Pedestrian Safety,
Urban Spaceand HealthResearch ReportPedestrian Safety,
Urban Spaceand HealthResearch ReportThis work is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The
opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official
views of the Organisation or of the governments of its member countries.

Please cite this publication as:
ITF (2012), Pedestrian Safety, Urban Space and Health, OECD Publishing.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789282103654-en

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INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT FORUM
The International Transport Forum at the OECD is an intergovernmental organisation with 54
member countries. It acts as a strategic think tank with the objective of helping shape the transport policy
agenda on a global level and ensuring that it contributes to economic growth, environmental protection,social inclusion and the preservation of human life and well-being. The International Transport Forumorganizes an annual summit of Ministers along with leading representatives from industry, civil society andacademia.
The International Transport Forum was created under a Declaration issued by the Council of
Ministers of the ECMT (European Conference of Ministers of Transport) at its Ministerial Session in May
2006 under the legal authority of the Protocol of the ECMT, signed in Brussels on 17 October 1953, andlegal instruments of the OECD.
The Members of the Forum are: Albania, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium,
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, France, FYROM, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan,
Korea, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Moldova, Montenegro, Netherlands,
New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, the United Kingdom and the United States.
The International Transport Forum’s Research Centre gathers statistics and conducts co-operative
research programmes addressing all modes of transport. Its findings are widely disseminated and support
policymaking in Member countries as well as contributing to the annual summit.

Further information about the International Transport Forum is available atwww.internationaltransportforum.org
This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to thedelimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.

FOREWORD –5

FOREWORD

This report was prepared by a research working group of the International Transport Forum,
composed of experts from 19 countries (including town and transport planners, sociologists, engineers,
psychologists, architects and geographers) together with experts from the World Health Organization.
The information on which the report is based was obtained through a survey of all ITF member
countries, collecting information on mobility data, institutional arrangements and measures to improve
the walking environment. Experts from the working group also reviewed current research including
the detailed report of the COST358 project “Pedestrian Quality Needs”, published in 2011.
This report assembles the most significant information on the importance of walking to the future
development of our cities and opens with the main key messages. Chapter 1 discusses walking in thecontext of the key challenges of the 21st century; Chapter 2 highlights that walking is often a neglectedtransport mode, despite its important role in mobility; Chapter 3 describes patterns of walking in
ITF/OECD countries; Chapter 4 discusses the benefits of walking for health and well being; Chapter 5
presents statistics on pedestrian accidents and crashes and issues associated with pedestrian safety andpersonal security; Chapter 6 outlines the key elements and planning principles for promoting walking;
Chapter 7 addresses the need for a walking strategy, including the role that governments andstakeholders can play in promoting environments conducive to walking; and Chapter 8 presents theconclusions and recommendations of the report.

PEDESTRIAN SAFETY, URBAN SPACE AND HEALTH © OECD/ITF 2012

TABLE OF CONTENTS –7

TABLE OF CONTENTSFOREWORD ................................................................................................................................................ 5KEY MESSAGES ......................................................................................................................................... 9
RECOMMENDATIONS.............................................................................................................................. 11
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: WALKING AND THE CHALLENGES OF
THE 21ST CENTURY ................................................................................................................................... 13
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.

Why the need for a publication devoted to a strategy for better provision for walking? ................. 14
The identity of walking .................................................................................................................... 15
Vitality and liveability of the city ..................................................................................................... 15
Economic dimension of a strategy for walking ................................................................................ 16
The objectives of a strategy for walking .......................................................................................... 17

CHAPTER 2. WALKING: THE NEGLECTED TRANSPORT MODE ............................................... 19
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.

Forgotten in data ............................................................................................................................... 19
Forgotten in cities ............................................................................................................................. 20
Forgotten in the decision making process ........................................................................................ 21

CHAPTER 3. WALKING PATTERNS IN ITF/OECD COUNTRIES .................................................. 23
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.7.
3.8.

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 23
The share of walking ........................................................................................................................ 23
Distance, duration and speed ............................................................................................................ 24
The purpose of walking .................................................................................................................... 26
Choice of transport mode ................................................................................................................. 26
Demographic differences.................................................................................................................. 26
Changes over time ............................................................................................................................ 27
Distances covered by walking and time spent .................................................................................. 28

CHAPTER 4. WALKING, HEALTH AND WELL BEING ................................................................... 29
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 29
Direct health benefits of physical activity and walking.................................................................... 29
Indirect benefits of promoting walking ............................................................................................ 31
Other considerations concerning walking ........................................................................................ 33
Economic benefits of walking .......................................................................................................... 34
Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 36

CHAPTER 5. SAFETY AND PERSONAL SECURITY: FACTS AND FEELINGS ........................... 37
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.

Non traffic accidents: pedestrian falls and stumbling....................................................................... 37
Traffic crashes involving pedestrians ............................................................................................... 38
Personal security............................................................................................................................... 42

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8 – TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 6. KEY ELEMENTS AND PLANNING PRINCIPLES TO PROMOTE WALKING..... 45
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.
6.6.
6.7.
6.8.
6.9.

Integration of mobility and urban planning ...................................................................................... 45
Development of public transport services and urban areas .............................................................. 53
Urban space for non-motorised traffic and public transport............................................................. 56
Incentives to promote walking ......................................................................................................... 63
Speed management ........................................................................................................................... 65
Education and communication ......................................................................................................... 73
Legislation and traffic codes ............................................................................................................ 78
New technologies to encourage and facilitate pedestrian mobility .................................................. 80
Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 83

CHAPTER 7. NEED FOR A WALKING STRATEGY: ROLE OF GOVERNMENTS ANDSTAKEHOLDERS ....................................................................................................................................... 85
7.1.
7.2.

Understanding pedestrian quality needs ........................................................................................... 85
Developing a walking strategy ......................................................................................................... 86

CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................ 93
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................. 93
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................................... 97
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................................... 99
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND LIST OF PARTICIPANTS ................................................................ 111

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KEY MESSAGES –9

KEY MESSAGES

Walking has great potential to contribute to high level government agendas for more sustainable
development and should therefore take a central position in urban transport policies. Ensuring thatwalking is an attractive alternative and complement to motorised transport is a core response to thechallenges of climate change, fossil fuel dependence, pollution, maintaining mobility for an ageing
population, health and managing the explosion in motorisation expected in low-income and middleincome countries. Because trends established today will determine the future of cities for many decades,
actions are needed now for the sustainable cities of tomorrow.
1. Walking is the most fundamental form of mobility. It is inexpensive, emission-free, uses
human power not fossil fuel, offers important health-benefits, is equally accessible for all except those with substantially impaired mobility - regardless of income, and for many
citizens is a source of great pleasure. Yet walking presents challenges to society’s leastrobust individuals.
2. The vitality of a city is closely linked to people being out and about on foot for many
purposes. Beyond walking for access to goods and services, these other activities in theurban space are collectively termed “sojourning”. Walking and sojourning are at the heart ofurban life and contribute to liveable, attractive, prosperous and sustainable cities.
3. Walking is however the neglected transport mode and despite being at the start and end of all
trips is rarely captured in government statistics on mobility and is often neglected inplanning and policy development.
4. Public institutions representing specifically the interests of pedestrians – including thesocially disadvantaged members of society who rely heavily on walking – are rare.
5. Walking and public transport are interdependent elements of sustainable urban mobility.
Walking is facilitated by a well-connected network with pedestrian-friendly infrastructure
and well-designed urban space.
6. Pedestrians are amongst the road users most vulnerable to traffic injury. It has become highly
challenging, especially for older and young people, to cope with the complex, sometimes
hostile, traffic conditions that characterise today’s cities and towns.
7. Pedestrians suffer severe trauma from falls in public spaces and in traffic collisions whilecrossing streets. The magnitude of the consequences of falls is known to be underestimated.
Older people have an elevated risk of severe injury and death from both falls and trafficcollisions.
8. Low motorised traffic speeds reduce the frequency and severity of crashes, especially those
involving pedestrians. Reducing speed also contributes to smoother traffic flow andenhances in many ways the liveability and sustainability of cities.

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10 – KEY MESSAGES
9. Motorisation has contributed to urban sprawl, and cities have evolved to accommodate caruse, with many negative impacts on life and social cohesion. Changes are required now tomanage the preponderant role of motorised traffic in industrialised countries. This is alsourgent in low- and middle-income countries, which are now moving rapidly towards muchhigher levels of motorisation.

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RECOMMENDATIONS –11

RECOMMENDATIONSNational governments and transport and health ministers can do much to support and encourage
walking, even when it is considered to be mainly a local policy issue. A clear vision and political support
at a national level, backed by a systematic approach to understanding and defining infrastructure quality
for pedestrians, is an important complement to and support for initiatives taken by local authorities. To
achieve sustainable mobility, governments are invited in particular to consider the following
recommendations:
1. Integrate mobility management and urban planning and take better account of the needs ofpedestrians from the earliest stages of urban development projects and transport investments,
with the object of creating seamless, high-quality networks for pedestrian activity.
2. Establish clear administrative responsibilities among relevant government departments at alllevels for co-ordinating walking programmes and initiatives. The purpose of sucharrangements is to stimulate and support actions in government and private sector
organisations in an integrated way. This might take the form of a national committee or aninterministerial co-ordinator supported by a national pedestrian observatory.
3. Improve knowledge about walking to adequately inform government policy development inrelation to this fundamental aspect of mobility. This requires a standardized methodology
for, measuring, reporting and monitoring pedestrian mobility and injuries (from trafficcrashes and falls). Standardization would help to make the measurement of growth inwalking and sojourning a core indicator of urban sustainability and liveability. Efforts should
also be directed at the development of international comparisons of mobility and safety
statistics to agreed definitions. At a national level, such information could be collected by anational pedestrian observatory.
4. Incorporate public transport services as an integrated part of the development of new urban
areas and the regeneration of existing areas, through planning guidance and financial support
for public transport services. This can support a long-term shift towards higher-density,
mixed-use, walking and transit-oriented urban form and a reduction in the growth of urban
sprawl.
5. Encourage the responsible authorities to give higher priority and more space to nonmotorised traffic and public transport in city centres. This includes a number of key actions:providing easy, safe, well-maintained and secure pedestrian access to public transport and toall city centre destinations; development of car-free areas; parking policies to discourageover-use of cars in city centres; and regulations to prevent parking on pavements andcrossings, which undermines the quality of walking and, in severe cases, renders walking
impracticable.

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12 – RECOMMENDATIONS
6. Develop national pedestrian planning guidance for local administrations. Plans should be
required to give consideration to the impact of projects on pedestrians, and cyclists, as partof project appraisals and environmental impact assessments. Plans should also consider thedevelopment and setting of targets for future levels of walking, as well as addressing needs
for financial support. Public participation through, for example, pedestrian associations
should be solicited in developing urban transport plans. Safety should receive specificattention in national planning guidance, with recommendations for implementation at the
local authority level.
7. Encourage employers to implement a broad range of incentives for employees to include
active transport in commuting trips. Government agencies should demonstrate leadership in
this area.
8. Adopt a safe system approach for the design of the walking environment so that it isorganised in such a way that specific risk groups are not exposed to avoidable risks.
9. Implement traffic-calming policies and generalise 30 km/h zones in city centres, residential
areas and other high pedestrian activity areas. This should be based on a functionalclassification of urban spaces, streets and road networks, supported by appropriate
infrastructure design criteria to create low-risk and amenable urban environments fornon-motorised road users. To be fully effective, best-practice education, communication andenforcement programmes are needed. The development of intelligent speed adaptation
systems is also recommended.
10. Encourage the introduction of high-quality education programmes in schools and local
community centres, to teach safe road user behaviour and promote the benefits of walking
through a range of effective forms of communication. Adult retraining initiatives are also
indicated. School mobility plans should be developed aiming to produce a safe andsupportive environment in which children can walk to school.
11. Conduct a critical review of current traffic codes to strengthen the legal and financial
protection of pedestrians in case of a crash, and give higher priority to more vulnerable road
users in order to provide safer, more equitable conditions among all road users.
12. Develop a research strategy to understand better mobility trends and individual behaviours ina changing society. This should include evaluating the effectiveness of measures to reduce
dependence on private car travel, achieve higher-density urban forms, protect theenvironment, improve health and achieve more efficient and sustainable use of energy.

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: WALKING AND THE CHALLENGES OF THE 21ST CENTURY –13

ISBN 978-92-821-0364-7
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: WALKING AND THE CHALLENGES
OF THE 21ST CENTURY“The pedestrian is entitled to live in a healthy environment and to freely enjoy the amenities offeredby public open areas in conditions that safeguard his physical and psychological well-being.”
From the Charter for pedestrians’ rights, adopted by the European Parliament in 1988.
There is a rapidly-growing realisation within society that greatly improved provision for walking isneeded if we are to meet a number of key challenges facing tomorrow’s world. More and more, we arecoming to understand that large cities and other urban areas are struggling to cope with a number ofsignificant trends. They include:x

Increasing levels of traffic congestion and the insatiable demands of motorised transport for
more road space.

x

The cost of building and maintaining the infrastructure required to support our road-transportsystem and the urban sprawl it engenders.

x

Poor air quality in cities and towns and the advance of global-warming and (potentiallyirreversible) climate change.

x

Major declines in health caused by the combination of sedentary lifestyles and an over-relianceon the private car to make even the most local journeys.

x

The degradation of public open areas that inhibits the walking and sojourning that are vital to
the quality of urban life.

By any assessment, the prospects for a sustainable future and for liveable cities and towns for future
generations is concerning, if not alarming.
Recognising that walking and also being out and about on foot for many purposes in addition towalking itself (the concept called sojourning) form the heart of urban life, this report seeks to identify
key opportunities to redress these trends. Making better provision for walking is crucial to solving manyof these problems. It can also help to create the kinds of cities and towns suited to prosperous andsatisfying lives.
While an obvious sense of urgency exists to improve the way our societies cater for walking in the
future, the socially valuable activity of sojourning, though more challenging to define, seems to behighly-valued by both residents and visitors to towns and cities.

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14 – CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: WALKING AND THE CHALLENGES OF THE 21ST CENTURY
Its capacity to build and maintain a sense of community and local amenity is fundamental. By
improving the provision for walking, we are more likely to raise the aesthetic quality and ‘liveability’ ofurban centres which, in turn, leads to more attractive and prosperous places to live, visit and conductbusiness. Once commenced, the process of improvement is self-reinforcing.
1.1.

Why the need for a publication devoted to a strategy for better provision for walking?

What purpose does a publication dedicated to walking serve? Why is the OECD at the beginning of
the 21st century turning towards something that, until now, was taken for granted by many, regarded as amatter of course, as natural as breathing and entirely free? Surely, it is difficult to imagine walking beinga subject of policy and planning?
1.1.1.

Walking as a cornerstone of liveable and sustainable cities

Historically, walking has been an essential element of city life. Today, however, the key role thatwalking plays is being eroded in many urban settings. It is commonly restricted by obstacles and hostile
conditions, and consequently the health and safety of those who continue to choose to walk arethreatened through an increased risk of death or disability from road trauma. Though walking constitutes
a physical need, it is suppressed in “unfriendly” conditions and replaced by motorised transport with its
attendant increases in traffic-related pollution, noise and congestion, and the downgrading of open public
space. One of the main reasons for these problems is inadequate planning. Enhancing walking in planned
ways needs to become a specific policy objective. Present day policies, however, indirectly inhibit
walking by supporting the use of private motorised transport, even for very short distances. Thoughdifficult to quantify, a substantial number of walking trips never take place because of the failure tointegrate walking into today’s transport policies. Consequently residents now walk much less than they
did in the past.
Is it desirable to accept a reduction in trips, especially on foot, as compatible with the vision of thesustainable city of tomorrow? The aim of this publication on better provision for walking is to take animportant first step towards improving the quality of life, safety, personal security, and the social
environment within our cities and, by so doing, to reduce the attendant levels of noise and environmental
pollution. Future progress in promoting walking will play a key part in ultimately deciding the fate of
the 21st century city. After all, wherever residents and visitors walk, cities are alive and thriving.
The primary aim of this report, then, is to emphasise the importance of walking and the vital needfor policies to promote walking at all levels of planning including national, urban and local. A further
important aim that can help in realising the report’s primary aim is to define best-practice promotion andfuture provision for walking across all relevant sectoral interests. As time passes, there will be a need to
update our knowledge on what constitutes “best-practice”.
1.1.2.

Walking concerns all, including the most vulnerable

Many citizens, such as elderly people, have restricted mobility due to physical disabilities. As
populations age, the size of this problem will grow. Providing those with mobility impairments with adignified place to walk and enjoy simply being on the street allows them to remain purposefully engaged
in society, and makes a therapeutic contribution to their condition. Walking also provides a valuable
contribution to learning, especially for children, who can find it difficult to cope with the complex urban
environment. In this context the city itself can be viewed as the “book” providing education on history,architecture, town planning and society.

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: WALKING AND THE CHALLENGES OF THE 21ST CENTURY –1.1.3.

15

System-based approach

Cities can be viewed as complex systems comprising many elements which influence one another
and/or which depend on each other to fulfil their respective functions. Until now, measures for walking
have, as a rule, been ad hoc and addressed site specific problems (usually of safety) as they have come toattention. This process has made the development of comprehensive solutions difficult because of our
failure to adopt a system-based approach. Broad-based strategic goals and policies, with longer-termhorizons, are needed to create and support a humane and sustainable city. In the framework of a broader
strategy for walking, inter-sectoral policies will deliver better results than separate policies within
sectors.
1.2.

The identity of walking

There is much to be done to create the best possible conditions for walking. Providing more space is
not enough. Walking warrants open spaces that inspire, sensitise and encourage communication among
inhabitants of cities, towns and suburbs. In general, traffic codes tend to prioritise motorised traffic overthe needs of pedestrians, leading to deficiencies for pedestrians in the design and operation of thephysical environment. Cities where priority will be given to walking have before them an important taskof re-planning the road network in order to ensure not only direct connection, but also uninterrupted
walking by pedestrians and compliance by drivers with lower travel speeds.
This report is concerned equally with walking and sojourning in the public space. Both functions
can be achieved, alongside mobility, to ensure pleasure, access to activities, quality of space and contact
between friends and neighbours. The pedestrian is a lively presence in the public space, encouraged tostay when various activities, trades and places of work are easily accessible on foot.
1.3.

Vitality and liveability of the city

Although the transport function of walking is important, equally important is the presence of people
on the street; it indicates that the air is clean, the noise levels are not intrusive, and public space is
comfortable, attractive and safe. It is a prerequisite for the prosperity of commerce and other activities
and, of course, to attract visitors and investment. Research has shown that pedestrians are the best
consumers, perhaps because walking secures convenient and direct access to land uses on either side of
the road. As such an increase in the number of pedestrians may prove to be a significant boom to the
local economy of an area.
The integration of comfortable routes for walking, both in terms of safety and general enjoyment,
decreases the number of tasks for which people use their motor vehicle. For example, a safe walking
route between residences and local schools may encourage more children to walk to school, having thetwo-fold effect of decreasing parent’s motor-vehicle use and promoting friendships between children.
Avoiding the use of a motor-vehicle for short distance trips also helps decrease local air pollution,
as well as decrease consumption of fossil fuels. In addition, the preservation of local eco-systems for the
purposes of creating pleasurable routes for walking ensures conservation of natural resources
The term “sojourning”, is a term used to describe the experience of simply being in a public place,purely for the enjoyment that being there offers, or to participate in the activities of everyday life (e.g.,
trading and vending, waiting for others or public transport, playing, or meeting friends, family or othermembers of one’s community).
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16 – CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: WALKING AND THE CHALLENGES OF THE 21ST CENTURY
It does not necessarily involve movement, other than travelling to or from the chosen place. It refers
to the enjoyment or other advantage derived from spending time in a public space, either alone or withothers.
The exclusive use of transport and town planning terminology undermines the notion ofsustainability, vitality and liveability of public space. A city whose residents strongly believe in its social
value and in the quality of living collectively, can be made more sustainable. Such an attitude encourages
people to enjoy its open, social spaces, as well as the contact with the city itself and its residents.
A number of cities have replaced freeways with parklands, rivers and open spaces that areaesthetically pleasing and focused on people rather than vehicles. As a consequence property and land
values increase when surrounded by aesthetically pleasing environments (Cervero, 2009). Environmentsthat integrate urban areas for pedestrians with high quality public transport services encourage alternativetransport use and support economic development. Consequently, there is a positive association between
cities with high public transport use and cities with high levels of Gross Domestic Product per capita.
1.4.

Economic dimension of a strategy for walking

A strategy for walking requires the adoption of number of measures, described in this report, whichrange from low cost education campaigns to major infrastructure reorganisation.
A quantitative assessment of the costs and benefits of a strategy promoting walking is a very
complex exercise. This is largely because a strategy for walking offers a wide range of direct and indirect
benefits, including health, pollution, noise and quality of life. While some effects can be relatively easily
quantified and assessed within a cost benefit analysis framework, others are much more difficult² toassess, such as a better quality of life and these benefits also largely vary based on the local conditions. A
recent study undertaken for the government of New South Wales in Australia has developed an approachfor the economic appraisals of significant spending proposals to develop strategies for walking(PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2011). Generally, the benefits identified and quantified within a cost benefit
appraisal framework for this study included:x

Health cost savings – an increase in physical activity may have strong personal benefits, inparticular impacts on morbidity and mortality as well as other ailments related to inactivity. It isalso likely that improved health outcomes will reduce health care costs to society. It has also
been argued that improved health can result in increased productivity and reduced absenteeism
in the workplace.

x

Congestion savings – as a shift from motor vehicles to walking will reduce road congestion.

x

Vehicle operating cost savings – individuals may save on the costs of maintaining a vehicle,
including fuel, depreciation and tyres.

x

Changes in the level of road and pedestrian safety – safety is especially important whenseparated pathways or roadway safety and awareness initiatives are implemented as there are
reduced opportunities for vehicle-pedestrian accidents.

x

Environmental pollution savings - through a reduction in GHG emissions, air pollution andwater pollution.

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: WALKING AND THE CHALLENGES OF THE 21ST CENTURY –x

17

Noise reduction –a transfer to walking as a mode of transport reduces vehicular noise,
especially in residential areas where the sensitivity to and corresponding costs of noise are
high.

There are also a number of community benefits that reflect the local and social characteristics ofwalking [Tolley (2003) and Litman (2010)], which are more easily assessed on a qualitative basis due totheir difficultly to quantify or existence outside of the bounds of a cost benefit analysis framework.
These benefits include:x

Liveability – the quality of the local environment and the degree that walking improves the
local environment by reducing vehicle traffic and speeds.

xEconomic development – effects on commercial activity and shifts in consumer expenditures
towards more local businesses.

xSocial equity – distribution of resources and opportunities, and the degree to which walking
helps to increase the mobility and accessibility of disadvantaged people.

These benefits have to be weighed against the costs of a strategy for walking, including:x

The capital costs, including design, construction, land acquisition and implementation costs.

x

The recurrent costs, including operating and maintenance costs.

This report does not address this complex issue. However, the economic benefits derivable from ahealth perspective are illustrated in Chapter 4.
1.5.

The objectives of a strategy for walking

It is anticipated that successful implementation of a strategy for walking will achieve several
objectives:x

Creation of better safety conditions at the street level for vulnerable users (especially children,
elderly people and the mobility impaired).

x

Increases in the use of public transport in place of private vehicles. This will reduce thenumbers of vehicles on the road, hence decreasing congestion and the potential for conflicts
between pedestrians and other road users.

x

Reductions in the number of trips made by car in those cities that are well served by networks
supporting public transport, cycling and walking.

x

Reductions in the number of short distance trips made by motorcycle.

xReductions in the rate of urban sprawl.

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18 – CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: WALKING AND THE CHALLENGES OF THE 21ST CENTURYx

Improvements to population health as a result of improved air quality and reduced noise levels
including; enhanced mental performance and concentration levels, decreased feelings oftension and stress levels.

x

An aesthetically better urban environment.

In summary, this report aims to encourage the implementation of policies that encourage walking
and to provide “best practice” options to bring those policies to reality. The liveability and viability of
our cities in the future will depend critically on how successfully these policies are defined and translated
into practice.

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CHAPTER 2. WALKING: THE NEGLECTED TRANSPORT MODE –19

ISBN 978-92-821-0364-7
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CHAPTER 2. WALKING: THE NEGLECTED TRANSPORT MODE

Despite figuring at the beginning and end of all trips, this chapter highlights that walking is rarely
captured in government statistics on mobility and is often neglected in planning and policy development.

2.1.

