Vol.4, No.2

2014

National Foundation ofBrief Therapy
December, 2014

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family ScienceVol. 4, No. 2, 2014

CONTENTS
Original Papers (Research and Experiment) :Aftereffect of Adolescences’ Experience of Cyber Bullying on Their Mental Health:A retrospective survey
Yokotani, K., Ban, N., Ayukawa, J., Itakura, N, and Hasegawa, K……………. 45-56
Study on Developmental Transformation in Sibling Relationship Based on the
Family System Theory: Cases of First Children
Morikawa, N. ……………. 57-68
Longitudinal Study of the Stress Responses of Local Government Workers Who
Have Been Impacted by a Natural Disaster
Wakashima, K., Kobayashi, T., Kozuka, T., Noguchi ,S.,
Ikuta, M., Ambo, H, and Hasegawa, K ……………. 69-94
The Investigation on the Support for the Families Evacuated to their Relative's
and the Accepted Families after the grate disaster in Japan.
Ikuta, M. . ……………. 95-98

Invited paper:
What Gregory Bateson's thought brought about Japanese brief therapy
Matsumoto, H., Ishii, k., Nakamura, M.,
Nagaishi, H, and Sato, K ………………………………………...99-111

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science2014 Vol. 4, No.2, 45-56< Original Paper: Research and Experiment >Aftereffect of Adolescences’ Experience of Cyber Bullying on Their Mental Health:A retrospective survey
Kenji Yokotani1) , Nanako Ban2) , Junosuke Ayukawa3) , Norimasa Itakura4) and Keizo Hasegawa5)
1)

Graduate School of Clinical Psychology, Niigata Seiryo University

2)

Saka general clinic

3)

Fujitsu limited

4)

Faculty of Education, Gifu University

5)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

ABSTRACT. The present study investigates aftereffects of adolescences’ experience of cyber bullying. Cyber bullying is defined asbullying via electronic communication tools. We surveyed 321 late adolescent university students in Japan. The results showed thatvictimization on the internet significantly raised current levels of anxiety and frustration. On the other hand, victimization on the
mail did not affect current mental problems. Internet and mail had different communication function (mass communication/ personalcommunication), so the different function might have different psychological impacts on late adolescent mental health.
KEY WORDS: Cyber bullying, Internet, Mail, Traditional Bullying, Mental Health, Aftereffect.

Victims involved in both traditional andIntroduction
Bullying is usually defined as being ancyber bullying are growing concerns. These

aggressive and intentional behavior that isconcerns are partly spread by media reports

carried out by a group or an individual

about children who committed suicide after

repeatedly against a victim who can not easily

being victimized by bullies (e.g., Computer

defend him/herself (Olweus, 1993). Recent

Fraud Security, 2008). Although such extreme

study also reflects growing concern about

consequences are rare, previous study showedbullying through mobile phones or personalthat victims who were involved in traditional

computers. According to previous studies (e.g.,bullying manifested mental health problems,

Smith, Mahdavi, Carvalho, Fisher, Russell, &including both internalized and externalized

Tippett, 2008), we labeled the latter type ofsymptoms

bullying as ‘cyber bullying’ and the former as

Bukowski, 1999; Solberg, & Olweus, 2003).

‘traditional bullying.’

However, studies regarding victims involved in(Hodges,

Boivin,Vitaro,&cyber bullying are limited (e.g., Li, 2007) and
CORRESPONDENCE TO: YOKOTANI, Niigata Seiryo

few researches examined aftereffects of cyber

University, Room 5210, Suidocho, 1, 5939, Chuo district,victimization. In the face of recent dramatic use

Niigata city, Niigata prefecture, 951-8121, JAPAN.

of cyberspace, an abuse of cyberspace, such as

e-mail: yokotani@n-seiryo.ac.jp

cyber bullying, should receive more attention.
Furthermore, most victims in cyberspace
45

YOKOTANI et al.

46

survive into adolescence, so aftereffects of the

problems, but they did not always manifest thecyber victimization are important. The present

same problems.

study aims to examine aftereffects of cyberPrevious study also showed develipmental

victimization in late adolescence by applying

relationships between bully victimization andstressor model that traditional bully researchers

mental health problems.

founded (Fekkes, Pijpers, Fredriks, Vogels, &Fredriks, Vogels, & Verloove-Vanhorick (2006)

Verloove-Vanhorick, 2006).

presented a framework: Stress of victimization

Fekkes, Pijpers,

develop mental health problems. Fekkes et al.
sampled a cohort of 1118 children from 9 to 11

Literature review
Mentalhealthofvictims

involved

inyears old in Netherlands and conducted
6-month cohort study. They found that victims

traditional bullying
Victims of traditional bullying have mental

felt more symptoms of depression, anxiety, andhealth problems. Solberg, & Olweus (2003)

tension after 6 month, even though they

conducted

5171

controlled these states at baseline. Hodges,

students from 11 to 15 years old and found that

Boivin, Vitaro, & Bukowski (1999) also

the more frequently children were bullied, theconducted

more they had negative self evaluation andincluding 393 children around 10 years old anddepressive

Walsh,

found that victims had more internalized andTrzesniewski, Newcombe, Caspi, & Moffitt

externalized behaviors than those who were not(2006) also interviewed 2232 children from 5

victims. Rønning et al. (2009) also foundto 7 years old, their parents, and teachers. They

10-year aftereffects of victimization on mental

found that those who were bullied had more

health in Finland. Rønning et al. surveyed 2540

internalized behaviors (e.g., similar symptoms

eight-year-old boys and diagnosed them afterof anxiety and depression) than those who were

10 years at the age of 18. They reported thatnot bullied. Furthermore girls who were bullied

victims had more psychiatric diagnose than

had more externalized behaviors (aggressive

those who were not bullied. Sourander et al.

behaviors: frequently fight with peers) than(2007) used the same data of Ronning et al. andthose who were not bullied, but not boys. Craigalso found that the victims had more anxiety(1998) also surveyed 546 children around 11 todisorders and depressive disorders than those

14 years old and found that victims of

who were not bullied. Although some studies

traditional bullying had more symptoms of

did not support the aftereffects of victimization

anxiety than non victims, but the level of(e.g., Klomek et al., 2008), these collective

depression and aggression did not differ

findings suggested that victims involved insignificantly from victims to non victims. These

childhood bullying were likely to have mental

studies suggested that victims involved inhealth problems.

questionnaire

symptoms.

surveyof

Arseneault,

traditional bullying had some mental health

one-yearlongitudinalsurvey47

AFTEREFFECT OF CYBER BULLTING

Mental health of victims involved in cyber

relationships between cyber victimization andbullying

mental health problems, the studies have two

Victims of cyber bullying also have mental

limitations. First, they did not show any

health problems. Ybarra & Mitchell (2004)

aftereffects of cyber victimization on mental

interviewed 1501 children between 10 and 17

health in late adolescence. Second, they mostly

years by phone and found that 9.1 % of victims

focused on depressive symptoms and did

involvedmajor

neither show any other internalized behaviors

depressive like symptoms, whereas only 3.8 %nor externalized behaviors that traditional bullyof those who were not involved in cyberresearchers focused (e.g., Fekkes et al., 2006).

bullying had the same symptoms. Baker &Because the definition of bullying (aggressive

Tanrıkulu (2010) also surveyed 165 children

behaviors against a victim and a victim cannot

between 10 and 14 years and found experience

defend him/herself) were shared between

as a victim of cyber bullying had a significant

traditional and cyber bullying (e.g., Smith et al.,positive correlation with depressive symptoms.

2008), the similar stressor would exist in both

Other two studies compared mental healthbullying. Therefore, we applied Fekkes et al.

between victims involved in cyber bullying and(2006)’s stress model of traditional bullying

victims in traditional bullying. Gradinger,

into cyber bullying. Application of the model

Strohmeier, & Spiel (2009) surveyed 761

can cover these two limitations.

in

cyber

bullyinghadchildren from 14 to 19 years old and reported

We hypothesized that participants who werethat victims involved in either cyber orcyber bullied would have more negative self

traditional bullying had significantly moreevaluation than those who were not cyberdepressive symptoms than non victims. Theybullied (H1). Participants who were cyberalso found that both victims had similar levels

bullied would have more internalized behaviors

of depressive symptoms. Smith et al. (2008)

than those who were not cyber bullied (H2).

interviewed 533 students from 11 to 16 years

Participants who were cyber bullied would

old and found that students perceived somehave more externalized behaviors than those

types of cyber bullying (e.g., picture / video

who were not cyber bullied (H3). We also madeclip) had more severe impact on their mental

hypotheses

healthThese

Participants who were traditionally bullied

collective findings suggested that victims

would have more negative self evaluation thaninvolved in cyber bullying also had depressive

those who were not traditionally bullied (H4).

symptoms like victims involved in traditional

Participants who were traditionally bullied

bullying.

would have more internalized behaviors than

than

traditional

bullying.

regarding

traditional

bullying.

those who were not traditionally bullied (H5).
Participants who were traditionally bullied

Aims of the present study
Althoughprevious

studies

informed

would have more externalized behaviors than

YOKOTANI et al.

48

those who were not traditionally bullied (H6).

current self evaluation and emotional states.

Methods

Measures

Participants

Current stateParticipants were 321 students from three

Self evaluation: We used a Japanese version

universities in Japan. Two of them were Northof Rosenberg Self Esteem (RSE) to measureeast district area and the one was central east

participants’ self-evaluation (Rosenberg, 1979;

district area. Male students were 201 andYamamoto, 2001). RSE uses a 10 item scale

female students were 113. Seven students didanchored with a 5-point scale. Previous studies

not answer their sex. Their mean age was 19.7

demonstrated the concurrent, predictive, and(S.D. =1.3). Two students were Thai andconstructive validities of the RSE (e.g., Nugent

Korean, but the other students were Japanese.

& Thomas, 1993). Participants were asked
whether following statements were applicableto them; such as ‘I feel that I have a number ofProcedure
Present study was approved by one faculty

good qualities’. ‘I take a positive attitude

member and three research groups, including

toward myself’. Each item was coded so that a

one professor and one associate professor inhighTohoku University and Yasuda Women’s

self-esteem. The items were then summed andUniversity,

conducted

divided by ten to create a self-esteem scalequestionnaire survey during November 2009 toscore. The Cronbach’s alpha value of the RSE

January

was .83. The average of RSE was 3.1 (S.D. =respectively.

2010.

We

Participantsreceived

thequestionnaires during beginnings or ends ofscore on theitem reflected

high

0.7).

classes, or between classes. When we handed
out the questionnaires, we explained aims of

Emotional state: We used 5 factors of athepresent

anonymity

andshortened version of the Profile of Mood Statesquestionnaire.

All(Shacham, 1983). Five factors are widely usedparticipants were voluntary and had right toand have predictive and constructive validities

stop answering the questionnaires if they(e.g., Shacham, 1983; Yokoyama, 2005). The 5

wishedfactors

confidentiality

to.

study
of

After

and
the

they

answered

the

were

tension-anxiety,questionnaires, we collected the questionnaires.

depression-dejection, anger-hostility, frustration,

We first questioned their self evaluations andand confusion factor. Each factor uses 5 item

emotional states. Then, we reminded them ofscale anchored with a 5-point scale. We

experience about victimization involved in

calculated the sum of the items for each factor

cyber and traditional bullying in high school

and converted the factor into a T score adjusted

days. This order can minimize carry-overfor Japanese adults (Yokoyama, 2005). Eacheffects of memories of high school days on

average of the factor was 54.3 (11.8), 55.5

49

AFTEREFFECT OF CYBER BULLTING(11.8), 49.4 (10.4), 55.7 (10.2), and 58.1 (12.0),

Iannotti, & Nansel, 2009), so those who

respectively. Cronbach’s alpha of the factor was

answered more than 0 were regarded as victims

also .83, .82, .80, .84, and .63, respectively. We

involved in cyber bullying. Cyber victims wereassumedfactor17 (5.5 %) and non victims were 294. Ten

represented externalized behaviors, whereas theparticipants did not answer either two questions.

other four factors represented internalized

We also divided the cyber victims into the Mail

behaviors.

Bullied Victims (MBV) and Internet Bullied

that

the

anger-hostility

Victims (IBV), because mail is a personal
Experience of victims in high school days

communication by the electronic devices,

Victimbullying:

whereas the internet is a mass communication

Participants first read following statements:

by the devices. Different communication“We asked about your high school days.” Then,functions imply different effects on humanthey read standard definition of bullying

behaviors. Actually, many researchers treat the(Olweus, 1993). Then, they were asked how

twoinvolved

inlong they were bullied

traditional1

victims

differently(e.g.,

Li,2007;

and given a choice ofRaskauskas & Stoltz, 2007; Smith et al., 2008).

0: never, 1: less than a week, 2: about a month,

The MBV were 5 and 2 were male (One3: about a school term, 4: about a year, and 5:

participant did not answer one’s sex). The IBV

about several years. Because Olweus (2003)

were 16 and 8 were male (One participant did

regarded over one month as an indicator of

not answer one’s sex).

victims, those who answered more than choiceof 1 were regarded as victims in traditional

Analysisbullying. Traditionally Bullied Victims (TBV)

First, to grasp a whole picture of the present

were 16 (5.1 %) and 9 were female (Onestudy, we analyzed correlations among all

participant

sex).

variables we used. Second, we conducted

Non-victims were 300. Five participants did notmultiple regression analysis to show original

answer the question.

aftereffects of TBV, MBV, and IBV on current

did

not

answerone’s

self evaluation and emotional states. Third, self
Victims involved in cyber bullying: Participantsevaluation and emotional states of victims andwere also asked how long they were bullied by

non-victims were analyzed by Man-Whitneye-mail (Mail) and how long they were bullied

test. SPSS 14.0 in Japanese version was used.

by Message board, Weblog, or Profile site (theInternet) and were given the same 6 choices asResults

the TBV. It is not uncommon in the previous

Correlations between variables

studies of cyber bullying to count a single

First, we compared all variables the present

incident as an experience of cyber bullying

study used (Table1). Table1 shows that every(e.g., Raskauskas, & Stoltz, 2007; Wang,

emotional factor had significant positive

YOKOTANI et al.

50

correlations with each other, so each factor waswhen we interpret aftereffects of duration ofclosely-linked like previous studies (Shacham,

TBV, we need to take participants’ age and sex

1983; Yokoyama, 2005). RSE also haveinto

significant negative correlations with theseaftereffects of duration of IBV and MBV

emotions.

also

significant positive correlation with each others.

consistent with previous studies (e.g., Nugent

Therefore, victims in school were also victims& Thomas, 1993).

on the Internet and Mail (Li, 2007; Raskauskas

These

correlations

wereconsideration.

On

the

other

hand,

Duration of TBV, IBV, and MBV also had& Stoltz, 2007; Smith et al., 2008). Especially,

positive correlation with their sex and both

duration of IBV during high school had

their age and sex had significant positive

significant positive correlations with current

correlations with duration of TBV. Therefore,

anxiety and frustration levels.

Table1
Correlations among internalized behaviours, externalized behaviours, self evaluation, victim
experience, and basic traits
2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Internalized

1.TA.65 h ** .61 h ** .69 h ** .44 h ** -.40 f **.08 g

.15 d**.09 b-.00 e.08 ebehaviours

2.DD.57 h ** .69 h ** .60 h ** -.50 f **

.04 g

.10 d

-.00 b-.06 e

.03 e

3.FT

.63 h ** .48 h ** -.39 f **.00 g

.11 d *

.05 b-.08 e

.01 e

4.CF

.47 h ** -.47 f **

.03 g

.10 d

.04 b

-.02 e

.05 e

5.AH

-.24 f **

.01 g

.04 d

.09 b

.02 e

.03 e

-.01 i-.08 f.04 b.11 f *-.08 c.27 h**.29 b **

.17 h **

.13 e *

.11 b *

.08 e

.05 b

.05 c

.06 a

Externalized
behaviours

Self evaluation 6.RSE
Victim

7.TBV

Experience

8.IBV
9.MBV

Basic traits

10.Age.24 f **

11.Sexa: n = 306, b: n = 308, c: n = 309, d: n = 310, e: n = 311, f : n = 312,g: n = 313, h : n = 314, i: n =315.
*: p < .05, **: p < .01. TA: Tension and Anxiety, DD: Depression and Dejection, FT: Frustration, CF:
Confusion, AH: Anger and hostility, RSE: Rosenberg Self Esteem, TBV: duration of Traditionally
Bullied Victim, IV: duration of Internet Bullied Victim, MV: duration of Mail Bullied Victim, Sex:
counted Female as 1 and Male as 0.

51

AFTEREFFECT OF CYBER BULLTING

Participants’ age had a significant positive

IBV had significant coefficients, whereas

correlation with their sex and both their age andduration of TBV and MBV did not have any

sex had significant positive correlations withsignificant coefficients.

duration of TBV. Therefore, when we interpretespecially predicted current higher anxiety andaftereffects of duration of TBV, we need to takefrustration levels. These findings implied thatparticipants’ age and sex into consideration. On

duration of IBV had aftereffects on anxiety andthe other hand, aftereffects of duration of IBV

frustration, but duration of TBV and MBV did

and MBV were free of contaminants of

not have.

