The
highest temperature ever recorded is
39.5°C on 26 May 2019.45

50
0Kushiro
30
20
10
0
-10
-20

200
150
100
J FMAM J J A S ON D

50
0

Fig.11 Köppen-Geiger
Köppen-Geiger
Klassifikation
classificationof Hokkaido.of Hokkaido

Figure 13.

Hakodate

30

200

20
150
Present and future Köppen-Geiger
climate classification
maps at 1-km resolution, Nature Scientific Data: Beck,
10
100
0
J FM
A M Vergopolan,
J J A S O N D 50
-10 T.
H.E., Zimmermann, N. E., McVicar,
R.,
N.,
Berg,
A., & Wood, E. F
-20
0Wakkanai

30
200
Fig. 12 Temperature and snowfall around Hokkaido (Maptiles by MIERUNE,
under CC BY. Data
by
20
150
OpenStreetMap contributors, under ODbL)
10
0
-10
-20

44 Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). “Hokkaido”
in Japan Encyclopedia, p. 343, p. 343, at
Google Books
45 https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/
hokkaido-sizzling-in-temperatures-as-high-as395-deg-c-as-unseasonal-heat-wave-grips

Zero Arctic |500Asahikawa

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30
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30
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SapporoObihiroJ FMAM J J A S ON D

30
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Concepts forcarbon neutral
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duced
ritimesea-ice
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undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
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inking snow
cover
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30
mafrostand topographic
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hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
20
wards
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internationalemission sources
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duefromto new
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100.ivities
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-10
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30
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50

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50
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0creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

Kushiro
30
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quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

200
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– 2. Climate and Population –ddi resp
lace

0

Hakodate
30
20
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Figure 14.

200
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100
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Temperature and snowfall around Hokkaido.

Maptiles by MIERUNE, under CC BY. Data by OpenStreetMap contributors, under ODbL.

Fig. 12 Temperature and snowfall around Hokkaido (Maptiles by MIERUNE, under CC BY. Data by
OpenStreetMap contributors, under ODbL) Zero Arctic | Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition26

6,000,000

30,0005,000,000

25,0004,000,000

20,0003,000,000

15,0002,000,000

10,0001,000,000

5,000

Ainu

Total

re-usection
f lifeFigure 15 shows the predicted
population change in Hokkaido andAinus from 1920 to 2060.47, 48,49 The mostserious social problem in Hokkaido
is rapid population decline. The peakof the population was approx. 5.7M
around 2000. Hokkaido has already lost
500 000 individuals, 10% during the last
20 years. The population of Ainu is also
rapidly decreasing, but the statistics
before 1980 are not reliable.

001900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060
Hokkaido population
Ainu population
Figure 15.

Population of Hokkaido and Ainu.

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

46 https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification– 2. Climate and Population –The northern part of Hokkaido isin the taiga biome 46 with significant
snowfall. Snowfall varies widely fromas much as 11 meters on the mountains
adjacent to the Sea of Japan down todi se sesp-u c-eu around 1.8 meters on the Pacific coast.
re opsleare use
Total precipitation varies from 1,600
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
mm on the mountains of the Sea ofre opslearseee-suese
Japan coast to around 800 mm, the lowddi is resplaest in Japan, on the Sea of Okhotsk coastce
and interior lowlands and up to around
1,100 mm on the Pacific side. Japanesementwater mainland is normally affected by the
Changesandblackcarbonrainy
seasoncausedby the monsoon.
rming
of landand sea
ment
arine
ice
connected
ecosystem
is threatenedbytheArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof Hokkaido,
ocean water however, is not affected byatepolicies
duced
ritimesea-ice
activites(e.g. tourism)
undraischanges
retreating
and thetree line
northward
gy
policies
theto
rainy
season.
Inmoving
winter,the gener-coverting glaciers
creasedaccessoil andgas reserves
and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic
growthopportunities
also
onmental
policiesally
highqualityofpowdersnow
andforinking snow coverhangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies numerous mountains in Hokkaido makemafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic
structurefrom small-scale
activities
it a popularregionfor snowlocal
sports.
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
Also,
Hokkaido.ivities
shipping
towarsandmore
oil extraction
wage labourpeople celebrates its
winterweather
several snow
digenous peoples' foodsourceswith
are threatened,with andtentially adverse
impactsonhealth.
ice events.

47 https://www.hkd.mlit.go.jp/ky/ki/renkei/
ud49g70000000mki-att/en_all.pdf
48 http://www.ipss.go.jp/index-e.asp
49 https://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/english/life.html

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition27

(in Finland, Canada and Japan)

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 3. Vernacular Architecture –3. Vernacular Architecture28

Finland

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

50 Jomppanen, Arja, 2013. “Museoitu
saamelainen kulttuuriympäristö:
Inarin saamelaismuseo”, teoksessa
Magga, Päivi & Ojanlatva, Eija
(toim.), Ealli Biras — Elävä ympäristö.
Saamelainen kulttuuriympäristöohjelma.
Saamelaismuseosäätiö, Inari, 112—113.

NORWAY

Municipalities with Sámi
as an oﬃcial language(in Finland)

RUSSIA

Sápmi, Southern limit of the
traditional areas of Sámi people

Arctic circle

FINLANDSWEDEN

Helsinki
Oslo
200 kmStockholm

Figure 16.

Map of Arctic Fennoscandia and the Sámi.

Figure 17.

A log frame for a one-family house under construction. Livady.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 3. Vernacular Architecture –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

The traditional Arctic constructionin Finland consists of two different
cultures that are 1) the Sámi, the indigenous people(s), and 2) the farming
culture that has spread to the Arctic
region from southern Finland from18th century onwards. The differencesof culture, traditions, livelihood andeconomy, and also traditional construction of the Sámi and the farming culture
are significant. During the 20th century,
modern construction techniques havesubstituted the tradition, and the few
standing examples of vernacular Sámi
architecture are mainly situated inmuseums.50 Some traditional examplesof the buildings of farming culture arestill in use. Ethnological documentations, made from the late 19th century
onwards, open a historical window tothe vanished typologies of traditional
construction and the use of dwellings.
An important source for the researchhas been the Sámi Museum Siida, thenational museum of the Finnish Sámi
population.

29

The Sámi

Figure 18.

Drawings of the facade and plan of a Lávvu, Histoire de la Laponie. Jean Scheffer.

Figure 19.

Sámi village in Inari. Picture taken in the 1960s, photographer unknown.

nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

51 Magga, Päivi, 2013. “Saamelaisesta
rakennusperinnöstä”, teoksessa
Magga, Päivi & Ojanlatva, Eija
(toim.), Ealli Biras — Elävä ympäristö.
Saamelainen kulttuuriympäristöohjelma.
Saamelaismuseosäätiö, Inari, 94—95.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –The Sámi are a Finno-Ugric people
inhabiting northern parts of Scandinavia and North-Western Russia. The
traditional livelihood and economy of
the Sámi in arctic Finland is nomadic,
mainly based on reindeer herding, together with hunting, fishing and gathering. The traditional architecture follows
the needs of nomadic and seasonal
livelihoods, consisting of various temporary and semi-permanent buildings
and settlements. The materials used in
rbon
traditional
construction
include woodendand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedbyic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean waterbeams as supporting structures, logs
e (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree line
northward
18thmoving
century
onwards), and reinsges
ess to oil and(fromgas reserves
and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growthopportunities
formoss as
oliciesdeer
skins,
boards,turfalso
and
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped incovering and insulating structures.51
aphic
radationchange.

As the last indigenous people in Europe, The Sámi (historically named also
as “the Lapplanders”) culture and traditions aroused scholarly interest alreadyin the 17th century. The earliest printed
books depicting the traditional architecture of the Sámi date back to the 18th
century. As the traditional buildings hada relatively short life cycle, no authentic standing examples exist. However,remarkable ethnological collectionsof interviews, photographs and drawings made from 1880s to 1950s makethe traditional buildings and traditional
knowledge accessible.
The historical terms used in this passage come from Northern Sámi.

Sámi Museum Siida.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

30

The settlements

52 Ojanlatva, Eija, 2013. “Variistâllâm Inarinsaamelaisten vuotuismuutto”,
teoksessa Magga, Päivi & Ojanlatva,
Eija (toim.), Ealli Biras – Elävä ympäristö.
Saamelainen kulttuuriympäristöohjelma.
Saamelaismuseosäätiö, Inari, 74—75.

53 Jeremoff, Irja, 2013. “Varriminen eli
muutto talvipaikasta kesäpaikkkaan: Työtä
ja vapautta”, Magga, Päivi & Ojanlatva,
Eija (toim.), Ealli Biras – Elävä ympäristö.
Saamelainen kulttuuriympäristöohjelma.
Saamelaismuseosäätiö, Inari, 76–77.
54 ibid.
55 ibid.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –The historical Sámi settlements reflect
the traditional nomadic livelihood. The
traditional Sámi settlements differed
substantially in different regions ofFennoscandia. The seasonal moves of
Inari region and the divergent settlement patterns of the alpine regions ofNorthern Sweden reflect the various
ways of adaptation to local geography
and natural resources.52 In general, theSámi settlements highlight the complex
interdependence of settlement patterns
rbon
and scarcenaturalbyresources in thedand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean waterarctic region.
e (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the treeline
moving northwardTheseasonal
move in the Inari resges
ess to oil and gas
reserves
and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growthopportunities
for
oliciesgion,
characterized
byalsoseparate
summercover
aterncycle release of methane that is trapped in
and winter villages, reflects this central
aphic
radationchange.
nomic structure
fromofsmall-scale
activities
aspectthe Sámilocal
culturein Arctic Finalnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wageland.
labourThe summer villages were usuallysituated
the lakeshores,
whereas theoples' food sources
areatthreatened,witherse impactswinteron health.
villages were set up in the shelnerability of existing
infrastructure
on landto
due
tered forest
areas, close
the reindeer
and permafrost melt
pastureland. The distance between theow/ice dependenttransport
and foorvillages
sources was seldom
summerand winters to adapt.
more than five kilometres. The seasonalcts on human health.
move was preserved until the mid-20th

century and the tradition vanished in
the 1970s.53
The ethnological and archaeological material reveals that many of thevillage locations were permanent andused for centuries in some cases. Especially summer villages had permanent
structures and also buildings when the
Sámi adopted livestock-keeping, farming and log construction in the 18th and19th centuries. The locations of wintervillages were less permanent because of
the need for firewood and pastureland
resources.54
The settlement economy and seasonal moves demonstrate the adaptation to the scarcity of resources and thevariation of summer and winter livelihood. They were also connected to the
tradition on land ownership, based on
kinship.55

Figure 20.

Zero Arctic |Sámi dwellings in 18th century engravingHistoire de la Laponie. Jean Scheffer.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

31

Figure 22.

Goahti, historical photo. Date and photographer unknown, Sámi Museum Siida.

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

Lávvuinfrastructure on land due
nerability of existingand permafrost melt

Lávvu represents the simplest heatedow/ice dependenttransport
andfoor sourcesarchitecturedwelling
in thevernaculars to adapt.

of Arctic Finland. It is a temporary formof dwelling that consists of a radial
structure of primary and secondary
battens and a fabric.56 The structure
can be partially open or almost totallyclosed. Lávvu is an example of a portable building that could be assembledof portable fabrics and battens gatheredfrom nearby.

cts on human health.

56 Itkonen, T. I. 1948. Suomen lappalaiset
vuoteen 1945, I osa, 175–178.

Goahti and hirsagoahti
A Goahti is the typical semi-permanentor portable dwelling of the Sámi. The
supporting structure is composed ofbattens and the structure is covered
with skins, fabrics or turf. Goahtis areboth summer and winter dwellings andthe structure allows various degrees of
insulation, usually realized with turf.
A goahti, as in the case of the lávvu, isdivided into nine separate functionalzones, the fireplace in the middle ofthe dwelling, described in detail in the

figures.57
A hirsagoahti is an amalgamationof the traditional goahti and log construction adopted by Sámi in the 18thand 19th centuries. In a hirsagoahti, thefoundation is laid of logs in rectangular, hexagonal or octagonal form up
to one meter. Upon the log foundation
the structure follows the principles ofgoahtis, described above.58
The life cycle of goahtis was at
maximum a few decades. Goahtis andsettlements were usually abandoned
due to firewood resources that forced
to transfer to a new settlement. Whenlog construction was adopted, the log
foundations were usually recycled to
new buildings.

57 Itkonen 1948, 178 — 193.

58 Huttunen, Marko, 2013 “Salvoskota, hirsitupa
ja hirsitalo – Inarinsaamelaisten vanhat
hirsiasumukset”, Magga, Päivi & Ojanlatva,
Eija (toim.), Ealli Biras — Elävä ympäristö.
Saamelainen kulttuuriympäristöohjelma.
Saamelaismuseosäätiö, Inari, 98—109; Itkonen
1948, 193—197.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 3. Vernacular Architecture –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
Lávvu in Rommajärvi, Enontekiö. Picture by Tyyne Hellen, Sámi Museum Siida.
ds moreoil extraction
wageFigure
labour21.

32

Figure 23.

Goahti, 3D section. Livady.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

33

Sámi log house

Storage shelters and houses

ic

Besidesthe dwellings,
the livelihood
drbon
and seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedbyRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean waterrequired a number a storage houses.
e (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree line moving
northward
simpleconstructions weresges
ess to oil andThegas most
reserves
and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growthopportunities
forbeams andoliciesshelters,
supportedbyalso
four
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped incovered with fabrics and turf. A njalla isaphic
radationchange.
nomic structurefrom small-scale
local activities
a historicallyimportant
type of storagealnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts59
on Huttunen
health. 2013, 101; Itkonen 1948, 205—2015.

Figure 24.

Sámi log house. Livady.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –The Sámi adopted the log house construction simultaneously with the initiation of the constructions of hirsagoahtis
in the late 18th century. In a log house,
the heating was organized with a chimneyless stove, situated in the cornerof the house. As in the goahtis andthe lávvu, the space was divided intofunctionally separate zones, but with awooden flooring as a new feature.59

house often depicted in the illustrationsof early books about the Sámi. A njalla
consists of a small rectangular storage
room for game, mounted on a pole.
After the adoption of animal husbandry
and farming, the number and types ofoutbuildings was multiplied, and the
Sámi adopted the building types of thesouthern farming culture.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Figure 25.

Sámi log house, historical photograph.

Figure 26.

Zero Arctic |Sámi log house, drawing of section and plan. Livady.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

34

Figure 27.

Sámi log house, 3D section. Livady.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

35

The building types of farming
culture in Arctic Finland
Smoke house (chimneyless log
house)
smoke house

log house withchimney

Figure 28.

Smoke house and log house with chimney in Murtovaara. Livady.

Figure 29.

Smoke house in Murtovaara. Livady.

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 3. Vernacular Architecture –The smoke house is the earliest dwellingtype of the farming culture that spreadto the Arctic Finland from 16th century
onwards. Smoke houses represent thetraditional log construction, typical in
Scandinavia and Russia already in theend of the first millennia. Smoke houses
contained initially only one room, but
rbon
buildings
with twobyor even severaldand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedic
Routes open to transit shipping and th
additional
ocean waterrooms exist from 16 century onwards.
e (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree line moving
northward
house, comes fromsges
ess to oil andThegas name,
reservessmokeand minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growth opportunities
also foroliciestheheatingsystemwhere
the smoke
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped incirculates inside and heats the massive
aphic
radationchange.
nomic structurefrom small-scale
local isactivities
structure.
The smokethen conductedalnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wageoutside
labour through vents. Some smoke
housesarewithmodernized
oples' food sources
threatened,with heating still
erse impactsstand,on health.
but the tradition of heating
nerability of existing
onconserved
land due
withoutinfrastructurechimneys is
only inand permafrost melt
smoke saunas.

36Log house (with chimney)aterncycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structurefrom small-scale
activities
Storageshelterslocal
andhousesalnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
storage houses and shelters neededds moreoil extraction
wageThelabourFigure 30.

Plan of chimney house. Livady.

Figure 31.

Log house. Livady.

in the farming
cultureoples' food sources
are threatened,
withwere completely
erse impactsdifferent
on health. when compared to the nomad-

nerability of existing
infrastructure
on landdue
ic Sámi.
Most common
outbuildings
and permafrost melt

were granaries and buildings needed

ow/ice dependenttransport
and foor sources
for animalhusbandry.
In farming culs to adapt.

ture, all the buildings were located close
to each other, and the livelihood did not
demand seasonal moves.

cts on human health.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 3. Vernacular Architecture –Log houses are based on the same tradition of construction as smoke houses.
The most important difference is thechimney and the structural and indoor
characteristics that derive from theintroduction of the new heating system.
Log houses substituted smoke houses in
Arctic Finland from 17th century onwards, and largely during the 19th century. The introduction of the chimney
resulted in the construction of ceilings
to economize heating. Log houses wererbon
the only
type of dwellingsin the farmd
and seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedbyic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watering culture of Arctic Finland up to thee (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree line
movingnorthward
world
war,
and there are still asges
ess to oil andsecond
gas reserves
andminerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growthopportunities
also for in use.
oliciesnumberofstanding
examplescover37

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Figure 32.

Transfer marks in the logs of a log house. Livady.

Figure 33.

Section drawing of a log house. Livady.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

38

Figure 34.

Log House with chimney, 3D section. Livady.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

39

CanadaVernacular architecture of Inuitand their Thule ancestors

re-useUp until the 1950s, Inuit were primarily
a semi-nomadic people who maintained
patterns of regional, seasonal migration
di se sesp-u c-eu
across Inuit Nunangat (i.e. Nunavut,
re opsleare use
Nunatsiavut, Nunavik and Inuvialuit)
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
that were based on the availability ofre opslearseee-suese
natural resources and supported their
ddi is resplatraditional subsistence practices. Inuitce
relied upon hunting and fishing fortheir main source of food and followed
efurbishment
perativewater
the seasonal migration patterns of
ic
ClimateChangesand blackcarbonanimals. During the winter months,- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies
extended family groups lived in coastal- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, areas in winter camps of up to 100
changing bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities alsofor
- Environmental
policies
inhabitants
where they could socialize- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inand hunt seals. In spring and summer,- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities
Inuit moved inland in smaller groups of-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
a dozen people or less in order to fishe.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour
60- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with and hunt large game such as caribou.
potentially adverse impacts on health.
Inuit constructed dwellings made from- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on landthe
duescarce natural resources available
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
to them that reflected their seasonal- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
nomadic lifestyle; from igloos in winrequire humans to adapt.
ter, to tupiq in summer, and qarmaq for- Adverse impacts on human health.
in-between seasons. “This architecture
involved small houses prized for theirportability and construction ease, suchas skin tents, and houses made from

60 http://firstpeoplesofcanada.com/fp_groups/
fp_inuit4.html

Figure 35.

Cross-section of northwest Thule whale bone and sod dwelling.

Savelle 1987: 57 after Spencer 1959: 49.

Figure 36.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –structionnd of life

Community of igloos in 1865.

Arctic Researches and Life Among the Esquimaux (1865) by Charles Francis Hall (public domain)

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition40

sod, snow and wood.”61 The following
section presents a short overview of different Inuit vernacular dwellingsdre-useThule Winter Houseeestructionnd of life

- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
61 Bonesteel, S. (2006). Canada’s Relationship- Adverse
on humanhealth.and Program
withimpacts
Inuit: A History
of Policy
Development, June 2006, https://www.aadncFigure 37.
Inuit building an igloo in 1924.
aandc.gc.ca/DAM/DAM-INTER-HQ/STAGING/
Frank E. Kleinschmidt - Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, DC 20540, Photograph. shows Inuit constructing an igloo with blocks of snow as
texte-text/inuit-book_1100100016901_eng.
children and dogs stand by (25 November 1924).
pdf, pg. 59.
62 P.C. Dawson, Interpreting Variability in Thule
Inuit Architecture: A Case Study from thethere is evidence that all the houses
Canadian High Arctic, American Antiquity, Vol.
66, No. 3 (Jul., 2001), pp. 453–470
of these clusters were not necessarily
63 Canadian encyclopedia. Architectural History
occupied at the same time.65
of Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Article by
Edward Mills, Published Online September 30,
2007https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/
article/architectural-history-early-first-nations
65 R.W. Park, Thule Winter Site Demography in
64 https://www.glenbow.org/thule/?lang=en&p=o
the High Arctic, American Antiquity, Vol. 62,
utside&t=enhanced&s=3–1&mi=1
No. 2 (Apr., 1997), pp. 273-284.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 3. Vernacular Architecture –s sAsisepexplainedby Dawson,-u c-eur sopsleare-useiearchaeologists
describe “true”
did“manyr
di sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucocsubterranean
e
semi
Thule
winter housesure opslearseee-sueseis reasddisconstructedfrom cut sod, stone, andplac bone, and possessing cold-trap
whaleeentrance tunnels, rear sleeping platforms, a kitchen area (either spatiallyefurbishment
perativewater
discrete or integrated into the mainic
ClimateChangesandblackcarbonlivingandvarious storage
areasby- Warmingofarea),landandseaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
is threatenedacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidification
ofboxes)
ocean water- Climatepolicies(shelves,
stowing food, tools,- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g. fortourism)- Tundraischanges
retreating
and theitems”.
tree line62moving northward-- Energy
policies
andotherhouseholdLand-cover- Meltingglaciers- Increased
accessto oil and gas
reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
economic
growthopportunities also for- Environmental
policies
Typically,a Thulewinterhouse’s- Shrinking
snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped infootprint- Sectoral
policies was an oval (diameters- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic
small-scale
between3 and structure9 m), seefrom
Figure35. local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
floor
was
aswagemuch
as 1 m into thee.g. The
activities
shipping
towarsandmore
oil extraction
labourground.peoples'
The structure
wasaretypically- Indigenous
food sources
threatened, with63
potentiallyadverseimpactsonhealth.
made from whalebones. Houses were
- Increased
vulnerability
existingsuggesting
infrastructure on land due
often clusteredinofgroups,
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
communities of 20 to 125 people,64 but

41

Igloo (Inuit Snowhouse)re-usestructionnd of life

66 Did you know? How to Build an Igloo, Canadian
Polar Commission, Published Online 201606–10 (link).

en/article/architectural-history-early-firstnations
68 U. Degringny, La construction passive,
Chapitre 2 - Conserver la chaleur : l’exemple
Inuit, Fiabitat, 26 septembre 2008 (link).

ens the igloo and increases its air tightness.
A small hole at the top of the igloo
served for ventilation, in order to provide an acceptable indoor air quality forthe people without increasing too muchthe heat losses.
Depending on the communities, several variations existed in igloo designs
and layouts:“Details of design differed fromone region to another. Some used skinlinings, while others did not. Entranceways might be flat-topped (as among
the Inuinnait (Copper Inuit)), rather
than vaulted or domed. Igloos weresometimes arranged in clusters, with anumber of living chambers sharing acommon entry tunnel or a communal
facility, such as a feasting room or adance house. Some clusters, as among
the Iglulingmuit of Hudson Bay, might
have as many as 10 domed units, eachwith a discrete function (e.g. living unit,
dog kennel, storage)”.69

Figure 38. Illustration of the upward spiralconstruction of an igloo.
Image from public domain.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –were also used as temporary shelters.67
Snow houses or igloos are probably
The dome shape had several advanthe most iconic type of Inuit dwellings.
tages from a bioclimatic perspective.68
They have been one of the predominant
A dome is a shape that has a small
winter dwelling forms in the North
exposed surface to volume ratio. Thisdi se seseuu
p- c- 36). Its history might date back(Figurelimits heat losses compared to otherresopsleare-use
i re Dorset people, who preceded
todidtheshapes, such as a box or a cube shape.
di sdrpeils se se-uapucceu
sp-Thule
the
in
the
area.
Archeologists
Another advantage of this shape is thatore opslearseee-suese
haveit experiences essentially compresddi is re-discovered snow knives indicatingsplathat Dorset
might have built igloos assion stresses and can thus be made ofceremotely as 1000 AD.
materials with a weak tensile strength,
Snowhousesareagoodexampleofsuch as snow. The shape of the dome
efurbishment
perativewater
passive vernacular architecture, takprovides a low wind resistance or drag,ic
ClimateChangesandcarboningblack
advantageofecosystem
the environment
in byand helps to reduce turbulence in the- Warmingof landand seamanagement- Marine
ice
connected
is threatenedacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationwater- Climatepolicieswhich
itofisocean
built.
In addition to being
environment around the igloo.
- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policiesabundant,snow
isahighlyinsulating
The entrance of the igloo can have a
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
economic
growthopportunities alsofor
- Environmental
policies
material,
withathermalconductivity
cold-trap
to prevent the infiltration of- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inthatcanbe as change.
low as that of modern
cold air. Essentially, it consists of a tun- Sectoral
policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation-Changein economic
structurefrom small-scale
insulations.
Onlybody heatand oil local activities
nel passing below the wall of the igloo-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
heatedtheindoorenvironment,
and then going up inside. The principle
e.g. lamps
activities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage
labour
as
fuels
such
as
wood
were
not
available- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with behind the cold-trap is that a stablepotentiallyadverseimpacts on health.
in many
locations.
thermal stratification will be created, in- Increased
vulnerabilityof existing
infrastructure
on landwhich
due cold and denser air will occupy
To erectan igloo,a row ofsnow
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
bricks was aligned in circle and then
the tunnel, and warmer and lighter air- Changes
in snow/ice
dependent
transport
and foor sources
trimmedin orderto create
an upward
the inside of the igloo. The interior of
require humans to adapt.
66
spiral, as shown in Figure 38. Morethe igloo could slightly melt due to body
- Adverse impacts on human health.
heat or oil burning, and later refreeze;snow bricks were then added, graduallycreating a thin layer of ice that strengthincreasing the inclination of the edges
between successive rows until the desired dome shape was achieved. Interstices were packed with snow. Typically,
67 Canadian encyclopedia. Architectural Historyof Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Article by
the diameter of an igloo housing a famEdward Mills, Published Online September 30,
ily would be around 3.5–4.5 m, and its
2007https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/
height around 3–3.5 m. Smaller igloos

69 Canadian encyclopedia. Architectural Historyof Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Article by
Edward Mills, Published Online September 30,
2007https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/
en/article/architectural-history-early-firstnations

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

42

Igluryuaq

re-useUntil the beginning of the 20th century,
the Inuvialuit of the western Canadian
Arctic built their winter dwellings fromdriftwood, which they covered with blocks
d se sep-u c-euand earth for insulation.70 This typeofissodresopsleare-use
i reofdidshouseis called igluryuaq Figure 39. In
di drpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu an igluryuaq would look like a large
winter,re opslearseee-suese
snow
ddi is re- dome due to snow accumulation.71
sp
la
One
ce would enter an igluryuaq througha porch made of snow blocks, followed bya long tunnel built below the level of theefurbishment
perativewater
dwelling’s floor. Similarly to the entry ofic
ClimateChangesandcarbonan black
igloo,
thetunneltrappedthe cold and- Warmingof landandseaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
is threatenedbyacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof oceanwater- Climatepolicies
denserair
andprevented- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g.
tourism) it from entering- Tundraischanges
retreating
and the tree line moving
northward-- Energy
policiesthebuilt
environment,airandis minerals,
lighter
Land-cover- Meltingglaciers- Increased
accessto oil and gaswhere
reserveschanging bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
economic growth opportunities also for- Environmental
policiesandwarmer.
- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inigluryuaq
often had three rooms- Sectoral An
policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic
small-scale
local activities
opening
up on structure
a centralfrom
area.
Since the-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
generatedbypeoplee.g. heat
activities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage
labourand oil burning
tends
to
go
up,
raisedplatforms
were in-with- Indigenous peoples' food sources
are threatened,
potentiallyadverseimpactsonhealth.
stalled where people could sit, sleep, work,- Increasedof existingon land dueFigure 39.
etc., invulnerability
the warmest
part ofinfrastructure
the dwelling.
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
Windows in the roof could provide lighting- Changes
in snow/ice
and foor sourcesin addition
to oildependent
burningtransport
lamps. Venting
require humans to adapt.
was also performed through the roof.72 A- Adverse impacts on human health.
reconstitution of how an igluryuaq was
built is available online.73– 3. Vernacular Architecture –structionnd of life

Entrance of an igluryaq (1924) .

70 Idem.
71 https://web.archive.org/web/20131021062131/
http://www.inuvialuitsodhouse.ca/dwellings/
cold-season/
72 R.M. Levy, P.C. Dawson, C. Arnold, Reconstructing
traditional Inuit house forms using threedimensional interactive computer modelling,
Virtual Realities, Vol. 19., No. 1., 2004.
73 https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=lBdYkPMLA5M

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

43

di

re-useQarmaq (Transitional Dwelling)

sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese

structionnd of life

efurbishment
perativewater

ic
ClimateChanges- CO2
and blackcarbon- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts
in
the
ArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating and the tree line moving northward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also for- Environmental
policies- Shrinking
snow
cover
Figure40.
Above:
ExampleQarmaqin Qausuittuq- Changes
local
populationinwater
cycle releaseofof
methanethatis trapped in(Resolute Bay), Nunavut and in Akulivik- Sectoral
policiesBelow: Qarmaq located near the Northern Village of Akulivik, Nunavik, Maxime(Nunavik)- Permafrost
ice andtopographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic
structurefromsmall-scale
local
activities
Rochette,
Living inNorthernQuebec.
Copyright
pending:
https://www.newberyphotoarchives.ca/in/-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
photos/5-qarmaq.
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withpotentially adverse impacts on health.
- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
- Adverse impacts on human health.

74 https://web.archive.org/
web/20131021062131/http://www.
inuvialuitsodhouse.ca/dwellings/cold-season/

Zero Arctic |– 3. Vernacular Architecture –pe u
ddi is resplace

Qarmaq are inter-seasonal houses usedby the Inuit, when tents were no longer
adequate in the fall and when ice andsnow began to melt in the spring.74 Different forms of qarmaq were possible
depending on the regions and the available materials. They are often described
as a hybrid between a tent and an igloo.

As shown in Figure 39, a qarmaq essentially has a base of snow blocks orstones, a whale bone framework andan animal skin cover.75 According to the
Avataq Cultural Institute (the Inuit cultural organization of Nunavik), a qarmaq
is “a semi-subterranean house used as
shelter in spring and fall”.76 Walls are
made of peat sods that were cut into
blocks.77 Labrèche mentions “fall qarmaq”, which is a tent covered with skinand moss, with a snow packed low wall,and “spring qarmaq”, built from the baseof an igloo when it starts to melt.78

75 Sheppard, Lola & White, Mason. Many Norths:
Spatial Practice in a Polar Territory. Actar. 2017.
P.146
76 http://www.avataq.qc.ca/en/
Les-Nunavimmiuts/Le-territoire/Lexique
77 http://kingulliit.avataq.qc.ca/qarmaq-eng
78 Y. Labrèche (2003), Habitations, camps
et territoires des Inuit de la région deKangiqsujuaq-Salluit, Nunavik, Études/Inuit/
Studies, 27 (1–2), 155–190.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

44

Tupiq (tent)

re-useSummer was an active period of theyear for hunting and fishing, requiring communities to move frequently tofollow their preys. Several types of tents
di se sesp-u c-eserveu
could
as dwellings for Inuit duringresopsleare-use
79
i
e
that
Tents were portable anddid rseason.
di sdrpeils se se
sp--uaputheehadadvantageof being easy to asuccore opslearseee-suese
sembleddi is re- (or dissemble).
sp
la tupiq is a simple type of tent,The
cemade by assembling poles to form
structure and covering it with skins ofefurbishment
perative
water
seal, caribou or other animals. Tupiq
ic
ClimateChangesandblackcarboncame
manyvariants,
includingthe by- Warmingofin
land
and seamanagement- Marine
ice
connected
ecosystem
is threatenedacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationofoceanandwater- Climatepolicies
conicalshape
the design with a- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g. tourism)- Tundraischanges
retreating
and the treethelineInuitmovingnorthward-- Energy
policies
ridgepole.
For
along
Land-cover- Meltingglaciers- Increased
accesstoexample,
oil and gas reserves
andminerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
economic
growthopportunities
for 41.
- Environmental
policies
theLabradorcoast,
as
well
as
some
cen- also
FigureInuit family in front of a tent (year unknown).
- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trappedin
http://firstpeoplesofcanada.com/fp_groups/fp_inuit6.html
tralgroups“builttents
withaconical- Sectoral
policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changeeconomic
structurefrom small-scale
rear inportionanda triangular
entrancelocal activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
withhorizontal
ridgepole bee.g. area,
activities
shipping
towarsandamoreoilextraction
wage labour
80
tween thetwo”,foodsimilarwhat
can bewith- Indigenous
peoples'sourcestoarethreatened,
potentiallyadverseimpactsonhealth.
seen in Figure 41.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –structionnd of life

- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
- Adverse impacts on human health.

