Driving Toward
Equality:
WOMEN, RIDE-HAILING, AND
THE SHARING ECONOMY

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March 2018
COVER PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBERContents
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
FIGURES, BOXES, GRAPHS, AND TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
FOREWORDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Top 10 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi

1.

Objectives and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1
Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1

2. The Sharing Economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sharing Economy: Evolution, Scope, and Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Ride-Hailing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Implications of Growth in the Sharing Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3. Women and Ride-Hailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Private Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17
Public Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18
Women and Ride-Hailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18

4. Women Drivers: Opportunities and Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Driver Profiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21
Benefits of Ride-Hailing Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Barriers to Ride-Hailing Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5. Women Riders: Opportunities and Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Rider Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  41
Benefits for Women Riders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Barriers for Women Riders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

6. Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Appendix A: Country Deep Dives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  60
Arab Republic of Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  61
India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Mexico. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
United Kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  101

Appendix B: Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Research Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Research Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  110

Appendix C: Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  112Main Report. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Country Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116iAbbreviations andAcronyms

Figures, Boxes, Graphs,
and Tables

ADP
AfDB
BBC
CBEC
CNBC
EGP
EPRS
FTC
GDP
GIZ

FIGURES

Accenture Development Partnerships
African Development Bank
British Broadcasting Corporation
Central Board of Excise and Customs
Consumer News and Business Channel
Egyptian PoundEuropean Parliamentary Research Service
Federal Trade Commission (US)Gross domestic productGesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit
GPS
Global positioning system
GSMA
GSM Association
IFC
International Finance Corporation
ILO
International Labour Organization
IMF
International Monetary Fund
ITU
International Telecommunication UnionMIT
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
NEPAD
New Partnership for Africa’s Development
NLC
National League of Cities
NGO
Nongovernmental organization
ODI
Overseas Development InstituteOECD
Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment
OHCHR Office of the United Nations HighCommissioner for Human Rights
ONS
Office of National Statistics, United Kingdom
PRC
Pew Research Center
Rp
Indonesian Rupiah
RSARoyal Society for the Encouragement of Arts,
Manufacturers and Commerce
SIC
State Information Center
SDGs
Sustainable Development Goals
Stats SA Statistics South Africa
SUM4ALL Sustainable Mobility for All
TFL
Transport for London
UITP
International Organization for Public
Transport
UN
United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific andCultural Organization
USD
United States Dollars
WBG
World Bank Group
WEF
World Economic ForumWRIWorld Resources Institute
ZAR
South African Rand

Figure A.1: Key Gender Indicators in Arab Republicof Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  62
Figure A.2: Key Gender Indicators in India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  70
Figure A.3: Key Gender Indicators in Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . .  78
Figure A.4: Key Gender Indicators in Mexico. . . . . . . . . . . . . .  86
Figure A.5: Key Gender Indicators in South Aftrica. . . . . . . . .  94
Figure A.6: Key Gender Indicators in the
United Kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  102Figure ES.1: Countries at a Glance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
Figure 2.1.1: Selected Gender Gaps in Terms of Paid Work,
Education, and Financial and Digital Inclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 2.7.1: A Lack of Benefits is Often Cited as a Barrier toEntering Ride-Hailing Where Working Women Are More
Likely to Be in Formal Employment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 4.1: Survey Responses by Women Drivers to the
Following Question: What was your main occupation before
you started driving with Uber?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  22
Figure 4.2: Difference in Hours Driven by Men over
Women on Average per Week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  22
Figure 4.3: Share of Women Drivers Who Use
the Uber App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  24
Figure 4.4: Earning Boost for Women Ride-Hailing
Drivers Compared to Men. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  26
Figure 4.2.1 Survey Responses by Women Drivers to the
Following Question: What are the main things themoney you earn through Uber allows you to buy
that you could not before?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28
Figure 4.5: Survey Responses by Men and Women
Drivers to the Following Question: Which, if any, of thefollowing, do you view as the primary benefits ofdriving with Uber?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  30
Figure 4.3.1: Survey Responses by Women DriverEntrepreneurs to the Following Questions: In a typicalweek, how much of your total personal income comesfrom your work with Uber? Approximately whatpercentage of your earnings with Uber are used for
driving expenses?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 4.6: Survey Responses by Women and Men
Drivers to the Following Question: In your opinion,
why do more women not drive with Uber?. . . . . . . . . . . . . .  32

ii

BOXES

Figure 4.7: Survey Responses by Women Drivers to the
Following Question: Do security concerns stop you

Box A.1: Driver Profile, Soheir, 60, The Pioneer

from driving with Uber? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

(Cairo, Egypt). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  65

Figure 4.8: Survey Responses by Women and Men

Box A.2: Driver Profile, Aarti, 27 The Pioneer (Delhi, India). . .  72

Drivers to the Following Question: Is there anything

Box A.3: Driver Profile, Lindiwe, 42, The Income Boosterthat stops you from driving with Uber more?. . . . . . . . . . . .  34(Johannesburg, South Africa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  96

Figure 4.9: Survey Responses by Women Drivers to the

Box A.4: Driver Profile, Crystal, 26, The Entrepreneur

Following Question: Which of the statements below best

(London, Unit ed Kingdom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  104

describes the car/vehicle you use to drive with Uber?. . . . .  37

Box 1.1: Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2

Figure 4.10: Survey Responses by Women Drivers to theBox 2.1: Global Gender Gaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4