Forgotten in data

Data are a neglected key factor in promoting and acknowledging pedestrians in planning. There isan abundance of data on motorised traffic but a shortage of data on pedestrians. Information about
walking and sojourning at the location level are key performance measures and are necessary tounderstand the correlation between urban- and street design, walking and sojourning, and to evaluate theimpact of pedestrian infrastructure improvements. Reliable methods for collecting data on pedestrianvolumes as well as path modelling both on the individual and crowd level are missing.
While many ITF/OECD countries collect mobility data about the population on a national scale, theemphasis is usually on motorised travel, and thus not all countries record pedestrian mobility. Even ifpedestrian mobility is recorded, there is a tendency for under estimation. Pedestrian trips are typicallyquite short and people tend to forget many of these short trips when reporting their daily travel
behaviour.
In most travel surveys a pedestrian trip is recorded as a trip that occurs when the whole trip iscompleted on foot. However, trips taken by other transport modes can also include elements of walking.
For example, a simple trip using public transport has at least three elements or stages: 1) walking fromhome to the bus stop on foot, 2) the bus ride, and 3) walking from the bus stop to the destination by foot.
The design of many national travel surveys is such that travel involving multiple modes is recorded interms of the ‘main’ or ‘primary’ transport mode only. For example, persons using more than one mode oftransport over the course of a journey may be asked to only report on the mode of travel used for the
longest distance covered on the journey. If a stage level perspective were taken for all multi-modal trips,
the picture would therefore be different. For example, in Switzerland 28% of all trips are pedestrian trips(made entirely on foot), while 45% of all stages are pedestrian stages. This example from Switzerland
illustrates that the real proportion of walking is much higher than the statistics suggest.
The majority of pedestrian trips are quite short. The design of many travel surveys neglects shorttrips, like walking the dog, walking to the mail box to post a letter or visiting a neighbour. These shorttrips are often overlooked and forgotten by the respondent, and thus never reported. As a consequence,
the total number of kilometres travelled may be substantially underestimated (Rietveld, 2001; Methorst,2010).

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20 – CHAPTER 2. WALKING: THE NEGLECTED TRANSPORT MODE
Comparing national pedestrian mobility statistics can be challenging due to the variation in
definitions surrounding pedestrian activity. Differences in the age range of the samples; the design of thesurveys, as well as the scope of pedestrian activity that is captured, all can impact on the final pedestrian
figures. These barriers make it difficult to make any international comparisons and generalisations aboutpedestrian activity.
Pedestrians are also not adequately represented in accident and crash statistics. The levels of underreporting of injuries to pedestrians involved in traffic crashes and in falls are both of serious concerns.
According to the Vienna Convention a traffic accident1 is a crash that occurs with at least one
moving vehicle, and involves a death or injury. Cases where pedestrians fall or stumble due to poor roadconditions are rarely reported as they are excluded from the international agreed definition of injury
crashes. However, it is an important issue and some researchers have shown that up to 75% of pedestrian
injuries can be due to falling.
While pedestrian deaths resulting from traffic collisions are well reported in most OECD countries,
injuries are largely underreported because of a lack of systematic information exchange between
hospitals and police. In addition the absence of an international agreed definition on traffic injuries
makes it difficult to make any meaningful international comparisons.
2.2.

Forgotten in cities

Historically, urban development of towns and cities has aimed to accommodate proximity travels.
With the onset of population growth, towns and cities have increased in land mass, with the invention of
motorised transport supporting longer distance trips. As a result, travelling by foot has decreased
significantly as a mode of transport for individuals. Consequently, modern day societies have become
considerably more reliant on motorised vehicles, leading to serious health, economic and environmental
implications.
Cities were traditionally created as a safe and secure place against enemies and natural threats.
Knowledge from history demonstrates how different cultures have previously attempted to utilise urban
space as an asset, by shaping it to fit with the needs of the population. One particular obstacle associatedwith this task has, and continues to be, facilitating the movement of people in their everyday activities oflife (e.g. travelling to school, work and recreational activities, as well as running errands). When
populations lived under the transport constraints imposed by reliance on pedestrian and animal transportalone, urban settlements, hence cities and towns, were limited to a size accessible on foot. Proximity wasnecessary and acceptable as demonstrated in larger cities, where everyday life remained relatively
restricted in terms of space. Hence, towns and cities were previously developed for less demanding
modes of transport in contrast to modern day societies.
Structural facilities for pedestrians have been of significant importance since ancient times. During
Roman times, pathways throughout towns were perceived to be safe and comfortable, despite animalpowered chariots posing potential danger to pedestrians. Since then, climate and health have become
considerations in determining settlement of urban space and the means of transport people utilise. This
has also been assisted by technological advances.
When looking at present day mobility data (which are limited in their ability to represent
pedestrians), walking has not disappeared from the statistics, but the priority is demonstrably low, withthe rate of pedestrian trips recorded being generally negligible, compared to other modes of transport.
This trend may be influenced by several factors relating to the way societies are now structured.
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The era of the private car has completely changed town design worldwide. Some urban settlements
have been planned explicitly assuming private car use for transport (e.g. Los Angeles). This is also
largely true for the suburbs that surround cities. In addition, general increases in economic growth,
including personal income, have promoted car ownership. As a result, the convenient use of motor
vehicles has flourished, at the expense of pedestrian movement. Along with this, home and work places
have become separated by greater distances due to the availability of private cars. Despite some views
that support the notion of liberalisation of locations, the loss of proximity has led to fewer walking trips,
which has a series of implications.
In today’s society, time is often considered more crucial than space, and therefore becomes a key
factor influencing choice of transport mode. In addition, often there is distorted perception of time
efficiency, with motorised traffic thought to be faster than non motorised, which is not necessarily true
for door-to-door trips in urban areas, which are relatively short. Therefore, time needs to be taken into
account when evaluating the potential for implementing different transport modes. Consideration of thespace/time relationship in planning is therefore crucial to restoring a higher level of pedestrian walking
mobility. At present, in order to cope with busy lifestyles, most trips are multi-modal journeys, where themeans of transport chosen is the one that accommodates the longest section of a trip (i.e. mostly privatecar).
In summary, public space location and orientation, building location in relation to public space,legibility of urban environment, acceptable behaviour, personal security and safety are key areas thatneed to be considered, in order to fully integrate pedestrians into a comfortable urban space. Therefore,
equal priority must be given to the needs associated with developing a pedestrian network,
simultaneously with the needs of planning and building road and public transport networks.
2.3.

Forgotten in the decision making process

Pedestrians are inadequately represented in urban policy making. Furthermore, institutions
representing specifically the interests of pedestrians are rare.
Pedestrian advocacy is almost nonexistent
Most citizens are pedestrians at one point in time, but not all of them depend equally on walking tosolve their transport needs. A large proportion of walkers, and in fact a large proportion of the
population, comprises children and people with age- or mobility-related impairments.
These groups rely heavily on walking but are not well placed in making their needs known todecision makers and generally lack support from advocacy groups who are active in the transport sector.
Furthermore, in a world where interest groups and lobbyists are used to playing a role in driving
solutions, institutions that solely represent the interests of pedestrians are rare. The role of pedestrianNGO’s was acknowledged in the specific survey developed for this document (OECD/ITF, 2008a).
Some are very active at either national or international levels in promoting walking, but very few are
given a place at the tables where key decisions are made, standards set and policies formed.
Neglected technically and in legislation
Policy makers rely on mobility statistics, including data on personal travel behaviour, to formulate
strategic transport policies and to improve the safety and efficiency of transport systems.

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22 – CHAPTER 2. WALKING: THE NEGLECTED TRANSPORT MODE
As previously mentioned, at present pedestrian mobility is clearly under-researched and underrepresented in the transport statistics in most of OECD countries.
Under-representation is also a problem in current pedestrian fall and crash analysis and even in its
legal status. Although pedestrians do not pose a significant risk to other road users, pedestrians are
exposed to life-threatening risks. However, they have been overlooked in the development of current
traffic codes, which have focused on facilitating the flow of motorised traffic.
Without national level institutional support or a co-ordinated policy
Another identified problem is the scarce presence of pedestrians in the agenda of national level
administrations and the dispersed allocation of competences affecting them.
Even though pedestrian infrastructure is normally built by local administrators, walking is not
simply a local matter. Best examples show that it is favourable to have unified leadership, and theprovision of a legal, administrative and technical framework from national governments to effectively
accommodate the needs of pedestrians. Otherwise actions in favour of pedestrians become isolated and,most of the time, inefficient, misguided or even infeasible due to existing legal regulations.
Currently responsibilities for accommodating the needs of pedestrians and promoting walking are
spread across a wide range of organisations and ministries, including transport, safety, environment andhealth. As a result there is no clear institutional responsibility especially at national levels (OECD/ITF,
2008a). Accordingly, there is a lack of incentives for agencies to consider walking a priority. It is fairly
difficult to encourage organisations to work together to benefit pedestrians and therefore a high priority
needs to be placed on establishing the mechanisms to ensure that active, collaborative, and coordinatedefforts towards pedestrian safety occur.
Not surprisingly in this context, no lead agencies for pedestrians at government level were identified
in the survey undertaken by the Working Group (OECD/ITF, 2008a), although in a few European
countries, such as the Netherlands, there are public officials in charge of pedestrian issues within thetransport ministry. In terms of fostering innovation and creating new knowledge about pedestrians, there
is still a small (although growing) number of institutions and countries establishing research programmesthat aim to create sustainable transport options, including pedestrian mobility2.
Finally, and equally importantly, in most OECD countries which responded to the survey
undertaken for this report, walking is rarely supported by a national policy, with Switzerland and theUnited States being two notable exceptions with the establishment of a national strategy for walking (seeboxes 1 and 2 in Chapter 7).

NOTES
1.

Convention on Road Traffic, Vienna 8th November 1968.

2.

The European Commission has funded several research projects on vulnerable road users, such as ADONIS,
PROMISING, WALCYNG or, more recently, “New means to PROMote Pedestrian Traffic in cities – PROMPT”(http://prompt.vtt.fi/) and Cost Action 358 “Pedestrian Quality Needs – PQN project” (www.walkeurope.org/). The
Walk21 Conferences are a consolidated initiative to promote walking.

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ISBN 978-92-821-0364-7
Pedestrian Safety, Urban Space and Health© OECD/ITF 2012

CHAPTER 3. WALKING PATTERNS IN ITF/OECD COUNTRIESThis chapter analyses existing data on pedestrian travel in OECD/ITF countries, and provides a pictureof main trends regarding walking in ITF/OECD countries.


3.1.

Introduction

How much people walk, how often and for what purpose varies between locations as well as
between and within countries. This is because pedestrian travel habits are influenced by cultural andenvironmental factors, such as societal values and attitudes, weather conditions, infrastructure,geographic location and proximity, as well as individual differences, such as lifestyle, age, income,health, physical ability, and perceptions of risk.
Walking can be measured at a population level according to pedestrian mobility data or according tolocation based on the volume of pedestrians in traffic at certain locations. Thus, when measuring walking
it is important to differentiate between pedestrians in traffic, pedestrians sojourning and pedestrian
mobility. The focus in this section will be on pedestrian mobility.
There are many ways to measure pedestrian mobility at an individual or population level. Passenger
transport modal split involves separating the number of trips as a pedestrian from other transport modes
and can be described in terms of distance, duration and frequency (at the individual level).
3.2.

The share of walking

The proportion of walking trips (entire trips on foot) varies among different countries. According to
the United States National Household Travel Survey (2001), 8.6% of all trips in the United States werewalking trips. In contrast, the Swiss 2005 Micro census on Travel Behaviour identified that 28% of all
trips were completed by foot. The proportion of walking trips in the remaining OECD countries thatprovide data ranges between these two extremes (see figure 3.1). Cultural differences in attitudes towards
walking compared to other transport modes may be one explanation for the variation between countries.
Statistically, the amount of walking is a reflection of car use. In general, where car use is lower,
walking makes up a larger share of trips. For example, walking only accounts for 8.7% of trips made in
the United States, while car use accounts for 86.5% of total trips. In contrast, in Switzerland the share ofwalking trips is more comparable to that of car trips (23% vs. 36%) (see figure 3.1).
PEDESTRIAN SAFETY, URBAN SPACE AND HEALTH © OECD/ITF 2012

24 – CHAPTER 3. WALKING PATTERNS IN ITF/OECD COUNTRIESOn an individual level, mobility statistics suggest that vehicle ownership and possession of adriver’s licence are substantial factors in determining how much people walk.
For example, the National Travel Survey in Finland (2005) found that people in households without
a car will on average have one walking trip per day, while those in households with one or more cars
average about half of that.
The Dutch Travel Survey (2007) found that people who did not own a vehicle of any type walked
on average 720 metres per day compared to those people who owned vehicles, who walked on average
270 metres per day. Results from the Swiss Travel Survey (2005) showed that people without a driver’s
licence spent more time walking per week than those people with a licence, irrespective of age group.

Figure 3.1. Share of walking and average length of a walking trip in various OECD countries
France (2008)

United States (2001)
New Zealand (2007)
The Netherlands (2007)
Belgium (1999)
Norway (2005)
Finland (2004)
Great Britain (2009)
France (2008)
Sweden (2006)
Germany (2002)
Austria (2004)
Spain (2007)
Switzerland (2005)

New Zealand (2007)
Austria (2004)
Switzerland (2005)
Belgium (1999)
United States (2001)
The Netherlands (2007)
Germany (2002)
Norway (2005)
Finland (2004)
Sweden (2006)

0
%

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0.5 kilometres1

1.52Source: Various national travel surveys.

People who live in urban areas tend to walk more compared to people who live in rural areas. Data
from the Netherlands (Rijkswaterstaat (2008) demonstrated that the number of walking trips made by
Dutch citizens is higher at greater levels of urbanisation. Individuals living in very populated urban areas
were found to have the highest average number of daily walking trips per person (0.66 trips), compared
to individuals living in rural areas who had the fewest (0.49 trips). These findings also correspond withdata from other OECD cities and regions.
3.3.

Distance, duration and speed

In industrial countries the majority of pedestrian trips are quite short (see Figure 3.1). In
Switzerland, for example, the Micro Census on Travel Behaviour (2005) determined that 60% of walking
trips in Switzerland did not exceed 1 km, and only 10% of them exceeded 2 km. The average journey onfoot in Sweden, as determined by the National Travel Survey (RES 2005-2006), is somewhat longer, at 2km; however, when compared to the average journey by car (drivers 30 km, or passengers 41 km), bus(26 km), or bicycle (4 km), walking distances are still relatively short.
Overall, Germans appear to walk more than people from other countries. Germany has the highest
proportion of walking trips, and the average distance of each pedestrian trip is relatively long.

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In contrast, New Zealand has a relatively low proportion of walking trips and the average walking
trip is short. Austria and Switzerland have distinctly different walking cultures.
Although people in these countries demonstrate a high proportion of walking compared to other transportmodes, every walking trip is quite short. It is interesting to note that while people in United States tend towalk less than people in other counties, those who do walk tend to walk as far as pedestrians in othercountries.
The proportion of walking trips referred to above only includes trips that were made entirely on
foot. However, walking is a key element in most multi-modal trips. In the 2005 Norwegian National
Travel Survey respondents were asked specifically about walking distances related to all of their trips.
The results indicated that in one day Norwegian people, on average, walked 280 metres as part of longer
journeys involving other transport modes. Furthermore, the results indicated when all transport modes
are taken into account, on average about 110 metres was completed on foot. Distances for walking were
found to be the longest for trips that involved public transport (see figure 3.2) (Vågane, 2006).

Figure 3.2. Average length of a walking trip while using other transport modes
Norway, 2005
760

800
690

700
600

Metres

500

430

460

400
300
200
100

40

70

0
BicycleCar

Tramway

Bus

Metro

Train

Source: Norwegian National Travel Survey 2005 (Vågane, 2006).

The average trip duration for pedestrian trips (made entirely by foot) also varies among OECD
countries. The countries that report the average longest walking trips also report the longest duration of
an average trip. However, there are international differences in walking speed. When the walking
distance is compared with the walking duration the pedestrian trips show that people in OECD-countries
walk at a speed of between 56 and 77 metres per minute. If these figures are reliable, it is interesting tonote that people walking in Austria and Switzerland, who have the highest proportion of walking and theshortest trips, have the lowest average walking speed (56 metres per minute). One explanation might bethat a greater proportion of walking trips in Austria and Switzerland take place in urban areas, where
people potentially walk at a slower pace.

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26 – CHAPTER 3. WALKING PATTERNS IN ITF/OECD COUNTRIESAnother explanation for this finding is possibly due to the fact that a greater proportion of people
are walking including older age groups who walk relatively slowly or on sloping paths.
According to a Danish article (Herrstedt and Lund, 2010) different countries use different standard
values for pedestrian walking speed when planning. Several countries (including Norway, Finland, andGermany) use 72 metres per minute as the normal value. Danes use 60 metres per minute (or 1 metre persecond). The United States has changed from 72 to 54 metres per minute (1.2 to 0.9 metre per second) inaccordance with the weight increase in the population. What is most important is that traffic planners areaware that some groups of people walk slower than the average walking pace. This is particularly
important when designing pedestrian crossings for the full range of users (see also section 6.3.4).
3.4.

The purpose of walking

In general, trips for the purpose of leisure and recreation, shopping, personal business and education
are the main reasons for walking trips in OECD countries. The proportion of people who walk to work israther low, but there is variation among OECD countries.
The greatest proportion of people who walk to work live in Switzerland (36.8 %), and very few
people walk to work in the United States (3.7%). Austria and Germany are exceptions because a large
majority of walking trips are completed for the purposes of shopping.
3.5.

Choice of transport mode

As mentioned, vehicle ownership and possession of a driver’s licence are notable variables that
influence how much people walk. It is not surprising that distance also seems to be a significant
determinant in choosing the mode of transport. The proportion of trips by foot decreases with increasing
travel length. Data from the Norwegian National Travel Survey (2005) show that when the travel length
exceeds 900 metres, people tend to drive instead of walk. More specifically, for trips of up to about 300
metres, at least 75% of people walk all the way, but for trips longer than 2 km less than 25% walk thewhole distance.
Results from the Swiss National Travel Survey (2005) showed that the length of journey/travel time
was the most important factor in respondents’ decisions to walk. In fact, this was the primary reason
influencing all transport mode choice. The next most popular reason reported was how enjoyable theperson found the transport mode. This finding is consistent across many OECD countries, where so muchof the pedestrian activity is for leisure and recreational purposes. In addition, the lack of an alternativetransport option was cited as being the second most influential factor in choosing motorised travel (bothprivate and public).
Distances for walking were found to be longest for trips that involved public transport. Figure 3.2
illustrates for Norway the average walking length when combined with other transport modes.
3.6.

Demographic differences

The objectives of walking differ according the demographic variables of the pedestrian, such as age
and gender. According to the New Zealand Household Travel Survey (2003-2007), the main reason forwalking for children and adults aged between five and 24 years is travelling to educational institutions.

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In contrast, the main priority for people aged 25 to 34 years is getting to work, whereas for those
aged 35 to 74 years, it is for recreation. For those adults aged 75 years and above, the dominant purpose
for walking is shopping.
In general, women participate in more walking trips than men. For example, in Sweden womenmake 27% of their journeys on foot, while men make about 20% of their journeys on foot (RES, 20052006). It has also been found that overall women travel further on foot and spend more time walking thanmen (Finland, the Netherlands, and New Zealand). Youth and seniors tend to make a higher proportionof their trips on foot, as well as those with lower income levels. Young people walk more than other age
groups. A travel behaviour survey among children aged 6 to12 years in Norway showed that more thanhalf of the children walk or cycle to school (Fyhri and Hjorthol, 2006). However, the majority of children
are driven by car to organised leisure activities. Data from New Zealand showed that the proportion ofwalking trips among children has declined and continues to decline. The proportion of walking trips forchildren was higher than the proportion that was receiving lifts in a vehicle in 1989-1990.
However, this pattern has now changed as data from the New Zealand Household Travel Survey
2003-2007 showed that 55% are car passengers and only 25% are walking. This is not a promisingfinding for walking patterns in the future population.
In Norway, parents who drove their children to school by car were asked to report their main reason
for doing so (Fyhri and Hjorthol, 2006). The most frequent response was that the school was locatedalong their route to work (60%), only a small proportion mentioned traffic safety (approximately 20%).
In addition, there is a clear relationship between distance to school and mode of travel. When distances toschool are above 3 km, cars are the preferred mode of travel. Seventy-five percent of children who lived
less than 0.5 km away from the school walked to school, while this figure decreased to only 2% of thesample for children who lived more than 3 km away from the school.
Population projections in OECD countries indicate that the number of elderly people, particularly
older age groups (80 years and over), will increase as a proportion of the total population. With anincrease in the aged population, the number of people with disabilities will also increase, given thegrowing incidence of disability with ageing. Generally, people with mobility impairments tend to limit
their travel. Elderly pedestrians are inhibited by complex traffic situations, especially during bad weather
and at night, where the walking conditions are more difficult and safety becomes a concern. In the U.S.,
for example, elderly people (65+ years) make 17% of their walking trips at night, compared with young
people aged 16-24 years and those aged 25-64 years, who make 33% and 28%, respectively, of their
walking trips at night.
3.7.

Changes over time

Overall, the distances and the proportion of walking trips seem to have been decreasing since theearly 1980’s until now. This can be seen in France and the U.K. (Wittink, 2001). This is partly explainedby urban development or “sprawl” creating longer distances to travel as well as an increase in vehicle
ownership. An analysis of journey modes was conducted in Norway in 1992, 1998, 2001 and 2005 todetermine the proportion of trips completed by a pedestrian compared to the proportion of trips
completed as a driver. The figures demonstrated a modest increase in walking in 2001, accompanied by asmall drop in the proportion of car trips. In 2005 this trend was reversed and the number of trips made by
car increased as the number of trips completed as a pedestrian decreased.

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28 – CHAPTER 3. WALKING PATTERNS IN ITF/OECD COUNTRIESThis modest increase in walking around the millennium could be explained by the economic
recession that occurred at that time. A similar trend occurred in France in 2009.
Results from the marketing and opinion barometer (BVA) from the Public Transport Union (UTP)(Union des Transports Publics, 2009 and 2010) showed a decrease in the use of all transport modes
except walking. Thirty-eight percent of individuals indicated that they increased their number of walking
trips, while 9% reported a decrease. The same tendency was demonstrated in the latest national travel
survey in Norway, which showed an increase in the proportion of walking from 20% in 2005 to 22% in
2009-10. This could be the start of a promising new trend for health and urban environment.
3.8.

Distances covered by walking and time spent

Distance is not a measure of importance. Expressing pedestrian mobility in terms of distancetravelled is a gross underestimation of walking because the distance travelled is usually much shortercompared to other transport modes, and therefore distance should not be used as a measure ofimportance. Once factors such as time spent travelling and the number of trips is considered, walking is amuch more prominent mode of transport than measures of distance would suggest.
This point is further illustrated by results from the Finnish National Travel Survey (2004-2005).
According to these results walking only represents 3% of the total daily distance travelled per person in
Finland, however it accounts for more than 20% of the total daily time spent travelling per person, as
well as the total daily number of trips per person. There is a tendency for travel behaviour surveys tounderestimate the number of walking trips and to disregard walking when it is combined with othertransport modes. Consequently, it is critical to formulate policies and develop infrastructure and safetymeasures that are based on a full understanding of pedestrian activity. This will ensure that proper
priority and consideration is given to the needs of pedestrians.

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CHAPTER 4. WALKING, HEALTH AND WELL BEING –29

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Pedestrian Safety, Urban Space and Health© OECD/ITF 2012

CHAPTER 4. WALKING, HEALTH AND WELL BEING

Walking has important benefits for improving the quality of life, social well-being and general health.
This chapter highlights some of the evidence for direct benefits associated with physical activity andwalking.

4.1.

Introduction

Urban mobility through the transport system has an important impact on a population’s quality oflife. Depending on how it is organised, the transport system can either offer or restrict opportunities forpeople to access services, education, employment, and leisure activities. It can also play a key role in theeconomy. The reduction in people walking in urban areas and, more specifically, in medium sized towns
and cities has had a detrimental impact on several aspects of the quality of urban life, notably through theuse of public space and through congestion, and on overall population health. Furthermore, there havebeen serious adverse effects related to increased exposure to emissions of air pollutants, and noise fromvehicles, as well as increases in traffic injuries mainly in countries still in the earlier stages ofmotorisation, more socially isolated people and less people who are physically active. The impacts ontransport are distributed unequally throughout society, with socially disadvantaged populations
experiencing the least benefits and the greatest disadvantages from the prevailing model of a motorised
private transport system (Transport and Health Study Group, 2011).
Walking is an accessible physical activity for individuals of all ages that can be incorporated as partof everyday living that provides great health benefits for the population as a whole. This section aims todescribe and highlight the direct and indirect health benefits of walking, as well as discuss possible
negative effects. Although the review of existing research often pertains to overall physical activity,
specific examples related to walking are included where possible.
4.2.