Duration of IBV

participants’ basic traits.
Comparison between victims and non-victims
Multiple regression analysis

Third, self evaluation and emotional states ofSecond, multiple regression analysis werevictims and non-victims were analyzed byconducted. Dependent variables of the analysis

Man-Whitney test. Since MBV and TBV did

were emotional states and self evaluation, andnot differ from non victims about self

independent variables were duration of TBV,

evaluation and emotional states, we presented

IBV, and MBV. Basic traits were also enteredonly IBV and non-victims. Table 3 shows

as independent variables.

significant differences between IBV and non

Collective results of the analysis were in

victims regarding internalized behaviors, suchtable 2. Table 2 shows that only duration ofas tension, anxiety, frustration, and depression.

Table 2
Regression from Victimization during high school on mental health during university

Dependent variables
Independent
variables

Effect size

TA

DD

AH

FT

CT

RSE

TBV
IBV

.07
.13*

.07
.09

-.00
.03

.00
.12*

.03
.09

-.02
-.08

MBV

.05

-.03

.09

.04

.02

.06

Age
Sex

-.02
.06

-.09
.04

.01
.02

-.09
.01

-.04
.05

.13*
-.10

R2

.04

.02

.01

.02

.01

.03

F

2.5*

1.4

0.7

1.5

1.0

1.8

N = 300*: p < .05, TA: Tension and Anxiety, DD: Depression and Dejection, FT: Frustration, CF: Confusion,
AH: Anger and hostility, RSE: Rosenberg Self Esteem, TBV: duration of Traditionally Bullied
Victim, IBV: duration of Internet Bullied Victim, MBV: duration of Mail Bullied Victim, Sex:
counted Female as 1 and Male as 0.R2:Adjuseted R2

YOKOTANI et al.

52

Although the confusion factor did notThe

present

study

examinedthereach significance (U = 1589, p = .06), theaftereffects of cyber victims. We admitted

effect size was nearly medium (d = .48),

limitations

so we thought IBV had more confusedparticipants

than non-victims. On the other hand,

students and some victims who had notexternalized behaviors and self esteem

entered university were not included indiddifferences

our study, so the generalization of the

between IBV and non-victims. The small

present study was limited. Furthermore,

effect size also suggested the small

retrospective

differences. Therefore we regarded thatparticipants’ experiences in high school

experience of IBV have aftereffects onage. However, the findings of the presentinternalized

notstudy suggest important implications forexternalized behaviors and their self

psychological impact of computer use on

esteem.

individual. As hypothesized, participants

not

have

significant

behaviors,

but

of

our

study

that

were

only

university

study

could

the

bias

who were cyber bullied have more

Discussion
Table 3Comparison of internalized behaviors, externalized behaviors, and self evaluation between internet
victims and non victims

Internet Bullied

non victims

Victimsn = 16on the Internet
n= 296

M
Internalized
behaviors

Externalize

TA

62.7

S.D.
a

10.3

M
53.8

U

d

S.D.
b

11.7

1259** 0.75

b

DD
FT

a

63.6
61.0 a

9.8
9.4

55.0
55.4 b

11.6
10.2

1199** 0.73
1514* 0.54

CF
AH

63.5 a52.9 a11.5
10.0

57.7 b49.3 b

11.9
10.4

1589
1701

0.48
0.33

RSE

2.9

0.4

3.1

0.7

1842

0.35

d behaviors
Self
evaluation

a: n = 15, b: n = 295, *: p < .05, **: p < .01. TA: Tension and Anxiety, DD: Depression and
Dejection, FT: Frustration, CF: Confusion, AH: Anger and hostility, RSE: Rosenberg Self Esteem

53

AFTEREFFECT OF CYBER BULLTING

internalized

problems,

suchtension,though the electrical devices might be the samedepression, and frustration than those who were(mobile phone or personal computer). Previous

not. This finding supported H2. Those who

studies surely focused these differences (e.g., Li,were cyber bullied were not significantly

2007; Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007; Smith et al.,different from those who were not in terms of2008), but the studies did not show any

their

and

relationship between communication function

self-evaluation. These findings neither supportand emotional states. Our study uncovered the

H1 nor H3. According to previous findings

links between past internet victimization and(Baker & Tanrıkulu, 2010; Gradinger et al.,current anxious or depressive levels. The study2009) and our findings, cyber bullied victims

also implied that different communication

might be more likely to suffer from theirfunction via the device were important factor

internalizedon human health.

externalized

emotion,as

behaviors,rather

than

their

externalized emotion and self-evaluation.

Findings

ofthepresent

study

were

On the other hand, experience of TBV didinterpreted two ways. First, both anonymity andnot have any significant aftereffects. Theseworldwide attention on the internet makefindings did neither support our hypotheses (H4,

mental health of IBV worse. The anonymity of

H5, and H6) nor match with previous studies

the internet makes IBV indefensible. IBV(Fekkes et al., 2006; Hodges et al., 1999;

cannot know bullies on the internet (e.g., Baker

Rønning et al., 2009; Sourander et al., 2007).

& Tanrıkulu, 2010; Smith et al., 2008; Ybarra

However, the previous studies did not always& Mitchell, 2004), whereas bullies can attack

show the same symptoms caused by TBV and

IBV at any time. Furthermore, most contents on

one study did not find aftereffects of experience

the internet cannot be deleted by IBV (e.g.,of TBV (Klomek et al., 2008). These studies

Gradinger, Strohmeier, & Spiel, 2009), whereas

and the present study suggested that TBV may

themanifest various symptoms, but not always the

everybody in the world (e.g., Computer Fraud

same symptoms. Therefore, TBV infrequently

and Security, 2008; Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007).

suffered from negative mental health.

IBV cannot defend themselves and cannot

We also found that experience of IBV hadsignificant

aftereffects

werealwaysavailablefordelete personal information or disparaging

internalized

remarks on the internet even though the

behaviors, such as anxiety and frustration,bullying was finished. As a result, contents that

whereas experience of MBV did not have any

IBV want to keep dark have been always

significant

findings

exposed to other people since the bullying. In

suggested different communication function

other words, their victimization never ends.

(Internet as mass communication and mail as

These situations may cause significant negative

personal

impacts on their mental health.

aftereffects.

communication)oncontents

These

have

different

impacts on human emotional states, evenOn the other hand, traditional and mail

YOKOTANI et al.

54

bullying were basically personal and victims

and MBV can recover from their negative

can defend themselves through the change inmental health via their good peer relationships.

address. TBV can defend themselves, when

Good peer relationships may also compensate

they transferred their school. MBV can defendof negative experience of IBV.

themselves, when they changed their mailaddress. Furthermore, most contents on theConclusion

mail can be deleted by victims and the contents

The present study contributed to studies on

were usually available only for small local

bullying in practical and theoretical ways. First,

group members. This means that when the

our study examined aftereffects of cyberbullying was finished, the contents werevictimization. Cyber victimization, especiallynaturally disappeared. These mail traits may

internet victimization, had negative impacts onprotect MBV from negative impact on theirlate adolescent mental health. Our finding

mental health.

suggested the importance of adolescent cyber

The second interpretation of the findings was

space. Hence, to understand adolescents,

difficulty to offset internet victimization withpsychologists have to take into account notalternative positive experience. IBV were

only their real life, such as family andaggressed repeatedly by anonymous personclassroom, but also cyber life, such as activity(Computer2008;

on web sites. Understandings of cyber life

Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007). In order to offset

could shed a light on adolescent health fromthe victimization, victims receive complements

another perspective.

Fraud

and

Security,

repeatedly by anonymous person. However,Second, our study also examined different

this alternative offset rarely happens. As a

psychological impact of computer (mobile

result, IBV suffered from their negative

phone)

experience on the internet.

victimization had significant aftereffects on late

uses

on

individuals.

Internet

On the other hand, traditional and MBV canadolescent health, but mail victimization dideasily offset their victimization with alternativenot. Internet use gives all people power of mass

experiences. For example, because TBV werecommunication. Surely, mail use facilitatesaggressed repeatedly by peers, their positive

personal communication, but did not give therelationships with peers can offset theirpower of mass communication. Difference ofvictimization. Actually, good peer relationships

power might cause different aftereffects. For

have

on

example, people who were written into

behaviors

personal information on websites would suffer(Hodges et al., 1999). In the similar way,than those who were written on e-mail, because

heartfelt praise by mail would have protective

they cannot delete information on websites likeeffects on mental health, because MBV weree-mail. Division of cyber bullying into personal

aggressed repeatedly by mail. Therefore, TBV

and mass communication categories could help

significant

internalized

andprotective
externalized

effects

55

AFTEREFFECT OF CYBER BULLTING

to show more detailed relationships between

123-130.

usage of computer and human mental health.

Fekkes, M., Pijpers, F. I.M., Fredriks, A. M.,
Vogels, T., & Verloove-Vanhorick, S. P.
(2006). Do bullied children get ill, or do ill

Acknowledgement
The present sample was analyzed in twochildren get bullied? A prospective cohort

Japanese papers (Yokotani, Itakura, Ban,study on the relationship between bullying

Ayukawa, & Hasegawa (2010). Timing ofand health-related symptoms, Pediatrics, 117cyber bulling. Annual Reports of Counseling(5), 1568-1574.

Room in Tohoku University, 8, 64-79,; Yokotani,

Gradinger, P., Strohmeier, D., & Spiel, C.

Ban, Ayukawa, Itakura, & Hasegawa (2012).

(2009).

Who diffuse cyber bullying? Annual Reports ofcyberbullying,

Niigata Seiryo University, 6, 31-39), but

Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 217 (4), 205-213.

analytical method of the present study was

Hodges, E. V., Boivin, M., Vitaro, F., &different from the methods of these previous

Bukowski, W. M. (1999). The power of

papers.

friendship: protection against an escalating

Traditional

bullying

Journalofandpsychology/

cycle of peer victimization, Developmental
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International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science2014 Vol. 4, No.2, 57-68< Original Paper: Research and Experiment >Study on Developmental Transformation in Sibling Relationship Based on the
Family System Theory: Cases of First Children
Natsuno Morikawa1)
1)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

ABSTRACT. This study provides an exploratory discussion on the developmental transformation of sibling relationship that follows
their family system developments. Nine first children in their fifties and sixties were chosen to receive semi-structured interviews.
The result found a model consisting of five phases depicting the developmental transformation of sibling relationship: (1) Family
Phase (the foundation of the sibling relationship is formed); (2) Independent Phase (siblings start to see each other as equals); (3)Relative Phase (siblings establish their own families and maintain sibling relationship as relatives); (4) Care Phase (siblings copewith each other in support of their aging parents); and (5) Integration Phase (siblings build strong spiritual bonds with other siblings
after their parents’ death).
From these findings, it was clarified that the developmental transformation of sibling relationship is generated through therepeated reformation of the family structure along with the changes in their family system.
KEY WORDS: Sibling relationship, Family system, Developmental transformation

equal and friendly relationships are often

Introduction
Siblings

are

close

other

peoplewithobserved (Buhrmester & Furman, 1990; Scharf,

associations over a long time, sometimes longer

Shulman,than parents or spouses, and living in the same

adolescence, contacts among siblings decreasetime

Sibling

until middle age, and after that, a certain degree

relationship continues throughout a person’sof contacts are observed (White, 2001). Whenlife, and has various phases. During infancy

people get old, siblings become importantand school age, there is a hierarchicalsources

relationship between siblings, such that the(Yoshihara, 2006).

period(Adachi,1999).

&

Avigad-Spits,

emotional

support2005).

once

After

again

firstborn child cares for the second child (Brody,

It has been suggested that changes in sibling

Stoneman, Mackinnon, & Mackinnon, 1985;

relationships described above are caused by

Furman & Buhrmester, 1985). In puberty andpsychological development of individuals andadolescence, conflicts among siblings decrease,changes in the parent-child relationship (e.g.
Kim, McHale, Wayne, & Crouter, 2006).

MORIKAWA, Graduate

However, psychosocial backgrounds of the

School of Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi,changes have not been empirically investigated.

Aoba-ku, Sendai-city, 980-8576, Japan.

Individuals have been included in various

e-mail: nachun72_mmm@yahoo.co.jp

systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1981). For example,

CORRESPONDENCE

TO:

from the perspective of family system theory,57

58

MORIKAWA.

which considers the “family as a system thatfunctionsthroughpatternsofinteraction(Minuchin, 1974),” sibling relationships are

Methods
Participantsconsidered as being affected by interactionsFirstborn children in their 50s or 60s with

with family members, regardless of age.

siblings, living in the Tohoku and Chugoku

However,

psychosocial

regions participated in the study (average

conditions related to siblings have not been

age=57.65, SD=4.65). In order to maintaininvestigated even in clinical reports.

simplicity, this study examined the viewpoint

after

adolescence,

Carter & McGoldrick (1989) suggested aof older brothers and sisters regarding thefamily life cycle model consisting of six stages.

sibling relationship. Furthermore, for the

They described that development of a family

purpose of examining changes in sibling

system is attained through abandoning, or

relationships in a series of events, instead ofcorrecting relationships and rules that were

through individual facts, participants in theiradaptive in the former stage, and reorganizing

50s and 60s were required to recollect their past

the family structure. Usami, Kozuka, Hiraizumi,

memories. People in their 70s were excluded

Moirikawa, Furuyama, & Wakashima(2011)

because they had experienced a certain degree

conducted a questionnaire survey on changes inof life events and were considered to havefamily structures and indicated that bonds andsomething in common with other generations,power balance of family members changed assince they grew up after World War Ⅱ.

children grew up. In other words, a family

Table 1 shows participants’ sex and details ofdevelops as its members grow up, by changing

siblings. The participants included six womenits structure. Therefore, development of sibling

and three men.

relationships is considered to be achieved
through changes in relationships and rules ofData collection methods

the family, which are caused by developments

The author directly or through acquaintancesin the family system. It would be useful toasked the participants to take part in the survey.

focus on the system surrounding siblings andSemi-structured

examinesibling

conducted during 30-60 from July to September

relationships from the perspective of family

in 2010. The place of the interviews was

system theory for obtaining data related todecidedfamilyexploresparticipants. The contents of interviews were

siblingrecorded using an IC recorder, after obtaining

thedevelopment

therapy.

developmental

This

of

study

transformations

inrelationships from the perspective of changes ininterviews

throughminutesnegotiations

with

were

the

the agreement of the participants.

family relationships, as the system surrounding
siblings, with the aim of developing research
hypotheses.

Contents of questions
The author asked the participants about theDEVELOPMENTAL TRANSFORMATION IN SIBLING RELATIONSHIP

59

state of their relationship with their siblings inonly for research purposes and how the data

the past and at the present, by following thewould be stored, used, and destroyed.

items below as a guide. Depending on thesituation, the order and contents of questions
were flexibly changed.

The framework of analysis
This study aims to develop a hypothesis. For

Guide items

this purpose, the author used Modified① Were bonds between siblings strong or

Grounded Theory Approach (Kinoshita, 2003)

weak when you were a child/a student/leftin the analysis, which is known to be suitable

home/ got

for bottom-up model construction based on

married/werebringing up

children/at present?

interview data.

② Why did you feel as you replied to question○
1 ? Please tell me the relationship with

Analysis methods

your siblings at each of these periods.

① Recorded data were made into texts③ What was the relationship between you andother family members (parents or spouses)

following the protocol.
② In

order

to

show

the

changesinand between your siblings and other family

relationships with siblings and othermembers (parents or spouses) at each time?

family members, the following parts in thedata were extracted and given concept

Ethical considerations

names: (1) Communication with siblings,

Before the survey, the author explained about(2) Feelings toward siblings, and (3)the aim of this study, protection of theirCommunication between the participants

anonymity, and their right to freely refuse to

and other family members, or between theanswer questions or take part in the survey andsiblings and other family members.

obtained their agreement to participate in the③ Beforedeveloping

theconcepts,

anstudy. The author also explained to them thatanalysis worksheet was made and thethe data resulting from the study would be usedname of the concepts, definitions, andTable1 Attributes of the participants
The number of
Sex
Age
Gender Composition
siblings
Sister/Brother/Brother
A Female 61
3
B Male592
Sister/Sister
C Male63
2Brother/Brother
D Male51
2Brother/Brother
E Female 653
Sister/Sister/Sister
F Female 532
Sister/Brother
G Female 57
5
Sister/Sister/Brother/Brother/Sister
H Male52
2Brother/Brother
I Female 572
Sister/Sister

60

MORIKAWA.
concrete examples were entered.

The first phase was the [Family Phase], in④ Simultaneously, concrete examples werewhich elder children learn how to get involved

searched from other parts in the data, and

with

added

Throughcommunication with parents, repeatedly dealt

considering the relationship between thewith as older brothers or sisters. When younger

concepts,

mutualwerechildren are born, parents repeatedly tell older

examined.

Data

by

children to take care of and give priority to

to

the

worksheet.

correlations
were

analyzed

theiryoungersiblings

throughtheir siblings. Thus, older children are “trained

repeating the processes ○3 and ○
4.
wereas elder brothers or sisters,” come to “take caredeveloped was examined by confirmingof their younger siblings,” and get to【attain thesimilar examples and by comparingrole of a big brother or a sister】. As they feelexamples including the opposite content.

【age differences】because their physique andThus, it was attempted to prevent arbitrary

abilities are different from younger siblings,

interpretation.

they become aware of their position as elder⑤ Validity oftheconcepts

that⑥ The period when similar concepts werebrothers or sisters. On the other hand, they feelobserved was regarded as a developmental“burdened by the role” because they cannot

phase, and several phases were developed.

play with their friends freely, or they have to⑦ In each phase, relationships between

give their dependence on their parents.

concepts were examined one by one, andSimultaneously, they feel “expectations fromcategories were developed. Relationships

their parents about their role as elder children.”between the categories were examined.