79 https://web.archive.org/
web/20131021052212/http://www.
inuvialuitsodhouse.ca/dwellings/warm-season/
80 Canadian encyclopedia. Architectural Historyof Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Article by
Edward Mills, Published Online September 30,
2007https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/
article/architectural-history-early-first-nations

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

45

Vernacular architecture of First
Nations of the North

re-useothers.82 According to the Canadian
Encyclopedia, “the difference was thatthey typically built circular, elongated
The difficulty with documenting theand domed wigwams, usually as winterarchitecture of First Nations in Canada
dwellings, and clustered in settlements.
lies within several realities: culturaldi se seseuu
p- cCut saplings were set upright into thediversity,
geographical isolation, andre opsleare use
ground at intervals of about 60 cm.
varying
didis re- traditions. Moreover, since ourdi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu for this project is primarily reOpposite poles were bent towards theinterest
re opslearseee-suese
centre and their ends tied together withlated
ddi is re-to northern populations, discernsp
lastrips of wood. Horizontal members
ing from
the limited available resourcescewere added to strengthen the stressed
has proved challenging.
frame. The lower portion might be
The
Subarctic
regions
extendfromefurbishment
perativewater
sheathed with a row of mats woven
east to west of Canada, covering over 5
ic
ClimateChangesandblackcarbonfrom cattails, the upper part with sheets
millionsquarekilometers.
Nations- Warmingof landand seamanagement- Marine
ice
connected
ecosystem isFirst
threatenedbyacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof oceanwater- Climatepoliciesof bark”.83
occupyingthis- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g.territory
tourism) are many and- Tundraischanges
retreating
and thetree line moving
northward-- Energy
policies
includespeakers
lan-minerals,
Land-cover- Meltingglaciers- Increased
accessto oil ofandAlgonquiangas reserves andchanging bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
economic
growth opportunities- Environmental
policies
guages
such
as
Cree,
Naskapi,Innu
and also for- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inOjibwain the change.
east, and of Athapascan- Sectoral
policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation-Changein economic
structurefrom small-scalelanguages
in thewest, suchas Dene, local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
Gwich’inandTutchone.
Somee.g. Han,
activities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage
labournon-exhaustive
examples- Indigenous
peoples' foodsourcesof
aretraditional
threatened, withpotentiallyadverseimpactsonhealth.
housing of these nomadic or semi-no- Increased
existing infrastructure
on land due
madic vulnerability
people are ofpresented
below.
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
A wigwam is defined as “a rounded- Changes
in snow/ice
transport
and foor sources
structure
made dependent
from a frameof polesrequire humans to adapt.
covered with materials such as grass,- Adverse impacts on human health.
cloth, or animal skins”.81 Different First
Nation communities used this type ofshelter, adapting its size and shape totheir needs and to available materials,
including the Cree of the North among

81 Cambridge Dictionary, 2020.

82 Canadian encyclopedia. Architectural Historyof Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Article by
Edward Mills, Published Online September 30,
2007https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/
article/architectural-history-early-first-nations
83 Idem.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –structionnd of life

Figure 42. Innu group at Mingan (Quebec) in 1920 and Gwich’in group in 1889, both in front of
their houses.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition46

re-useInnu families lived in conical tents
with a diameter of 4 to 6 meters asshown in Figure 42. Caribou skins orbark would serve to cover the polesof the structure.84 First Nations of thedi se sesp-u c-eu
Mackenzie
and Yukon Rive Basins used
resopsleare-use
similardidi re tents.85
di sdrpeils se sesThesep--uapucoceu homes were well suited forre opslearseee-suese
nomadic
people, being portable andddi is resplaeasy cto
e build from local materials. Other
interesting examples of Innu tents areshown in Figure 43.
efurbishment– 3. Vernacular Architecture –structionnd of life

perative wateric
ClimateChanges- CO2
and blackcarbon- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts
in
the
ArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating and the tree line moving northward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also for- Environmental
policies- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withpotentially adverse impacts on health.
- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
- Adverse impacts on human health.

84 https://editioninnu.wordpress.
com/2013/02/18/lhabitat-traditionnel/
85 https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/
eng/1307460755710/1536862806124

Figure 43.

Examples of traditional Innu tents, Uashat Mak Mani-Utenam (Québec).

Antonin Cartier Boulanger, Université Laval (Habiter le nord québécois).

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition47

An example of contemporary
vernacular: Nunavik’s cabins

re-useIndigenous know-how and ingenuity
continue to come out in modern northern architecture and land-use. Cabins
di se sesp-ucomplement
that
Inuit current housingc-eu
resopsleare-use
iindidsNunavik
and elsewhere in the Northredi drpeils se se
sp--aeu
uapucocgood
areexample of this contempore opslearseee-suese
rarythat combines material
ddi is revernacularsplare-use,ce low-energy, symbiosis with thesite and local knowledge. Studies of current Inuit cabins were part of a project
efurbishment
perativewater
called “Habiter le Nord Québécois / Living
86
ic
ClimateChangesandblackcarbonin NorthernQuebec”,
a recent
majorby- Warmingof landandseaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
is threatenedacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidification
of
ocean
water
- Climatepolicies
collaborative
research- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites (e.g.
tourism)partnership that
- Tundraischanges
retreating
and the treeadequateline moving northwardFigure 44.
-- Energy
policies
An Inuit camp in Salluit Fjord, Nunavik. P.-O. Desmeule.
focuseson theLand-cover- Meltingglaciers- Increased
accessto culturally
oil and gas reserves andandminerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
economic
growth opportunities
also for- Environmental
policies
sustainablelivingenvironmentsofthe- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in
Nitassinan- Sectoral
policies Innus and Nunavik Inuit.
- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changeeconomic structurefrom small-scale
IninNunavik,
the transition
from local activities
villages varying in size from about 200
The form of Nunavik villages follows-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
toto 2,750 inhabitants.89 Outside the vilsuburban models from the South, withe.g. traditional
activities
shipping
towarsand nomadic
more
oil extraction
wagesettlements
labourthe establishment
NorthernVilrepetitive blocks of houses interspersed- Indigenous
peoples' foodof
sources
are threatened,with lages, family camps provide access topotentiallyadverseimpactsonhealth.
lages was marked by a succession ofwith community buildings and services.
the land (or Nuna) for traditional activi87- Increased
vulnerabilityof existing
infrastructure
duecentered on hunting, fishing andstate-funded
housing
programs,
Most buildings are implemented on inthe on landties
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
creasingly unstable permafrost, which
gathering. While the villages represent
emergence of community services- Changes
in snow/ice
dependent
transport and foor sources
imposes a widely used, yet costly, sysservice points and a link to the rest ofprovidedby a systemof governancerequire humans to adapt.
tem of gravel pad foundations. Instead
the province, the land remains a strong
involving several organizations, and- Adverse impacts on human health.
symbolic anchor and a place for cultural of underground infrastructure, a dooran accelerating urbanization process.88
to-door truck service supplies drinking
expression.90 Even today, hunting and
The majority of Nunavimiut (inhabitwater and retrieves sewage at all time.91
ants of Nunavik) live along the coasts
fishing products are an important partof the Hudson and Ungava Bays, in 14
of Inuit’s food supply.
This planning strategy limits the availability of safe zones for construction
89 Statistique Canada (2016) Profil duand dictates a reflection on alternative
86 www.habiterlenordquebecois.org
87 Duhaime, G. (1985) De l’igloo au H.L.M. : lesInuit sédentaires et l’Etat-providence. Québec,Centre d’études nordiques.
88 Desbiens, C (2017) Un nouveau sens du lieu
? « L’effet urbain » dans les communautésdu Nunavik. Recherches amérindiennes auQuébec, 47(1), 151–154.

recensement de 2016. https://www12.statcan.
gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/
index.cfm?Lang=F&TABID=1. Consulté le 21
février 2020.
90 Landry, J (2018) Sédentarisation au Nunavik:
identités, territorialités et territoires inuit
contemporains. Essai en design urbain, École
d’architecture de l’Université Laval, Québec.

91 Vachon, G, E Rivard, M Avarello and L St-Jean(2017) Imaginer l’aménagement soutenable
des villages inuits du Nunavik : le design
pour réfléchir aux possibles. Recherches
amérindiennes au Québec, 47 (1) :137–150.

Zero Arctic |ways of building and planning, which
also take into account climate change
effects.92 In fact, the current housing
production and development patternsin Nunavik impose strongly felt constraints on local autonomy and capacities, as well as the control the Inuit can
exercise over their living environment.93
For the Nunavimmiut, the practice– 3. Vernacular Architecture –structionnd of life

92 Allard, M, M Lemay, M Barrett, T Sheldon
and R Brown (2012) From Science to policyin Nunavik and Nunatsiavut: Synthesis andRecommendations. In Allard, M and M Lemay(chief editors) Nunavik and Nunatsiavut: Fromscience to policy. An Integrated Regional
Impact Study (IRIS) of Climate Change andModernization, 72 p.
93 Hervé, C and P Laneuville (2017) La quête
d’autonomie résidentielle des femmes
inuites du Nunavik : une perspective
relationnelle. Recherches amérindiennes auQuébec, 47(1) : 49–58.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition48

re-usedi

sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese

structionnd of life

Cabins on a rocky outcrop near Salluit, Nunavik. P.-O. Desmeule.

certainly one of the key pillars of Inuit
identity and well-being.94
ic
ClimateChangesandblackcarbonextendintime
andspace theirtradi- byContemporary vernacular archi- Warmingof landand seamanagement- Marine
ice
connected
ecosystem
is threatenedacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies
tionalhunting,
tecture implies that the local know- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g.fishingtourism)and gathering- Tundraischanges
retreating
and thetreearelineengaged
moving northwardhow, combined with the adaptation of-- Energy
policies
activities,
many
them
Land-cover- Meltingglaciers- Increased
accessto oilofandgas reserves
and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resultinginself-construction
increased
economic growth
opportunities
alsofor- Environmental
policies
in
the
of
camps
and
construction
practices and the use of- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped incabinsalong theirseasonal routes. As
local materials, allows for a sustained- Sectoral
policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changestructurefromsmall-scaleof
local activities
part in
ofeconomic
the evolution
andadaptationand fruitful co-dependence of culture,-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
close
relationshipthe territory,
economy and local ecosystems.95 Nue.g. ashipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wagewithlabourthese cabinsarefoodhumble,frugal with navik’s camps and cabins have a small- Indigenous
peoples'sourcesevenare threatened,
potentiallyadverseimpactsonhealth.
constructions, erected without normaecological footprint which promotes- Increased
vulnerabilityMadeof existing
due
tive constraints.
frominfrastructure
objects andon landpassive
strategies and the use of healthy,
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
materials mostly recycled or “hacked”,
natural materials such as snow, recy- Changes
in snow/icethe
dependent
transport
and foor sources
they highlight
principles
of Inuitcled wood, stone, earth, peat, as well as
require humans to adapt.
Qaujimajajatuqangit (what the Inuit have sealskin, caribou guts, goose down and- Adverse impacts on human health.
always known). On a cultural level, they
seaweed. In terms of resilience, many
also serve as spaces for socialization,cabins also adapt to the seasons throughfor the intergenerational transmission
adaptive fenestration, flexible use ofof knowledge, and for hosting “healing
interior spaces, or the ingenious articucircles”. In this sense, tundra camps arelation of porches and annexes. Finally,of the land has always been crucial toefurbishment
perativewater
the survival of communities. In order to

94 Snowball, H and M-P McDonald (2020)
Protecting Nunavik’s cultural landscape. ARQ :la revue d’architecture, numéro thématique
Habiter le Nord, mars, p. 11–13.
95 Magnaghi, A (2014) La biorégion urbaine : Petit
traité sur le territoire, bien commun. Paris,
France : Rhizome.

Zero Arctic |area. Sleep areas are at the back or in
the annex, that is on the opposite sideof the shoreline. The kitchen is always
close to the entrance porch. Finally, thearrangement of recycled components
and materials follows a craftsman’s logic
and sensibility, rather than their initialor prescribed use. The result is a variety
of forms that echo desired qualities andcultural values. In brief, Nunavik cabins
are an example of neo-vernacular architecture that reveals the considerable
constructive ingenuity of the Inuit andits potential in contributing to the evolution of Northern villages.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 3. Vernacular Architecture –pe u
ddi is resp
la 45.
Figurecefrom a socio-economic point of view,
construction methods rely on the skills
and autonomy of the Inuit. In summary,the organization of the camps and thearchitecture of the cabins derives froma mindful understanding of the territory
and changing Northern conditions. As
a result, cabins adapt and transform inaccordance with both the environment
and users’ needs.
The study of camps along the Salluit
fjord and interviews with local builders suggest that cabins’ implementation, form and construction derivefrom an inherited sense of building
and living on the tundra (Figure 44).
These camps are composed on average of eight cabins that form compact
linear clusters along almost the entire
perimeter of the fjord. These cabins areoften built on rocky outcrops locatedin small bays, against hills that protectfrom wind and waves. The most recent
are built on, or were moved to, slightly
elevated and easily accessible plateau(Figure 45). While avoiding the thawing permafrost, these locations also
afford generous views of the fjord andthe animals that cross it. In fact, thecabins’ door and windows always face
the fjord. Occupied by related families,
the cabins are all located relatively close
to the shoreline. The camps evolve intime, often over a few decades, by adding platforms and annexes transported
by snowmobile. The initial pitchedroofed volume consists of a large living

49

di

re-useJapan
sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sesection
f lifement
water

Changesandblackcarbonrming
of landand seaecosystem is threatened by
ment
arine
ice
connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts on health.

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

The Ainu are the indigenous peopleof Hokkaido and Tohoku Japan, andeastern Russia and China. Until recent
years, they lived using their unique ability to coexist with the natural landscapeof the northern regions they inhabit.
The traditional Ainu residence is called
Cise or Chise, but there are few researchdocuments on Chise’s architecture andways of living, since the Ainu did nothave written language. In addition,much research on Chise is based on
imagination and superstitious belief.
The Ainu traditionally had, however,lived in cold climates with only naturalbuilding materials for centuries, and we
can learn a number of things from their
way of life and use of natural materials.
In this report we first describe how the
Chise is built. Next, we introduce the results of indoor environment measured
in those Chise.
Chise is a simple wooden building
made from natural timber from thesurrounding forest. The structure of
Chise is a hipped roof supported by
Hottate Hashira, a pillar inserted into
the earth.96 The main building materials are wood and grass, but there aresome examples with bark and bamboo
as thatching material. As mentioned
above, the Ainu did not have written
language, but the building instruc96 Endo Akihisa,1994,Hokkaido Jyuutakushiwa,
Vol.1, Sumaino Tosyokan Syuppankyoku

tions for Chise has been communicatedthrough oral stories, old paintings, andphotographs taken in the late Edo andMeiji era. The Chise were also the targetof extensive research in cultural anthropology in the 1900s.
In the old days, Fukuhei Takabeya
published the two famous books, “Ainuno Seikatsu Bunka”,97 Life and Cultureof Ainu, and “Ainu no Jyuukyo”,98 theresidence of Ainu. In recent years, thestudies on the building form of Chiseby Koji Kobayashi99 have been widely
acclaimed. These studies contain many
documents on how to build Chise andthe lifestyle in Chise. However, they did
not provide information on the thermal
environment of the Chise.
‘Toi’ of Toi-Chise stands for earth.
Some research indicates that Toi-Chises
were constructed in Hokkaido. However, there are very few documents on ToiChise with the Sakhalin Ainu and Nibuhi
people.100, 101 In the literature, we canfind photographs and figures of the pit
house in Shikotan. The pit house seems
97 Takabeya Fukuhei, Ainu no Seikatsu bunka,
Arusu, 1942
98 Takabeya Fukuhei, Ainu no Jyukyo,
Syokokusha, 1943
99 Kobayashi Koji, Reconsideration on
Architectural Culture of Ainu, Hokkaido
Syuppan Kikaku center, 2010100
Kato Kyusaku, Culture of Gilyak
recorded by Mamiya Rinzo, Bulletinof the National Museum of Ethnology
1(2),pp.305-333,1976/7
101Baba Osamu, Pit house of Karafuto
Ainu “Toi-chise”, Yearly report of 8 academic
institute, vol.3, pp.121–133,1951/12

Zero Arctic |to be mainly used as a bedroom in thewinter season. We were able to identify
only one comment about the living environments in Toi-Chise. According to thecomment “the air quality in Toi-Chise
was terrible. After the Spanish Flu, Ainu
vanished away from their Toi-Chise.”
As mentioned above, we can imagine
the living environment from some documents on the life of Ainu in Chise, butthere is a gap between their comments
and the thermal environment estimatedby the building style mentioned above.
Kubota et al measured the temperature,
the globe temperature, and the gas
concentrations of CO2 and carbon, forover 14 months in Chise being used bya small single-family.102 The floor areaof the Chise is 20 m², 4 ×5 m. The heightto the beam is about 1.8 m, and to therooftop is about 3.6 m. There are twoventilation holes at the top for a smoke
window, 0.15 m² in total. Also, there is
one window on the east wall and two
windows on the south wall. The area of
each window is about 0.4 m², 0.7×0.6 m.
The wall thickness is from 27 to 42 cm
for the roof and 10 cm for the wall. The
walls and the roof were thatched withbundles of Kaya. The floor is covered
with 2 or 3 layers of Kaya bundles andthe mats are spread on it. In this study,– 3. Vernacular Architecture –pe u
ddi is resplaceAinu and Chise

102 Kubota Hideki et. al., Winter indoor
environment in traditional house of Ainu
“chise”, Transactions of the Society ofHeating,Air-conditioning and SanitaryEngineers of Japan, (41), pp.1–10, 1989/10

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition50

re-usedi

sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese
pe u
ddi is resp
laceConstruction of the roofction
f lifement
water

Changesandblackcarbonrming
of landand seaecosystem is threatened by
ment
arine
ice
connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
Afterchange.
‘Chisepuni’,wesmall-scaleconstructedtheactivities
wall
hange in economic
structure from
local
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour
Toi-Chise
digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts on health.

Chisecreased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

Figure 46.

Construction of Chise and Toi-Chise.
Thickness of roof and wall

Chise

Roof 30–45cm
Wall 10–15cm

Thermal retrofit
Chise

Roof 30–45cm
Wall 20–30cm

Toi-Chise

Roof 30–45cm

Table 3.

Thickness of roof and wall.

DetailAs shown in the middle right of Figure 45,
the thickness of the wall between the bunchis thin.
The thickness of the walls is doubled byinstalling the bunches on the inside surface.

103 Usami Chiwako et. al., A study on geothermalheat utilization to house through thermal
conduction within the ground: 1)Thermal
environment in the geothermal houses
planned with following the thermal structureof traditional Ainu people’s house-chise,
Summaries of technical papers of Annual
Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan. D-2,
Environmental engineering II,,2003, pp.643–
644, 2003/7
104 Usami Chiwako et. al., A study on geothermalheat utilization to house through thermal
conduction within the ground, Undergroundtemperature, Proceedings of AIJ Hokkaido
Architectural Research Conference, (63),pp.165–168, 1990/3
105 Usami Chiwako et. al. A study on geothermalheat utilization to house through thermal
conduction within the ground: 2) Theory andmeasurement of thermal characteristics ofhouse, Summaries of technical papers ofAnnual Meeting Architectural Institute ofJapan. D-2, Environmental engineering II
106 Nishizawa Takeo, Development ofeducation program by reproductionof housing for northernindigenous
peoplehttps://kaken.nii.ac.jp/en/grant/
KAKENHI-PROJECT-22500872/

Zero Arctic |that the thermal storage to the groundwas effective in stabilizing the thermal
environment of Chise and the effect waspart of the cultural heritage of the Ainu
people.
The results of the two research studies mentioned above were controversial
for they had different views on thermal
storage. In the Kubota et al. study, thefloor surface was insulated and it indicated that the thermal storage did not
influence the indoor thermal environment. On the other hand, the thermal
storage caused by the continuous burning of firewood affected the thermal
environment in Usami’s research.
In this report, we compared thethermal environment of Chise, thethermal retrofit Chise and Toi-Chise bymeasuring the surface temperature distribution by IR camera and the indoor
room temperatures during our stay. We
also measured the indoor temperature
with a standard kerosene heater thatmeasures the thermal output to analyze
the thermal performance of Chise andto investigate the Chise lifestyle in thewinter season.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 3. Vernacular Architecture –Kubota et al. noted that the hearth
generated very high temperatures in the
Chise. Also, the indoor air turned smoky
due to the recirculation of smoke fromthe hearth and with insuficcient ventilation.
In 1989, Usami et al. published theresults of the investigation.103, 104, 105, 106
They measured the thermal environment of two Chise. The floor area of
Chise were 39 m² and 45 m², respectively. Roofs and walls were thatchedwith bamboo grass. In the studies, theyreported that the temperature at the
ground surface and 10 cm below were
the same as the temperature below 30
cm which is always 2°C. They indicated51re-usedi

sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sesection
f lifement
water

Changesandblackcarbonrming
of landand seaecosystem is threatened by
ment
arine
ice
connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts on health.

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt
Figure dependent
47. Plan transportand Section
Chiseand Toi-Chise.
hanges in snow/ice
andof
foor
sourcesTaro, et.al., Thermal Environment of Chise And Toichise in Winter Season, Journal of Environmental
quire humansMori
to adapt.

Insulation retrofit of Chise

We implemented this research with theGrant-in-Aid for Scientific Research,“Development of Practical Educational
Programs Using Arctic indigenous
Dwellings”.107, 108 Therefore, the construction work of Chise was carriedout as part of the education program.
We studied the literature and the local
material for Chise before the construction. After that, we began the construction work at Kushiro National College ofTechnology on 26/4/2011 and completed
it on 22/12/2011 as shown in Figure 45.
We constructed Chise manually with noconstruction machines. It took about
164 person-days to finish the work.
Figure 46 shows the plan and section of each Chise. The floor area of theconstructed Chise was 2445 mm wideand 3510 mm long. The height of thebeam was about 1720 mm. The hearth,
320 × 280 mm, stands at the center. We
did not construct Sem, the space for theentrance.

After the construction of the above
Chise, we measured the room temperature distribution and CO2 concentration
during the overnight stay in the winterseason 2011. We were not able to safely
stay in the Chise, due to the high infiltration rate from the bottom of the wall.
Therefore, we decided to retrofit theadditional insulation before the measurement in December 2012. That insulation work was described in “Karafuto
Ainu no Jyukyo” 109 published in 1943 asshown in Figure 48.
Door: We used the reed screen for
the usability before the retrofit. The
three layers of Kaya with a 10–15 cm
diameter were used for insulation andair-tightness.
Wall: We installed just one layer ofKaya, 10–15 cm, outside the wall structures before the retrofit. Another layerof Kaya, 10–15 cm, inside the wall, wasinstalled to double the wall thickness
for insulation and air-tightness.

107
Nishizawa Takeo, Constructionof housing for northern indigenous
people(toichise) and Comparison of thermal
environment, https://kaken.nii.ac.jp/en/grant/
KAKENHI-PROJECT-25350272/
108
Yamamoto Yuko, House for Karafuto
Ainu, kenchiku Shinsho 10, Sagami syobo

109

Engineering (Transactions of AIJ) 81(720), 189-197, 2016, Architectural Institute of Japan.

dverse impacts on human health.

Figure 48.

Insulation retrofit of Chise in Kafuto (Sakhalin).

Yamamoto Yuko, House for Karafuto Ainu, kenchiku Shinsho 10, Sagami syobo.

Zero Arctic |– 3. Vernacular Architecture –pe u
ddi is resp
laceConstruction of Chise and Toi-Chise

Ibid

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

52

Construction of Toi-Chisere-usection
f lifedverse impacts on human health.

110
Enai Masamichi et. al.,RESEARCH
ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ROOM AIRTEMPERATURE AND THE HEATINGLOAD IN THE OCCUPIED SPACES : Part–1
Response of living to the coldness and thevarying patterns of room air temperature,
Transactions of the Architectural Institute ofJapan,264,91–98,1978

After the above construction process,the thermal environment, including
inside temperatures, globe temperature, and surface temperatures wererecorded by IR camera during the
one-night stay in January 2012, December 2012, and December 2013. Figure
51 shows the outside air temperature
and wind speed measured at AMeDAS
station (Shiranuka, altitude 9m) in eachperiod. The outdoor environments are
as follows.
1) The lowest outside air temperature
was recorded each time. The temperature was under –15°C from 3 AM to 6
AM. Also, insulation and air-tightness
were poorer than in other cases. We felt
most cold in this case.
2) The lowest outside temperature
was about –10 °C when we measured theInsulation retrofit Chise.
3) The outside temperature was about
3 °C in Toi-Chise. The wind velocity inthe measurement of Toi-Chise was muchhigher than that in the above cases.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –We built the Toi-Chise in 2013. The literature surveys were carried out before theconstruction. However, just two studies110, were found. The Ainu in Hokkaido
di se sesp-u c-eu had already given up the Toi-Chise in
re opsleare use
the first half of the Tokugawa era, thedidis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
17th century, in Japan. The literature
re opslearseee-suese
investigated Toi-Chise in Sakhalin Ainu.
ddi is resplaThe plan view and the sectional viewceare shown in Figure 49. Also, we foundsome pictures of Toi-chise in Sakhalin inmentwater Hokkaido University Archive System as
Changesandblackcarbonshown
in Figure is50.
The document
indirmingof landand seaecosystem
ment
arine
ice
connected
threatenedbytheArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof catedocean waterate
policies
Toi-Chise was a pit-dwelling.
duced
ritimesea-ice
activites(e.g.that
tourism)undraischanges
retreating
and the treeline movingOonaka
northward
gy
policies
Therefore-coverting glaciers
creasedaccessto oil andwe
gasvisitedreservestheand minerals,ruin
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic
growthopportunities
for
onmental
policieswhich
restores
the
same
type
of alsodwellinking snow coverhangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies ing to study how to build Toi-Chise.
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic
structurefrom small-scale
local activities
First,
they remove
the supporting
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
wood
for
roof
and wall cover. After that,.ivities
shipping
towarsandmore
oil extraction
wage
labour
they
cover
the
roof
walls with
digenous peoples' food sourcesareandthreatened,with driedtentially adverse
impactsonhealth.
grass and re-install the support. Also,
creased vulnerabilityof existing
infrastructure
on landdue
they madethe second
cover-shedforsea level rise and permafrost melt
entrance. The shed had two entrances.
hanges in snow/ice
dependent
transportentrance
and foor sources
They used
the leeward
to avoidquire humans to adapt.
infiltration.

Measurement of a thermal
environment

Figure 49.

Sketches of Toi-chise in Karafuto.

“Karafuto Ainu no Jukyo”.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition53

re-usedi

sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sesection
f lifement
water

Changesandblackcarbonrming
of landand seaecosystem is threatened by
ment
arine
ice
connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour
Figure 50. Pictures of Toi-chise in Karafuto. Hokkaido University
digenous peoples'foodsources are threatened, with
Archives.
https://www2.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/hoppodb/contents/photo/
tentially adverse
impacts on health.
l/0B062030000000164.jpg

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

Figure 51.

Measurement of Toi-Chise

The measurement was carried out from13:00 on January 19 to 8:50 on January
21 in 2012. The room was pre-heatedwith the electric heater, about 1000 W,
before the measurement. We stayed in
Chise and used the hearth as a heater
during the night on 20–21, Jan. The
six-member group participated in themeasurement. The recorded temperatures are shown in Figure 46.

The measurement of Toi-Chise was carried out from 15:00 on December 20 to
6:00 on December 21, 2013. The numberof participants was also six. We measured CO2 and carbon concentration in
addition to the above measurement forsafety.

Measurement of insulation retrofit
Chise
After the insulation retrofit, we implemented measurements of the thermal
environment in the insulation retrofit
Chise. The measurement period wasfrom 15:00 on December 21 to 6:00 on
December 22, 2012. The number ofparticipants was also six. In this caseand the next case, we did not preheat
the dwelling, as it was ineffective. In
addition, we discovered a document
indicating that the Ainu used Kaya andstraw as a carpet in the winter season.
Then we used EPS 25 mm board for the
ground insulation.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –pe u
ddi is resplaceMeasurement of Chise

Climate during the measurement.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

54

Entrance

SW

Temperature difference between
inside and outside

re-usedi

Beam

sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese
pe u
ddi is resp
la
ce

ction
f life1) in Chise

ment
water

RZ

Beam

Entrance

SW

Changesandblackcarbonrming
of landand seaecosystem is threatened by
ment
arine
ice
connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

temperatures in the residential area did
not rise at all until 23 o’clock. After weput about three times as much firewood
as before from 0 - 1 AM, we were able tokeep 5°C. On the other hand, in the caseof the Insulation retrofit Chise, we covered the bottom of the wall with snow
to stop infiltration. The temperature of
the residential area rose immediately
after putting the fire firewood. Also, thetemperature difference between theresidential area and the top area wasmuch smaller than that in the Chise. The
temperature was much lower than inmodern houses. The retrofit insulation
and airtightness improved the temperature in the residential zone.
As shown in Figure 56, 2/3 of the heatloss in the Chise was caused by infiltration. The measurements led us to assume that the Ainu had developed somemethod to prevent infiltration. However, with the use of this method, there isa risk of dangerous levels of combustion
gases due to lack of ventilation. The document has the following description.
“In Matsumae prefecture in Hokkaido
at the end of Edo era, there are reportsof many skin diseases caused by burns
and eye diseases caused by combustion
gases due to insufficient ventilation in
winter.” Japanese people first came to
Hokkaido with their traditional housing
style. Their unfamiliarity with the Chisecaused such diseases. We believe that
the Ainu who lived in Hokkaido for along time had knowledge about proper– 3. Vernacular Architecture –RZ

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

55

Figure 52 shows the differences inindoor-outdoor temperatures. Although
the overall heat-loss coefficients of each
Chise were different, the temperature at
the entrance, which supplies combustion air to the hearth is about 0 to 10°C.
The temperature around the top area
is about 20°C or more. In other words,
there is a considerable temperature
difference over 20°C in a small space.
This indicates that the indoor climate
qualities of those spaces are remarkably
poor.
In the case of Chise, the burning firewood caused the infiltration from thegap between the wall and the floor. The

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts on health.

in Insulation retrofit Chisecreased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land2)due
sea level rise and permafrost melt
RZ
Beam
EntranceSWTop

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

3) in Toi-Chise

RZ: Residential Zone
SW: Smoke window

Figure 52.

Fig.
49 Change
oftemperature
in-out temperature
differences
Changeof in-out
differences.

Figure 53. Relationship between outdoor
temperature and bottom temperature.