Direct health benefits of physical activity and walking

Current evidence suggests that moderate intensity physical activity, including walking, is essential
in maintaining good health, while a sedentary lifestyle contributes to reduced health outcomes atdifferent levels (Cavill, Kahlmeier and Racioppi, 2006; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
2008; Wardburton 2010; World Health Organization, 2010).

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Several studies have reviewed the effects of overall physical activity on health and disease, but only
a few studies have done so specifically for walking. The following section considers the available
research surrounding the benefits of physical activity on cardiovascular diseases, cancer, non-insulin
dependent diabetes mellitus, musculoskeletal health, obesity, mental health, mortality, as well as overall
health-related quality of life. Where possible, reference is made specifically to walking.
There is evidence that regular physical activity decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease mortality
in general and coronary heart disease mortality specifically (Nocon et al., 2008; Hamer and Chida, 2008;
Boone-Heinonen et al., 2009; Warburton et al., 2010).
Regular physical activity prevents or delays the development of high blood pressure and highcholesterol, while also reducing blood pressure in people with hypertension (Cavill et al., 2006;
Warburton et al., 2010). Physical activity improves cardio-respiratory fitness with a direct dose-response
relationship between fitness and intensity, frequency and duration of the activity (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 2008; Warburton et al, 2010). This applies also for children and youth(Jansen and Leblanc 2010; World Health Organization, 2010). A meta-analysis showed that regular brisk
walking significantly reduces cardiovascular risk factors among previously sedentary adults (Murphy,
Nevill, Murtagh and Holder, 2007; Hamer and Chida, 2008; Boone-Heinonen et al., 2009). A dose–
response relationship exists, with benefits starting to be achieved, on average at approximately 3 hours
per week walking at a moderate pace. Greater benefits can be achieved especially at an increased
walking pace (Hamer and Chida, 2008; Boone-Heinonen et al., 2009).
Physical activity is associated with a reduction in the overall risk of cancer, colon cancer and breast
cancer (Cavill et al., 2006; World Health Organization, 2010; Warburton et al., 2010). A study
conducted among Chinese women found that both walking and cycling reduced the incidence ofmortality from cancer (Matthews et al., 2007).
Regular physical activity has been found to lower the risk of developing non–insulin-dependent
diabetes mellitus, type 2 diabetes. There is a 30% to 40% decreased risk for type 2 diabetes, as well as
metabolic syndrome (a combination of risk factors that can lead to diabetes), in moderately active people
compared to sedentary individuals (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008; Warburton etal., 2010).
Low levels of activity result in a higher ratio of kilocalories consumed to those expended, which
contributes to increased trends of obesity across Europe and other world regions (Cavill et al., 2006).
Physical activity may favourably affect body fat distribution. Normal-weight youth who have relatively
high levels of physical activity tend to have less adiposity than youth with low levels. Among overweight
and obese youth, interventions that increase the level of physical activity tend to show beneficial effects
on health (World Health Organization, 2010; Jansen and Leblanc, 2010). Studies have shown thatwalking and cycling regularly to, from and during work can result in a 50% reduction in the risk of
becoming obese (Gordon-Larsen, 2009). Sedentary adults who took up brisk walking experienced
positive outcomes for their body mass index and percentage of body fat (Murphy et al., 2007).
Participation in physical activity throughout life can increase and maintain musculoskeletal health,while reducing the functional decline that usually occurs with age in sedentary people (Cavill et al.,2006; Warburton et al., 2010). Physically active adults are likely to have less risk of a hip or vertebral
fracture. Increases in exercise training can minimise the decrease in spine and hip bone mineral density(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008; World Health Organization, 2010, Warburton etal., 2010). Physical activity practised in the range recommended for health does not cause joint damage
or development of osteoarthritis and may actually be beneficial for many people with arthritis (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2008). Moreover, exercise training interventions (including
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CHAPTER 4. WALKING, HEALTH AND WELL BEING –31

aerobic and resistance) of older adults showed improvement in physiological and functional measures,and longer-term reduction in incidence of mobility disability (Paterson and Warburton 2010).
There is clear evidence that physical activity reduces the risk of depression and cognitive decline inboth adults and older adults (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008; WHO, 2010). A
relatively high level of physical activity is related to better cognitive function and reduced risk ofdeveloping dementia (Paterson and Warburton, 2010). A meta-analysis showed that subjects who
performed a high level of physical activity were significantly protected (-38%) against cognitive decline
during the follow-up (Sofi et al., 2011).
Furthermore, even analysis of low-to-moderate level exercise also showed a significant protection(-35%) against cognitive impairment (Sofi et al., 2011). In addition, there is some evidence that physicalactivity improves sleep (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008) and reduces the risk ofdepression and dementia by approximately 20% to 30% (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 2008).
Higher levels of regular physical activity are associated with lower mortality rates (U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, 1996; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008; Warburton
et al., 2010). Even those who are moderately active on a regular basis have lower mortality rates thanthose who are less active (Nocon et al., 2008; Powell, Paluch and Blair, 2010). A study on walking
reported a decrease in total mortality among men who walked 1–2 miles (1.6–3.2 km) per day (Hakim etal., 1999). Hamer and Chida reported in a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies that the risk of allcause mortality was 31% lower for the population of the highest walking category compared with thosewith the lowest (Hamer and Chida, 2008).
Physical activity appears to improve health-related quality of life by improving physicalfunctioning, while also enhancing psychological well-being (Cavill et al., 2006), and seems to be
associated with reduced sickness absence (Laaksone et al., 2009).
4.3.

Indirect benefits of promoting walking

Walking can be a group activity that provides opportunities for social interaction and engagement,
which is a significant factor contributing to improved mental health and well-being. Improving
population health through promoting participation in physical activity such as walking and cycling
reduces health costs and expenditure (Boesch et al., 2008). Other indirect benefits may include thoseresulting from the substitution of trips undertaken by car with trips undertaken on foot (particularly shortdistance urban trips, and trips where the combination of walking and use of public transport is possible).
Replacing car use by public transport use also results in a reduction of negative environmental andhealth-related consequences (Dora and Phillips, 2000). Examples include air and noise pollution, which
will be discussed in the following sections.
4.3.1.

Air quality

Three-quarters of transport-related emissions are from road traffic (Woodcock, Banister, Edwards
and Prentice, 2007). Road traffic contributes to a range of gaseous air pollutants and to suspended
particulate matter (PM) of different sizes and compositions. In addition to carbon dioxide, tailpipe
emissions comprise nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, ozone, benzene, lead and particulate matter(Woodcock et al., 2007). In urban areas, motor vehicle tailpipe emissions of primary particles accountfor up to 30% of fine PM (less than 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter or PM2.5 (Krzyzanowski et al.,2005).
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A systematic review of transport-related air pollution effects on health identified evidence
suggesting pollutants derived from transport have a serious negative impact on population health(Krzyzanowski et al., Schneider, 2005). The findings imply an increase in total mortality, respiratory
morbidity, allergic illnesses and symptoms, cardiopulmonary mortality, non-allergic respiratory disease,and myocardial infarction. Some studies also suggested an increased incidence of lung cancer amongpeople with long-term exposure to transport-related air pollution (Krzyzanowski et al., 2005). Initial
estimates show that in Europe tens of thousands of deaths per year are attributable to transport-related air
pollution, similar to the death toll from road trauma (Krzyzanowski, Kuna-Dibbert and Schneider, 2005).
Long-term decreases in air pollution are associated with reduced bronchial hyperactivity andrespiratory and cardiovascular disease, and consequent gains in life expectancy (Woodcock et al., 2007;
Krzyzanowski et al., 2005).
Nonetheless, pedestrians in general, are not exposed to more air pollution than drivers of private
vehicles, or individuals inside buildings. Although walking and cycling may result in greater exposure tosuch air pollutants, several studies that have considered levels of inhalation and duration of exposure
have shown that pedestrians consistently had the lowest exposure to pollutants (McNabola et al., 2008).
In fact, the in-vehicle air pollution levels have generally been found to be slightly higher than exposurelevels experienced by cyclists and pedestrians (Kaur et al., 2007). Furthermore, it has also been reported
that the mean in-vehicle concentration of volatile organic compounds often exceeds concentrations
typically found in residential indoor air (Geiss et al., 2009). Car and bus travellers appear to have thehighest exposure to vehicle emissions, particularly gasoline-powered vehicle emissions (Nieuwenhuijsen
et al., 2007).
4.3.2.

Noise abatement

Existing evidence suggests excess environmental noise affects daily activities and has negative
impacts on the overall health and well-being of the population. Road traffic is the major cause of human
exposure to noise in Europe, except in areas close to airports and railways lines (Dora and Philips, 2000).
In the early 1990s within the European Union countries, it was estimated that about 40% of the
population was exposed to road traffic noise with an equivalent sound pressure level exceeding 55 dB(A)during the day, and 20% were exposed to levels exceeding 65 dB(A) (Berglund et al., 1995). Since then,sound levels have steadily increased, as a result of the growth in road-based travel, as well as the higher
travel speeds (Dora and Philips, 2000). A conservative estimate of the social costs of traffic noise in the
EU22 (Europe with 22 countries) have been estimated at EUR 40 billion per year (0.4% of total GDP),
with the bulk of these costs (about 90%) caused by passenger cars and lorries (den Boer and Schroten,2007).
The World Health Organization (WHO) has compiled three reports reviewing the health impact ofenvironmental noise, each providing a set of recommended guidelines (Guidelines for Community Noise(Berglund et al., 1995) and the Night Noise Guidelines for Europe (World Health Organization, 2009). It
has not always been possible to evaluate the impact of road traffic noise on health, in isolation from otherenvironmental noise. Overall, the main effects of noise on health include pain and hearing fatigue,
hearing loss, annoyance, interference with social activities and communication, sleep disturbance and its
consequences (including stress, fatigue), cardiovascular effects, hormonal responses, as well asdegrading performance and development at school and work (Berglund et al., 1995). The most recent
report (WHO, 2011) estimates that disability adjusted life years (DALYs) lost from environmental noiseare 61 000 years for ischemic heart disease, 45 000 years for cognitive impairment of children,
903 000 years for sleep disturbance, 22 000 years for tinnitus and 654 000 years for annoyance in theEuropean Union Member States and other western European countries. These results indicate that at least
one million healthy life years are lost every year from traffic related noise in the western part of Europe.
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CHAPTER 4. WALKING, HEALTH AND WELL BEING –33

Sleep disturbance and annoyance, mostly related to road traffic noise, comprise the main burden ofenvironmental noise."
4.4.

Other considerations concerning walking

4.4.1.

Adverse effects resulting from physical activity or exercise

Most of the evidence on the adverse effects of exercise refers to moderate to vigorous levels ofphysical activity, which is not highly relevant to walking. In fact, Calson et al. (2006) reported anincreased amount of walking was related to lower rates of injury compared with other activities, such as
running and sports participation. Furthermore, the most consistently reported risk factor formusculoskeletal injuries, as well as sudden adverse cardiac events related to exercise and physicalactivity, is previous inactivity and low fitness levels (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
1996).
One of the serious risks associated with walking is traffic injury involving cars, due partly to thelow visibility of pedestrians on the roads (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996).
Findings show that increased rates of cycling and walking do not increase the number of road crashes
proportionally (Jacobsen, 2004; Boesch et al., 2008). Jacobsen (2004) suggested that an increased
presence of pedestrians and cyclists on the roads may subsequently improve the awareness of motorists,
while also influencing policies to separate motorised from non-motorised transport in order to produce amore effective organisation of existing roads.
4.4.2.

Falls

Falls are a prevalent public health problem; however, there is little information available on thecontribution of falls to the total burden of disease, particularly on pedestrian falls in public area. A study
estimated that in Europe 1.6 million pedestrians are injured due to falls on public roads per year, which
represents almost 3,000 victims per 1 million inhabitants, and an unknown number of people die for thesame reason (Kormer and Smolka, 2009). It has not been possible to estimate fatalities from falls among
pedestrians on public roads due to lack of reliable information in mortality registers. According to a
study on falls conducted by Kormer and Smolka (2009), the ratio of males and females is almost equal(52:48). Research has identified that falls occur mainly in urban areas, where 30% occur on footpaths and
29% on roads. Children (0-14years), followed by elderly people (65+ years) are especially prone to suchinjuries (see more information in chapter 5).
The quality of pavement, road maintenance, adequate lighting, and an appropriate parking policy toprevent vehicles from disturbing the flow of pedestrians, especially the most vulnerable, can contributeefficiency in preventing falls (see also chapters 5 and 6).
4.4.3.

Limiting physical and mental conditions

There are a number of health conditions that require special attention when planning and promoting
walking. Conditions such as asthma, blindness or vision impairment, deafness or impaired hearing,
diabetes, epilepsy, spinal cord injuries or diseases that require wheelchair use, and some chronic diseases
may restrict mobility. Some of these conditions occur more frequently among the elderly, and so affect aconsiderable proportion of the population. This is expected to increase globally over time, as life
expectancy increases. The specific problems experienced by people with disabilities and conditions
resulting in restricted mobility need to be tackled to enable such people to walk in safe conditions.

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Box 4.1. WHO Global Recommendations Promoting Physical Activity
The World Health Organization Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health elaborated the Global
Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health for children and youth, adults and older adults (World HealthOrganization, 2010). Different types and amounts of physical activity are required for different health outcomes,
which include:

4.5.

x

Children and young people aged 5–17 years old should accumulate at least 60 minutes of moderate tovigorous-intensity physical activity daily. Physical activity of amounts greater than 60 minutes daily will
provide additional health benefits. Most of daily physical activity should be aerobic. Vigorous-intensity
activities should be incorporated, including those that strengthen muscle and bone, at least 3 times per
week.

x

Adults aged 18–64 years should do at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity
throughout the week, or do at least 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity throughout
the week, or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity. Aerobic activity
should be performed in bouts of at least 10 minutes duration. For additional health benefits, adults should
increase their moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity to 300 minutes per week, or engage in 150
minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity per week, or an equivalent combination ofmoderate- and vigorous-intensity activity. Muscle-strengthening activities involving major muscle
groups should be practised two or more days a week.

x

Adults aged 65 years and above should perform at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic
physical activity throughout the week, or at least 75 minutes of high-intensity aerobic physical activity,
or an equivalent combination of moderate- and high-intensity activity. Aerobic activity should be
performed in bouts of at least 10 minutes’ duration. For additional health benefits, adults aged 65 years
and over should increase their moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity to 300 minutes per week, or
engage in 150 minutes of high- intensity aerobic physical activity per week, or an equivalent
combination of moderate- and high-intensity activity. Adults of this age group with poor mobility should
perform physical activity to enhance balance and prevent falls on 3 or more days per week. Musclestrengthening activities involving major muscle groups, should be practised 2 or more days a week.
When adults of this age group cannot perform the recommended amounts of physical activity due tohealth conditions, they should be as physically active as their abilities and conditions allow.

Economic benefits of walking

Studies undertaken to assess the economic benefits of walking and cycling, in particular the TAPAS
project1 and the HEAT programme, have shown that active mobility (walking or cycling) brings both
physical and mental health benefits that largely outweigh possible increased exposure to pollution orsafety risks. Rabl (2011) showed that replacing regular car trips by either regular cycling trips (e.g.
commuting trips of 5 km each way) or regular walking trips (e.g. pedestrian commuting trips of 2.5 km
each way) brings a net benefit of around EUR 1 000 for every person who decides to switch from using a
private cars to adopting an active form of mobility (see Figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1. Calculated economical benefits of one individual who switches from driving to walking
Euros / year / person
Accident risk of individuals
Pollution exposure of individuals
Public gain from reduced pollution
Health gain from walking
-200

0

200

400

600

800

1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Source: Rabl, A. (2011).
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CHAPTER 4. WALKING, HEALTH AND WELL BEING –35

In 2011, the PEP Programme of the World Health Organization and the UNECE released a tool toassess the economic benefits of walking (see Box 4.2). This tool, which can be used at project level, will
be very useful when comparing different urban development projects to demonstrate the net healthbenefits of policies promoting active mobility.

Box 4.2. Health Economic Assessment Tool (HEAT) for Walking
To demonstrate the return in investments in healthy transport modes, the World Health Organization and theUnited Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) developed –– in the framework of the Transport,
Health and Environment Pan-European Programme (THE PEP) ––- a new Health Economic Assessment Tool
(HEAT) for walking and cycling.
HEAT is designed to help transport and urban planners estimate the economic savings from population-basedmortality reductions due to physical activity resulting from regular cycling and walking and is a basis for more
informed investments in sustainable transport. Two different versions of HEAT exist respectively for cycling andwalking.
The version for walking is designed to assess the benefits of regular walking for commuting or leisure time
activities, at a moderate pace of 4.8 km/h, considered as a speed requiring energy efficient expenditure to produce
health benefits.
The HEAT tool has been calibrated based on an in-depth review of 15 studies on the relationship between
mortality risks and walking. These studies were combined to calculate an aggregated risk, weighted by sample size.
The resulting relative risk estimate was 0.78 (95% confidence interval: 0.64-0.98) for a walking exposure of
29 minutes, seven days a week.
HEAT for Walking can be applied in many situations, for example:
To plan new walking infrastructure: it models the impact of different levels of walking, and attaches amonetary value to the estimated benefits when the new infrastructure is in place (this can be compared to the costs
to produce a benefit–cost ratio (and help make the case for investment), or as an input into a more comprehensive
cost benefit analysis);
To value the mortality benefits across a city or country resulting from current levels of walking (e.g. such as
benefits from walking to a specific workplace);
To provide input into more comprehensive cost–benefit analyses, or prospective health impact assessments:
for instance, to estimate the mortality benefits from achieving national targets to increase cycling or walking, or toillustrate potential cost consequences of a decline in current levels of cycling or walking.
HEAT is available on Internet2 and is relatively simple to use, as it requires only a limited number of input
data variables.
INPUT
Average time or average distance walked per person
The number of individuals walking
Proportion of walking data attributable to the projectTime needed to reach full level of walking
The regional mortality rate
The value of statistical life (set by default at EUR 1.5
million)Time period over which benefits are calculated
Costs of the project (e.g. infrastructure, educational
campaign ..)OUTPUT
Number of deaths prevented / year
Financial savings
Benefit-cost ratio

HEAT for cycling has been used in several countries across the world, including Austria, England, the Czech
Republic, Sweden and New Zealand. The new HEAT for walking is currently planned to be used in various cities in
Europe, such as Coimbra (Portugal), Brighton-and-Hove (England), Pärnu (Estonia) and Kuopio (Finland). Resultsof these experiences will become available in 2012.

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4.6.

Conclusions

Current trends within developed societies, including the motorised model of transport, havenegatively impacted on population health (for example, its contribution to road traffic injuries and thenon-communicable diseases and obesity epidemic). In order to improve this situation, a raised awarenesswithin society, as well as stakeholders and relevant policy-makers, is necessary, to start changing thismodel and the associated consequences. Initiatives to reduce private car use and promote public transport
and active mobility, such as walking and cycling as part of everyday life, are essential in achieving sucha goal. The benefits of being physically active, and in particular walking, are very important and largely
outweigh the possible increased exposure to traffic accidents or pollution. Given the advantages
discussed, it is clear that there is a pressing need to promote and encourage active mobility amongindividuals, not only to achieve sustainable transport, but also to improve overall population health.
NOTES
1.

TAPAS (Transportation, air pollution and physical activities; an integrated health risk assessment programme of climatechange and urban policies) is a research programme to quantify the health benefits of active mobility. Six cities wereparticipating in the project in 2011: Barcelona, Basel, Copenhagen, Paris, Prague and Warsaw.

2.

www.heatwalkingcycling.org/

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CHAPTER 5. SAFETY AND PERSONAL SECURITY: FACTS AND FEELINGS –37

ISBN 978-92-821-0364-7
Pedestrian Safety, Urban Space and Health© OECD/ITF 2012

CHAPTER 5. SAFETY AND PERSONAL SECURITY: FACTS AND FEELINGSThis chapter assesses the extent of pedestrian safety in urban spaces. It addresses both non-traffic
accidents (i.e. a pedestrian falling in a public space) and traffic crashes (a pedestrian hit by a vehicle).
It also focuses on real or perceived insecurity and how it impacts on the decision to walk.

Walking presents challenges especially for the most vulnerable individuals. Pedestrian accidents
include collisions with moving vehicles and accidents that involve no second object (falls, stumbling...).
While there are data on traffic collisions that involve pedestrians, much less is known about themagnitude of pedestrian accidents that do not involve vehicles. Recent research, however, has shown thatthese types of accidents account for a significant share of pedestrian injuries.
5.1.

Non traffic accidents: pedestrian falls and stumbling
Pedestrian falls account for up to 75% of pedestrian injuries

Falls are a leading cause of injury for people of all ages, but children under 14 years and older
adults (over 65 years) are overrepresented (see Figure 5.1). The predominance of elderly people inhospital admissions from falls is a result of an increased likelihood of falling compared to younger age
groups, and also due to their greater fragility resulting in greater likelihood of broken bones.
Falls often occur on stairs and inside buildings or homes; however they also occur while walking or
jogging on footpaths, stepping off kerbs and crossing roadways. Nevertheless, few data exist on themagnitude and consequences of pedestrian falls, because these are largely unreported. The few available
studies in OECD countries (Netherlands, Sweden, United States, Spain) show that up to one third ofpedestrian fatalities and three quarters of injuries are due to falls in public spaces (Methorst et al., 2009;
Larrsson, 2009; US DoT, 1999; and the Ministerio de Sanidad y Politica Social, 2006).
Pedestrian falls are mainly due to three factors. The first one being pavement and footpath
conditions: changes in the pavement surface (even small differences in height) can easily lead to loss ofbalance, stumbles and falls. This is especially the case for older people. The second factor is weather
conditions, particularly in countries with marked winter conditions, such as snow and ice which areparticularly hazardous for pedestrians.

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The final factors are related to the pedestrians themselves: people carrying loads, feeling tired,engaging in other activities at the same time as walking or being in too much of a hurry to reach theirdestination. Additional factors that may increase the likelihood of falls include reduced/limited visionand distraction from the walking task.
Figure 5.1. Fatal injuries among older people (60+ years) by causes of death and gender

Self inflicted, 16%
Falls, 29%
Road traffic
injuries, 11%Poisoning, 2%
Drowning, 2%
Fires, 1%
Other causes,
37%

Source: European Injury Database; Bauer and Steiner (2009).

Pedestrian falls have an important societal cost
Few data exist on the societal cost of pedestrian falls although recent research estimated that falls
represent 16% of total traffic crashes. This represents around EUR 1.4 billion per year in the Netherlands(Methorst et al., 2010), and NZD 1.7 billion (around 1.5% of GDP) in New Zealand (O’Dea and Wren,
2010). The high costs are due to the very high numbers of presentations and admissions to emergency
departments of hospitals. In addition, older people with pedestrian injuries trigger a chain of healthrelated consequences that result in high costs to the health system. Falls in public spaces need therefore
to be recognised as a prevalent public health problem with significant human and economic
consequences.
5.2.

Traffic crashes involving pedestrians
More than 400,000 pedestrians are killed every year on the road.

More than 20 000 pedestrians die annually in OECD Member countries, and pedestrian fatalities
range from between 8 and 37% of all road fatalities depending on country and year. The preponderanceof pedestrian deaths in developing countries is more marked, where pedestrians represent up to 75% oftraffic fatalities. Worldwide, the number of pedestrians killed every year on the road exceeds 400 000. In
all countries, senior pedestrians (over 65 years of age) are the most at risk. In OECD countries, the 65+
age group represents 13-20% of the population but they comprise more than 50% of pedestrian fatalities.
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CHAPTER 5. SAFETY AND PERSONAL SECURITY: FACTS AND FEELINGS –39

Figure 5.2. Pedestrian fatalities as a percentage of all road fatalities(29 OECD countries, 2009)
New Zealand
Netherlands
Finland
Belgium (2008)
FranceIceland
NorwaySwedenUnited States
CanadaAustralia
GreeceSlovenia
Germany
Italy
Austria
IrelandDenmark
Switzerland
Spain
Portugal
Average
Czech Republic
United Kingdom
Hungary
Luxemburg
PolandIsrael
Japan
Korea
0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

Source: IRTAD.

A decrease in crashes does not necessarily mean safer conditions; it is sometimes also theconsequence of a reduction in exposure or reduction in the number of pedestrians.
Since 1990, the number of pedestrian fatalities has decreased in all OECD countries, usually at astronger rate than the overall number of all road fatalities, except in Italy and Japan. This decrease canobviously be linked to the important progress most countries have made in road safety, but it should also
be seen as a result of a decrease in pedestrian mobility, especially among children.
Driver negligence and pedestrian behaviour are the main causes of collisions.
Canadian data show that in 2004-2006, one in three pedestrian fatalities involved the pedestrian
being hit by a driver with at least one prior conviction related to speeding, drink-driving, failure to yieldor ignoring traffic controls. Dangerous pedestrian behaviours can, and often do, result in pedestrian
fatalities. Crossing the road at a signalled intersection when the green signal for pedestrian is notshowing was the most frequent at-fault behaviour recorded in a Canadian survey, and accounted forabout 13% of all pedestrian traffic deaths in Canada (Transport Canada, 2009).