Owing to such conflicting psychological⑧ Finally, the concepts were expressed using

conditions, they feel【a burden of being big

simple sentences, results of each phase

brothers or sisters】.

were summarized, the entire flow was

The second phase is the [Independent Phase],confirmed, and the results were expressedin which sibling relationships gradually change

in a diagram.

into an equal relationship with physical growth,and a distance from the family increases.【AgeResults
Table

differences】are not to be felt by the elder
2

shows

categories

that

were

children, younger siblings change from thosedeveloped based on relationships among

they have to look after to peers, giving orconcepts in each phase. Figure 1 shows thereceiving advice or rivaling each other. There isrelationship among categories and concepts.

a “transformation of the sibling relationship”

Explanation of Figure 1 using a story line isand【perspective of siblings change】.

indicated below (“ ”stands for concepts, 【】Simultaneously, “the frequency of contacts

stands for sub-categories, and [ ] stands forwith siblings decreases” and that with friend

categories).

increases. Thus physical and mental【distance61

DEVELOPMENTAL TRANSFORMATION IN SIBLING RELATIONSHIP[ Family Phase ]・Age difference.
・Attain the role of a big brother or sister.
・A burden of being big brothers or sisters.
↓[Independent Phase]・Perspective of siblings change.
・Decrease from siblings increase.
・Rebellion ageinst parents↓[Relative Phase]・The Frequency of contacts decreases.
・Interaction between families.
・Conflict with original family.
↓[Care Phase]・Comstruct the structure of caregiving.
↓[Integration Phase]・Psychological change
・Build strong spiritual bonds with each other.
Figure1 Feature of sibling relationships at each phasefrom siblings increase 】 . Furthermore, thedevelop. Through “family leisure activities,”【rebellion against parents】begins.

【interaction between families】are initiated,

The third phase is the [Relative Phase], in

instead of interaction with individual sibling.

which siblings come to have a relationship as

However, sometimes, there are conflicts inrelatives. When children get a job, or getwhich parents and siblings get involved, andmarried, they begin to “give priority to their【conflicts with the original family】occurs. As

own job and family.” 【 The frequency ofparents

contacts decreases】because they get together

begins.Siblings have to talk about caring for

only at special events, such as Bon Festivals, ortheir parents. Again they have to often get

New Year’s holidays. On the other hand, as

together, “cooperate among siblings” for caring

each sibling come to have their own family,

for their parents. By getting the “spouses’

new “relationships between spouses” andcooperation” , 【 construct the structure of“relationships with nephews and nieces”

caregiving】, which consists of siblings andgetolder,the[Care

Phase]

62

MORIKAWA.

Table2 Categories and concept names
Categories Sub-categories

P F
h a
am
s i
e l
y

I
P n
d
h d
e
a e
n
s p
t
e e
n

R
e
P
l
h
a
a
t
s
i
e
v
e

P
C
h
a
a
r
s
e
e
I
n
P t
t
h i
e
a o
g
s n
r
a

Name of concepts

Definition

Attain the role of a big Training to play big Trained by parents to care for or give priority tobrother or a sisterbrother/sister roles younger siblings, by dealing with them as a big
brother or sister
Taking care ofConsidering and taking care of younger siblings as
youngera big brother/sisterbrothers/sisters
Age differenceAge differences
Recognizing younger siblings as weak, little people
A burden of being big Parents’ expectation Sensing parents’ unspoken expectations Difficulties
brothers or sisters
as a big brother/sister in big brother/sister roles
Burdened of a
Feeling burdened by taking cared of younger
bigbrotherly/bigsister siblings
ly rolePerspective of siblings Transformation of the Feeling changes in siblings perspectives
changesibling relationship
Equal relationship Giving or receiving advice, talking, and competing
each other
Distance from siblings Decrease in cantact Contacts with siblings decrease, interactions withincreasefrequency
friends increase
Rebellion ageinst
Rebellion against
Feeling rebellious against parents and disobeying
parents
parents
The frequency of
Giving priority to one’ Giving priority to one’s own job and family, than tocontacts decreasess own job and family siblings
Contact at special
Siblings get together just at special events, such as
eventsNew Year’s holidays or Bon Festival
Interaction between
Relationships
Own spouse and sibling’s spouse develop goodfamilies
between spouses
relationships
Relationships with Having close relationship with nephews and nieces
nephews and nieces
Family leisure
Enjoying leisure activities with sibling’s family,
activities
e.g. going on trips
Conflict with original Conflicts with the
Conflicts with parents or siblings about parentfamily
original family
child relationships
Construct the structure Cooperation among Cooperating with siblings to care for parentsof caregiving
siblings

The number
The number of the personsof talks
included in
the category
9

5

9

5

3

3

6

5

5

3

5

5

5

5

4

3

3

3

3

3

4

4

3

3

3

3

3

3

2

1

3

2

2

2

6

3

3

2

6

4

Spouses’ cooperation One’s own or siblings’ spouses support care giving

Psychological change

Changes infamiliarity

After parents’ death, feeling closer to siblings

Regrets about sibling Looking back over former sibling relationships andrelationships
feeling regret
Build strong spiritual Consideration forbonds with each other siblings

Considering one another between siblings

DEVELOPMENTAL TRANSFORMATION IN SIBLING RELATIONSHIP

63

their families. After going through the [CareHowever, sometimes, there are conflicts inphase], the closeness between siblings increase,which parents and siblings get involved, andbecause they cooperated with each other for【conflicts with the original family】occurs.

caregiving and because they have lived throughAs parents get older, the [Care Phase] begins.

the same time period. Thus there are “changes

Siblings have to talk about caring for theirin familiarity”. On the other hand, they lookparents. Again they have to often get together,back over the past relationship and reconsider“cooperate among siblings” for caring for theirpast events, and sometimes feel “regrets aboutparents. By getting the “spouses’ cooperation” ,the sibling relationship.” Thus【psychological【construct the structure of caregiving】, whichchanges】are caused, and they 【build strong

consists of siblings and their families. Afterspiritual bonds with each other】 and come togoing through the [Care phase], the closeness“consider each other”, their condition, theirbetweenhealth, among others. This phase is thecooperated with each other for caregiving and[Integration Phase], in which they start tobecause they have lived through the same time

establish a new sibling relationship, without

period. Thus there are “changes in familiarity”.

being intermediated by their parents andOn the other hand, they look back over the past

【 perspective

change 】 .

relationship and reconsider past events, andSimultaneously, “the frequency of contacts withsometimes feel “regrets about the sibling

siblings decreases” and that with friend

relationship.” Thus【psychological changes】areincreases. Thus physical and mental【distancecaused, and they 【build strong spiritual bonds

from siblings increase 】 . Furthermore, thewith each other】 and come to “consider each【rebellion against parents】begins.

other”, their condition, their health, among

The third phase is the [Relative Phase], inothers. This phase is the [Integration Phase], inwhich siblings come to have a relationship as

which they start to establish a new sibling

relatives. When children get a job, or get

relationship, without being intermediated bymarried, they begin to “give priority to their

their parentsofsiblings

siblings

increase,becausethey

own job and family.” 【 The frequency ofcontacts decreases】because they get together
only at special events, such as Bon Festivals, orDiscussion
Developmentofsibling

relationships

New Year’s holidays. On the other hand, as

accompanied by the development of the family

each sibling come to have their own family,system is discussed from the perspective of the

new “relationships between spouses” andfamily“relationships with nephews and nieces”

Nakagama(2001). In the Family Phase, thedevelop. Through “family leisure activities,”

firstborn children care for their younger【interaction between families】are initiated,siblings and are highly conscious of age

instead of interaction with individual sibling.

differences. It is considered that this phase,life

cycle,

assuggestedby

64

MORIKAWA.

which continues from the birth of the second

time

when

secondarychild to graduation from junior high school, or

become apparent to marriage. Buhrmester &the university, is the longest phase. During thisFurmanthis phase siblings show secondary sexual

relationships gradually become equal fromcharacteristics and differences in physique,puberty to adolescence, and this idea iswhich gradually decrease. In this phase, in

corroborated by this study. In the family life

which there are large physical differences andcycle,

differences in abilities between siblings, older

become individualized, and the boundary

children might be compelled to think they have

between family members also change. Thisto do something for their younger siblings.

period is considered to continue from the time

However, they cannot immediately play thewhen “children start going to elementaryrole of a big brother, or sister. Feeling burdened

school” to the time when “children reachby the role, they gradually come to play it

puberty or adolescence.”(1990)

parentalsex

suggestedchange,characteristics

thatfamilysibling

members

through communications with their parents. In

As a result of family members becoming

previous studies, it was indicated that theindividualized, siblings become able to keep an

firstborn children tend to control, or support

appropriate distance and interact with each

their younger siblings in infancy and school age

other as equal individuals. In this phase, the(Minnett, Vandell, & Santrock, 1983; Brody etposition of firstborn children changes fromal., 1985). In this period, sibling relationships

being a big brother, or a big sisters to an being

are considered to be rearing-centered. In theindividuals. Also the content of communication

family life system, this period continues “fromchanges at this time. On the other hand,childbirth to the youngest child’s entrance into

communication between parents and children

elementary school,” during which parents

does not change so soon and as a result,becomes adapted to parental roles, leading tooccasionally; strong feelings of rebellion

the development of a system for child rearing.

against parents might develop.

During the time in which parents become

In the Relative Phase, the frequency ofadapted to parental roles and communication

contact between siblings decreases because

patters between parents and children are

siblings must attend to their own jobs anddeveloped, the firstborn children are learn andfamily. This period is considered to range fromcome to play the role of big brother or sister.

when the time siblings get married to whenIn the Independent Phase, differences inthey start to care for their parents. In the family

physiques and abilities become unremarkable.

life cycle, this phase corresponds to the period

Siblings come to resemble peers, giving andfrom “getting independent of the original

receiving advice, in addition to competing withfamily” to “uniting two families througheach other, and they develop a certain distance.

marriage.”This period is considered to range from thechange to interactions between the families,

Sibling

relationships

gradually

65

DEVELOPMENTAL TRANSFORMATION IN SIBLING RELATIONSHIP

which includes their spouses and children.

look back over the past relationship and feelWhite (2001) indicated that contacts between

consideration for other siblings. This phasesiblings decrease after adolescence until theyranges between parents’ death and siblings’

reach middle age, which is natural because

death. In this period, a new sibling relationshippeople usually have their own families afterthat is not intermediated by parents isadolescence and siblings become relatives. On

established. In the family life cycle, it

the other hand, conflicts are sometimes caused

corresponds to the “period of old family, i.e.

between a person’s new family and the original

period of family replacement,” in whichfamily. Moreover, conflicts between parents

wisdom and experience that aged people haveand children also sometimes affect sibling

are utilized and the old are replaced by the next

relationships and the problem becomes moregeneration. Before this phase, interactions

complicated because of the involvement of

betweentheir families. Therefore, in this phase, it isintermediated by parents. On the other hand, in

important to maintain sibling relationships by

this phase, they start to develop new sibling

taking the rules of new families of each sibling

relationship unrelated to relationships with

into consideration.

relatives and begin to perceive their siblings as

siblings’

families

had

been

In the Care Phase, siblings, including theirindividuals. This evaluation of relationships

spouses keep in touch with each other in ordermight result in psychological changes. White

to take care of their parents, and establish a(2001) indicated that contacts between siblings

system for their care. This phase continues

increased after 70 years of age. As closenessfrom when caring for parents is initiated, until

between siblings increases, the frequency of

they die. In the family life cycle, it corresponds

contact also increases. Sometimes they havetoregrets concerning their distant relationship intheperiodindependent

and

of

“children’s

thebecoming

subsequent,familyregression period,” in which family members
attend to their grand parents’ aging and death. It

the past, and summarize overall sibling
relationship.
As

described

above,

developmental

is necessary to change family systems fortransformations in sibling relationships arecaregiving

siblingdetermined by changes in family relationships

relationship also have to change as a result ofand rules, such as changes in the parent-childcaregiving. If the spouses of siblings wererelationship, formation of relative relationships,

cooperative, the cooperation and unity amongand parents’ death, among others. Sibling

siblings is facilitated. As Watanabe (2005)

relationships

indicated, siblings become important members

development of individuals, but also by

in care giving and in this phase, siblings

changes in relationships, and rules in theconstruct a system for cooperating.

surrounding world. Sibling relationships could

andsimultaneously,

Finally, in the Integration Phase, siblings

arechanged

only

by

the

be easily affected by conflicts and problems

66

MORIKAWA.

caused by people around them. On the othertowns,

but

it

was

possible

that

their

hand, the relationship might continue for acommunications and family relationships may

lifetime, if it changes appropriately. Therefore,

be different from the ones of other provincial

it is important to maintain and establish goodtowns or urban cities. It can be thought thatsibling relationships in different generations.

these regional characteristics may be affecting
the families and their sub-system sibling
relationships more than a little. Therefore, theFuture perspectives
This study suggested the general process ofdevelopmental

sibling

one of the data to form hypothesis. In the future,

relationships. It is suggested that future studies

it is required to present more generalizable

investigate each phase of sibling relationships

results through quantitative research that covers

in detail and the causes of increasing closenesslarger areas.

andtransformations

decreasing

determined.

interactions

Furthermore,indata of this research should be interpreted asshouldwhybesibling

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International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science2014 Vol. 4, No.2, 69-94< Original Paper: Research and Experiment >Longitudinal Study of the Stress Responses of Local Government Workers Who
Have Been Impacted by a Natural Disaster
Koubun Wakashima, Ph.D1), Taku Kobayashi, M.A1), Takahiro Kozuka, Ph.D2),
Shuji Noguchi M.A1), Michiko Ikuta, Ph.D3), Hideo Ambo, M.A1), & Keizo Hasegawa, Ph.D1)
1)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

2)

Faculty of Human and Culture Science, Sakushin Gakuin University

3)

Kanagawa University of Human Services

ABSTRACT. We conducted 4 times surveys starting from June 2011 and continuing through February 2013, in order to check up
stress response of local government workers who suffered The Great East Japan Earthquake (Higashi Nihon Daishinsai) with K6
and Comprehensive Stress Response Inventory (CSI). Our study has three aims. First, we will organize the chronological pattern ofstress responses. Second, we will examine how the initial disastrous condition and attributes of survey participants relate to thechronological pattern of subsequent stress responses. Third, we will examine how the current stress responses interplay with thechronological pattern of stress responses.
Result of this study show that (1) chronological patterns of stress response are classified into 8 clusters (no-stress response
maintaining group, low-stress response maintaining group, low-stress response to no-stress response slow improvement group,
middle-stress response to high-stress response slow deteriorated group, middle-stress response to low-stress response slow
improvement group, low-stress response to no-stress response rapid improvement group, high-stress response to low-stress response
rapid improvement group, severe-stress response maintaining group ――13.55% of local government workers remained at a highlevel of stress 15 months after the earthquake), (2) damage of domicile and living outside their domiciles relate to stress response of
local government workers, (3) two factors of CSI(stress response to a disaster and autonomic symptoms) relate with state at theoutset of disaster and other two factors of CSI (anxiety / tense and displeasure / anger) relate with recent conditions. We mainly
discussed two themes about point of attention in mental health care for local government workers at a natural disaster and points ofattention in assessment of PTSD-like response.
KEY WORDS: Great East Japan Earthquake (Higashi Nihon Daishinsai), PTSD, local government workers, Comprehensive StressResponse Inventory

the employees in the regions where the GreatIntroduction
This study is primarily designed to examine

East

Japan

Earthquake(Higashi

Nihon

Daishinsai) and subsequent tsunamis caused a
CORRESPONDENCE TO: WAKASHIMA Graduate School

great impact of damage and destruction.

of Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi, Aoba-ku,

Longitudinal surveys have been conducted 4

Sendai-city, 980-8576, JAPAN.

times over a total of two years and as a part ofe-mail: rxv11606@hotmail.co.jp

the health checkups which are regularly offered

69

70

WAKASHIMA et al.

by the local government sectors to theirworkload as before the incident should be

employees. Because the format of the healthdiscussed.

checkup needed to be kept simple and concise,complaints/concerns received from residents:

we took great consideration of the mental andDue to the consciousness of their professional

physical stress that the participant may

responsibilities as public servants, there is theexperience during our survey, and the survey

potential risk that local government workers

was designed to minimize such stress.

may lose themselves in the significance in their

(3)

The

increaseamountof

The types of stressful conditions that arejobs because of the constant complaints andexperienced by public servants in the locations

demands that are continuously received from

impacted by the disaster are grouped into threeresidents, and this may cause them to lose

categories as described below (Wakashima &confidence in themselves.

Noguchi, 2013): (1) Public servants themselves

Under the stressful conditions described

were victims of the disaster: In the early time

above, local government workers have been

period following the earthquake and tsunami,

playing a central role in the recovery andsome local government workers could not findrestoration of their towns. In this regard, thetheir own family members, and yet they

purpose of our study is to focus on thosededicated their time and effort to supporting

workers as our subjects and to examine their

their community and its residents. Some

responses

workers had lost their homes and family, andoccurrence

yet they served others who had been impacted

chronological order. Our study is also aimed atby the disaster. However, it is considered thatclarifying several aspects.

tostressors
of

a

in

followingthenaturaldisasterineven though those service workers may haveFirst, we will organize the chronologicalbeen mentally hurt, they preferred to continue

pattern of stress responses. Second, we will

their activities to serve others instead of

examine how the initial disastrous condition

becoming inactive and disheartened as victims

and attributes of survey participants relate toof the disaster. (2) The increased workload due

the chronological pattern of subsequent stressto the increased needs of victims and public

responses. Third, we will examine how the

expectations concerning the restoration ofcurrent stress responses interplay with thetowns and cities: From the perspective of thechronological pattern of stress responses.

long-term influence on the public servants, theincreased workload is one of the most difficult

Methods

and important issues. When the mental health

1. Research participants and investigation timeof the local government workers is considered,

Our research participants are municipal

the question of how quickly those workers will

government workers who serve at local city

be able to achieve the restoration of the town

halls on the coast of the Tohoku region (thewhile they also maintain the same amount ofnortheastern area of Honshu). The number of

LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

71

the participants in each survey varies from

includes questions about the condition of

1,378 to 1,452 persons. We conducted ourparticipant’s workplace, the damage to theirsurveys four times starting from June 2011

personal property, and their physical and(which was the year that the Great East Japanmental health conditions.