Zero Arctic |re-usection
f lifeimages in each case when the temperature differences were big enough. The
outside temperature in Chise, thermal
retrofit Chise, and Toi-Chise were –13°C,–6°C, and 1°C respectively. The temperatures near the floor were low and thetemperatures in every top zone werehigh in every case. The temperature
differences within a space are about
20°C. The simple comparison among
the cases is difficult because we put the
firewood which varies in size, watercontents, etc. to remove cold at a different pace. However, the temperature

distribution in Chise was remarkably
lower than in other constructions. The
area under –10°C distributed aroundthe bottom of the wall because the cold
infiltration came from the outside by
the low pressure caused by the hearth.
Also, the outside environment was morethan 10°C lower than those in othercases. The temperature distribution
even in the top area was under 10°C.
The insulation retrofit Chise improved
the airtightness in the bottom area.
There was no area under 0°C in thisspace. In the case of Toi-Chise, although

there was no snow for preventing theinfiltration, the bottom area where theinfiltration comes from was over 5°C.
The temperature around the ceiling washigh because of thick insulation, andthe thermal radiation increased temperatures in the bottom area as well. In
conclusion, floor insulation is useful tokeep all space warm using heat radiation.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –methods for heating with hearth.
The temperature difference of
Toi-Chise was different from the othertwo Chise. The temperature difference gradually increased after burning
di se sesp-u c-eu firewood. The outside temperature was
re opsleare use
about 0°C. Therefore, the heat capacdidis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
ity of the soil influenced the transition
re opslearseee-sueseof the temperature difference. Also,
ddi is resplathe temperature of the smoke windowcewhich rose in the former cases did not
rise at all. It seems that there was windmentwater blowing into Toi-Chise from the smoke
Changesandblackcarbonwindow
becauseisthe
external
rming
of landand seaecosystem
ment
arine
ice
connected
threatened
bywind vethe
ArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof locity
ocean waterate
policiesmuch higher than in former
duced
ritimesea-ice
activites(e.g.wastourism)undraischanges
retreatingandthe treeline moving northwardgypolicies
cases
inand
the
measurementday. Even-coverting glaciers
creasedaccessto oilgas
reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic
growth opportunities
also
for
onmental
policiesinthesecircumstances,
the
upper
and
inking snow coverhangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies lower temperature difference was lessmafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic
structurethan 10°C. from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
Figure53labourshows the correlation be.ivities
shipping
towarsand moreoilextraction
wage
tweenfoodthesources
outsideare
airtemperature
digenous peoples'
threatened,with andtentially adverse
impactsonhealth.
the inlet temperature measured at thecreased vulnerabilityof existing
infrastructure
on land In
due
entrance,
10 cm above
the ground.
sea level rise and permafrost melt
the case of Chise, the points are locatedhanges in snow/ice
transport
foor sourcesin 0 – 5dependent°C area than
the andoutdoortemperquire humans to adapt.
ature. In the case of insulation retrofit
dverse impacts on human health.
and Toi-Chise, the points are located inover 5 °C area. Since the doors were notairtight, preventing the infiltration fromthe entrance was difficult. However, themethod such as insulation retrofit andToi-Chise were effective for improving
the thermal environment in Chise.

Indoor surface temperature
We took the IR images during eachstay every hour. Figure 54 shows the IR

Figure 54.

IR images during measurement. 1) thermo view of Chise 2) thermo view of Chise with insulation retrofit 3) thermo view of Toi-Chise.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

56

Comparison of Thermal
Environmental with Standard
Heaterre-usection
f life– 3. Vernacular Architecture –In the previous section, we introduced
the results of measurements when wedi se sesp-u c-eu spent a night in each Chise. However,re opsleare use
it was difficult to compare the thermal
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
environment of the different Chises. We
re opslearseee-suese
used the portable kerosene heater to
ddi is resplaestimate the heating rate and ventilacetion with fuel consumption. Also, we
are able to identify the overall heat lossmentwater coefficient of Chise as shown in Figure
Changesandblackcarbon54.
use byan electric
rmingof landandResearchers
seaecosystem usually
ment
arine
ice
connected
is threatenedtheArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof heater
ocean waterate
policies
as a heat source when they measduced
ritimesea-ice
activites(e.g. tourism)
111
undra
ischanges
retreating
the tree line moving northwardgypolicies
uretoa andthermalHowever,-coverting glaciers
creasedaccessoil
and gasenvironment.
reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic
growthopportunities
also foronmental
policies
thehearthinChisesometimes
generinking snow coverhangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies ates more than 10 kW. A regular electricmafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic
structuresmall-scale
local
activities
heaterwith a from
regularelectricplug
canwards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
notthis heat.
.ivities
shipping
towarsandmore
oil releaseextraction
wage labour
Thefoodmeasurements
were conducteddigenous peoples'sources are threatened,withtentially adverse
impactsonhealth.
on cloudy nights in April and May
creased vulnerabilityof existing
infrastructure
on andland duein 2015 to
avoid solar
radiation
sea level rise and permafrost melt
nocturnal radiation as much as poshanges in snow/ice
dependent
transport andfoor sources
sible. We
simultaneously
measuredquire humans to adapt.
kerosene combustion in the thermal
dverse impacts on human health.
retrofit Chise and Toi-Chise by measuring the weight of the heater every hour.
The snow had already disappeared in
the measurement period. Then, theairtightness of insulation retrofit Chise
was almost equivalent to that of Chise

because insulation retrofit Chise had
the gap in the bottom of walls whenthe measurements were take. In otherwords, we measured thermal retrofit
Chise as general Chise. The heating rate
was calculated with equation (2). Also,
kerosene emits carbon dioxide whenburning. The ventilation rate was estimated by measuring CO2 concentrationin the steady-state as shown in equation(3) and equation (4). The heat-balance
equation can be divided into the heattransition loss and ventilation loss byequation (1) when the ventilation rate
was identified. Finally, we can compare
the overall heat loss coefficient of Chiseand Toi-Chise.

111 Enai Masamichi et. al.,RESEARCH ON THE
DISTRIBUTION OF ROOM AIR TEMPERATURE
AND THE HEATING LOAD IN THE OCCUPIEDSPACES : Part-1 Response of living to thecoldness and the varying patterns of room airtemperature

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition57

re-useFigure 55 shows the difference oftemperature and CO2 concentration in
the measurement. All measurements
were carried out for over 2 hours toreach the steady-state of the temperadi se se
sp-u c-eu ture and the carbon dioxide concentrare opsleare usetion. As shown in Figure 55, both values
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
reached a steady-state in about 30 minre opslearseee-suese
utes. The average values in the steadyddi is resp
lastate were substituted into equationce(1) – (4) to estimate the overall heat-loss
ment coefficient.

– 3. Vernacular Architecture –ction
f lifewater

Changesandblackcarbonrming
of landand seaecosystem is threatened by
ment
arine
ice
connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts on health.

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

Figure 55.

Transition of temperature difference and CO2 concentration difference.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

58

more insulation and had means suchas clothes and foods to survive in thesevere winter season.

re-useFigure 56 shows the relationshipbetween ventilation loss, heat transmission loss, and heating rate. In a building like Chise, which has many gaps, anincrease in heating causes an increase
di se sesp-u c-eu in infiltration due to the buoyancy flow
re opsleare usefrom the hearth. Therefore, the ventididis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
lation losses were increasing when heatre opslearseee-suese
ing rates were increasing in the case
ddi is resp
laof insulation retrofit Chise in Figure 56.
ceAlso, the ventilation losses in insulation
retrofit Chise were about twice as thosementwater in Toi-Chise. The heat transmission
Changesandblackcarbonlossesin
Chise were
almost equivalentrmingof landand sea
ment
arine
ice
connected
ecosystem
is threatenedbytheArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dification
of to
ocean
water
ate
policies
thosein Toi-Chise. It implies that the
duced
ritimesea-ice
activites(e.g. tourism)
undraischanges
retreating
and the tree line
moving northwardgypolicies
overallcoefficientof Toi-Chise-coverting glaciers
creasedaccessto oil heat-loss
and gas reserves
and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic
growthopportunities
also foronmental
policieswasbetterthan
thatofChise,
especiallyinking snow coverhangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies due to the airtightness which prevents
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic
structurefromsmall-scale
localofactivities
infiltration.
The
wall
structure
Toiwards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
Chisedecreased.ivities
shipping
towarsandmore
oil extraction
wage labourthe gap between thewall andfloor.
The
insulation
digenous peoples'
foodthesourcesarethreatened,
withretrotentially adverse
impactsonhealth.
fit with snow and Toi-Chise were effeccreased vulnerabilityof existing a
infrastructure
land duetive at achieving
low overallonheat-loss
sea level rise and permafrost melt
coefficient.
hanges in snow/ice
transport andfoor sources
Thedependent
overall heat-loss
coefficientsofquire humans to adapt.
Chise and Toi-Chise were about 600 anddverse impacts on human health.
900 W/K respectively. Both Chise needabout 20kW or more to keep the indoor
temperature at 10 °C when the outdoor
temperature is –20 °C. These measurements imply that ventilation loss
could be bigger when the temperature
difference increases. It is difficult togenerate sufficient heat in these spaces
in a firesafe way while maintaining agood indoor air quality. Therefore, weare convinced that the Ainu installed

Figure 56. among
Relationshipamong ventilation
heat transmission
andheating rate.
Fig. 53 Relationshipventilation
loss, heatloss,transmission
loss,loss,
andheatingrate

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 3. Vernacular Architecture –ction
f life59(in Finland, Canada and Japan)

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation

60

Finland

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

Distribution of different buildings excludingsummer cottages
3%

0%

1%

1%

2% 3%

Attached houses
Multi-storey
buildings
Business buildings

1%
17 %
1%

1%
0%

2%

1%1%
2%
0%

Detached houses

Office buildings
Traffic buildings

5%

66 %

Distribution of different buildings
with summer cottages

Caring industry
buildings
Buildings for social
gathering

Detached houses
Attached houses
Multi-storey
buildings
Summer cottages

11 %ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

42 %Business buildings
Office buildings

cts on human health.

Traffic buildings
37 %

0% 3%

Caring industry
buildings
Buildings for social
gathering– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

The goal was to analyze the carbon
footprint from the Northern Buildings,
Finland, including all relevant typesof buildings and their annual energy
consumption.
Northern and Arctic Finland contains
four municipalities: Inari, Enontekiö,
Utsjoki and Sodankylä. These municipalities have 18 297 inhabitants andbuilding stock with 1 952 259 floor-m².
20% of the population are Sámi. In
order to ensure a balanced representation, several criteria were considered,including population, total floor area
per building type, common building
structures (facade and load bearing
structure), heating systems and fueltypes used, carbon footprint for theenergy consumption.
Cultural variation and the effectthis may have on energy consumption
has not been taken into account in the
study.

Figure 57. Distribution of different building types excluding and including summer cottages in
Arctic Municipalities, Finland.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

61

a)

Detached houses

700000

Attached houses
600000Multi-storey buildings

Floor area m2

500000Summer cottages

400000Business buildings
Office buildings

300000Traffic buildings
200000Caring industry
buildings

100000ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour01921 - 1939 1940 - 1959 1960 - 1969 1970 - 1979 1980 - 1989 1990 - 1999 2000 - 20092010 -

Unknownb)
1000000- 19209000001921 - 1939

8000001940 - 1959

Floor area m2

7000006000001960 - 1969

5000001970 - 1979

4000001980 - 1989

300000200000112
Statistics Finland (Suomen virallinen
tilasto (SVT): Rakennukset ja kesämökit[e-publication]. ISSN=1798-677X. Helsinki:
Tilastokeskus [cited: 16.10.2019]. http://www.
stat.fi/til/rakke/index.html.
113
Building and dwelling informationfrom Finnish Liiteri-database: https://liiteri.
ymparisto.fi/ Data based on Population
Information System, Population Register
Center, Finland 2018 (Väestötietojärjestelmä,
Väestörekisterikeskus, 2018).

Schools

Storage buildings

Building year

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

cts on human health.

- 1920Industrial buildings

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

Buildings for social
gathering

1990 - 1999

1000002000 - 200902010 -– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –Country-specific building data classifies buildings by their type and age. It
is based on statistical data on buildings
and summer cottages acquainted from
Statistics Finland and Population Register Center Finland.112 113
The most common building type isthe detached house (42%) followed bysummer cottage (37%).
The highest number of buildings wasconstructed during 1980–1989.

Unknown

Building year

Figure 58. a. Building type and floor area by construction year, in Arctic Finland. b. Floor area
and construction year by building types, in Arctic Finland.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

62

Structural material, attached houses

Load bearing structures

0%

a)
3%
2%

Concrete
Brick
Steel

15 %

Wood
Other

81 %

Structural material, detached houses

ic

0 % 2 % 2…

b)

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour0%Concrete
Brick
Steel
Wood
Other

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

Structural material

96 %Concretenerability of existing infrastructure on land due0%
and permafrost melt

Brick

Structural material, business buildings

Steelow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.
16 %

3%

cts on human health.

Wood

1%

c)

Concrete
Brick
Steel

Other

Wood
Other

34 %

5%

60 %
3%

77 %

Figure 59.

– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –Main load bearing material is wood.
However, in the building type “attachedhouse”, the main load bearing material
is concrete.

2%

Figure 60. Load bearing materials in attached (a),detached (b) and business type buildings (c), Arctic Finland.

Load bearing material types used in Arctic Finland.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition63

Facade materials business buildings

Facades1%

Main facade material is wood. However,in the building type ”attached house”,
the main facade material is concrete.

2%

,

a)

Concrete
Brick

8%

Steel
Wood
Glass
7%
64 %

Other

3%

Facade materials detached houses

ic

b)

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

0%

0%

,

10 %
9%

0%

Concrete
Brick
Steel
Stone
Wood
Glass
Other

Facade materials, all buildings

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

0%

89 %

2%

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

Concrete

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.
12 %

Steel

Facade materials attached houses

Brick

4%

Stone

cts on human health.

Brick
Stone
44 %

Other

Wood
Glass
Other

9%

71 %

3%

Figure 61.

Concrete

27 %

Glass
1%

3% ,

Steel

Wood

10 %

0%

c)

– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –

Stone

15 %

15 %

Figure 62. Facade material type in attached- (a), detached(b) and business building types (c), Arctic Finland.

Facade material types, Arctic Finland.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

64

Heating systems

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Heating systems in the most common building types (88%)
100 %
90 %
80 %
70 %
60 %
50 %
40 %
30 %
20 %
10 %
0%

Total

Detached houses

District heating
Figure 63.

Oil or other fossile fuelAttached houses

Electricity

Wood

Business buildings– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –Electric heating is the main heating typein Arctic Finland.
Heating system according to theconstruction moment registered (not including changes in the heating systems,
which were possibly made during theuse phase refurbishment).

Geothermal heating

Heating systems in most common buildings, in Arctic Finland.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

65

Heating consumption
Average heating consumption in assessed regions is 200–230 kWh/m² whileCO2e is 44–56 kgCO2/gross floor-m².

– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –600 000

Floor area, m2

500 000
400 000

300 000
drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism) 200 000
teseatingand the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits 100 000
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped in0
aphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale
local activities
Central
Direct electricalnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
humanheating,airactivities,
heatingds moreoil extraction
wage labourica)Heating type and floor area

No fixed
heating
installation

Stove heating

Centralheating, water

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impactsFigureon health.
64. Heating type by floor area, in Arctic Finland.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost meltb)

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Figure 65.

Used fuel type (a) and carbon footprint (b) from heating, Arctic Finland.

Figure 66.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

66

Regulation• According to estimates, the populationin the Arctic area decreases by approx. 3
percent every ten year.

– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –In Finland, building regulations requirethat the building has to be designed andbuilt to use energy and natural resources wisely. The minimum requirements
for energy-efficiency must be verified
with calculations.
At the time of writing this report,
Finland is taking steps towards regulating buildings’ full life-cycle impacts.
The Ministry of the Environment’s lowcarbon construction roadmap publishedin 2017 strives to incorporate the carbon
rbon
footprintof buildingsdand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedby into the legislaic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watertive framework. As part of this roade (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree Finlandline moving
northwardhasdeveloped a nationalsges
ess to oil andmap,
gas reserves
andminerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growthopportunities
alsocarbon
foroliciesmethodforassessingthefootcoveraterncycle release of methane that is trapped inprint of buildings, which is in a testingaphic
radationchange.
nomic structurefromsmall-scale
local activitiesprojects.
phase
with
real constructionalnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
method for assessing the carbonds moreoil extraction
wageThelabourfootprint
buildings
aims to help theoples' food sources are of
threatened,witherse impactscalculation
on health.
of the climate impact ofnerability of existing
infrastructure
land dueconstruction,and itoncovers
a building’s
and permafrost melt
entire life cycle from manufacturing ofow/ice dependenttransport
and foorsourcesbuilding
products
to transportationands to adapt.
construction site operations, use andcts on human health.
repairs, and demolition and recycling at
the end of the life cycle.
In line with the Government Programme of 2019, the aim is that thelegislative framework will be in use in
the mid-2020s.

Conclusions• The main building type is the detachedhouse (66%). When summer cottages
are taken into account, the two mostcommon building types are detachedhouses (42%) and summer cottages(37%).
• Highest number of buildings was constructed during the years 1980 – 1989.
• Main load bearing material is wood.
However, in the building type “attachedhouse”, the main load bearing material
is concrete.
• Main facade material is wood. However, in the building type ”attachedhouse”, the main facade material isconcrete.
• Main heating type in the assessed municipalities was direct electric heating.
• Out of all heating types, electric heating is the largest source of carbon emissions, although electricity productionin Finland causes rather low unit basedcarbon emissions (kg/kWh).

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

67

CanadaNorthern Governance & thecontroversial history of housing
initiatives in the North

re-usestructionnd of life

114

Duhaime, G (1985) ibid.

Zero Arctic |to be built each year115. All of these authorities’ involvement in the productionof housing in Nunavik follows a historyof long-standing local concerns ranging
from an insufficient number of units
to answer pressing needs, overcrowding, premature construction problems,a lack of variety in housing types andtenure to better fit Inuit aspirations andcultural practices, and the possibilityof participating more directly in the design, construction and overall decisionmaking116. That said, the SHQ / KMHB
homeownership and recent “rent-toown” programs are slowly taking off.
Labrador and Newfoundland was thelast province to join the Canadian Confederation, in 1949. The Inuit of Nunatsiavut signed the Labrador Inuit Lands
Claims Agreement with governments in
2005, which resulted in the creation of aself-governance Inuit regional government. The Nunatsiavut government is
now directly involved in policies related
to housing.
Sheppard and White (2017) divide
the history of housing initiatives in
the North into three periods; 1910–60,
115 Therrien, A and G Duhaime (2017) Le
logement social au Nunavik, pouvoirs et
responsabilités. Recherches amérindiennes auQuébec, 47(1), 101–110.
116 Ikey, O and L Yeates (2016) Les problèmesde logement au Nunavik, quelques faits.
Mémoire présenté au Comité sénatorial
permanent des peuples autochtones,
Ottawa. https://sencanada.ca/en/Content/Sen/committee/421/appa/52586-e. Consulté le 3
mai 2019.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –A primary factor influencing thedevelopment of governance systems
di se sesp-u c-eu
in the North is the distinctive relationre opsleare use
ship the territories maintain with thedidis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
government of Canada. Under there opslearseee-suese
Constitution Act, 1871, Canada took
ddi is resplaresponsibility for the administration,cepeace, order and good government of
the territories. While provinces get theirefurbishment
perative
water
powers from the Constitution, territoic
ClimateChangesand blackcarbonrial governments are delegated powers- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies
through legislation, since these were
- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, not included at the time of its drafting.
changing bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities alsofor
- Environmental
policies
Historically,in the North, Federal insti- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped intutions in Canada had jurisdiction over
- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities
responsibilities normally assumed by-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
provincial governments, since Ottawa
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with served as the legislative capital in thepotentially adverse impacts on health.
North. Starting in the 1950’s, a process- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on landofdue
devolution or transferring responsito sea level rise and permafrost melt
bilities (e.g., education, health, housing,- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
social services) got underway as that
require humans to adapt.
was a shared goal of both the territorial- Adverse impacts on human health.
and federal governments. The devolution process, related to land & resourcesmanagement, and the transferring of
responsibilities have only recently been
resolved (Yukon in 2003; NWT in 2014)or are still on-going (Nunavut), which
resulted in poor housing initiatives illsuited to northern climates and Northerners’ needs and ways of life.
Since they are constituents of provinces, Nunavik and Nunatsiavut havea different governance regime. The
region now occupied by Nunavik was
officially transferred to the provinceof Québec in 1912. The first matchbox
houses provided by federal programsin the late 1950s and early 1960s werepoorly suited to Inuit practices.114 In
1981, after the James Bay and NorthernQuebec Agreement, the federal government transferred housing responsibilities to the province. Through its
social housing program, the Sociétéd’habitation du Québec (SHQ) mostly
provided detached single-family houses
to local populations. Following thefederal government’s withdrawal, very
few houses were built between 1995
and 1998. By 1999, the newly founded
Kativik Municipal Housing Bureau(KMHB) was managing the residential
stock. Since 2000, both governments are
involved in housing production: while
the federal funds Makivik Corporation
to build houses (mostly consisting ofsemi-detached houses or duplexes), theSHQ funds KMHB to manage the park.
The SHQ also finances the renovationof existing houses, as well as the gap
between collected rents and the actual
cost of operation. Through its Plan
Nord, the Quebec government has also
pledged the construction of 300 units
by 2016. Finally, the responsibility of
the Kativik Regional Government (KRG)
is to determine the number of houses

68re-usestructionnd of life

117
Sheppard, Lola & White, Mason. Many
Norths: Spatial Practice in a Polar Territory.
Actar. 2017. P 121

118
Sheppard, Lola & White, Mason. Many
Norths: Spatial Practice in a Polar Territory.
Actar. 2017. P.122[colonialist] force”.119
After its cancellation in 1965, thesubsequent iteration of the “Eskimo
Housing Loan Program”, the “Northern
Rental Purchase Program”, sought tocreate three bedroom dwellings, which“helped to solve issues of affordability, although quality of life remained
neglected”. In fact, dwellings were often
described as “drafty, cramped, unsafe
and totally unsuited to the northernlifestyle”. 120 Up to the 1990’s, all housing initiatives in the North remained
plagued by an emphasis upon simple
rudimentary designs meant for subsistence, “designed on a pattern suited tosouthern Canadian suburbs”.121
As mentioned before, a process ofdevolution and transferring of responsibilities had been initiated in the 1950’s.
Prior to that, the Federal government in
Ottawa has retained control over housing initiatives in the North. As more andmore territorial housing corporations
were formed, initiatives became more
inclusive and held real considerations
for Northerners’ lifestyles and needs.
Several projects across the CanadianNorth are good examples of this new

119
120
121

Ibid, p.123
Ibid.
Ibid, p.124

Zero Arctic |architectural vernacular.122 However,these projects relate mainly to schools,
cultural centers and governmental
facilities, as little progress has been
made within the residential sector in
the North.
The housing crisis remains at theforefront of policy-making in the Canadian North, as both the accelerated
effects of global warming and recent
demographic trends in the Arctic canthreaten the progress made. On the one
hand, due to its high fertility rate, therelative population growth in Nunavut from 2011 to 2014 was among thehighest in Canada, which exacerbates
the housing crisis.123 At the same time,
according to Natan Obed who is thepresident of Inuit Tapirrit Kantami, “In
Inuit Nunangat, our homeland, risingtemperatures not only risk undermining
our existing infrastructure and increasing food insecurity, it also creates lifeand-death situations for even the mostexperienced hunters [...]”.124 On average,
the North of Canada has warmed by
2.3°C since 1946, i.e. twice as fast as the122
The Nakasuk School in Iqaluit, Nunavuk(completed in 1974); The legislative Assembly
Building of Northwest territories in Yellowknife(completed in 1993); Piqqusilirivvik; theInuit Cultural Learning Centre in Clyde River,
Nunavut (completed in 2011);The East three
School in Inuvik (Completed in 2012).
123
J. Martel, Recent Changes in
Demographic Trends in Canada, Statistics
Canada, 2015.
124
N. Obed, How climate change isdestroying the Arctic, Macleans’s, June 8,
2019.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –1960–90, 1990 to today. The turn of thenacular architecture in the North.118 Yet,th
20 century marked a dramatic change
given that the perceived poor housing
conditions in the North were often idenin the architectural landscape of thetified as a leading cause of increased
North. As Sheppard & White report:
illness the Federal government under“the advent of imported architecture
di se seseuu
p- ctook, in 1959, its first housing initiative
is marked
by the outpost structures thatre opsleare use
in the North: “the Eskimo Housing Loan
emergedinthe
1910s.
Trading
posts,
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
Program”.
missions,
andmilitary
installations
re opslearseee-suese
The program set about tacklingwere
ddi is re-strategically sited based on larger
splahousing shortages across these newly
territorial
and logistical factors. Theyceformed sedentary communities. The
were often built near valuable trading
focus on quantity over quality throughresources,
strategic
military
points,orefurbishment
perativewater
out the program’s 10-year life cycle wascoastlines […] As outposts spread acrossic
ClimateChangesandcarbonclear, and would remain a staple oftheblack
North,
theyseacatalyzed- Warmingof landandmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
ecosystem permanentis threatened byacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies
federal housing programs to this day.
settlement
Aboriginal people,- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activitesamong(e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policies“The units offered through thiswhosoughtout
theseplacesforthejob
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
economic
growthopportunities alsofor
- Environmental
policies
rental-purchaseplan were prefabriopportunities
ratherthanforhousing.
- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped incated plywood dwellings of under 300
With
this
came
the desire for something- Sectoral
policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic
fromeversmall-scalesquare feet, nicknamed “matchboxes”
that had
never structure
existed nor
been local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
because of their modest size and simple
a year-rounddwelling”.117
e.g. needed:
activities
shipping
towarsandmore
oil extraction
wage labour
Up
to
the
1950s,
and
given
this
inher- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with shape. This rudimentary structure waspotentiallyadverseimpacts
on health. year-longsimply the outcome of building entirely
ently newneed
for stationary- Increased
vulnerabilityof existing
infrastructure
on landout
dueof engineered plywood: the fourhousing
structures,Northerners“beganto sea level rise and permafrost melt
by-eight-foot sheets made up the entire
to assemble informal structures from
- Changes
in snow/ice
dependent
transport
and foor sources
12-by-240-foot floor plan. The matchbox
constructionwaste
and scrapmaterials”
require humans to adapt.
had no running water or sewage treataround the outpost structures, in what
- Adverse impacts on human health.
ment and, despite its small size, housed
is commonly referred to these days as
multi-generational families—sometimes
shacklands; an architectural form still
as many as 20 inhabitants […] The intent
prevalent today across many coastal
was just to provide something that
communities in the North and, acqualified as a shelter. The matchbox […]cording to architect Joshua Armstrong,
may not have offered much in the way
underappreciated as a form of early verof design, or even, architecture, butthey were an inevitable modernizing

69

Aboriginal Identity*
First Nations
Métis

Inuit

Other**

NWT

41,786

13,180

3,385

4,075

210

Yukon

35,874

6,685

1,015

230

265

Nunavut
di se sesp-u c-eu
Nunavik
resopsleare-use
didi reNunatsiavut
di sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
Total
re opslearseee-suese
is -35,944190

165

30,13565

13,188135

30

11,800

20

2,560

25

35

2,290

0

129,352

20,215

4,630

48,530re-use

Total
Population

560
ddi resplTableac4.
Demographic characteristics of the population of Canada’s North based on 2016ecensus. Statistics Canada. 2017. Northwest Territories [Territory] and Canada [Country] (table). Census Profile.

structionnd of life

2016 Census. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 98-316-X2016001. Ottawa. Released November 29, 2017 (link).

efurbishment
perativewater* According to Statistics Canada, “Aboriginal identity refers to whether the person identified with the Aboriginal
peoples of Canada. This includes those who are First Nations (North American Indian), Métis or Inuk (Inuit) and/or

ic
ClimateChanges
- CO2
and
black
carbon- Warmingof landand seaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
isIndians
threatened
acts
in
the
Arctic
those
who
are
Registered
Treaty(that andis,byregisteredunder the Indian Act of Canada) and/or those who
EconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea
Routesopenortotransitshipping
additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean- Climatepolicies
havemembershipin watera First Nation or Indian band. Aboriginal peoples of Canada are defined in the Constitution- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Act,
1982,
section 35and(2) asIndian,northward
Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada. Users should be aware that
Tundraisretreating
theincluding
tree linethemoving-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
accessto oil and gas
reserves and minerals,
the estimatesassociatedthis variable are more affected than most by the incomplete enumeration ofchangingbird andreindeerwith
habitsresulting in increased- Environmental
policies economic growth opportunities also for- Shrinking
certainsnow
Indiancoverreserves and Indian settlements in the 2016 Census of Population.”- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in- Sectoral
policies**
These
numbers
includepeople with multiple aboriginal responses and aboriginal responses not included- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic structure from small-scale local activities
elsewhere.
-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withpotentially adverse impacts on health.
- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
- Adverse impacts on human health.

Figure 67. (a) Breakdown of the indigenous and non-indigenous populations and (b) Number ofhouseholds in each territory and region of Canada’s North.

rest of the world125, affecting the people,
ecosystems and infrastructures of theNorth. This context threatens housing
policies and calls for initiatives focusing on quality over quantity. This is why
a review of traditional architecturaldesigns of residential dwellings in the
North can be so revelatory towards thedevelopment of a distinctively Arctic
architectural vernacular.

Description of housing building
stock in Canada’s North
In the present report, “Canada’s North”
includes the three territories under thejurisdiction of the federal government(Yukon, Northwest Territories (NWT),
and Nunavut) as well as two northern
regions of provinces belonging to theInuit area (Nunavik in Québec and Nunatsiavut in Newfoundland-Labrador).
Nunavut, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut andInuvialuit (parts of NWT and Yukon inhabited by Inuit) are referred to as Inuit
Nunangat. Each region and territory has
a distinct legal, historical, demographic
and political reality, which has influenced how housing development has
taken place.

125
Bush, E. and Lemmen, D.S., editors(2019): Canada’s Changing Climate Report;
Government of Canada, Ottawa, ON. 444 p.

Zero Arctic |Before comparing the building stock
data of these five regions/territories,
it is instructive to have a brief look attheir demographic characteristics (seeTable 4 126and Figure 67.). Indigenous
people (Inuit, First Nations and Métis)represent a significant share of the
population in each of the five entities.
Northwest Territories has the largest
population with 41,786 people, 40% of
which belong to First Nations, and 11%
are Inuit. Yukon’s population reaches
38,630 people, and aboriginals are mostly from First Nations (21% of the territory’s population). Nunavut has a total
population count of 35,944 inhabitants,
83.8% of which being Inuit. Finally,
Nunavik and Nunatsiavut have respective populations of 13,188 and 2,560,
with a high percentage of Inuit inhabitants. Overall, more than 129 thousandpeople live in Canada’s North as defined
above. Table 7 reports the number ofhouseholds in each territory and region.
Note that the last column includes accommodations for temporary workers,
as well as abandoned accommodations.
The ownership rate in Canada’s North islower than in the rest of Canada, where
68% of households are homeowners
according to Canada Mortgage andHousing Corporation, except in Yukon– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –Territories/
Regions

126 Statistics Canada. 2017. Northwest Territories[Territory] and Canada [Country] (table). Census
Profile. 2016 Census. Statistics Canada
Catalogue no. 98-316-X2016001. Ottawa.
Released November 29, 2017 (link)

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

70

OwnerRenterBand
HousingInhabited
Temporarily /Unhabited

NWT

17,666

8,045

6,915

20

2,686

Yukon
di se sesp-u c-eu
Nunavut
resopsleare-use
didi reNunavik
di sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re opslearseee-suese
Nunatsiavut
is -17,987

9,680

5,005

530

2,772

11,433

1,960

7,860

-

1,613

4,292

75

3,350

-

667

945

575

255

-

115

52,323

20,33523,385550

7,848

re-useNumber ofhouseholds

ddi re
sp
Total
la
ce

structionnd ofTablelife
5. Number of private accommodations (households) and ownership model within each

efurbishment
territory and region of Canada’s North, based on 2016 census.
perative
water

Statistic Canada, Census Profile – 2016 Census, https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/

prof/index.cfm?Lang=E.
ic
ClimateChanges
- CO2
and
black
carbon- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts
in
the
ArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional

ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating and the tree line moving northward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also for- Environmental
policies- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities
Years
NWT influence,
Yukon
Nunavut-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour
–1960
360
1,315
170
- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withpotentially adverse impacts on health.
1961–
4,805
4,625
2,150
- Increased
1980 vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
1981–
- Changes
in snow/ice
dependent transport
sources
3,430
2,330 and foor1,995
1990
requirehumans to adapt.
- Adverse
impacts on human health.
1991–
2,950
2,625
2000

Nunavik

Nunatsiavut

20

10

365

160

1,010

150

2,095

595

215

2001–
2005

1,355

1,045

860

305

115

2006–
2010

945

1,435

1,285

575

85

2011–
2016

935

1,840

1,260

760

100

Table 6. Number of houses built for a specific period of construction for each territory andregion according to 2016 census. Idem.

where a similar fraction of owners isfound. The smallest ownership rate is in
Nunavik, with only a marginal portionof the people owning their house.
The number of houses built over timeis shown in Table 6. In all territories
and regions, the number of constructions per year peaked in the 1980s, andthen decreased significantly. Since mid
2000s, however, the number of houses
built per year has started to increaseagain, and are likely to increase more
importantly in a near future. In 2017,
the Standing Senate Committee on
Aboriginal People released a reportdenouncing the acute and persistentlack of appropriate and affordable housing in Inuit Nunangat. As recently as
2016, over half of Inuit in Inuit Nunang
overcrowded housing.127 The required
number of new housing units, as of2017, was estimated at 196 for Nunatsiavut, 813 for Nunavik, 3,500 for Nunavut
and 144 for Inuvialuit. In its 2019 “Inuit
Nunangat Housing Strategy”, the federal
government called the lack of access toappropriate and affordable housing inInuit Nunangat a “national crisis”.128 The
strategy aims at improving housing outcomes in Inuit Nunangat, building on“direct federal investments […] and the
direct role of Inuit in managing housing

in Inuit communities”.
The composition of the housingbuilding stock varies from one territorial entity to another. In general,
single detached house is the mostcommon housing type in all territories
and regions, except in Nunavik wheresemi-detached housing is more common. A semi-detached house shares
one common wall with a neighboringhouse, as opposed to a single detachedhouse, which shares no common wallwith neighbors. Townhouses and small
apartment buildings (less than 5 floors)
are also relatively common, in particular in Yukon, NWT and Nunavut.
Most households in Canada’s North are
relatively small, having only 4 rooms
and less, as revealed by Table 8. Larger
households with 8 rooms and more
can also be found, mostly in Yukon
and Northwest Territories. The stateof housing properties is presented foreach region and territory in Table 9.
A bigger share of household budget isspent in housing in Yukon and NWT. On
the other hand, undersized dwellingsor those in need of major repair are
more frequent in Nunavut, Nunavik andNunatsiavut.

– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –Territories/
Regions

127
https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/
eng/1554820296529/1554820324561(Annex 3)
128
https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/
eng/1554820296529/1554820324561(Introduction)

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

71

Territories

Nunavik

Type of household

re-usestructionnd of life
Apartment with 5

floors and more
efurbishment
perative
water
Mobile housing

Nunatsiavut

Rental house

Ownership house

Total of property

Territories

Spending
30% ormore ofincomeon shelter
costInsubsidized
housing

Spending
30% ormore ofincome on
housingWith
mortgageMajor
repairs
neededUndersized
dwellings

Nunavik

3.2%

86.3%

0.0%

31.2%

20.4%

31%

Nunavut

5.2%

83.5%

7.9%

60.2%

26.1%

31%

Nunatsiavut

7.7%

25%

5.2%

41.7%

28.7%

10.8%

Yukon

29.4%

25.1%

12.7%

59.9%

12.5%

4.8%

450

NWT

16.3%

41.3%

9%

61.1%

18.1%

10.5%

1,185

505

Table 9.

4,550

5,400

Yukon

NWT

Number of households
1,230

4,370

770

9,495

8,685

1,730

875

35

1,160

975

150

2,960

25

950

1,595

60

175

0

605

385

450

1,300

0

0

110

0

0

20

5

ic
ClimateChanges
- CO2
and
black
carbon- Warmingof household
landand seaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
is threatened
by
acts
in
the
Arctic
Other
2,395
5,335
0
EconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit
shipping
and additional

ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies

1,770
50

2,375

State of housing properties for each territory. Idem.

- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
andtree line moving
northward-- Energy
policies
Table
7.
Numberofthehouseholds
for eachhousing type for each territory according to 2016.
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changingbird and reindeer
habits– 2016 Census, https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/
Statistic
Census Profile
resultingin Canada,
increased
economic growth
opportunities also for- Environmental
policies- Shrinking
snow coverprof/index.cfm?Lang=E- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withpotentially adverse impacts on health.
- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
- Changes
in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
Territories
Nunavik
Nunavut
Nunatsiavut
requirehumansto adapt.
and regions

Yukon

NWT

- Adverse impacts on human health.
Number of
Number of households
rooms

1 to 4

2,100

4,865

235

5,160

5,350

5

785

2,515

310

2,675

3,235

6

440

1,435

160

2,340

2,480

7

240

625

75

1,755

1,600

8 or more

70

380

55

3,285

2,310

Table 8. Number of households for different number of rooms for each territory according to2016 census. Idem.

Figure 68.

Zero Arctic |– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –Single detacheddi se sesp-u c-eu
Semi-detachedresopsleare-use
didi reTownhousedi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
Duplexre opslearseee-suese
s ddisi reApartmentwith less
pl
ac
than
e 5 floors

Nunavut

Share of different housing types in the different territories and regions.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition72

Typical building design and energy
consumption

re-usestructionnd of life129
http://www.habitation.gouv.qc.ca/
fileadmin/internet/publications/0000024197.
pdf

130
Government of the Northwest
Territories, Good building practice for northern
facilities, 2013.

55%). Air and vapour barriers are thus
necessary and should be located on
the exterior of structural framing. The
minimum thermal resistance of opaqueenvelope is RSI 7.0 for suspended floors,
RSI 3.5 for floors on non-frost susceptible soil, RSI 5.6 for walls and RSI 8.75
for roofs. There is no prescribed value
for floors installed above thermosiphon
grids. A minimum drainage slope of 4%
is preferable for roofs. All windows arerecommended to have as a minimum
double-glazed sealed glazing units with
low-e coating or to have triple-glazed
sealed units. Use of tinted glass withshading coefficients greater than 10%
is not recommended since it limits
potential for passive solar gains. As forthe mechanical equipment, less than
25% of all communities in the Northwest Territories have piped service fordomestic water. For the unpiped communities, water is delivered by truck
and stored in holding tanks locatedwithin buildings as in Nunavik. Deliveries are generally made once or twicea week. The clean water tank must be
kept between 5 and 15°C and should not
be located in the same room as boilers
or furnaces as warm water can support
bacteria. If the tank is too large to fit
within the occupied building areas, aheated crawl space should be installed
to place the water tank. For hot water,
oil-fired heaters are preferred for smaller buildings and indirect-fired heaters
for larger buildings. Burner efficiency

Zero Arctic |above 80% is suggested. Designers areencouraged to consider more energyefficient ventilation strategies that meetthe requirements of ASHAE 62.
A highly energy-efficient house
was designed and built by the Northwest Territories Housing Corporation(NWTHC) in Inuvik, NWT131 Figure 69.
A design charrette was help with local
stakeholders and revealed specificinterests such as the reduction of theenvironmental impact. The duplex has atotal surface area of 247 m², and integrated solar thermal hot water system
in addition of 3.6 kW photovoltaic (PV)panels. The excess electricity producedby the PV, if any, is fed to the grid. According to preconstruction models,each dwelling is expected to consume
annually 7,040 kWh of electricity (59kWh/m²) and 46 GJ of natural gas (0.38
GJ/m² or 107.4 kWh/m²).
The government of Nunavut issued aguide for good building practice design132. For the envelope, minimal RSI
values of 4.9 for walls and 7.0 for roofs
are demanded. For windows, insulated
frame PVC, vinyl or pultruded fibre
reinforced plastic frames are preferred,with low-E double-glazing. Wood andprefabricated steel frame buildings arecommon in Nunavut. Wood is seen as– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –are heated by fuel oil. A technical room
gathers all the pieces of equipment(furnace, tanks, etc.). Water tanks areThis section presents a summary of theneeded and must be in a heated room,
main features of housing designs in theas in most villages water is delivered by
North. Recommended practices are
di se seseuu
p- ctrucks (wastewater is also collected thathighlighted.
Examples of buildings thatre opsleare-useway). The layout of the dwelling andhave
documentedin
openliteradidis rebeen
di sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucareethe furniture must be adapted the Inuit
ture
presented.
uco
re opslearseee-sueseis re- Société d’habitation du Québec
lifestyle. The typical annual heating
ddiThesplademand is 310 kWh/m². An example ofhas establishedgood design practicecebuildings that was designed in collaboguidelines129 for the construction ofration with Inuit and that achieves ahousesin
Nunavik.
Specialcare
must
efurbishment
perativewater
higher energy performance is detailed
be taken to avoid permafrost thawing,ic
ClimateChangesandblackcarbonin Chapter 4.
whichjeopardize
theis integrity- Warmingof couldland
andseaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
threatenedofbyacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean- Climatepolicies
The Department of Public Worksthebuilding.
Aswatera result, buildings are- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites (e.g.
tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policies
andServices of the government of theusually
jacked
0.6
to
1.2
m
above
the
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
economic
growthopportunities
alsofor- Environmental
policies
Northwest
Territories has also pubgroundlevel
tominimizeheattransfer- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inlished a report on good building practo theground.
The aerodynamic proper- Sectoral
policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic
structurefromsmall-scale
local activities
tices for northern facilities.130 Carefulties ofthe building
shape
are
important,-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
sustainpotentiallydesign and construction are required toe.g. toactivities
shipping
towarsandthemore
oil extraction
wage labourhigh wind loadandtocontrolsnowaccumulation.
A- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with ensure water resistant building envepotentiallyadverseon health.
relatively
flat impacts
roof is used
so that strong
lope with low air leakage because of the- Increased
vulnerability
existing
infrastructure on landcold
due and dry climate. Acceptable values
wind canremove ofsnow
accumulation.
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
A small envelope surface is desired tofor air leakage depend on the indoor- Changes
in snow/ice
dependent
transport
and foor sources
minimizeheat losses,
witha minimal
air humidity of the buildings as it is not
require humans to adapt.
insulation of RSI 5.11. The details of therecommended to have very dry indoor- Adverse impacts on human health.
envelope design are extremely imenvironment. The maximum recomportant to ensure air tightness (memmended air leakage rate values is 0.15
branes) and prevent moisture transfer
L/s per square meter of floor area @75
in cold parts of the envelope where it
Pa for all buildings with low indoor air
could condense. A maximal window-tohumidity (below 27%), 0.1 L/m²s forwall ratio of 30% and a U-value smallerbuildings with normal humidity level
than 2.0 to 2.5 W/m²K are recommend(27 to 55%) and 0.05 L/m²s for buildings
ed. As will be explained below, houses
with high indoor humidity (more than131
https://assets.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/sf/
project/cmhc/pubsandreports/pdf/68120.
pdf?rev=4f3a51f4-39c1-4c05-aa10b4de13b66426
132
Government of Nunavut, Good Building
Practice Guideline, Second Edition, 2005.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition73

re-usesp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese
pe u
ddi is resplacestructionnd of life

efurbishment
perativewater

ic
ClimateChanges- CO2
and blackcarbon- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts
in
the
ArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreatingandthe treeline moving northward-- Energy
policies
Figure69.
Highenergyperformance
built in Inuvik (NWT).
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
accessto oiland gasreserves andhouseminerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
https://assets.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/sf/project/cmhc/pubsandreports/pdf/68120.pdf?rev=4f3a51f4-39c1-4c05resulting
in increased
economic growth opportunities also for- Environmental
policies- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inaa10-b4de13b66426- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
able House shown in Figure 70 wascompact,
easilye.g. versatile,
activities
shipping
towarsandmore
oil extraction
wage
labouravailable andFigure 70.

Arviat E/2 Northern Sustainable House (Nunavut).

https://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/data-and-research/publications-and-reports/arviat-e-2-northern-sustainablehouse-energy-consumption-performance-assessment

not susceptible
to damageduringtrans-with designed and built by Nunavut Hous- Indigenous
peoples' foodsources are
threatened,
potentiallyadverseimpactsonhealth.
ing Corporation, with the involvement
port. Less than 20% of all communities- Increased
vulnerabilityof existing
infrastructure
the Canada Mortgage and Housing
in Nunavut
have piped
service.
In that on landofdue
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
Corporation (CMHC). The objective
case, water is delivered by trucks and- Changes
in snow/ice
dependent
transportheating
and foor sources
was to use 50% less energy comparedmust bestored intanks. District
require humans to adapt.
a comparable house that would been demight be available in some places, but- Adverse impacts on human health.
signed and build according to the 1997
a backup heater is usually needed. The
Model National Energy Code for Houses
set point temperature is 21°C in winter(MNECH). The house has a heated surand 24°C in summer. Forced hot air
face area of 128 m² and different strateor hydronic heating systems are bothgies and technologies were used to cut
used. As few buildings in Nunavut havedown the energy demand. The energy
basements, counter-flow furnaces arebills indicated an annual consumption
generally required with ducts located inof electricity of 29 GJ and of oil of 218
a raised floor. Lighting is mentioned as
GJ, representing energy intensity of 62.9
an important electric load to consider
kWh/m² for electricity and 473.1 kWh/(30% of electrical load).
m² for oil. This was only 14% less than
The Arviat E/2 Northern Sustain-

the reference building, likely due to thenumber of occupants that was larger
than that initially assumed, the presence of a sewage tank outside the housethat needed to be heated (which was
not initially planned) and differencesin weather conditions. According to
CMHC, “this project demonstrated thatenergy-efficient and culturally appropriate houses can be delivered in Canada’s
North”, but also that “achieving targeted
design performance not only involves
good design and best construction practices, [but] also involves understanding
and planning for post-occupancy operation of the house”.
In Yukon, no governmental organization has issued a guide for good build-

Zero Arctic |ing practice designs. However, in the2019 version of its strategy for climatechange, energy and a green economy,
Yukon sets the target of supplying 40%
of its heating needs by renewable energy sources in 2030.133 The government
expects in the next decade a reductionof 21 kilotonnes of carbon emissions bymaking buildings more energy efficient,
9 kilotonnes by introducing electric heatpumps and 8 kilotonnes by installing
renewable heating systems in governmental buildings. The government of
Yukon will invest $30M per year for the– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –di133
Government of Yukon. Our Clean
Future: A Yukon strategy for climate change,energy and a green economy. 2019. https://yukon.ca/en/draft-our-clean-future

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition74

re-usestructionnd of life

134
City of Whitehorse. Building andPlumbing Bylaw. https://www.whitehorse.ca/
departments/planning-building-services/building-inspections

135
http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2015/schl-cmhc/nh18-22/NH1822–115–1-eng.pdf

Energy supply of the North
In Nunavut, Qulliq Energy Corporation
is a state-owned company mandated toprovide electricity to the inhabitantsof Nunavut. It operates 25 diesel power
plants with a total installed poweraround 76 MW136 and an annual energy
consumption of 184 GWh.137 A pilot
project integrated 3 kW of solar panels to the grid in Iqaluit in 2016. It was
the first time that a renewable energy
source connected to any grid in Nunavut. Kugluktuk is now planning to integrate 500 kW of photovoltaic panels to
its diesel power plant.138 A study of 2016
analyzed the potential of wind turbinesfor electricity generation.139 The analysis revealed that in 8 of the 25 communities of Nunavut, the return on equity
on wind projects was close or above 8%,
which was considered appropriate intoday’s market. Qulliq currently has a
program allowing customers to produce
their own electricity from renewable

136
https://www.qec.nu.ca/
137
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/our-naturalresources/electricity-infrastructure/electricitycanada/canadas-electric-reliability-fra/
nunavuts-electric-reliability-framework/18840
138
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/ournatural-resources/electricity-infrastructure/electricity-canada/canadas-electric-reliabilityfra/northwest-territories-electric-reliabilityframework/18838
139
https://nunavutnews.com/nunavutnews/kugluktuk-power-plant-featuring500-kilowatt-solar-capacity-gets-funding/
http://www.qec.nu.ca/sites/default/files/
potential_for_wind_energy_in_nunavut_
communities_2016_report_0.pdf

Zero Arctic |sources (up to 10 kW) and to integrate itto the grid.
Northwest Territories counts two
utilities, namely the Northwest Territories Power Corporation (NTPC),a crown-owned public utility, andNorthland Utilities, an investor owned
electricity utility.140 The total installedcapacity is around 269 MW141 and theannual consumption, 624 GWh. This
includes utilities and production byindustries (e.g., mines). Among the 33
communities of NWT, none is connected to the main North American grid,and many are isolated and supplied bydiesel power plants. As a result, most of
the installed power relies on fossil fuels(68% from diesel, and 8% from natural gas). Nevertheless, NWT has threehydroelectricity facilities totaling 20%of the installed capacity. Wind turbines
and a small fraction of PV electricity
production account for the remaining
capacity (less than 4%). It is interesting
to note that 40% of electricity consumed
is actually hydroelectricity. The capacityof the thermal power plants is relatively
high in order to cover for low water
years.

140
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/ournatural-resources/electricity-infrastructure/electricity-canada/canadas-electric-reliabilityfra/northwest-territories-electric-reliabilityframework/18838
141
https://www.inf.gov.nt.ca/sites/inf/
files/resources/electrical_generation_in_the_nwt_4_converted.pdf

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –next decade to reach this objective. A
Two houses located in Dawson City,
financial program has been developed
Yukon, were built in 2008 and 2009.135
to help homeowners to retrofit their
One of them, the Dawson E/8 house, hashome to improve its energy performbeen designed with passive solar feaance. Rebates are also possible to switch tures and a solar hot water system, withd se sep-u c-eu
toisrenewableenergy for heating or to
11 m² collectors on the porch roof. It is
resopsleare-use
installestimated that the annual total radiation
didi re photovoltaic solar panels on thedi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucocThe
e
roof.
need
to
designbuildings
soavailable on the collector is 39 MJ. Studu
re opslearseee-suese
they
more
resilienttofires,
ies showed that increasing the surface
ddi is rebecomesplafloods,of the roof, and changing slope andce permafrost thaw and heat stressis mentioned. The need for a building
orientation would significantly increase
standards
manualforthedesignandthe amount of energy available.
efurbishment
perativewater
construction of new buildings is also acic
ClimateChanges
- CO2
and
black
carbonknowledged
bysea
the
strategy
for climate- Warmingof landandmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
ecosystem
is threatened
by
acts
in
the
ArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationofocean water- Climatepolicieschangeguide.
- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g. tourism)- Tundraischanges
retreating
andWhitehorse,
the tree line moving
northward-- Energy
policies
Bylaw
99-50
the
Land-cover- Meltingglaciers- Increased
accessto in
oil and gas reserves
and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
economic
growthopportunities also for- Environmental
policies
capitalcityofYukon,
asks
forminimal- Shrinking snow cover- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped ininsulation- Sectoral
policies level of RSI 4.9 for walls- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic
structure fromsmall-scale
local activities(including
foundations
above
and below-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
and
floor
above
unheated spaces,
e.g. grade)
activities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage
labour
RSI
8.8
forceilings,
RSI
1.8areforthreatened,slabs on with- Indigenous peoples' food sources
potentiallyadverseimpactsonhealth.
ground (but RSI 3.5 for slabs on ground- Increased
vulnerability
ofheat)existing
infrastructure
containing
radiant
and
RSI 1.8 foron land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
crawl space from grade.134 Doors need
- Changes
in snow/ice
dependent
transport
and foor sources
to havea minimum
thermalresistancerequire humans to adapt.
of RSI 2.1 and windows should have at- Adverse impacts on human health.
least RSI 0.625. In terms of airtightness,the building envelope of new dwellings
must be constructed with a maximumof 1.5 air changes per hour at a 50 Pa
depressurization. Heat recovery ventilators with a sensible recovery efficiencyof 64% or more are mandatory.

75

re-usesp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re opslearseee-sueseis ddi resp
lace

structionnd of life

efurbishment
perativewater

ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating and the tree line moving northward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also for- Environmental
policies- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with
Figure 71. Solar panels in Kuujjuaq, Québec.
potentially adverse impacts on health.
- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt

Nunavik(2012) ****

Nunatsiavut(2013)

Solar

-

148.1

807

-

-

Hydaulic turbine-

95,30353,800--Wind turbine

-

740.5

9,146

-

-

Combustion by diesel

78,41544,430182, 920

30,4008,500

Combustion by natural
gas

-

8,886

21,520

-

-

Total

78,415

148,100

269,000

30,4008,500Electrical power capacity [kW] by type of production for each territory and region.

system consists of six isolated power
grids, five of which service small areas.
Most of the power is already from renewable sources. In 2013, Yukon Energy
generated 99.5% of its electricity via hydroelectric dams and wind turbines,143
with thermal power plants covering forperiods of high electricity demand andlow water levels. As a result, electricity

in Yukon is much cheaper than in NWTor Nunavut. A representative price forelectricity in 2016 in NWT and Nunavut
was above 0.30$/kWh, and 0.136$/kWh
in Yukon (the average price in Canada
was 0.129$/kWh).144
In Nunavik, the 14 villages are notconnected to the main power grid dueto their remote locations. Therefore,
diesel power plants provide electricity
to each community. The plants are man-aged by Hydro-Québec, the state-owned
public utility in the Province of Québec
for the generation, transmission anddistribution of electricity. As of 2012,
the peak demand for the villages in
Nunavik was 15.46 MW and the installedcapacity, 30.04 MW.145 The smallest
diesel power plant was in Aupaluk (0.78
MW) and the largest, in Kuujjuaq (6.25
MW). Nunavik’s annual need in electricity is 82.4 GWh for the communities,143
https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/
north/yukon-n-w-t-and-nunavut-differ-inoutlooks-for-renewable-energy–1.2804345

144
https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/nrg/ntgrtd/
mrkt/snpsht/2017/02-03hghcstpwr-eng.
html?=undefined&wbdisable=true

145
Plan d’approvisionnement 2014-2023
des réseaux autonomes, Hydro-Québec
Distribution, Demande R-3864-2013 (link).

- Changes
snow/ice dependentand foor sources
Theininstalledcapacity transport(utility andwell. The transmission and distribution
require humans to adapt.

142
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/our-naturalresources/electricity-infrastructure/electricitycanada/canadas-electric-reliability-fra/yukons-electric-reliability-framework/18800

NWT***(2015)

Table 10.

Makivik Organization (www.makivik.org).

industry) in Yukon is 131 MW and theannual electricity consumption, around
417 GWh.142 Yukon Energy Corporation(YEC) is a Crown corporation and themain generator and distributor of electricity. ATCO Electric Yukon is a privately owned company purchasing powerfrom YEC and generating electricity as

Yukon**(2014)* Statistique Canada. (Tableau 25-10-0022-01). Centrales installée, puissance génératrice annuelle selon le typede production d’électricité, https://doi.org/10.25318/2510002201-fra**Natural Resources Canada. Canada’s electricity supply generation mix varies significantly among Canada’s
provinces and territories. https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/our-natural-resources/energy-sources-distribution/
electricity-infrastructure/electricity-canada/canada-electric-reliability-framework/18792*** Natural Resources Canada. Canada’s electricity supply generation mix varies significantly among Canada’s
provinces and territories. https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/our-natural-resources/energy-sources-distribution/
electricity-infrastructure/electricity-canada/canada-electric-reliability-framework/18792**** Plan d’approvisionnement 2014-2023 des réseaux autonomes, Hydro-Québec Distribution, Demande
R-3864-2013 (link) – Only the power capacity of the villages is included.

ic
ClimateChanges- CO2
and blackcarbon- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts
in
the
ArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional- Adverse impacts on human health.

Nunavut*(2017)

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –diType of electricity
production76– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –re-userepresenting more than 24 million liters
ing purposes in regions served by146
of diesel and 65,000 tons of CO2,eq.
diesel power plants. In place, buildings are equipped with fuel oil heatAs of today, the electricity supply of
ing systems. In some communities,
Nunavik relies almost exclusively on
centralized heating systems relying on
diesel. In order to reduce greenhousedi se seseuu
p- c-emissions, different projects
the recovery of waste heat from thegases
re opsleare use
diesel power plants can sell thermal
promotingrenewableenergysources
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucocemergedeenergy for space heating and domestic
have
recently.
For
example,ure opslearseee-suesee
hot water heating. Commercial scaletheProject(scheduled
for
2022)
ddi is Innavik
sp rlacentralized heating systems are alreadyis a 7.5
ce MW run-of-river hydroelectricin place in Iqaluit, Rankin Inlet, Arviat
facility to replace reliance on diesel fueland Kugluktuk. According to Qulliq,
foralmostalloftheenergyneedoftheefurbishment
perative
water
without the centralized heating sysvillage of Inukjuak.147 Other examples
ic
ClimateChangesandblackcarbontems, an additional 3 million liters ofincludetheandinstallationof is70threatened
kW of by- Warmingof landseaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof oceanwater on buildings in the- Climatepolicies
oil would be required every year. Table
photovoltaic
panels- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites (e.g.
tourism)
148 tree line moving northward
Tundraisretreatingandthe-- Energy
policies
villageofKuujjuaq.
The
use
of
photoLand-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, 10 summarizes the electrical powerchanging bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
economic growth opportunities alsofor
- Environmental
policies
capacity
by type of production for eachvoltaic
panels- Shrinking snow
coveris also experimented in- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release
149of methane that is trapped in
territory and region. For Nunavik andthepolicies
villageof Quaqtaq.
- Sectoral- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic
structuresmall-scaleis
local activities
Nunatsiavut, the values only account forTheenergy supply
infrom
Nunatsiavut-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
installed power from utility, whereas
toofwageNunavike.g. similar
activities
shipping
towarsandthatmore
oil extraction
labourand Nunavut.
The
fivevillagesconstituting
Nunat- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with for Nunavut, Northwest Territories andpotentiallyon andhealth.
Yukon, the values consider both utility
siavut adverse
are alsoimpacts
off-grid
served by- Increasedof existing
infrastructuredueindustrial installations.
isolatedvulnerability
diesel power
plants.
The total on landandto sea level rise and permafrost melt
installed electric power for all these- Changes
in snow/ice
transport
communities
is dependent
around 8.5
MW150and. foor sources
require humans to adapt.
Due to the low fuel-to-electricity- Adverse impacts on human health.
conversion efficiency of diesel power
plants, electricity is not used for heat-structionnd of life

146
S. Hendrie, Solar power works betterin Kuujjuaq than Los Angeles, Taqralik, Winter
2020.
147
https://www.innavikhydro.com/
148
S. Hendrie, Solar power works betterin Kuujjuaq than Los Angeles, Taqralik, Winter
2020.
149
http://voirvert.ca/nouvelles/
rubriques/hydro-quebec-ere-energie-solairephotovoltaique
150
https://nlhydro.com

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition77

sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese
pe u
ddi is resp
la
ce

ction
f lifement
water

Changesandblackcarbonrming
of landand seaecosystem is threatened by
ment
arine
ice
connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts on health.

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

Housing History in Hokkaido after
Japanese Restoration
Before the end of Edo era, about 200
years ago, the indigenous people Ainu
lived in their typical house, Cise or Chise.
During the Japanese invasion throughthe end of Edo era and Meiji restoration, the number of Ainu people has
been rapidly decreasing. The knowledgeof building the cise was almost lost.
But the houses were said to be warmer
than Japanese houses. Figure 72 shows
the Japanese style house built in 1875.
The house used a Japanese traditional
post and beam system as a construction method. Both sides of the posts arecovered with wooden siding. The space
between wooden siding was usuallyvacant. The heating system was usually
hearth. It generated smoke and a poor
indoor air quality.
After World War II, the Japanese
government institured an act on coldproof housing in Hokkaido. After theact, the Hokkaido prefectural cold
region housing research institute wasestablished. Also, the departments forbuilding techniques were establishedin the universities in Hokkaido. The research communities were composed of
local government officials, the research
institute, the universities, and builders
who have been implementing researchand development. Figure 74 shows thefirst type of mass supply housing in the
1960s in Hokkaido. They used concrete
blocks to avoid fires which were the

Figure 72.

Tonden-heisha in Kotoni, Sapporo.

Figure 73.
herthTonden-heisha

Zero Arctic |Figure 74.

– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –dire-useJapan

Mass supply houses developed in the 1960s.

Endo Akihisa,1994,Hokkaido Jyuutakushiwa, Vol.2, Sumaino Tosyokan
Syuppankyoku.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition78

re-usesp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese
pe u
ddi is resp
la
ce

ction
f lifement
water

Changesandblackcarbonrming
of landand seaecosystem is threatened by
ment
arine
ice
connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse
impacts
health. type 1970–1980.
Figure75. onHousing

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

most serious problem at that period.

hanges in snow/ice
transport
andpublic
foor sources
Peopledependent
who wanted
to useloans
quire humans to adapt.

needed to build this type. This housing
type was sufficiently airtight. But since
it did not have enough insulation, RW,
30 mm was installed on the ceiling,causing a huge moisture problem.
In the early 1970’s, the main energy
source in Hokkaido changed fromcoal to oil. After that, the oil shock
happened. People became aware thatenergy efficient homes were essential.
Also, during 1970–1980, the populationin Hokkaido was rapidly increasing.

dverse impacts on human health.

Plan of corner

1. GW (glass wool) 140mm
2. GW105mm
3. GW50mm
4. GW235mm
5. EPS150mm
6. 38×140
7. 30×105
8. 45×45
9. PB12.5mm
10. Wind protection layer
11. Furring strips
12. Exterior
13. Vapour protection layer
14. Sealer

Figure 76.

Zero Arctic |Sectionaroundwindow– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –diEspecially in Sapporo city, the capital of
Hokkaido, the building area for a housebecame smaller and smaller. Therefore,
the newly constructed houses needed
to carry snow loads during winter. The
research communities developed thehouse shown in Figure 75. The construction method of those houses wasa Japanese traditional post and beamsystem. The spaces between posts werefilled with glass wool. For windows
they used a double sash with single
pane glass. The housing type was called
the first insulated mass supply Japanese house. But the builders were notconcerned about the airtightness of thebuilding type, thus resulting in serious
deterioration.
Through the research and development for housing type, Hokkaido local
government launched the Northern
Housing Project in 1989. In this project,
the recommendations for energy efficiency and air-tightness were determined for the first time in Japan.
The techniques were imported from
northern Europe and Canada through a
research and development project andmodified to fit the Japanese traditional
construction. Recently, the researchcommunity has been improving theenergy efficiency of detached houses
under the project. Figure 76 shows thesystem of energy efficiency for a traditional Japanese wooden frame.
Hokkaido local government made thesemi-public housing data stock system

Insulation and air-tightness system for traditional Japanese wood frame.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition79

re-usesp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese
pe u
ddi is resp
la
ce

ction
f lifement
water

Changesandblackcarbonrming
of landand seaecosystem is threatened by
ment
arine
ice
connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccessto oilheat-loss
and gas reserves
and minerals,
Overallanging bird andreindeer
habitscoefficient (include ventilation loss)
ulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

Figure 78.

The construction years of existing housing stock in Sapporo city.

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts on health.

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

Air-tightness area
Figure 77.