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Alcohol involvement - irrespective of road user type - is an important factor in fatal pedestriancrashes. In the United States, alcohol was a contributing factor in 49% of fatal pedestrian road crashes.
Thirty-six percent of the pedestrians and 13% of the drivers involved in a pedestrian crash had a BAC of
0.8 g/l or higher. In France, 16% of fatal pedestrian crashes involved drunk drivers and 19% a drunk
pedestrian.
According to a study of pedestrian collisions in Great Britain, contributory factors were assigned in
54% of the cases to pedestrians only, in 21% of crashes to the driver only and to both the pedestrian andthe driver in the remaining 25% of cases. Failure to look out for other road users properly has been citedas the most common cause in all cases (Department for Transport, 2010).
Since pedestrian crashes principally occur in urban areas, pedestrian crossings require special
attention.
The large majority of pedestrian injuries or fatalities occur in urban areas and, according to police
reports 70-80% of crashes occur while crossing the road, including between 33% and 50% at a pedestriancrossing.
Crash scenarios are well documented and useful in adopting appropriate measures.
The concept of prototypical accident scenario has been used since the late 80s in French road safety
research. A typical scenario can be defined as a type of the crash process corresponding to a series ofcrashes which are similar in terms of the chain of facts and causal relationships found throughout thevarious accident stages. This concept provides a means of combining and generalising the knowledge
obtained from accident case studies, based on in-depth investigation methods or on detailed analyses ofpolice reports (Brenac and Fleury, 2001).
Brenac et al. (2003) conducted an in-depth investigation to identify the various types of crash
scenarios. These are described in Figure 5.3, which lists five scenarios under the heading of crash duringcrossing. The main factors involved in these scenarios are described in the report. To alleviate theproblem action is required on speed and traffic management, parking policy and urban planning, inaddition to pedestrian and driver education and training.
Higher speeds increase the probability and the consequences of a crash.
Pedestrian injury severity is directly and powerfully linked to vehicle impact speed. The faster avehicle approaches, the longer the distance required to stop, and so avoid a collision. Clearly, in the eventof a collision, the risk of a severe injury to a pedestrian is dependent upon the energy involved in thecollision, which is a direct function of the vehicle speed at impact.
A number of researchers have attempted to define a mathematical relationship between the risk of afatal injury for a pedestrian and the speed of vehicles involved in collision. The consensus of recent
studies is that reducing the impact speed from 50km/h to 30km/h reduces the risk by a factor of 80% for
a pedestrian being killed in a collision. Although few data exist on the relationship between impact speed
and serious injuries, speed moderation in urban areas not only reduces the likelihood of a collision but,moreover, the severity of the injuries, which is a main goal of a Safe System approach.
Moderation of vehicle speeds in pedestrian environments remains one of the most effective
measures that can be taken to safeguard pedestrians (see suggested measures in Chapter 6).

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CHAPTER 5. SAFETY AND PERSONAL SECURITY: FACTS AND FEELINGS –Figure 5.3. Scenarios and factors for pedestrian crashes while crossing

Type ofproblem

Name of scenario

Detection

Dash obscured byparked vehicle

Description

The pedestrian, initially hidden,
generally by an immobile
vehicle, undertakes his/hercrossing when the vehicle
arrives, often while running.

Factors influencing
incidence of crashes
Speed
Vehicle parking
Street width

Pedestrianobscured bystopped vehicle

The pedestrian takes
advantage of stationary
vehicles in one traffic lane tocommence crossing.

Driver’s experience
Pedestrian’s skills
Parental educationof children

Anticipation

Dash of nonobscuredpedestrian

The pedestrian begins tocross, without paying
attention to traffic, or dashes
onto the road whereas thedriver, who did not anticipate
the pedestrian’s action, did
not slow down.

Turning “look but
fail to see”

Vehicle turning left or rightfrom main street into a sidestreet when a pedestriancrosses. Most often the driver
fails to see the pedestrian, orsees him/her too late

Straight on “lookbut fail to see”

Vehicle travelling on a wide or afast road in an urban area. A
pedestrian, often young orelderly, misjudges car’s speed or
fails to see it, begins to cross,generally on a zebra crossing,often against a traffic light.
Driver detects pedestrian toolate or thinks that the pedestrian will stop crossing.

Source: Brenac et al. (1997).

PEDESTRIAN SAFETY, URBAN SPACE AND HEALTH © OECD/ITF 2012

Speed
Street planning

Organisation of
traffic lights
Driver’s experience

Pedestrian abilities
Driver experience.

41

42 – CHAPTER 5. SAFETY AND PERSONAL SECURITY: FACTS AND FEELINGS

Box 5.1. Impact speed and risk of fatal injury for pedestrians : review of recent research literature
A recent study (Richards, 2010) based on three data sources has analysed the relationship between the impact
speed in a collision and the risk of fatal injuries for pedestrians. These data sources are: pedestrian crash datacollected by Ashton and Mackay in the UK in the 1970s, data and results from the recent German in-Depth
Accident Study (Rosen and Sander, 2009) and recent crash data from the UK.
The three pedestrian data sets show a similar pattern in fatality risk. The risk increases slowly until impact
speeds of around 50 km/h. Above this speed, risk increases rapidly and is multiplied by between 3.5 and 5.5 times
from 50 km/h to 60 km/h. Although the risk of pedestrians being killed at 50 km/h is relatively low, approximately
half of pedestrian fatalities occur at this impact speed or below.
The risk of fatality is generally higher for the dataset from the 70s, indicating that the risk of pedestrian
fatality has reduced over the last 30 years, perhaps reflecting the improvements in car design (meaning thatpedestrians are less likely to be fatally injured if they are hit at the same speed by a newer car with superior frontal
protection) and in medical care (pedestrians can survive injuries now that would have been fatal in the 1970s).
Figure 5.4. Risk of pedestrian fatality for different impact speeds
Pedestrian impacts with front of cars
Ashton & Mackay data (all ages, n = 358)

OTS & fatal file data (all ages, n = 197)

Risk of pedestrian fatality

Rosén & Sander data (ages 15-96, n = 490)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Impact speed (km/h)

5.3.

Personal security

Insecurity, whether real or perceived, has a major impact on the choice to walk, especially forchildren and older people. Of particular concern is the observed decline in walking among children, inpart motivated by the risk perceived by their parents.
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Pedestrians are very sensitive to many factors affecting their perception of security including thelegal framework concerning crime and vandalism, surveillance and police presence, social features of thearea (sense of place, social ties and integration, solidarity, etc.), urban facilities (lighting, the design andlocation of street furniture and vegetation) and urban features (density, land uses distribution, street
layout, etc.). Surveys and studies of opinions have shown that unsocial behaviour is systematicallyassociated with a long-term effect on pedestrian behaviour and perception of public safety. Women,children and seniors are more sensitive to crime or fear of crime, and this can often lead to a decrease in
their mobility and participation in social activities.
Thus, personal security issues appear to be fundamental in the construction and implementation of apedestrian-friendly policy. Today, urban security, integrated into broader urban policies, is a sharedtarget, being a prerequisite for public tranquillity and peaceful enjoyment of public spaces forpedestrians.
Social prevention and situational prevention are required.
Theories for addressing unsocial behaviour and fear of crime are now based on increasing natural
surveillance. Most experts and practitioners now agree that a combination of both social prevention andsituational prevention is required to achieve an optimally safe public place. Eliminating insecurity withina public domain often involves promoting vitality and facilitating the presence of as many people aspossible in a given space. Public spaces are successful when they encourage a wide range of activities
and instil various uses (Jacobs, 1961). Urban safety contributes to formalising the intuitive relationshipof reciprocity between quality of life and pedestrian mobility.
In ITF/OECD countries, common ways to improve pedestrian personal security include enforcing
appropriate crime and vandalism regulations, by providing increased or innovative lighting, increasing
the number of security staff and installing video surveillance. Video surveillance is potentially one of thefastest spreading technologies amongst ITF/OECD member-countries. Video surveillance appears towork best when it is integrated as part of a package of safety measures, particularly in town centres.
Camera systems should be fully integrated into police command and control strategies, and be used toassist decisions concerning the deployment of officers and how best to coordinate a response toincidents. Video surveillance is, however, controversial due to several legal issues related to protecting
the integrity and privacy of people
Achieving urban safety and developing effective safety-related policies requires the input of various
professionals in the community. The skills and experience of those in charge of public order and crime
prevention, technical services, socio-educational organisations, public transport personnel, residents,
architects, planners, urban designers and decision-makers are required.

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ISBN 978-92-821-0364-7
Pedestrian Safety, Urban Space and Health© OECD/ITF 2012

CHAPTER 6. KEY ELEMENTS AND PLANNING PRINCIPLES TO PROMOTE WALKING

Much can be done to support and encourage walking. This chapter reviews the spectrum of actions to beconsidered, including: the integration of mobility management and urban planning; the development ofpublic transport services and urban space for non-motorised traffic; incentives to promote walking;speed management; education and communication; legislation and traffic codes; and new technologies.


6.1.

Integration of mobility and urban planning

Walking is a mobility option that is highly dependent on distance and on the conditions of theenvironment, both of which can be strongly influenced by urban planning as well as design. This is why
it is so important to integrate the needs of pedestrians into physical planning.
At the same time, walking as a mode of transport needs to be planned and designed with the same
basic concepts as road layout (IHT, 2000). This is why a comprehensive and integrated approach tomobility and urban planning is crucial.
By reviewing the way that cities develop, some fundamental issues with regard to planningpedestrian spaces can be identified:x

Safe mobility has been a concern since long before the automobile era.

x

Accessibility and proximity are both objectives and criteria for mobility planning.

x

Energy-saving, even if it means only the physical energy, is a fundamental criterion for the
choice of transport mode.

x

Design according to climatic conditions is relevant for both walking and sojourning.

The evolution of these lessons can be discerned by examining the great variety of the world’s urban
settlements and the present impact of earlier planning decisions is all too evident. Nevertheless, different
types of urban development promote certain types of mobility (see Box 6.1) and there is clear evidence
that they can promote or inhibit transport choice (Transportation Research Board, 2005).
Urban development and city sizes can influence the selection of transport mode utilised, and inparticular, walking trips (Orfeuil, 1997). Perceived acceptable walking distances can vary. For example,
in larger, more densely designed cities, residents may be more willing to undertake longer walking
distances in contrast to smaller, less densely designed cities.

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The development of urban space within these cities also plays a role in the transport mode decision.
The design of streets and availability of facilities impacts greatly on the choice to walk. Often within city
centres, the availability of parking spaces for cars is limited, making driving less efficient.

Box 6.1. Land use – mobility relationship: the case of “sprawl”“Urban Sprawl” can be used to show how links work. The reasons for the development of urban sprawl are
well known. The popularity of private cars makes living in low-density suburban areas more affordable or, simply,
more profitable than inner city developments or urban renewal (Tira and Badiani, 2009).
Citizens appreciate low density because it provides privacy, space, leisure time and choice (Bruegmann,2005). The residents also speak in a positive way about the liberalisation of locations. Difficulties with controlling,or an unwillingness to do so, are also powerful drivers of expansion in suburban areas.
In suburban areas, however, the means to access public transport stops can be compromised. Furthermore,
workplaces are often located far from any public transport facilities and, therefore, trips to work are completed bycar.
Limited mobility often prevails due to the perceived loss of proximity. People tend to walk less because there
are no destinations within walking distance, whereas catchment areas where people frequently walk contain themost frequently used services (shops, schools and facilities). So the results of spatial-planning can lead to an
environment where most people depend upon cars.
Figure 6.1. Lakewood – Los Angeles County (United States)

6.1.1.

Learning from the past

It is difficult to achieve sustainable transport and improve walking when cities have been developedwith a focus on the car. Minor cities established early in the 20th century were, for the most part,compact. Distances had to be kept short before the arrival of the car and public transport facilities were
not economically viable due to cities’ limited physical dimensions. The expansion toward medium-sized
and larger cities was made possible through the development of rail, tram and bus transport networks.
Until the mid-1950s, many low-density suburbs in British cities were still being laid out on theassumption of minority car ownership, with most residents travelling by bus (or in some cases until 1939,
by newly extended tram routes). Well before the end of the 19th century, commuting by rail and tram
had enabled cities to expand beyond comfortable walking distances.

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This was followed by the development of the private car, which meant that distances could further
increase with the continued expansion of the cities.
This situation contributed to the development of urban sprawl, with the car being the cheapest andmost flexible transport mode to support city expansion. Public transport networks, on the other hand,provide a less flexible solution and their use in densely populated areas requires much organisation. As aresult, the car was given priority over the construction of transport networks, as vehicles can be used forgoods and passenger transport, while being a prerequisite for many activities. Public transport thenbecame a secondary priority for government funding.
Nearly 150 years ago, Cerdà (1867) stated that, “urbanisation is a grouping of buildings connected
together and which communicates so the inhabitants can meet, help and defend themselves” and“everything taken into consideration, urban life is made of two essential elements: human stays, humanmoves: that's all”.
In the Athens’ Charter (Article 60) the solution to mobility planning was seen as a separation ofmodes of transport. The primary measure proposed was a radical separation, in congested throughways,of pedestrians and light powered vehicles, with further steps recommending special traffic lanes andfurther separation measures for heavy goods vehicles.
Today, the central approach is that of integration. Indeed, this approach has grown out of therealisation that separation, despite the guidelines being quite clear, has led to more resources being
dedicated to allocating space for cars, rather than to pedestrian (and cycling) facilities. Moreover, thestrict separation of road user categories has resulted in increased numbers of high-risk crossing points at
which different road user groups may conflict. The Buchanan report addresses these problems, but its
perspective remains wedded to the concept of modal separation where vehicle flows are high. Where
pedestrians and vehicles share the same streets or spaces, vehicle flow is envisaged as being kept bydesign within a limit called the environmental capacity. The report identifies the role of the roadhierarchy and prescribes clear separation of functions, attempting primarily to solve mobility issues.
The more recent experiences of the Dutch “woonerf” and later of 30 km/h zones in France and othercountries in Europe, show how vulnerable road users and cars can safely mix provided the space isdesigned so that drivers are guided by a self-explaining road layout.
Recent experiences such as “shared space”, “home zones” and “liveable streets” have given impetus
to this trend and, even if the results to date are controversial, they are worthy attempts to fully integratepedestrians in a comfortable, low-risk urban space.
After a number of promising innovations and trials, many examples of best-practice can be
identified where the integration of urban and mobility planning has been applied successfully (see box
6.2). In many countries, however, many of these developments are still in their infancy.
Higher levels of integration require several key issues to be addressed that will lead to better
outcomes. These issues include planning and transport policies, the role of the transport network, urban
structure, traffic management practices, especially speed management, parking strategies and public
transport options. These transport options in turn are influenced by local public opinion, employment
opportunities, social policies, town image and environmental concerns.

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Box 6.2. Land use – mobility integration in Freiburg
For over three decades, the city of Freiburg im Breisgau – the regional capital of one of Germany’s mostpopular tourist destinations and one of the country’s fastest growing major cities – has pursued an environmentallyfriendly urban development policy in which transport plays an important role. This small European city has ahead
a targeted policy to improve conditions for pedestrians, bicyclists and public transport. Carefully consideredarchitectural elements connect the various city spaces.
The “global transport concept” (a transport infrastructure that is friendly to people, the environment and thecity) is intended as an integral part of the development of the city, which now has 202 000 inhabitants. It includes
reinforcing the city as regional capital, developing a ‘quickest route to the city’ campaign, preserving cityscape andurban spaces, and reducing pollution.
The concept was approved in 1969 and, since then, the city has developed many pioneering plans andmeasures, including establishing cycle lanes, banning traffic from the city centre, introducing Germany’s firsttransferable flat-rate travel card, and building a city and suburban railway. Its objectives are:x

To reduce traffic in the city and give priority to local public transport, cyclists and pedestrians.

x

To create a rational balance between all modes of transport.

x

To create global traffic calming and concentrate private vehicles onto well constructed main arteries.

To control parking in public places.
Comparing figures for 1982 and 1999 for the three modes of transport – motor vehicles, local public transportand bicycles – demonstrates the positive effects of the concept. Local public transport increased from 11 to 18 per
cent, and bicycle use from 15 to 26 per cent, while motor vehicle traffic decreased from 38 to 32 per cent, despite
the increase in the issue of motor vehicle licenses. This result is in complete contrast to the trends observed across
many other Central European cities.
Figure 6.2. Freiburg (Germany)

Source: www.skyskraperpage.com

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49

The environmental concern

It is generally agreed that the increasing demand for private mobility and the related environmental
and safety problems must be urgently tackled throughout Europe (Fleury, 1998; Busi et al., 2000).
Research has indicated that policies are required to establish calmer conditions on the road, with lesspollution and noise, as well as increased safety (ICLEI, 2006; Verhoef and Ubbels, 2001). Furthermore,
it is crucial to develop a common vision regarding land use and transport scenarios which will in turnhelp to drive decision-making.
The negative ecological impacts of sprawl have been known for some years, especially in the
United States (Sierra Club, 1998). The impact can be widespread, and often goes unnoticed. Official EU
documents often refer to this as the “ignored challenge” (EEA, 2006).
At the highest level, the political process is critical to shaping urban development and hence thesafety of the road network (Fleury, 1998). Many European countries are now devoting considerable
resources toward combining the planning of land use with transport functions, driven mainly by concerns
about airborne emissions and other forms of pollution. In fact, environmental sustainability can often be
used as a catalyst for change and may lead to fewer car trips, which can benefit road safety and promotepedestrian mobility.
The French example shows how the environmental concern can be the lever for a more rationaltraffic planning (see box 6.3).
Box 6.3. Local transport plans
The French Plan de Déplacements Urbain - PDU (Urban Mobility Plan), which exemplifies theenvironmental approach, is compulsory for towns with over 100,000 inhabitants (refer to the «Loi sur l’air etl’utilisation rationelle de l’énergie (Laure)» (no. 96-1236 of 30/12/1996), or Law on the air and streamlined useof energy, and the «Circulaire MELTT» (concerning PDU, issued the 24/3/1997). It clearly comes from anenvironmental concern and the sustainability culture, where energy saving and air quality are the two main goals.
Importantly, traffic circulation and road safety plans both aim to improve air quality. For example, intermodal mobility improvements and the promotion of public transport are also concerned with solving
environmental problems. Furthermore, the expansion of pedestrian areas and “car-free Sundays” arise from
ecological issues relating to pollution and noise reduction, with safety improvements occurring as a valuable byproduct of the schemes.
These acts and regulations, while clearly originating from an environmental concern, use mobility
management plans to reach their goal.

6.1.3.

Planning principles to promote walking

A key change is needed in urban planning to reintroduce some of the features of which history has
proved valuable, namely, high density development and proximity. Indeed, higher density areas require
shorter trips, which are not dependent on the car, and must be focused primarily within 500 metres ofpublic transport stations. Relevant research shows high density areas and mixed land use favour walking,cycling and public transport use (Dunphy and Fisher, 1996). It is important that areas are designed
structurally to incorporate public transport stops to create an integrated public transport system.

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It is important to look at the mobility options for pedestrians when designing and planning urban
environments.
x

The first and main requirement is that town planning must take into account the importance ofpromoting pedestrian mobility with safety.

x

A pedestrian network must be created in cities at the same time as the road network and withthe same priority, and must connect between and within districts and city centres, to minimise
the effects of geographical, topographical, and physical barriers to pedestrian mobility.

x

A pedestrian network can be created by providing a set of continuous public spaces designed tojoin the main pedestrian generators (i.e. facilities, retail areas, offices, transit stations, etc)
throughout the entire city, connecting as many streets and people’s home as possible.

x

The need for car use must be reduced through gradual but permanent restoration of theproximity of urban functions.

x

The density of development around public transport stations should be increased when planning
the networks, thereby generating capital gain for developers through an increase in land value,and bring about the use of part of the capital gains to develop better services and pedestrian
facilities; this approach to increasing urban density, which requires either legislation to give theauthority the power to impose a levy, or bargaining to persuade the developer to forego some of
their gain voluntarily, can be strengthened through the introduction of taxation incentives (i.e.,lower taxes for development that targets urban renewal more so than urban extension).

x

Overall lower speed limits must be ensured. With the exception of motorways and other fastroads, where high speeds are desired and allowed, speed within residential areas should not bea threat for pedestrians, cyclists or other users of the residential streets. Residential areas cover
approximately 70-80% of urban space and many cities have already applied policies forlimiting the speed to 30 km/h (see box 6.4).

x

The priority rules for pedestrians crossing a street are not always clear in many OECD
countries. A new, clearer philosophy on safe conflict points between different road users should
be developed and approved. The priority rules have been changed to improve pedestrian safety
under Belgian law and are under consideration to be changed in France. It is recommended that
other countries consider providing greater legal protection for non-motorised mobility.

x

Transport services should be resourced through the application of transport-related taxes; trialsof such an approach have already been conducted in several contexts.

x

The use of car parking places should be closely managed and their number reduced whereappropriate, while concurrently improving public transport facilities.

x

When planning urban environments that are pedestrian friendly, it is essential to apply the‘right’ design in the “right” place from the beginning to avoid costly redesigns.

xPedestrians should be provided not only with pedestrian islands, but with a well-connected
network of pathways and well-designed pavement areas.

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Box 6.4. Public Transport Planning in Barcelona
In the urban mobility plan (PMU) for the city of Barcelona a decision has been incorporated which divides the street
network with 25 % of Arterial streets, basically with maximum speed limit of 50 km/h.
Barcelona has defined the map for 30 km/h zones covering about 75% of the local street network and during recent
years 15 of these zones have been installed within the city 300 km of local streets covering currently.
In the first application the zones have been defined by road markings (white 30 km/h sign on street wide redbackground).
For the public surface transport, an orthogonal bus grid network, with 9 express lines and light signal priority, is to be
implemented.
The neighbouring city, Badalona, has defined the whole centre as a “shared space zone”, using short one-way streets
to regulate incoming traffic with limits of 10 and 20 km/h. Importantly, traffic circulation and road safety plans both aim to
improve air quality.

In the United States, where sprawl started after the Second World War, alternative urban designconcepts such as “New Urbanism”, “Growth Management”, “Smart Growth”, “Transit-oriented
Developments” (see figure 6.4.) and “Car-free cities” 1 have started to create new possibilities forsupporting travel options and pedestrian activity through the integration of transport and land use
planning. In 2005, the concept of Complete Streets emerged aiming at providing more transport choices;supporting existing communities through transit-oriented, mixed-use development and land recycling(that is, reuse of abandoned, vacant, or underused properties for redevelopment); and value communities
by investing in healthy, safe, and walkable neighbourhood (see box 6.5).
Box 6.5. Complete Streets Concept in the United States
Transportation agencies and advocates in the United States are embracing the concept of creating Complete Streets.
A Complete Street is designed and operated to enable safe access for all users. The term “all users” is key to this concept.
In other words, the movement is focused on the quality of the travelling experience for people and not just the throughput
of motor vehicles.
At the national level, Complete Street bills are currently under consideration in Congress. In March 2010, the US
Department of Transportation released a Policy Statement on Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation which stated that“Every transportation agency, including the Department of Transportation, has the responsibility to improve conditions
and opportunities for walking and bicycling and to integrate walking and bicycling into their transportation systems”
The Complete Street approach recognizes that transportation facilities are unique and should be adapted to the local
community context.
Appropriate facilities may include: bike lanes, special bus lanes, comfortable and accessible public transport stops,
frequent and safe crossing opportunities, median islands, curb extensions, as well as narrower travel lanes.
Complete Streets can offer many benefits for the communities at large and especially pedestrians, including:x

Improved safety for all road users, in particular pedestrians: one study found that designing for pedestrian
travel by installing raised medians and redesigning intersections and sidewalks reduced pedestrian risk by
28%.

xMore walking and bicycling, with health and environment benefits. One study found that 43% of people withsafe places to walk within 10 minutes of home met the recommended healthy activity levels, while just 27% of
those without safe places to walk achieved healthy activity levels.

xx

Lowered transport costs for individuals with less spending on petrol.
More liveable communities, spurred by a safe walking and bicycling environment.

Figure 6.3. illustrates how the complete street designed was implemented in an avenue in Charlotte,
United States.
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Figure 6.3. Complete Street in Charlotte, United States

Source: City of Charlotte, United States.

More information is available at: www.completestreets.org

Figure 6.4. Transit Oriented Development (TOD) scheme;
urban functions around a transport stop
City of Ottawa

Source: City of Ottawa, Transit oriented development Guidelines, City Council, 2007.