Earthquake occurred) and continuing throughFebruary 2013. Table 1, shown below, shows

1) Condition of Workplace (This portion of thethe number of participants for each survey, theirsurvey was conducted only once at the 1st

gender and ages, and the dates that weinvestigation.)

conducted each survey.

(1) Whether or not subjects were involved

Specific questions—whether or not the subjects

with disaster-related duties

were involved with disaster-related duties, the

1. Handling victims’ bodies and related

extent of damage to their domiciles, whether or

operations

not they experienced life without a domicile,

2. Handling complaints from residents

and whether or not their family members were

3. Others

missing or dead—were considered to be

4. No

constant and asked only once at the 1stinvestigation.

5. More than one duty(2) Whether or not subjects have worked
overtime exceeding 100 hours.

2. The content of our survey
The

surveyis(1. Yes 2. No)

composed

of

basic

demographic questions including age, gender,
job location and title, and whether or notparticipants would request to see mental health(3) Communication with co-workers attheir workplace(1. Yes, regularly 2. Yes, occasionally 3. No,
not at all)clinicians such as psychiatrists or clinicalpsychotherapists. In addition, the survey also2) Situation of personal damage caused by

Table1. Number of Participants, Gender, age, and Date
Date

Number of participants
1452 (male:806, female:646)

1st investigation

June 2011

2nd investigation

October 2011

3rd investigation

June 2012

4th investigation

February 2013

Mean of age :45.09
1414 (male804, female:610)
Mean of age :45.46
1387 (male:797, female:590)
Mean of age:44.02
1378 (male: 799, female:579)
Mean of age:44.81

WAKASHIMA et al.

72

the disaster (This portion of the survey was
conducted only once at the 1st investigation.)(1) Damage to domicile
1. Completely collapsed
2. Half-collapsed/largely destroyed

disease and status of treatment
1. I managed to have continual treatment
2. Treatment was suspended in the past, but it
has resumed
3. Treatment is still been suspended

3. Partially destroyed
4. Slightly damaged

4) Assessments of mental health condition

5. No damage(1) K6 in the Japanese version (performed(2) Whether or not subjects had thein the 1st through 4th investigations): We used

experience of living without a domicile

the Japanese version of K6 that was originally(e.g. staying at an evacuation shelter)created by Kessler, Andrews, Colpe et al.

1. Yes I have but not now(2002) and designed for the purpose of

2. Yes, I still live in an arranged situation

screening for mental disorders and examining

3. No, not at all

the severity of the disorder (Furukawa, Ono,

(3) Whether or not family members haveUda, & Nakane, 2003). The Japanese K6 isbeen killed or missing.
(1. Yes 2. No)

composed of six items and asks the subject toanswer using five point scales (0: not at all
through 4: always).

3) Health condition (It was conducted fromthe first through the fourth investigations.)(2) CSI (Comprehensive Stress Response
Inventory) (performed at the 4th investigation):(1) Physical condition

CSI was developed by Asai, Morikawa,(1. Good 2.Neither good nor bad 3. Not so

Hiraizumi, Usami, and Wakashima (2013) inwell 4. Bad)
(2) Sleep(1. Very well 2. Well mostly 3. Poorly 4.
Very poorly)

order to easily detect and simultaneously
differentiate a type of disaster-specific stressand a type of general stress. It is acomprehensible assessment to measure overall(3) Appetitestress responses. The CSI identifies four factors(1. Increased 2. Same as last time/before 3.

of stress response and is composed of 25 items

Decreased)(4) Change in the amount of alcohol
beverage consumption

in total. Three factors are each categorized into
“anxiety/tense,”“displeasure/anger,”and“autonomic symptoms” and considered to

1. Increased

describe as the general-stress response. The

2. Same as last time/before

other factor is considered as a “specific stress

3. Decreased

response to a disaster”. Symptoms for the factor

4. Not consumption at all)include flashbacks of intrusive memories,(5) Whether or not subjects have a chronic

avoidance of activities that stimulate theLONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

traumatic

event,

andre-experiencing

thetrauma.

73

communication with co-workers (1 item), sleep(1 item), K6 in the Japanese version (6 items),

Furthermore,examinesone’s

CSI (8 items of specific stress response to a

by excluding

thedisaster, 9 items of anxiety/tense factors, 4

specific stress response to a disaster anditems of displeasure/anger factors, 4 items of

measuringforautonomic symptom factors, for a total of 25

examination of PTSD and alike, it includes all

items), rating scales values and their total

four stress factors (the sum of the four factors).

valuesParticularly in this study, we presupposed thequantitative data are set such that a higher score

Great East Japan Earthquake as the specificindicate a worse condition of the participant.

general-stress

the

CSI

response

three

other

factors.

As

werechosenforscoring.

These

disaster for the assessment of the specific stressresponse and asked each item in four point

Results

scales starting from the lowest scale, “1:For the purpose of organizing the stress

Never,” to the highest scale, “4: Most of the

response patterns in a chronological order, wetime.” Likewise, in terms of the general stressplaced the values of “communication withresponse, we asked participants about theirco-workers,” “asleep condition,” and “scores ofobserved symptoms during the last 30 days, andK6”each question was scaled from “1: Never” toinvestigation through the 3rd investigation into

“4” Most of the time.”

categorical variables and conducted a cluster

that

were

collected

from

the

1st

analysis in accordance with the Ward method.
numberofsubjects

from

1st

3. Scoring of variables

The

the

This section describes the scoring ofinvestigation through 3rd investigation was 952

variables. However, it excludes the items that

persons and there were no missing values

we did not include in our investigation of study

during the series of investigations. Because we

subjects, such as physical condition, appetite,

valued perspective interpretability, a structure

the amount of alcohol beverage consumption,of 8 clusters was established for this analysis.

and the presence of chronic disease andEach cluster for analysis is termed ascondition for its treatment. In regard to thefollows: 1) No-stress response maintaining

following items—experience of disaster-related

group

duties, overtime exceeding 100 hours of work,

maintaining group (n=168), 3) Low-stressthe degree of domicile damage, arrangements

response

for living outside the home, whether or not

improvement group (n=130), 4) Middle-stressfamily members are missing or dead, andresponse

gender, we used the response categories of eachdeteriorated group (n=87), 5) Middle-stressquestion as categorical variables. On the other

response

hand,

improvement group (n=76), 6) Low-stressregardingquestionsinvolving(n=291),

to

to

to

2)

no-

Low-stressstresshigh-stresslow-stressresponse

response

response

response

slow

slow

slow

WAKASHIMA et al.

74
response

to

rapid

cluster are described in Table 2, and descriptive

improvement group (n=92), 7) High-stressstatistics are shown from Tables 3 throughresponse

Table 5, followed by the profile of each clustertono-stress

low

response

stressresponse

improvementgroup(n=66),

Severe-stressresponse

maintaining

rapid

and

8)

in Figure 1.

group

In regard to naming clusters, we referred(n=42). In order to explain the foundation ofclassification of Wakashima, Kozuka, Noguchi

naming each cluster, particular features of each

et al. (2012). In this study, we took score of K6

Table2.

Feature of Each Cluster

Cluster
No-stress response
maintaining group
Low-stress response
maintaining group

Number

291

168

to 3rd investigation. But, on the whole, this cluster not
This cluster’s problems slight-to-moderate at the outset

130

of disaster, but these problems improved from 2ndinvestigation to 3rd investigation.
Asleep condition is bad from 1st investigation throughMiddle-stress response to87

deteriorated group

3rd investigation, and stress response had deteriorated
from 2nd investigation to 3rd investigation in thiscluster.

Middle-stress response to
low-stress response slow

from 1st investigation through 3rd investigation.

has much of a problem.

improvement grouphigh-stress response slow

On the whole, this cluster is better than other clusters

Stress response had deteriorated from 2nd investigation

Low-stress response tono- stress response slow

Featureof people

This cluster had moderate problems at the outset of76

disaster, but problems improved from 2nd investigation

improvement group

to 3rd investigation.

Low-stress response toThis cluster had slight-to-moderate problems at the

no-stress response rapid

92

improvement group

2nd investigation.
This cluster had severe problems at the outset ofHigh-stress response to
low stress response rapid

66

improvement group
Severe-stress response
maintaining groupTotal

outset of disaster, but these problems had improved at

disaster. Improvement in the problem of stress responseis remarkable. Problems of asleep condition andcommunication improved too at 2nd investigation.

42952This cluster is worst in all clusters with respect to allindicators of condition of health.

LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

Table3. Descriptive Statistics about Asleep Condition
Asleep condition①
Asleep condition②
M
SD
M
SD
No-stress response maintaining
1.80
.55
1.67
.53
group
Low-stress response maintaining
group
Low-stress response to no- stressresponse slow improvement group
Middle-stress response to highstress response slow deterioratedgroup
Middle-stress response to low-stressresponse slow improvement group
Low-stress response to no-stressresponse rapid improvement group
High-stress response to low stressresponse rapid improvement group
Severe-stress response maintaining
group
Total

75

Asleep condition③
M
SD
1.73

.55

2.14

.56

2.02

.60

2.15

.53

2.02

.53

2.09

.49

1.86

.53

2.34

.59

2.25

.61

2.46

.66

2.47

.62

2.50

.62

2.24

.46

2.13

.63

1.83

.51

1.82

.47

2.32

.66

1.95

.59

2.00

.46

2.76

.79

2.74

.77

2.60

.77

2.10

.64

1.99

.64

1.99

.61

Note: Each numbers framed by circle indicate the time of investigation.

Table4. Descriptive Statistics about K6
K6①
K6②
M
SD
M
SD

K6③

M

SD

No-stress response maintaining
group

2.43

1.76

1.31

1.35

1.58

1.68

Low-stress response maintaining
group

6.24

2.31

4.67

2.50

7.41

2.18

5.42

2.34

6.48

1.37

2.97

1.63

10.16

2.82

9.45

2.19

12.69

4.14

9.55

2.83

12.45

3.07

6.55

3.07

8.80

2.10

2.86

1.57

1.78

1.73

High-stress response to low stressresponse rapid improvement group

14.03

3.46

6.61

2.15

5.27

3.21

Severe-stress response maintaining
group

17.40

3.89

16.43

3.68

14.26

4.60

Total

6.86

4.76

5.43

4.60

5.05

4.67

Low-stress response to no- stressresponse slow improvement group
Middle-stress response to highstress response slow deterioratedgroup
Middle-stress response to low-stressresponse slow improvement group
Low-stress response to no-stressresponse rapid improvement group

Note: Each numbers framed by circle indicate the time of investigation.

WAKASHIMA et al.

76

as the criterion of severity of stress response. A

disaster condition and attributes of the subjects

range of 0 to 3 is defined as “no-stress(i.e. involvement of disaster-related duties,

response”, 4 to 9 is defined as “low-stressmore than 100 hours of overtime work,

response”, 10 to 12 is defined as “middle-stressexperiences of domicile damage and outside

response”, and not lower than 13 is defined as

domicile life, dead or missing person(s) in the“high-stress“severe-stressfamily, and gender) are related with their

response”. Initial expression of each cluster

subsequent stress responses in chronologicalmentions degree of stress response at 1st

patterns.

response”

orinvestigation. Depending on changes over time,

As a result, no statistical significance was

we added to corresponding words (maintaining,found in the aspects of involvement of

improvement, or deteriorated). Furthermore,disaster-related duties (χ2 = 38.01, df = 28, n.s.),“rapid” and “slow” indicate the moment whenmore than 100 hours of overtime work

severity of stress response changed. “Rapid”(χ2=14.06, df=7, n.s.), and gender (χ2 = 8.25, df

means that changes resulted between 1st= 7, n.s.). On the other hand, significant

investigation and 2ndinvestigation. “Slow”

differences were found in the variables ofnddamage to a domicile (χ 2= 51.39, df = 28, pmeans that changes resulted between 2
investigation and 3rd investigation.

<.01), experiences of life outside a domicile (χNext, we conducted a chi-square test for2= 40.44, df = 14, p <.01), and having dead or

those clusters regarding conditions of themissing person(s) in the family (χ2 = 18.58, df =disaster

7, p <.01). In accordance with these results, weandchronologicalpatterns.

The

purpose of this test is to examine how the initial

also conducted residual analyses for the

Table5. Descriptive Statistics about Communication with Co-worker
COM①
COM②
M
SD
M
SD
No-stress response maintaining
1.78
.49
1.79
.46
group
Low-stress response maintaining
1.90
.46
1.88
.37
group
Low-stress response to no- stress
1.88
.45
1.92
.41
response slow improvement group
Middle-stress response to high1.97
.59
2.03
.61
stress response slow deterioratedgroup
Middle-stress response to low-stress
1.87
.53
1.96
.47
response slow improvement group
Low-stress response to no-stressresponse rapid improvement group
High-stress response to low stressresponse rapid improvement group

COM③

M

SD

1.54

.51

1.80

.50

1.58

.49

1.91

.45

1.61

.52

1.98

.44

1.85

.42

1.50

.52

1.94

.46

1.85

.40

1.70

.55

Severe-stress response maintaining
group

1.98

.64

2.07

.56

1.98

.64

Total

1.88

.49

1.88

.44

1.66

.53

Note: Each numbers framed by circle indicate the time of investigation."COM" indicate communication with co-worker.

LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

77

Figure1.
Profile of Each Cluster

WAKASHIMA et al.

78

variables that statistical significance was

According to the result of residual analysis

observed. The results of residual analyses,

based on a cross-tabulation table between thewhich are itemized in damage of a domicile,cluster of the damage of domiciles and theexperience of life outside the domicile, andcluster of chronological patterns, the subjects

having dead or missing person(s) in the family

whose domiciles were completely destroyed

are indicated in Tables 6 through 11.

have the highest probability to be placed in the

Table6. Result of Residual Analysis about Damage of Domicile (n = 944)
Complete collapse

ClusterFrequency
Expected
frequency
Adj .residual
Frequency
Low-stress response Expectedmaintaining groupfrequency
Adj .residual
Low-stress response to Frequency
no- stress response
Expectedslow improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residual
Middle-stress response Frequency
to high-stress
Expected
response slow
frequency
deteriorated group Adj .residual
Middle-stress response Frequency
to low-stress response Expectedslow improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residual
Low-stress response to Frequency
no-stress response
Expected
rapid improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residualHigh-stress response Frequency
to low stress response Expected
rapid improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residual
Frequency
Severe-stress response Expected
frequency
maintaining group
Adj .residual
No-stress response
maintaining groupTotal**p < .01

Frequency
Expected
frequency

Half collapse

Partially destroy Slightly damage

χ2

No damage

50

39

98

74

27

68.95

44.85

89.08

63.76

21.36

-3.14
35

-1.14
25

1.36
54

1.74
40

1.52
13

39.98

26.01

51.66

36.97

12.38

-1.00
33

-.24
28

.43
36

.62
22

.20
9

30.64

19.93

39.59

28.34

9.49

.52
29

2.12
13

-.74
22

-1.45
19

-.18
4

20.83

13.55

26.91

19.26

6.45

2.15
18

-0.17
8

-1.20
27

-0.07
18

-1.05
4

17.96

11.68

23.20

16.60

5.56 51.39 (28)**

.01
18

-1.22
16

.99
31

.40
19

-.72
7

21.79

14.17

28.15

20.15

6.75

-.98
26

.56
6

.68
17

-.30
11

.11
6

15.80

10.28

20.42

14.61

4.89

3.05
17

-1.51
12

-.94
7

-1.11
6

.54
0

10.06

6.54

12.99

9.30

3.11

2.57

2.38

-2.05

-1.25

-1.88

226

147

292

209

70

226.0

147.0

292.0

209.0

70.0

LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

Table7.