Energy efficiency of a recent detached house in Hokkaido.

under the Northern Housing Projectin 2007. The government recommends
storing housing data for future renovation and circulation purposes.
Figure 77 shows the overall heat-loss
coefficient (OHC) and the air-tightness
area (ATA) uploaded to the data stock
system. OHC should be under 1.6 to be
Northern Housing. Also, ATA should beunder 2.0. Recently, almost all houses
are under 1.6 and 1.0, respectively
under the effort of R&D project. Figure
78 shows the housing stock in Sapporo
city. The energy efficiency of the recent
housing stock has been improved. But

Zero Arctic |the main housing stock in Hokkaido
dates from 1975–1980 and 1985–1990.
Houses built in that era have issues withenergy efficiency and with moisture.
Also, the Japanese population is alreadydecreasing. Then R&D for renovation
with energy efficiency is essential.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –di80

GHG emissions in the current
building stock of Hokkaido

re-usection
f life151
Outline of Energy White Paper
2019, https://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2019/0607_001.html
152
The Basic Environment Plan,Cabinet
decision on April 17, 2018,http://www.env.go.jp/
policy/kihon_keikaku/plan/plan_5/attach/
ref_en-01.pdf
153
Growth Strategy 2018(Detailed
measures), https://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/
keizaisaisei/pdf/miraitousi2018_en2.pdf

Wood Construction in Hokkaido
Japan is one of the forest countries of
the world. However, the country’s forestry has been declining for a long time
because it has lost price competition.
In recent years, Japanese people haveunderstood that it is necessary to use
domestic timber to grow forests and forests are important for tackling the global environmental problem and disasterprevention. Then, Japanese timber isgradually getting more popular. Hokkaido has forests equivalent to about 1/4 ofthe domestic forest area. The planted
forest resources, mainly larch and fir,
are maturing. Their resource value andavailability are increasing. The self-sufficiency rate of wood in Hokkaido has
exceeded 50% since 2006, but unfortunately, it is mainly used for industrial
materials and pulp. The percentages
for the usage of building material is not
so high. The characteristics of forest
trees in Hokkaido, the cold and snowy
climate, and the dry indoor environment etc. are the reason not to increase
the percentage. In this section, we
report the use of artificial forest timberin Hokkaido and the current status andissues of the timber industry.
Hokkaido has 5.54 million hectaresof forests, of which 1.5 million hectares
are planted, accounting for 14.5% of thecountry. The supply of Hokkaido timber(3.55 million m3) accounts for 17.0%of the domestic timber supply (19.65

Zero Arctic |million m3)154. The forest resources in
Hokkaido play an important role in thedomestic timber industry.
Sakhalin fir and Japanese larch occupy 52% and 29% of the total area of ​​planted forests in Hokkaido, respectively. Both tree species are the representative forestation species. From the 1950s
and 1970s, afforestation was actively
carried out in Hokkaido in the 1950s and1970s. The peak of forest age is 36–45
years old for Sakhalin fir and 41–50
years old for Japanese larch.155 The total
stock of planted forests has increased
from 187 million cubic meters in 2001
to 247 million cubic meters in 2013 asshown in Figure 79, and the size of thelumber is large enough to provide building materials.
Under these resource conditions,looking at the supply and demand oftimber in Hokkaido,156 the self-sufficiency rate for demand (6,980,000 m3) is
55.6%, twice the national self-sufficiency rate (27.9%). However, this is largely
due to the high self-sufficiency rate ofpulp (48%), which accounts for halfof the demand in Hokkaido. Figure 77
shows the use of artificial forest timber(3.13 million m3), which accounts for154
Ohashi Yoshinori, Use of Artificial Forest
Wood in Hokkaido and Trends in Building
Material Development,in Japanese, Mokuzai
Kogyo,Vol. 69, No. 10, 2014
155
Ohashi Yoshinori, Use of Artificial
Forest Wood in Hokkaido and Trends in
Building Material Development
156
Hokkaido Forestry Statistics
2013,Hokkaido Government Forestry Bureau

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –In recent years, in the field of construction in Japan, construction with energy
efficiency has been promoted to combat
di se sesp-u c-eu global warming. Housing companies
re opsleare use
have attempted many trials toward ZEH
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu(Zero Energy Housing) with passive
re opslearseee-suese
technologies and renewable energies.
ddi is respla
The Japanese government has severalcetargets for ZEH. In the 5th National
Energy Plan, “in more than half of thementwater detached houses newly built by 2020
Changesandblackcarbonandthe averageof newly bybuilt houses
rmingof landandin
seaecosystem
ment
arine
ice
connected
is threatenedtheArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dification
of by
ocean
water
ate
policies2030,
the houses should be ZEH”.151
duced
ritimesea-ice
activites(e.g.
tourism)undraischanges
retreating
and thetree lineCountermeasures
moving northwardgypolicies
National-coverting glaciers
creasedaccessInto theoil andgas reserves
and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic
growthWarming
opportunities
also foronmental
policiesPlanagainstGlobalin Mayinking snow coverhangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies 2016, “Japanese government aim thatmafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic
from
local
activities
morestructure
than halfof small-scale
newly built
detached
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
housesconstructedby the top makers.ivities
shipping
towarsandmore
oil extraction
wage
labour
152
will
be
ZEH
by
2020.”In the with
Futuredigenous peoples' food sources are threatened,
tentially adverse
impactsonhealth.
Investment Strategy in 2017, “Japanesecreased vulnerabilityof existingland duegovernment
aimsinfrastructurethat newly on
constructsea level rise and permafrost melt
ed houses and the non-residential buildhanges in snow/ice
dependent
andfoor sources
ings will
be ZEHtransportand ZEB(Zero
Energyquire humans to adapt.
153
Building) by 2030”
dverse impacts on human health.
Local builders without enoughknowledge about energy efficiency anddesign-centered architects are opposedto this. As mentioned above, Hokkaido
has been implementing long-term efforts on the energy efficiency of houses,
making Hokkaido an advanced area
about housing energy efficiency inJapan. However, the climate is colder
than other areas in Japan and there
is much snow, so housing consumes
more energy in Hokkaido than in otherareas. ZEH in Hokkaido also has somedifficulties. It is challenging to installrenewable energies such as PV becauseof high latitude and high snowfall.
Therefore, in this section, we examined
the approach to zero carbon in current
energy-efficient houses.

81sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese
pe u
ddi is resp
la
ce

ction
f lifement
water

Changesandblackcarbonrming
of landand seaecosystem is threatened by
ment
arine
ice
connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
Figure79.release
GISof
data
for urban
hangesal populationin watercyclemethanethatdevelopment
is trapped in in Hokkaido, Change of forest capacity in Hokkaido.
oral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
supply of artificial forest timber, and81%
ofwagethe timber.ivities
shipping
towarsandmore
oil extraction
labour supply (3.88 millionm ). Approximately
half of thewith
sawmilldigenous peoples'food sources are threatened,
tentially adverse
impactsonhealth.
in Sakhalin fir are used for construc3

creased vulnerability
existing
infrastructure
on land duetion, butof58%
of themare low-priced
sea level rise and permafrost melt

materials such as base materials andhanges in snow/ice
dependent
transportfoorsourcesboards.
There areonly aandfew
applicaquire humans to adapt.

tions such as cedar pillars in Honshu.
In Japanese larch, packing and pallets
account for 82% of sawmills. Only 2% isused for construction, and 16% is small,
including the lamina base plate forlaminated wood.
As mentioned above, although theself-sufficiency rate of the use of the
Hokkaido forest is over 50%, low-value
applications such as industrial materials
and pulp are mainly used. For sustainable forestry management, stabledverse impacts on human health.

promotion of the timber industry, it isimportant to expand applications withhigh-value and improve processing
techniques in the region.
Hokkaido, a cold region, requires anindoor environment that heats the entire building during the winter season.
At that time, the room tends to dry out,
and the relative humidity drops to 30%.
In such an environment, the moisture
content of wood is 7 to 8%. It is problematic to use wood and wood materials. In particular, in the case of Japaneselarch, when wood with high moisture
content is used, the woods tend toshrink and deform, and cracks and gaps
in the finished material, floor noise and– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –dire-useFig. 76 Change of forest capacity in Hokkaido
Fig. 76 Change of forest capacity in Hokkaido

Usageof raw wood, Sakhalin fir, from artificial forest
Figure 80. Usage of Sakhalin fir, from artificial forest in Hokkaido.
Usageofraw wood, Sakhalin fir, from artificial forest
in Hokkaido
in Hokkaido

Usage of lu
Usage of lu

Figure 81. Usage of Japanese Larch, from artificial forest in Hokkaido.
Usageof raw wood, Japanese larch, from artificial
Usageof
raw wood, Japanese larch, from artificial
forest in Hokkaido
forest in Hokkaido

Usage of lu
Usage of lu

Fig. 77 Usage of raw wood and lumber in Hokkaido
Fig. 77 Usage of raw wood and lumber in Hokkaido

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition82

re-usection
f lifewards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labourlarge buildings has begun to progress
gradually with the government andthe response to environmental issues.
Figure 83 (bottom) shows the CLT test
building using Sakhalin fir and Japaneselarch at the Hokkaido Forest Products
Research Institute. CLT is expectedworldwide as a wooden building material for large buildings. It was confirmedthat CLT could be made using two major
forest species in Hokkaido. Figure 83(above) shows a wooden barn. Barns
have often been made of steel, but theuse of a wooden structure has improved
the insulation and freezing accidents. In
addition, the maintenance of rust was
reduced. Hokkaido is also Japan’s mostagriculturally active area. It is necessary
to promote wooden construction forsuch production facilities.

– 4. Overview of Building stock and Regulation –fittings are likely to occur.
Therefore, the Hokkaido Forest Products Research Institute has developed
a product called “Core Dry”.157 First,
the timber is collected from the logs,
di se sesp-u c-eu and then the inside is sufficiently dried
re opsleare use
while suppressing surface and internal
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
cracks by the developed drying process.
re opslearseee-suese
Japanese larch is a material that tends
ddi is resplato be twisted, but this product achievescedimensional stability equal to or better
than laminated wood even in a dry enment
water vironment in a winter room by setting
Changesandblackcarbonthecontentof the entire
cross
rming
of land
andmoistureseaecosystem
ment
arine
ice
connected
is threatenedbytheArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof section
ocean waterate
policies
to less than 11%.
duced
ritimesea-ice
activites(e.g. tourism)
undraischanges
retreating
and the treeline
moving northwardgypolicies
thereserves
applicationof wooden-coverting glaciers
creasedaccessIn
to Japan,oil and gas
and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic
growthopportunities
also foronmental
policies
buildings
tolarge
buildings
has not
inking snow coverhangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies been promoted due to the strict regulamafrost
and topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic
from small-scaletions structure
on fire prevention,
butlocalthe activities
use ofdigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with
157
Core Dry, Hokkaido Forest Products
tentially adverseResearch
impacts Institute,2013
on health.

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

Surface crack

Core dry

Inner crack
Figure 83.

Figure 82.

Core dry.

Wood construction in Hokkaido.

Design proposal of Wooden barn, Hokkaido Government Forestry Bureau.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

83

(Finland, Canada and Japan)

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 5. Case Studies –5. Case Studies

84FinlandWood is the only construction
material in the Arctic with whichcarbon neutrality is possible
to achieve (and traditional
resource-wise solutions should
be considered when designing
new structures)oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

The designs of the two case-study
buildings are based on issues of consideration chosen of the relevant characteristics of zero-carbon building andtraditional architecture. The case-study
buildings, described in the following
chapter, are based on the guidelines ofthis chapter, together with the generalissues of consideration for building in
the Arctic.
The research aims at the development of the assessment method
for assessing greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions from building in the Arctic
districts and analysis of GHG impactsof Arctic buildings. From the viewpointof carbon neutrality, several issues may
affect the options and possibilities ofcarbon neutrality and the issues that areconsidered in the assessment method:• Because of cold climate, there isa need for good structural energyefficiency. Extra insulation and otherstructural solutions increase the shareof embodied GHGs.

• Because of climatic and geographicalreasons, it is often difficult to supply
renewable energy through the year. Thisapplies especially for solar energy, andin many Arctic districts also for geothermal energy though there are exceptions
for this.

• The impact of transportation and construction / maintenance / demolition
works may differ from “conventional”
LCA studies because of long distances,
limited infrastructure and harshweather.

• Wind energy may be a potential solution for renewable energy supply, but
this has to be considered with sensitivity from the approach of Sámi livelihood
and traditional landscape• Solar energy is possible in the summer
season.
• To achieve annually net zero GHGs,
seasonal surplus renewable energy isoften needed.
• District scale approaches may be beneficial or needed to find best solutions
for renewable energy supply.

– 5. Case Studies –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

Introduction• Energy storages and heat pumps may
be needed.

• Timber is a much used building material in some Arctic districts.

• Carbon storage in timber may be anissue to be considered in LCA principles• The share of small houses of the overall residential building stock is typicallybigger than the average in the country.

• Time scale of assessment may be an
important issue to be considered in LCA
principles.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition85

100 years is approx the time that a tree
requires to fully grow
050

Building performance
100

150

200

250

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

lebnerability of existing infrastructure on land dueemss
and permafrost meltasdiow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

di

sa

e
lac

sp

di

re

pu

rp

os

e

re

bl

r

e

di

e

bl

m

Resources, transportation andprocessing

e

s
po

pu

em

e
ss

isa

d

ss

sp

cts on human health.

laceIn the traditional Arctic building, theconsideration of scarcity of natural
resources is evident. As the Arctic
regions have, with a few exceptions,very limited infrastructure, the mitigation of the transportation costs may beachieved by using local materials asmuch as possible. At the same time, thelow level of processing and the questionof local processing technologies of thebuilding materials is important. The
resource-wise disposition of buildings
and settlements therefore also becomes
an important issue of consideration.

A log can be thought to have reached net
positivity in terms of material efficiency
after approx. 100 years of use.

Figure 84.

– 5. Case Studies –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals, dind reindeer habitssaeased economic growth opportunities also forss
olicies
e
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inmb
leaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

From the angle of the traditional solutions, issues of both structural andfunctional categories are worthy of
consideration. These issues are basedon the analysis of traditional building of
the Arctic and the analysis of the service
life of vernacular buildings. From theangle of zero-carbon building, the focus
was on the selection of applicable renewable energy technology, low-carbon
materials and good structural energyefficiency.

0

Diagram illustrating the material efficiency and versatility of logs as a function of time. Livady.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

86Service life, reusability andindoor environment

eating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labourand dispense the 24 hours temperatureand moisture fluctuations of the air.
Another issue, important in the Arctic and cleverly solved in traditional architecture, is tolerance to temperaturefluctuations and temporary abandonment. Also, tolerance to water damage,as well as tolerance to the accumulationof snow and ice, exhibit considerable
traditional solutions in the Arctic construction, and are from their structuralprinciples worthy of consideration inmodern Arctic building.

158
Vainio-Kaila, Tiina 2017. Antibacterial
properties of Scots pine and Norway spruce.
Aalto University Publication series DOCTORALDISSERTATIONS 179/2017

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Figure 85.

Operational and cultural issues
A key feature in the traditional construction all over the globe are understandable and conceivable structural
solutions. The maintenance of thebuildings, also because of the limited
infrastructure, should be to maximal extent feasible by the dwellers themselves.
The multifunctionality, transformability and flexibility of buildings androoms, in a creative and occasionalmanner, including the possibility to extend and reduce the heated area according to changing needs, is an importantfeature of traditional buildings. This canbe achieved in modern building throughcareful and innovative design.
Last, but not the least issue of consideration, is the socio-cultural disdain fortraditional solutions as rudimentary andunsuitable for modern requirementsof comfort. Therefore, it is importantto create examples of tradition-based
buildings that meet modern standardsof living and exhibit innovative andfresh architectural ideas and taste. An
important issue to highlight is that themost practical structural solutions of
the traditional architecture can result inmodern and even better living comfort
and indoor quality.

– 5. Case Studies –Traditional Arctic building consists ofbuildings and building components oflong-lasting and, on the other hand,nearly ephemeral building materials.
The most important issues of consideration for modern building are renewability and the potential of re-use of materials and components of the buildings.
This means that we have to take into
account modular and creative design
and morphology of the building comrbon
ponents,
allowingby
transportability anddand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean waterre-assembling. Also, movable smallere (e.g. tourism)
tesbuildings, a traditional feature of Arctic
building, could be considered throughmodern performance requirements andinnovative architectural design. The materials should also be non-toxic and ofcomposting potential, which becomes
important in the case of abandonmentof the buildings.
For the indoor climate, important
issues are solid structures and woodenindoor surfaces that diminish the quantity of microbia of the indoor climate158,

Drawing illustrating the repurposing of logs. Livady.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition87Description of the case study
building

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Figure 86.

Illustration of the southern facade of the Case study house. Livady.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 5. Case Studies –The starting point of the work was a
Finnish residential detached house
designed for an Arctic district. The
building is designed by Livady Architects. This building is used as a case to
study possible alternatives for achieving
sustainable and carbon neutral building
targets in cold climates.
The underlying philosophy of design
stems from the traditional dispositionof buildings in the landscape of Arctic
Finland. The case-study building canform individual units or village-likesettlements, inspired by the historical constellations of Sámi villages. The
availability of resources for building
materials and local manufacturing areimportant besides the aesthetic andhistorical dimensions of the site(s).
The building is designed for a familylike unit but allows functional and spatial alterations that consider maximal
flexibility and long functional servicelife. This means zoning of spaces todifferent temperatures and capacityof extension to the upper floor. Thechanging social and functional needs
are considered also in the sizes andconnections of spaces. The gross floorarea of the building is 130 m². Building
total area of the envelope is 413 m² (roof+ external walls) of which 40 m² arewindows / glass terrace and 7 m² front
doors.
The main constructional solution is88

appearance. In the structural principles
the house follows the historical rootsof Arctic dwellings, but it represents a2020’s interpretation of Scandinavian
standards and aesthetics of living. Architecture is colorful, and the windows
and the building envelope are designed
to maximize the benefits of sunlight.
Regarding the end phase, a centralprinciple creates a building that would
as largely as possible contain materials
that either could be re-used and/or return and decompose back to the natural
cycle within a reasonable time-frame, if
the building will be abandoned.
The household energy services,indoor climate and living profiles (cooking, lighting, TV’s, indoor temperatures,
occupant presence, hot water consumption etc.) were equal in all cases
to ease the comparison of the alternative designs of the building. This was aselection related to the LCA principles,
where the functional unit – in this casethe indoor living profile and comfort ofthe occupants – is the same. Otherwise
the different profiles would confuse theinterpretation of the results. The basic
assumption contained right from thestart is that of a carbon efficient andnonwastful way of living. The indoor
temperatures were defined so that themostly used and central zones (kitchen
and living room) were heated to the 21°C, less used bed rooms to 18 °C andstaircase to 5 °C. The ventilation air
flows were designed so that the maxi-

mum CO2-content in the bedrooms wasalways less than 1200 ppm with two
persons sleeping. Household applianceswere assumed to have a best possible
A+++ classification and lighting was
based on LED’s.

Zero Arctic |Design solutions “Traditional”
and “modified”
As part of this work, the objective wasto develop optimized concepts for a
carbon neutral house in Arctic districts. Therefore, a separate case-study
building with cellulose insulation andmechanical ventilation was also designed in order to iterate a more energyefficient solution. Alternative structuresand operational systems have beenassessed in order to find best combinations.
The idea was to make use of a parametric approach by comparing low-carbon solutions with a traditional solution
and modified solution that both fulfil
building regulations. The objective wasto develop knowledge about the potentials of improved insulation, alternative
renewable energy solutions and material choices, carbon storages and sinks.
Two alternative cases are studied asa starting point. In the first case (wecall it ‘TRADITIONAL’), the building
structures were based on traditional
material choices. In the modified case
(we call it ‘MODIFIED’), better energyefficiency and better material efficiency
is targeted. With regard to the modified
case, alternative materials are used in
the iteration phase to reach the carbon
neutrality target. In both cases, normal
comfortable indoor environment istargeted. Building cases are presented
in Table 11.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 5. Case Studies –traditional log construction that has several advantages. First, log construction
has a structural service-life of hundredsof years as standing examples show. It
is a local material that has no need forlong transportation or complex processes of manufacturing. Log also functions
as a carbon sink, and it has versatilepotential of re-use in different scales. As
traditional examples show, log construction as a solid structure sustains well
the Arctic climate with large amountsof water, snow and ice. In addition, log
rbon
construction
enablesdand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedby innovative andic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watermodern architectural solutions ande (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree line ofmovingnorthward
attractive
modern dwellings.
sges
ess to oil andcreation
gas reserves
and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growth opportunities
also for nearby orolicies
Besideslogs,
clay,
available
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped ineven on site, is also used as a local mateaphic
radationchange.
nomic structuresmall-scale
localareactivities
rial.from
Other
materials
chosen by thealnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
that 1) they have as small asds moreoil extraction
wageprinciples
labourpossiblehousegas (GHG) impact
oples' food sources
aregreen
threatened,witherse impactsandon health.
2) are structurally sustainable andnerability of existing
infrastructure
land due and/or
long-lasting
and 3) on
maximizeand permafrost melt
enable potential for re-use and circular
ow/ice dependenttransport
foor sources A detailed
economyandand4) non-toxicity.
s to adapt.
list of the materials is presented in Tacts on human health.
ble 14 on page 91.
The structural whole is designed tobe resilient to the conditions of Arctic
climate. This means mainly preventing
damages caused by moisture: tolerance to water, ice and snow and drying
capacity of the structures. The structural solutions are designed to be easily
repairable by the dwellers themselves.
The architecture is an amalgamationof traditional constructions and modern

89Traditional

Main target

drbon
and seaecosystem
nnectedisthreatened by
Floor
area
120 m² (heated net area)
Routes open totransitshipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and theVolume,
tree line roughly
moving northward 289 m3 (heated air space)sges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
oliciescover
Zoningof spacesaterncycle releaseof methanethat is trapped yes
inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
Flexible use according to thealnternationalemission sources
influence,due
fromto comfort
newsubsistence
human activities,
Zoningandseasonsds moreoil extraction
wage labour

Net carbon neutrality
Better energy-efficiency
Industrially made CLTelements
Preferring traditional
solutions and materials
District scale electricity
supply + compensation
Structural tolerance in theharsh climate

Floor heating

Floor heating pipes in clay layer

Liquid circulation heating inwooden/aluminum sheeting
structure

Ventilation and heatrecoveryNatural ventilation, (longservice life, reliability, no needfor electricity, allows natural
microbial biodiversity)

Mechanical ventilation andheat recovery (78%)

Devices and equipment

A+++, LED lighting

A+++, LED lighting

Load bearing structures

Log structure

Structure with Cross
laminated timber (CLT)

Table 11.

Building cases.

120 m² (heated net area)
289 m3 (heated air space)yes

Building location

Flexible use according to theseasons

Number of residents

yescore of building heated withabandonment
wood + district scale local
nerability of existing
infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt
electricity supply

yescore of building heated withwood + district scale local
electricity supply

Indoor temperatures

ow/ice dependentand foor sources
Low transportrisk structurals to adapt.
solutions and low carbon
yes
cts on human materials
health.
(based on wood
mainly)yes

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on
health. to temporary
Tolerance

Following traditional
ways of building

Strictly

Slightly

Flexibility

yes

yes

Energy supply

District scale wind turbine (2 4 MW) and local PV panels andcollectors

District scale wind turbine(2 - 4 MW) and local PV panels
and collectors

Heating system

Ground source heat pump andwood heated stove

Ground source heat pump andwood heated stove

Traditional
Modified
Northern Finland, Climate Zone IV, Sodankylä, winter extreme–38 °C
4 residents
Thermal conditions were set to be equal in both cases:-Bedrooms 18 °C-Living room-kitchen 21 °C-Bathroom 21 °C-Porch 21 °C–27°C (summer max), no mechanical cooling systemv
78%– 5. Case Studies –ic

Net carbon neutrality
Traditional log building andenergy-efficiency accordingly
Low carbon materials(especially based on wood andlocal materials)
District scale electricity supply+ compensation
Structural tolerance in theharsh climate
Materials that enable reuse andrecycling in various cultural andsocial circumstances (historicaland standing examples)

Modified

Hot water consumption
Ventilation heat recovery
Windows:South
12.6 m²West
4.36 m²
East
1.2 m²North
3.47 m²
Balcony (Porch) glass wall:South
9.76 m²
West
5.05 m²East
2.97 m²
U-values for building are given in next table
Table 12.

Zero Arctic |U-values (W/m²K) of the building structures.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition90

Material quantities

aterncycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labourm²
oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.
External wall 1
179
nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
External
wall
2
63.7
and permafrost melt
Top roof123
ow/ice dependenttransport and foor sourcess to adapt.

Roof
cts on human Groundhealth. floor 1
Ground floor 2

The work targeted at net carbon neutrality combined with modern living
comfort. The intended solution was
based on very good energy-efficiency,
use of renewable energy sources, district scale electricity supply and possibility for compensation.

Traditional
U-value, W/m²K
0.48
0.44

Modified,U-value, W/m²K
0.017

Modified, kg/buildingLog

34 493-Wood

25 10321 201Clay plaster (wall)

1 005

-

Linseed oil

23-

Clay brick (wall)

9 311

2 426

Roof brick

5 141

5 141

Common reed

9 265

-

Paper

72

-

Fibreboard

972

1 135

Clay plaster (floor)

18 194-

Concrete

906

906

Foam glass

1 002

1002

Tadelakt plaster

221-

Front doors

322

322

Inner doors

507

507

Windows

1 184

1 184

Steel columns

547

547

Plywood395

395

Brick(chimney and fireplace)

11 907

11 907

Concrete block

4 201

4 201

Aluminium-455

not relevant

not relevant

Cellulose insulation

-

7 917

34.6

0.088

0.092

CLT (cross laminated timber)-

16 635

57.8

0.091

0.09V

Polypropylene

-

25

4

0.14

0.14?

Plaster (Lime/cement)

-

735

Total

124 773

76 642Composite pipes (water pipes)

4

4

Plastic pipes (sewage)

15

15

PEX pipes (floor heating)23

23

Pumps for hot and cold water

60

60

Ventilation pump

0

64

Total

102

166

Table 14.

Use of construction materials (including also construction waste).

Intermediate floor 1

35

not relevant

not relevantIntermediate floor 2

24

not relevant

not relevantIntermediate wall 1

67

not relevant

not relevantIntermediate wall 2

17.5

not relevant

not relevant

Windows (3 glasses)

21.63

1.0

1.0

Porch (1 glass layer)

17,77

Doors

7.53

Table 13.

Traditional, kg/building
Building Structures:

1.0

1.0

Use of construction materials (including also construction waste).

– 5. Case Studies –The assessment of embodied emissions
bases on the building material inventory. Construction material types andamounts used in TRADITIONAL and
MODIFIED buildings are shown in Table
14 on page 91.
Both buildings use onsite suppliedenergy (from PV panels, solar collectors, GSHP) and electricity, which is produced from district-based wind turbine.
Renewable energy supply parameters
are presented in Table 15 on page 92. In
rbon
the GHG
assessmentdand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedby for energy producic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watertion it is assumed that service life for
e (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree line moving northward
and inverters is 30
sges
ess to oil andPV-panels,gas reservescollectors
and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growthopportunities
also
foris 70 years.
olicies
years
and
GSHP
servicelife
coverEnergy simulation, targets andprinciples

Water, sewage heating systems:

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

91

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structurefromsmall-scale
localofactivities
Figure87.
Illustrationa case-study house village. Livady.
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

159
IDA Indoor Climate and Energy (IDA
ICE) web pages. Browsed Oct 21st 2019.
https://www.equa.se/en/ida-ice

same in both cases.
The aspect for energy simulation
was to evaluate the suitability of thedesign solutions related to the renewable energy production in the Arctic
area. The renewable energy matching was selected as a metric for thecomparison. The energy matching isdefined as the hourly-calculated shareof the RES production that is used in thebuilding at the time of the RES production. The wind was assumed to be themain source of renewable energy. The
role of solar energy is always auxiliary
due to the nature of summer dominant
production. The renewable energy solutions were:• near-by: grid connected large scalewind power• on-site: local solar electricity on theroof + local solar thermal on the roof.

Traditional, building withSolar

Modified, building with Solar

28

28

4

4

Solar collectors, m

8

8Water tank, m3

0.5

0.5

GSHP (bore hold depth), m

300

160

Wind turbine, district scale, kW/
house

Modified

7 920

66,0

0%

3,1

26

0%

3.2

2.1

Modified Solar

7 300

60,8

–8%

3,1

26

–2%

Peak production hours of thewind power, h

2500

2500

Modified Solar
Passive

6 940

57,8

–12%

3,0

25

–4%

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.
Solar panels, m²

cts on human Inverter,
health. kW²

Table 15.

Renewable energy supply parameters.

Electricity
demandDesign solution

Difference

kWh/a

kWh/
m²,a

Traditional

11 60096,8Traditional Solar

10 97091,4Hourly electricity
grid peak– 5. Case Studies –For the assessing of use phase
impacts, energy simulation is madefor both buildings (‘Traditional’ and‘Modified)’ with the help of IDA ICE
tool159 (version 4.8) and multi-zoning
assessment. Building structure sizes, Uvalues and other building properties areshown in Table 12 and Table 13.
The TRADITIONAL and the MODIFIED case had partly different structures as described in Table 11 andTable 17. Both buildings had equal user
profiles (the occupant behaviour andthe household electricity) and indoor
climate (the indoor temperature and theindoor CO2) targets to ease the comparison. In addition, the heating system(ground source heat pump, solar collectors) but also PV-panel amount was the

Difference

kW

W/m²

47%

4,7

39

51%

38%

4,3

36

39%

Table 16. The summary of the simulated cases and the hourly average sizing of the grid
capacity. The baseline for the comparison is the modified mechanically ventilated single-family
house built according to the current Finnish energy performance legislation.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

92

house using solar power only in the
Arctic area. The cost of the MWh-scalebatteries are many times larger than thecost of the house itself. (As an example the first in kind 0.6 MWh battery
storage of Helen cost some 2 M€.160 The
second challenge is the large amountof rare metals used in battery technology resulting in increased mining anda larger environmental impact. Windpower was selected as a main renewableenergy source in this study, because
it has better seasonal balance in the
production resulting in a better overall

160
https://www.helen.fi/uutiset/2015/
helsinkiin-pohjoismaiden-suurin-sahkovarasto)

nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour
System sizing (RES = Demand, yearly balance)
oples' food sources are threatened, with
Designsolution
EnergyPeak wind
Peak solar (kW)erse impacts on health.
***)matching *)(kW) **)
nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost
melt
Traditional
59%
5,7
0,0

ow/ice dependenttransport
and foor sources
Traditional
Solar
50%
s to adapt.
Modified60%
cts on human health.
Modified Solar
51%

Modified Solar
Passive

51%

supply-demand match during the year
cycle of seasons.
The third aspect was to evaluate
the vulnerability of the heating system against the electricity blackout.
The blackouts were simulated and the
expected fire wood consumption withdifferent outside air extreme conditions was calculated. The residents
were living in the house center downstairs (kitchen + living room) during
the blackout, which was heated withthe fireplace. Other rooms were unoccupied during the black-out. The indoor
temperature was 18°C in the occupied
area. The loss of electricity stops themechanical building service systems, inthis case the ground source heat pumpand the mechanical ventilation. In the
MODIFIED house the fresh air intake forthe residents is delivered by the window
ventilation during the blackout.

Peak solar
thermal (kW)***)
0,0

3,9

3,7

2,4

3,9

0,0

0,0

2,1

3,7

2,4

1,9

3,7

2,4

– 5. Case Studies –Solar energy is a clean way of producing electricity, but the challenge isseasonal variation in production. Mostof the production happens during thesummer, when the electricity demandis smaller. The installed solar capacity
does not reduce the capacity need during the high load time due to absenceof solar radiation in the winter polarnight. Theoretically there is an option
to use seasonal storages together withlarge solar parks, where the summer
time solar production could be storedrbon
for further
use in by
winter, but this soludand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watertions contain two challenges. At first,
e (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree line moving
northward
technologies are farsges
ess to oil andthe
gascurrent
reserves battery
and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growth opportunities
also
oliciestoo
expensive
resultingat forleast MWhcoveraterncycle release of methane that is trapped inscale batteries for one single family
aphic
radationchange.

*) The energy matching is the hourly-calculated share of the RES production that is used in thebuilding at the time of the RES production.
**) The grid RES. The capacity needed from the large-scale wind power to satisfy the electricity
need for the building***) Local RES on the roof
Table 17. The renewable energy (RES) matching of the design solutions. The system was sized
so that the yearly production of the RES was equal to the yearly consumption of the building.

Figure 88. The monthly level renewable energy matching of the design solutions. Sizing: RES
production = Demand, yearly balance. The local solar RES production weakens the yearly energy
matching even though the matching is better during summer.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

93

Energy simulation results

mately double the amount of firewood
during the blackout compared to themodified building design.
The indoor temperature drop fromthe start of the blackout was also evaluated to see the impact of the loss of gridenergy services on the thermal comfortof the residents. Figure 90 shows thedifference between the traditional andthe modified design solutions in the extreme winter conditions (outdoor temperature was –20 °C). It takes approximately 12 h for both design solutions forthe indoor temperature to drop 10 °C.
The differences between the solutions
related to the indoor temperature drop
are small because both buildings had
massive wooden constructions in relation to the indoor air.