Following Question: Which, if any, of the following wereBox 2.2: Driver Profile, Rehab, 42, The Entrepreneur

the major barriers in signing up with Uber?. . . . . . . . . . . . . .  38(Cairo, Egypt). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  5

Figure 5.1: Share of Women as Riders Across the Six

Box 2.3: Who Works in The Sharing Economy? . . . . . . . . . . . . .  6

Countries Studied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  42

Box 2.4: Definitions of Ride-Hailing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  9

Figure 5.2: Average Additional Weekly Trips Taken by

Box 2.5: Ride-Hailing and Public Transportation. . . . . . . . . . .  10

Women Relative to Men Per Week. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  42

Box 2.6: Dynamic Pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Figure 5.3: Survey Responses by Women and Men Riders

Box 2.7: Access to Benefits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

to the Following Question: Which of these do you

Box 3.1: Women’s Transport Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

now view as the main benefits of using Uber? . . . . . . . . . . .  44

Box 4.1: Driver Profile, Shanno, 44, The Professional

Figure 5.4: Survey Responses by Women Riders to theMotorist (New Delhi, India). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  27

Following Question: What are the main benefits of

Box 4.2: What Impact Does Ride-Hailing Have on theusing Uber?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  45

Spending Power of Women Drivers?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28

Figure 5.5: Survey Responses by Women and Men

Box 4.3: Entrepreneurship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Riders to the Following Question: What are the main

Box 4.4: Digital Inclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

reasons you book trips with Uber?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  48

Box 5.1: Panic Buttons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  46

Figure 5.6: Survey Responses by Women Riders to theBox 5.2: Women-Only Transport: Navigating the

Following Question: Which, if any, of the following

Debate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  52

statements do you most agree with? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  49
Figure 5.7: Survey Responses by Women Riders to the

TABLES

Following Question: And which of these do you viewas the main benefits of using Uber: Knowing the price

Table B.1: Countries and Cities Selected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  109

when booking?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Table 4.1: Highest Women Driver Scores by Countries in
Sample, Excluding India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Figure 5.8: Survey Responses by Women and Men

Table 4.2: What Motivates Women to Drive

Riders to the Following Question: Which, if any, of thefor a Living?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23

following stop you from using Uber more? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Table 4.3: Benefits of Ride-Hailing to Women. . . . . . . . . . . . .  25

Figure 5.9: Survey Responses by Women Riders to the
Following Question: When using Uber,

Table 4.4: Concerns Cited by Existing Women Drivers. . . . . .  34

do/would you prefer male or women drivers in the

Table 5.1: Highest Women Rider Scores by Country. . . . . . . . . 41

following situations? (Women only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  53

Table 5.2: Summary Assessment of the Benefits ofRide-Hailing to Women Riders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  43

iii

Forewords
IFC
New technologies and business models are rapidly opening alternative pathways to economic
growth in emerging markets, offering opportunities to reshape lives while improving economies.
The sharing economy is a notable part of this transformation, since peer-to-peer networks canbroaden access to goods and services, leverage underutilized assets, and create new forms of work.
In many emerging markets, women face more hurdles than men in participating in the formal
workforce and in accessing goods and services, and the sharing economy has the potential toreduce those barriers. But for this to become reality—if women in these regions are to reap the
benefits of the sharing economy—the challenges to making this happen must be identified andovercome.
This report, Driving Toward Equality: Women, Ride-Hailing, and the Sharing Economy, seeks to better understand how women andmen participate in ride-hailing, particularly in emerging markets such as the Arab Republic of Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico,and South Africa. It also explores what companies that operate shared platforms can do to ensure women’s equal participationand gain. Using data from the ride-hailing company Uber, as well as information from global surveys and interviews, thisreport shows how ride-hailing services influence and expand women’s economic prospects.
Several factors impede the full participation of women in ride-hailing, including concerns over security, limited freedom of
movement, few role models, lack of car ownership, and lower Internet access and use compared with that of men.
Yet, our report finds that under the right circumstances, the sector can boost women’s income potential, while at the sametime provide a broader section of women access to places that aren’t served by public transportation or where they feel theexisting options are less safe.
Although the report focuses on ride-hailing services, the findings have significant implications for companies across thesharing economy that desire to better include, retain, and serve women. We hope this report will motivate companies torecognize that closing gender gaps is essential to their business. To this end, IFC calls upon companies in this space to gather
and analyze sex-disaggregated data, design platforms to better meet women’s needs, engage more women as providers ofgoods and services, and come together to develop best practices.
The sharing economy can be part of the answer to creating opportunities for all—let us ensure that both women and men canparticipate equally in these new economic opportunities.