79

Abstract about Residual Analysis on

Damage to Domicile (n =944)
Middle-stress response to high-stress response slow

Great
Complete collapse

frequency

deteriorated group *High-stress response to low stress response rapid
improvement group **Severe-stress response maintaining group *Lowfrequency
Great
Half collapse

frequency

No-stress response maintaining group **Low-stress response to no- stress response slow
improvement group *Severe-stress response maintaining group *Low

Not available

frequency
Great
Partially destroy

Not available

frequencyLowfrequency

Severe-stress response maintaining group *Great
Slightly damage

Not available

frequency
Low

Not available

frequencyGreat
No damageNot available

frequency
Low

Not available

frequency*p < .05, **p < .01

Table8. Result of Residual Analysis about Experience of Outside Domicile Life ( n =919)
Until 1st
In past days
Never
Cluster
investigation
95
29
154
Frequency

Expected
frequency
Adj .residual
Frequency
Expected
Low-stress response
maintaining groupfrequency
Adj .residual
Low-stress response to Frequency
Expectedno- stress response
slow improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residual
Middle-stress response Frequency
Expected
to high-stressresponse slow
frequency
deteriorated group
Adj .residual
Middle-stress response Frequency
Expected
to low-stress response
slow improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residual
Low-stress response to Frequency
Expectedno-stress response
rapid improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residual
Frequency
High-stress response
Expected
to low stress response
rapid improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residual
Frequency
Severe-stress response Expectedmaintaining groupfrequency
Adj .residual
No-stress response
maintaining groupTotal** p < .01

Frequency
Expected
frequency

110.4136.91

130.68

-2.26

-1.67

3.36

55

20

87

64.34

21.51

76.15

-1.65

-0.38

1.88

54

14

57

49.65

16.59

58.76

0.86

-0.74

-0.34

35

20

31

34.16

11.42

40.43

0.20

2.87

-2.14

35

7

32

29.39

9.82

34.79

1.39

-1.01

-0.68

45

8

36

35.35

11.82

41.84

2.20

-1.25

-1.30

30

13

20

25.02

8.36

29.61

1.33

1.78

-2.51

16

11

15

16.68

5.58

19.74

-0.22

2.53

-1.50

365

122

432

365.0

122.0

432.0

χ2

40.44 (14)**

WAKASHIMA et al.

80
Table9.

Abstract about Residual Analysis on

Experience of Outside Domicile Life (n =919)

Great
In past days

frequencyLowfrequency
Great

Until 1st investigation

frequency

Low-stress response to no-stress response rapid
improvement group*
No-stress response maintaining group *Middle-stress response to high-stress response slow
deteriorated group **Severe-stress response maintaining group *Low

Not available

frequencyGreatfrequency

No-stress response maintaining group **Middle-stress response to high-stress response slow

Never

Low
frequency

deteriorated group*
High-stress response to low stress response rapid
improvement group**p < .05, **p < .01
Table10. Result of Residual Analysis about Existence or Non-existence of The Dead / Missing
Person in Familly (n =937)
There is

ClusterFrequency
Expected
frequency
Adj .residual
Frequency
Expected
Low-stress response
maintaining groupfrequency
Adj .residual
Low-stress response to Frequency
Expectedno- stress response
slow improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residual
Middle-stress response Frequency
Expected
to high-stressresponse slow
frequency
deteriorated group
Adj .residual
Middle-stress response Frequency
Expected
to low-stress response
slow improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residual
Low-stress response to Frequency
Expectedno-stress response
rapid improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residual
Frequency
High-stress response
Expected
to low stress response
rapid improvement
frequencygroup
Adj .residual
Frequency
Severe-stress response Expectedmaintaining groupfrequency
Adj .residual
No-stress response
maintaining groupTotal** p < .01

Frequency
Expected
frequency

χ2

There is not
11

274

25.85

259.15

-3.67

3.67

19

145

14.88

149.12

1.23

-1.23

14

116

11.79

118.21

0.73

-0.73

10

74

7.62

76.38

0.95

-0.95

7

68

6.80

68.20

0.08

-0.08

13

78

8.26

82.74

1.82

-1.82

4

62

5.99

60.01

-0.88

0.88

7

35

3.81

38.19

1.75

-1.75

85

852

85.0

852.0

18.58 (7)**

LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

81

following groups: the middle-stress response tobeing in the low-stress response to no-stresshigh-stress response slow deteriorated groupresponse rapid improvement group (p<.05) and(p<.05), high-stress response to low stressthe least likelihood of being in the no-stressresponse rapid improvement group (p<.01), andresponse

severe-stressgroup

Meanwhile, the subjects who still lived outside(p<.05). On the other hand, the subjects whose

their domiciles when the 1st investigation took

domiciles were significantly damaged are lessplace are likely to be in the middle-stresslikelyresponsetoresponsebeinmaintaining

theno-stress

response

maintainingtohigh-stressmaintaining group (p<.01), while the subjects

deteriorated

group

who

severe-stressresponse

experienced

theirdomiciles

were

group

(p<.05).

response(p<.01),

slow

and

maintaining

the
group

half-collapsed or largely destroyed have the(p<.05). On the other hand, those who neverlikelihood of belonging to the low-stressexperienced living outside their domiciles are

response

slow

most likely to belong to the no-stress responsethemaintaining group (p<.01) and least likely togroup

belong to the middle-stress response to(p<.05). Furthermore, the subjects whose

high-stress response slow deteriorated group

domiciles were partially destroyed are less(p<.05) or the high-stress response to low stresslikely to be in the severe-stress response

response rapid improvement group (p<.05).

to

no-

stressresponse

improvementgroup(p<.05)andsevere-stressresponse

maintaining

maintaining group (p<.05) while others whose

According to the residual analysis based on a

domiciles were either slightly damaged or nocross-tabulation table between the cluster ofdamagehaving/not having missing or dead person(s) in

did

not

indicateanystatisticalsignificance.

the family and the cluster of chronologicalAccording to the result of residual analysis

patterns, we found that the no-stress response

based on a cross-tabulation table between themaintaining group is mainly composed of thecluster of experience of life outside a domicile

respondents who have few family members thatand the cluster of chronological patterns, theare deceased or missing (p<.01) or have nobody

subjects who had experienced living outside

in the family who is deceased or missing

their domiciles have the most likelihood of(p<.01).

Table11.

Abstract about Residual Analysis
on Existence or Non-existence of
The Dead / Missing Person in
Family（n =937）

There isThere is not

Great frequency

Not available

Low frequency

No-stress response maintaining group **Great frequency

No-stress response maintaining group **Low frequency

Not available

WAKASHIMA et al.
82

Table12. Descriptive Statistics about CSI and K6 (Mean of Rank)

Displeasure / anger

Anxiety / tense

Specific stress response
to a disaster

K6④

287.51

277.87261.57275.16

219.66240

491.68459.14483.78481.25440.67502.89149

396.63391.35375.59401.37390.72402.33380.14118

607.65608.24537.89577.83608.29556.42641.6970503.38489.81510.07447.85486.8

515.04553.6

67343.17339.36361.54346.31342.88368.93302.5380

467.45443.95461.97437.18425.94493.35492.6355

666.6

682.91653.19637.91

696.41605.36724.9129

Cluster

Autonomic symptom

252.63484.99Middle-stress
Middle-stressLow-stress
High-stressLow-stress response
Severe-stressLow-stressresponse to high- response to low- response to no- response to low
No-stress response
to no- stressresponse
response
stress response stress response stress response stress response
maintaining groupresponse slow
maintaining
maintaining groupslow deteriorated slow improvement rapid improvement rapid improvement
improvement group
group
group
group
group
group

General-stress response

245.89ｎ

Sum of four factors

Note: The number framed by circle indicate the time of investigation."General-stress response" means sum of "Anxiety / tense", "Displeasure / anger" and "Autonomic symptom".

LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

83

Lastly, a Kruskal-Wallis test was performed

investigation (χ2 = 359.96, df = 7, p <.01),

involving dependent variables—the scores ofanxiety/tense (χ2 = 223.42, df = 7, p <.01),

the K6 from the 4th investigation, scores of thedispleasure/anger (χ2 = 177.97, df = 7, p <.01),

CSI

and

and autonomic symptoms (χ2 = 156.87, df = 7, p

autonomic symptoms, the sum of these three<.01), the sum of the above three factors (χ2 =factors, specific stress response to the disaster,

235.59, df = 7, p <.01), specific stress response

and the sum of all four factors). The purpose of

to the disaster (χ2 = 159.50, df = 7, p <.01), andthis test was to identify how the chronological

the sum of all four factors (χ2 = 240.68, df = 7,

patterns of stress in the past are correlated withp <.01).

(anxiety/tense,

displeasure/anger,

the current stress condition. The number of the

In this regard, we conducted multiple

subjects that were suitable for this test is 808,

comparisons of those dependent variables inand there were no missing values in allaccordance with the Mann-Whitney U-test (thedependent variables.

Type I error rate was 5%). Table 12 shows the

The test result indicated that the effect ofdescriptive statistical results about stress amongclusters was statistically significant in all

the clusters of CSI and K6. Next, the multiplethcomparison data are shown in Table 13 throughdependent variables: K6 at the time of the 4

Table13. Result of Multiple Comparison about K6④
Number of
Mean of rank
peopleCluster

K6④

No-stress response
amaintaining group (C1)240

219.66

Low-stress response
amaintaining group (C2)149

502.89Low-stress response to noastress response slow
aimprovement group (C3)118

380.14

Middle-stress response toahigh-stress response slow
adeteriorated group (C4)70641.69Middle-stress response toalow-stress response slow
aimprovement group (C5)

67

553.6

80

302.5355492.6329

724.91

Low-stress response to noastress response rapid
aimprovement group (C6)High-stress response toalow stress response rapid
aimprovement group (C7)
Severe-stress response
amaintaining group (C8)
Total

Multiple comparison

C1＜C6,C3＜C7,C2,C5,C4＜C8808

Note: The number framed by circle indicate the time of investigation.

Note: C7,C2＜C4

WAKASHIMA et al.

84

Table 19. Each cluster of stress response will be

K6 scores at the 4th investigation, the no-stressexpedientlyasresponse maintaining group (C1) significantly

follows: C1 as no-stress response maintaining

has the lowest mean value among all the stressgroup, C2 as low-stress response maintaining

response clusters. Also, the low-stress responsegroup, C3 as low-stress response to no- stress

to no-stress response rapid improvement groupresponse slow improvement group, C4 as(C6) and the low-stress response to no- stressmiddle-stress response to high-stress response

response slow improvement group (C3) had

slow deteriorated group, C5 as middle-stresssignificantly lower mean values than the

response

slow

high-stress response to low stress response

improvement group, C6 as low-stress response

rapid improvement group (C7), the low-stress

to no-stress response rapid improvement group,

response

C7 as high-stress response to low stressmiddle-stress response to low-stress response

response rapid improvement group, and C8 as

slow

severe-stress response maintaining group.

middle-stress response to high-stress response

described

toin

low-stressabbreviation

response

According to multiple comparisons involving

slow

maintaining

improvement

deteriorated

group

group

group

(C2),

(C5),

(C4),

and

Table14. Result of Multiple Comparison about Specific Stress Response to a Disaster
Number of
Mean of rank
peopleCluster
No-stress response
amaintaining group (C1)240

275.16

Low-stress response
amaintaining group (C2)149

440.67

118402.3370556.42

Low-stress response to noastress response slow
aimprovement group (C3)
Middle-stress response toSpecific ahigh-stress response slow
adeteriorated group (C4)stressMiddle-stress response toresponse to a alow-stress response slow
disaster aimprovement group (C5)
Low-stress response to noastress response rapid
aimprovement group (C6)High-stress response toalow stress response rapid
aimprovement group (C7)
Severe-stress response
amaintaining group (C8)
Total

Multiple comparison

C1＜C6,C3,C2,C7,C5＜C4,C8
67

515.0480368.9355

493.3529605.36808

Note: C6＜C7,C5

the

the

the

LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

85

severe-stress response maintaining group (C8).

significantly has the lowest mean value acrossFurthermore, the mean values of the high-stress

all stress response clusters. Also, the low-stressresponse

responsetolowstressresponse

improvement

group

(C7),

the

rapid

to

no-stress

response

rapid

low-stress

improvement

group

(C6),

the

(C2),

response

tono-stressresponse

middle-stress response to low-stress response

improvement

group

(C3),

the

slow improvement group (C5), and the

response

middle-stress response to high-stress response

high-stress response to low stress response

slow deteriorated group (C4) are significantly

rapid improvement group (C7), and thelower than that of the severe-stress response

middle-stress response to low-stress response

maintaining group (C8). In particular, C7 andslow

C2 have significantly lower mean values thansignificantly lower mean values than thethat of C4.

middle-stress response to high-stress response

response

maintaining

group

the

According to multiple comparisons involving

slow

maintaining

improvement

deteriorated

group

group

group

low-stressslow

low-stress
(C2),

(C5)

(C4)

and

the

have

the

specific stress response to a disaster in CSI, thesevere-stress response maintaining group (C8).

no-stress response maintaining group (C1)

In particular, C6 has a significantly low mean

Table15. Result of Multiple Comparison about Anxiety / tense
Number of
Mean of rank
peopleClusterAnxiety /tense

No-stress response
amaintaining group (C1)240

261.57

Low-stress response
amaintaining group (C2)149

481.25118

390.7270

608.29

67

486.8

80

342.8855425.9429

696.41

Low-stress response to noastress response slow
aimprovement group (C3)
Middle-stress response toahigh-stress response slow
adeteriorated group (C4)
Middle-stress response toalow-stress response slow
aimprovement group (C5)
Low-stress response to noastress response rapid
aimprovement group (C6)High-stress response toalow stress response rapid
aimprovement group (C7)
Severe-stress response
amaintaining group (C8)

Total

808

Multiple comparison

C1,C6,C3,C7,C2,C5,＜C4,C8
Note: C1＜C3,C7,C2,C5
C6,C3＜C2,C5

WAKASHIMA et al.

86
value in comparison to C7 and C5.

slow

deteriorated

group

(C4)

and

the

From the multiple comparisons involving

severe-stress response maintaining group (C8).

anxiety/tense in CSI, the mean values of the

In particular, C1 indicates the significantly

no-stress response maintaining group (C1), thelower mean value than C3, C7, C2, and C5.

low-stress response to no-stress response rapid

Furthermore, the mean values of C6 and C3 are

improvement

group

(C6),

the

also significantly lower than C2 and C5.

response

no-stressresponsetolow-stressslow

In terms of multiple comparisons involving

improvement group (C3), the high-stressdispleasure/anger in CSI, the mean values of

response

rapid

the no-stress response maintaining group (C1),low-stressthe low-stress response to no-stress response

response maintaining group (C2), and therapid improvement group (C6), the low-stressmiddle-stress response to low-stress response

response

slow improvement group (C5) are significantly

improvement group (C3), the high-stress

low in comparison to the mean values of the

response

middle-stress response to high-stress response

improvement group (C7), the middle-stress

to

low

stressresponse

improvement

group

(C7),

the

to

to

no-

low

stressstressresponse

response

Table16. Result of Multiple Comparison about Displeasure / anger
Number of
Mean of rank
peopleCluster
No-stress response
amaintaining group (C1)240

277.87

Low-stress response
amaintaining group (C2)149

483.78118401.3770577.8367447.8580346.3155

437.1829

637.91

Low-stress response to noastress response slow
aimprovement group (C3)
Middle-stress response toahigh-stress response slow
adeteriorated group (C4)
Displeasure /Middle-stress response toanger
alow-stress response slow
aimprovement group (C5)
Low-stress response to noastress response rapid
aimprovement group (C6)High-stress response toalow stress response rapid
aimprovement group (C7)
Severe-stress response
amaintaining group (C8)
Total

808

Multiple comparison

C1,C6,C3,C7,C5,C2＜C4,C8
Note: C1＜C3,C7,C5,C2
C6,C3＜C2

slow

rapid

LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

responsetolow-stressslow(C1), the low-stress response to no-stress

improvement group (C5), and the low-stressresponse rapid improvement group (C6), andresponsearethe low-stress response to no- stress response

significantly low in comparison to the mean

slow improvement group (C3) are significantly

values of the middle-stress response to

low in comparison to the mean values of thehigh-stress response slow deteriorated grouplow-stress response maintaining group (C2), the(C4) and the severe-stress response maintaining

high-stress response to low stress responsegroup (C8). In particular, C1 indicates a

rapid

significantly lower mean value than C3, C7, C5,

middle-stress response to low-stress response

and C2. Furthermore, the mean values of C6

slow

and C3 are also significantly lower than the

middle-stress response to high-stress responsemean values of C2.

slow

maintaining

response

87

group

(C2)

improvement

improvement

deteriorated

group

group

group

(C7),

(C5),

(C4),

and

the

the

the

From the multiple comparisons regarding

severe-stress response maintaining group (C8).

autonomic symptoms in CSI, the mean values

In particular, the mean value of C1 isof the no-stress response maintaining group

significantly lower than that of C3. Similarly,

Tbale17. Result of Multiple Comparison about Autonomic symptom
Number of
Mean of rank
peopleCluster
No-stress response
amaintaining group (C1)240

287.51

Low-stress response
amaintaining group (C2)149

459.14118375.5970537.8967510.0780361.5455

461.9729

653.19Low-stress response to noastress response slow
aimprovement group (C3)
Middle-stress response toahigh-stress response slow
adeteriorated group (C4)Autonomic
Middle-stress response tosymptom alow-stress response slow
aimprovement group (C5)
Low-stress response to noastress response rapid
aimprovement group (C6)High-stress response toalow stress response rapid
aimprovement group (C7)
Severe-stress response
amaintaining group (C8)
Total

808

Multiple comparison

C1,C6,C3＜C2,C7,C5,C4,C8
Note: C1＜C3
C2,C7,C5＜C8WAKASHIMA et al.