In most instances, the key primers for pedestrian-oriented urban land use are: linking urban
development to transit provision, maximising metropolitan accessibility with public transport anddesigning land use and activities in close proximity to one another (Tira and Lombardi, 2009).
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53

A strategic approach is needed

A strategic approach is needed to keep pedestrian mobility and pedestrian planning at the top of thepolitical agenda.
As in the case of traffic safety [e.g. Urban Safety Management, see IHT (1992)], a ”strategy setting”
and “sharing interests” approach should be applied2. This is an approach that looks at the urban
environment from a high-level community safety and amenity viewpoint, targeting these two objectives
as core strategies informing any plan of action. In addition to the favourable results that it generates, thistype of strategy has been effective in keeping safety issues on the political agenda (DUMAS, 2001). It
can also be vital in helping to gain financial support for the implementation of safety programmes andpackages of safety measures. Local administrators should have a clear understanding of the historicalcontext in which their city has developed as well as the consequences of their strategies for the future,with pedestrian mobility and safety among the top issues on the political agenda. The “sharing interests”
strategy places emphasis on the achievement of common goals within different policy settings throughcombining efforts and resources (Tira, 2003). The forming of such coalitions could be especiallysuccessful in an alliance between environmental (OECD, 1997) and well-being policies (UNICEF,
1996).
Both strategies require, among others, long-range comprehensive action programmes, reliableorganisational structures, monitoring of procedures and information transfer, as well as established roles
and responsibilities for all personnel (DUMAS; 2001). Furthermore, in some cases where interest inpedestrian mobility is low or absent, complementary strategies that focus on noise reduction, pollution
control or health outcomes can assist.
In summary, it is important that mobility is integrated as a key consideration in urban planning. The
needs of pedestrians should be considered at the commencement of urban planning projects to regain“proximity” and to create a continuous, high quality network for safe and convenient pedestrian
movement throughout the entire city.
6.2. Development of public transport services and urban areas
The reliance of the motor vehicle is greater in the suburbs than in the city centre, where public
transport plays a greater role. In contrast, walking is more predominant in the city centres. The trafficsystem incorporates many modes of travel, both individual and collective, such as public transport,
motorcycles and scooters, taxis, bicycles and, of course, walking. It is important to develop andimplement policies regarding the transport system that consider pedestrians in order to enhance theirexperience.
In order to create a sustainable city, the number of people using public transport, cycling andwalking should be dramatically increased (Laffel, 2006). While this publication is devoted to walking, itcannot be stressed enough that the propositions here not only focus on walking but also belong to abroader strategy for functional, productive, healthy and less-energy-consuming transport options. In
order to achieve this, the number of cars in a city has to be reduced to free up public space.
Traffic planning for fewer cars is one of the big challenges of the 21st century and is a challenge thatcan be met if we focus on planning of alternate transport means rather than private vehicles.

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6.2.1.

Public transport

Walking is irrevocably connected to public transport; there is a direct relationship between walking
in a city and the efficacy and reliability of its public transport networks. It is imperative that transport
stops are accessible, safe and comfortable. Regrettably, large investments in public transport occur withinadequate consideration of pedestrian access to stations. This could be a result of a lack ofcommunication between different authorities.
Public transport can differ according to the type of walking required by its users. For example,
people who use the underground train system are disconnected from the urban environment, and hence
their walking does not take the unrestrained, more carefree form found on city streets, where windowshopping and enjoyment of the surroundings and architecture can occur. Underground public transport isin many cases necessary for reasons of high mobility demand, develops without necessarily affecting thetraffic above ground and is associated with minor side-effects on the upgrading of the urban
environment.
This section presents the principles of traffic planning that emphasise the importance to theindividual and to the society at large. The first principle and, perhaps, the most important, is that walking
cannot be promoted independently of public transport. Residents who use public transport tend to walk
more than those who use other transport modes. The more extensive and efficient the public transportsystem, the more people will be persuaded to use it and, in turn, the more likely that they will walk.
Similarly, upgrading public transport means guaranteeing greater ease of movement, often through reallocating road space previously used by the car. Therefore, improving public transport often leads tolimitations in road capacity for cars.
Decades ago, many cities had plenty of space for developing roads for cars except, for example, theEuropean medieval towns which had already developed in ways that precluded spacious roads for cars in
the inner city. The current situation is very different. As a result, car use must be substituted with othermeans that are environmentally-friendly and consume less space and energy.
6.2.2.

Principles of technical design for public transport

From an urban planning perspective, a widespread change in attitude is needed that values life,
together with increased attention to sustainable transport.
To achieve this:x

Transport policies have to be directed by urban planning strategies.

x

Data should be analysed about the trips of all citizens. In urban areas, many trips involve
walking entirely or walking-based trips (e.g., public transport trips start and end with walking).
Quality data must also be available.

x

Accessibility to all in the whole area should be the declared aim. This includes giving access to
all transport modes for people with limited mobility and accepting that public transport is aservice for all during all hours.

x

The maximum accepted traffic volume should be defined, not in terms of physical capacity but
in terms of environmental capacity.

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x

Data on pedestrians and other sustainable transport modes, should be included in all road andstreet projects.

x

Streets with a maximum speed of 50 km/h (or higher) and used by pedestrians should offer
genuinely safe crossing opportunities for pedestrians, at least every 100 metres.

x

Buses should have priority at all traffic lights; green wave progression should be provided forbuses using bus detection systems.

x

Local streets should not have more than two lanes.

x

The maximum acceptable walking distance to a public transport stop should be 300500 metres;x

In small and medium –sized cities there should be no more than one transfer needed to reach adestination by public transport.

6.2.3.

Parking policy – Mobility management

It is well-accepted that managing parking is a very effective tool for managing traffic. Anotherimportant tool is the reduction of road capacity for cars.
This is indirectly achieved through the widening of footpaths and the creation of bicycle, bus andtram lanes. A central area, an area with environmental issues or an area well-served by public transport
could be relieved of cars with the concurrent implementation of two policies; strengthening public
transport accessibility and implementing restrictions for cars, particularly for parking. It is important thatthese restrictions not only be applied to an area itself, but also to all connecting arteries from theneighbouring zones. The creation of conditions for easier, safer and more pleasant walking can occur by
widening footpaths and increasing the duration of the green signal for pedestrians at crossings (Langlois
et al. 1997).
Under such a policy, car circulation will be affected. On the one hand, increasing pedestriancrossing times restricts road capacity and, on the other hand, widening the footpaths limits the number oftraffic lanes or eliminates road-side parking. Where the road is very narrow, as is typical in the historic
centres, the principal solution is to abolish parking, which supports public transport in areas served bytrain stations.
Parking policies also influence whether the car user will walk. If, for example, the parking facilities
for the city were not located at its heart but, rather, its perimeter, as is the correct way, then the car user
will, in fact, visit the centre on foot or by public transport, according to the spatial layout of the centre. It
naturally follows that in centres rich in wide pavements, with restricted parking and few cars, walking
will dominate. In residential areas, the farther away the parking facilities, the less the car is chosen. In thesuburbs, one parks at one’s home, but this is not true of the city centre where buildings are usually older
and do not always have parking places provided. Parking planning usually provides privileges toresidents of the centre, which conflicts with the prospect of centres being no longer dominated by cars.

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6.2.4.

Car sharing and car poolingIn recent years some cities have developed two solutions - car pooling and car sharing. Bothsolutions are based on the more intensive utilisation of fewer cars, thus relieving the road network of
traffic and parked cars. Car pooling seeks to increase the occupancy of vehicles which today is well
below 1.5, meaning that most private cars circulate with just their drivers. A series of incentives toachieve car pooling have been put into practice; they are commonly motivated by concerns about trafficorganisation and infrastructure. Three examples of the former are a) specifying an area where entry is
only allowed to cars carrying more than one person; b) permission to park at places of work granted tocars transporting more than one employee; c) provision of a specific lane in the arteries of entry into acity, exclusively for cars with more than one person. The enforcement of such policies is, of course,
especially difficult and, moreover, their success depends on how efficiently the transport of employees
from neighbouring areas is organised, either by companies with large numbers of employees or by amunicipality.
Car sharing is an answer to the rising cost of owning a car. It offers the resident “collective
ownership” of a fleet of different vehicles parked in specific places. Members of clubs/associations use
one of the vehicles, when desired, on payment of flexible rental at low cost. It represents a solution for
cities well equipped with public transport and bicycle lanes, cities where walking is pleasant and thecollectively-owned car mainly offers the security of private mobility, only when really needed.
6.2.5.

Urban tolls and walking

In recent decades, one method for reducing cars in city centres has been to introduce tolls on roads.
Tolls have already been introduced in a few European cities with great success. According to many
policy documents, it seems logical and equitable to ask car drivers to pay to compensate for theunwanted impacts of private car travel. Paying to park on the street also comes under the same rationale.
While this measure is widespread in the centre of large cities, elsewhere, it has sometimes been met withserious opposition by those arguing that town centre is not a commodity, but a public space open to all,independently of their revenues. Another consequence is that simply reducing the traffic volume may
increase vehicle speeds, which would have serious consequences for the pedestrian.
It should not be forgotten that the ultimate objective is to increase public space for sojourning andwalking, and to build routes for the exclusive use of public transport and bicycles. This requires a major
project of restructuring the road environment. In reality this undertaking will reduce traffic volume andthe amount of space available for the car. However, financing will probably be difficult for a strategy ofthis scale, restructuring to improve road quality and decisively prioritise public transport, cycling andwalking. The income from urban tolls may be sufficient to fund such improvements. Perhaps a unified
policy with the clear aim of regenerating public space, using funds obtained from urban tolls, would be
the most plausible. After all, a robust case can be made that reducing the traffic can help to reduce theimpact it has on the whole of society, in terms of crashes, pollution, noise and urban aesthetics.
6.3.

Urban space for non-motorised traffic and public transport

6.3.1.

General principles

It is important to design urban space that considers pedestrians by promoting mobility, accessibility,
safety and health. Different principles can be used to guide the design of urban environments. These
principles include; Design for All, the 5 C’s and the Sustainable Safety Principles (SWOV, 2006).

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Design for All
Walking is an activity in which it is easy to partake, as it does not require any special education,
licence or equipment. As social exclusion is unacceptable, society cannot afford to restrict or limit basic
walking options. In accordance with this concept, the Design for All (D4A) principle is aimed atsatisfying this fundamental human right.
The D4A principle considers the perspective of the users who have the most difficulty accessing andusing the transport system. This subsequently caters for a greater proportion of public transport users andpedestrians (European Institute for Design and Ability, 2004). More specifically, the main groups ofconcern are children, elderly people, people with limited walking ability and those without driver’s
licence (Methorst, 2003).
The 5 Cs
In 1996 Gardner et al. published a report on the development of a pedestrian strategy for London. It
was concluded that, in order to be pedestrian friendly, public space should comply with at least fiverequirements: it should be convivial, convenient, connected, conspicuous and comfortable.
x

Convivial public space means that the design and facilities support a liveable environment forpedestrians. Being surrounded by others makes the public space safe and inviting forpedestrians.

x

Convenient relates to whether or not the public space or facility accommodates pedestrianneeds, such as the need to be both time efficient and the ability to provide a direct route to thepedestrians’ destination. Convenience is a subjective term and can change over time. For
example, infrastructure that was once viewed as being convenient and reducing travel time may
not be meet today‘s standards of quality of life.

x

Connected refers to connectivity of the infrastructure network that links trip origins to desired
destinations, thus making it possible for persons to get where they want to go.

x

Comfortable relates to the extent to which walking accommodates the competencies andabilities of all pedestrians. In objective terms comfort refers to the ability to use the facilities
without straining one’s self. In regards to subjective terms comfort is a state of mind, a feelingof usability without stress, uneasiness or pain.

x

Conspicuous refers to the extent to which an object or facility is noticeable or eye-catching inregards to clear and legible routes, signs and information.

Sustainable safety principles
One of the most basic needs of pedestrians is safety, which can include the risk of falls as well as
personal security. Traffic safety is not exactly the same as pedestrian safety and therefore there are safety
principles that apply to pedestrians.

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The original best available safety principles can be redefined with safety of pedestrians in mind as
follows.
x

Functionality concerns the usability of the public space for walking and sojourning.
Pedestrians should be provided with a designated space, where they can walk and sojournwithout being bothered or threatened by traffic or any other external dangers.

x

Homogeneity of mass and/or speed and direction means that pedestrians should not be exposedto traffic that moves substantially faster than one can walk. For example, heavy vehicles should
be separated from pedestrians. Furthermore, traffic speed should be very low at pedestriancrossings so that both the pedestrian and driver can take appropriate evasive action if required.

x

Predictability: Pedestrian walkways should be self-explanatory, meaning that it should
immediately be clear where one can walk and sojourn. Where the path leads should be easily
identifiable enabling one to anticipate and cope with difficulties or threats. Individuals should
also not be taken by surprise due to encountering vehicles.

x

Forgiveness: Pedestrians need forgiving environments, which allow for mistakes in their
walking direction or allow for mistakes by others in their environment. In traffic encounters
mistakes made by the pedestrian or driver are less likely to result in collisions when vehicle
speeds are low (i.e., 30 km/h or less). The risks of falling should be minimised, as should therisk of encountering moving traffic, or hard and sharp objects.

x

Awareness: Drivers and riders of vehicles should be aware of the likely presence ofpedestrians, and pedestrians should be aware of their responsibility to other road users as wellas their rights;

The pedestrian environment should be designed and organised in such a way that specific risk
groups are not exposed to risky situations that they cannot consistently handle.
6.3.2.

Barrier-free design

Barrier-free design removes the physical barriers in the infrastructure and promotes mobility for allpedestrians, regardless of their level of functional ability. It is essential to cater for the mobilityimpaired, but a barrier-free road and path network can benefit all pedestrians. Additional safety features
for handicapped people are only necessary where there are safety concerns. The design intention should
be to cater for all users (see D4A).
Barrier-free design requires well-defined footpaths that are sufficiently wide, free of obstacles andinclude safe street crossings. According to the current guidelines the urban space should incorporate thefollowing features:x

No steps: Paths without steps are a basic condition for a barrier-free footpath network. Where
for topographical reasons steps are helpful to those who can use them, an alternative path
without steps should be offered, such as a ramp that includes minimal detours.

x

No obstacles: Obstacles on footpaths are considerable barriers, for the visually-impaired aswell as for people with impaired mobility and for those who use wheelchairs. The visually
impaired rely on the kerb edges for orientation guidance and therefore kerbs should be kept freeof obstacles.
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Recognisability: The visually-impaired are dependent on well recognisable path guidancecues. Therefore, optical (high-contrast), acoustic and tactile elements are necessary for basic
orientation which can be used to provide advanced warning about dangerous places, roadcrossings and public transport stops. Guidance can be assisted by architectural edges (e.g.
house walls or kerbs) or by special pavement treatments (e.g. textured paving, cobblestones,
markings) that are tactile and clearly contrasted from the surrounding footpath layer. The edgeof the road should be clearly distinguishable from the edge of the footpath and should include atactile component. The visually-impaired can also benefit from acoustic and tactile featuresassociated with traffic signals.

x

Path network: A coherent path network of at least 2.5 metres in width is essential for barrierfree mobility, as this allows wheel chair users and pedestrians to interact without hindrance.
Road junctions and street crossings should be easily visible and, where necessary, they shouldbe equipped with traffic lights.

Accessibility
Most city centres include well-functioning pedestrian routes for walking and sojourning. The issue
is whether or not pedestrians can easily access these areas. A well connected public transport system withdefined routes leading the pedestrian directly and safely to their destination can assist with accessibility.
Comfort and Appearance
Pedestrian mobility is encouraged when designers consider the needs of pedestrians. It has been
demonstrated that pedestrians who walk on less attractive pathways report walking greater distances thanthose who walk on well-designed footpaths.
According to the FHWA and ITE standards and guidelines, a minimum pavement width of 1.5
metres (5 feet) is recommended (Harkey and Zegeer, 2004), as this allows two people to passcomfortably or to walk side-by-side. Wider pavements should be installed near schools, at transit stops,in city centres, or anywhere where pedestrians are highly concentrated. However, for a barrier free designa minimum pavement width of 2.5 metres (8 feet) is recommended.
At intersections, pedestrian crossings should be elevated to the level of the pathways, to allow for acontinuous footpath. In addition, pathways should be easily accessible to all pedestrians in accordancewith D4A principles and with the infrastructure guidelines described above.
Footpaths should be regularly maintained to ensure they are not dangerous or slippery, in addition tofree of obstacles. In countries with cold winters, it is important to clear and remove the snow, ice and salt
or sand from the footpaths when necessary. In general, surfaces should be firm, stable, and slip-resistantin all circumstances. These considerations are particularly important for elderly people.

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Box 6.6. The transformation of Oxford Circus in London through a Diagonal Crossing Scheme.
Oxford Street, in the centre of London, is a retail destination with over 200 million visitors each year. Prior to
its transformation, including the introduction of the Diagonal Crossing Scheme, the environment was unpleasant forpedestrians: the footways were severely overcrowded due to high levels of shopping activities. The carriageway andfootways were in poor condition; and there were significant delays along the busy public transport corridor;
contributing to overcrowding around bus stops. The GBP 5 million project launched in November 2009 by
Transport for London and the local highway authority in partnership with the private sector aimed at:x

Delivering an innovative Public Realm Enhancement scheme at Oxford Circus to reduce overcrowding
and improve the pedestrian experience in the area.

x

Improving the 200,000 pedestrian movements at Oxford Circus each day by increasing pedestrian flow
capacity across the junction and by widening footways and pedestrian crossings.

xTransforming the pedestrian experience, revitalising retail and ensuring that by the 2012 Olympic
Games, the West End maintains its position as a world class shopping district.

x

Minimising the impact on traffic and bus journey times and reliability through the junction.

The concept of the Diagonal Crossing was to allow shoppers to cross diagonally and to almost double freepavement space and radically cut pedestrian congestion.
Although it is still too early to fully assess the impact of the project, preliminary ex-post evaluation has shown
positive results in terms of reducing pedestrian congestion, collision rate and public transport journey time.

BeforeSource: Transport for London.

6.3.3.

After

Public Transport

Access
The efficiency of the local public transport is directly related to the number of people that use thetransport system. Public transport routes should allow the connectivity between significant destinations
so that they can be reached comfortably and safely. In built-up areas bus stops should be within 300500 metres of pedestrian areas and railway stops should be within 1000 metres. All public transport stops
should be accessible on a coherent path network. Clear marking and sign-posting will assist pedestrians
to locate public transport stops easily.
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Safe and barrier-free street crossings are necessary for access to waiting areas and should be clearlyrecognisable during both day and night. In addition, non-signalised crossings should be located behindthe stopping bus or tram, to allow pedestrians to see, and be seen by oncoming traffic. Signalised
crossings may need to be positioned at public transport stops to avoid passengers crossing at red lights
after stepping out of the bus or tram.
Interchange Points
Every car trip, bicycle and motorbike ride begins and ends with a walk to and from the parking site.
Therefore car parks and places for leaving motorcycles and bicycles should be accessible by safe
footpaths and crossings.
6.3.4.

Pedestrian crossings

Traffic Control
The purpose of an intelligent city-wide traffic control system should be to limit dangerous
interactions between pedestrians and road traffic. Particular attention should be given to reducing bothtraffic volume (by re-routing traffic) and traffic speed, especially in areas with high pedestrian volumes
such as schools. Pedestrian-friendly traffic lights are required, with average waiting times of no longer
than 40 seconds. It is beneficial to forbid traffic from turning when the pedestrian light is green.
Pedestrian traffic lights with push-buttons (like pelican crossings) should give right-of-way topedestrians within a few seconds.
When designing a pedestrian crossing controlled by a traffic light, careful consideration should begiven to the time allocated for pedestrians. Very often these are designed assuming a walking speed of
1.2 metre per second. This can be challenging for some pedestrians. A walking speed of 1 metre persecond or less is preferred, as it allows pedestrians walking more slowly to cross at their own pace (e.g.
young children, older adults or people with mobility impairments).
Visibility and Conspicuity
Although fewer pedestrians, in general, walk after dark, the risk of a vehicle colliding with apedestrian at night is 5-7 times higher than during the day (Sullivan and Flannagan, 2007). Thus, the roadpavement and crossings should be lit sufficiently to ensure adequate pedestrian visibility at night, andadditional specialist lighting may be necessary if it is not already available from the existing
infrastructure (see Figure 6.5).
Another source of danger for pedestrians is obscuration by parked cars, billboards or trees. To avoid
visibility problems, kerb extensions should be built. Kerb extensions improve sight lines and prevent
motorists from parking on or too close to a crosswalk. Kerb extensions have the added benefit ofreducing the crossing distance for pedestrians.

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Fiigure 6.5. Light-band lamps

Source: Picture by Franz Luisi.

Crossing width, number of lanes anda crossing time
To increase pedestrian safety, thee width of crossings can either be minimised, or crossings can bedivided into sections. In this way pedestrians have less oncoming traffic to consider, makking the task of
selecting an appropriate gap easier. Minimising crossing width can occur with thee help of kerbesignificantly improve pedestrian crossinngs by reducing
extensions, as described above. Kerb extensions
the pedestrian crossing distance, visuaally and physically narrowing the roadway and redducing the timethat pedestrians spend on the carriagew
way.
Crossing islands, consisting of a raised island in the centre of the road, may be uused to shorten
crossing sections on wider roads, pro
oviding a refuge for pedestrians. Central crossingg islands allow
pedestrians to deal with one direction of traffic at a time, and enable them to stop part--way across thestreet to wait for an adequate gap in trraffic before completing their crossing. It has beeen demonstrated
that crossing islands radically decreasee pedestrian road crossing crashes, due to fewer coonflicts, reduced
vehicle speeds approaching the islannd, greater crossing conspicuity and shorter expposure time forpedestrians (Stefan et al., 2007).
Due to previous planning philosop
phies focused on vehicles some roads have multiplle lanes making
it difficult for pedestrians to cross becaause of their width. Furthermore, pedestrians on thhe roadway may
be masked by cars in adjacent lanes. ReducingRthe number of lanes on a multi-lane roadw
dway can reducecrossing distances for pedestrians and may
m reduce vehicle speeds. A reduction of the num
mber of lanes isable to provide more space for pedeestrians, bicyclists and parked cars, reduces crosssing times andimproves the social interaction and neig
ghbourhood feel along the street.
6.3.5.

Shared space

Shared Space is a philosophy of urban road design developed in the Netherlands,, with the main
benefits being a substantial improvemeent in the spatial quality of neighbourhoods. The cconcept replaces
traffic regulations with informal sociaal-minded rules. In particular, traffic signs and trraffic lights are
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CHAPTER 6. KEY ELEMENTS AND PLANNING PRINCIPLES TO PROMOTE WALKING –63removed to allow people to settle potential conflicts by eye contact. Traffic in these areas is regarded as aguest and the layout should clearly indicate that the primary function of the area is residential.
This approach is expected to result in lower driving speeds and improved road safety, although thelatter has not yet been conclusively proven for each example in real use.
Several cities have experimented this concept and impact monitoring will be useful in fully
assessing its benefits and possible undesired effects.
6.3.6.

Conclusions

It is crucial for pedestrian mobility that urban areas are designed in a coherent manner, are barrierfree, safe and comfortable. It is important that urban areas contain continuous footpaths of adequate
widths along main roads, and along residential roads or through-traffic calming zones. Junctions andstreet crossings should be clearly visible and should consider the special needs of vulnerable pedestrians
who are mobility-impaired, elderly or young. If necessary, footpaths crossing vehicular traffic should be
provided with suitable measures such as traffic lights. It is important to integrate the pedestrian networkwith other transport modes, such as public transport, cyclists and motorists.
6.4.

Incentives to promote walking

There are numerous advantages associated with promoting walking within current societies, whichsurround the notion of sustainable living. These include benefits to the environment, society and general
health. According to the International Charter for Walking (2006), the presence of pedestrians on streets
provides a key indicator of a healthy, efficient, socially inclusive and sustainable community. Withindeveloped societies throughout the world, however, people are facing a series of inter-related problems
associated with poor health and the use of ineffective transport systems, with an increasing pressure on
society to address these issues (International Charter for Walking, 2006). Knowledge of the current
situation has fuelled the need for a change in walking culture within our societies. While promotion ofwalking requires concerted action in a number of domains including policy, infrastructure, education andpromotion, the role that incentives can play in increasing pedestrian activity needs to be explored,
understood and highlighted.
6.4.1.

