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Zeng Damei and Duan Haosheng
Inter-Construction Goals: Navigating Thailand’s Digital Economy from a
Sustainable Development Perspective
Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2, August 2024, pp. 229-253.

How to Cite:
Zeng Damei and Duan Haosheng. Inter-Construction Goals: Navigating Thailand’s
Digital Economy from a Sustainable Development Perspective. Southeast AsianStudies, Vol. 13, No. 2, August 2024, pp. 229-253. DOI: 10.20495/seas.13.2_229.
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Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University

Inter-Construction Goals: Navigating Thailand’s Digital
Economy from a Sustainable Development Perspective
Zeng Damei* and Duan Haosheng**

The digital economy has become a powerful engine for global economic resurgencein the post-pandemic era. As an ASEAN developing country, Thailand greatly values
the digital economy, which facilitates its “Thailand 4.0” Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs). By focusing on digitalization trends in Thailand, this article examines
whether new technological trends will have beneficial or detrimental impacts on thesocioeconomic flowering of the Global South in the digital age. The “ConstructiveSustainable Development Theoretical Framework” is formulated by combining
constructivism and the SDGs for conducting analysis. According to empiricalresearch, bridging the digital divide and reducing poverty need to be Thailand’s toppriorities. Therefore, Thai policy instruments should promote equal distributionof socioeconomic resources and close the digital divide, accelerate digital talentcultivation to fill the talent gap, build partnership networks that support transnational governance in cyberspace, promote third-party market cooperation, and share
the reciprocal profits of development.
Keywords: digital economy, digital divide, SDGs, constructivism, Thailand

Introduction
The digital economy is fueling global economic recovery and prosperity. States havestarted working on their digital economies to take advantage of the fourth industrial
revolution, and economists are paying attention to the expansion of digital technology
on the global and regional scales. Southeast Asia is a newly emerging digital market
with incredible consumption potential and increasing importance.
* 曾大妹, School of International Relations, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Xiamen
University, No. 422 Siming South Road, Siming District, Xiamen City, Fujian Province, Chinae-mail: 25520190154418@stu.xmu.edu.cn
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5800-9214** 段皓升, The Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy in International Development Studies
Programs (MAIDS-GRID) Program, the Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University,
Henri Dunant Rd, Wang Mai, Pathum Wan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
Corresponding author’s e-mails: dhszero@163.com; 6384313624@student.chula.ac.th
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6926-3025
Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2, August 2024, pp. 229–253© Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University

DOI: 10.20495/seas.13.2_229

229

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Zeng Damei and Duan Haosheng

To take advantage of the new wave of digitalization, Thailand, ASEAN’s secondlargest economy, is proactively seeking new drivers for stagnant development. For
the last ten years it has been committed to rescuing itself from the “inequality trap”
and the “middle-income trap.” Thailand’s economy saw three development stages overthe past few decades: agricultural “Thailand 1.0,” light-industrial “Thailand 2.0,” andheavy-industrial “Thailand 3.0.” To break out of the past few years’ economic stagnation, the Thai government has launched the “Thailand 4.0” economic growth strategy,
which encourages industrial transformation and a restructuring of the development
model. The main goal of Thailand 4.0 is to develop a high-value-added economy driven
by innovation, technology, and creativity in order to achieve prosperity, security, andsustainable development (Usa 2018). One of the top ten S-curve industries of Thailand
4.0 is the digital sector.1) Digital technology undoubtedly creates attractive opportunities, which makes it one of the integral instruments for achieving Thailand 4.0
and promoting sustainable economic growth. However, whether Thailand’s ambitious
goals will ultimately have the desired effect needs to be further researched.
The worldwide Covid-19 pandemic became a catalyst for the enhancement of thedigital economy in Thailand and accelerated the country’s society-wide digital transformation. Against this backdrop, digital finance, e-commerce, remote learning, andfood distribution quickly grew or developed on Internet-based platforms in order tolower the danger of viral transmission. The diffusion of digital technology has significantly affected Thailand’s industrial structure transformation and socioeconomic recovery. AI has even proliferated into the religious sphere, illustrating how digital technology
has penetrated beyond the financial realm and is now starting to progressively converge
with the requirements of local cultural public goods in Thai society: for instance, theThai virtual monk named Phra Mana went live in January 2022 (Petch 2022). However,under the intertwined influence of Covid-19 and the sustainable development dilemma,
the digital economy has brought unprecedented opportunities and challenges at thesocial, national, and international levels. Public, academic, and policy-making agencies
have all expressed interest in and engaged in discussions about the ongoing digitalization
process.
In general, it is reasonable to acknowledge the admirable accomplishments of1) An S-curve in project management refers to reaching critical mass by investing in innovativetechnology products to reach optimality. Thailand 4.0 borrows this concept to refer to its focus on
industries that will become optimal as innovative technology is invested in. The strategy focuseson ten industries: biofuels and biochemistry, digital economy, healthcare, automated robotics,
aviation and logistics, agriculture and biotechnology, smart electronics, health tourism, nextgeneration self-driving cars, and food processing.

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global digitalization. However, any new technology has its pros and cons, and if the
public sector ignores the potential drawbacks of digitalization, it may thwart Thailand’s
efforts to achieve the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Accordingly,
there should be a long-term critical observation of how the expansion of digital technology can serve as a stimulus for the Thai economy and accelerate industrial transformation. From the standpoint of International Development Studies, this discussion
concentrates on the following closely related issues: What opportunities and challenges
will the digital economy present for Thailand in achieving the SDGs at the social, national,
and international levels? How can Thailand effectively take advantage of favorable
trends for progress toward the SDGs?
The analysis examines the advantages and disadvantages of the societal, national,
and international dimensions before elaborating on how the three relate and interact
with one another. The study’s main contribution is connecting the inevitable digitalization trends in Thailand to the SDGs by investigating the potentially beneficial or detrimental impacts of new technological trends on the universal Sustainable Development
Goals of the Global South. This article contends that the inter-constructed or mutually
influential effects at the social, national, and international levels must be taken into
account to ensure the sustainable growth of the digital economy.
This paper is structured as follows. Following the introduction, the section titled“The Thai Digital Economy through Multiple Lenses” briefly profiles the current
research landscape. The methodology and theoretical framework are introduced in“Normative SDGs in the Multilevel Digital Economy of Thailand.” “Assessing the Thai
Digital Economy from a Sustainability Perspective” forms the main body of the article.
The final two sections present strategic recommendations and the conclusion.