88

C2, C7, and C5 each have a significantly lower

response

value than C8.

significantly lower mean values than the

From the multiple comparisons in the sum of

maintaining

group

(C2)

have

middle-stress response to high-stress response

three stress response factors regarding theslow

general-stress response of the CSI, the no-stresssevere-stress response maintaining group (C8).

response maintaining group (C1) indicates theIn particular, the mean values of C6 and C3 arelowest mean value across all clusters. Also, thesignificantly lower than those of C5, and C2.

low-stress response to no-stress response rapid
improvement

group

(C6),

the

response

no-stressresponsetolow-stressdeteriorated

group

(C4)

and

the

From the multiple comparisons in the sum of
all four stress response factors in CSI, theslow

no-stress response maintaining group (C1)

improvement group (C3), the high-stressindicates the lowest mean value across all

response

rapid

clusters. In particular, the low-stress response toimprovement group (C7), the middle-stressno-stress response rapid improvement groupresponse

slow(C6) has a significantly lower mean value than

improvement group (C5), and the low-stressthose of the high-stress response to low stress

to

to

low

stresslow-stressresponse

response

Table18. Result of Multiple Comparison about General-stress response
Number of
Mean of rank
peopleCluster

Generalstressresponse

No-stress response
amaintaining group (C1)240

252.63Low-stress response
amaintaining group (C2)149

491.68118

391.3570608.24Low-stress response to noastress response slow
aimprovement group (C3)
Middle-stress response toahigh-stress response slow
adeteriorated group (C4)
Middle-stress response toalow-stress response slow
aimprovement group (C5)
Low-stress response to noastress response rapid
aimprovement group (C6)High-stress response toalow stress response rapid
aimprovement group (C7)
Severe-stress response
amaintaining group (C8)

Total

Multiple comparison

C1＜C6,C3,C7,C5,C2＜C4,C8
67

489.8180

339.3655443.9529

682.91808

Note: C6,C3＜C5,C2

LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

89

response rapid improvement group (C7), thelow-stress response maintaining group (C2), themiddle-stress response to low-stress response
slow

improvement

local government workers who perform the

middle-stress response to high-stress response

central roles for recovery and restoration work

slow

the

after the Great East Japan Earthquake and tosevere-stress response maintaining group (C8).

investigate the different types of stress that they

The mean value of the low-stress response toreported in chronological order. In particular,

no- stress response slow improvement groupwe(C3) is significantly lower than the mean values

chronological patterns based on survey answersof C2, C5, C4, and C8. Similarly, the mean

provided by the public servants and examinedvalue of the high-stress response to low stress

how the initial condition of their disaster

response rapid improvement group (C7) is

experiences and their attributes are related tosignificantly lower than the mean values C4

the subsequent patterns of stress. Furthermore,

and C8.

the correlation between the participants’ current

group

(C5),

The main purpose of this study is to focus onthedeteriorated

group

Discussion

(C4),

and

classified

eachstresstype

Table19. Result of Multiple Comparison about Sum of four factors
Number of
Mean of rank
peopleCluster
No-stress response
amaintaining group (C1)240

245.89Low-stress response
amaintaining group (C2)149

484.99118396.6370607.65

C1＜C6,C3,C7,C2,C5,C4,C8

67503.38

Note: C6＜C7,C2,C5,C4,C8
C3＜C2,C5,C4,C8
C7＜C4,C8,80343.1755

467.4529

666.6

Low-stress response to noastress response slow
aimprovement group (C3)
Middle-stress response toahigh-stress response slow
Sum of four adeteriorated group (C4)
Middle-stress response tofactorsalow-stress response slow
aimprovement group (C5)
Low-stress response to noastress response rapid
aimprovement group (C6)High-stress response toalow stress response rapid
aimprovement group (C7)
Severe-stress response
amaintaining group (C8)
Total

Multiple comparison

808

into

WAKASHIMA et al.

90
observed

stresschronological

at

each

point

and

the

to no-stress response rapid improvement group;

patternofstressis

also

6.93% high-stress response to low stressthoroughly investigated.

response rapid improvement group; and 4.41%

The first objective of this study, thesevere-stress response maintaining group. In

classification of chronological patterns of stress,

particular,

twowill be discussed. We initially explain the

responsetoreason for performing a cluster analysis of K6

deteriorated

group

along with two additional variables. K6 is an

severe-stressresponse

instrument of stress response scales, consisting(4.41%)—indicated the highest stress valuesof 6 items, and it was originally developed inamong stress group clusters at the 3rd

consideration of the psychological impacts on

investigation. This implies that 13.55% of local

the public servants who have been struck by

government workers remained at a high level ofnatural disaster. However, the efficiency of K6

stress 15 months after the earthquake. From

was questioned due to concern that only limited

these findings, it also indicates that 67.44% oftypes of stress responses could possibly be

the respondents who were in high stress felt

measured, and because of this concern, an extra

that

two

and

chronologically. In order to explain thiscommunication with co-workers—were added

phenomenon, implications from the second

to the original K6.

purpose of our study can be discussed now.

variables—

Asleepcondition

theirgroups—thehigh-stressstressmiddle-stressresponse(9.14%)

andmaintaining

was

slow

even

the
group

elevating

Our test results show that scores on the items

From our second objective, an investigation

examining sleep and communication with

about how the initial condition of the public

co-workers and the scores of the original K6

servants’

were almost comparable. Especially, asleep

attributes are related to the subsequent patternscondition was identified as an importantofvariable for measurement of one’s stress level.

high-stress response slow deteriorated group

Chronological patterns of stress involving thoseand the severe-stress response maintaining

variables are classified into 8 clusters. The rategroup are correlated with domicile damage andof each cluster is as follows: 30.57% no-stressliving outside their domiciles. In addition to the

response maintaining group; 17.65% low-stress

two clusters as mentioned above, the cluster

response maintaining group; 13.66% low-stressthat contains the highest proportion of people

response

slow

whose domiciles were completely destroyed is

middle-stressthe high-stress response to low-stress response

to

no-

stressimprovement

group;

response

high-stresstodeteriorated
responsegroup;
toresponse

9.14%

response

7.98%

low-stressstress,disastertheexperiences

middle-stress

and

their

responsetoslow

rapid improvement group. However, those two

middle-stressgroups are different from the high-stressresponse

slow

improvement group; 9.66% low-stress response

responsetolow-stressresponse

rapid

improvement group from the viewpoint that

LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

91

people in the former groups have a highinvestigation, score of severe-stress response

tendency of prolonged living outside theirmaintaining group (C8) and middle-stressdomiciles at the time of the first investigation.

response

From this finding, one’s experience of living

deteriorated group (C4) are worst. And

outside one’s domicile is considered as an

middle-stress response to low-stress response

important variable in order to determine theslow improvement group (C5), low-stresslikelihood of one’s continued improvement inresponse maintaining group (C2), high-stressthe face of stress that is induced by the disaster.

response

Also, members of the no-stress response

improvement group (C7), low-stress response

maintaining group are least likely to haveto no-stress response slow improvement groupfamily member(s) who are dead or missing.

(C3), low-stress response to no-stress response

Meanwhile,nosignificance

of

to

to

high-stresslow-stressresponse

response

slow

rapid

stressrapid improvement group (C6), and no-stressresponse in correlation with disaster-related

response maintaining group (C1) are follow

duties and overtime work was found. However,them. Specifically C3, C6, and C1 indicate low

stscore in any variables, thus they are clusters

these items were asked only once at the 1

investigation. As for questions involving

which have low stress response.

overtime, they asked participants whether they

As for each factors of CSI, score ofworked more or fewer than 100 hours of work,

severe-stress response maintaining group (C8)and the lack of identified significance isand middle-stress response to high-stresspossibly due to some methodological errors.

response slow deteriorated group (C4) are

For the future direction of this continuing

worst. And middle-stress response to low-stressresearch, it is necessary to add more items that

response slow improvement group (C5) andallow participants to describe recollections ofhigh-stress response to low-stress response

their experiences in the survey form.

rapid improvement group (C7) are relatively

Lastly, the correlation between the current

high score in specific stress response to a

stress of the local government workers and thedisaster. C5 and C7 had high stress response atrd

the outset of disaster. The fact suggests thatinvestigation objective, will be discussed. In

specific stress response to a disaster relate withchronological patterns of stress, which is our 3

connection to K6 at the time of the 4
investigation,clusters

state at the outset of disaster.

the

In terms of anxiety / tense, score ofsevere-stress response maintaining group andsevere-stress response maintaining group (C8)thehigh-stressand middle-stress response to high-stressresponse slow deteriorated group indicated the

response slow deteriorated group (C4) arehighest stress values, which are composed ofworst. And middle-stress response to low-stress12.25% of survey participants.

response slow improvement group (C5) andmiddle-stressresponse

includingthtoWith regard to K6 at the time of the 4thlow-stress response maintaining group (C2) are

WAKASHIMA et al.

92

relatively high score in anxiety / tense. This

responseorder of score corresponds to patterns in K6

deteriorated

rd

th

to

high-stress
group

(C4)

response

slow

are

and

worst,

score at 3 investigation and 4 investigation.

low-stress response maintaining group (C2) and

Therefore, anxiety / tense have stronger

middle-stress response to low-stress response

relationship with recent conditions.

slow

improvement

group

(C5)

indicate

In terms of displeasure / anger, score of

relatively high score. The order of score issevere-stress response maintaining group (C8)common in both clusters. This common point

and middle-stress response to high-stressmeans that the score of general-stress response

response slow deteriorated group (C4) are

is able to drive up the score of PTSD-likeworst. Low-stress response maintaining groupresponse. Result in this study suggests that the(C2) is follow. As previously noted, C2

upthrust might make expertise “PTSD develops

indicates relatively minor stress response at thelate” too much.

outset of disaster. In view of this, displeasure /anger have relationship stronger relationship

General overview

with recent conditions too.
In

terms

of

First, one of the risk factor in disaster whichautonomic

symptom,

is

able

to

threatmentalhealthrelatessevere-stress response maintaining group (C8)circumstances in the aftermath of the disasteris worst. Middle-stress response to high-stress(e.g. damage of domicile / experience of life

response(C4),

outside domicile). On the other hand, despite

middle-stress response to low-stress response

the overall mean score of K6 decreased withslow improvement group (C5), high-stresstime, there is the cluster whose stress response

response

increased about +1SD from 2nd investigation to

slow

to

deteriorated

low-stressgroup

response

rapid

improvement group (C7), and Low-stress

3rd

response maintaining group (C2) are follow. C7

worsening of stress response might be causedstby recent conditions. These results indicate thatinvestigation have relatively high score of

support persons need to look around bothautonomic symptom score and specific stresscircumstances in the aftermath of the disaster

response to a disaster. This common pointand current conditions.

which

had

high

stressresponse

at1

investigation.

In

foregoingcluster,means that autonomic symptom, along with

Second, instruments which are used forspecific stress response to a disaster, relate withassess mental health of disaster victims such as

state at the outset of disaster.

IES-R (Weiss & Marmer, 1997) include items

In terms of general-stress response (sum ofthat measure a similar general stress response.

“anxiety / tense”, “displeasure / anger”, andTo avoid confusion with general-stress response“autonomic symptom) and PTSD-like response

in assessment of PTSD-like response, scales for(sum of four factors), severe-stress response

PTSD-like response would preferably bemaintaining group (C8) and middle-stressfocused on factors that are related to one’s

LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE STRESS RESPONSES

93

experience and memory. If an individual

学院教育学研究科

研 究 年 報 , 62(1),demonstrates a high stress level in the middle

283-302.

of the disaster recovery process, detailed

Furukawa, T., Ono, Y., Uda, H., & Nakane, Y.

examination of his or her current conditions of2003

stress would be clinically effective.

sukurininguni kannsuru kennkyu (Study of

Ippan jinkou chuno kanbenna

Local government workers are required toConvenient Assessment of Mental Disease in

conduct restorative work starting early in the

General Population). Research report ofaftermath of the disaster and to continue these

Health and Labour Sciences Research Grant

activities for a medium-term to long-term span.

in 2002. [ in Japanese ] (古川壽亮・大野裕・

Problem of local government workers who

宇田英典・中根允文

have been impacted by a disaster which wereの精神疾患の簡便なスクリーニングに関recognized

する研究

in

Wakashima,

Kozukua,&(2003) 一般人口中

平成 14 年度厚生労働科学研

Noguchi (2014), such as heavy burdens of

究費補助金（厚生労働科学特別研究事業）

restorative work which increases with time,

心の健康問題と対策基盤の実態に関する

disparity of workload, uncertainty for the future,

研究 研究協力報告書 )and rift with co-worker and family members,

Kessler, R.C., Andrews, G., Colpe, L.J., Hiripi,

can become stressor. In other words, to care forE., Mroczek, D.K., Normand, S.L., Walters,

local government workers, support persons

E.E., & Zaslavsky, A.M.

have to consider not only direct impact ofscreening

scalesdisaster but also problems caused by disasterprevalencesandindirectly.

psychological
Medicine

This

works

KAKENHIwas

supported

Grant-in-Aid

for

by

monitortrendsin

distress.

population
non-specificPsychological32 (6), 959-976.

Wakashima,K.,

Acknowledgments

to2002 Short

Kozuka,T.,&

Noguchi,S.

JSPS

2014 Jichitaisyokuin no mental support

Scientific(Mental Support for Local Government

Research (C) Number 25380915

Workers) Governance, 155, 28-30. [ inJapanese ] (若島孔文・狐塚貴博・野口修司
自治体職員のメンタルサポート

References(2014)

Asai, K., Morikawa, N., Hiraizumi, T., Usami,

Governance, 155, 28-30. ぎょうせい

T., & Wakashima, K. 2013 Development ofWakashima,K.,

Kozuka,T.,

comprehensive stress response inventory.

Kobayashi,& Hasegawa,

Annual Report, Graduate School of Education,

Higashi Nihon Daishinsai ni kakawarru

Tohoku University, 62(1), 283-302. [ inishinomakishi

Japanese ]kenkouchosa houkoku (Report about Health(浅井継悟・森川夏乃・平泉T.,syokuin

Noguchi,S.,

ni

K.

2012

kansuru

拓・宇佐美貴章・若島孔文(2013) 包括

Survey的ストレス尺度作成の試み

東北大学大Workers (1) ). Higashi Nihon Daishinsai PTG

ofIshinomaki

City

Government

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Mental Support Institute. [ in Japanses ] (若島孔文・狐塚貴博・野口修司・小林 智・
長谷川啓三 (2012)

東日本大震災に関わる石巻市役所職員に関する健康調査報告(1) 東日本大震災 PTG 心理支援機構
Wakashima, K. & Noguchi, S. 2013 Gyousei
syokuineno shinrisyakaishien① - Ishinomakishiyakusyo syokuineno approach. Hasegawa,K. & Wakashima, K. Eds. 2013 A guidebook
forpsychosocial

supportinearthquake

disaster. Tokyo: Kanekoshobo. [ in Japanese ]( 若島孔文・野口修司 (2013) 行政職員の心理社会支援①‐石巻市役所職員へのア
プローチ 長谷川啓三・若島孔文(編) 震災

心理社会支援ガイドブック - 東日本大震
災における現地基幹大学を中心にした実践から学ぶ- 金子書房
Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R., (1997). The
Impact of Event Scale-Revised. In Wilson,J.P.,&

Keane,

psychologicalT.

M.

(Eds.),

traumaandAssessing
PTSD:

Apractitioner’s handbook (pp. 399-411). New
York: Guilford Press.

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science2014 Vol. 4, No.2, 95-98< Original Paper: Research and Experiment >The Investigation on the Support for the Families Evacuated to their Relative's
and the Accepted Families after the great disaster in Japan.
Michiko Ikuta1)
1)

Kanagawa University of Human Services

ABSTRACT. This study investigated the changes in situation and emotion of host families(wives) who received evacuee families
after Great East Japan Earthquake(GEJE). Twelve subjects who accommodated evacuee families were interviewed. Eleven cases ofaccommodation were due to the accident of Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant and started just after GEJE. According to quality
analysis with protocol data, host families tended to push themselves too hard through a month after GEJE, and start burning out
from around three months after GEJE. Their burnout caused by their underlying stress as they couldn't tell it even to their family andfriends. Troubles with evacuee families were observed in some cases from five months after GEJE. The main factors that hostfamilies handled their accommodation well were indicated as follows that evacuee family had, 1) Initiative 2) a low level of relianceon support of information and money. And in addition, host families just wanted to receive the words, “ thank you” from evacuees,
and “good job!” from their relatives.
KEY WORDS: The host families who received evacuee families, Mental health,Great East Japan Earthquake, Burnout.

supports from whole Japan; in fact, shelters

Introduction
National Foundation Brief Therapy (NFBT)

were under the spotlight enough to be reported

has provided indefinite free counseling service,a fatigue of helpers there by some media. But

since April 2011, for evacuee families from thethe evacuees in their relative’s/ friend’s house.

disrupted area due to the Great East Japan

Evacuees in shelters mostly received supports

Earthquake (GEJE) to their relative’s house,from whole Japan; in fact, shelters were under

and the host families. Since NFBT has

the spotlight enough to be reported a fatigue ofexpertise in problem of family and system, andhelpers there by some media. But the evacuees

Iin their relative’s/ friend’s house took little

have

many

experiencesofinterview

researches and counseling activities （ Ikuta

support and were neglected in obscurity.
Evacuee family was assumed a lot of2009）.
Many of evacuees of unprecedented GEJE

similarities

tocommonmultigenerational

refuged to shelters, or their relative’s/ friend’s

family in the point of composite-type ofhouse. Evacuees in shelters mostly received

multigenerational cohabitation and the result of
my research was inferred the possibility of

CORRESPONDENCE TO: IKUTA Kanagawa University of
Kanagawa University of Human Services, 1-10-1 Heiseimachi,

application in support.
We affiliated with Japan Civil Network

Yokosuka-city, 238-8522, JAPAN.