Stephanie von Friedeburg
Chief Operating Officer
International Finance Corporationiv

ACCENTURE
The sharing economy is disrupting industries across the world. Powered by technological progress
and increasingly pervasive digital connectivity, world-leading businesses—which offer everythingfrom office space and crowd-funded capital to accommodation and transport—are being built at
an unprecedented rate. And all the indicators suggest we may be seeing only the tip of the iceberg.
This raises a question regarding the impact of the rise of the sharing economy on society. We
have seen sharing platforms’ ability to lower the barriers to entry to paid work and to democratize
access to goods and services. But will the benefits be felt equally across genders? Will they help
forge a better future in which women and men thrive equally? Or will they simply perpetuate
existing inequalities?
Women around the world still participate less than men in paid work. The issue is not that women are less educated or lessqualified; it largely reflects the fact that women still take the burden of household and care work, especially in emerging
markets. And where women do work, they tend to work fewer hours, in less senior roles, and in less well-paid industries.
This ground-breaking report shows clear opportunities for sharing economy platforms, such as ride-hailing, to help close thegender gap. They lower barriers to entry into industries—such as driving—that women have traditionally been shut out from,and offer the opportunity to work around other commitments. Furthermore, by allowing men to work flexibly too, sharing
platforms could support a revolution in the prevailing household and care work paradigm that prevents many women fromrealizing their true economic potential.
The time for this conversation is now. We are living and working in a time of immense change, and it is important that we build
a future that is more equal than the past. How technology can be used to drive positive social change is central to everything
we do at Accenture. And we encourage all actors across the private, public, and development sectors to consider their roles infurthering the advancement of women in the sharing economy—to ensure that new technologies deliver on their promise todissolve the barriers that prevent women from reaching their full potential. The future workforce must be an equal one.

Shulagna Dasgupta
Managing Director—Communications, Media, Technology
Accenturev

FOREWORDS continued

UBER
When Uber first connected riders and drivers in 2010, no one imagined the growth and global
reach that the ridesharing industry would achieve over the following seven years. Uber now
serves over 600 cities across 78 countries. In just a few years, ridesharing has become an integral
part of the fabric of our cities, providing flexible earning opportunities to millions of drivers andoffering reliable, on-demand transportation to hundreds of millions of riders.
But there is still work to be done to ensure that the benefits of ridesharing are shared by all.
Barriers to entry for both riders and drivers remain, be they financial, geographic, cultural or
regulatory. Some prospective drivers lack access to a vehicle, others have concerns about safety
and security. While we are proud to have passed the important milestone last year of bringing
economic opportunity to one million women as drivers on Uber, the reality is that the vast
majority of these women are in the United States.
Driving with Uber gives women flexibility, allowing them to balance their work with other responsibilities and commitments they
have. More must be done to expand women’s access to flexible work opportunities like Uber. Ridesharing as an industry may be
young, but it’s also at an inflection point where we can, and should, ensure that its benefits are shared more broadly.
At Uber, we are committed to finding data-driven, actionable ways to promote gender equality, both internally within ourcompany, and externally, among the people who rely on our products worldwide. In the past year we made changes to ensure
aggregate pay equity for employees across genders and races, instituted a global paternity leave policy, built out a dedicated teamfocused on improving the diversity of our employee base, and partnered with Stanford academics on research into the factors
affecting earnings of men and women who drive with Uber in the United States.
We are honored to work with IFC on this important research to better understand how Uber serves women riders and drivers
around the world, where more needs to be done, and what concrete steps we can take to ensure that the benefits of ridesharing
are shared as broadly as possible. The best is yet to come.

Barney Harford
Chief Operating Officer, Ubervi

Acknowledgments
This publication, Driving Toward Equality: Women, Ride-Hailing, and the Sharing Economy, is brought to you by International
Finance Corporation, a sister organization of the World Bank and a member of the World Bank Group, and Accenture,using aggregated and anonymized data from global ride-hailing company Uber. The report was mostly funded by IFC,
with financial contributions from Uber.
At the World Bank Group, the report was developed under the overall guidance of Caren Grown, Mary Porter-Peschka,
and Milagros Rivas Saiz. The project was led by Henriette Kolb and managed by Alexa Roscoe. The World Bank Groupworking group included Julie Babinard, Leora Klapper, Aphichoke Kotikula, Angela Lumanau, Jimena Luna, Qursum Qasim,
Stefan Schweitzer, and Lisa da Silva.
At Accenture, the report was managed by Daniel Baker and Barbara Harvey, with Miceal Canavan, Dominic King, Louise
James, Katarzyna Maczkowska, and Kate Saetang. Research was conducted with the assistance of Susan Chen, Robin Faber,
Sarah Felicia, Ana Ruiz Hernanz, Dorota Kapkowska, Paula Espana King, Pooja Kumar, Tessa Lennartz-Walker, Geoffrey
Lewis, Georgina Lovati, Rofhiwa Netshivhambe, Juhi Saxena, Arpit Srivastava, and Nataliya Sysenko, and Ola Tanani.
At Uber, data aggregation and project support were led by Cory Kendrick, Blaire Mattson, and Rik Williams. Additional
in-country support was provided by Jonathan Ayache, Benjamin Bell, Suruchi Biyani, Emilie Boman, Megan Buys,
Abdelaziz El Hakim, Yolisa Kani, Ahmed Khalil, Rana Kortam, Joanne Kubba, Alon Lits, Katya Maiselman, Hugo Martinez
McNaught, Mosa Mkhize, Ntsako Mokwena, Taryn Morris, Joanna Octavia, Teri Rosenbaum, Lavanya Singh, Monica
Wijaya, and Jena Wuu.
The team would like to thank the many experts around the world who generously contributed their time and expertise:
Dina Elabd; Evilita Adriani, Ojek Syari Indonesia; Brhmie Balaram, the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts,
Manufactures and Commerce; Mariana Baños, Fundación Origen; Bryony Beynon, Hollaback! London; Geoff Bickford,
South African Cities Network; Norma Cerros, Womerang; Jason Chan, University of Minnesota; Jean Chawapiwa,
WEConnect International; Shelley Childs, TransForum Business Development; Shingie Chisoro, University of
Johannesburg; Veronica Colondam, Yayasan Cinta Anak Bangsa; Christina Culwick, Gauteng City Region Observatory;
Astrid Dita, Australia-Indonesia Partnership for Economic Governance; Katie Dowd, One Web; Victoria Fanggidae,
Prakarsa Foundation; Devin Fidler, Rethinkery Labs; Muhammad Al Fouly, UN Global Compact Network Egypt; Saskia
Garner, The Suzy Lamplugh Trust; Engy Ghozlan; Andreea Gorbatai, University of California at Berkeley; Abigail Hunt,
Overseas Development Institute; Teresa Inchaústegui, Instituto Nacional de las Mujeres del Distrito Federal; Iim Fahima
Jachja, Queen Rides; Nivine El Kabbag, Ministry of Social Solidarity in Egypt; Ranjana Kumari, Centre for Social Research;
Rose Luke, University of Johannesburg; Ammar Malik, Urban Institute; Rehana Moosajee, The Barefoot Facilitator; Brian
Mulyadi, Ladyjek; Monica Oudang, GO-Jek; Yeliz Osman, UN Women; Gaurav Panday, Thinkthrough Consulting; Mariana
Panganiban, Grab; Libby Reder, Aspen Institute; Brooks Rainwater, National League of Cities; Shamika Ravi, Brookings
India; Alex Rosenblat, Data & Society Research Institute; Revathi Roy, Hey DeeDee; Nadeen Shaker, Cairo Review of
Global Affairs; Azza Shalaby, Enterprise Development Authority; Naomi Schoenbaum, George Washington University;
Aaron Smith, Pew Research Center; Parul Soni, Thinkthrough Consulting; Arun Sundararajan, New York University; Hoda
Talaat, Cairo University; Meenu Vadera, Sakha Cabs & Women on Wheels; Reem Wael; Jing Wang, Hong Kong Universityof Science and Technology; and Sally Zohney, GIZ.