Incentives associated with increased pedestrian activity

There is a series of incentives associated with promoting walking that can, in turn, aid a change incurrent walking culture in more developed societies.
The workplace is an especially fertile area where incentives may play an influential role withwalking promotion. The employer has an overall invested interest in their staff being active and healthy,
leading to reduced sickness and work down-time, as well as improved productivity.
In this setting, a number of options are available to encourage greater levels of walking being
incorporated into the daily lives of company staff. They include:x

Introduce reminder software programmes that can gently remind employees at the computer tostop and take a break, stretch, or take a walk at lunch-time.

xSponsor employees to participate in sporting events like runs, walk-a-thons and triathlons;
these events not only promote physical activity but teach goal-setting and self-monitoring,
while offering a friendly and supportive environment to enhance physical activity and promote

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behaviour change; participating in scheduled training sessions leading up to an event can also
prevent relapses into sedentary behaviour from occurring as well as boost team confidence.
x

Provide public transport tickets for staff at reduced prices in order to encourage active trips inpreference to private motorised transport.

x

Provide maps to employees that mark out safe and interesting routes to get to work by walking.

x

Link “employee of the month” schemes to the value of making walking part of the workroutine.
Box 6.7. The 10 000 step challenge in Australia
The 10 000 step challenge is one health promotion programme administered in Australia thatencourages people to walk 10 000 steps a day; each person is required to wear a pedometer andparticipate as part of a team to reach a combined target number of steps based on a specificdestination. The workplace challenge co-ordinator is responsible for setting the challenge andproviding incentives, such as mouse pads and pens to reward teams that achieve their goals.
Participants are also offered tips on how to achieve 10 000 steps a day such as parking further awayfrom their workplace and walking to speak to a work colleague rather than emailing.

Within school settings also, the opportunity exists to encourage increased levels of walking by
students and their parents in safe, local environments. Opportunities include:x

Promote “Walk to School Days” in which parents are actively encouraged to join their child inwalking to school and to help break the reliance on motorised transport; a morning tea forparents and spot prizes for children could help build levels of participation.

x

Introduce the idea of the “Walking School Bus” in which nominated parents chaperone anumber of children to school via safe routes on a rotational basis. Children are motivated by thesocial aspects of the journey and participants can be rewarded by stickers and the like at school.
In Australia, the collaborative efforts of Monash University Accident Research Centre(MUARC) and Alfred Health – Caulfield Community Health Service (CCHS) has resulted in
the design of a star rating tool that can be used to promote, as well as assist the journey ofchildren walking to and from school (Corben et al., 2008).

x

Introduce “fun walks” for charity in which children are supervised during longer walks in theneighbourhood and sponsors support them on a per-distance travelled basis.

6.4.2.

Summary

In summary, there is a need to change the culture of walking. It will require a concerted andsustained approach within multiple settings. Carefully thought out incentives can play a strong
supportive role – especially in environments where groups are managed and influenced by incentives that
support the goals of those groups. In workplace settings, the employer is interested in having healthy andactive employees while within schools, a key educational objective is to instil in young people the needto live healthy and active lives. Active promotion of incentive ideas to management in each of thesesettings is a most worthwhile endeavour.
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Speed management

6.5.1.

Vehicle speed: A major problem for pedestrians

65

The impact of speed on pedestrian safety
It is well established that excessive speed (i.e. driving above the speed limit) or inappropriate speed(driving too fast for the prevailing conditions, but within the speed limit) is a determining factor of roadsafety.
Speed moderation is essential to reduce the occurrence and severity of pedestrian crashes
Naturally, when drivers drive at a slow speed, they are more able to attend to stimuli in theenvironment, for example, a pedestrian who intends to cross the road in front of the driver. At a slower
speed the stopping distance becomes shorter (when the driver slows down from 50km/h to 30km/h it isdivided by two – See Figure 6.6), and therefore this allows the driver to avoid a collision or to decrease
the severity of injury in the event of a collision.
Figure 6.6. Stopping distances at different travel speeds

Yellow strip: distance covered during reaction time (1 second)
Orange strip: braking distance

As discussed in section 5.2, it is generally agreed that the probability of pedestrian death rises
sharply when the driver collides with the pedestrian at speeds in excess of 30 km/h. In addition, apedestrian is 5 times more likely to be killed at an impact speed of 50 km/h than at 30 km/h.
The limits of physical resistance of a human cannot be ignored, and these limits need to beconsidered in the development of laws, regulations and the arrangement of infrastructure in order toensure that 30 km/h zones are placed in urban areas. Several studies (for example, Webster and Mackie(1996), show a significant decrease in both the number of crashes and their severity following the
introduction of 30km/h speed zones on a large scale.

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Speed impact on every day quality of life in open public spaces
In addition to the many safety benefits, speed moderation can also bring a number of additional
benefits, including a reduction in environmental pollution and noise (as a result of quieter and smootherdriving, limiting thus the phases of braking and acceleration), driver aggression, surrounding stress,
urban severance and loss of vitality of urban centres.
Consequently, lower speed in urban areas allows:x

A restoration of an interactive environment where drivers and pedestrians give-way to eachother, to modify social relationships and to reintroduce respect and communication between
roads users. For example, a driver will be more likely to give-way to a pedestrian who is about
to cross.

x

Equality between all road users by facilitating their interaction. At 30 km/h, cyclists can be
integrated into the general traffic (the difference of speeds being small) and below 20 km/h, it
is possible to allow the interaction of all the users in the same space (meeting zones orpedestrian areas could assist in these areas). At lower speeds, motorists are not excluded but areencouraged to circulate slowly, calmly and quietly.

x

The creation of a more pleasant environment that promotes effective use of the streets by their
inhabitants.

Although speed reduction is not looked upon favourably by some drivers, it is important toemphasise that speed reduction in urban areas does not increase travel times greatly and need notincrease traffic congestion (OECD/ECMT, 2006).
6.5.2.

Speed management measures

The implementation of speed reduction initiatives should act simultaneously on the roadinfrastructure, the road user and the vehicle.
It is possible to modify the infrastructure by arranging the roads and implementing appropriate
speed limits. Compliance with speed limits can be achieved via education, communication, fines andpenalties. In-vehicle technologies can also work to encourage speed limit compliance. However,
although it is an important element of achieving a successful and walkable city, a speed management
policy, alone, does not solve all pedestrian problems.
Road infrastructure measures
Road network hierarchy
Before designing a road network it is important to organise it into a hierarchy of roads (seefigure 6.7), where each street differs according to its mobility functions as well as the number of road
users.
In accordance with the road design approaches in several European countries, all streets are now
designed as “slow speed zones” with the exception of main roads.

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Figure 6.7. Road network hierarchy and appropriate speeds

The primary function of a “main road” is to provide a thoroughfare from one destination to the next.
Main roads are for example large arteries and boulevards. Typically, main roads do not represent morethan 20% of the urban road network. The posted speed limit on main roads should not exceed 50 km/h
(this may be 70 km/h in some sections with high safety standards incorporated into the road and roadside
infrastructure).
“Slow speed zones” comprise the majority of roads and streets. Slow speed zones are typicallydesignated “30 km/h zones”. However in some specific areas where pedestrian activity is very important
and where priority is given to pedestrians, speed limits may be even more limited comprising of 20 km/h
or 10 km/h speed zones. Slow speed zones can occur in areas such as “meeting zones”, “residential
areas”, “woonerfs”, and “pedestrian areas” (see figures 6.8, 6.9 and 6.10).
Figure 6.8., 6.9. and 6.10. Woonerfs (Netherlands), Meeting zone (Switzerland) and pedestrian area
(France)

Generalized 30 km/h zones
The idea of assigning a 30 km/h speed zone to major parts of the urban road network is not new.
This concept has been adopted for some time in certain European cities.

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This has been the case in Freiburg-in-Brisgau, Germany, since 1990, as well as in Graz, Austria,
since 1992, and Zurich in Switzerland, since 1999 (see figure 6.11.). More recently, it is also the case in
The Hague, the Netherlands and in Stockholm, Sweden.
In France this concept has recently been adopted, for example in Lorient and in Paris, where “green
districts” (based on zones 30) have been installed. In smaller communities like Lezennes where theinhabitants live close to Lille, the traffic has been diverted away from the town centre, which functions
with a 30 km/h speed limit.
The implementation of 30 km/h zones in city centres and in all residential areas has proved to behighly effective. It is therefore crucial that this concept continues to be promoted so that communities canreap the benefits for pedestrians, the users of the urban public space and, more generally, the residents
of cities.
Street and urban space design
The various techniques used to control speed including road and urban design features are wellknown. The techniques are managed by two principles: to convince and to enforce drivers to slow down.
Several countermeasures can be implemented to achieve this, including:xTechniques used to structure the urban space, such as installing treatments in successive
sequences or installing perceptual countermeasures; (low cost treatments designed to reduce
drivers’ travel speeds by altering their perception of speed, risk or comfort).

x

Installing horizontal deflections, such as lane markings, traffic islands, road narrowing, androundabouts.

xInstalling vertical defections, such as roads humps, speed cushions, and raised junctions.

x

Environmental components which underline or reinforce the urban appearance and character of
the area, such as street furniture, vegetation, paving, treatment of frontages, architecture andstreet lighting.
Figure 6.11. Examples of large-scale 30 km/h zones
The entire town is limited to 30 km/h
(except for arterial roads which are limited
to 50km/h).
The town implemented and piloted thezones in 1992, and the concept was adopted
in 1994.

Graz in Austria(240 000
inhabitants)

There are virtually no changes in physicallayout; speed management is primarily
achieved via methods of communication.
Source: Certu.

Following implementation of the speed
zones, crashes were reduced by 30% andthe numbers of seriously injured persons
were reduced by 37%.

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In 1999, Zurich introduced seventy 30km/h
speed zones over the period of one year.
Currently, all the districts have posted
speed limits of 30km/h.
Zurich in
Switzerland

The entrance to the speed zone is clearlymarked, and speed reduction devices arefound within the zones.

(340 000
inhabitants)

Information and surveillance of speeds are
the other keys to the success.
Source: Catia Rennesson.

The community quickly accepted andrespected the new speed limits, which
contributed to a 40% reduction in crashes.

Two approaches may be distinguished:x

A “low cost approach” that consists of implementing traffic calming devices that is efficient
but not too expensive. For example: street narrowing by providing parking on alternate sides of
the road, speed cushions, and installing priority lanes on the nearside at road junctions. This
low cost approach makes it possible to treat wide areas and is often utilised in residential areas.

x

A “quality enhancement approach” refers to an approach that considers the overall design of
the urban environment. It is costly because it involves implementing speed reduction
countermeasures in the town centres, the commercial areas or the historical districts. It aims togive pedestrians priority in these areas and sends a message to drivers that they are only a“guest” in the area. . Including these features from the beginning is a much more cost-effective
strategy.

6.5.3.

Road user behaviour

Educating the public and the policy makers about the problem of speeding
Education, training and information programmes should include information about why driver
speed is a significant road safety issue. These programmes should include information about the efficacyof speed management measures and highlight the positive safety benefits of reducing speed.
Driver speed and its consequences concern the entire population, and therefore education
programmes should target all age groups (from children to elderly people) as well as all roads users(including drivers and pedestrians). The educational message provided will differ according to the age ofthe individual, the type of road user and the culture of the country.
Licensed drivers form the largest target group, but they are very difficult to reach, and it ischallenging to change driver behaviour. Countries generally rely on information campaigns, such as
placing information on billboards by the side of the road or advertising the messages on televisioncommercials (see figure 6.12). Information campaigns can be effective when used in combination withother speed reduction measures, but they have a minimal effect if applied as stand-alone measures. In
summary, the production and dissemination of information should be a continuous activity.

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Figure 6.12. Public awareness campaigns accompanied the large-scale implementation of 30km/h
zones in 1992 and since then are repeated on an annual basis (City of Graz)

Speed displays (Figure 6.13.) that inform the driver of their current speed can serve to encourage
self-regulation of speed and can be considered an educational tool. Car manufacturers can play an
influential role in promoting appropriate road safety behaviour. It is important that advertisements forcars do not glamorise speed, as is often still the case. Governments should encourage manufacturers to
replace the emphasis on speed with positive messages about the benefits of vehicle features including
technologies that can improve driving comfort, functionality and, in turn, enhance road safety.
Figure 6.13. Speed displays

Speed control
Traditional methods of police enforcement have involved automated speed control devices, which
include the use of fixed and mobile cameras, as well as the administration of penalties. Speed cameras
and penalties are more effective at reducing driver speed when implemented together rather than alone.
Evidence from speed reduction efforts has shown that:x

Enforcement should include all road users (including foreign drivers) and all types of vehicles(e.g. motorcycles and trucks).

x

In the case of automatic enforcement (as illustrated in Figure 6.14), better results are obtained
when the vehicle owner, who is easier to identify than the driver, is legally responsible for theviolation.

x

The fact that speed enforcement can be random is a major determinant of a driver’s subjective
assessment of risk. An “anywhere anytime” enforcement programme (including mobile radars)
could be expected to have more wide ranging effects, especially when implemented with anextensive publicity campaign.

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CHAPTER 6. KEY ELEMENTS AND PLANNING PRINCIPLES TO PROMOTE WALKING –71xCommunication about the importance of law enforcement and about the use of the money fromthe fines (e.g., reinvestment in road safety initiatives) is important for gaining social
acceptance.

x

Retrospectively, automatic speed control devices are cost effective and can have a widespread
safety impact that occurs not only just at the site of the speed camera. However, a successfullarge-scale automatic speed camera operation should be administered with the provision ofadequate information to the media, the relevant interest groups and the general public.

In addition, point-to-point enforcement seems to be an effective means to reduce speed. Point-topoint speed cameras calculate the time it takes the vehicle to travel between two points and thendetermines the average speed on a section of road. This enforcement method has been implemented incertain European countries, and is being piloted in others. In London similar devices are being tested tocontrol for speeding in 20 mph (32 km/h) speed zones.
Figure 6.14. Automatic surveillance in Paris (France)

Source: CERTU.

6.5.4.

Vehicle technology

Drive assist and vehicle speed control technologies
A number of vehicles are manufactured to travel at speeds greater than 150km/h. If, at some stage,
all vehicles had a maximum speed limit that was similar to the maximum posted speed limit this would
not necessarily solve all the speed problems. For example, this would have little effect on speed in urban
areas, which require complying with speed limits of 50 and 30 km/h.
A step forward in speed management in urban areas could occur as new technologies become
progressively available. At present, Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA) applications are being actively
researched and tested in many countries.
With ISA technology, the vehicle “knows” the local speed limit and is capable of using that information
to either give feedback to the driver, or to automatically limit vehicle speed.

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Two broad ISA categories are being assessed for possible wider deployment:x

Informative (advisory) ISA, which principally displays the speed limit and warns (via an
audible or visual display) the drivers when they drive above the speed limit.

x

Supportive (intervening) ISA provides information on the speed limit to the driver and isdirectly linked to the vehicle speed control system. Both systems can be set voluntarily (if thedriver chooses to activate it) or can be made mandatory (when the system is activated all thetime). Whatever system is chosen, the driver always has the ability to override it in emergency
situations.

ISA can be based on navigation devices or on roadside posts. Until now, ISA has been based on
navigation devices and has been considered as one of the best solutions for covering large areas, bothnationally and internationally. It is also less expensive for the road authorities. The problem of updating
the data is nevertheless crucial.
6.5.5.

Conclusions

Lowering the traffic speed can result in a reduction of the frequency and severity of pedestriancollisions, which means that speed moderation is both highly effective and a cost effective means for
improving pedestrian safety. Reducing speed can also contribute to better air quality, more efficientenergy use, smoother traffic flow and, overall, enhances the liveability and sustainability of cities.
In urban areas, 30 km/h zones should be incorporated in to the majority of streets, with only a few
main roads remaining at a posted speed limit of 50 km/h. Moreover in areas where pedestrian activity isimportant and where it is necessary to give priority to pedestrians, a reduction of the speed limit to 20
km/h or less should be considered. In order to effectively introduce lower speed limits into highpedestrian areas, the following designs could be considered; “meeting zones” “residential areas”,“woonerfs”, and “pedestrian areas”.
The choice of the speed limit should be based on the functionality of the streets and urban roads,
and be supported by appropriate infrastructure design. This would then help to create low risk andenjoyable urban environments for all, especially for unprotected road users.
To be effective, road infrastructure measures should be supported by education and communication
as well as speed enforcement programmes. Automatic speed cameras place the onus and responsibilityon the driver to maintain the appropriate speed and can be effective enforcement devices. Furthermore,
the installation of point-to-point speed cameras should also be encouraged on road sections as well as
inside slow zones areas.
Finally, given the great potential benefits that new technologies can provide, the progressive
implementation of speed reduction technology is encouraged in both new and existing vehicles. For
example, all new cars could be equipped with manually adjustable speed limiters. The benefits ofvoluntary informative or supportive Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA) systems are becoming evident
and further studies are required to investigate their efficacy and the scope for their widespread voluntary
adoption ahead of any possible mandatory requirement to use them.

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6.6.

73

Education and communication

High quality education programmes in schools and within local communities are useful to promote
the benefits of walking and encourage safe road user behaviour through a range of communication
methods.
Communication on walking and education about walking are needed to increase the number ofpeople who walk safely in urban space. The benefits of walking, whether they are for utilitarian or forrecreational purposes, can be expressed in terms of improved environmental and personal health, reduced
traffic congestion, enhanced quality of life, and can also benefit the economy.
6.6.1.

Educating pedestrians

Elderly pedestrians
Elderly pedestrians are the most vulnerable age group for being involved in a crash due to their onroad exposure and frailty. Interventions that promote physical activity, that aim to balance training andexercise, are effective in lowering the risk of falls and fall-related injuries in selected groups of older
people. Older pedestrians can be educated about the role of physical wellbeing and mobility in pedestriansafety, and the benefits of walking for general health. Informative campaigns are successful in teaching
adults but are not necessarily useful for transferring knowledge into practice. Therefore, practical training
interventions could address aspects of pedestrian behaviour and should be designed with the intent tomodify behaviour in the road environment with lasting effects (Dunbar et al., 2004).
Educating children
The new focus on sustainable development and on reducing health problems such as obesity
motivates countries to promote non-polluting and active travel modes. Walking and safe walking
behaviour should therefore be promoted in childhood.
Get children back in the streets
Pedestrian mobility among children has decreased in a lot of countries in the past 20 years. Children
now are autonomous as pedestrian from the first year of secondary school (between 11 and 12 years old)instead of 7-8 years old in the 1970’s (Hillman et al., 1997) and their experiences of traffic are therefore
often limited (Demetre, 1997). These elements could explain a new peak in pedestrian crashes that has
increased in developed countries over the past 20 years that coincides with children becoming
autonomous in their walking.
Many countries develop interventions with the aim of improving traffic safety by changing mobility
patterns and reducing the use of motor vehicles. For example, “walking buses” to and from school havebeen developed all around the world (see figure 6.15). The walking school bus follows a pre-determinedroute to school in which a group of children gather at a scheduled meeting point and are supervised byadults as they walk to school together. This practice increases the number of children travelling to andfrom school by foot. Walking permits the children to become familiar with their environment and to feelthey belong to a neighbourhood. It also plays a role in children's’ socialisation, autonomy and visiospatial awareness. For example, the project "La citta dei bambini", while promoting children from six toeleven years old to walk without an adult, recommends children be viewed as the reference standard
against which the safety and mobility needs of all citizens are compared and judged. It is important toconsider any fears expressed by families with respect to their children’s safety and to create favourable
environments to assist with rebuilding social acceptance around safe walking.
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Figure 6.15. Pedibus « Walk to school », in Sisteron, France

Figure 6.16. Leaflet of “I go to school alone” from School in Pesaro (blue), and Gabicce (pink), Italy

Pedestrian education programmes – Content and methodology
Pedestrians require a range of fundamental skills in order to interact safely with traffic. Previous
research has identified four core generic pedestrian skills that should be included in training programmes(Thomson et al., 1996). The core skills can be integrated into sequential and progressive modules(Tolmie et al., 2001).
Children must be able to: 1) perceive the dangers posed by topological features of the traffic
environment, 2) develop attention to the more dynamic features of the environment, especially vehicle
movements 3) relate information about vehicle movements to their own potential actions in judging
whether gaps between vehicles are large enough to cross safely, 4) develop sensitivity to cues, signallingthe intentions of other road users, and how this should inform and influence their own intended actions.
Pedestrian education programmes should be developed, with formal content based on these skills.
Furthermore, these skills are involved in all modes of travel.
Sequences of modules over a long period of time are more effective than administering single
interventions. Practical training, where children learn from experiences in relevant contexts (as illustrated
in figure 6.17), could be used from the age of four years and is far more effective than mere knowledgetransfer (Thomson et al., 1996). Realistic settings, such as protected roadsides or realistic simulations,with several real modes of traffic should be encouraged. Furthermore, two forms of teaching methods
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seem to be central for this kind of learning including: 1) peer collaboration which improves thecontextual application of the skills learnt and 2) adult guidance which improves understanding ofprocedures (Thomson et al., 1998b).
Figure 6.17. Children practice crossing in a simulated setting at College Gardens Elementary
School, Rockville, Maryland, United States

Educating pedestrians’ partners
Simply being a pedestrian is not sufficient to teach effective safe pedestrian behaviour. Road safety
education should be integrated into the education and training of all teachers and police officers who are
involved with pedestrian education (Weber, 2005). It is also important to involve parents in actions andto make them aware of their own pedestrian behaviour, to increase their awareness of their child’s
abilities and to act as important role models for their children. Furthermore, parents could be involved astrainers to achieve low adult-child teaching ratios and to combine an effective training method with costeffectiveness. Nevertheless, parents, like all other educators, require training to help children to be
educated properly (Thomson et al., 1998a). Professionals should be informed about ways to reintegratepedestrians into the cities and should receive continuous training about how pedestrians can benefit fromurban and road installations (Transport Québec, 2009). Reducing speed at pedestrian crossings should be
encouraged and promoted. Drivers can also be educated about give way rules and the presence ofappropriate signs, which can also improve driver compliance. Drivers could also be informed about thelimitations of children and older adults’ behaviour in traffic.
Figure 6.18. 1998 Media campaign from French Prévention Routière: “Don’t depend on her toaccelerate: slow down!”, “Give back to pedestrians what belongs to pedestrians”,“Depend on children to surprise you: slow down!”

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6.6.2.

Communication tools and personnel

Walking should be promoted as a way of life, to enhance the value of walking as a transport modefor daily trips (employees, scholars), utilitarian trips (shopping) and leisure trips (culture, sports), in
addition to encouraging inhabitants to discover their town as a pedestrian.
Key personnel, such as family doctors, school teachers, retailers and businesses have an influential
role to play by promoting walking. Central administrations and public sector staff can play a key role invisibly reinforcing the need to undertake physical activities such as walking. For example, in Norway,
the Working Environment Act directs Norwegian employers to encourage employees to be more
physically active. Educational institutions can play a role as well by establishing transport plans forschools that encourage walking.
Media can be a useful communication tool as they have an important role in contributing to the
diffusion of messages on walking. Blogs and websites displayed at key activity hubs can help informwalkers of issues of interest, allowing them to contribute to the forum of ideas and help to establish apedestrian identity.
6.6.3.

Communication in the cities

Pedestrians can benefit from knowing their approximate distance from a certain destination as wellas the time it will take for them to walk there. Some cities (such as Geneva3 as illustrated in Figure 6.19,
Liège and Tempe) have constructed city maps with walking times and distances marked between
principal locations within the city centre (COOPARCH -R.U. and CITEC Ingénieurs Conseils, 2004).
Walking maps can be developed around a broad range of themes and topics, capitalising on thecommunity interest in the environment, arts, education, tourism as well as activities for children andfamilies. For example, maps can be produced that promote cultural heritage walks – taking in fineexamples of architecture, cultural and historic sites, parks and museums.
Figure 6.19. Walking map of Geneva, Switzerland

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Additional tools for promoting walking that are starting to receive attention include measures thatassess the walkability of routes and the walkability of cities [Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center(PBIC), 2007]. While of interest to individual citizens, their value may well lie ultimately in the leverage
they can gain within key decision-making bodies to drive changes favourable to pedestrian mobility.
A pedestrian sign (as illustrated in Figure 6.20) may serve an educational purpose as well as provide
directions and can display a lot more detail than is possible with a sign directed at motorists or bicyclists.
The signs usually provide directions or display maps but they can also indicate off-street routes, and links
with public transport or tourist areas (AIG London, 2006, Farrell, 2007).
Figure 6.20. Urban way-finding sign in Washington Region (USA)Communication for pedestrians is not sufficient if there are no tools provided to encouragepedestrians to walk in a safe environment in the cities. Educational, awareness and behaviour change
programmes are vital to the success of improving pedestrian safe mobility, particularly to increase theadoption of safe walking practices.
6.6.4.

Conclusion

The increasing numbers of people who walk in urban areas require adequate communication andeducation about the walking environment to walk safely. The introduction of high quality education
programmes both within schools and within local communities should be encouraged to learn and retrain
safe road user behaviour across the life span. Employers of pedestrians in the cities should be involved
and trained to take pedestrians needs into account and to promote safe walking. Effective forms ofcommunication in cities and media should be developed to promote the benefits of walking andencourage safe road user behaviour.

