日本語とジェンダー第14号（2014)【研究例会 IN ハンガリー発表】

Gender in Japanese Language Textbooks: Modern Society and Teachers' Awareness*
Terumi Mizumoto*日本語訳ありKeywords: Japanese language textbooks, female sentence-final particles, Japanese language teachers, gender
ideology
1. Introduction
For students of Japanese, textbooks are not only a means to learn the language, they also play animportant role in learning about Japanese society and culture. Among students outside Japan who have no
actual experience of living there, there is especially a strong likelihood that they will accept the images ofJapanese people and society portrayed within their textbook as real depictions of modern Japan. However,descriptions influenced by concepts of traditional gender ideology can be found in many of the textbooks
now widely used in Japanese language education. For example, many of the young female characters
appearing in Japanese language textbooks continue to use what are known as “female sentence-final particles”
in spite of the fact that such particles have disappeared from conversational, plain-form Japanese speech inactual everyday use. This unnatural language usage has remained uncorrected for some time now in
textbooks.
In order to grasp what sort of awareness Japanese language instructors who are using these textbooks
in an pedagogical environment have regarding gender, and to see how they are teaching it, I conducted asurvey via questionnaire of 200 Japanese language educators. Where the survey revealed an outstanding
difference between the answers given by instructors in Japan and Korea and those in Europe was in thesection covering the use of female sentence-final particles. In this paper, I aim to find out how Japanese
language instructors have grasped the results of research into female sentence-final particles in textbooks
done by Mizumoto et al. (2009), and well as investigating how they are teaching these particles in thepedagogical environment. Furthermore, I will consider why textbooks have been so sluggish in reacting tochanges in the language, and put forward a proposal for textbooks in the future.
2. Previous Studies: Comparative Analyses of Japanese Language Textbooks and Natural Speech
The main research into female final-sentence particles began in the Nineties. Prior research hasreported that use of final-sentence particles such as “~wa” and “~kashira” is in decline (Kobayashi, 1993;
Ozaki, 1997; Nakajima, 1997; Ogawa, 2004). The data on natural speech used for these researches werecollected from the early to mid Nineties, so as a period of ten years sees a generational change, Mizumoto(2006) decided to collect her own original data between 2004 and 2006 (for details of the survey methods,
see previous research).
The female sentence-final particles covered in the previous research (Mizumoto, 2006) were mainly
narrowed down to four varieties that are regarded as now having all but disappeared from the casual, plainform speech of young women in their twenties and thirties, namely “~wa (yo/ne)”, “~kashira”, “N1 + ne/yo”,
and “~no yo”. Then, as a result of data gathered from 36 female speakers of standard Japanese in their
twenties, thirties, and forties, Mizumoto et al. (2009) were able to confirm that the average usage rate offemale sentence-final particles across the three generations was just 5.26%, and among women in their
twenties it was a mere 2.36%. Seven of the survey subjects did not use the particles at all. The survey also
revealed that even in cases where they were used, it was deliberately as a joke, sarcasm, or when quoting the
speech of older female speakers.
On the other hand, there is little research on female sentence-final particles used in the majority of

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日本語とジェンダー第14号（2014)