vii

viii

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBERExecutive SummaryWomen across the world face higher barriersof consumers would be willing to participate in the sharing

to accessing paid work and transportation

economy, with interest highest in emerging markets

compared with men. They are less likely(Nielsen 2014a).

to participate in paid work, not necessarily

This wide reach makes it increasingly necessary to consider

because they are less educated or qualified, but often because

how the sharing economy can open new economic

women tend to shoulder a disproportionate responsibility

opportunities. However, to date, one subject has beenfor unpaid care, or because their ability to work in certain

notably absent in the research: a better understanding of theindustries—or outside the home at all—is restricted. They tend

differences in how men and women participate in the sharing

to work fewer hours, in less senior roles, and in less well-paid

economy, and whether and how it has helped to close genderindustries.

gaps. The opportunities and risks of sharing economy models

Women also face more constraints than men on their ability

are perhaps particularly important for women because they

to travel. These include affordability, access to vehicles,

have both more to gain from increased participation, andpersonal security concerns, and, in some countries, social

more to lose if they are excluded from new forms of work,norms around independent movement. This not only limits

income, or assets.

women’s income-generation opportunities but it also restricts

Ride-hailing is a pioneer of the modern sharing economy: andevelopment and social mobility by curbing their access toestimated 18 percent of people globally have used a ride-

health, education, and other services—both for themselves

hailing service in the past 12 months (Holmes 2017), andand for children or other relatives they care for.

current estimates anticipate an eightfold increase in ride-This report explores the potential of the sharing economy,

hailing by 2030, with total trips approaching 100 million a day

and the ride-hailing industry in particular, to address these(Burgstaller et al. 2017).

gender gaps. Sharing economy business models can increase

In many ways, ride-hailing is an ideal industry in which tothe utility of productive assets and lower costs for users while

examine the opportunities and barriers that women face in

reducing the consumption of scarce resources. However,the sharing economy. Women have embraced ride-hailingtechnological progress—especially the proliferation ofas riders, yet little work has been done to understand how

smartphones and ever-increasing digital connectivity—has

it serves their complex transportation needs. Filling thissupercharged these models and the effects are increasingly

knowledge gap can not only expand the ride-hailing market,

visible at the global level.

but also offer new pathways to improve women’s limited

The impact of sharing economy business models has been

mobility—a persistent barrier to closing gender gaps infelt around the world. Globally, approximately two-thirds

economic, social, and civic participation.

ix

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY continued

Driving for a living also remains heavily male-dominated:• How will serving women support growth and innovation?

for example, 98 percent of London’s taxi drivers are men• How can relevant stakeholders draw on these findings(Gov. of U.K. 2017). Early evidence suggests that ride-hailingto ensure that sharing economy business models offer

platforms do lower barriers to jobs as drivers: about 20% of

opportunities for both men and women alike?

drivers who use the Uber app in the United States are women.

This research was undertaken by IFC and Accenture, using

However, numbers of women drivers are lower across the six

data from the global ride-hailing company Uber. It combinescountries examined in this report. Identifying ways to recruit

anonymized, aggregated company data with a detailed

and retain more women as drivers could open doors to newliterature review; focus groups and surveys of over 11,000

and nontraditional sources of income and asset ownership formen and women who use the Uber app; and consultations

them, and help the industry grow by addressing user demandwith more than 40 global experts on gender, transportation,

for more women drivers.

and the future of work. The literature review and expert

This research answers the following questions:interviews considered both the global and local context ofride-hailing and the wider sharing economy, while the surveys• How do women currently engage in the ride-hailingand company data analysis covered six diverse economies: theindustry as drivers and riders?