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.
Hourly demand (W) vrs RES production (solar + wind)nerability of existing infrastructure on land due Traditional design solution
and permafrost melt
7000

Wood consumption (kWh/day)Tout (oC)0

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
6000
s to adapt.

cts on human 5000
health.
4000
3000
2000

Methodology for Life cycle
assessment and data sources
Figure 92 on page 97 illustrates building
life cycle stages according to the modules. All highlighted stages are includedin this assessment.
Environmental impact assessment
considers chosen impact categories,
which are calculated through characterization factors. This study focused on
greenhouse gas emissions consideringboth embodied and operational emissions. The study also considered biogenic carbon storage.
The method for greenhouse gas assessment bases on global warming potential (IPCC 2007), which is expressed
as CO2 equivalent. Embodied carbon
assessment is based on the biogenic
carbon content of wooden materials,
Firewood (kg/day)Traditional

Modified

Traditional

Modified

73

37

17,6

8,9

–10

114

59

27,5

14,2

–20

154

82

37,1

19,8

–30

194

103

46,7

24,8

–40

236

125

56,9

30,1

– 5. Case Studies –The summary of the energy simulation results and the sizing of the gridconnection are presented in the Table
16. The traditional building consumes
about 50% more electric energy thanthe current Finnish modified building.
The local RES production decreases
the consumption by some 6–8% in bothcases. The highly energy efficient passive solution was also tested to enhance
the modified case, but the impact of thepassive solution was quite small due torbon
the groundsourcebyheat pump system,dand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean waterwhich already had a high heating efe (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree line resulting
moving northward
minor changes in thesges
ess to oil andficiency,
gas reserves
and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growth opportunities
also forolicies
electricity
demand.
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inTable 17 presents the renewable
aphic
radationchange.
nomic structurefrom(RES)
small-scale
local activities
energymatchingof the design
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
Due to the weather dependds moreoil extraction
wagesolutions.
labourent nature of the wind electricity inthe grid, the exact hourly match of the
production and consumption is uncommon. The example of the unbalancein the traditional design solution ispresented in Figure 89. Both traditional
and the modified design behave thesame way in relation to the utilization of
the RES production, some 50–60% of thedemand can be covered simultaneously
by the RES. The local solar RES production weakens the yearly energy matching even though the matching is better
during summer (Figure 89 and Table 17)
This is due to the higher level of consumption and the low solar availability
during the winter.
The results of the electricity grid
blackout are presented in the Table 18.
The traditional design needs approxi-

1000

1
232
463
694
925
1156
1387
1618
1849
2080
2311
2542
2773
3004
3235
3466
3697
3928
4159
4390
4621
4852
5083
5314
5545
5776
6007
6238
6469
6700
6931
7162
7393
7624
7855
8086
8317
8548

0

Hour in a year
RES (wind+solar)

DemandFigure 89. An example of the unbalance of the hourly renewable energy production and thedemand in the traditional design solution. Sizing: RES production = Demand, yearly balance.

Table 18. The daily firewood consumption during blackout of the grid electricity systems. The
indoor temperature was 18 oC in the occupied kitchen-living room-bathroom area.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

94

for all major European countries as they
have reported increasing forest carbon
pools under Art. 3.4 of the Kioto Protocol.
The calculation of the carbon content
of wood should take into account thewhole building life cycle including endof life scenarios for building demolition, transport, waste processing anddisposal.
Carbon neutrality example is shownin Figure 93 in which, biogenic carbon
from the forest entered to the prod-

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

Used
technology

Temperature drop in the blackout

oples' food sources are threatened, with19
erse impacts on health.

nerability of existing17
infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt
15

Indoor temperature

uct stage as –1 content and +1 content
released in the end of life, C3 stage,
through the incineration process.
However, in the case when end of life
process for wooden products is ‘preparation for reuse’, –1 carbon content istransferred to the next reuse case.
The GHG values used for the building
materials are mainly based on the VTTILMARI database. With regard to windturbines, PV-panels, inverters, solar

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sources13
s to adapt.

cts on human health.11

9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

ModernFigure 90. The indoor temperature drop in the outside extreme conditions –20 oC. The
electricity outage begins at 12:00.

Construction stage takes into accountall building material transportations tothe building site (stage A4). VTT ILMARI, construction material database,includes impacts from average transportation distance to the construction

Data Source:

PV panels

67 kg/m²

Hammond,G., Craig, J. 2011. Inventory of Carbon& Energy (ICE). Version 2.0. Sustainable Energy
Research Team (SERT. Department of MechanicalEngineering. University of Bath, UK

Inverter

7.5 kg/kW

ABB, Environmental Product declaration. https://library.e.abb.com/public/3e1b98fb5458447ec1256d8
c0057f206/EPD_ACS800_630_kW_cor.pdf

Solarcollectors

39,4 kg/m²

Vares et al. 2019. Impact of renewable energy
technologies on the embodied and operational GHG
emissions of a nearly zero energy building. Journal of
Building Engineering p. 439 - 450

Windturbine0,014 kg/kWh

GSHP

36.4 kg/ a (bore holedepth is 300 m) and35.7 kg/a (bore holedepth is 160 m)

Averageelectricity

95 g/kWh

Hours
Traditional

Building construction

kg CO2e /unit

7
5

collectors, ground source heat pump
(GSHP) and average electricity Finland,
the data is given in Table 19.

Table 19.

Zero Arctic |GHG’s from used technology.

– 5. Case Studies –ic

however the result is converted to CO2.
Biogenic carbon content of woodenmaterials and ‘carbon neutrality’ is taken into account according to the rules
stated in EN 16485: ‘Consideration of thebiogenic carbon neutrality of wood isvalid for wood from countries that havedecided to account for Art. 3.4 of the
Kyoto Protocol or for wood originatingfrom forests which are operating underestablished certification schemes forsustainable forest management’.
This is valid for Finland and currently

Joshua D. Rhodes, University of Texas at Austin,
Energy Institute 2017 (https://cdn.factcheck.org/
UploadedFiles/CO2-emissions1.jpg ).
Based on Vares et al. 2019. Impact of renewableenergy technologies on the embodied and operational
GHG emissions of a nearly zero energy building.
Journal of Building Engineering p. 439 - 450 with bore
hole depth modification
Average electricity production in Finland 2015. Basedon Energy industry data about electricity production
methods and consequent emission (included alsotransfer losses 2%) (personal communication).

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

95

ic

– 5. Case Studies –drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Figure 91.

Illustration of the East facade of the Case study house. Livady.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition96

Disposal

A(1-5)
O2nboow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
A5
s to adapt.
A2

Construction
work

Transport

cts on human health.

A3
Manufacturing– 5. Case Studies –A1

C(1-4)

161
Lipasto - a calculation system for traffic
exhaust emissions and energy use in Finland.
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd.
http://lipasto.vtt.fi/en/index.htm

Use

End of lifeB

C

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

Raw material
nerability of existing
infrastructure on landA4
due
Transport
supplyand permafrost melt

B(1-7)

CO2arnd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
Construction
nomic structureProduction
from small-scale local
activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labourA (1-3)A (4-5)driving with the 70% of payload. Vehicle
emission standard based on Finnish
average semi-trailer combinations usedin 2016 (Lipasto 2019161).
Energy consumptions for those theoretical building constructions (A5) is notkoillinen
known. As MODIFIED building is madefrom large CLT based facade elements,
it is assumed that energy consumption
for assembling is 20 kWh/m² (this value
based on one developer-measured data,from the wooden element building+csite. ILMARI has an assumption that thebuilding site is located in Southern Finland. In this study, the construction site
located in Arctic region and because ofthat, additional material transportation
distance of 500 km was added to theassessment. It is, however, essential toconsider that there is much less material transportation in the TRADITIONAL
solution, since the building materials
can be acquired more locally.
Materials were assumed to betransported by semi-trailer combinarbontion, withthe grossdand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedby mass of 40 tons
ic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean waterand payload capacity 25 tons. GWP wase (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree line moving
northward
accordingto the highwaysges
ess to oil andcalculated
gas reserves
and minerals,bonReplacement

ar

C4

-c

B4

-carbon-carbon
B1
Use in building

B5
Refurbishment

C1
Demolition

B2
Maintenance

B6
Operative
energy use

C2
Transport

B3
Repair

B7
Operative water
use

C3
Waste
management

B4
Replacement

C4
Disposal-carbon+carbonD
Additional

Figure 92.

D
AdditionalD
AdditionalLife cycle stages for building assessments (EN 15978).

D
Additional+carbonFigure 93. Characterization of carbon fluxes in case when carbon neutrality can be assumed(EN 16485). Livady

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition
0

1

2,5

5m

97

construction site). In this case, assembling took place in summertime and noheating, during construction period wasneeded. In the case of TRADITIONAL
building, construction process uses a lotof handwork and thus the energy consumption for this assessed to be only
half from the MODIFIED building case
(10 kWh/m²).

Building refurbishment and material
replacement
Reference study period for building
material refurbishment and material
replacements in this assessment is 60
year. This timeframe is proposed forresidential buildings in Level(s) guide toEurope: A Guide to Europe’s new reporting framework for sustainable buildings.162 Table 20 proposes scenarios forbuilding refurbishment and material
replacements.

Building structures

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.
Traditional

Modified

FacadeTreatment with linseed oil after
10 yearFacade is made from heat
treatment panels and nofinishing needed

Windows

Window replacement after 40
years

Window replacement after
30 years

Replacement after 30 year

Mechanical ventilation
systemRoof tiles
Table 20.

• C3 Wooden material preparation for
the incineration (wooden material
chipping). GWP for wooden material
chipping is based on the EcoInvent 3.2
database and for the wood chippingwith stationary electric shipper (RER).
• C3 Building material landfill scenario
is considered. Inert material treatment
for landfill based on the EcoInvent 3.2
dataset. GWP calculated according to
the process specific burdens (from162
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/
pdf/Level_publication_EN.pdf

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

PV panels, solar collectors,
inverters• C1 demolition of the building. Steeland aluminium materials can be recycled after the demolition.
• C2 demolition waste transportation (tothe End-of-Waste stage). Demolishedwood-based material transported to theoples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

cts on human health.

End of life stage is estimated using two
different scenarios for wooden basedmaterials: after building demolition
wooden materials are either preparedfor energy utilization (case A) or reused(case B).
Wooden material energy utilizationcase (A), includes following ‘end of life’
scenarios:

wood processing place. All other materials transported to the waste sorting
place. Vehicle emission standard basedon Finnish average vehicles standard
used in 2016 (Lipasto 2019).

Replacement after 30 year

Replacement after 30 year

Foundation
External wall
Roof+ eaves
Ground floor
Intermediate floor
Partition wall
Windows, doors,stairsChimney, fireplace

TRADITIONALMODIFIED

kg CO2e/building
2 457
5 486
2 253
3 239
872
1 628

biogenic C, as
CO2 /building
0
47 83412 906
11 1358 427
10 515kg CO2e /building
2 464
2 851
2 370
4 528
1 133
3 091

biogenic C as
CO2 /building
0
21 932
9 660
6 736
5 355
17 075

1 967

4 077

4 327

2 429

3 160

0

3 160

0

Other
Ventilation system

117
-

632
-

117
108

632
-

Sanitary engineering

187

-

187

-

Replacement after 30 year

Heating delivery
pipes

43

-

43

-

Replacement after 30 year

Total

21 41195 52524 37963 819Scenarios for buildings refurbishment and replacement.

Table 21.

Zero Arctic |– 5. Case Studies –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

End of building life

GHG.s from used building materials (A1 - 4).

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition98

energy, infrastructure, land use), frominert material landfilling no emissions
occurred.
• C4 chips to incineration (80% efficiency).
The wooden material reuse case (endof life case B) includes all the same endof life processes as case A, except forwooden material chipping and incineration process.

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

According to the standard (EN 15978),informative Module D declares potential
loads and benefits of secondary material, secondary fuel or recovered energy
leaving the product system. Module
D indicates the potential benefits of
avoided future use of primary materials
and fuels, while taking into account theloads associated with the recycling andrecovery processes beyond the systemboundary.
Both assessed building cases use onsite and district based renewable energy. Solar panels and wind turbines havean embodied impact, which is taken
into account, but they avoided also average energy production. In the case of
PV-panels used in Finland, Sodankylä,
electricity is produced mainly from theApril till September months. According
to the average Electricity production in
Finland from April to September, theGWP value is 72 g/kWh. This is calculated from the electricity production

methods and from the year 2015.163
In the case of wind turbine, electricity is produced in Sodankylä all year
round. Thus, it is assumed that avoided
emissions are based on the average
electricity production method in Finland (CO2e for electricity production isassumed to be 0,095 g/kWh) (Table 19).
In the case of wooden material incineration for energy utilization (end oflife scenario A) fossil energy use will be
avoided. In this case it is assumed that it
is a natural gas.

Assessment results for Life cycle
analyses and GHG
Table 21 shows the GHGs for the building life cycle phase A1–A4 (EN 15804)
and biogenic C-content calculated as
CO2 (EN 16449). Table 22 shows the
GHGs for the building life cycle phase
A5.
Table 23 shows the electricity grid demand and renewable energy production
according to the building simulation
cases: ‘TRADITIONAL’, ‘TRADITIONAL
Solar’, ‘MODIFIED’, ‘MODIFIED Solar’
and ‘MODIFIED Solar passive’. Table
24 shows accordingly GWP values forrenewable operational energy use (B6).
Results for the ‘end of life’ scenarios
are given in Table 25. Table 26 shows
GWP result for the building life cycle,
stages A1 - C4.

– 5. Case Studies –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

Benefits and load beyond thesystem boundaries

163
The production data is got from Energy
industries in Finland.

Design solution

Building

Energy consumption
during construction

kgCO2/ kWh

kg CO2e/ building

Traditional

10 kWh/m

²

0.093

126

Modified

20 kWh/m

0.093

246

Table 22.

²

Energy consumption for building construction (A5) and GHG’s.

Electricity grid demand WindkWh/aproduction

PV panels
production

Traditional

11 61211 6120

Traditional Solar

10 9697 883W

3086

Modified

7 923

7 923

0

Modified Solar
Modified Solar
Passive

7 298

4 212

3086

6 938

3 852

3086

Table 23.

Zero Arctic |Energy demand and RES production.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

99

Discussion

Building materials

alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

Design solution

Wind

Both buildings were made from wooden
structures. Timber and especially logs
were the dominant construction material used, and in vast regions, the only
building material in Northern Europe
until the Second World War. Use ofwooden based materials is beneficial,
as they contain biogenic carbon. In
addition, log constructions are suitablefor Arctic climates, as they are simple,
repairable and have a long service life.
The biogenic carbon can be utilized
in GWP calculations as a ‘minus’ GWP
but only if the wood is collected from aforest where carbon pool is increasing.
This is the case for Finland. Nevertheless, wooden material contains embodied biogenic carbon in the productphase (A1-3), although this biogenic
carbon content is released in the end oflife (C4) stage in case of incineration. If
the material is reused, wooden material
service life and carbon storage extends.
Therefore long service life of struc-

PV panels
and inverters

Collectors

GSHP

Total

In case of TRADITIONAL and MODIFIED buildings, carbon neutrality
for the life cycle stages A1 - C4 is notachieved, when the end of life scenario
for wooden materials was incineration(end of life case A). However, when theend of life case is material utilization(B), both assessed cases show biogenic
carbon content stored after the endof life (and it is seen as ‘minus’ CO2e)(Table 26).

Operational energy
The use of renewable energy technologies limits the emissions during thebuilding operational phase. However, in
Arctic conditions it is difficult to supply
renewable energy throughout the year.
This applies especially for solar energy,
although solar energy is possible inwarmer months (April till September).
The most challenging task to solve isthe intermittent hourly behavior of the
RES production in relation to the energy
match of the demand and production.
The simulated design solutions ended
up to the 60% energy matching when

– 5. Case Studies –LCA assessment for building construction and use phase was calculated
and the indicator in the assessment
was GWP. LCA methodology allows tocompare building solutions only when
they provide the same functional unit
and performance. In this assessment,
TRADITIONAL and MODIFIED building cases have different structural
efficiency for external walls (U-values).
To maintain equal thermal conditions,
TRADITIONAL building case has higher
rbon
energyisdemand(Table16). Finnishdand seaecosystem
nnectedthreatenedbyic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watercase-buildings were designed to fulfil 1)e (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree line moving northward
to be carbon neutralsges
ess to oil andthe
gasrequirements
reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growthopportunities
also for and 2) the
oliciesbuilding
inArcticconditions
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inrequirements of sustainable building
aphic
radationchange.
nomic structurefrom small-scale
local
activities
materials
and long
servicelife.

tures and re-use of materials should betargeted.
Extra insulation layers minimize heatlosses through the structures, but thiswill 1) increase the share of embodied
GHGs and 2) increase the probabilityof moisture damage, mold and indoor
climate problems. By choosing natural
insulation materials, like common reed
and cellulose based materials, GWPemissions from material production arenormally lower than in mineral based
insulation materials. However, in final
assessment different thermal resistanceof different insulation types needs toalso be considered.
Bio-based insulations contain biogenic carbon, which could be advantageous
in GWP assessments. Those materials
could be also utilized in energy production processes after their service life.
Result shows that:
TRADITIONAL building contains
more wooden (bio-based) materials
than MODIFIED building case. This isseen in weights but also in a higher biogenic carbon content (Table 21).

kg CO2e/a
Traditional163

not used

not used

36.5

199

Traditional Solar

110

64

10.7

36.5

221

C1

C2

C3

C4

Total

kg CO2eModified111

not used

not used

35.7

147

TRADITIONAL Solar (A)

2 720

417

1 140

74 35578 632Modified Solar

59

64

10.7

35.7

170

TRADITIONAL Solar (B)

2720

417

499

0

3 636

Modified Solar
Passive

54

64

10.7

35.7

164

MODIFIED Solar (A)

2 720

258

824

50 34554 148

MODIFIED Solar (B)

2720

258

391

0

3 369

Table 24.

GWP per annum from renewable energy production.

Table 25.

Zero Arctic |GWP from End of Life stage.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

100

al
nternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labourthat Solar energy production in theSouth side of the roof is annually 3000
kWh/a, while in the North side it is 2279
kWh/a. In the same time GWP for the
North side installations is 98 kg CO2e/a,
and in the South side is 64 kg CO2e/a.
This resulting to the fact that Solar
installation GWP in the South side of theroof is only half of the North side emissions (GWP for the PV solar in the Southside of the roof is 64/3000= 0.021 kg
CO2e/kWh and in the North side of theroof is 98/2279= 0.043 kg CO2e/kWh).
Wind energy is a potential solution
for renewable energy supply and PVpanels. In this assessment, PV panels
and collectors installed for completing
district scale wind-energy production
method. Comparing GWP values forsolar and wind energy production, mostrational method for this Arctic region is
the wind turbine. This works almost all
year round and it produces energy withthe lowest GWP value (0.014 kg/kWh)(Table 19).
Ground source heat pump (GSHP)
is used for heating the building and it
complemented with the solar collectors
for producing hot water. GSHP electricity demand for heating is only ~1/3 compared to the electrical heating case.
The off-grid version was not considered in this context due to the highemissions and costs associated with batteries. The most problematic situationis the windless weather during the most
severe frost, when the need for electric-

Energyproduction

Case forenergy,producedby average
electricity

case forenergy,Compensation
produced (stage D)
by RES

kWh/a

kg CO2e/kWh

kg CO2e / a

kg CO2e/a

kg CO2e / aWind energy

10 969

0.095

1 042

110

–932

Solar energy

3086

0.072

222

64

–158

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

A5

B4-5

B6

C1-4

Total,
A1 - C4kg CO2 e /building life cycle 60 year
TRADITIONAL Solar (A)–74 113

198

1 171

13 30578 63219 193TRADITIONAL Solar (B)–74 113

198

1 171

8 795

3 636

–60 313

MODIFIED Solar (A)–39 440

396

2 341

10 17154 14827 616

MODIFIED Solar (B)–39 440

396

2 341

9 869

3 369

–23 465

Table 26.

* incl. biogenic carbon as minus emissions
GHG’s for pre-defined life cycle stages and for the building inspection time 60 year.

164
Vares S, Häkkinen T, Ketomäki J,
Shemeikka J & Jung N. Impact of renewableenergy technologies on the embodied andoperational GHG emissions of a nearly zeroenergy building. Journal of building engineering
22(2019)439-450

Unit
emissionsfor average
electricity
grid

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

A1-A4*

ity storage is high. In the past, it has
been shown164 that, because of storages,
the GHG emissions can increase significantly due to the manufacture, disposal
and short life of batteries. In the case ofoff-grid, the demand for batteries in thecases examined would be in the orderof 1–4 MWh/house. For example, using
Li-ion water-solvent batteries in thecase of wind power (Traditional), would
cause about 146 tons of GHGs (manufacture + 1 change) during 60 years periodof study. In the worst case, batteriescause a need to compensate 661 tonnes

Steel recovery–18

Replacement of naturalgas (in case when all
wooden material will
be utilized in energy
production)–625

Table 27.

Zero Arctic |– 5. Case Studies –connected to the wind power, meaning that the 40% of the energy demand
would need seasonal or short-term
energy storage. The current high pricesof the electricity storages make them
unaffordable, so the proposed solution
relies on the grid connection.
Proposed building design contains
roof with the slope and direction for PV
panels and solar collectors. Roof space
allows to include 44 m² solar collectors
and 28 m² PV-panels. However, assessment considers only 28 m² PV-panelsrbon
and 8 m²of collectors.
This decisiondand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedbyic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean wateris made because solar energy produce (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetreeinline
movingnorthward
theNorthside of roof was foundsges
ess to oil andtion
gas reserves
and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growth opportunities
alsotoforthe energy
olicies
ineffective(withrelation
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped in
production and carbon emissions).
aphic
radationchange.
nomic structureBuilding
from small-scale
activities showedenergylocal
simulation

Benefits and loads beyond the system boundary, ‘TRADITIONAL Solar’ case.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition101

nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

If electricity supply is not temporarily
working and thus geothermal energy isunavailable, firewood is much neededin the coldest times – and especially inthe less insulated traditional house solution – even if only the core of the houseis kept warm.

oples' food sources are threatened, with
Energyerse impacts on health.
production
nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

Unitemissionsforelectricitykg

Case forenergy,producedby average
electricity

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
kWh/as to adapt.

kg CO2e/kWh

kg CO2e / a kg CO2e / a kg CO2e / a

cts on humanWind
health.
energy

7298

0.095

693

59

–634

Solar energy

3086

0.072

222

64

–158

Case forenergy,producedby RES

Results show that compensation fromthe use of renewable energy and material salvages after the building end oflife is successful. All compensations
calculated for the annum bases. For
material salvage case (after demolition),
total benefit divided to the reference
study period (60 year) and thus the result is given for annual bases. Compensation savings, in result tables (Table 27,
Table 28), presented as minus emission(saved).
Both assessed buildings consume
renewable energy to operate – either
Wind energy or a combination of Solarand Wind energy. The assumption is,that the use of renewable energy sourc-

es compensate otherwise produced
energy in Finland and consequent GWP.
For wind energy it is assumed that it
saves average Electricity production,and for Solar energy it is assumed that it
saves Electricity production during themost favorable season (from April to theend of September). On the basis of theresults TRADITIONAL Solar and MODIFIED Solar cases saving annually GWPemissions by –1090 kg CO2e/a (932 + 158
kg CO2e) and –792 kg CO2e /a (634 + 158
kg CO2e) (Table 27, Table 28).
In the same time, when the end ofbuilding life results in wooden material
incineration and utilization, emissions
from natural gas production have also
been saved. According to the results,

Compensation(stage D)

Steel recovery–18

Aluminium recovery- 24

Replacement of
natural gas (in casewhen all woodenmaterial will beutilized in energy
production)–423

Table 28.

Compensation

Benefits and loads beyond the system boundary, ‘MODIFIED Solar’ case.

Figure 94.

Zero Arctic |– 5. Case Studies –of GHGs in the case of “Traditional”
and “Solar” and 512 tonnes of GHGs in
the case of “Modified” and “Solar”. Thismeans that the GHG impact of batteries would be up to 10–20 times morethan the house’s own emissions. If thecost of the battery is assumed to be 300€/kWh, the overall electricity cost of theone Arctic single family house would be
between 0.3–1.2 M€.
To ensure the invulnerability of theheating system, wood heating is an integral part of the concept of everyday life,
rbon
althoughfireplacebymaterials account fordand seaecosystem
nnectedis threatenedic
Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watera relatively high proportion of all matee (e.g. tourism)
teseating and thetree line moving
northward(about 12% in thissges
ess to oil andrial
gasrelated
reservesemissions
and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic
growthopportunities
also
oliciescase).
This
guarantees
heatforsupply durcoveraterncycle release of methane that is trapped ining power failures of the external grid.
aphic
radationchange.

Entrance to the patio of the Case study House. Livady.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

102

1200

ings. This result points out the need forthe salvage of components and materials after demolition for reuse. Thus,
the importance of long service-life ofbuildings and the use of tolerable andsustainable structures is high. To meetbuilding carbon neutrality for harsh
Nordic conditions, building construction should use materials, which have
low carbon emissions.
Arctic regions form a sparselyA
populated area, where climatic condi-

tions and natural resources vary a lot.
Universal solutions for carbon-neutral
and sustainable Arctic building probably do not exist, but this study showssome general guidelines that may betested elsewhere. This means researching traditional solutions and making
new designs based on the long history
and valuable information about adaptation of past generations to local climate
and resources.
A

6130

saving –24 kg/a (Table 27, Table 28).
End of life scenario, case B, considered that also all wooden materials are
salvaged for the secondary use. For thiscase, no material compensation was assessed, only the stored biogenic carbon
content was take into account. It isessential to highlight the importance ofthe secondary use of building components. Assessment shows that this was
the most remarkable factor affecting the
GHG emissions of both case-study build-Bannually saved GWP for TRADITIONAL
building is –625 kg/a, and for MODIFIED
building case –423 kg/a (Table 27, Table
28).
Assessment considered that steel andaluminum materials are salvaged after
the building service life and demolition.
According to the results for the bothbuilding cases GWP savings from steel
recycling is –18 kg/a. In a MODIFIED
building case also aluminum is usedand salvaged, this resulting to the GWP

3300

7770

3900

1360

B

13030

FIRST FLOOR

oples' food sources are threatened, witherse impacts on health.

– 5. Case Studies –

ic

drbon
and seaecosystem is threatened bynnectedRoutes open to transit shipping and additional
ocean watere (e.g. tourism)
teseating and the tree line moving northwardsges
ess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,nd reindeer habits
eased economic growth opportunities also for
olicies
cover
ater
n
cycle release of methane that is trapped inaphic
radationchange.
nomic structure from small-scale local activities
alnternationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,ds moreoil extraction
wage labour

SECOND FLOOR

nerability of existing infrastructure on land due
and permafrost melt

ow/ice dependent transport and foor sourcess to adapt.

cts on human health.

SECTION A-A

Zero Artic / Case study building / Livady / 1:100 / luonnos 14.03.20

Figure 95.

Illustration of the Case study house in the evening. Livady.

Figure 96.

Zero Arctic |Section of the Case study house. Livady.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

103

CanadaDesign process with Inuit of a
prototype for northern housing

re-usestructionnd of life

Figure 97.

Zero Arctic |Description of the building and its
surrounding climate
The case study building contains two
2-bedroom dwellings that each have afloor area of 99.0 m². Located right on
the meeting point of the Ungava Bay
and the Hudson Strait, Quaqtaq is one of
the 14 communities located in Nunavik
in the province of Quebec. It averages
8,800 heating degree-days a year. Figure
97 summarizes the weather conditions
observed in Quaqtaq by displaying average monthly solar radiation and air temperature. Winters are particularly harshwith an average temperature of –20.0°C
from the beginning of January to theend of March. In summer, air temperature is on average 6.7°C with temperature peaks reaching around 20°C. Solarradiation is minimal (0.30 kWh/m²day)from November to January as nights arequite long – in December 21st, daylength– 5. Case Studies –Thanks to the collaboration of the Kativik Municipal Housing Bureau, Mativik
Corporation, the Kativik Regional Govdi se se
sp-u c-eu
ernment and the Société d’habitation dure opsleare use
Québec (SHQ), a semi-detached building
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
was recently constructed in Quaqtaq
re opslearseee-suese(59.97°N, 69.62°W) in order to become a
ddi is resplaprototype of northern housing for thece
Nunavik communities. Two principal
criteria were used to guide the design
efurbishment
perative
water
process: (i) to design layouts that are
ic
ClimateChangesand blackcarbonadapted to Inuit’s culture and lifestyle,- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepoliciesand (ii) to develop a novel building sys- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, tem with high energy performance.
changing bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also for- Environmental
policies
A design charrette involving Inuit- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in
was organized. It consisted in a 3-day- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities
workshop in which Inuit could directly-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
interact with building stakeholders. The
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with methodology employed for the workpotentially adverse impacts on health.
shop was to go through each common- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on landindoor
due
activity (e.g., cooking, eating,to sea level rise and permafrost melt
cleaning, sleeping, tidying…), as well as- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
outdoor activities (e.g., maintenance,
require humans to adapt.
socializing…). This process followed- Adverse impacts on human health.
six steps: the identification of needs foreach activity, the definition of spaces inhouses, the identification of aesthetics
and practical expectations, the hoperegarding building implementation, therepresentation of the ‘ideal’ dwelling
and the presentation of results.
Various solutions which emerged
from the design charrette were applied
to the design of the prototype built in
Quaqtaq. One of them is the implemen-tation of a “cold porch”, an unheatedspace that both protects the main
entrance from the harsh weather andgives occupants a place to store hunting
and fishing gear. This porch is equippedwith a stainless steel counter that canbe used to clean fish and equipment or
to work on animal skins. Each dwelling
has a large central living area (53.4 m²)
with mobile counters, so that occupants
can push them out of the way when
preparing traditional suppers, which
are taken sitting on the floor. There isalso a second fire escape, which is not
typical, since Inuit feared being trapped
inside a burning building. The additionof balconies, of large windows and of
supplemental storage spaces are othersolutions that were applied to the prototype thanks to the recommendations
emerging from the design charrette.

Monthly solar radiation and mean air temperature in Quaqtaq.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition104

re-usestructionnd of life

melting due the heat coming from thebuilding, which could seriously damage the building. In order to reduce
the energy demand of the building, ahighly insulated and airtight envelope
was designed – the RSI value for verticalwalls is 9.556. Triple-glazed windows
were installed. As shown in Figure 92,
in addition to the two dwellings, there
is a single HVAC room (11.9 m²). In thisroom, a glycol-based boiler (capacityof 47 kW) is connected with a two-coilhot water tank (capacity of 450 L). Thistank acts both to distribute domestic

Economicand Social- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies

hot water (DHW) to occupants and as abuffer tank so that the heating systemdelivers high-level thermal comfort.
Each dwelling has its own specificmechanical ventilation system. Supply
air in these systems (capacity of 28 L/sof air per dwelling) is heated by two
heating coils (one before and the otherafter the HRV units) and space heatingis covered by hot water radiators. Twoother water tanks are located within thethermal envelope of the building – onefor clean water (capacity of 4,545 L) andthe other for grey water (capacity of

3,995 L). These tanks are placed below
the bathrooms so that heat released bygrey water can warm these spaces andreduce the heating demand. They are
typically filled (for the clean water tank)or drained (grey water tank) every day
by delivery trucks. Artificial lighting is
obtained with LEDs.
The first column of Table 29 summarizes the architectural and HVAC
features of the prototype. This table lists
diesel as being the energy source for thebuilding. Since they are remote, Nunavik communities are not connected to- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating and the tree line moving northward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also for- Environmental
policies- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withpotentially adverse impacts on health.
- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt

– 5. Case Studies –is only 5 hours and 31 minutes. On theother hand, with daylength reaching 19
hours and 17 minutes on June 21st, solar
energy is plenty during the summer.
Solar radiation reaches 5.73 kWh/m²day
d se sep-u c-eu There is 19 times more solar
inisJune.
resopsleare-use
radiation
in June than in January. In thedidi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
southern
regionsof Canada, this ratio
re opslearseee-sueseis reisddapproximately
5,
which demonstrates
ispla
how cvariable
solar radiation is in theeArctic region.
The case study building is built on
efurbishment
perativewater
steel pilings driven into the ground.
ic
ClimateChanges
- CO2
and
black
carbonThis
prevents
permafrost
from by- Warmingofland
and theseaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
is threatened
acts
in
the
Arctic- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
- Adverse impacts on human health.

Figure 98.

South facade of the prototype and simplified floor plan of the building.