The Thai Digital Economy through Multiple Lenses
In terms of research, views on the Thai digital economy may be categorized into twolevels and two schools: the domestic and international levels, and the schools of realism
and neoliberalism.
First, some realists have paid attention to digital industries such as e-commerce,
digital payments, online education, and digital tourism in Thailand and believe that thedigital economy has become a key force in Thailand’s resistance to Covid-19 shocks(Ma’rifat and Sesar 2020; Mi 2020; Song 2020; Li et al. 2022). In the case of Uber’ssuspension, Suebwong Kalawong and Nuntnidhi Bongsebodhidhamma (2017) argued
that Thailand’s patronage and rent-seeking activities might negatively impact the digital

232

Zeng Damei and Duan Haoshengeconomy’s development. However, realists prefer to consider the nexus between thedigital economy and social impacts as a sort of simple unidirectional relationship.
Furthermore, though it is still a domestic-level discussion, a growing body of literature
has shed light on the social impacts of the Thai digital economy’s development. These
impacts include the ways in which small and medium-sized enterprises have adapted
to digital transformation trends, the development of a cashless society, information
leakage, and whether the digital skills of Thai youth match the labor market (Bukht andHeeks 2018; Calderwood and Popova 2019; Suepphong et al. 2021). The realists’ studies
concluded that traditional socioeconomic relations could sometimes impede the improvement of the digital economy, because the latest trending technology inevitably exposes
marginalized groups that cannot adapt to tech trends to wage cuts or unemployment.
When digital technology disrupts the traditional business model, some social groups
inevitably suffer economically. However, Thailand’s digitalization is not only a domestic
problem but is also relevant to sustainable development in the context of complex
international relations. Various bilateral and multilateral mechanisms also influence its
development positively or negatively.
Second, some neoliberalists investigated the state of the digital economy in the
Lancang-Mekong region and ASEAN through the lens of institutionalism. Theyemphasized the roles of Thai digital legislation, 5G application, and official digitalpolicy (Liu 2021; Rhee et al. 2022). Some of them examined the expansion of the digital
economy in the region from a macro perspective, focusing on the promotion of economic progress through regional organizations such as ASEAN and policy coordination
among member countries. Meanwhile, potential challenges such as the digital divide,insufficient cross-border logistics and payment systems, and technical competition
among major powers are viewed as the primary impediments to Southeast Asia’s
digital cooperation (Xu and Wu 2020; Niu et al. 2022). Comparing the digital-economic
policies of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam, Joey
Erh (2021) argues that the policies of the six major ASEAN digital economies lackregional coordination and suggests that ASEAN could take a leadership role by entering
into cooperative agreements with specific countries. Kim Heejin (2019) examined thee-signature laws in Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, and Vietnam and concluded that
ASEAN had been essential in regionalizing international standards. Overall, neoliberalstudies recognize the role of institutionalization as key to promoting state actors’ digital
economies in Southeast Asia. However, in the sense of people-oriented sustainable
development, the positive effects of international institutions on state actors depend toa large extent on a benign environment of international cooperation. In other words, alot depends on the degree to which state actors and local society can internalize theThailand’s Sustainable Development of Digital Economy

233

norms and values of international mechanisms. Meanwhile, the degree of internalization depends on the normative socialization at the local, state, and international levels
as well as the impacts of great-power rivalries.
In a nutshell, research on the subject needs a more dynamic and comprehensive
analytical perspective. In order to elucidate the research questions beyond the materialcentric and institutional-centric philosophies, this article will adopt a constructivist
approach incorporating the concept of sustainable development to carry out an in-depth
analysis.

Normative SDGs in the Multilevel Digital Economy of Thailand
This research employs a qualitative methodology supplemented by documentary analysis and interviews to develop a theoretical framework for analysis.
First, per constructivist consensus, the internalization of norms by state actors is
jointly influenced by the process of mutual socialization between the state actors themselves and others (Finnemore and Sikkink 1998; Keck and Sikkink 1998; Wendt 1998;
1999). Second, Amitav Acharya (2004) criticizes the “old” constructivist theories as
being based primarily on Western empirical thinking in order to reinterpret the theories
or emphasize existing influencing factors rather than rethinking or constructing theoretical development frameworks based on non-Western cases. The old theories ignore
the mutual socialization processes of localization among domestic societies, state
actors, and the regional and international aspects of development issues. Acharyasuggests that “localization” or “domestic society” is another element that affects state
actors based on the “national-international” or “self-other” binary structure.
Therefore, from the interdisciplinary lens of international relations and International
Development Studies, this paper adopts Acharya’s constructivist theory of normative
localization to investigate the dynamic of development issues in a non-Western developing country. More specifically, this paper examines the developing sustainability ofThailand’s digital economy at three levels—social (domestic/local), national (state), andinternational—and explores their dynamic and inter-constructive nexus. However,unlike Acharya’s purely normative approach to international relations, this study
introduces a consensus, idea, and developing norm broadly accepted worldwide—the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development—as an evaluative and normative criterion to conduct the analysis.
SDGs are comprised of 17 goals. They respectively are Goal 1 No Poverty, Goal 2 Zero
Hunger, Goal 3 Good Health and Well-Being, Goal 4 Quality Education, Goal 5 Gender

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Zeng Damei and Duan Haosheng

Fig. 1 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs
Source: United Nations (n.d.)