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6.7.

Legislation and traffic codes

6.7.1.

Need for a critical overview of the current national traffic rules

Although by the end of the 1950s the most progressive cities had begun to acknowledge pedestrians
as legitimate participants in the traffic system, there are still many cities where systematic considerationof pedestrian needs, convenience and safety are largely overlooked. The fundamental principle that must
guide traffic rules is that all road users regardless of age, physical capacity and mode of transport havethe right to travel safely.
Considering what already exists in ITF/OECD legislation (ITF/OECD, 2008), it would be helpful if
pedestrians were given more priority in the legislation regarding public space as we notice that there is a
general lack, with some exceptions, of definitions for pedestrians. For example, words like pedestrian,footpath or pedestrian crossing are often missing. If they are present, the definitions are not well defined;
for example, the term pedestrian is often defined as a lack of a vehicle. This definition does not allow forconsideration of the pedestrian’s needs and safety.
As pedestrians have to walk in allocated spaces it is important that these spaces are pedestrianfriendly. In the future, with the ageing population, one can expect to see the emergence of mobility
scooters on footpaths; which will give more independence to elderly people. To avoid putting thepedestrian at risk the speed differential would need to be taken into account and kept as low as possible.
A critical overview of the current traffic rules could be very useful to edit or add rules anddefinitions that are specially made for the pedestrian. This approach has occurred or is in the process ofoccurring in some European countries. This process is called “Code de la rue” (Street code) and isparticularly relevant to urban areas.
6.7.2.

A search for equity

Pedestrians are vulnerable road-users. They are exposed to far more risks than they create throughtheir presence in the public space, even in urban areas where we know from mobility data that they are
not a minority. This is not equitable. To balance this inequity, a review of practices in some OECD
countries proposes two solutions:
Precautionary principle applying to all road-users
All road-users have a responsibility towards the most vulnerable members; a truck driver towards a
car driver or cyclist, a cyclist towards a pedestrian, or an adult towards a child. Therefore all road users
must take particular care not to cause any harm or to increase the risk towards the most vulnerable road
users, especially children, elderly people or persons with impaired mobility. This principle ofresponsibility could easily be integrated into the national traffic code of the ITF/OECD countries. This
precautionary principle has been applied since the introduction of the Code de la rue in Belgium (2004)
and France (2008) and is also foreseen in the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic:xDrivers are not entitled to expose vulnerable road users, such as cyclists and pedestrians todanger. All drivers must be very careful when encountering these users in public spaces,
particularly in built-up areas where they are expected to be situated (Article 7, Belgium).

x

Drivers should demonstrate extra care in relation to the most vulnerable road-users such aspedestrians and cyclists and in particular children, elderly people and persons with impaired
mobility (Article 7.3 of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic).
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Financial protection in the case of crashes
The risk posed by vulnerable road users themselves is extremely low compared with the risk they
are at when exposed to motorised traffic. Therefore, if a pedestrian is injured in a road crash, thepedestrian should be compensated for costs resulting from the crash. Such a law may increase theawareness of driver responsibility and the risks associated with using a vehicle.
Some OECD countries already include such financial protection for crashes involving pedestrians.
x

The “Loi Badinter” or Badinter Act was introduced in France under the Civil Code on July 5,
1985. It excludes liability from the indemnification process and provides an almost absolute
obligation to indemnify for non-driver victims of a road crash. Therefore, in almost all cases,
pedestrians are automatically compensated except where the cause of the crash was the
inexcusable fault of the pedestrian. In such cases, compensation for the pedestrian can belimited or excluded.

x

Since the mid 1980’s liability in the Netherlands has been based on a reversed burden of proof.
Children below the age of 14 years are not liable at all, except in the case of gross negligence.
This is also true for the disabled people and older adults. In other cases there is a maximum of
50% liability. The reasoning is that driving a car increases the danger and risk posed tovulnerable road users.

6.7.3.

Enacting rules to improve the comfort and safety of pedestrians

The national traffic codes are trying to reduce the number of dangerous situations on the road forvehicles, and should also try to implement similar rules for pedestrians. It is useful to look at in-depth
analyses of pedestrian crashes to develop rules that reduce dangerous situations for pedestrians, and todevelop standards or norms applying to street design.
Traffic rules to help drivers avoid dangerous situations
In some situations, pedestrians can be at risk due to the inappropriate actions of drivers. The traffic
rules should highlight such situations in order to try to prevent them.
Some typical pedestrian crash types (Brenac and Yerpez, 1997, Dupriez and Houdmont, 2009) canbe identified through in-depth analyses of crashes.
The two main types of driver problems are detection and anticipation when a pedestrian leaves orenters the footpath. A third crash type is one where the pedestrian is walking along the street, and afourth type involves situations where injuries to pedestrians are “collateral damage”. Modification of
traffic rules should occur to help prevent these crash types from occurring.
Avoid pedestrians walking on the road
The footpath, when existing, should be accessible at any time and pedestrians should be able towalk on it for all of their trips. Parked cars or obstacles on the footpath, however, divert them towards
walking on the road. This is difficult for some pedestrians due to their greater age and their physicallimitations; therefore the footpath should be protected legally through the traffic rules against improperuse, such as parking. The minimum width of a footpath is 1.5 metres, which allows two pedestrians towalk side by side. It also provides space for a person to walk beside a wheel chair. The footpath should
also be kept clear of all obstacles.
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Protecting pedestrians who need to walk in the carriageway
Sometimes, in areas without traffic-calming, there is no footpath and no other place to walk except
on the road. Although this situation should be avoided as far as possible, it must be dealt with in the
traffic rules. In addition, the speed differential between road user groups should be reduced so that whena pedestrian is encountered on the street, drivers should adapt their speed to maintain a safe distance
between the pedestrian and their vehicle. If this is not possible the driver should travel at walking speed.
Traffic rules to help pedestrians avoid dangerous situations
Pedestrians are responsible for their own safety. Responsible pedestrian behaviours include; taking
care when crossing the street, taking the shortest and most predictable routes, and crossing when the
traffic signals permit. However, even when pedestrians take all precautions, human error is inevitableand pedestrians like drivers, require a forgiving environment.
Traffic rules specific to pedestrians crossing
There are four main factors that contribute to pedestrian crashes. These factors include: the visibility
and conspicuity of the pedestrian, the length of the crossing, the predictability of pedestrian behaviour on
the crossing and the moderation of vehicle travel speed (Brenac and Yerpez, 1997). These four factors
can be integrated into the traffic rules or the rules and standards applicable to street design, which
include:x

Ensure visibility of pedestrians wanting to cross.

x

Minimise the crossing distance for pedestrians.

x

Take into account the needs and wishes of pedestrians.

x

Ensure moderation of vehicle speed in the area surrounding a pedestrian crossing.

6.7.4.

Conclusions

Pedestrians are exposed to far more risks than they create through their presence in the public space
and therefore, this inequity should be balanced through legislation. Implementation of the precautionary
principle as well as offering financial protection to pedestrians could be one way to improve the current
situation. It is important to undertake a critical review of the existing national traffic codes, to add, edit or
rewrite rules that do not consider the safety of pedestrians or that cause too many constraints on them (orother vulnerable users). The traffic rules and standards applied by authorities should ensure visibility,
predictability and the moderation of vehicle speed wherever pedestrians and vehicles use the same road,and especially where drivers approach a pedestrian crossing.
6.8.

New technologies to encourage and facilitate pedestrian mobility

Innovative technologies have the potential to reduce the number and severity of pedestriancasualties when used correctly and also to facilitate the mobility of pedestrians.
6.8.1.

Innovations to improve safety

Through innovative vehicle design and technology, novel active and passive safety features arebeing widely developed and employed to support the safety of vulnerable road users. It is expected that
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these innovations in design and technology will play a key role in decreasing the number of pedestrianvehicle conflicts, as well as reduce the severity of pedestrian injuries in the future.
Vehicle design to mitigate the consequences of a collision
The initial impact location in most pedestrian-vehicle conflicts occurs at the front-end of thevehicle; hence the shape and structure of the front-end are important determining factors in the type andseverity of injuries sustained by pedestrians. Consequently, innovative designs that are aimed at changing
the frontal structure and geometry of the vehicle will assist in reducing serious pedestrian injuries andfatalities.
Research on improving car bonnets by reducing their rigidity is another area of innovative vehicle
design that has been aimed at reducing pedestrian injury and fatality (Simms and Wood, 2009). As adultpedestrians often received injuries from rigid components at the base of the windscreen, new structures
provided in that area will help to absorb impact energy and reduce pedestrian injuries and fatalities(Simms and Wood, 2009). Bonnet airbags function in conjunction with pop-up bonnets. Upon impact
with a pedestrian, the bonnet will raise providing clearance to the engine whilst an airbag is deployedsimultaneously at the base of the windscreen (see figure 6.21). The airbag subsequently provides acushion for the impact, which aims to minimise the severity of head injuries (Simms and Wood, 2009).
Leading research in this area is currently being carried out in Australia, Europe, Japan and the US,
utilising advanced modelling and simulation of head and leg impacts to develop and improve test
procedures and pedestrian protection standards for new vehicles. In 2003, on the basis of the report fromthe European Experimental Vehicle Committee (EEVC, 19984), Europe voted a new directive to protect
pedestrians and other vulnerable road users in case of collision with a motorised vehicle. Four subsystemtests were defined in order to test the level of aggressiveness for each new car model: on the bumpers(for impacts on legs), on the leading edge (for the hip) and on the lower and upper part of the bonnet (forthe head – children and adults). Nevertheless, tools and methods for assessing each of these sub-systems
need continual improvements to fit better with real conditions of pedestrian-vehicle crashes (Chalandon
et al., 2007; Mizuno, 1998).
In addition, specific consumer tests on pedestrian protection were introduced in 1999, according to
the “NCAP”5 testing procedures. Based on EEVC (19986), a new “four star” grading was established forthe more “pedestrian friendly” vehicles. These procedures are currently used in Europe (EuroNcap) andin Australia (ANcap). In this domain, public policy should organise regulations and control with the goalof obtaining a strong reduction in injuries resulting from pedestrian crashes. In 2002, the European
Transport Safety Council (ETSC, 2002) estimated that if all cars on the roads of the EU today passed thefour EEVC tests, 2 000 lives and 17 000 injuries could be prevented each year. This would represent an
economic saving of EUR 3.7 billion.

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Figure 6.21. Innovative vehicle design: Bonnet airbag system

Source: EuroNCap.

Crash avoidance system
Intelligent driver-assist systems are an increasingly practical example of sensor technologies
designed to alert a driver toward dangers posed by collisions with vehicles and other stationary objects.
The Volvo model S60, introduced in 2010, is the first vehicle with technology capable of tracking
moving pedestrians within a particular radius. When a pedestrian is detected, the vehicle willautomatically stop.
Infrared lighting is another innovative technology being employed to help drivers see pedestrians atnight.
Facilitating street crossing
A reportedly successful innovation for signalised pedestrian facilities is an optical detection system
known as “Puffin” (Pedestrian User Friendly Intelligent) in Britain and Australia, and “Pussycats”(Pedestrian Urban Safety System and Comfort at Traffic Signals) in France and the Netherlands. Puffincrossings differ from the standard pelican crossings in that the lights informing the pedestrians are on thenear side of the road, rather than on the opposite side. This type of design provides two advantages: 1) itallows the pedestrian to monitor passing traffic while waiting for the signal to cross, and 2) it may assist
visually impaired pedestrians who may have difficulty seeing the signal from across the carriageway.
The system also utilises sensors which detect the presence of pedestrians waiting at the crossing and as
they are crossing the road, and ensures that the signals for vehicles remain red until the pedestrians havefinished crossing (within practical limits) (Puffin Good Practice Guide, 2006).
6.8.2.

Innovations to facilitate pedestrian mobility

As well as innovative vehicle designs, other types of innovative designs include those that help
educate the public, provide development of road safety infrastructure, as well as offering various
alternatives to transport.
GIS applications are being developed to provide route information for pedestrians, including
mapping routes that allow for safe, convenient and secure walking. Pedestrians will be able to complete

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schedules can be provided, as well as mapping to help pedestrians find their way.
6.8.3.

Implementation issues

Automated in-vehicle systems and technologies provide the driver with valuable support, but
integrating new technology and automation into driver decision-making is not without risks. In fact, it
may lead to unwanted effects on driver performance and behaviour that outweigh the intended safety
benefits. It takes time for such useful systems to be tested, and to penetrate the market and whereappropriate be mandated into vehicle design by legislation.
GIS applications require local government to take leadership and co-ordinate the initiatives so that
information is regularly maintained, updated and made available.
6.9.

Summary

Promoting walking in urban areas requires a multidisciplinary approach and effective co-ordinationin the implementation of the various measures to ensure the best results. The individual sets of measuresdescribed in this chapter need to be tested through a system-based approach – described in chapter 7 –while carefully assessing the benefits and costs of each measure. Several cities in ITF/OECD countries
have been very successful in giving a more prominent role to pedestrians in the urban space, withtangible, positive impacts on the overall quality of life for all citizens.

NOTE
1.

See: www.newurbanism.org/, www.smartgrowth.org, www.transitorienteddevelopment.org or
http://transitorienteddevelopment.dot.ca.gov/

2.

Strategy setting and participation (sharing interest) are two pillars of many planning approaches.

3.

Geneva has developed pedestrian city map for all pedestrians and especially for children : www.villegeneve.ch/fileadmin/public/publications/mobilite/petit-plan-pietons-champel-plan-2005-ville-geneve.pdf

4.

www.eevc.org/publicdocs/WG17_Improved_test_methods_updated_sept_2002.pdf

5.

EuroNCAP www.euroncap.com

6.

www.eevc.org/publicdocs/WG17_Improved_test_methods_updated_sept_2002.pdf

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ISBN 978-92-821-0364-7
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CHAPTER 7. NEED FOR A WALKING STRATEGY:
ROLE OF GOVERNMENTS AND STAKEHOLDERS

National governments and transport and health ministers can do much to support and encourage
walking. This chapter calls for a national walking strategy, backed by a clear vision and politicalsupport, with a systematic approach to understand pedestrian quality needs. 
7.1.

Understanding pedestrian quality needs

Walking and sojourning are everyday activities, which everyone undertakes. They are so familiarthat it is often assumed that there is no need to acquire knowledge about walking issues, and thatgovernment organisations are adequately equipped to deal with them. Based on current studies, however,it appears that, in most cases, improvements in knowledge and its application on the part of the relevantorganisations are necessary to achieve real improvements:x

The most basic precondition for improved support of walking and sojourning is awareness of
deficits in the system that really matter. Factual knowledge of the system and what users onfoot require of it must be acquired, disseminated and managed. It is critical that providers andtheir staff know what the issues are and that they have access to knowledge held by otherstakeholders.

x

Awareness itself is not enough to produce change. The authority must be willing to take action.
There must be agreement on the content of the issue, on targets and on the strategy that is to be
implemented.

x

Organisations need to have the authority and opportunities, the tools, the skills and thenecessary support to take action. Having these is far from self evident. They need to beacquired.

x

Measures have to be truly and adequately implemented in a similar way to large projects
concerning vehicles. In practice, there are still many obstacles to be overcome before thestrategies that have been agreed upon can be implemented fully.

x

Implemented measures need to be evaluated, so that we can learn from our successes andfailures. If a measure works, its effectiveness needs to be disseminated so that it can be
replicated. If it does not work, it needs to be remedied or no longer used.

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A systems approach provides a complete package. The aim is to plan and provide an optimal, and as
far as possible, flawless system, where pedestrians can move and sojourn freely and safely. This implies
that adequate knowledge is acquired about how to develop and implement the change process taking into
consideration the pedestrians’ needs, wishes and behaviour. Intervention principles include:x

The change process should be based on a coherent vision on what the future of walking andsojourning in the public space must be. Such a vision serves as a reference standard for theevaluation of plans. The vision should be built on knowledge of the pedestrians’ needs andabilities, now and in the future, as well as the interests and priorities of stakeholders.

xKnowledge about pedestrian behaviour is fundamental for the development of strategies toimprove opportunities for walking and sojourning. Behaviour is brought about by needs,
wishes, opportunities and abilities (Steg and Vlek, 2008). Needs and wishes give purpose anddirection to behaviour; abilities define how well pedestrians can perform walking tasks;
opportunities define whether or not walking will occur.

x

Knowledge about pedestrian behaviour on the various activity levels is needed to develop
suitable interventions: where to go (strategic level), how to move (tactical level), how to
actually walk, sojourn, cross the street and react to conditions (operational level).

Knowledge should be acquired regarding intervention strategies that produce the best results in themost efficient way. The Cascade of interventions principle implies that the authority carefully deals withthe logical sequence of decisions (where to go, route choice, reaction to conditions, taking the next step)in concrete situations and applies this knowledge towards the development of intervention strategies.
7.2.

Developing a walking strategy

In Chapter 2 walking was described as being overlooked in both the formation of policy as well as
in the decision-making process. Due to increasing trends in urbanisation and motorisation, it is evident
that, without support, walking as a mode of transport and sojourning as a part of social life may welldissipate in many cities.
Administrations can play a significant and proactive role in redirecting this trend, alongside Nongovernment Organisations (NGOs) and interested citizens whose engagement is important in order tosecure their co-ownership of the envisaged policies and measures affecting their city and ways of life.
The results of the survey conducted for this report (ITF/OECD, 2008a) helped to unveil some myths
regarding how administrations currently view walking and how institutional frameworks could bettersupport actions for walking.
1. Walking seems to have been obliterated by some administrations which fail to provide leadership andsupport. This may occur for a number of reasons including: a belief that multiple organisations are
involved in promoting walking, a failure to regard walking as a high priority area, or a failure toconsider the implications of walking in urban development models.

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With the expansion of cities and increasing levels of motorisation, walking as a key mode oftransport has declined significantly. There are several reasons for the decline in walking and for theneglect of walking by public administrators and governmental institutions. Some of these reasons arelisted below:xFirst, it is tempting to view walking as a local matter only. After all, walking trips are relatively
short, usually up to one kilometre (15-20 minutes), and the supporting infrastructure (footpaths,
pavements and pedestrian crossings) are usually built by local administrations. Current
knowledge points to the importance of an over-arching vision, consisting of clear policies andtargets, with tailored communication, supportive research and technical advice to effectively
promote walking.

x

A second factor (also stated in chapter 2) is that walking appears to have suffered the same fateas many things that are taken for granted and forgotten. The humble status of walking isconceivably linked to its many benefits. Walking does not require large infrastructure
investments. Walking congestion does not present as a problem but rather results in a positive
phenomenon that feeds urban life. Walking does not consume fossil fuels nor create gas
emissions. It is universal and inclusive. Last but not least, walking costs almost nothing and,
therefore, there can be little commercial interest in promoting it.

x

A third reason is that, not surprisingly, most transport, environment and health administrations
have tended to focus on more perceived urgent priorities, leaving a leadership vacuum in terms
of promoting walking. Moreover, as many organisations could have a stake in walking, it is notapparent where the leadership in this field should come from. At the same time, private sector
involvement is difficult to achieve in the apparent absence of a profit stream.

x

This leads to the fourth factor: the relationship between urban models and transport. Over the
past fifty years, economic and urban models have pointed increasingly to infrastructure that
supports the growth of personal and motorised transport. Developing countries are now
experiencing similar if not more acute pressures – to catch up as quickly as possible with thedeveloped world to gain a share of the “economic pie”. As a result of these models, cities are
increasingly facing the problems of restricted mobility and congestion. Governments are underpressure to find solutions that will often result in new infrastructure that further promotes carbased transport, increasing the risk to and the neglect of pedestrians.

2. Walking policies could yield very positive effects for the sustainability of urban systems, public healthor social inclusion. There are a number of reasons for placing walking higher on the political agenda.
The true importance of walking has been reviewed in chapters 1 and 2. The shortcomings of current
urban design are not just about denying options for pedestrians, but also impact adversely onsustainability of urban systems; and national energy and environmental options. It is well established thatcities developed around cars consume more energy (Newman and Kenworthy, 1989) and have a greater
impact on the environment, contributing to climate change (OECD, 2010, 53-60). Coupling land use
planning with careful mobility policies that favour pedestrians is an important contributor in the fightagainst climate change. It helps to diminish total distance travelled per person and to enhance the use ofcarbon-free modes of transport (e.g. rail transport based on clean energy), which assist with public
transport viability. Results from these concrete policies can already be seen. Cities around the world aredeveloping sound pedestrian and public transport policies as key components of their sustainability plans(Cervero, 1989).
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Examples include Copenhagen in Denmark, which has a low motorisation rate compared to similarplaces as a result of a spatial strategy developed after the second world war; and Curitiba, in Brazil,
which has also guided its spatial development along its structural Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system. It has
also had a specific Pedestrian Master Plan since 1998 and has recently approved one of the newest“streetcar” systems (i.e. trams) in the country, thereby underlining the influential role of walking incoordinating land use and mobility policies.
Moreover, it has been established that promoting walking can improve the social or economic
vitality of a city, as well as the health of society. Effective walking policies that encourage regular
walking reduce health problems for a very meaningful percentage of the population, especially elderly
people. It should also be noted that land use planning is the key to helping promote pedestrian safety andaccessibility – particularly for those with impaired mobility. “Design for all” or “universal design” is an
important component of urban transport planning.
Finally, a very beneficial and remarkable contribution of walking activity lies in its potential topromote social inclusion. As the “International Charter for Walking” states, witnessing pedestrians onstreets is a key indicator of a healthy, efficient, socially inclusive and sustainable community.
No other transport mode, not even cycling, can claim to have this effect on communities throughinformal social links (Jacobs, 1961) and the natural surveillance of others (NCPC, 1997). Conversely, insprawling urban environments, the evidence suggests that, “certain features of sprawl can lead towards
greater social stratification and less social capital” (Frumkin, 2001). Problems surrounding the liveabilityof cities are growing in some countries such as the United States, where cars and car-oriented cities havebeen fuelled for decades. As a result, problems of social isolation and social homogeneity are appearing.
Walking can then become the lynchpin for promoting more sustainable, healthier and socially cohesive
environments. The impact of promoting walking is far-reaching and can contribute to the success ofmany other social policies (Tonucci, 1996).
Evidence from recent research shows that public administrations at the national/regional level can
do a lot to support and encourage walking.
A comprehensive approach is imperative to prepare and launch actions. Evidence from the report
indicated that reactive approaches that were used in the past led to ineffective solutions, while a system
based approach, has the flexibility to generate supportive policies.
Complementary policies are needed for the successful promotion of walking, to such an extent thatthey have to be seen as “pre-conditional” policies. Their key areas will vary according to therequirements of each country, but they could include:x

Spatial Planning.

x

Transport system and mobility.

x

Safety.

x

Environment.

x

Health.

x

Education and Communication.
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A specific institutional and policy framework for pedestrians is also needed. This could include a
National Policy or Plan for Pedestrians, governed by a national / regional administrative body. This set
up would depend on each country’s administrative culture, for example in Australia a governmental staff
member may hold a portfolio on Pedestrians. A Research Programme or a Knowledge Centre (e.g., a
National Pedestrian Observatory) could be another key instrument to homogenise these policies.
Of course the involvement of local administrative bodies is crucial, since they must have input tothese policies. Finally, the role of other personnel and NGOs, has to be supported by administrations.
In the framework of sustainability policies, walking promotion should be considered a generalcross-cutting strategy, while walking growth in cities can be an indicator of urban sustainability.

Box 7.1. Case study: Swiss policy on Walking
In Switzerland, the national policy on walking, which was instigated by a popular vote, agreed to theadoption of a new Article 88 in the Federal Constitution in 1978, giving the Federal Government jurisdiction
over rural footpaths. Based on this constitutional article, in 1987, the “Federal Act on Footpaths and Hiking
Trails” and the “Ordinance on Footpath and Hiking Trails” were adopted. The “Human Powered Mobility”
Branch of the Federal Roads Office is responsible for their implementation.
In 2003, the Federal Government commissioned the Roads Office of the Federal Department of theEnvironment, Transport, Energy and Communications to develop a “Plan Directeur de la Locomotion Douce”(Soft Mobility Master Plan), where “locomotion douce” is defined as “human powered mobility”. The Federal
Administration is to implement the plan to develop human powered mobility by 2011, with actions required
across a broad range of domains, including urban and regional planning, infrastructure, cities andagglomerations, information systems, mobility, education and public relations, research and development,
statistics and evaluation, competencies and financing.
In 2006, a Federal Act to establish The Infrastructure Fund for Agglomeration, Traffic, Motorways andMain Roads in Mountain Areas of Fringing Regions was adopted to channel the federal financing of
infrastructure. To be financed by the infrastructure fund, a project has to comply with certain criteria, among
which improving human powered mobility plays an important role. The Federal Office for Spatial Development
and the Roads Federal Office are lead agencies in managing and monitoring implementation of the plan andrelated funding applications.
In summary, Switzerland has introduced a number of important legislative measures to set in place a policy
to encourage walking and a funding mechanism to assist in its implementation.