textbooks, with Kawasaki and McDougall (2003) the only research published before this author’s own
research to use precise, original data. Other than that, Suzuki (2007) and Thomson and Iida (2002) havepointed out that the decline in usage of female sentence-final particles is not being properly reflected in
textbooks, but both papers lack adequate subjects for analysis and data numbers.
Mizumoto (2009) then examined a total of 39 different teaching materials published from 1994 to2006 — 12 beginner and intermediate level Japanese language textbooks, 8 covering listening
comprehension, and 19 for the Japanese Language Proficiency Test or Examination for Japanese University
Admission for International Students—and confirmed that the average usage rate for female sentence-final
particles in them was between 54.42% and 79.42%, which is between 10 and 15 times higher than actual
natural speech. Furthermore, data was obtained from previous experiments (Mizumoto et al. 2007b) thatshowed that, unless specifically taught otherwise by their instructor, 70% of young students who did the
speaking and listening practices in those teaching materials would then try to use the female sentence-final
particles just like the conversation examples in their textbooks.
3. Surveying Japanese Language Instructors’ Awareness and Analyzing the Data
Between June and July, 2010, I conducted a questionnaire survey of 200 people involved in Japanese
language education (118 in Japan and South Korea, 82 in Europe), and then analyzed the results. For detailsof the survey method, please refer to Mizumoto (2011, 2013a). In the survey, I first checked whether or not
the instructor was up to date on the current state of Japanese society, and then tried to discover what sort ofawareness and opinions he or she had regarding the problems surrounding gender in textbooks. In the survey,
I divided up the statistical data into two groups for analysis, A) Japan and South Korea, and B) Europe2. Few
differences were observed between the two groups in the majority of categories covering such areas as theimage of Japanese women and their work, and the image of Japanese housewives and families3. However,where a startling difference was seen was in the awareness and opinions on female sentence-final particles.
In this research, I will perform a comparative analysis of the survey results concerning female sentence-final
particles where the differences were conspicuous, and examine the latent gender bias that the results indicate.
In response to a question in the survey regarding whether or not the instructor was aware that female
sentence-final particles are no longer being used in natural speech by young women as mentioned above,
91% of instructors in Group A answered that they were aware, whereas in Group B the number was 76%,and of those who answered “not aware”, 85% were women over 50. Judging by their ages and the fact thatthey had at least 10 years prior experience of living in the Tokyo Metropolitan district, where standard
Japanese is spoken (and where female sentence-final particles were mainly used in the past), it is thus fair toassume that since moving overseas they have spent time in an environment where they are unable to noticechanges in the speech of younger age groups of women in Japan.
When I then asked the instructors whether or not the textbooks should contrast male and female
sentence-final particles, 84% replied that it was necessary. As reasons for this, around one third of the total
respondents gave answers such as “The particles are a characteristic of Japanese,” “They are necessary forpoliteness and in business,” and “I want the differences between male and female speech to be preserved”,
and of the remaining two thirds, the majority of opinions given went along the lines of “The particles areused in novels, manga, TV dramas, and movies,” “There are still older people who use them,” “I teach themas an aspect of Japanese knowledge, and it’s important to be able to understand them when you hear them.”
From this, it can be seen that most instructors understand the current situation regarding their usage (thatolder women still use the female sentence-final particles), and that knowledge of them is necessary forunderstanding literary and film creations. However, with regard to the opinion in the first one third that “theyare necessary for politeness, and in business,” one has to question whether a speaker would actually be using
female sentence-final particles (which are more commonly used in casual conversations) in a businesssituation. Moreover, if the instructor “wants the differences between male and female speech to be preserved,”
is there not a strong possibility that latent gender-biased thinking is influencing their ideas about the23

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日本語とジェンダー第14号（2014)

linguistic roles of men and women?
A difference between Groups A and B was also observed in how instructors felt about the use of female
sentence-final particles in speech by young female characters in textbooks, as shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1

Use of female sentence-final particles in speech by young female characters in textbooks

Residence

Approvea. Japan/S.Korea
b. Europe

29%
61%

Should not be used
depending on age andsituation,
63%
37%

Should not be used byyoung people
8%2%

Around two thirds of the instructors in Group B approved, compared to less than one third of Group A. In
contrast, around two thirds of instructors in Group A replied that depending on the speaker’s age and/or thesituation the particles should not be used, whereas only a little over a third of Group B gave the same response.
From these results, it can be seen that Group A instructors, in Japan and South Korea, clearly recognise thatthe younger age groups of women do not actually use these particles. Among the reasons they gave were,when young women use them, it is “unrealistic and unnatural,” “students want to study how Japanese people
in the same age group speak,” “usage in textbooks should be natural and match real life,” “stereotyped
women’s language in textbooks is a problem that could lead to gender problems,” and “there is a concernthat this incorrect awareness arising from overuse in textbooks will cause gender problems.” It can therefore
be surmised that instructors in Japan and Korea are well aware that teaching textbook usage of sentencefinal particle that runs contrary to actual use among younger age groups is in itself a gender problem.
On the other hand, even though 76% of Group B instructors in Europe were aware that younger age
groups do not use female sentence-final particles, two thirds of them contradictively replied that they
approved of their usage in textbooks. Reasons for this were variously given as, “I feel it’s odd when women
talk the same way as men,” “Female students who do not use female sentence-final particles will create abad impression,” “I want these beautiful, soft, feminine words to remain as part of Japanese culture,” and “Ifeel that using these particles is orthodox Japanese.” A latent conceptual bias influenced by gender ideology
can clearly be identified in these opinions.
4.