Equality, Goal 6 Clean Water and Sanitation, Goal 7 Affordable and Clean Energy, Goal
8 Decent Work and Economic Growth, Goal 9 Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure,
Goal 10 Reduced Inequalities, Goal 11 Sustainable Cities and Communities, Goal 12
Responsible Consumption and Production, Goal 13 Climate Action, Goal 14 Life Below
Water, Goal 15 Life On Land, Goal 16 Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions, Goal 17
Partnerships for the Goals (Please see in the Fig. 1). International Development Studies
believe that these goals are inter-constructed in achieving sustainable development.
Constructivism emphasizes norm diffusion and internalization, and because SDGs area universal agenda and norm for global sustainable development, internalizing them will
ultimately lead to the implementation of socioeconomic development processes. This
study therefore examines digitalization in Thailand using this globally recognized development norm as an evaluative criterion.
In terms of methodology, qualitative documentary analysis is the primary method
used throughout this paper. The primary documentary data were obtained from policy
documents and reports from Thai official agencies, such as the Ministry of Digital
Economy and Society; Ministry of Industry; and Ministry of Higher Education, Science,
Research, and Innovation. Pertinent evaluation reports from the United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs and the World Bank also provided crucial
supporting data and information. Furthermore, to better understand the internalizationof SDGs in the development of Thailand’s digital economy along with the attitudes ofparticipants in Thai digitalization, other important data from the media news and interviews were collected. The authors also held in-depth discussions with students fromthree Thai universities (Chulalongkorn University, Thammasat University, and Khon
Kaen University) to better understand how the young generation perceive Thai digi-Thailand’s Sustainable Development of Digital Economy

235

Fig. 2 Constructive-Sustainable Development Theoretical Framework
Source: By the authors

talization. Based on the methodology, a “Constructive-Sustainable Development
Theoretical Framework” (Fig. 2) was devised to answer the research questions andformulate practical recommendations for a sustainable digital economy.
This multidimensional study anchors the relevant SDGs on three levels—social,national, and international—as the normative criteria that need to be achieved or internalized for the sustainable development of the Thai digital economy. Given the complexities of digital technology expansion for state actors, the study identifies the impacts
on the three levels based on the SDG criteria. From the aforementioned systematic
analysis, the study ultimately provides targeted recommendations for the sustainablegrowth of the Thai digital economy.

Assessing the Thai Digital Economy from a Sustainability Perspective
Thai Digital Economy Development Status
Compared to other ASEAN developing countries, Thailand has an advanced digital
infrastructure, which is essential for satisfying consumer demand and accelerating
industrial digitalization. Krung Thep Maha Nakhon (Bangkok) has been more eager thanever to use digital technology to foster economic resilience since the start of the Covid19 pandemic. Following are the features of Thailand’s digital infrastructure.
First, the 5G digital infrastructure is the overarching focus for driving the economy
and society toward the Thailand 4.0 era. The government is actively supporting the
5G network infrastructure and related technologies in order to revive socioeconomic
development, which was negatively impacted by the pandemic. Thailand’s three largest
mobile operators (AIS, True, and dtac) and two state-owned telecom companies successfully bid for 5G spectrum at an auction held by the Office of the National Broadcasting
and Telecommunications Commission in February 2020 for a total of 100 billion baht
(Komsan et al. 2020). Then the three major mobile network operators accelerated thedeployment of 5G infrastructure and services. Thailand has deployed 20,000 5G basestations, with 4.3 million 5G users (2.5 times the total number of 5G users in other236

Zeng Damei and Duan Haosheng

ASEAN countries) (Komsan 2021). The Global System for Mobile Communications
Association reports that in the third quarter of 2021, Bangkok was among the top 20
capitals in the world for 5G download speed (McKetta 2021). Thailand’s fixed broadband
download speed in June 2023 was 206.60 Mbps, ranking sixth in the Speedtest Global
Index (Speedtest 2023).
Second, thanks to official policies, the adaptation of market profiles, and consumer
demand, ubiquitous digital technology widely reshaped Thai consumption patterns during
the Covid-19 lockdowns. For instance, there was a boost in e-commerce activity, witha 7 percent increase in new online consumer users in 2021 (Bain & Company 2021, 16).
Zero-contact, high-efficiency, and low-cost digital payments, particularly e-wallets, arerapidly emerging as a reliable form of payment. Furthermore, following the pandemicdriven lockdowns, social media and restaurant takeout/delivery have been incorporated
into daily lives. Besides its traditional uses for networking and entertainment, social
media serves as a significant online shopping channel. And due to the potential risk ofviral transmission when dining in during the pandemic, restaurants adapted to provide
delivery services via digital platforms. During the pandemic lockdowns, food delivery
orders surged on Grab Food, Line Man, Foodpanda, and Uber Eats. Unsurprisingly,
food delivery has become the digital service with the highest penetration rate, with 71
percent of Internet users having ordered food online at least once in their lives (Bain &Company 2021, 52). Gradually, products that were available via delivery services
expanded beyond the food and beverage industry to include cosmetics, daily necessities,
and pharmaceuticals.
Third, Thailand’s adoption of digital technology is closely related to the surging
demand for pandemic prevention and healthcare. The Covid-19 pandemic accelerated
the healthcare sector’s digital transformation. Thai medical institutions’ innovative 5G
medical solutions are committed to improving patient care effectiveness and lowering
the risk of infection. High-tech medical devices enable doctors to communicate andkeep track of patient health through contactless interactions. AIS, Thailand’s leading
5G network provider, invested 100 million baht to create 5G care robots and provide
them to 22 hospitals (Kanokchan 2022). Digital robots can disinfect, deliver medications,serve meals, take patient temperatures, and check vital signs. It is worth mentioningthat Thai laws and regulations governing digital healthcare are constantly being
improved. The Thai Medical Council, Pharmacy Council, and Ministry of Public Healthhave released “Telemedicine Guidelines,” “Telepharmacy Guidelines,” and “Standardsof Telemedicine Service Provided by Medical Facilities” respectively (Peerapan et al.
2022). Thus, digital technology has helped Thailand to achieve SDG 3: ensuring healthy
lives and promoting well-being for people of all ages.