Arab Republic of Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, South Africa,• What are the opportunities for women in ride-hailing, andand the United Kingdom. The report brings together findings

what are the barriers?

and recommendations for both ride-hailing stakeholders andcompanies across the sharing economy.

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

Ride-hailingis an ideal
industry inwhich toexamine theopportunities
and barriers
that womenface in the
sharing
economy.

xTOP 10 FINDINGS

remains low, reflecting other barriers such as theregulatory requirement for a commercial license in somemarkets, including the United Kingdom, social mores, andDrivers

low rates of financial and digital inclusion.
• Women drivers report a higher income boost than men

1. Women choose to drive using the Uber
app for a wide variety of reasons, but they
particularly value the flexibility it offers.

when they take up ride-hailing work: average earnings
achieved by all women who drive using the Uber app
increased across each market studied, ranging from 11• Women identify the ability to work when they want topercent in Mexico to 29 percent in Egypt. In contrast, men

as the key benefit of using ride-hailing apps: across thein the markets studied see an increase in average earnings

six markets studied, three-quarters of the women driversof between 4 percent in Indonesia and 15 percent in Egypt.
• The premium women earn over men likely reflects theirsurveyed rank it among their top three benefits. It helps
them juggle other commitments: for example, 91 percent

previous income and employment status. When analyzingof mothers driving with the Uber app are also the primary

the earnings of only those drivers in paid work prior to

caregivers for their children. Men also cite flexibility as

driving with Uber, women tend to receive a greater boost

the key benefit of driving, which highlights the sharing

to their earnings than men do when they sign up—even

economy’s potential to help shift the existing household

those previously employed, ranging from between zeroand care work paradigm.

percent in Indonesia to 11 percent in the United Kingdom.

• Approximately one-third of women drivers surveyed

with other activities, such as working part-time for an

3. Some women drivers use ride-hailingincome and contacts to support otherentrepreneurial activities.

organization, running their own separate businesses, or• Fifteen percent of women drivers run businesses separate

rely on ride-hailing for all their personal income, a rate
similar to that of men. But many women combine driving

studying.

from their ride-hailing activities—broadly the same rate as• Women tend to drive more selectively than men: onmen (12 percent). Some of these entrepreneurs use ride-

average, they drive fewer hours than men and are lesshailing income to smooth the cash flow of their operations

likely to drive at night or sign in daily to the app. By

and to build their credit profiles, while others recruit riders

reducing their hours and not driving at times of peakas potential advisors, investors, and customers.

demand, women could be limiting their earnings or• The findings do not suggest that ride-hailing increases

ability to earn volume-based incentives. Still, the women

overall levels of entrepreneurship among women. Instead,surveyed are just as likely as their male peers to turn a

it allows some women to start new businesses and arobust profit from driving, despite being less likely to own

similar number to close existing ones, enabling better

their own vehicle outright.

matching of women and business opportunities.
• Women’s use of sharing platforms to support other

2. Ride-hailing apps reduce barriers toentry for women to work as drivers in thistraditionally male-dominated industry and, inmany cases, boost women’s average incomes.

businesses is consistent with other literature on women’s
engagement with online platforms and suggests that thesharing economy can help support their entrepreneurial
ambitions.

• Low barriers to entry via the app make it relatively easy
for women to enter an occupation few have traditionallypursued. However, the proportion of women drivers

xiEXECUTIVE SUMMARY continued

4. Social norms limit the extent to which
women participate in ride-hailing as drivers.
family or friends disapproved of their decision to sign

6. Ride-hailing increases women’s mobility
and sense of independence as riders, helping
them reach previously inaccessible places ortravel at night.

up, but attitudes toward women drivers vary widely by• Women riders are more likely than men to say ride-hailing• Overall, 11 percent of women drivers surveyed say theirmarket. More than half of current male drivers surveyed

increases their mobility. Almost a quarter of womenin Egypt and Indonesia would be unhappy if a woman insurveyed say that ride-hailing increases their sense of

their family wanted to sign up; in contrast, more than half

independence—compared with 18 percent of men. Thisof men say they would be happy in India, Mexico, and thefigure climbs to over a third of women in India and South

United Kingdom. The top concern among men who would

Africa.

be unhappy is the perceived security risks for women,• Similarly, 24 percent of women surveyed across the six

but some also question the suitability of driving as anmarkets identify getting to places not served by public

occupation for women.

transport as a major benefit of ride-hailing.

• Women may also face discrimination once on the road:• For some women, ride-hailing fills a transportation gap:

14 percent of all women drivers surveyed believe somegoing out at night is the third most popular use of ride-riders have canceled on them due to their gender, rising tohailing among women globally, and 7 percent of women

approximately a quarter in Egypt and Indonesia.

say they were previously unable to make these trips, rising• The extent of these restrictive norms reveals both theto 9 percent in Indonesia and 10 percent in South Africa.

scope of the challenge of recruiting women into ride-

7. Women riders are affluent—although lessso than men riders—and while they value
cost transparency, overall expense remains abarrier.

hailing and the pioneering nature of the women who havechosen to drive.