Société d’habitation du Québec (www.habitation.gouv.qc.ca)

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

105

Prototype(SC1)
Floor area [m²]209.87

Volume [m ]845.27

re-use3

supplydEnergy
isp useceuseeoare pslere us
Heating
didis re- system
di sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re opslearseee-suese
s ddisi reVentilationand heat recoveryplacestructionnd of life
Number of PV panels

efurbishment
perative
water

Building with “typical”
insulation(SC2)

Building with “typical” insulation,
airtightness and HVAC system(SC3)

DieselGlycol-based boiler (efficiency of 87%) connected to hot
water radiators

Boiler with an efficiency of 68%

Mechanical ventilation with 2 HRV units (efficiency of85%)

HRV units with efficiency of 70%

PV0: 0 ; PV1: 116 ; PV2: 52 ; PV3: 48 ; PV4: 21- Tundraischanges
retreating and the tree line moving northward-- Energy
policies
Land-cover- Meltingglaciers
Sealed roof
- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing
and reindeer habits
Roofbird
materials
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities
also for- Environmental
policies
Polyisocyanurate- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice andtopographic
degradation
change.
Roofu-value[W/m²K]
0.082-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
Vertical walls area [m²]233.71e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

Double- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened,with wooden framing
Verticalwalls impacts
materials
Fibreglass insulation
potentiallyadverseon health.
- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructurePolystyrenon land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
Vertical walls U-value [W/m²K]
0.105- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
Fibreglass insulation
Floor materials
Polystyren- Adverse impacts on human health.

Ventilated roof
Cellulose
0.111

Simple wooden framing
Fibreglass insulation
Polystyren
0.188
Cellulose
Polystyren

Floor U-value [W/m²K]

0.097

Windows surface area [m²]South: 19.38 / West: 1.81 / North: 10.86 / East: 1.81

0.122

Windows U-value [W/m²K]

0.813 (Triple glazing)

1.250 (Double glazing)

Doors U-value [W/m²K]

0.568

1.818

Table 29.

Architectural and HVAC systems of the case study building and the different scenarios that were studied.

Zero Arctic |– 5. Case Studies –Number of inverters
PV0: 0 ; PV1: 5 ; PV2: 2 ; PV3: 2 ; PV4: 1
ic
ClimateChanges- CO2
and blackcarbon- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts
in
the
ArcticEconomicandSocialNorthern
Sea
Routesopen
totransitshipping
andadditional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g. tourism)
Roofarea [m²]226.25the main Quebec energy grid, so diesel
is the only fuel used both to provide
heat to buildings and to generate electricity via the local diesel power plant.
A heating value of 10.5 kWh per liters ofdiesel was used in this study165.
A monitoring campaign started on
November 2016 to document the thermal behavior of the building. A total of
49 different measurement points arecontinuously registered since then. The
temperature in all rooms of both dwellings, along with CO2 level and relative
humidity in the central living area, were
measured at a 15-min frequency. In the
HVAC room, temperatures in each watertanks and water levels are also acquiredwith this frequency. Energy consumption (diesel demand of whole building,electricity demand of each dwellingand HVAC room, total use of hot water)and openings of doors, windows andexhaust fans (bathroom, kitchen anddryer) are registered for each day.
The monitoring of the building
showed that it annually consumes 215
kWh of heat per square meter of floor
area. Preconstruction simulations
predicted a consumption of 128 kWh/m²
for heating, meaning that the building
consumes 68% more heat than initially
expected. Such discrepancies between
reality and simulations are frequently
165
The Engineering Toolbox. Fuels –Higher and lower calorific values. https://www.
engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels-higher-calorificvalues-d_169.html

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

106

Presentation of all studied
scenarios

re-useIn this study, the performance ofthe prototype is compared to othervariants of the same building that were
simulated. A total of 11 scenarios wereconsidered. The first scenario is the
prototype as built (Scenario 1 - SC 1).
The next 4 scenarios correspond tothe current prototype to which photovoltaic solar (PV) panels were added.
The difference between these scenarios
is the number of panels installed: PV1– Panels on all elements of the facade,Economicand Social- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies
PV2 - Panels only on the roof and south- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, facade, PV3 - Panels on the roof andchanging bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also
for on south facade to generate an- Environmental
policies
partly- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped innually as much electricity as consumed- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities(i.e. 15,033 kWh) and PV4 - Panels only
-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
on the roof. As shown in Table 29, thee.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with configuration PV1 requires a total of 116
potentially adverse impacts on health.
PV panels (1.95 m² each) and 5 10-kW- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on landinverters.
due
These values respectively are
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
52 and 2 for configuration PV2, 48 and 2- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
for PV3, and 21 and 1 for PV4. Additionrequire humans to adapt.
ally, a building with a different energy

structionnd of life

performance level was studied. Thisbuilding has an envelope that is closer
to typical houses in Nunavik. It is lessinsulated than the prototype and thus
consumes more energy for space heating. The performance of this building
was calculated without and with PV
panels. Finally, a third class of building
was also studied (SC 3). The envelope of
this building also has the same “typical” level of insulation as the building
in SC 2, but is less airtight. SC 3 alsouses “typical” HVAC systems that areless efficient than the ones of the otherscenarios. Each of these scenarios wereanalyzed by determining their respective energy consumption from simulations and their carbon emissions by alife cycle analysis.

- Adverse impacts on human health.

166
Willan et al. Talking abouts targets :How construction discourses of theory andreality represent the energy performance
gap in the United Kingdom. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.erss.2019.101330

Parameter

Description

Population

5 peoples (3 in dwelling 1, 2 in dwelling 2)

Temperature set point [°C]20

Window opening

Only if it is warmer outside or it is too warm
inside

DHW consumption [L/day-person]

25

Electricity consumption [kWh/day]

41.1

Table 30.

Simulated occupant behaviour for all scenarios.

Zero Arctic |Building energy demand
simulations
Methodology
To compute the energy consumption of
the build under each scenario, energy models were developed using the
dynamic energy simulation software
TRNSYS167. Measured data was used tocalibrate the numerical model of the
prototype. Uncertain building parameters, such as infiltration rates and air
capacitance, were adjusted in the SC1model until the model predicted energy
demand and temperature levels thatmatched with observed values fromthe real building. Once calibrated, themodel predicted a heating demand of
201.1 kWh/m² per year, which is an underestimation of 6% of the real building
consumption. The average indoor temperature difference between measurements and simulation was 0.4°C, so themodel is able to accurately depict boththe indoor temperatures and the energy
consumption of the building. Once theSC1 model was calibrated, it was used asa starting point for developing the othermodels.
Since occupants affect the energy
performance of a dwelling, it was important for the sake of comparison to
use the same occupant behavior profile
for all simulations. This profile is described in Table 30. The indoor tem167– 5. Case Studies –reported in literature, a phenomena
known as the “energy performancegap”.166 This energy performance gap isusually explained by HVAC system defects and/or occupants using the builddi se sesp-(temperatureu c-euing
set point, window
resopsleare-use
iopening,etc.)
differently
than what was
did redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
assumed.
For
instance,it
was assumed
re opslearseee-sueseis reinddipreconstruction
simulations
that
sp
l
a
windows
were always closed in winter.
ceHowever, observations showed that windows were frequently opened, which inefurbishment
perativewater
turn, increases the energy required foric
ClimateChangesandblackcarbonheating.
- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts- CO2
intheArctichttp://www.trnsys.com/index.html

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition107

re-usedi

sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese
pe u
ddi is resplacestructionnd of life

efurbishment
perativewater- Reduced
maritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating and the tree line moving northward-- Energy
policies
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,changing bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also for- Environmental
policies- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in- Sectoral
policies
Figure99.
Monthly
PV electricity production for all scenarios compared to the demand.
- Permafrost
ice andtopographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withpotentially adverse impacts on health.
- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
- Adverse impacts on human health.

Figure 100. Energy balance for SC1, SC2 and SC3. PVs are sized to match with the annual
electricity demand of the building.

would be physically possible to fit all PV
panels on the roof with an angle of 40°.
A minimal angle of 40° is often recommended to avoid snow accumulationon the panel. PVs on the facades wereassumed to be vertical.
Our simulations suppose thatthroughout the year the local microgrid is able to take or buy excesses ofelectricity at times when PV panels produce more electricity than the building
require and to provide electricity when
production cannot match with the demand. This assumption means that noelectricity storage is implemented in themodel. Such an hypothesis only works if
few such buildings are connected to themicro-grid. Otherwise, there might beproblems with the stability of the microgrid and diesel engines have a low efficiency a low part-load. The calculated
electricity production values can thus
be seen as an upper bound of electricity
that can be produced and these values
are not sustainable for analyzing wholecommunities without using storage
systems such as batteries.

– 5. Case Studies –ic
ClimateChanges- CO2
and blackcarbon- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts
in
the
ArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- Climatepolicies

perature of 20°C is the value used by the
Passive House Institute for certificationsof buildings168. The DHW consumption
rate of 25 L/day per person is also takenfrom the value proposed by the Passive
House Institute and is close to the actual
demand from the monitored building(24.4 L/day per person). As for electricity demand, the consumption from thereal building was directly used in thesimulation.
As for the estimation of the production of electricity from PV panels, theweb-based calculator PVWatts, developed by the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) in USA, was used
to estimate the monthly production ofsuch panels169. PV panels considered inthis study are made of crystalline silicon
and covered by a glass with anti-reflective coating. They have a relatively highefficiency of 19%. System losses, which
accounts for shadows, wire, installation
imperfections and lighting degradation,amount to 12.3% of the production. The
temperature coefficient of power was–0.35%/°C. These values were suggested
by PVWatts. Since the roof of the building has a relatively small inclination(5°), panels on the roof were tilted at anangle of 40° as if mounted on a structure. The surface area of the PV panelson the roof were calculated so that it
168
Passive House Institute. Criteria for the
Passive House, EnerPHit and PHI Low Energy
Building Standard.
169
https://pvwatts.nrel.gov/

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

108

Results for energy production
and consumption for all
scenarios
re-usestructionnd of lifethat represent electricity demand arecompletely replaced by PV production,
which represents a high reduction ofenergy consumption, particularly for
the SC1 building. Major energy losses
for all scenarios are the electricity consumed by households and heat losses
through vertical walls and windows. For
SC3 the lack of efficiency of the boiler
is the most important reason for energy
losses. In the prototype, there is more
loss through the windows (30.6 kWh/m²
of floor area) than through vertical walls(27.16 kWh/m²) although the surface
area of vertical walls is 8 times higher
than the ones of windows. However, it
should be note that windows allow forpassive solar gains of 14.6 kWh/m² forall scenarios and can help to reduce
artificial lighting.

– 5. Case Studies –pant profile, a heating demand of 119.7
kWh/m² for the prototype, which translates into a total consumption of 21,833
kWh. When changing the building enveFigure 98 presents the monthly electriclope for a more ‘typical’ envelope (i.e.,
ity production from the PV panels fordi se seseuu
the envelope of SC2), the heating deall epstudied
configurations. With con- cr opsleare use
mand goes up to 191.1 kWh/m² (34,856
figuration
PV1(116
panels),25,521kWhdidis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapuproduced
ekWh). The change to a less insulated
wasdirectly
onsite.
Since
the
u
c
c
o
re opslearseee-sueseenvelope increased by 56.8% the heatannual
ddi is re- demand for electricity is 15,034
splaing demand. The other type of building
kWh,ce such a production means that the(SC3), with a less airtight envelope andbuilding gives a net balance of 10,487
with less efficient HVAC systems, has
kWh
to
the
micro-grid
each
year.
Deefurbishment
perativewater
a simulated heating demand of 290.4
spite such high production rate, Figure
ic
ClimateChangesandcarbonkWh/m² (52,969 kWh). Heat required for
98 black
also
shows
configuration
PV1 is- Warmingof landand thatseaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
is threatenedbyacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof oceanwater- Climatepolicies
DHW purposes amount to 16.0 kWh/m²
unabletomatch
the demand for elec- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policies
tricityfrom
NovembertoFebruary.
The
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, (2,918 kWh) in SC1 and SC2 and to 19.9
changing bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
economic
growththeseopportunities
for- Environmental
policies
kWh/m²(3,630 kWh) in SC3. Annual dielackofsolar
radiation
duringfour also- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped insel consumption, which is required formonths- Sectoral
policiesmakes it impossible to generate- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic
structuresmall-scale
local activities
space heating and DHW, is thus 2,721
enoughelectricity,
evenfrom
if thebuilding-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
L for SC1, 4,152 L (52.5% increase fromisand
completely
covered with PV
e.g. facade
activities
shipping
towarsmore
oil extraction
wage labour
panels.
On
the
other
hand,
configura- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with prototype) for SC2 and 6,221 L for SC3
potentiallyadverseimpacts
health.
(128.6% increase from prototype).
tion PV4,
which
onlyonputs
panels on the- Increasedof existing
infrastructure
The overall energy balance of allroof, isvulnerability
only able toproduceenough on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
scenarios is displayed in Figure 100 For
electricity to match the monthly de- Changes
dependent
transport
foor sources
each scenario, the energy gains andmandininsnow/ice
July. This
reinforces
thatandenerrequire humans to adapt.
losses of the building are presented ingy storage would be useful in the North- Adverse impacts on human health.
stacked bars. Note that for the sake ofto maximise the full potential of solar
simplicity, only the setup of PV panels
energy. Detailed information regardingthat produces as much energy as conthe annual production of electricity is
sumed (configuration PV3) is presented
listed in Table 31. Unsurprisingly, conin the figure. Minimizing diesel (black
figuration A produces more electricitybars) and electricity (grey bars) conthan the other configurations. However,
sumption can be achieved by increasing
it is also the least efficient configurathe passive solar gains, the internal heattion in terms of produced electricity per
gains and onsite electricity producsquare meter of PV panels.
tion or by reducing energy losses. For
As for the consumption of heat, theSC1-PV3 and SC2-PV3, the grey bars
TRNSYS model yielded, with the occu-

Configuration

Numberof panels

Annualelectricity
production[kWh]

Annual net
electricity
consumption[kWh]

Annual electricity
production per surface
area of panels [kWh/m²]

PV1
PV2
PV3
PV4

116
52
48
21

25,521
16,22315,085
7,497–10,487–1,189
–51
7,537

112.8
160.0
161.2
183.1

Table 31.

Zero Arctic |Produced electricity by PV panels for all considered configurations.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

109

Life cycle assessment

re-usestructionnd of life

Environmental Management - Life Cycle- Increased
vulnerabilityof existingand
infrastructure
Assessment- Requirements
Guidelines on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt

impact will be given separately from thescenarios’ life cycle impacts.
The construction and demolition
stages have been neglected, as well as
the energy and mechanical systems of
the house. Occupants’ activities otherthan electricity and heating needs are
not included as they are consideredidentical for all scenarios.
Primary data on materials (type,
quantities) were obtained from theplans and information provided by the
project’s partners. Missing data, suchas some components’ dimensions andmaterial densities, were retrieved frommanufacturers’ technical sheets andliterature. Transportation distanceswere estimated from the location of themain manufacturers for each material
on Google Maps, taking into accountthat transport to Nunavik is mostly byboat, departing from the port of Sainte-

Catherine in the Montreal region. They
are shown in Tab 4.4. The table also
indicates the main assumptions regarding materials service lives (influencing
their replacement rate) and their endof-life management. Given the great
uncertainty in predicting end-of-lifescenarios in 60 years (and even more soin an isolated region such as Nunavik),
two end-of-life scenarios were assessed.
This first considers landfilling for allmaterials, except for softwood which
is burnt. This scenario is pessimistic.
The second includes a 100% recycling
rate for wood, steel and aluminium elements, and is thus optimistic.
Secondary data are taken from the
Ecoinvent database v.3.5, choosing the”allocation, cut-off by classification”
approach. Ecoinvent is considered themost suitable database for LCA model-– 5. Case Studies –transportation stage from the factory to
Nunavik, the operations stage and theMethodology
end-of-life stage. Operations include
electricity and heat consumptions as
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is awell as refurbishment for some materisystems approach used to assess thedi se seseuu
p- cals.
potential
environmental impacts of there opsleare use
For scenarios with PV panels, theentiredidis re- life cycle of a product or service,
di sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu into account its functionality.
totality
or a part of the electricity contaking
re opslearseee-suese
sumptionis generated from PV panels.
This
isdefined
by
the
ISO
14040
ddi is remethod
sp
l
170
a
If the electricity production is greaterand ISO
14044 standards.
cethan the consumption, part of this proLCA as defined by the ISO standduction is fed to the local micro-grid.
ards
wasapplied
in
this
study
to
the
11
efurbishment
perativewater
In order to keep all scenarios functionscenarios. The functional unit is 210 m²
ic
ClimateChangesandblackcarbonally equivalent, systems expansion is
gross
area
for
a servicelife of 60by
- Warming
offloor
land
and
sea
management- Marine
ice
connected
ecosystem
is threatenedacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof oceanwaterto a house over its- Climatepolicies
introduced as recommended by the ISO
years,
which
refers- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g.
tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policies
lifetime.
There
are
four
main
stagesinLand-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, standards. System expansion consists inchanging bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
opportunities
alsofor- Environmental
policies
subtractingfrom the impact of scenarithe
house’slife economic
cycle: thegrowth
supplystage- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inos the impact of an equivalent quantity(rawmaterials
extraction, materials- Sectoral
policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic structuresmall-scalethe
local activities
of electricity generated from the avermanufacturing,energyfrom
production),-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
age mix in Nunavik, which thus bee.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous
peoples'food Organization
sources are threatened,with comes an avoided impact. To facilitate
170International
forStandardization(ISO), 2006a.
ISO14044:
potentiallyadverse impacts
on health.
the results’ interpretation, this avoided- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
- Adverse impacts on human health.

Figure 101.

Impact on climate change of the different scenarios.

Figure 102.

Zero Arctic |Impact on climate change - optimistic end-of-life management.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition110Materials

Distancesre-useSoftwood,
plywood, OSB
dpanels
isp useceuse- re opsleare use
Extrudeddidis redi sdrpeils se sepolystyrene,
sp--uapucoceu
re opslearseee-suese
fiberglass
wool
ddi is resp
Mineral
wool
/
la
ce
cellulose

structionnd of life

Gypsumefurbishment
perative
water
fiberboards

Service life
[year]End of life
Pessimistic
Open burning(softwood),
landfilling(plywood,
OSB)

Optimistic

Truck: 50 km
Boat: 4000 km

40

Landfilling

Landfilling

Truck: 100 km
Boat: 4000 km

40

Landfilling

Landfilling

Truck: 50 km
Boat: 4000 km

60

Landfilling

Landfilling

Landfilling

Recyclingchanging bird and reindeer habits
resulting in increased
economic
growthopportunities also for- Environmental
policies
Truck:
300 km- Shrinking snow
cover
Glassin water
30is trapped in
Landfilling- Changes
local
population
cycle release of methane that
Boat: 4000 km- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities-Increasing
towards
local
internationalemissionsources
influence,due
to new
subsistence
human
Tablemore32.
Mainassumptions
onfromthelifecycle ofactivities,
construction materials.
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withpotentially adverse impacts on health.
AvoidedLife
cycle impact- Increased vulnerability ofexisting
infrastructure onland dueimpact
eq/year)(kg CO2eq/year)(kg CO2melt
to sea level rise and permafrost- Changes
in snow/ice dependent
SC1-PV030,281 transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
SC1-PV1
13,737–13,020- Adverse impacts on human health.
SC1-PV2
12,964–1,476–63

Landfilling

Variation from the basecase scenario (SC1-PV0)
–55%
–57%

SC1-PV3

12,869–58%

SC1-PV4

21,596–29%

SC2-PV035,14316%

SC2-PV1

18,599–13,020–39%

SC2-PV2

17,826–1,476–41%

SC2-PV3

17,732–63–41%

SC2-PV4

26,459–13%

SC3-PV042,52640%

Impacts on climate change and variations from the base case scenario (SC1-PV0).

171
Martinez-Rocamora et al., LCA
databases focused on construction materials:
A review, 2016 https://doi.org/https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.243
172
Ministère de l’énergie et desRessources Naturelles du Québec, Politiqueénergétique 2016–2025, 2015.

Zero Arctic |Scrap aluminium is assumed to replace
primary aluminium and scrap steel
displace the production of primary steel(blast furnace).
The life cycle impact assessment ispresented for the climate change category only. The characterization method
used is the method developed by theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) with a time horizon of 60
years173. Biogenic carbon uptake fromwood products were included in the calculations, with a characterization factorof –1 at the production stage and +1 at
the end of life, thus assuming carbon
neutrality over the lifecycle. An exception occurs when wood is reused or
recycled, like in the optimistic scenario.
Then, carbon storage is considered effective, which results in a credit to thehouse’s life cycle. The carbon content
of softwood used in this study is assumed equal to 795 kg CO2 eq/m3, which
derives from an EPD of North-American
softwood lumber by the American andCanadian wood councils. Finally, allimpact modelling was carried out using
SimaPro software v9.

– 5. Case Studies –60

60 (structuralic
ClimateChanges- CO2
and blackcarbon- Warmingof landand seaecosystem is threatened bymanagement- Marine
ice
connected
acts
in
the
ArcticEconomicandSocialTruck:
1000km
steel)/ 40 (steel
Northern
Sea
Routesopen
totransitshipping
andadditional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof ocean water- ClimatepoliciesSteel/ aluminium- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g. tourism)
Boat: 4000 km
and aluminium- Tundraischanges
retreating and the tree line moving northward-- Energy
policies
Land-cover
cladding)- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals,

Table 33.

Recycling(softwood),
landfilling(plywood, OSB)

Truck: 300 km
Boat: 4000 kmling of buildings171. It should be notedthat it includes regionalized Quebec
datasets for wood, concrete and OSB
panels. In the case of the electricity
mix, a dataset specific to each Canadian province and territory exists in
Ecoinvent, including Nunavut, whose
current energy system based on diesel
power plants supplying communities
not connected to the main grid can beconsidered similar to the one in Nunavik172. Moreover, mineral wool was notavailable as such in Ecoinvent v.3.5, it
was then substituted in the database by
the process of rock wool.
As mentioned by the ISO standards,
but also recommended by the European
standard EN 15978, the allocation procedure for reuse and recycling follows
a systems expansion approach, where
1) impact and benefits of recycling areallocated to the lifecycle that makes
the materials available for recycling
and 2) the benefits are calculated as the
avoided impact allowed by the materials’ reuse and recycling at the house’s
end of life (module D in EN15978).
When softwood is recycled, it isassumed to replace the productionof wood chips (further used in particleboards production for example).

173
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, Calculation of mitigation potential/
carbon footprint/Life Cycle Assesment (LCA),
including application of 2006 IPCC guidelines,
2013.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

111

Results for all scenarios:

re-useof 62% for scenario SC1-PV2 and of 58%
for scenario SC1-PV3.
Figure 101 presents the results on cliThe impact of SC2-PV0 is greatermate change for all the scenarios, withthan SC2-PV0 (+16%), thus suggestinga pessimistic end-of-life management.
environmental benefits for opting for
The “life cycle impact” section refers
di se seseuu
p- c-life cycle impact of the housemeasures aimed at a greater energy efto there opsleare use
ficiency and reduction of heating needs
fromdidis re-raw material extraction to end of
di sdrpeils se se
sp--uapuTheefor this region. Impact of Scenarios SC2life.
“avoided
impact(electricity)”ucco
re opslearseee-suese
PV1-4 in relation to SC2-PV0 is the same
sectionddi is re- quantifies the avoided impact
spla
as the impact of SC1-PV1-4 in relation
due toce feeding part of the solar panels’
to SC1-PV0 since the same assumptions
production to the electricity grid.
are applied regarding electricity conConsidering
only
life
cycle
efurbishment
perativewater
sumption. SC3-PV0, with its inefficient
impacts,Figure 101 shows that the sceic
ClimateChangesandblackcarbonheating system and less airtight envenario
the sea
least
impactisonclimateby- Warming
ofwithland
andmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
ecosystem
threatenedacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationofwater- Climatepolicies
lope, is the scenario with the greatest
changeis oceanscenario
SC1-PV3, followed- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policiesvery
closelyby
SC1-PV2
and
SC1-PV1.
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, impact. Its impacts are 21% superior tochanging bird and reindeer habits
resultingin scenarios
increased
economic growth opportunities also
for of SC2-PV0.
- Environmental
policies
those
These
- Shrinking snow
cover represent a 58%, 57%- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inComparison of scenarios (optimistic
andpolicies
55%
reductionin impact respec- Sectoral- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic
structuresmall-scale
end-of-life management)
tively,comparedto the frombaseline(SC1-local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
Figure 101 shows climate change imasandshown
inTable33. The impact
e.g. PV0),
activities
shipping
towarsmore
oil extraction
wage labour
pacts
for all scenarios, according to anof
SC1-PV4
ismidway(–29%
compared- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withpotentiallyadverseimpactsonhealth.
optimistic end-of-life management.
to baseline), reflecting its position as a
- Increased
vulnerabilityof existing
infrastructure
As shown in the figure, a different
compromise
betweena 100%
solar andon land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
approach at the end-of-life does not
100% fossil fuel electricity supply.
- Changes
in snow/ice
dependent
transportchange the comparison between the
However,
SC1-PV1(alongwith and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
scenarios. The contributions of theSC2-PV1) has the greatest potential for- Adverse impacts on human health.
different avoided impacts and carbon
avoided impact due to a greater surplus
storage will be further detailed in theof solar energy. Indeed, if the buildnext section.
ing feds all excess electricity produced
to the local micro-grid, an equivalent
production of electricity from theregional mix can be avoided. SC1-PV1
clearly becomes the most advantageous
scenario under this hypothesis. The net
impact reduction compared to SC1-PV0
rises to 98%, compared to a reduction

structionnd of life

Contribution of life cycle stages to climate change for all scenarios.

Figure 104.

Contribution of materials and energy sources to climate change.

– 5. Case Studies –Figure 103.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition112

re-useaccounting for avoided impact). The
contribution of the production stage
varies between 3% and 10%, while theContribution analyses help to explain
other stages have a negligible impact.
the differences observed previously
For example, the share of the end of life
between the scenarios. Since the sendi se seseuu
p- c- of the results to a change ofis 0.3% in average, with the maximum
sitivity
re opsleare use
being 0.4% for SC1-PV3. A sensitivity
end-of-life
is
weak
(see
Figure101),
thedidis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
analysis on the end-of-life scenarios
contribution
analysiswillbeperformed
re opslearseee-sueses e- pessimistic scenario and theseems therefore unnecessary at thisonddisitherplapoint (without more precise data).
optimistic
scenario will be assessed inceOwing to the preponderance ofa separate paragraph. Figure 103 showstheoperations, it is expected that the
that
the
main
contributing
stage
is
the
efurbishment
perativewater
scenarios allowing a greater reductionenergy consumption (heat + electricic
ClimateChanges- CO2
andcarbonof the operational energy consumpity)blackoccurringthe casestudy by- Warmingof landand during
seaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
is threatened
acts
in
the
ArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof oceanwater Depending on- Climatepolicies
tion, i.e. scenarios SC1-PV1-3 have abuilding’s
operations.
- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g. tourism)
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policiesthescenario,itrepresents
between85%
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, greater potential for impact reductions.
changing bird and reindeer habits
resultingin increased
growthopportunities also
- Environmental
policies
It forshould be noted that in the case of
and
96%
of
the economic
total impact(without- Shrinking snow
cover

structionnd of life

- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in- Sectoral policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Change in economic structure from small-scale local activities-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
e.g. shipping
activities
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labourLifecycleare threatened,
Avoided- Indigenous peoples' foodsourceswithimpact
impact(electricity)
potentially adverse impacts
on health.
[kg CO2eq/year] [kg CO2eq/year]- Increased vulnerability of existing
infrastructure on land due
to sea level rise and permafrost melt
- Changes
in snow/ice dependent
SC1-PV030,279 transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
SC1-PV1
13,735–13,020- Adverse impacts on human health.
SC1-PV2
12,962–1,476

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

113

scenario SC1-PV1, the avoided impact
is higher than the impact of the house’s
operational energy. The preponderanceof the operations is mainly explainedby the high carbon energy source used
for the regional electricity mix and heatproduction (diesel). They also explain
the high impact reduction potentialof low carbon solutions such as solar
energy.
Figure 104 presents a contribution
analysis by materials (over their entire
life cycle) and energy types. For Scenario 1, electricity consumption from theregional mix is the largest contributor(62% of the total impact without avoided
impact), followed by heating (32%).

Avoided impact(recycling) [kg
CO2eq/year]

Carbonstorage[kg CO2eq/
year]

Impactreduction due
to electricity
production

Impactreduction
due torecycling

Impactreduction
due tocarbonstorage

–736

–334

0.0

–2.4%

–1.1%

–736

–334

–94.8%

–5.4%

–2.4%

–736

–334

–11.4%

–5.7%

–2.6%

–736

–334

–0.5%

–5.7%

–2.6%

SC1-PV3

12,867

SC1-PV4

21,594

–736

–334

0.0

–3.4%

–1.5%

SC2-PV035,142

–735

–315

0.0

–2.1%

–0.9%

SC2-PV1

18,598–13,020

–735

–315

–70.0%

–4.0%

–1.7%

SC2-PV2

17,825–1,476

–735

–315

–8.3%

–4.1%

–1.8%

SC2-PV3

17,730

–63

–735

–315

–0.4%

–4.1%

–1.8%

SC2-PV4

26,457

–735

–315

0.0

–2.8%

–1.2%

SC3-PV042,525

–735

–315

0.0

–1.7%

–0.7%

Table 34.

–63

When electricity is only produced from
PV panels, as in scenarios SC1-PV1-3,
the trend is reversed. Heating becomesthe main source of impact (71%–75%)
while the share of electricity consumption decreases to 10–15% of the total
impact depending on the scenario. For
the scenarios where heating needs arehigher, as in scenarios SC2-PV1-3, thecontribution of solar electricity becomes less than 10% on average.
The difference in the envelope
between scenarios SC1 and SC2 does
result in a decrease in material-related
impact, of about 12%. However, theincrease in energy-related impacts
amounts to 52%, which explains why
SC2 has a greater impact than SC1.
Finally, results show that materials
are responsible for 6% of the impact
on average (excluding avoided impact),with steel being the most contributing
material. Considering only materialsrelated impacts, the share of steel
amounts to 37% for scenarios SC1 and
42% for SC2 and SC3.
Influence of recycling benefits andcarbon storage (optimistic scenarios)
Table 34 presents the influence of solar
excess energy production, recycling
benefits and carbon storage in terms ofimpact reduction for each scenario.
The highest potential of impact reduction for solar electricity production
is consistent with previous observations
that showed that energy consumption
is the major contributor of the Nunavik– 5. Case Studies –Carbon emissions by life cycle
stages and by materials

Impact reduction potentials of solar electricity production, recycling and carbon storage.