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Digitalization may provide support in overcoming uncertainties and promoting astrong and durable economic recovery in the post-pandemic era. However, opportunities
and challenges coexist, inextricably linked, and interact on the social, national, andinternational levels. Hence, this study will unpack in more detail the compound effectbrought about by the digitalization process and how it relates to Thailand’s accomplishment of the SDGs.
Analysis at the Social Level
Regarding opportunities at the social level, active digital consumers, a supportive business ecosystem, attractive market size, and high Internet penetration rates form a solid
foundation for the sustainable growth of the Thai digital economy.
Thailand is ranked 30th globally and third in Southeast Asia in the World Digital
Competitiveness Ranking 2023, released by the International Management Institute in
Lausanne, Switzerland (The 2023 IMD World Competitiveness Ranking). Thailand’s
Internet economy jumped to $30 billion in 2021 (Bain & Company 2021, 8). The country’s
total population is about 69.88 million, of which active digital consumers aged 15–64
account for about 70.2 percent (United Nations Population Fund 2022). A stable digitalconsumer population means the country can maintain an attractive digital market size.
Thailand is also one of the ASEAN nations with a relatively high Internet penetration
rate and the most active Internet users. There are about 48.59 million users, and eachspends more than eight hours online daily (Kemp 2021).
Thailand’s telecom industry database indicates a 184.97 percent mobile penetration
rate in 2022 (Thailand Telecom Industry 2023b). The country’s digital payments industry has also snowballed, driven primarily by e-commerce and mobile broadband penetration. As a case study of the inclusive development of the Thai digital economy, in
addition to PromptPay from the Central Bank of Thailand, commercial banking giants
such as Kasikornbank, Siam Commercial Bank, Bank of Ayudhya, and Bangkok Bank
have launched digital banking services. Digital payment platforms such as TrueMoney,
Rabbit Line Pay, and Alipay are also active in the Thai consumer market. Data fromrelevant authorities show that digital payments doubled from 2019 to 2021 (Satawasin
et al. 2021). The growth has led to a bright outlook for Thailand’s digital economy, withthe 5G technology ecosystem expected to create 130,000 jobs by 2030 (Phakdeetham
2021a). Digital technology “will boost the GDP of Thailand by 10% or approximately
2.3 trillion baht by 2035” (Phakdeetham 2021b). These figures show the future opportunities for prosperity and economic recovery from the shock of Covid-19. A vibrant andinclusive market and business ecosystem can act as the driving force behind Thailand’s
digital economy.

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Applying SDGs as normative assessment standards, fully utilizing the opportunities
presented by the digital wave will contribute to Thailand’s social-economic development,
thereby benefiting SDG 8: promoting a sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic
growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all.
However, unemployment or income disparities that may result from digital penetration have also inevitably hampered Thailand’s accomplishment of the SDGs. The
digital economy relies more on technology and information resources than traditional
industries, which depend primarily on labor and material resources. The use of digitaltechnology can increase the effectiveness, intelligence, and automation of production
processes, resulting in significant improvement in production effectiveness and quality
while lowering costs. Meanwhile, some traditional industry employees will inevitably
face wage cuts or structural unemployment as a result of disruptive digital penetration.
In addition, the gap between the rich and the poor has relentlessly widened because
low-income groups are not resilient enough to handle technological evolution. In otherwords, digital penetration is not conducive to achieving SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 8(Decent Work and Economic Growth), and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities).
Acting as a catalyst, the Covid-19 pandemic has accelerated Thai digital transformation across industries, a technology trend that may continue in the long term tostimulate economic efficiency. However, the disruption effects of new technology andthe digital divide have also exacerbated income inequality and social tensions. Theremay be an amplified sense of deprivation among low-income groups as a result of platform expansion and the widening income gap between online and offline practitioners
in some established industries. Traditional motorcycle drivers, for instance, wear
numbered orange undershirts to identify themselves and have attracted customers inthe business area under sheltered social relations for a long time. However, with theproliferation and popularity of online taxi platforms in Thailand, the number of traditional motorcycle drivers has decreased by 20 percent—due mainly to competition from
Grab—and they complain that their livelihoods are threatened by “illegal entrants” ononline platforms (Thodsapol 2019). Moreover, tensions and conflicts of interest between
registered riders on online platforms and traditional motorcycle drivers have emerged.
Thai motorcycle drivers complained in interviews that online taxi platforms were stealing jobs that used to be theirs, and this had reduced their income. They decided to use
demonstrations and protests to voice their concerns because they felt strongly deprived.
Their actions did have some results—for example, the Thai Ministry of Transportannounced an extension of sixty days for Grab/GrabBike rider registration (the previously
stated deadline was July 15, 2022); after the publication of the notice, groups of motorcycle and taxi drivers under the Thai Motorcycle Association gathered in front of theThailand’s Sustainable Development of Digital Economy