Riders• Cost is a key consideration for women: they tend to spenda higher proportion of disposable income than men on

5. Ride-hailing helps women meet complex
transportation needs driven by household
management responsibilities.

meeting travel needs, especially in emerging markets.
Information about the price they will pay when booking
is identified as the biggest benefit of using the Uber

• Women represent a large portion of the existing user baseapp by the women riders surveyed—especially in Egypt

globally, and the majority in Indonesia.

and India—while men primarily cite the ease of booking• Women’s ride-hailing usage patterns mirror their diverse

through the app.

transportation needs: they tend to make shorter, more

• Women riders tend to be less affluent than men: 61

frequent, and more types of trips compared with men.

percent live in above median income households,

Women are more likely than men to use ride-hailing to gocompared with 74 percent of men. However, expense

shopping, travel to health services, and visit relatives.

emerges as the top barrier preventing all riders from taking• Ride-hailing helps mothers manage the complexity ofmore trips. This suggests the least affluent groups may be

traveling with children: 30 percent of women, comparedexcluded from standard ride-hailing options.

with 22 percent of men, travel with children. Almost two
in five mothers (39 percent) surveyed strongly believe thatride-hailing helps them move around with their children.

xii

9. Financial and digital exclusions remainbarriers to women’s participation in ridehailing and in the sharing economy more
broadly.

• Lower-cost ride-sharing models could help more women
access ride-hailing. Women spend less money for eachtrip compared with men. And in locations with multiple
options, women are more likely than men to choose lower
cost trips such as ride-sharing (UberPOOL) or motorcycle• Financial exclusion means women are less likely to have

(UberMOTO)—except where security concerns or social

a bank account and own assets that enable participation

mores override the cost benefits.

in the sharing economy. Women surveyed across the six
countries studied are less likely than men to own the car

Drivers and Riders

they drive, and identify getting the money to buy or accessa vehicle as the biggest sign-up barrier they face, ranging

8. To attract women as riders and drivers,
the ride-hailing industry needs to continue
to enhance security features and minimize
perceived threats.

from 17 percent in Egypt to 40 percent in South Africa.
• Gaps in digital inclusion disproportionately affect women,
but access to the Internet and mobile phones remain
prerequisites for participation in the sharing economy. As
the surveys conducted did not cover potential drivers and• Personal security is a determining factor in women’s choiceriders, it is likely that the financial and digital barriers notedof transportation options. They are more likely than men

throughout the report are understated.

to be attracted to ride-hailing because of security features
such as the data trail that the app creates for every ride

10. Recruiting more women drivers intoride-hailing could create a virtuous cycle byattracting more women riders.

and the ability to receive information about their driverin advance. These features may increase not only womenriders’ own sense of security but also those of their family• Seventeen percent of women riders surveyed identify the lackmembers.

of women drivers as a reason not to use the Uber app more

• Security is a concern for drivers and emerges as a key
barrier to the recruitment and retention of women drivers:

often, and 40 percent would prefer a woman driver when

64 percent of women drivers surveyed cite security

traveling alone or at night. Attracting more women drivers

concerns as a reason more women do not sign up to

could therefore encourage more women to ride, thereby

become drivers, and 26 percent cite security concerns as afurther increasing demand for women drivers, creating areason they do not drive more.

virtuous cycle.
• The demand for women drivers is further evidenced by the
44 percent of women riders surveyed who say they would
be more likely to use the Uber app if they had the option of
selecting a women driver.

OF WOMEN WOULD PREFER A WOMAN DRIVER
WHEN TRAVELING ALONE OR AT NIGHT

xiii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY continued

Figure ES.1: Countries at a Glance
UNITED KINGDOM• Women drivers in the United Kingdom
see an average uplift in earnings of 22
percent when they sign up with Uber—compared with just 6 percent for men.
• Women drivers face fewer barriers todriving more, compared with peers in
the other markets studied.
• 66 percent of women riders use
ride-hailing to go out at night, andare attracted to ride-hailing for theconvenience and ease of using the app.

MEXICO• 60 percent of women drivers rely on
income from ride-hailing to meet theirbasic needs, well above the average
across the countries studied.

SOUTH AFRICA• Security is a concern for one-thirdof women drivers surveyed, and• Women drive the most hours of thealmost a quarter say friends or family

six countries surveyed, and 73 percent

disapproved of their decision to sign up.

of those surveyed log on every day.

• Just over a third of women riders (36• However, 51 percent of women

percent) say Uber enables them todrivers say security concerns limit

travel more—and 28 percent identify

the number of hours they spend on

getting to places not served by public

the road, compared with 26 percent

transport as a major benefit of ride-on average across the six markets

hailing.

studied.
• Women riders are attracted to ridehailing for the convenience andsecurity that the data trail provides:
52 percent of women were attracted
by knowing the driver’s name andregistration in advance.

xivINDIA• There are few women drivers using the
Uber app in India, but those who havesigned up often report that driving hashelped them “build an identity” in asociety where driving is not seen as acareer choice for women.
• A lack of financial resources as wellas administrative barriers challenge
women to sign up.
• Women riders are the most frequent
users of ride-hailing in the six countries
studied—many believe it offers
improved mobility, convenience, andindependence.