Zero Arctic |re-usestructionnd of life

to sea level rise and permafrost melt

terials signifies that it is preferable froma carbon standpoint to improve theenvelope of a dwelling despite the additional embodied energy. We estimatethat the prototype for northern housing
produces 4,862 kgCO2eq per year over
its lifetime less than a similar buildingthat would employ a less insulated envelope (reduction of 12%). This evidently
does not mean that no care should begiven towards the materials used forconstruction, but that one should not
limit the addition of insulation materials in order to reduce embodied energy.
On the community scale, another way
to reduce the environmental impact of
the operation stage would be to address
the problem upstream by including
cleaner energy (solar, wind, hydro or
biomass) in the micro-grid mix. This
analysis assumed that the energy mix ofthe local grids remains the same for thewhole lifetime of the building. Exploit-

ing energy from cleaner sources would
directly reduce the lifetime carbon
emissions of buildings.
In spite of the large carbon emissionsof Arctic buildings, one of the studied
scenarios was very close to yield zerocarbon results, with the avoided impact
generated by PV panels being very close
to the carbon emissions of the building. The net difference between life
cycle impact and avoided impact forthis scenario is 717 kgCO2eq per year,
which is a reduction of 98% comparedto the life cycle impact of the prototype.
This shows that an extensive use ofsolar energy can neutralize most of theenvironmental footprint of a building,even in the Arctic region. The impact ofthe materials related to the PV panels is
minimal, again due to the enormous impact of energy use. However, it is important to mention that no energy storage
technology was considered in the study,– 5. Case Studies –Discussion
house’s carbon footprint owing to highcarbon energy sources. Nevertheless,This study shows that most of the efforts
impact reduction due to materials’ recyto decarbonize buildings in Nunavik
cling, especially steel, is not negligible.
should focus on net energy consumpFor some scenarios like SC1-PV3 andtion. Energy consumption is estimateddi se seseuu
p- cSC2-PV3,
recycling leads even to greater
to be responsible for up to 94% of there opsleare use
benefits
carbon emissions of the case study
didis re- than the substitution of regiond sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
al ielectricity
bysolar
panels.
However,building. There are two main explare opslearseee-suesethesenations for this. First, harsh weather
ddi is re- results should be consideredsplawith ccaution
because the assumptions
conditions drastically increase heatingerelated to the end-of-life scenarios aredemand, so Arctic buildings in Canada
highlyuncertain.
Firstly,itisunlikelyusually have much higher energy
efurbishment
perative
water
that steel, wood and aluminium proddemands than their counterpart in theic
ClimateChangesandblackcarbon
ucts
will
beand
effectively
100%
recycled atsouthern regions. The other reason is- Warmingof landseaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
is threatenedbyacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationofwater- Climatepolicies
theendofoceanlife.
that many Arctic communities rely on- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites(e.g.Secondly,
tourism) their recycling
Tundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policiesmay
notactually
displace
primarymateLand-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, fossil fuel as their main energy sourcechanging bird and reindeer habits
resultinginwhoseincreased
economic growth
opportunities- Environmental
policies
rials,
displacement
rates
depend also
forformicro-grids. In short, Arctic build- Shrinking snow
cover
- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in
onpolicies
actualmarkets.
Finally, the benefits
ings consume a lot of energy that comes- Sectoral- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic
structurefrom small-scale
local activities
of carbon
storageare almost
negligible,from carbon intensive sources. Because-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
forand SC1of this, the life-cycle impact of materie.g. except
activities
shipping
towarsandscenarios
moreoil extraction
wage SC1-PV2
labour
PV3,
where
they
amountto–2.6%.
- Indigenous peoples' food sources are threatened, with als of a residential building is minimal
potentially adverse impacts on health.
compared to the one of its operation- Increased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on landstage.
due The relatively small impact of ma- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
- Adverse impacts on human health.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition114

re-useworst-case scenario. It should be noted
so it was assumed that the buildingthat occupants represent a major player
could freely exchange electricity within the energy balance of a dwelling.
the local micro-grid. This hypothesis
With different occupant behaviour procan only work to a certain extent andfiles provided to the numerical models,cannot necessarily be extended over adi se seseuu
p- c- community. The high monthly
different levels of energy consumption
whole
re opsleare use
could be obtained, which could strongly
variability
of
the
Sun
as
an
energydidis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu in the north represents a majorchange the building lifetime emissions.
sourcere opslearseee-suese
Raising awareness to carbon footprint
challengeandshort-termandlong-term
ddi is resplaand energy performance, and adaptingenergyce storage technologies such as batarchitecture and HVAC to occupantsteries or seasonal heat storage are thus
could therefore prove to be beneficial.
necessary
tofully
exploitthepotential
efurbishment
perative
water
Cost analysis was not included in thisof solar energy.
ic
ClimateChangesand Windows
black
carbonstudy and could offer a different interrepresent
the isweakest
part- Warmingof landandseaecosystemmanagement- Marine
ice
connected
threatenedbyacts- CO2
intheArcticEconomicandSocial- Northern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ponses(includingEU)acidificationof oceanwater- Climatepretation of the results presented in thisofpolicies
a building
envelope- Reduced
sea-icemaritime
activites (e.g.
tourism)and their proTundraisretreating
and
the
tree
line
movingnorthward-- Energy
policies
ductionhasaminimalcarbonimpact.
Land-coverchanges- Meltingglaciers- Increased
access to oil and gas reserves and minerals, study.
changing bird and reindeer habits
resultinginaincreased
economic growth opportunities also for- Environmental
policies
Fromcarbon- Shrinking snow
cover point of view, it would- Changes
local
populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped in
thus
make
sense
to use highly efficient- Sectoral
policies- Permafrost
ice and topographic
degradation
change.
-Changein economic
structurefrom small-scale
local activities
windows
in orderto reduce
space heat-Increasing
towards
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
demand.
HVAC systems
e.g. ing
activities
shipping
towarsand more
oilEfficient
extraction
wage labourarealsonecessaryaspoor
systems- Indigenous peoples' food sources are
threatened, withpotentiallyadverseimpactsonhealth.
can cause energy waste and drastically- Increasedof existing
infrastructure
inflate vulnerability
consumption
as shownwith theon land due

structionnd of life

– 5. Case Studies –to sea level rise and permafrost melt

- Changes in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
require humans to adapt.
- Adverse impacts on human health.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

115

di

re-useJapan
sp-usec-euseresopsleare-use
didi redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
re oslarseee-sese
pe u
ddi is resp
la
ce

ction
f life

ment
water

duced
ritimesea-ice
activites (e.g. tourism)
undra
isretreating and the tree line moving northwardgypolicies-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts on health.

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

dverse impacts on human health.

In this analysis, the whole life cycle
was divided into four stages: material
manufacturing, repair, operation, anddisposal. The evaluation period is 60
years. The calculation tool was MiLCA,
a Japanese LCA calculation software
based on the ISO standard. MiLCA cancalculate CO2 emissions from mass, volume, and price of the target object. In
this analysis, the real estimation documents were used to identify materials
and mass in the material-manufacturing stages. In the repair stage, the repairof the exterior walls, the windows andthe roof were included in the calculation. In the disposal stage, two ways of
disposal were calculated. In the firstcase, all materials were disposed as industrial waste. In the second case, wood
was disposed as recycling material. The
emissions during the process, such astransporting raw materials, machineenergy- consumption of manufacturing and demolition in factories andconstruction sites were left out because
it was difficult to obtain accurate data.
Table 35 shows the information in Case
A and Case B. Both cases are real houses
as shown in Figure 105. The construction system is a traditional Japanese
wooden frame. The operation energy ofeach house was calculated as detachedhouses with four people. Table 36 shows
the parameters of simulation cases inthe energy consumption and disposal
methods. The original energy sources

for both houses were propane gas. Also,
the present typical disposal method in
the building field is to treat the material
as industrial waste as shown in Table 36
We added Case (3) as a reuse case andCase (4) as a renewable energy case.

– 5. Case Studies –Changesandblackcarbonrming
of landand seaecosystem is threatened by
ment
arine
ice
connected
theArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean waterate
policies

Introduction

Figure 105.

Zero Arctic |Photo of cases.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

116

Results

re-usection
f liferegistered as ZEH in Hokkaido (March
14, 2020). The UA value, average U value
per wall area W/m²K, should be below
0.25, depending on the size of the PV
panel. Since the UA values of the houses
examined this time is equivalent to thecondition, ZEH could be achieved whenenough PV panels were installed, buteven in that case, zero and minus CO2
could not be achieved for the following
reasons.

Case B

Case

86.13

Case A

2

Case A

0.21

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts on health.

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt
Case A
hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
Floor
area[㎡]
108.04quire humans toadapt.
Numberoffloors1
dverse impacts on human health.

U-value[W/(㎡K)]

0.24• Traditional Japanese wood frame did
not use enough wood like log-houses
to achieve enough carbon fixation for
negative carbon.
• Hokkaido people love large south windows for passive solar effect. However,large-area glass with multiple layers
emits huge CO2 in a production process.

• The traditional Japanese wood frame
uses many metal members, concrete,
and gypsum board due to their strength
against earthquakes and safety against
fire. Those materials emit huge CO2 in
the production process.
• Almost all processes for construction
materials emit more CO2 in Japan thanin Europe. The change in electricity
source from nuclear to coal-fire after
Tohoku earthquake 2011 has influenced the situation. Also, lumber andconstruction for detached houses in
Hokkaido are conducting in a small
company. They have not improved theenergy efficiency in their work.

EnergyDisposal method(1)

Propane gas

Industrial waste(2)

Propane gas

Wood chips

Case A(3)

Propane gas

Reuse lumber(4)

Wood chips, PV

Reuse lumber

EnergyPropane gas

Propane gas

Case A

Ventilation

Mechanical ventilation

Mechanical ventilation

Case B(1)

Propane gas

Industrial waste(2)

Propane gas

Wood§ chips

Structure

Wood frame

Wood frame

Case B

Rooftop

Galvalume

Galvalume

Case B(3)

Propane gas

Reuse lumber

Case B(4)

Wood chips, PV

Reuse lumber

Table 36.

Parameter of analysis.

Interior wall surface

Plastic sheet Plaster

Plastic sheet

FacadeGalvalume

Wood

Insulation

Glass wool

Glass wool

Table 35.

Information in Case A and Case B.

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 5. Case Studies –Figure 106 shows the mass of themain materials. In the traditional
Japanese wooden frame, the mass ofwood material was almost half of thedi se sesp-u c-eu Finnish log case, whereas the amountre opsleare useof concrete and gypsum board is about
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
65 times and 10 times bigger than thatre opslearseee-suesein the Finnish log case because of
ddi is resplathe regulation for fire protection andceearthquakes. CO2 emissions in material
selection are therefore higher. Also, thementwater drying process for wood material emits
Changesandblackcarbonmore
COthan inisFinland.
rmingof landand sea
ment
arine
ice
connected
ecosystem
threatened bytheArctic2ndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open
to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof ocean water107 shows the CO in theatepolicies
duced
ritimesea-ice
activites Figure(e.g. tourism)2
undraischanges
retreating
and thetree line
northward
gy
policies
detached
housesinmoving
Hokkaido.
The CO2-coverting glaciers
creasedaccessto oil andgas reserves
and minerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic
growthopportunities
also foronmental
policies
emissions
without
renewableenergyinking snow coverhangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies sources are about 4,000 - 6,000 kg/m².
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic
from small-scale
localareactivitiesThosestructurewith renewablesourcesabout
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,
1,000
kg/m².
The operations caused.ivities
shipping
towarsandmore
oil extraction
wage labour

significant parts of CO2 emission. Theenergy efficiency with thick insulationand high-performance ventilation is essential to reduce CO2 in Hokkaido. Case
B is more energy-efficient than Case A.
But the CO2 in case B is bigger than incase A. In Case A, the building is locatedin the rural area, also the building has
the large south-facing window to get apassive solar effect to reduce heatingenergy. It reduced CO2, especially ofthat produced during operation.
In this analysis, we implemented
CO2 analysis of relatively high-energyefficiency houses built in Hokkaido.
The parameters of the analysis were theusage of renewable energy and disposal
methods in addition to the energy-efficiency. The Japanese government is promoting ZEB, and there are 341 houses

117Recommendations

Reducing CO 2 emissions in there-usection
f lifeanging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic growth opportunities also foronmental
policies
inking snow
cover
hangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

Compared to the European case for the
production of various materials, the CO2
emission of wood lumber is bigger in
Hokkaido. It is necessary to use more
renewable energy to achieve zero andminus CO2. Governments need to give
incentives to install new equipment andpurchase more expensive electricity.
Hokkaido is located in a cold region,but its latitude is low, so it is easy to getelectricity with PV even in the winterseason. The vertically installed PV,
which can obtain power while snowfall
season, is considered effective. Figure

108 on page 119 shows the comparisonof PV output between the vertical caseand the 45 deg. case. In the period from
October to March, the vertical case produced more electricity.

7000

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
140000 melt
sea level rise and permafrost

6000

hanges in snow/ice 120000
dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

5000

CO2 emission[kg/m2]

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts
160000on health.

100000Mass[kg]

dverse impacts on human health.

80000
60000
40000
20000

In this analysis, the wood recycled after
disposal did not sufficiently decrease
GHG because of the lack of woodmaterials in construction. However, inthe traditional Japanese wood frame,
many metal materials are used for thejoints and exterior materials. Also, thefoundation is constructed with muchconcrete. The recycling of those materials is effective in decreasing CO2.

4000
3000
2000
1000
0

0

Hokkaido-A
Wood

Figure 106.

Reuse of components:– 5. Case Studies –The following list summarizes the recommendations to policymakers emerging from this study to achieve zero CO2of the housing stock in Hokkaido:
di se sesp-u c-eu• Timbering of parts other than there opsleare use
structure
didis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu• Wooden materials as insulation andre opslearseee-suese
exterior
materials. Log construction,
ddi is resplawhich uses more wood, can decreasececarbon emissions. However, it is necessary to change the entire constructionmentwater system, including the economy, based
Changesandblackcarbononthetraditionalis Japaneseframe.
rmingof landandseaecosystem
ment
arine
ice
connected
threatenedwoodbytheArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dificationof For
ocean
water
ate
policies
thisreason, a local government
duced
ritimesea-ice
activites(e.g.
tourism)undraischanges
retreating
and the tree R&D
line moving
northward
gy
policiesshouldforthosematerials.
-coverting glaciers
creasedaccessto oilsupport
and gas reserves
andminerals,

production of building materials:

Plaster

Hokkaido-B
Concrete

Insulation

Mass of materials in Case A and Case B.

-1000

Case-A(1)Other

Case-A(2)Case-A(3)Production

Figure 107.

Zero Arctic |Case-A(4)Replacement

Case-B(1)Case-B(2)Operation

DisposalCase-B(3)Case-B(4)Results of GHG.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

118

Optimization of window area:

Prefabrication:

re-usection
f lifehangesal populationin water cycle release of methane that is trapped inoral policies
mafrostand topographic
degradation
change.
hange in economic structure from small-scale local activities
wards
creasing
more
local
internationalemission sources
influence,
duefromto new
subsistence
human activities,.ivities
shipping
towarsand more
oil extraction
wage labour

Generally, a detached house in Hokkaido is constructed on-site. There areseveral disadvantages, such as waste
management, available percentage ofmaterials in the construction on-site.
Prefabrication can reduce GHG. Also,
it contributes to the shortage of humanresources, which is currently the mostserious problem in Japan. The local government should encourage the prefabrication of a construction company.
• Reducing energy consumption withtraditional Japanese wood frame considering regional economic cycle.
• Insulation and air-tightness for
the Japanese wooden frame have been

digenous peoples' food sources are threatened, withtentially adverse impacts
on health.
25000

120

Electricity converted [kWh/kW]

creased vulnerability of existing infrastructure on land due
sea level rise and permafrost melt

20000

hanges in snow/ice dependent transport and foor sources
quire humans to adapt.

CO2 emission[kg]– 5. Case Studies –In Hokkaido, people want to installlarge south windows for passive heatingeven in winter. However, the effect varies greatly depending on the region. Sufdi se se
sp-u c-eu ficient effects cannot be obtained in there opsleare use
western region. Also, the production ofdidis redi sdrpeils se se
sp--uapucoceu
large-scale glass emits tremendous CO2.
re opslearseee-suese
Therefore,
researchers should explore
ddi is resplathe complicated balance among passivecesolar effect, heat-loss, renewable energy
to produce glazing system, lifetime, andmentwater CO . Figure 109 shows the CO emission
2
2
Changesandblackcarbonofandtheseaglazingsystemin the byanalysis.
rmingof land
ment
arine
ice
connected
ecosystem
is threatenedtheArcticndSocialorthern
Sea Routes open to transit shipping and additional
ludingEU)
dification
of We
ocean
water
ate
policiescandecrease the CO2 in operation
duced
ritimesea-ice
activites(e.g.
tourism)
undraisretreatingandthe tree line
movingnorthward
gy
policieswithrenewableenergy.
Thena larger-coverchangesting glaciers
creasedaccess to oil and gas reserves
andminerals,
anging bird and reindeer habitsulting in increased
economic
growthopportunities
also foronmental
policies
windowemits
largerCO.
inking snow cover2

developed in Hokkaido. Technicians are
skillful for those techniques. Fortunately, Hokkaido has many forest resources.
We should implement more R&D to
decrease energy consumption considering the regional economic cycle and an
economic ripple effect. The traditional
and local materials-promoting techniques are essential to maintaining the
local economy.

15000
dverse impacts on humanhealth.
10000

100

5000

80
60
40
20
0

0

Hokkaido-A
Production

Figure 108.

Hokkaido-B
Replacement

Vertical

DisposalComparison of PV output between the vertical case and the 45 deg. case.

Month

45o
北九条小(Vertical)

Figure 109.

Zero Arctic |手稲宮丘小学校(45°)

CO2 emission of the glazing system in the analysis.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

119

Zero Arctic |Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 6. Conclusions and Recommendations –6. Conclusions and Recommendations

120

The main goal of the project was to develop a sustainable and carbon-neutral
building concept, based on traditional
solutions, for the Arctic region. The significance of traditional and vernaculararchitecture lies in preserved examplesof buildings that have had a service
life of centuries. They form a source ofknowledge to structural and material
innovations that can be evaluated andused in modern buildings. The methodological novelty of the project was tounite architectural-historical and Life
Cycle Assessment approaches to develop concepts that would be sustainable
and carbon neutral at the same time.
One of the goals of this project was
to learn from indigenous examples andknowledge, to be able to build homes
for arctic conditions and people’s needs.
The historical examples show a great
variety of indigenous architecture, butalso similarities. Even though from theenergy efficiency perspective the historical buildings may not fill the modern standards, there are things to learn
for modern architecture - for example
using light, local, renewable materials, designing buildings that are easily
relocated, reused or deconstructed, andhaving rooms or spaces with different
temperature for different purposes.
The examples of indigenous architecture presented in this report are
mostly historical and not in use. The
indigenous people in the studied areas
mostly live in modern buildings. A goodcarbon emissions from wooden material incineration is not realized andbiogenic carbon content, from wooden
based materials, is therefore extended
to the next building case.
It is important to note, that thebenefits of the wood materials depend
on what happens at the end of thebuilding’s lifecycle. As traditional log
construction uses more wooden materials than ‘MODIFIED’, also more carbon
embodied to the structures, therefore it
serves well as a carbon storage during
the building lifecycle. However, if thewood were to be incinerated, more forest growth would be needed to compensate these emissions. On the other
hand, massive wooden structures arelikely to be reused.
The extreme winter outdoor temperatures and possible vulnerability related
to the reliance on the electricity supply
set boundaries related to the modern
HVAC systems in the Arctic Region.
The HVAC systems should be designed
to work in extreme e.g. -38 oC temperatures. The heat recovery heat exchangers of the mechanical ventilation system
has to be equipped with the defrosting
functionality to enable the operationand the fresh ventilation air for occupants in all conditions. The tap water
system has to contain a functionality ofdraining the system for long absences
without heating. The HVAC distribution
systems has to be filled with circulation
fluids enduring the extreme outdoor– 6. Conclusions and Recommendations –Conclusions

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

121

example of bringing the modern-day
indigenous knowledge to practice is
the Canadian case building, which was
designed together with the Inuit andtakes their special cultural needs into
account. The studied case buildings
had some ideas based on vernaculararchitecture, for example in the Finnish
cases the use of local renewable material and half-heated spaces.
The study introduces traditional
solutions for building in different Arctic
districts in Finland, Canada and Japan.
Potentials for low-carbon and carbonneutral solutions were studied with thehelp of case studies. All case buildings
were residential detached houses suitable for Arctic conditions, which fill themodern living standards.
The results between the countries’ assessments have a big variation becauseof material types for construction andenergy mixes used for building operation.
The carbon neutrality target wasreached in the Finnish wooden casebuildings, and the Canadian cases camevery close with 98% reduction of GHG
emissions in the case with high use ofsolar panels.
According to the Finnish assessment,
the best suggested solution for Arctic
conditions would be wood construction
with the utilization of wind and geothermal energy for the building operation.
In cases where wooden materials arereused in future construction projects,

Zero Arctic |ties in the process174. Smaller plants canbe built with local authorities’ permission.
Wind-power can have an impact tothe reindeer habitat selection. 175 By
including indigenous peoples and local
communities in decision-making processes where locating new power plants
is decided upon, the possible negative
impacts to local livelihoods could be
minimized.
Solar energy has some disadvantages compared to wind energy. One
disadvantage of the solar electricity isa slightly higher specific emissions perunit of energy produced by the current
best photovoltaic technology comparedto wind energy; another higher disadvantage is the seasonal imbalance
between production and need.
Geothermal is an excellent solution for heat production in the Finnish
Arctic when it uses electricity generated
by wind power. On the basis of the casestudies, the capacity required is typical(business as usual) in the case of themodified modern solution, but in traditional construction, the heating capacity
is about twice as much as in modified
construction.
The Finnish case shows, that an Arc174
Arctic EIA report, 2019175
Skarin, Sandström & Alam: Out of sightof Wind Turbines. Ecology and evolution 2018:
1-14 sekä Strand, Colman, Eftestol, Sandström,
Skarin & Thomassen: Vindkraft of reinsdyr –en kunskapssyntese. Norwegian Institute for
Natural Research 2017: NINA Rapport 1305.)

tic house can be dimensioned with renewable energy so that the hourly supply and demand meet more than half
the time when wind power is used. In
the studied case, wind power achievedon annual basis about 60% level of thesimultaneous hourly energy demandversus supply with both traditional andmodern house solutions.
In the Canadian context, replacing
the use of diesel by renewable energy
sources in the North will cut downcarbon emissions. This includes boththe electricity and the heating demands.
Due to the harsh climate, investing indeveloping technologies that can facilitate the use of such sources (e.g., energy
storage) might prove helpful.
In a full life cycle assessment, theend-of-life phase also needs to be
included, although the scenarios are
uncertain. In Canada, little information was found concerning “end-of-life”
alternatives in the North. As carbon
emissions from energy go down, it will
become more and more relevant tostudy and develop low carbon end-oflife options.
The Finnish assessment consideredalternatively, that wooden materials
would be reused after end of their firstlife. This allows taking advantage fromthe biogenic carbon content of woodenmaterials as a carbon storage during thebuilding service life and with the extension to the reuse case. It is assumed
that wood is obtained from sustainable

Zero Arctic |managed forests and then, normally acarbon neutrality approach could beapplied.
For the Finnish “MODIFIED” casebuilding it was calculated, that if thewood materials are burned at the end of
the building’s lifecycle, the carbon emissions from burning correspond to about
32 hectares of annual forest growth. In
the case “TRADITIONAL” this number
was 48 hectares. The assessment was
based on annual growth rate per hectare of forest land in Northern Finland(2.7 m3/ha/a).
However, as the end of life scenario
for the wooden products was ‘preparation for reuse’, once used wooden
product reused in the next case with
the inclusion of it’s embodied biogenic
carbon content from the forest. Thus,
whether carbon neutrality approach isrealized or not depends on the next use
case.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition– 6. Conclusions and Recommendations –winter temperatures without frosting.
Finally, the heating system has to contain a back-up functionality to cover theloss of grid power situations, typically afireplace.
The research group found that windenergy would be the best renewable energy source in northern Finland. Wind
energy is particularly advantageous
because it can achieve reasonably balanced supply in relation to demand andbecause it causes a smaller carbon footprint than, for example, solar energy
due to the large carbon-heavy batteries
that the latter requires. It is reasonable
to implement wind energy generation
as a regional solution, which improves
the cost-effectiveness of the electricity supplied. Wind power is suitablefor both conventional (more energyintensive) and modern construction,
but for conventional construction morewind power is needed when low-carbon
building is targeted. In the case studies
examined, the energy need of a traditional house solution was about one anda half times that of a modified house.
Locations of new wind-power plants
need careful consideration. Large-scale
wind-power plants require environmental assessment, a process in which also
impacts to indigenous peoples and local
communities are examined and concerns heard. For example, in Norway
an excessive wind power plant project
was rejected in 2012 after engaging theindigenous peoples and local communi-

122

Recommendations
for policy-makers

When considering sustainability ofbuildings the focus should be on thefull life cycle impacts. This is an overarching goal, the importance of whichcannot be understated. This target
should be met when pursuing the following objectives.

hydro). It is important that new energy
production is planned with respect toindigenous peoples and local communities and their needs.

Renewable energy should be includedin the micro-grid mix. The decisionmaker of an individual building project
can use renewable energy (with PV
panels and collectors, pumps), which
can have a major role in the carbon
footprint of this building. Solar/PV collectors can be a good source of energy
but the solar conditions they require
are not available all year round in the
Arctic. Also, investments in cleaner
energy regionally would have a major
impact on the GHG emissions (wind,

Occupants’ needs and profiles should
be considered in the design and operation of the building. Different studies showed an important difference
between the preconstruction energy
consumption estimates and the measured performance, often due to wrong
assumptions on how occupants would
use the building. Better considering theoccupants’ needs and profiles in the design and operation of the building, andraising occupants’ awareness regarding
the environmental impact of energy
use in buildings would certainly help toreduce energy consumption. Involving
the inhabitants (for example Inuit in the
Canadian case) in the design process ofhouses, conducting post-occupancy tounderstand how they feel about topics
such as energy and buildings, and monitoring real buildings could be beneficial
for this.

– 6. Conclusions and Recommendations –Optimal energy efficiency should betargeted in new buildings. Energy efficiency should not be pursued at theexpense of potential service life or air
quality.
If it is expected that the operationalenergy during a building’s life cycle
is produced by burning fossil fuels,
improving energy efficiency is evenmore essential. However, it is important
to examine the full life-cycle impacts ofbuildings and energy efficiency should
be considered also as a question of longservice life, recoverability and reusability.

Low-carbon materials, such as woodfrom sustainably grown forests,
should be preferred. Wood is the only
material that can compensate theemissions from construction and use.
However, to reach the full benefit, thewooden materials should not be burnedin the end of the building’s life cycle,
but reused as much as possible.

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

123

The buildings should be designed toenable deconstruction (Design-fordeconstruction), reassembling andreuse. The building can be designed
in a way, that the whole building could
be moved to another location. This ispossible for example in traditional log
construction, such as the first Finnish
case building. Considering the melting
permafrost, relocating buildings might
be an important issue to consider in
Arctic areas in the future. The buildings and the building parts should also
be designed for a long lifecycle, so thatreassembling and reuse is possible.

Zero Arctic |The buildings should be designed forclimate resilience. This may include
low technology use, maintenance withsimple tools use and easily adjustable
dwelling operation to unexpected, rapid
and extreme all-weather, all-seasonschanges.

The Zero Arctic project opened
discussion on carbon neutral and sustainable arctic building. The focus wason ecological aspects, with respect tocultural values. However, to also cover
the economic and social pillars of sustainable development, further researchwould be needed. Especially building
life cycle cost analysis (LCC) for casebuildings with different solutions would
provide useful information.
The Finnish study group foundCanada’s approach to planning process
inspiring. The Finnish case buildings
were designed for northern conditions,but not especially for the Sámi lifestyle,although comments were gathered. Thisfurther study would involve full Sami
collaboration and integrated climate resilience design - covering detail design,
construction, habitation and monitoring of one or more dwellings. Deep listening of recent Sámi experience could
create more radical concepts to shake
our way of seeing good living.
It is worth highlighting, that theregions that were included in the study
do not represent all Arctic regions.
Therefore it would be of great value tosee similar studies conducted in otherArctic regions as well.

Contributions

Zero Arctic |Zero Arctic project (2018–2020) works
under the Arctic Council and its Sustainable Development Working Group.
The project was led by Ministry ofEnvironment of Finland, together with
Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada. The project wassupervised by Ministry of Environment
senior specialist, PhD Matti Kuittinen
with support and ideas from Senior Arctic Official Henna Haapala and coordinated by Eeva Huttunen.
The findings and material of thethree international teams were put
together and edited by Eeva Huttunen,
Marko Huttunen, Panu Savolainen,
Frans Saraste and Sirje Vares in dialogue
with the project teams of Canada andJapan.
Executive Summary, Introduction andConclusion chapters were written by the
Finnish project team in dialogue withthe project teams of Canada and Japan.
The graphic design of the cover andtitle pages is by Susan Novotny while therest of the graphic design of the reportis by Johannes Nieminen. The layout
and illustrations are by Frans Sarastewith layout help from Juulia Mikkola.
The final report was circulated forcomments in SDWG Member states,
Observers and Permanent Participants.
All given comments were discussedwith the project group and the reportedited. Language checks were provided
by Saana Rusi, Juulia Mikkola and Katherine O’Leary.

– 6. Conclusions and Recommendations –Suggestions forfurther research

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

124

CanadaThe project coordination and research in Finland was funded by the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland.
The solid drafts of chapters 2, 3 and5 were written by Marko Huttunen and
PhD. Panu Savolainen from Livady
Architects.
The research and solid draft of chapter 4 was conducted by M.Sc. (Tech.)Sirje Vares, M.Sc. (Tech.) Jari Shemeikka
and PhD Tarja Häkkinen from VTT.
3D-modeling of vernacular dwellings
were made by Laura Zubillaga. Visualisations and illustrations were made byFrans Saraste.
The case-study houses were designedin Livady by architects Marko Huttunen
and Laura Zubillaga with help from
Frans Saraste.
Livady consulted architect Neil
Winder on matters of climate resilience.
Life-cycle assessments and energy
simulations were conducted by Sirje
Vares, Jari Shemeikka and PhD Tarja
Häkkinen from VTT.
The research team received supportand ideas from Päivi Magga and Darja
Heikkilä from The Sámi museum Siida.
Permission to use the cultural knowledge of the Sámi people was granted by
the Sámi Parliament on December 11,
2018. The Sámi parliament represents
the Sámi people in national and international affairs in accordance with § 6.
The Sámi Parliament gave useful comments for the report draft.

The staff from Crown-Indigenous
Relations and Northern Affairs Canada(CIRNAC), in particular Fadi Cherri andDoug Klassen, helped to the elaborationof this report by providing the overall
outline, as well as a solid draft for Chapters 2 and 3.
Professor Louis Gosselin, P. Eng.,
Ph.D. (Université Laval) coordinatedthis work and participated to the writing
and revision of most sections.
Dr. Jean Rouleau, Jr. Eng., Ph.D.
(Université Laval) prepared the maps
and text of Chapter 3. He developed andran the energy models of Chapter 4, andparticipated to the writing of that casestudy. He also helped with assemblingand revising the document.
Dr. Audrey Tanguy, Ph.D. (Universitéde Sherbrooke) performed the life-cycle
analysis of Chapter 4 and participatedto writing this chapter with the helpof Professor Ben Amor, P. Eng., Ph.D.
(Université de Sherbrooke).
Paméla Peer-Corriveau (Université
Laval) helped collecting data and information for Chapter 2.
Dr. Noémie Chagnon-Lessard, Jr.
Eng., Ph.D. (Université Laval) helped revising the document and provided somefigures for Chapter 2.
Pierre-Olivier Demeule and Professors Geneviève Vachon, MOAQ, Ph.D.,
Myriam Blais, MOAQ, Ph.D. and Geneviève Cloutier, Urb., Ph.D. (all from
Université Laval) provided pages 48-49

and helped to complete Chapter 1 withinformation relative to Nunavik. The
images on pages 48-49 was taken by P.O. Demeule in Salluit, Nunavik.
All questions about Canadian part of
the report could be addressed to Professor Louis Gosselin (Louis.Gosselin@
gmc.ulaval.ca).

The project coordination and researchin Hokkaido were partially funded by
J-ARC-net of Arctic Research Center in
Hokkaido Univ. The project was lead by
associate professor Mori Taro and theLaboratory of Building Environment,
Hokkaido University.
Abe Yuhei (Northern Regional Building Research Institute), Yamamoto Ako(Yamamoto Ako architecture studio),and Inoue Nozomu (Indi co. ltd) supported us on the topic of History of R&D
of a residential building in Hokkaido.
Ohashi Yoshinori (Forests Products Research Institute) helped to write the section on Wood Architecture in Hokkaido.
Life-cycle assessments and energy
simulations were conducted by Ooi
Marina and Hayashi Taisuke (Graduate
student of Hokkaido Univ.) Data for the
analysis was provided by Yamamoto
Ako (Yamamoto Ako Architect studio)
and Ogura Hiromasa (sa-design office).
Construction of Chise and the research
was financially supported by Grants-inAid for Scientific Research. Principal
investigator is professor Nishizawa
Takeo (Kushiro National College ofTechnology).

Concepts for carbon neutral Arctic construction based on tradition

125

Disclaimer

Even with all the care that we devoted
to provide accurate data and information, and despite of the verifications andproofreading that we did, it is possiblethat mistakes or inaccuracies have remained in the text. However, to the bestof our knowledge, the document reflects
the currently available information.
The document is not meant to be
exhaustive, in particular regarding
vernacular architecture, the historicalevolution of housing, the best design
practices in each region and territory,
and the examples of houses presented
in the report. We believe, though, thatthe report provides an accurate overview on these topics.

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