239

Thai Ministry of Transport, burning orange safety vests and blue taxi driver uniforms inprotest. They claimed that the latest notice from the Thai Ministry of Transport seriously
harmed their interests and requested that the policy be withdrawn.
Overall, the winner-takes-all effect of the digital economy model, combined withthe unemployment crisis during the pandemic, exacerbated income differentiation andinequality among social groups. Against the backdrop of the multiple opportunities anddisruptive challenges presented by digital technology, it is particularly important for
the Thai government to respond to the interests of different social groups and to bridgesocial concerns. These challenges also imply that certain social groups might be waryof digitalization trends because their interests are somewhat jeopardized. The proliferation of digital technology has harmed the interests of social groups who cannot adapt
to new trends, and the digital divide and uneven resource distribution could thus leadto or intensify Thailand’s income gap at the social level. The authors argue that intensified new technologies may marginalize certain groups of people, thereby slowing down
the implementation of the SDGs.
Analysis at the National Level
State actors play an active role in the process of norm internalization. Acharya (2004)
argues that local actors’ active reconstruction of foreign norms ultimately aligns foreign
norms with local norms and practices. Regarding opportunities at the national level,
the Thai government has set in place solid policy support to build “Digital Thailand”
and has continued to strengthen its institutionalization framework. The official rhetoricprioritizes digital technology in order to capitalize on opportunities created by the fourthindustrial revolution and transform the export-dependent economic model in order toovercome the inequality and middle-income traps. Therefore, it is accelerating the paceof policy adjustment to make Thailand one of ASEAN’s digital hubs by reorganizing
administrative agencies, enacting laws and regulations, and promoting Thailand 4.0,
which aims to create “Digital Thailand” and ultimately achieve national economic andsocial stability, prosperity, and sustainable development.
The most notable example of policy adjustment is the reorganization and renamingof Thailand’s former Ministry of Information and Communication Technology into the
Ministry of Digital Economy and Society in September 2016. In addition, new agencies
were established, such as the Digital Economy Promotion Agency and the National 5G
Committee. The policy alliances formed on digital economy development issues indicate
the determination of Thai government departments. Thailand has also introduced laws
and regulations regarding digital matters (Wendy 2016). It has enacted the Economic
and Social Digital Development Act (B.E.2560), Personal Data Protection Act (B.E.2562),

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Electronic Transactions Act, Thailand Computer Crime Act, Payment System Act,
Thailand Network Security Law, and other regulations related to digital technology andthe digital economy. In short, by issuing policy initiatives, restructuring institutions,and improving laws and regulations, government agencies are further signaling that thedigital economy is beneficial to the country.
Using the SDGs as normative evaluation criteria, the digital economy assists theThai government in adjusting its institutional settings to be more effective in creating
an efficient, accountable, and inclusive public service sector. The government also
strengthens the laws and rules regarding digital governance and creates a more regulated
digital ecosystem, both of which will contribute to Thailand’s achievement of SDG 16:
this SDG calls for promoting peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development;
providing access to justice for all; and building effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels. Alongside the above opportunities, the author noted the following
roadblocks affecting Thailand’s SDGs at the national level.
First, Thailand’s digital divide will be difficult to bridge in a short period. The
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines the digital
divide as the gap between individuals, households, businesses, and geographical areasat different socioeconomic levels regarding access to information and communications
technology (ICT) and the use of the Internet in various activities. The unbalanced
economy and infrastructure among various regions and groups is the primary cause of
the digital divide. In the context of inequality in economic and communication technology
infrastructure development in Thailand’s rural-urban dichotomy, the development
divide in the digital domain is most visibly manifested in the disparity in digital infrastructure availability between different regions of the country. There is a divide in theuse of digital technologies between Bangkok and the less developed countryside.
Households in underdeveloped rural regions lack adequate and affordable high-speed
Internet. According to the Thailand Telecom Industry database, Thailand’s broadband
penetration rate per capita was 19.36 percent in 2022. Bangkok has a higher percentage
of computer-owning households (42 percent) than other provinces (21 percent in Central
Thailand, 19 percent in the North, 17 percent in the South, and only 14 percent in the
Isan Northeast) (Saowaruj 2020; Thailand Telecom Industry 2023a).
The raging Covid-19 pandemic further amplified the impact of digital divide barriers.
Because of a lack of smartphones or bank accounts, socially marginalized and vulnerable
groups severely impacted by the pandemic were unable to get government assistance.
Some people were even deceived when asking for help because they lacked the necessary
digital knowledge (Paritta 2020). For instance, a UNESCO (Thailand) staff member
stated that “the digital divide was also reflected in the unequal opportunities for Thai

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students to participate in online courses. Schools in the northern and northeastern
mountain areas have lower Internet connectivity than the national average.” In addition,technical obstacles such as power outages, lack of electronic devices, and unstable
Internet signal seriously hinder students’ efficiency in online learning in rural areas.
According to a study by Thailand’s Education Equity Fund, 271,888 of the country’s 1.9
million students who are from low-income or impoverished families do not have accessto computers or the Internet (Porpor 2021). The above analysis shows that the digital
divide in Thailand poses a severe challenge to achieving SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 4(Quality Education), and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities).
Second, from the standpoint of digital talent cultivation, Thailand suffers from ashortage of digital human capital and a mismatch between labor force skills and market
demand. There is projected to be a shortage of 47 million technology professionals in
Asia-Pacific by 2030, due to the digital transformation of the business and technology
landscape brought on by the fourth industrial revolution (Huawei 2022). In Thailand,booming e-commerce, digital finance, and start-ups have increased demand for workers
with skills in artificial intelligence and machine learning, data analysis, and strategicplanning. The mismatch between the supply and demand of digital talent may become astumbling block to the country’s industrial transformation and digitalization. International
data on digital technology and skills use show that Thai youths and adults have lessadvanced digital skills than the average of OECD countries (Vandeweyer et al. 2020, 9).
Only 54.9 percent of Thai workers, according to the World Economic Forum, possess
the necessary digital skills (World Economic Forum 2020). Education is a structural
factor in the nurturing of digital talent. The challenge for the Thai labor market is that
graduates from higher education institutions often lack the skills that employers arelooking for. There is a mismatch between the competencies required by employers
and graduates, according to an empirical study of the competency gap among Thai IT
students (Veeraporn et al. 2017). The minister of science and technology urged Thai
universities to keep up with technological trends and advance students’ technical anddigital skills, because 70 percent of university students in Thailand major in social
sciences (Chanita 2016, 9). The country needs to urgently address the issue of how tomatch the talents produced by the education system with the labor market demands.
Finally, Thailand faces thorny cybersecurity challenges. There are numerous
cybersecurity risks in the digital age, along with massive data generation, storage, andsharing in the cloud. Phishing, malware, extortion, identity theft, data leakage, andother cybercrimes have unpredictable negative impacts on the information and property
security of individuals, companies, and sovereign countries. Most student interviewees
said they had antivirus software installed on their computers. It appears clear that the242