EGYPT, ARAB REP.
• Women receive an average income
boost of 29 percent when moving intoride-hailing, nearly double the increaseof men.
• The data trail is important for women

INDONESIA

riders: over half say they tried the app
because they could see the driver’s• Women’s ability to participate in ride-

name and registration in advance.

hailing is limited by cultural barriers:• Cultural barriers limit the recruitment

56 percent of male drivers would beof women drivers: 57 percent of male

unhappy if a woman in their family

PHOTOS: COURTESY OF UBER

drivers surveyed say they would bewanted to sign up.

unhappy if a woman in their family• Flexibility is key: 82 percent of women

wanted to sign up.

drivers cite “I can work when I want”
as ride-hailing’s main attraction.
• 66 percent of women riders use ridehailing to commute, compared with 55
percent of men.

xv

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY continued

RECOMMENDATIONS

Personal Security
Personal security concerns are major barriers that limit theThis report finds that the ride-hailing industry can boost

participation of women as drivers and riders. Ride-hailing

economic and social outcomes for women as riders andcompanies alone cannot solve the security challenges facing

drivers. However, several barriers prevent women from fully

women when traveling, especially alone or at night. However,realizing this opportunity. Some—such as those related toby working closely with other stakeholders, such as law

personal security, cultural and social norms, or licensing

enforcement and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),

requirements—require concerted efforts from multiple

they could continue to reduce threats for women. Possible

stakeholders to be overcome. Nevertheless, these challenges

options include the following:must be factored in when crafting new policies and practices
in the industry.

• Better educate both drivers and riders regarding thesecurity features already embedded in their apps

Women Drivers• Continuously innovate to bring the latest security
technology to their apps

To attract more women drivers, and to support them better• Engage more closely with app users to better understandonce they sign up, ride-hailing companies could redesign their

the nature and impact of security incidents

outreach, onboarding, and engagement efforts with both
women’s and men’s needs in mind. Possible options include

Internal Operations

the following:

Finally, ride-hailing companies could examine their own• Simplify the sign-up process and use better signposting for

operations through a gender lens to assess whether their

existing support

internal commitments to a diverse and inclusive workforce are• Help women build formal and informal peer support

strong enough to drive external change. Examples include:

structures to mitigate the lack of organic, traditional
structures available to men• Tailor marketing communications to be more inclusive• Build a broader ecosystem for drivers to enable them

• Consider how to collect sex-disaggregated data toto access both personal and professional development

understand how to better serve women

opportunities and tailored insurance and benefits products• Work with third parties to formulate industrywide bestpractices and recommendations

Women Riders

Ride-hailing companies need to take the lead on building

While women drivers remain relatively rare, women alreadyservices and operations that would allow women and men

account for a large proportion of the rider base. However,to benefit equally from their apps. However, many of theaffordability remains a key challenge. Ride-hailing companies

recommendations will be best realized through cooperation

could address this issue through the following:with other companies and stakeholders on a precompetitive
basis.

• Develop additional lower-cost models to bring services toless affluent populations and expand those that alreadyexist to more locations• Build support for women’s use of affordable options,like motorcycles, that they might not access for cultural
reasonsxvi

1. Objectives and Approach

OBJECTIVES

selected to represent a range of geographical regions, cultures,
gender gaps, and economic and social development contexts.

The sharing economy’s impact on women has not been widelyThis report does not examine public policy or regulatory

researched to date. Drawing on company data provided byframeworks that hinder or advance sharing economy models,

Uber and primary research conducted in six countries, thisnor does it assess environmental impact or touch upon thereport aims to address this gap by exploring the following:question of driverless cars. Finally, it does not comment• How do women currently engage in the ride-hailingon ongoing legal debates on the definition of employees,

industry as drivers and riders?

entrepreneurs, and independent contractors.

• What are the opportunities for women in ride-hailing, andwhat are the barriers?

DATA• How will serving women support growth and innovation?
• How can relevant stakeholders draw on these findings
to ensure that sharing economy business models offer

This research was undertaken by IFC and Accenture, using

opportunities for both men and women alike?

data from the global ride-hailing company Uber. This research
was conducted between May and December 2017 and draws

While this report focuses primarily on the ride-hailing industry,on the following sources:

its impact on women can be viewed as a microcosm of how
sharing economy business models will affect society. Until the• Literature review. Reviewed existing literature on thefull economic and development nuances of sharing platforms

sharing economy, ride-hailing, and gender—and theare understood, it will not be clear to what extent they canintersection of the three.
• Expert consultations. Interviewed over 40 experts inhelp to create a future in which women and men thrive
equally. Sharing economy models remain in their infancy

ride-hailing, the sharing economy, transportation, gender,

and there is scope to align them more effectively to positive

business, technology, policing, and security from arounddevelopment outcomes. Given their rapid proliferation acrossthe world.
• Driver and rider focus groups. Conducted seven focus

both developed and emerging markets, this report seeks to
kick-start a much broader conversation about the possibilities

groups with Uber drivers and riders in Indonesia, Southemerging business models can offer to increase women’s

Africa, and the United Kingdom.
• Driver and rider surveys. Deployed online surveys

economic opportunities.

through Uber to drivers and riders in Egypt (Alexandria andThis report is global in scope, with a specific focus on six

Cairo), India (Bangalore and New Delhi), Indonesia (Jakarta

markets: the Arab Republic of Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico,and Surabaya), Mexico (Mexico City and Monterrey), SouthSouth Africa, and the United Kingdom. These countries were

Africa (Cape Town and Johannesburg), and the United

1

OBJECTIVES AND APPROACH continued

Kingdom (London and Manchester) in September andare understated. The margin of error for each cohort is

October 2017. The survey received responses from 7,357

listed in Appendix B.

drivers and 3,691 riders who currently use the Uber app.