Thoughts and Conclusions

Based on the results from the survey described above, I was able to confirm the following points.
1) Regardless of where they currently reside, most instructors are aware that Japanese women in younger
age groups are using female sentence-final particles less and less now.
2) Many instructors in Europe approve of the use of female sentence-final particles by young women, andthe influence of gender ideology can be recognized in many of those cases.
3) The majority of instructors living in Japan and South Korea teach female sentence-final particles as an
aspect of Japanese knowledge, and feel that it is necessary to teach them to students so that they canunderstand them if heard.
4) Whatever the case may be, instructors who think that the younger generations should not be actively
using female sentence-final particles are demanding natural language usage in textbooks that reflects
reality.
New editions of some of the textbooks featured in this survey were published in the middle of the
2000s. However, while topics presented in the later versions were brought up to date, the use of female
sentence-final particles by young women characters was still high, ranging from 64% to 74%. Why is it that,in spite of being language textbooks, they were not updated according to current language usage withattention paid to changes in speech? Do the producers of these textbooks maintain a strongly-rooted

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日本語とジェンダー第14号（2014)

perception that female sentence-final particles equal a unique characteristic of Japanese which in turn equals
an aspect of Japanese culture that they must preserve? Or does it come from a belief that the middle-aged
and older generations are more influential linguistically than younger people? Even if, hypothetically, thatwere the case in society, is there any reason in textbooks to make young students learn expressions that are
already disappearing from actual use?
Included in the replies to the questionnaire was the opinion that the use of female sentence-final
particles by young women in textbooks should be tolerated because the books “must present archetypal
examples.” It is certainly true that archetypal examples are easy for students to understand and assist
comprehension. However, surely gender ideology does not have to be included in that? Should we as teachers
continue to pass down traditional stereotypes, and should we also, based on the rather misguided assumptionthat the age groups which use female sentence-final particles are still the mainstream, ignore linguistic
expressions that are changing and continue to change?
If a textbook has to show female sentence-final particles, then it is sufficient for students to recognize
them in speech or text and understand their meaning. Showing examples in textbooks in which young
characters deliberately use these particles is meaningless, and practice drills that force young students to usethem will conversely only end up causing confusion in the learner. It would be appropriate if the use of
female sentence-final particles in textbooks is limited to characters in age groups that actually use them, andmake students aware that in the fictional world of novels and movies the particles are used to fulfill aparticular function.
At the end of the questionnaire I asked the Japanese language instructors whether a Japanese language
textbook that paid attention to gender and gender problems was necessary, to which only one personanswered that they deemed it unnecessary. Around 65% replied that they thought it was necessary, fromwhich fact we can conclude that now is perhaps a good time for a textbook to be produced in which young
female characters do not use female sentence-final particles. As my next research topic, I would like toinvestigate what sort of expressions young women are actually using in the place of traditional female
sentence-final particles, and then put forward a model for a textbook that takes gender problems into
consideration.
Footnotes
1. “N” refers to substantives, such as nouns and pronouns. (Back to text)
2. For results of the survey of instructors in Group A (Japan and South Korea) regarding female sentencefinal particles, please refer to Mizumoto (2011). (Back to text)
3. In the results of the survey covering both Japan/South Korea and Europe, for details of women’s jobs
see Mizumoto (2013a), and for the portrayal of Japanese families see Mizumoto (2013b). (Back to text)
References
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language of men and women: Definitions, awareness, and the reality]. Nihongo to Gender [Japaneseand Gender], 4, 26-39.
Ozaki, Yoshimitsu (1997). Josei senyō no bunmatsu keishiki no ima [Current sentence ending forms
among women]. In Gendai Nihongo Kenkyūkai [Modern Japanese Research Society] (Ed.), Josei no
kotoba: shokubahen [Women’s language: the workplace ] (pp.33-58). Tokyo: Hitsuji Shobō.
Kobayashi, Mieko (1993). Sedai to joseigo – Wakai sedai no kotoba no ”Chūseika” ni tsuite [Age groups
and female language: the ‘Neutralization’ of words in younger age groups]. Nihongogaku [Japanese
Language Studies ],12-6, 181-192.
Suzuki, Mutsumi (2007). Kotoba no danjosa to Nihongo kyōiku [Differences in men’s and women’s
speech and Japanese language education]. Journal of Japanese Language Teaching, 134. 48-57.
Kinoshita Thomson, C. & Iida, S. （2002）Nihongo kyōiku ni okeru seisa no gakushū：Australia no
gakushūsha no ishiki chōsa yori [Studying the differences between the sexes in Japanese language