Zeng Damei and Duan Haoshengproliferation of network security risks is an unavoidable obstacle for the Thai digital
economy. For example, over 120,000 bank customers’ personal or business information
was compromised in July 2018 when the Kasikornbank and Krungthai Bank computer
systems were attacked. Despite no monetary losses, the potential damage was severe(Orathai et al. 2018). Furthermore, in August 2021 a British cybersecurity researcher
discovered that the personal information of 106 million Thai tourists had been freely
accessible since 2011, with a 200GB database containing the full name, gender, passportnumber, and other personal information of each tourist (Coble 2021). Within 24 hours,
the Thai government took protective action against the database breach.
Thailand’s cybersecurity sector needs to improve the relevant hardware configuration. According to the World Bank, the number of secure Internet servers (serversthat use encryption technology in Internet matters) per million people in Thailand in2020 was 1,863, while Singapore’s secure Internet servers were about 68 times that
number (World Bank 2020). The aforementioned cases demonstrate that cybersecurity
threats pose a serious obstacle to SDG 11, which aims to make cities and communities
inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. Since cyber threats are typically nontraditional
security concerns with transnational and covert characteristics, Thailand needs to establish international cybersecurity governance partnerships in order to build harmonious
digital ecosystems.
Analysis at the International Level
In terms of opportunities at the international level, localization of international norms
can enhance the status and prestige of actors (Wolters 2018). Thailand thus actively
creates networks for digital-economic cooperation through bilateral and multilateralchannels. The analysis begins with bilateral collaboration and then goes on to multilateralcollaboration and collaboration with global organizations.
PromptPay, an essential pillar of Thailand’s national electronic payments plan, is
actively developing its cross-border payments business. The first cross-border realtime payment link was established between Thailand’s PromptPay and Singapore’s
PayNow electronic payment platform in April 2021. This partnership increased theeffectiveness of cross-border payments between Thailand and Singapore (Monetary
Authority of Singapore 2021).
With regard to multilateral cooperation, Thailand actively participates in the
Lancang-Mekong Cooperation (LMC) and ASEAN digital economy cooperation. The LMC
countries have deepened their collaboration through forums and seminars. For example,
the 2020 Lancang-Mekong Combating Cybercrime Forum was held in Kunming City,
Yunnan Province, China. The meeting reached a consensus on gradually establishing aThailand’s Sustainable Development of Digital Economy

243

cooperative mechanism for multilateral crackdown and comprehensive governancealong the Lancang-Mekong basin, enhancing cyberspace governance and regulatory
capacity, strengthening information sharing among countries by taking advantage ofmultilateral platforms, and providing training opportunities for cyber technology
enforcement capabilities (Ren Min Zi Xun 2021). In addition, ASEAN regards the digital
economy as providing an impetus for high-quality development. The Masterplan on
ASEAN Connectivity 2025, AEC Blueprint 2025, and e-ASEAN Framework Agreement
aim to build ASEAN communities into leading, safe, and transformative digital service-,
technology-, and ecosystem-driven digital communities (Association of Southeast
Asian Nations 2021). The Thai government recognizes the positive impact of ASEANwide digital cooperation on sustainable economic growth. At the third ASEAN Digital
Ministers Meeting, Chaiwut Thanakhanamusorn, Thailand’s former minister of digital
economy and society, suggested that an ASEAN committee be formed to concentrateon combating telecom fraud (Bangkok Post February 9, 2023).
Thailand has significant collaborations with global organizations. When it comes
to working with international organizations—such as the United Nations and OECD—
they attach importance to developing the digital economy and encourage coalition
members to strengthen multilateral cooperation in ICT, cybersecurity governance, andother areas. Thailand actively participates in international dialogues on digital economic
policy. For instance, its “Decade of Action, Decade of Innovation” campaign was launched
on June 8, 2021 by the Digital Economy Promotion Agency (depa) in collaboration with
the United Nations Office in Thailand to encourage the use of technology and creative
solutions to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals essential to future development(Bovornpong 2021). Using the SDGs as a reference, digital economic cooperation
through multiple international channels will facilitate Thailand’s attainment of SDG 17:
strengthening the means of implementation and revitalizing the Global Partnership for
Sustainable Development.
However, the obvious externalities that characterize the digital economy make itsusceptible to the multiple power dynamics of world politics. International competition
is focused primarily on digital technology, and Thailand’s long-term digital economic
development is susceptible to the international commercial environment. First, thelargest digital businesses are run by high-tech firms that control the most cutting-edge
digital technologies. Over-reliance on large tech firms’ technology and data resources
may exacerbate Thailand’s digital vulnerability, threatening data sovereignty and security. Second, digital technology advantages and digital trade rule-setting are the main
focus of competition among great digital powers. Some nations make an effort to prevent
international cooperation in advanced digital technology.