(JCN) and mainly implemented PR activities

e-mail: ikuta@kpb.biglobe.ne.jp

through JCN. The free counseling was provided

95

96

IKUTA.

for evacuees to their relative’s house and themultiple times. And one case is ongoing.

host relatives, though, we also accepted “hostEleven cases were evacuees to other prefectures

families for child evacuees ” since they hoped(Tohoku 1, Kanto 4, Kansai 3), due to theto take telephone counseling with a difficulty ofaccident of Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant.

visiting to counseling facilities, and in addition,

One case was evacuee to other place in Miyagi

consulted about style of their families: ourdue to the disaster of tsunami in Miyagi.

specialty area. Our service was not assumed aniche industry but “a niche support” as someconsulters mentioned, “you are the only service
to help evacuees to their relative’s house.”

Results
Few counseling cases were offered until theend of April. The matters in May were all
positive; “I wonder if I cure evacuee relatives
much better.” According to quality analysis

Methods
Subjects for research: Evacuee Families whowith protocol data, evacuee families had

experienced current or past evacuation tosadness of the disaster and a sense of gratitudeindividual house, and host families whofor accommodation, and host families hadreceived evacuee families.

sympathy for them and a strong motivation thatAll

candidates

families

they helped evacuee family in anything they

excepting who evacuated their children, andcould. That was assumed “honeymoon stage”

host family members who were evacuee’s

just after evacuation (from 2 weeks to 4

relativesweeks).

(mostly

were

wives)

evacuee

exceptingwhoreceived children evacuee.

However, the number of counseling cases

Candidates were interviewed with a centralrose steeply from around June, also, the matters

focus on the following points: 1) family

was turning negative; “the evacuee family

structure, 2) process to cohabitation, 3)

doesn’t have any common sense,” “I‘m so

residence form, 4) episodes about problems

exhausted that it is uncertain about the future,”

which were forced to handle, 5) social“I’m under the overload,” etc. Most of them felt,

resources,

7)“I have to conceal what I stress from not only

atmosphere of their family after starting

the evacuee family but also my own family andcohabitation, 8) subjective evaluations ofrelatives.” Cohabitation due to the disastercohabitation, 9) advices for pre-cohabitationnecessarily causes many kinds of mattersfamilies, 10) whether they request to be sent a

because it was suddenly happened without any

brochure about books for reference and amental preparedness, uncertain about theneighbor guidedeadline, and let them fatigued due to6)chronologicalchanges,

concerning for evacuees. However, it was
Twelve cases, including researches, wereinferred that they strongly repressed negative

offered. Eight cases of them were continued

feelings; “I must not have negative feelings

The Investigation on the Support for the Families after the grate disaster97

because I’m happier than evacuee family.” Andmake a decision, on their own initiative, about

the repression produced a strong mental fatigue.

their future.

Many matters of cohabitation due to disaster2) burnout of host family

were perceived to come out three or four3) degree of dependence on host familymonths after the disaster rather than just after it.

4) negative spiral of social comparison

After August, serious matters increased; “I

process

have a trouble with my relatives,” “the5) difference in lifestyleevacuees brought up the idea of moving a

The series of 1) to 4) was described ashelter. I’m shocked if there is a fault on my

structure of negative spiral between whatpart, despite I’m doing my best,” “I was willingevacuee depended on their host and what hostto let them move to a shelter because they

increases burden. And in addition, consulters

preferred a lot of information and support in it.

who received their own relatives had a stronger

But I’m shocked that a relative said to me if I

loneliness feeling as they were unable to ask forkicked them out.”

help to those around than who received their

In the medium-to-long-term, disaster victims
start comparing between their current living

husband’s relatives. This point was common as
general multigenerational family.

environment and other shelters’ one, andpolitical

supportsystems.

Theygatherinformation, and in addition, become frustrated
with the difference; “it’s unfair that there is

Discussion
The items as follows were considered as
effective supports;such a big difference between me and him1) repeating appreciation for their making an

despite both have the same background.”effort and playing a role in support after the

Although this was a social comparison process

disaster by receiving an evacuee family; thisdue to a stress condition, host families guessed

was a kind of compliment technique in brief

evacuees’ thinking as “the grass is always

therapy.

greener on the other side of the fence,” and thatview

becameastrong2) psychoeducational approach as an expert

stressor.

opinion; victims are in particular psychologicalPsycho-education was effective for these cases.

state in a stressful situation and have a

The cases which were relatively working anddifficulty in understanding things from “thethe others which were not working (dividingthemdepending

on

with

or

other person’s perspective,” etc.

without3) interviewing consulters about the allcontinuance) were compared, and then thefamily members’ efforts of receiving victims

factors of difference were categorized thefor several months, and supporting what eachfollowing items;

and all did an excellent coping.

1) whether evacuee family and their hostfamily gather information and take an action to

And in addition, parent training was effective
for host families for children evacuee.

98

IKUTA.
each profession.

Host family doesn’t want to a big gratuity
but just wants to be said, “you’ve been very1)Ikuta,M. 2009 The Stress in the multi-

helpful,” “thank you,” and by other relatives,

generation“good job,” then, they can recall the longprogress of family psychology, Vol 27, 81-93.

period of support as “a good memory of
striving.” However, if they have a trouble with
evacuees in the end, they linger over a
harrowingfeeling

withouteven

sharingmemories and feeling in that period with theirfamily.
I made the biggest impression that many
consulters got their eyes watery when I told, “I
will express my deepest gratitude that you
propped up the reconstruction from thisunprecedented disaster by receiving evacuee as
one of Japanese.” I remember that the word
didn’t come from as a counseling technique but
my

real

thought.

Also,

I

was

often

questioned, ”are there any similar consult withmine?” If I just told, “yes, there are,” many
consulters sounded relieved and said, “It’s not
only me, is it?” There were three telephone call;“I don’t have any special problem, though, I
can put in effort if only I know there is an
institution which turns it’s eyes to hostfamilies.” That means we count for focusing on“family” as experts of family therapy/ brief
therapy.
In the end, I would like to sincerely show myrespects for the members of PTG team of
Tohoku University who are supplying support
service in the disrupted area, Professor Yoshida
who is outreaching in Soma, Fukushima, themembers of MCR who came to support Sendai,and the all who engaged in support activity by

cohabitation

families.

AnnualInternational Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science2014 Vol. 4, No.2, 99-111< Invited paper >What Gregory Bateson's thought brought about Japanese brief therapy
Hiroaki Matsumoto1), Kousuke Ishii2), Masafumi Nakamura3),
Hiroki Nagaishi4) & Kouhei Sato5)
1)

Shigakukan University

2)

Kagoshima Immaculate Heart University

3)

Mental health welfare community center in Kagoshima city

4)

Division of Psychological Support ,Izumi Regional Medical Center5)

Yamagata University

ABSTRACT. This article is the summery of the 31st Family Psychological Association independent symposium. We examined thefuture direction of Japanese-style brief therapy, which does not adhere to a change too much, based on Bateson’s ideology.
The contents of each topic provider are as follows. Kousuke Ishii presented the approach of the de-addiction to focus on the partwhich has already been changed. Masafumi Nakamura showed possibility of ‘do different’ based on Bateson’s multiplex description.
Hiroki Nagaishi showed the significance of not changing in strong restriction of the palliative care unit. Hiroaki Matsumoto showed
the directionality of the resource to entrust a pattern based on Bateson’s redundancy. Finally Kohei Sato who was a designateddebater showed significance and a problem of the de-control-like approach as the common point of each topic provider.
KEY WORDS:

Bateson, Brief therapy, Family therapy, Psychotherapy, Japanese

this situation is not only what's called personal

Intoroduction Hiroaki Matsumoto
As is usual with psychotherapy, brief therapy
hasatextbook-like

history.

Itisquarrel. It was regarded to be a confrontation

theexemplifying a clinical viewpoint and ancommunication theory as a theoretical base andarguing point of the brief therapy about how to

is Gregory Bateson’s double-bind theory thatgrasp things and relations.

was the opportunity. However, what visible is

The focus point of a group therapy is how to

not all with the history. Bateson headed forgrasp changes, however, it can be a clue to findHawaii leaving from MRI that he had beenout the view of Japanese-style brief therapy that

conducting a collaborative research about

does not adhere to a change too much, to turncommunication of division disease with in 1963,

our eyes on thought and philosophy for Bateson

but the relation with MRI have already been

who dared to leave from the binding of

damaged at this time. According to Dell (1989),

communication theory of MRI. This paper is asummery of the arguments by four topic

Shigakukan

providers and Sato, who was the designated

University, 1-59-1, Murasakibara, Kagoshima city, 890-8504,

debater, at the 31st Family PsychologicalJAPAN.

Association independent symposium that wase-mail: matsumoto@shigakukan.ac.jp

planned from the interest in the problem above.

CORRESPONDENCE

TO:

MATUMOTO,

99

MATUMOTO et al.

100

Alcoholics Anonymous and Self-Help group to“Think about Family therapy to entrust to a

be mentioned later. Bateson died in 1980, butchange”

about 30 years later, his daughter Mary

Kousuke Ishii

Catherine Bateson visited Japan for the 26th

In addiction clinical site, there is not little

meeting of Japan Association of Family

on-site staff who have an awareness that it isPsychology of 2009. It was impressive that she

hard to associate with alcoholics. No matter

introduced that Bateson had been always telling

how hard they take care of alcoholic patients,

her “do not try to change the situation, try to

the patients cannot do without drinking alcohol.

see the situation” in his later years (Bateson,

They are betrayed. They are lied to. Repeating

M.C., 2009).

such an experience, a feeling of ineffectualness

AA proposes direction for addiction that isand thought not to be able to care well increasedifferent from the direction to help addictively.

to them, and even a help expert is apt to have

In 1935, two alcoholism people called Bill andan awareness that an alcoholic is hard to care.

Bob met, then they established AA. The famous

In such a situation, we tend to think we shall try

12 steps begin with the first step, which is “weto control our patients or clients. Althoughare powerless against alcohol, and we admitted

people suffering from alcohol dependence arethat we were not able to live just as we wanted

the people who are trying to control theirto. (AA Japan Press, 1979)” Bateson focused

drinking action but failed it, the staffs are also

on this unique approach too. In addition,

getting addicted trying to control such people.

Manabu Saito who were promoting eagerly inThus, an addiction clinical scene is regarded toour country reports as follows: the alcohol

be a place where a vicious circle is easily

addicts like Bill and Bob appeared from thecaused, that is staffs are engaged in carestrongest part of America, that is, a white

addictively for the people suffering fromperson, in a middle class and a Christians, andaddiction. Falling into such a vicious circle

dropped out of it. A way of thinking to regard

myself, I will here suggest that "it is impossible

power belief as insanity started to arise among

tothese people (Saito, 1995). In other words, it isperform

addictively",theapproach"de-addictiveto

addiction

approachisnecessary instead".

thought that the view that rooted in the society
which we must control things by our own

Firstly, I will take up Gregory Bateson’s

power ironically brings up an illusion that weview of change. He is well-known for Double

can control even what we actually cannot, andbind theory in 1956, but he left MRI in 1963,

individuals fall into addiction. Our current

then wrote an article ‘The Cybernetics ofsociety in which effectiveness is demanded, and“Self"’

andthe society in which we have to get oversummarized the way of thinking and view ofvarious things by ourselves leads us to the waychange of the group that became a model of

of

in

1971

(Bateson,1971)

thinking“addictive

society”

thatanWHAT GREGORY BATESON’S THOUGHT

101

American therapist Schaef named (1987). AA ischange” or “I will operate” is rather undesirable

the view that is not addictive, so to speak,when a change is considered in the culture ofde-addictive as an antithesis in such a society in

our country. Therefore we come back to thewhich “we have to control ourselves by

first point "is it impossible to help the addicts

ourselves”, but in fact, there are a lot of

addictively?”examples about such a view in our country.

It is often said that we cannot change otherFor example, in Kamakura period, Dogenpeople. However, to be a little more precise,

who is the founder of Soto school of Zendoes not it mean “we cannot change other

Buddhism insisted to stop the practice striking

people addictively”? We cannot force otherwith a ‘keisaku’ (encouragement stick), whichpeople to change toward a certain direction, but

was common in Zen practice in those days, andwe can change them de-addictively. In thisremonstrated about forcing a change. In

sense, we still insist that “we can change theaddition, Encho Sannyutei, who was a comicothers” in Family therapy. For example, humor

story teller called the great master, was given

is important in Family therapy. The humor isthe name ‘No-tongue’ as his koji (posthumous

not a direction but rather a deconstruction that

Buddhist name) by Tesshu Yamaoka who

excludes the context. In addition, the surpriseadvocated the idea of 'Ken-Zen Ichinyo'

homework, which is to try something surprising(swordsmanship and Zen are one and the same).

when you are in the vicious circle and noIn that idea, it is ideal that the greater master achange happens, is also a de-addiction because

comic story teller becomes, the less he speaks

it is not to be directed to a certain direction but

with his tongue. Originally there is an aspect toto try something completely different from thegive a title of master for the point that even a

present

story teller does not stick to talking well or

Description Model (DDM) (Wakashima andproducing a change in our country. Furthermore,

Hasegawa, 2000) already includes the essence

Danshi Tatekawa, who also was a comic storyof de-addictive approach and is focused onteller and died in 2011, showed the view ofagain now. DDM is the approach that assumed

Rakugo affirmation of the work (Tatekawa,

preventing a vicious circle of MRI and1985). That is, it is unnatural to divides what is

expansion of a virtuous cycle of SDBT to bemixed into this is good or this is bad because it

two main factors connected each other, and theis not important to define what is good is goodstance of it, that is “small, easy to accept andwhile what is bad is bad but what is bad is alsointeresting” without asking any unnecessary

in human.

control for clients and customizing intervention

In the idea of Alcoholics Anonymous, we dosituation.

Especially,

Doublethoroughly, is de-addiction itself.

not try to do something by ourselves or change

Finally I will introduce prayer of the peacesomething, but we entrust to a change. Inthat AA members make much account of,addition, the point of view that “I will cause awhich is “God, please give me calmness to

MATUMOTO et al.

102

accept what we cannot change, courage topostulated. It may be said that Bateson showedchange what we can change and wisdom toa dualism thought, the direct causality theory

distinguish these two”. The sharp look to theand a concern for controlling in the past books

control illusion that is going to control what weand papers, and had a big influence in various

cannot control is put in here. However, anotherfields, and he is the person who searched asentence is probably added here in thepattern to connect an object with throughout allde-addiction approach of Family therapy. That

his life.

is “sensitivity not to overlook what I have been

What Bateson concerned about and pointed

changing”. In other words the characteristic ofout can be seen in a clinical situation. It is easy

the de-addiction approach is a viewpoint toto fall into the thought of dualism or direct

assume that we try not to fall into dualism of

causality theory even if we are cautious about itchangeablepayingin the clinical scene, and we may receive

attention to the part that has already beenvarious restriction unconsciously. Studying

changed.

Family therapy sometimes brings the binary

“What

or

unchangeable

provided

frombyrestriction

andopposition,“individual(insideofindividual)or(relation

betweensystemthedescription -From Bateson’s epistemology-“

individuals), and we may be restricted by theMasafumi Nakamura

problem of the past or internal world especially

The family therapy has developed andwhen a mental symptom and causes of aprogressed based on epistemology including

problem are talked as a past trauma. In thiscommunication theory and system theory ofarticle we would like to think about the new

Bateson,G. After having learned biology inaspect of Family therapy that does not assume

Cambridge University, Bateson changed his

the restriction a problem but makes use of the

major to cultural anthropology and engaged in

restriction based on Bateson’s epistemology.

fieldwork in New Guinea, Bali and so on, thenhe made the range of epistemology widened tocybernetics, system theory and communication
theory. From 1952, he performed a study oncommunicationofdivision

diseasewith

Weakland, Ｊ and Haley, Ｊ from 1952, thenJackson,Ｄjoined them and he proposed Double
Bind hypothesis afterwards in 1956. It can besaid that Bateson’s epistemology became achance for the paradigm shift from theviewpoint that a mental disease is caused by anindividual

thatconventional

psychiatry(Bateson, 1967)

WHAT GREGORY BATESON’S THOUGHT

103

The picture on the right is what is shown on

until now. Of course, originally a support

Bionics of spirit (Bateson, 1967), which wasshould be performed based on the result of thedrawn by a painter in Batuan village, Bali Ida

psychology

test

Bagus Jati Sura, in 1937. What he wanted tocondition

image,

convey by this picture is to avoid fixing of theconversation with the clients and their action

theme. In the structure of the painting work,makes “to describe = to affirm” and helps toBateson said as follows; this will give an

construct the better relationship, which leads toimpression of “noisy and restless” to the eyes

a smooth support in some cases. Becauseof the Westerner. To the eyes of psychoanalysts,

describing will be neglected and the support

it looks to be the expression of "uneasiness"

may dissociate from the condition of the clientand "obsessions", a game of the sexual

and when we are restricted by the diagnosis

interpretation proceeds really easily if we are toname or the result of the psychology test, I

do so, and he expressed concern for being fixed.

think describing is important. It is thought that

I think that even in a clinical scene, we will be

describing is useful in the action observation

able to describe precisely and widely by

for the client who had a developmental

looking the theme with no fixing idea, and it

disability including mental retardation not only

will lead to see our clients and their story

in a counseling scene.

after
but

understanding

thedescribing

theversatility. For example, when a client who has

In the clinical scene, there are some elements

a trauma talks about his/her trauma experience,hindering a description. At first it is a diagnosis

the viewpoint is usually fixed on the event. It

name. When the clients have been diagnosed

makes our interpretation restricted and makes

personality

other parts hard to see, and the story sometimes

developmental disability, we tend to look andproceeds by the restricted interpretation. It is

grasp based on the diagnosis name. And wethought not by interpreting but by describing, it

tend to treat them for example in a way ofwill be possible to construct a new context andlistening based on the diagnoses name, which

a story such as asking the relation between thehinders describing. In addition, the experience

trauma and the client.

of the therapists can be what hinders describing.

disorder,depression,the

Next I will explain about restriction and

The more experiences they have, the more theydescription a bit more on the basis of mylisten to the clients’ complaints and theirexperience. When we consider about support

symptoms, comprehend and guess what theyfor developmental disability including mental

think too much and adhere to the way ofretardation, we may be strongly restricted byapproaching to the symptoms too much.

the diagnosis name or the result (numerical

Although a diagnosis name, specialty an

value) of the psychology test and so on. I haveexperience can be a guidance, treatment and theseen some cases that the result of a psychology

clue for it when supporting a client, I think it istest did not overlap with the condition image

important to be conscious of that being

MATUMOTO et al.