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日本語とジェンダー第14号（2014)

education: from a survey of awareness among Australian students]. Nihongo kyōiku ronshū: Sekai no
Nihongo kyōiku [Japanese-Language Education Overseas] , 12, 1-20.
Nakajima, Etsuko (1997). Gimon-hyōgen no gyōsō : [Aspects in interrogative phrases] . In Gendai
Nihongo Kenkyūkai [Modern Japanese Research Society] (Ed.), Josei no kotoba: shokubahen [Women’s
language: the workplace ] (pp. 59-82). Tokyo: Hitsuji Shobō.
Mizumoto, Terumi (2006). Terebi dorama to jisshakai ni okeru josei-bunmatsushi shiyō no zure ni miru
gender filter [ Teaching feminine sentence-final particles between real society and TV dramas]. Nihongo
Gender Gakkai [The Society for Gender Studies in Japanese] (Ed.), Nihongo to Gender [Japanese andGender] (pp. 73-94). Tokyo: Hitsuji Shobō.
Mizumoto,T., Fukumori, S., Takada, K. (2007b).
Kaiwa kyōzai ni okeru josei-bunmatsushi no Atsukai:[Teaching Female Sentence-final Particles in Conversations]. Proceedings of the Sixth International
Symposium on Oral Proficiency Interview, 85-90.
Mizumoto,T., Fukumori, S., Takada, K. (2009). Nihongo kyōzai ni miru josei-bunmatsushi: Jisshakai ni
okeru shiyōjittai chōsa to no hikaku bunseki [Comparative Analysis of Female Sentence-final Particles inJapanese Textbooks with Usage in Real Society]. Journal of the Society for Gender Studies in Japanese, 4,12-24.
Mizumoto, Terumi (2011) . Nihongo kyōshi no ishiki chōsa bunseki: Nihongo kyōkasho ni okeru joseibunmatsushi shiyō ni kanshite [An analysis of Japanese language teacher’s consciousness of female
sentence-final particle usage in Japanese textbooks]. Bulletin of the Center for Fundamental Education,
9, 55-80.
Mizumoto, Terumi (2013a). Nihongo kyōkasho ni okeru josei no shokugyō: Kyōkasho bunseki to Nihongokyōshi no ishiki chōsa [Women’s occupations in Japanese language textbooks: A Comparative analysisof textbooks and teachers’ gender consciousness]. Bulletin of the Center for Fundamental Education,
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shakai no jittai wo tsutaete iru ka [Gender in Japanese language textbooks: Do the images of Japanesewomen appropriately represent the realities of modern society?]. Language and Conceptual World View,
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Kyōiku[Japanese-Language Education Overseas] ,13, 41-55.
Note: As for the list of the investigated textbooks, please refer to the chart that is indicated on the last pageof the Japanese paper.

（日本語訳）

日本語教科書におけるジェンダー：現代社会の実情と教える側の認識
水本光美
キーワード：日本語教科書、女性文末詞、日本語教師、ジェンダー・イデオロギー
1. はじめに日本語学習者にとって、教科書は言語を習得するためだけではなく、日本社会や日本文化を知る上でも重要な役割を果たす。特に、日本社会での実体験がない海外における学習者にとっては、教科書に描かれる日本人像や日本社会像がそのまま現在の日本の姿であると受け取られる可能性が高い。現在、日本語教育において広範に使用されている教科書の多くには、従来のジェンダー・イデオロギー
的な観念に影響を受けた描写が認められる。例えば、現在は実社会で普通体によるくだけた会話において、従来の “女性文末詞”が既に消滅しているにも拘わらず、多くの日本語教科書の中の若い女性登場人物に今もなお使用され続けているという「不自然な言語使用」が長年改善されずに引き継がれて
いる。
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