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As tension and competition intensified, Thailand ran the risk of “picking sides”
when it imported specific digital technologies and products. For example, according
to Reuters, the US launched a 5G technology test bed even as it placed Huawei on acontrolled list and urged its allies to bar Huawei’s 5G technology. Thailand was facedwith an international relations challenge when it chose to enter into a digital technology
partnership with Huawei (Patpicha 2019). As an influential regional economy, Thailand
will find it worthwhile to coordinate its policies with other ASEAN countries. In anutshell, trends in digital economy at the international level present both opportunities
and challenges for Thailand, which could undermine the implementation of SDG 17(Partnerships for the Goals).
Summary and Discussion
Following is a summary of the above section, before coming to the strategic recommendations. The above analysis largely confirms that the digital economy presentsinterrelated opportunities and challenges for Thailand to achieve the normative SDGs
at the social, national, and international levels. In this sense, the opportunities andchallenges are intertwined with one another rather than existing independently. First,
the opportunities presented by the digitalization wave are mutually reinforcing. A
supportive business ecosystem, an attractive market size, and supportive official
policies, for example, are all positive factors that will assist Thailand in relieving theunemployment crisis and recovering the economy (SDG 8) in the post-pandemic era.
The groundwork will also be laid for a global network of digital partnerships throughbilateral and multilateral cooperation channels (SDG 17).
The challenges to the SDGs are also mutually interconnected and have overlapping
effects. For instance, the digital divide interacts with the widening wealth gap in society(SDG 1, SDG 10), implying that unequal distribution of socioeconomic resources, suchas income, is also reflected in digital technology accessibility. Moreover, inequalities
caused by the wealth gap not only undermine the effectiveness of official policy implementation (SDG 16) but also contribute to problems such as human resource deficiency(SDG 8), educational inequality (SDG 4), and the ongoing deterioration of cybersecurity(SDG 11).
Finally, Table 1 demonstrates that SDG 1 and SDG 10 have the highest frequencyof occurrence (both twice) among the challenges posed by the digital economy wave forachieving the SDGs. It is worth noting that the main missions for Thailand in the future
will be poverty reduction and bridging the development gap. All of the foreseeable
spillover effects of challenges generated from digitalization will affect the economic
dynamics. Based on the above analysis, Thailand needs to be aware of the dynamic,

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Table 1 Assessing Thailand’s Digital Economy by SDGs
Level

Opportunities

SDGs

Challenges

SDGs

Social

SDG 8: Decent Work Slowing economic
Digital consumers
SDG 1: No Poverty
and market size, good and Economic Growth recovery, poor
SDG 8: Decent Workperformance of thebusiness environment,
and Economic Growthservice sector,
high Internet penetraSDG 10: Reduced
widening gap between Inequalities
tion raterich and poor

National

Restructuring ofadministrative
agencies, enacting
laws and regulations

SDG 16: Peace,
Justice, and Strong
Institutions

Digital divide, talent SDG 1: No Poverty
scarcity, cybersecurity SDG 4: Quality
Education
SDG 10: Reduced
Inequalities
SDG 11: Sustainable
Cities and Communities

International Bilateral and multilat- SDG 17: Partnerships Digital technology
for the Goals
monopoly, digitaleral cooperationcompetition amongchannelsmajor powers,
ASEAN countries

SDG 17: Partnerships
for the Goals

Note: This table is based on the analysis in Section 4: Assessing the Thai Digital Economy from a Sustainability
Perspective.

mutually influential nexus among the opportunities and challenges at different levels andthat the realization of SDGs at each level will not be independent but interconnected.
This means that the process of promoting or internalizing normative SDGs at one levelshould also take into account the facilitation and improvement effects at other levels.
Ultimately, a comprehensive practice will lead to a sustainable Thai digital economy
model and meet the four objectives of Thailand 4.0: economic prosperity, social wellbeing, raising human values, and environmental protection.

Strategic Recommendations for Thai Digital Economy’s Sustainable
GrowthThe technological revolution is gaining momentum, and global socioeconomic prosperity
is irresistibly shifting toward digitalization. As previously discussed, the Thai digital
economy has the potential for remarkable accomplishments but is also confronted withtricky challenges. Taking advantage of emerging technological trends will be beneficial
for Thailand, where the digital industry is in its early stages, with regard to putting into
practice the UN-promoted norms for sustainable development. Therefore, the following
recommendations are proposed based on the above analysis.
First of all, promoting equal distribution of socioeconomic resources and digital

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inclusion needs to be Thailand’s primary policy priority. The interregional and intergenerational digital divides in Thailand have negatively impacted household income
and children’s education among marginalized social groups. For example, students inunderdeveloped areas could not participate in online classes during the pandemic
because they lacked electronic devices and Internet access. The implementation of
SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) means urgently bridging thedigital divide. Therefore, the research suggests that actions and cooperation for bridging the digital divide should be centered on poverty eradication or reduction. Greater
investment in digital infrastructure is necessary to close the digital divide, with the firststep being to increase telecommunications infrastructure investment in rural areas,
particularly in the country’s mountainous north and Isan. Digital infrastructure can bebuilt by national initiatives, private enterprises, or international cooperation, such as
through the LMC “3 + 5 + X” framework, to strengthen poverty reduction cooperationin the subregion.
Second, the public service sector of Thailand should provide more technical supportand humanistic care for the elderly, disabled, and residents in rural areas who arevulnerable due to the “digital literacy deficit.” Technical assistance can be provided tothese groups through volunteer services and regular training, to help them more easily
adapt to changes in the digital world and enjoy modern conveniences. Developing
specialized software programs/apps to improve the digital service usage of the country’s
digitally underprivileged citizens is also possible.
Third, digital talent cultivation via SDG 4 (Quality Education) is an essential strategy
for tackling Thailand’s tricky issues of poverty, inequality, and employment dilemmas.
Thai authorities need to accelerate digital talent training to fill the talent gap. Talentcultivation is vital for alleviating employment pressure and promoting economic recovery
in order to achieve SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth),
and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities). It is also an essential booster for “Digital Thailand.”To begin with, there is strong demand for highly qualified personnel with digital skillsin the labor market as a result of the digital transformation of Thai industries. However,unless the government and educational institutions adapt training and education programs to suit market conditions, graduates may find it difficult to gain employment.
Therefore, it will be good if Thai universities, research institutions, and digital enterprises carry out various forms of digital talent cultivation cooperation projects based on
the strengths of each stakeholder and promote effective interaction between talent,industry, and the public service sector. Market demand-oriented talent cultivation canensure that labor market needs are continuously met. Moreover, cooperation can beenhanced through bilateral or multilateral diplomatic frameworks such as the ASEAN