104
restrictedbystrongcontext

canmakedescription negligent.

palliative

care,

the

relationship

with

a

supported person and the supporter is divided

As significance of describing, I think

into people who are being supported and people

describing definitely will be “Do different”

who are supporting, or living people and dying

because there is a possibility that describing

people. There is a paradox that s supported

simply becomes negligent when restriction of

person lives for the moment under the context

the context is strong. In other words it is not anofalternative of whether being restricted is apromotes the acceptance of death for the

problem or not, but the importance of

supported person feeling that death is far off.

describing while being restricted.

On the other hand, fortunately, we perform

accepting

death

while

the

supporter

A problem to be restricted and is the

Family therapy which is based on a great

importance of describing it while it is restricted.

epistemologist, Gregory Bateson. In otherBateson said about the stricture of the painting

words world, I think how to catch Bateson’s

work mentioned above that “it should be seen

mental world may include a hint of some kindas the work with double-theme”. It is thoughof support about the life and death from thethat looking at things with the idea ofviewpoint of Family therapy

double-theme,

furthermore

with

a

wide

According to WHO, palliative care is defined

viewpoint including restriction and description

as "approach to improve QOL by discovering a

makes alternative wider and richer. In otherpainwords, I think not only promoting a change

psychosocial problem and a spiritual problem

such as suggestion and intervention, but also

for the patients and their family facing thecontrolling a change under strong restriction

problem due to a life threatening disease early,

can be “Do different”. I think being conscious

preventing

andof restriction and a description, and stronger

performing

appropriate

restriction make description useful, and newtreatment". A presupposition of control alreadybonus may be provided by watching things

can be read in this definition. In addition, as forwithout a fixed idea just like ‘both eyes vision’

the life and death (spiritual), it is included inthat Bateson said.

the context called control as well.

and

other

physicalsofteningproblems,

the

pains

assessment

a

by
and

Here, I will introduce example 1. A big“Life and death and Family therapy -from achange was added to the example because oflook of Bateson-“the duty of confidentiality. Seventies, a male,

Hiroki Nagaishi

stomach cancer. The patient (afterwards: IP)

Working as a psychologist at a palliative care

had an interview many times from theunit now, I feel that the words such as

beginning of intervention until just before his‘palliative care’ and ‘life and death’ have adeath in the context of acceptance of deathstrong binding force. In a framework ofasking “how is the psychological condition ofWHAT GREGORY BATESON’S THOUGHT

105

the person dying?" and “how should I face withconnection with the world outside of the skindeath?"’. IP was always conscious of life andincluding the relationship with the staff helping

death in the interview, and had a long hard time

to reduce the pain, and if we think so, it will bethinking about fear or uneasiness for death. The

the natural form of our spirit to entrust to spirit

therapist (afterwards: Th) was also kept bound(in other words a system and a pattern).

by IP’s question about death he was asked

I will show you another example ofrepeatedly; how can he accept death?, how canentrusting to a system and pattern. A male in his

he be a bit more eased mentally?

sixties, lung cancer. The contents of theThen how did Bateson consider death? Ininterview were mainly about cars which is his

Bionics of spirit (Bateson, 1972), he defined

hobby from the first, not to mention uneasinessthe spirit not as what existing inside a body, but

for the disease and life and death. About theincluding the connection outside the body. If

disease, life and death, a talk about his hobby

we think that there is a borderline between

or weather, a talk about the sea and scenery

inside and outside of our skin and spirit iswatching the see. Various connections were

inside, it means our spirit will be lost with our

performed including not only words but alsobody. However, if we assume that spirit is notwhat need not to be mentioned. As for this case,only inside the body but it is made mixed withunlike example 1, IP spent a lot of scenes andtheTh also was not restricted by one context.

rout

outside

the

body,

a

different

recognition of death will occur. Not that both

When we go back to Bateson’s thought

body and spirit are lost by death, can we think

above again, it is considered that each ideathat the pattern which has been composed ourappearing from various communication and its

spirit until now is transformed into anotherinteraction is the subsystem which constitutepattern by death? The following is also theIP’s spirit. And it is thought to be important forwords of Bateson; “The contents covered byTh to listen carefully to IP, the spirit appearedskin spread at random in death, and the routsin the interaction and subsystem. This is

inside the skin spread at random as well.

because description is constitution and can a

However the idea will be converted again into

part of spirit what Bateson said. This part ofbooks and artworks to continue and keep goingspirit is also a part of IP’s spirit converted in Th,

round the world. Socrates as the individual

which is thought to be a part of spirit

discussing energetics of the life have died far

constituting IP’s spirit as well. Furthermore, A

back in the past, but it is reliable that his big

part of Th’s spirit converted in IP alsopart is still living in the current ecology of idea

constitute a part of Th’s spirit. Therefore, it is

as one of its components.” (Bateson, 1970.

thought that trying to convert this pattern here

Form, Subsistence and Difference). Therefore,

now by some kind of method more than thatthe idea of myself and the feeling (for life andwill cause some kind of tangle in the rule ofdeath) are also the spirit made from theconversion generation, in other words, it makes

106

MATUMOTO et al.

it likely to be put in the double-bind situation.

it. The words by Bateson “do not try to change

Entrusting to a natural pattern like this, it will

the situation, try to see the situation” may be a

be possible that another context other than themessage questioning the recognition for the

restricted context such as palliative care andchange again.

life and death is constituted. Any kinds of talks
are all important. And there is a possibility for“Resource found by ‘entrust to a pattern’”Th to be able to get eased by entrusting to

Hiroaki Matsumoto

conversation. Situation and state are keeping

As the resent trend of Brief Therapy, therechanging. However, the distance between what

are the shift from a compliment to a summaryis changing and what never changes isseen in BRIEF which is developing aextending by entrusting to conversation andsolution-oriented approach in the United

control a change as much as possible. Then theKingdom (Shennan & Flanklin, 2012), focusing

meaning of what never changes will increaseof “Do more” (Wakashima, 2011), and theover time.

approach of narrative and solution on which

It is thought that there are two “Do different”

Yoshikawa insists (2014). As the background of

in the restriction such as “palliative care” andthese, there are introspection, a feeling of“life and death”. The first one is “Do different”

difficulty and discomfort for over-emphasizing

called curiosity. I think we can keep entrustingof the solution. As a directional clue of SFA in

to what never changes because there is curiosity.

future Japan in this situation, I reexamined

This means that when Th and IP constitute each“Resource” concept based on Bateson as a start.

other’s spirit, curiosity occurs in the conversion

Resource is a concept of SFA which makes

generation itself which constitute the spirit. The

power of the client oneself be focused on from

relation between Th and IP is still somewhat

a viewpoint of resources and their nature. It is

conscious of controlling each other andgenerally used in a clinical scene like “this is a“change”. Then just it is not curiosity anymore.

resource for the client”. However, there is not a

The curiosity here is the pure curiosity for anlittle doubt to seeing resource fixed. In addition,

unknown thing appearing from the result of

because the resource concept was focused oneach other's natural interaction, and it is very

after the presentation of the exception in SFA,

difficult to have curiosity each other, and it isthere is the impression that the relation between

thought to be “Do different” in a clinical scene.

both of them is slightly vague. The resource is

As for the second one, what never changes isdivided into the external resource which isthought to be be “Do different” itself. Even if

usable in the surrounding environment likethe situation changes, the conversation does not

schools and parents and the internal resource

always change together. When the situationsuch as integrity of the person oneself, achanges, normally the conversation changes

positive viewpoint or so. But it is said that theaccordingly, and there is an effect of changing

external and or internal reality can be mixedWHAT GREGORY BATESON’S THOUGHT

107

easily (Kawai, 1994). In the first place, is it

system literature such as Tanka, Haiku andappropriate to apply this classification in

Senryu. As an example, I will introduce

Japan?

“Shinsaisenryu”(meeting

publishing

According to Kawai who sorted out the type

Minamisanriku “Shinsai senryu”, 2013) thatof Japanese and Western stories, the pattern of

was shown at a meeting for rationing of goodstheat Asahigaoka-district in Minamisanriku-choWesternstorieshave

introduction,

development, turn and conclusion, and theandhealed

the

The

Great

East

Japan

separation of a narrator and the listener is clear.

Earthquake victims. As a senryu has the

For example, that is a story of a hero who goes

restriction of 17 characters, the subject is easy

for adventure, defeats a monster, gets a higher

to be omitted. By this restriction the subject issocial position and then marries a princess andalways omitted structurally if it is “I”.

lives happily. On the other hand, as for

Therefore a Senryu with “I” as the subject isJapanese narratives and folktales, they had

structurally. In addition, though it is assumed

basically been passed down orally, their authorsthat a Senryu has a humor in it, but the sense of

are unknown, the contents are easy to change

humor is not always needed. For example, likeslightly and they have no punch line or lesson,a following Senryu which arose people’s

which sometimes make people feel deluded.

sympathies the most after the earthquake, there

For example, there is a pattern of “ban of ‘No

was a feeling that could be expressed straightly

seeing’”, which is, a woman suddenly forces

especially in a Senryu; “Massive tsunami,

herself upon a man and they get married, but

Swept everything away, What a fool”

the man breaks the ban seeing what he is not

In the case of the West, the power of theallowed to, then the woman leaves him andindividual image is relatively more important.

everything goes back to nothing at last. In the

However, especially in Japan it may beWest where “integrity” is made much of, a fault

necessary to reconsider the presumption of theand an evil are excluded and cut off separately.

internal image in individuals itself when based

In Japan, on the other hand, “totality” that ison the story view mentioned above. That is, anachieved by rather accepting an evil is

individual does not always have to come up

considered to be important with maternalwith an image. In Shinsai Senryu, which hassociety theory as the background. In this way,

285 poems in all, the similarity of the chosen

the way of thinking to root in a Japanese story

term such as a big tsunami, revival and thewhich does not stick to clarity as a story, notname of each area is significant. In addition,

always distinguish in and out or good and evil

there were some replying poems forming a paircan be a clue of the outlook on resource whichlike follows; “I’m in trouble, Need a wife, As

is useful in a clinical scene in Japan.

relief supplies” and “This in what, Impossible,

One of the clues to think about a resource

A wife supply”. In this way, the repetition infrom Japanese-style context is short poems

the wide meaning beyond the poem including

MATUMOTO et al.

108

the repetition of the same words and theme isobserver finds. For example, as for a mothermeaningful in Senryu.

who tells her child “be careful” repeatedly, we

In other words, in Senryu, the framework of

can guess that she is worry about her child, andpattern to support originality of the phrase

she will say “be carefull” again if we are in an

functions as a resource in a wide meaning. Not

observer’s position. The meaning of thisaffirmation as the topic but describing itself,

predictabilitye.g., ourselves or the relation with us is not

redundancy. There is the reason why Batesonalways necessary to be mentioned, we do notmade much of the redundancy in that thehave to tell something original and we do notmeaning was found as predictability by

have to describe everything in detail. This is theobserving a pattern.

found

by

the

observerispower that Senryu as a pattern prepares. This is

Bateson’s redundancy focusing on the role of

not to ignore the meaning of each Senryu at all.

the observer suggests the importance of the

It is the direction to think a great deal of both

viewpoint to find a pattern as repetition. For

the power of the pattern and the power of eachexample, a therapist is an existence who can be

Senryu.

a clue to find a pattern. In addition, a clinicalThis point of view to value the pattern is tiedscene is originally full of redundancy; theto Bateson based on the concept of redundancy

treatment structure in an interview, a parallel

as clue. “Redundancy” generally means to beinterview to share the state of a mother and her

unnecessary or roundabout when it is used inchild repeatedly, and a pattern of a family

Japanese.

in

history found by genogram and a comparison

information theory has a failsafe function toof the result of the psychology tests taken

distinguish a human error like the combination

several times. The attitude to be able to entrustof number and alphabet in with a membershipto the mild connection and similarity between

number or an examinee's number. But it does

patterns, in other word, Bateson’s entrust to

not produce any new meaning. On the otherredundancy to stand in a position of an observer

hand, Bateson’s redundancy is considered thathas a possibility to fit a clinical scene in Japan“It is able to predict a remaining state from one

as an outlook on resource not to adhere to thepart with probability more than random”

presence of resource and distinction of(Bateson,outside/inside. Shinsai Senryu is one of theForexample,1968).

Batesonredundancy

regards

thisredundancy to be synonymous with “meaning”.
There is Bateson’s unique viewpoint for
redundancy as a background.

examples.
There are very strong contexts such as
addiction, trauma or palliative care especiallyBateson set an observer of the third party

as a target in a clinical scene. In such a situation,

who is to find a pattern of redundancy andit can be strong “do different” to entrust to ashowed a redundancy model to find a meaning

mild pattern which has been existing even ifin the pattern of repetition itself that thethere is contradiction. In other words, Bateson’s

WHAT GREGORY BATESON’S THOUGHT

109

redundancy tells us that a pattern is the resource,

conduct production management or quality

and moreover entrusting to a pattern can also be

management smoothly, was introduced, anda resource.

besides, the cooperation with the specialized
agencies including medical institutions and the

Designated discussion Kouhei Sato

police has proceeded in the Law for Measures

As the common point of each topic provider,

to Prevent Bullying or so. In other words, athere were the keywords such as “as it is”, “toway of thinking that the problems are in

entrust”, “de-addictive” and “mild pattern”

individuals and we will control the problems byrather than the idea to control based on thesometimes cooperating with other organizations

thought of Gregory Bateson.

is becoming very strong. In addition, as myBy the way, the time Bateson lived is regarded

personal impression, it seems that we have lessto be the turning point where it was shifting

chance to hear about the way of thinking suchfrom the time when controlling was looked on

as client-centered therapy, also in the field of

too optimistically to the time when it was notclinicalso.

cognitive-behavioral therapy has come out,

psychology.

Instead,In the 20th century, the doubt to thewhich has the evidence such as performingclassical-physical and Laplace determinism thatworksheet based on a learning theory and a

was mainstream in the 19th outpoured incognitive idea but has made the idea of control

various fields of study.

much stronger.

In ecology, for example other than physics,

One of the causes is that clinical psychology

the view that to control is not so easy as seen in

itself has been becoming common and various

a food chain; the method to reduce the number

people in society see it now. When clinicalof rabbits cause reduce of the number of thepsychology is incorporated in society, moreanimals that eat rabbits, which lead to increaseaccountability is demanded. For example,of rabbits after all. There were Bateson or otherordinary people and members of an assembly

system theories in the time those studies were

are not familiar with System Theory andblooming. It was confirmed by the argument ofBateson. Then the explanation for them is apt toeach topic provider that Bateson was the

become mechanistic or direct causality. The

researcher, the scholar of the time. On

idea of control is included in the definition ofreflection, though it might be because I palace

palliative care defined by WHO. In this way, I

importance on the education filed myself, but it

think that it is the change in the last 20 years

seems that the value of “as it is” and “tothat control or management has been becoming

entrust” in the scene of clinical psychology has

strong as the foundation.

declined now compared to the time I was a

We are often asked to control or explain

graduate student. In education sites, PDCA

about controlling as a clinical psychologist incycle, which originally was the method tosociety. In this, it is relatively easy to achieve toMATUMOTO et al.

110

let it be as it is and to entrust, or to take such an

Sinsisakusya.

approach probably in the field of AA andBateson, G. (1971). The cybernetics of ‘self’:palliative care. Moreover, it is easy to say intheory of alcoholism. Psychiatry 34(1), 1-18.

case of social withdrawal. It is because this is aTranslated by Sato,Y. (2000). Bionomics of

topic that most people reach an agreement thatspirit, 2nd edition of revise. Sinsisakusya.

it will take a long time to be solved. On theBateson, G. (1972). Stepstoanecology of mind.

other hand, for example, in the case of school

New York: Ballantine. Translated by Sato, Y.

refusal, can we really strongly insist on being(2000). Bionomics of spirit, 2nd edition ofas it is at school?

revise. Sinsisakusya.

In other words, it will be the key in the future

Bateson, M.C. (2009). Japan Familyclinical scene to consider that if it is possible toPsychology Association 24th meetingtake “as it is” approach or de-addictive

memorial lecture. "Creation and return to theapproach for the problem such as school refusal,

source: The pattern which ties development

bullying, depression and so on which seems toof family therapy with Bateson theory"

be controllable, and if possible, how we canlecture record.［in Japanese］ (ベイトソン,

contrive it.

M.C.(2009)日本家族心理学会 24 回大会記
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