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Box 7.2. Case Study: US Policy on Walking
In 1991, the US Congress initiated a national policy on walking and cycling, through two actions:
Approval of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA), recognising for the firsttime in federal transport law the growing importance of pedestrian and bicycle trips in a well-balanced
intermodal transportation system; additional legislative change followed to further accommodate nonmotorised modes:xThe Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century in 1998, that introduced the potential to usepart of the federal road funds to promote, create or maintain walking and pedestrian facilities(Section 217 of the Federal Code, “Bicycle transportation and pedestrian walkways”).

The Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users(SAFETEA-LU)1 of 2005, containing several programmes to promote non-motorised facilities
and projects that attract federal funding via the Roads Trust Fund; programmes include:
x the “Recreational Trails Program” (Section 1109, with a provision of USD 60 million in 2005,
70 million in 2006, 75 million in 2007, 80 million in 2008 and 85 million in 2009;
x the “Safe Routes to School Program”2 (Section 1104), with provision of USD 54 million in 2005,
100 million in 2006, 125 million in 2007, 150 million in 2008 and 183 million in 2009;
x the “Non Motorized Transportation Pilot Program” (Section 1807) to develop network facilities
in four communities Columbia (Missouri), Marin County (California), Minneapolis-Saint Paul
(Minnesota) and Sheboygan County (Wisconsin) with a USD 25 million budget for each year,
2005-2009.

The SAFETEA-LU, 2005, requires each state to have a Cycling and Walking Coordinator (Federal Codesection 217) to promote non-motorised trips, as a condition to receive federal funds for programmes addressing
congestion, mitigation, surface transport and the like.

x

Commissioning the Department of Transportation to develop a strategy to increase bicycling andwalking while improving their safety and, in 1991, providing USD 1 million in funding to complete a
National Bicycling and Walking Study3. This study was published in 1994 and updated in 1999, in2004 and in 2009. The Study entailed four specific tasks:

 determine the level of bicycle and walking mobility and the reasons why higher mobility levels
are not being achieved; develop a plan for increased mobility with improved safety and to identify the resources needed; determine the full costs and benefits of promoting bicycling and walking in urban and suburban
areas;

 review and evaluate the success of promotions programmes globally to determine theirapplicability within the U.S.

To develop the non-motorised programmes, the U.S. Department of Transportation maintains a continuous
monitoring function of progress by means of the “Bicycle and Pedestrian Program”4 managed by the Federal
Highway Administration”, through its “Office of Human and Natural Environment”.

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3. The successful promotion of pedestrian mobility depends not only on the establishment of a clear
vision, a national strategy, etc., but also on giving effect to a set of “pre-conditional” policies that affectseveral ministries (e.g. spatial planning, transport system and mobility, safety, etc.)
Presented below are some of the “pre-conditional” policies that could be developed:x

It is increasingly urgent for all ITF/OECD countries to start considering urban planning anddesign as key elements to encourage walking – a lack of attention to this will inevitably build
dependence on the automobile to the detriment of pedestrian mobility. Urban planning policies
can effectively promote “proximity”, that is, poly-functional neighbourhoods within walking
distance, as well as pedestrian safe and friendly environments.

x

The pedestrian approach could be useful if used as a new departure point for transport
planning, especially if addressed to reducing motorised daily mobility and when used toenhance public transport feasibility. To give credence to walking as a legitimate mode oftransport, a greater focus is needed on pedestrian infrastructure design, quality and financing,ideally to a similar level as other transport modes. Similarly, pedestrian planning instruments(data, modelling, strategies, plans and design guidelines) need to be further developed, andintegrated within similar urban mobility elements, such as mobility plans.

x

To improve significantly traffic safety of pedestrians, there is a need to progress “best-practice”
models in design, construction, maintenance, regulation, enforcement and speed management.
Planning for effective road safety programmes will require an appropriate funding source.
Coordination between national and local administration is urgently required, as is thedissemination of best-practice models, training programmes and monitoring procedures toenable effective programmes to be implemented to achieve ambitious reductions in pedestrian
deaths and serious injuries in traffic.

xThere is a need to develop programmes that reflect the relationship between pedestrian activity
and improved environmental outcomes:
Ɉ Environmental, energy ministries and national energy efficiency agencies must recognise

the role of promoting walking in their national strategies and regulations;Ɉ Councils developing environmental programmes, such as Local Agenda 21, should strive to

integrate pedestrian promotional opportunities in their composition.
x

Health departments and ministries need to incorporate the encouragement of mobility
programmes in their health promotion strategies and programmes.

x

The role of education and communication needs to be strengthened and broadened – key targets
include urban planning and transport professionals, relevant tertiary education faculties,
specific groups including pre-schools, schools and older persons associations and the broader
community. In addition, careers need to be created within transport, land use planning,
environment and health.

x

Ministries responsible for public education need to promote a new image for walking – one thatespouses its many benefits and helps to persuade people to try walking. Health administrations,environment and transport ministries, public transport authorities and private entities can play amajor role in communicating this image and the advantages of walking.

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4. A specific pedestrian policy, backed by a systems-based approach to understand and definepedestrians’ quality needs and preferences, is useful to complement the valuable initiatives taken by
local authorities
The best examples of pedestrian promotion come from countries that have a proper, specificpedestrian policy. The following recommendations relate to the development of a national policy andsupporting administrative arrangements conducive to effective implementation at the regional and local
levels:x

In general, it is imperative to prepare a national strategy or plan to encourage walking toestablish a clear framework for providing support for other sectorial or local initiatives. Whilethe background and content can vary substantially between countries, walking clearly needs
urgent support and a sound and common framework seems essential to trigger this.

x

A process needs to be put in place to develop a national pedestrian strategy and oversee its
implementation. There is no single answer, with the mechanism selected depending on national
circumstances and institutional arrangements. In most cases, and in order to ensure the strong
involvement of all relevant departments, a coordinating role across departments will be
preferable to assigning a leading role to just one. Mechanisms to conduct a coordinating role
include establishment of a national committee for coordination, an inter-ministerial coordinator(e.g. a “Pedestrian Champion”) or a National Pedestrian Observatory.

x

National pedestrian plans need to provide guidance for local administrations. Specifically, thecontent of local pedestrian plans needs to be defined, as do their relationships with other local
plans (e.g., sustainable mobility plans, local road safety plans and Local Agenda 21). The needfor professional expertise at the local level should be underlined, as should the best fit ofpedestrian issues in local administrative structures. Furthermore, guidelines for local pedestrianplans should address the roles of public participation and financial support.

x

Since pedestrians are not perceived by the public as a “class” or as a “lobby” group in their own
right, there is a need to provide financial support for non-government organisations that
represent pedestrian interests and a “place at the table” arranged for them where key issues
surrounding pedestrian strategies and programmes are scoped and decided.

x

Finally, there is a need to assess the feasibility and benefits of creating a Pedestrian Knowledge
Centre or National Pedestrian Observatory to produce and gather relevant new knowledge on
effective promotion of walking. Cultures around walking can largely vary from one country toanother; so general knowledge might need to be “customised”. The Observatory could also be
responsible for producing and applying new knowledge to design and disseminate best-practiceguidelines, norms and standards to assist local authorities to achieve effective change.

NOTES
1.

www.fhwa.dot.gv/safetealu/

2.

safety.fhwa.dot.gov/saferoutes/

3.

www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/study/index.htm

4.

www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/index.htm

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CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSWalking has great potential to contribute to high-level government agendas for more sustainable
development and should therefore take a central position in urban transport policies. Ensuring thatwalking is an attractive alternative and complement to motorised transport is a core response to thechallenges of climate change, fossil fuel dependence, pollution, maintaining mobility for an ageing
population, health, and managing the explosion in motorisation expected in low- and middle-income
countries. Because trends established today will determine the future of cities for many decades, action isneeded now for the sustainable cities of tomorrow.
Conclusions
1.

Walking is the most fundamental form of mobility. It is inexpensive, emission-free, uses
human power rather than fossil fuel, offers important health benefits, is equally accessible
for all – except those with substantially impaired mobility – regardless of income, and formany citizens is a source of great pleasure. Yet walking presents challenges to society’s
least robust individuals.

Almost everyone is a pedestrian. Walking is the original and most natural mode of transport and themost important for maintaining good health.
Physical inactivity is a leading risk factor for health. Walking daily for as little as 30 minutes
contributes to preventing the onset of numerous diseases linked to a lack of physical activity. The
World Health Organisation has demonstrated that the overall benefits of walking outweigh any
disadvantages associated with crash risk and exposure to pollution.
People with impaired mobility, using wheelchairs or mobility scooters, have at least similar
requirements to pedestrians for an environment that facilitates accessibility.
The Charter for pedestrians’ rights, adopted by the European Parliament in 1988 -- states thatpedestrians have the right to live in a healthy environment and to enjoy freely the amenities offered bypublic areas, under conditions that adequately safeguard their physical and psychological well-being.
2.

The vitality of a city is closely linked to people being out and about on foot for many
purposes. Beyond walking for access to goods and services, these other activities in theurban space are collectively termed “sojourning”. Walking and sojourning are at the heartof urban life and contribute to liveable, attractive, prosperous and sustainable cities.

Cities are places to live, connect and socialise. Urban space is for sojourning as well as movingaround. Walking is fundamental to human existence and the quality of life.

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Because walking connects people, it has an essential role in the liveability of cities, sociability,
learning, and developing one’s own personal independence and identity. Pedestrians generally make themost efficient use of scarce space in cities. Pedestrian areas and the intermingling of people bring vitality
to cities and economic benefits to retailers.
3.

Walking is, however, the neglected transport mode and, despite being at the start and endof all trips, is rarely captured in government statistics on mobility and is often neglected inplanning and policy development.

The simplest, most sustainable and cheapest means of locomotion has been largely taken for granted– despite the fact that all trips begin or end on foot. Walking is a necessary complement of public
transport. However, motorised traffic has generally received priority, exposing pedestrians to crash risks,
inconvenience, pollutant emissions and noise. The entire urban environment, including the road transportsystem, should be designed taking better in consideration the needs of pedestrians.
Traditionally, street and urban design have not focused adequately on the needs of pedestrians.
Fortunately, in an acceleration of a trend that had by the 1960s already been set by some pioneering cities
and towns, the past practice of overlooking pedestrians’ needs in favour of the car is now being reversed
in many cities.
Decision-makers rely on mobility statistics, including data on personal travel behaviour, toformulate strategic transport policies and to improve the safety and efficiency of transport systems.
However, published data rarely include walking, resulting in its exclusion from analysis and policy
discourse.
Despite some well known difficulties in measuring walking, it is an important activity, representing
as much as 50% of trips in urban areas. More comprehensive information on pedestrian mobility andsafety would help better understand the role of walking in modern life and the causes and consequencesof pedestrian injuries, including falls. Comprehensive data collection and analysis on all modes,
including walking, are needed to plan and design for optimum mobility. Such analyses should focus on
the efficiency, capacity, safety and flexibility of the transport system, to meet the current and futureneeds of all citizens, including those who are least able.
4.

Public institutions representing specifically the interests of pedestrians – including thesocially disadvantaged members of society who rely heavily on walking – are rare.

A large proportion of the pedestrian population comprises children and people with age or mobilityrelated impairments. These groups are not well placed or equipped for making their needs known todecision makers, and often lack support from lobby groups active in the transport sector. As a result, themost vulnerable groups of pedestrians are inadequately represented in urban policy-making. Indeed, nolead agencies for pedestrians at government level could be identified in the survey undertaken for thisstudy.
Walking is not simply a local matter. National governments and transport and health ministers havea responsibility to support and encourage walking through leadership and by providing the necessary
legal, administrative and technical frameworks.
Responsibilities for accommodating the needs of pedestrians and promoting walking are spread
across a wide range of organisations and ministries, resulting in no clear institutional responsibility ateither local or national levels for agencies to incorporate walking into their priorities. Central government
needs to address the lack of incentives that results from fragmentation.
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95Walking and public transport are interdependent elements of sustainable urban mobility.
Walking is facilitated by a well-connected network with pedestrian-friendly infrastructure
and well-designed urban space.

Walking is an integral part of travel on public transport; it is more convenient over shorter distancesand highly complementary to other transport modes. By strengthening public transport services,
including accessibility and security, pedestrians are more motivated to use public transport in preference
to private vehicles, thus contributing to a reduction in the number of motorised vehicles in city centres.
Pedestrians should be provided with a well-connected network of footways designed to minimise
the effects of geographical, topographical, and physical barriers to pedestrian mobility. This network
crucially needs to provide easy access to public transport facilities. By making decisions from the
beginning that are favourable to walking, infrastructure costs will be lower and affordability higher thanif costly redesign is needed to rectify basic problems, as what takes ten years to build can take 100 years
to replace.
6.

Pedestrians are amongst the road users most vulnerable to traffic injury. It has become
highly challenging, especially for older and young people, to cope with the complex,
sometimes hostile, traffic conditions that characterise today’s cities and towns.

Pedestrians do not pose a significant risk to other road users, yet are exposed to life-threatening
risks from them. However, they have been overlooked in the development of current traffic codes whichhave been focused on facilitating the flow of motorised traffic.
Insecurity, whether real or perceived, has a major impact on the decision to walk, especially in
relation to children and elderly people. Of particular concern is an observed decline in walking amongchildren, in part motivated by their parents’ perceptions that walking is a high-risk activity.
At any given time, around 30% of pedestrians have impaired mobility (because they are overloaded,or have temporary or permanent health impairments). Because of the ageing of the population in many
countries around the world, public authorities must prepare for a future where a growing number ofhighly vulnerable people will be even more dependent on walking.
7.

Pedestrians suffer severe trauma from falls in public spaces and in traffic collisions whilecrossing streets. The magnitude of the consequences of falls is known to be underestimated.
Older people have an elevated risk of severe injury and death from both falls and trafficcollisions.

It is estimated that more than 20 000 pedestrian fatalities occur annually in OECD member
countries, where pedestrian deaths range from 8 to 37% of all road fatalities. Worldwide, the number ofpedestrians killed every year on the road exceeds 400 000. In all countries, senior pedestrians (over65 years of age) are the most at risk. In OECD countries, the 65+ age group represents 13-20% of the
population but they comprise more than 50% of pedestrian fatalities.
A large but under-estimated, and sometimes ignored, share of pedestrian injuries involves
pedestrians falling in public spaces, accounting for up to 75% of all pedestrian injuries.
These injuries are partly due to an inadequate environment, poor maintenance of facilities and visualconditions. This problem will increase with ageing of the population, especially because of the increased
frailty of older people.

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96 – CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.

Lowering motorised traffic speeds reduces the frequency and severity of crashes, especiallythose involving pedestrians. Reducing speed also contributes to smoother traffic flow, andenhances in many ways the liveability and sustainability of cities.

Pedestrian safety and the survival rate from collisions with vehicles are directly linked to the speedof motorised traffic. The risk of death or serious injury to a pedestrian rises rapidly at impact speeds
above 30 km/h. Travel speeds of 30 km/h can reduce the risk of fatal injury to a pedestrian by over 80%
compared to travel speeds at 50 km/h. Speeds above 30 km/h are too dangerous in mixed traffic zones
and cities should not permit speeds of more than 50 km/h on any road designed also to be used bypedestrians.
The large majority of pedestrian injuries or fatalities occur in urban areas and, according to police
reports, 70-80% of those in traffic collisions occur while crossing the road, including between 33% and
50% at pedestrian crossings. These findings highlight the importance of very careful planning in thedesign of pedestrian crossings. Pavements and crossings have to be planned for optimal functionality,
providing a homogenous, predictable and forgiving environment, with safe placement of street furniture,signs, lampposts, to allow for a maximum visibility between pedestrians and drivers.
9.

Motorisation has contributed to urban sprawl, and cities have evolved to accommodate caruse, with many negative impacts on life and social cohesion. Changes are required now tomanage the preponderant role of motorised traffic in industrialised countries. This is alsourgent in low- and middle-income countries, which are now moving rapidly towards muchhigher levels of motorisation.

Cities are becoming increasingly dependent upon motor-vehicle transport as they expand in waysthat contribute to urban sprawl. Planning and design features are required to reduce motor-vehicle use
and promote alternative transport modes.
The needs of pedestrians should be considered when planning urban environments so that people
can easily walk or travel by public transport to and from their chosen destinations. In addition, city
planners should aim to develop pedestrian-friendly environments, including footways that are conducive
to walking.

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CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS –97

Recommendations
National governments and transport and health ministers can do much to support and encourage
walking, even when it is considered to be mainly a local policy issue. A clear vision and politicalsupport at national level, backed by a systematic approach to understanding and defining infrastructure
quality for pedestrians, is an important complement to, and support for, initiatives taken by local
authorities. To achieve sustainable mobility, governments are invited in particular to consider thefollowing recommendations:1.

Integrate mobility management and urban planning and take better account of the needs ofpedestrians from the earliest stages of urban development projects and transport investments, withthe object of creating seamless, high-quality networks for pedestrian activity.

2.

Establish clear administrative responsibilities among relevant government departments at all levels
for co-ordinating walking programmes and initiatives. The purpose of such arrangements is tostimulate and support actions in government and private sector organisations in an integrated way.
This might take the form of a national committee or an interministerial co-ordinator supported by anational pedestrian observatory.

3.

Improve knowledge about walking to adequately inform government policy development in relation
to this fundamental aspect of mobility. This requires a standardized methodology for measuring,
reporting and monitoring pedestrian mobility and injuries (from traffic crashes and falls).
Standardization would help to make the measurement of growth in walking and sojourning a core
indicator of urban sustainability and liveability. Efforts should also be directed at the developmentof international comparisons of mobility and safety statistics to agreed definitions. At a national
level, such information could be collected by a national pedestrian observatory.

4.

Incorporate public transport services as an integrated part of the development of new urban areas
and the regeneration of existing areas, through planning guidance and financial support for public
services. This can support a long-term shift towards higher-density, mixed-use, walking and transitoriented urban form and a reduction in urban sprawl.

5.

Encourage the responsible authorities to give higher priority and more space to non-motorised
traffic and public transport in city centres. This includes a number of key actions: providing easy,
safe, well-maintained and secure pedestrian access to public transport and to all city centre
destinations; development of car-free areas; parking policies to discourage over-use of cars in city
centres; and regulations to prevent parking on pavements and crossings, which undermines thequality of walking and, in severe cases, renders it impracticable.

6.

Develop national pedestrian planning guidance for local administrations. Plans should be required togive consideration to the impact of projects on pedestrians, and cyclists, as part of project appraisals
and environmental impact assessments. Plans should also consider the development and setting oftargets for future levels of walking, as well as addressing needs for financial support. Public
participation through, for example, pedestrian associations should be solicited in developing urban
transport plans. Safety should receive specific attention in national planning guidance, withrecommendations for implementation at the local authority level.

7.

Encourage employers to implement a broad range of incentives for employees to include active
transport in commuting trips. Government agencies should demonstrate leadership in this area.

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98 – CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.

Adopt a safe system approach for the design of the walking environment so that it is organised insuch a way that specific risk groups are not exposed to avoidable risks.

9.

Implement traffic-calming policies and generalise 30 km/h zones in city centres, residential areas
and other high pedestrian activity areas. This should be based on a functional classification of urban
spaces, streets and road networks, supported by appropriate infrastructure design criteria to create
low-risk and amenable urban environments for non-motorised road users. To be fully effective, bestpractice education, communication and enforcement programmes are needed. The development ofintelligent speed adaptation systems is also recommended.

10. Encourage the introduction of high-quality education programmes in schools and local community
centres, to teach safe road user behaviour and promote the benefits of walking through a range ofeffective forms of communication. Adult retraining initiatives are also recommended. School
mobility plans should be developed aiming to produce a safe and supportive environment in whichchildren can walk to and from school.
11. Conduct a critical review of current traffic codes to strengthen the legal and financial protection ofpedestrians in case of a crash, and give higher priority to more vulnerable road users in order toprovide safer, more equitable conditions among all road users.
12. Develop a research strategy to understand better mobility trends in a changing society. This should
include evaluating the effectiveness of measures to reduce dependence on private car travel, achieve
higher-density urban forms, protect the environment, improve health and achieve more efficient andsustainable use of energy.
In conclusion, it is the firm view of the contributors to this report that a shift in culture and in
professional practices towards a more “walkable” society will deliver many highly-prized benefits tosociety, in both the short-term and the long-term futures. Safer, more vibrant, appealing and sustainable
places to live, work and visit will result.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND LIST OF PARTICIPANTS –111

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

This report is the result of a three-year co-operative effort by an international group of experts
representing 19 countries as well as the World Health Organization.
The Working Group was chaired by Mr. Thanos Vlastos and the work was co-ordinated by the
Secretariat of the Research Centre. The report was subject to expert review before publication. The
report was formally approved by the Joint Transport Research Committee at its April 2011 session.
The Secretariat is very appreciative of all the time and effort the contributors dedicated to thisreport.

Members of the Working Group
Chair: Mr. Thanos Vlastos
Australia

Mr Bruce Corben
Monash University

Austria

Mr Thomas Fessl
Kuratorium für Verkehrssicherheit (KfV)

Belgium

Ms Isabelle Janssens
Institut Belge pour la Sécurité Routière (IBSR)

CanadaMr Paul Boase
Transport Canada
Mr Daniel Lafontaine
Transport Canada
Ms. Sarah Peddie
Transport Canada

Czech Republic

Mr Karel Schmeidler
Transport Research Centre (CDV)

Denmark

Mr Brian Hansen
City of Copenhagen

Finland

Mr Eero Pasanen
Helsinki City

FranceMs Marie-Axelle Granié
IFSTTARPEDESTRIAN SAFETY, URBAN SPACE AND HEALTH © OECD/ITF 2012

112 – ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
Mr Samuel Martin
CERTU
Mr Frédéric Murard
CERTU
Ms Catia Rennesson
CETE, Lyon
Germany

Ms Sabine Degener
Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft e.V.
Mr Joerg Ortlepp
Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft e.V.

GreeceMs Eleonora Papadimitriou
Technical University of Athens
Mr Thanos Vlastos
Technical University of Athens

Italy

Mr Maurizio Tira
Università degli Studi di Brescia

LatviaMr Alvis Pukitis
Ministry of Transport

The Netherlands

Mr Rob Methorst
Rijkswaterstaat

New Zealand

Mr Tim Hughes
Transport Agency

NorwayMs Guro Berge
Public Roads Administration

PolandMr Jacek Malasek
Road and Bride Research Institute

Spain

Mr Francisco Lamiquiz
Escuela de arquitectura, Madrid
Ms Candeleria Medeiros
Dirección General de Tráfico
Ms Catherine Perez
Agència de Salut Pública de Barcelona
Mr Julio Pozueta
Escuela de arquitectura, Madrid

United Kingdom

Ms Louise Taylor
Departement for Transport

United States

Mr Gabe Rousseau
Federal Highway Administration

World HealthOrganisation

Ms Sonja Kahlmeier
Mr Dinesh Sehti
PEDESTRIAN SAFETY, URBAN SPACE AND HEALTH © OECD/ITF 2012

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND LIST OF PARTICIPANTS –International Federation ofPedestrians

Mr. Ole Thorson

ITF/OECD Secretariat

Ms Véronique Feypell-de La Beaumelle

113

Mr Stephen Perkins
Members of the Editorial Committee
The report was drafted primarily by members of the editorial group:
Guro Berge (Norway), Bruce Corben (Australia), Véronique Feypell (ITF/OECD), Marie-Axelle
Granié (France), Isabelle Janssens (Belgium), Francisco Lamiquiz (Spain), Rob Methorst (theNetherlands), Frédéric Murard (France), Julio Pozueta (Spain), Catia Rennesson (France), OleThorson (International Federation of Pedestrians) Maurizio Tira (Italy) and Thanos Vlastos (Greece).
Peer review
The report was reviewed by Mr. Richard Allsop, University College, London. The Working
Group and the Secretariat are very grateful for his comments and suggestions to improve the quality ofthis final publication.
Other contributors
Ms Sara Liu (Monash University), Ms Anna Devlin (Monash University).

PEDESTRIAN SAFETY, URBAN SPACE AND HEALTH © OECD/ITF 2012

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Pedestrian Safety, Urban Spaceand Health
Walking is the most natural form of mobility; however cities havenot always evolved to accommodate the needs of pedestrians andwalking has in many cases been neglected in the developmentof transport systems. Improving the pedestrian environment cancontribute significantly to meeting the challenges of climate change,
air pollution and health.
This report aims to present decision-makers with hard evidence on
the important place of walking in transport policies and provide
guidelines for developing a safe environment conducive to walking.
This is an essential contribution to creating liveable cities.
Every single trip begins and ends by walking.

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