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Regional Cooperation Program on Technical and Vocational Education and Training or
Lancang-Mekong Vocational Education Cooperation. In short, it would be beneficial
to implement multiple channels of cooperation to address workforce issues that are
impeding the sustainable growth of the digital economy.
Fourth, Thailand’s cybersecurity sector should be more active in building partnershipnetworks and promoting transnational governance in cyberspace. Fighting cybercrimeis becoming increasingly difficult in the globalized world due to radical technologicaladvancements and the ongoing updating of cybercriminals’ attack tactics. Building
partnership networks with regional and global stakeholders is essential to establish
cybersecurity, because cybercrimes are transnational and covert. With regard to bilateral
cooperation, Thailand can promote trust and consensus with ASEAN members, China,
Japan, and other countries on the basis of respecting “digital sovereignty” in the areasof privacy protection, data security, digital taxation, information sharing, and extraditionof criminals, so as to establish a robust transnational cybersecurity ecosystem. In
addition, the existing multilateral cooperation framework should be fully utilized. For
example, multilateral collaboration can be implemented to combat online gambling,
online fraud, and other crimes under the ASEAN Network Security Cooperation
Strategy (2021–25) and the Lancang-Mekong Law Enforcement Security Cooperation
Mechanism. Building bilateral and multilateral partnerships, as mentioned above, canresult in a healthy cyberspace community, which will contribute to achieving the blueprint
outlined in SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals) and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities andCommunities).
Lastly, Thailand can promote third-party market cooperation and share the fruits ofreciprocal prosperity with its economic partners. The digital economy represents the
emerging direction of global economic flowering, and digital technology competition has
increased among major powers. Thailand is vulnerable to potential geopolitical risks
when choosing digital technology providers and engaging in cooperation, due to thepoliticization of technology and competition among major powers. Third-party market
cooperation is a viable strategy for achieving sustainable development in order to reduce
the risk of technology politicization. For instance, in recent years there has been atrend of cooperation between China and Japan in the Greater Mekong Subregion, andThailand has taken the initiative to coordinate and participate in collaborative projects
with China and Japan (Zhao 2020). Through trilateral cooperation, Thailand, Japan, andChina can combine their comparative advantages and dispel unwarranted skepticism
while avoiding interest rivalry. The three have jointly outlined their initial vision of
economic cooperation. In April 2019, the Japan External Trade Organization and the
China Council for the Promotion of International Trade held a seminar on business248

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cooperation in third-party markets between China and Japan under the sponsorship ofthe Eastern Economic Corridor Office in Thailand. Representatives of enterprises fromthe three nations held a symposium focusing on critical cooperation areas, includingtransportation and logistics, energy and environment, and smart cities (JETRO 2019).
Third-party market cooperation can effectively mitigate the negative impact of geopolitics
and great-power games on SDG 17 and is therefore a rational choice for establishinghigh-quality economic partnerships.

Conclusion
Based on constructivist theory, this research employs the UN’s SDGs as standards forevaluation and offers an integrated picture of Thai digitalization. More specifically, it
analyzes the symbiosis of opportunities and challenges encountered by the Thai digital
economy at the social, national, and international levels. Our findings contribute to theexisting scholarship by examining how enhancement of the digital economy is entwinedwith the achievement of SDGs in ASEAN developing countries, reflecting the potentiallybeneficial or detrimental impact of newly generated ICT on the Sustainable Development
Goals of the Global South. On the social level, active digital consumers, a supportive
business ecosystem, an attractive market size, and a high Internet penetration rate
form the basis for the digital economy, but the “winner-takes-all” effect combined withan unemployment wave has exacerbated the inequality among social groups. At thenational level, Thai governmental policy support and its ongoing institutionalization
are opportunities for “Digital Thailand.” Still, the digital divide, digital human capital
shortages, and cybersecurity challenges are obstacles that need attention. At the international level, Thailand can create bilateral and multilateral channels for international
cooperation to advance its digital competitiveness. In brief, the Thai government has
played an active role in the country’s digital transformation process. However, in orderto support the SDGs, a set of global development norms set by the UN, it is still necessary to address the disruptive effects of digitalization. Last but not least, Thailand’s
opportunities and challenges in achieving a resilient digital economy are interrelated
and overlapping at the three levels. The analysis further suggests that the main missionsof Thai policy instruments in the future will be poverty reduction and bridging the digital
divide. The authors hope the findings of this study will contribute to understanding thecomplex interplay of global digital reforms and SDGs.
Accepted: August 1, 2023

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249

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the anonymous reviewers for their detailed, insightful,and valuable suggestions. We gratefully acknowledge the generous guidance from the authors’ advisers,
Prof. Dr. Li Yiping and Asst. Prof. Dr. Pongphisoot Busbarat. The authors would also like to express
their sincere gratitude to the Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Xiamen University, and the MAIDSGRID Program, Chulalongkorn University, as well as Prof. Dr. Zhang Xizhen and Ajarn Dr. Monthinee
Teeramungcalanon from Thammasat University.

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