• Uber data. Analyzed company data from Uber for cities

The survey sample consists only of Uber drivers and riders

surveyed in Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, South Africa,

and is not nationally representative. In India, seven womenand the United Kingdom on average driving and riding

drivers (out of a total of eight active) completed the online

patterns. Sex-disaggregated data on riders’ use patterns

survey. Due to the small sample size, the driver figures forare estimates only. A sample of anonymous riders was

India are therefore excluded from comparisons across therandomly chosen in each city, and their first names (only)

six markets. The segmentation of respondents into above-were matched with their likely gender using a gender-

and below-median-income households was based onname matching API.1 For unidentified names, the gendersurvey responses and calculated on an individual country-

split of matched names at the country level was assumed.

by-country basis using national statistics. As the surveys

A more detailed explanation of the estimation process can be

did not cover potential drivers and riders who might notfound in “Methodology,” Appendix B. (See Box 1.1 for a list of

have had the prerequisites to participate, it is likely that thekey terms used throughout the report.)

financial and digital barriers noted throughout the reportBox 1.1: Key Terms

Dynamic pricing (also

Robust driver profit:

Network effects: The

Security: Personal threats

known colloquially as

Self-reported driving

increased value of ride-

including violence and“surge pricing”): pricing

expenses account for lesshailing to riders based

sexual harassment.

that automatically adjusts

than 50 percent of total

on growth in the driverto supply and demand toearnings through Uber.

network or vice versa.

Entrepreneurs: Drivers

Ride-hailing: A service

find the market-clearing
rate.

Safety: External threats,
including road traffic
accidents.

currently runningthat connects the driver

Driver: Someone who

their own businessesof a car or other vehicle

drives a vehicle that he/she

independent of income

digitally with a user,owns, rents, or leases andgeneration activity withtypically app-enabled, butuses a ride-hailing app to

Uber.

sometimes via a website.

Hidden benefit: Gap

Ride-sharing: At least two

The term platform is used

Driver profit: Self-

between what initiallypeople completing somebroadly for companies inreported driving expenses

attracts people to ride-or all of a journey together

the sharing economy andaccount for less than 100

hailing and what they citein the same vehicle, as

does not refer to Uberpercent of total earnings

as an actual benefit.

opposed to each passenger

specifically.

generate an income.

through Uber.

Sharing economy
platforms: Online
applications that facilitatetransactions in either
assets, services, or both.

being driven separately.

1

2

See https://gender-api.com for more detail.

2. The Sharing Economy

INTRODUCTION
Women across the world face higher barriers to entry in“New and emerging technologies
are having a transformative
impact on development. Not
only do these technologies
address development challenges,
they enable innovation andentrepreneurship, which help build
economies that can evolve andadapt through times of change.”

accessing formal work compared to men. They are less likely
to participate in paid work, not necessarily because womenare less educated or qualified, but often because they carryout most unpaid care responsibilities or because their ability
to work in certain industries—or even outside the home—isrestricted. Where women do work, they tend to work fewer
hours, in less senior roles, and in less well-paid industries (Seebox 2.1 on global gender gaps.) Women account for just 2.3
percent of drivers who use the Uber app in the six countries
studied for this report.
Women also face larger constraints on their ability to travel.
These include affordability, access to vehicles, personal—Stephanie von Friedeburg, Chief Operating Officer,

security concerns, and, in some countries, social norms

International Finance Corporation

around independent travel. Not only does this limit theirincome-generation opportunities but it also restricts theirdevelopment and social mobility by curbing access toblurring traditional definitions of employment and personal

health, education, and other services. Women account for

activities and assets.

approximately 41 percent of riders who use the Uber app

Rapid growth in the ride-hailing industry places it amongacross the six countries studied.

the most widely recognized segments of today’s sharing

However, new business models, catalyzed by ever-increasing

economy: an estimated 18 percent of people globally used adigital connectivity and technological progress—particularly

ride-hailing service in the past 12 months (Holmes 2017), andthe proliferation and power of smartphones—are opening

current estimates expect the industry to expand eightfold by

new opportunities for women to participate in the economy

2030, with total trips increasing to almost 100 million per day

and achieve greater financial and social autonomy. The(Burgstaller et al. 2017). This explosive growth—combined

creation of rapidly evolving sharing economy business models

with substantial global gender gaps in labor force participation

is a leading example of this technology-fueled change. Theseand specifically in transportation—marks the industry as an

online marketplaces create income generation opportunities

important case study through which to assess the sharing

by broadening access to goods and services, while also

economy’s impact on women.

3THE SHARING ECONOMY continued

Box 2.1: Global Gender Gaps

Globally, women’s labor force participation fell from 52

These gaps are particularly severe in emerging markets,

percent in 1990 to 49 percent in 2016 (ILO 2017). A genderbut barriers to women’s economic progress are

gap between men’s and women’s earnings also persists.

widespread: of the 173 countries analyzed by the World

Women work longer hours than men once unpaid

Bank (2015b), 155 have at least one law that impedes

household and care work are factored in, but they earn

women’s economic opportunities. These include

significantly less on average. Women are also less likely

regulations that prevent women from entering certain

to have bank accounts, own mobile phones, have accessoccupations and laws that require married women toto the Internet, or be able to read (see figure 2.1.1).

get permission from their parents and partners to workoutside the home.

Figure 2.1.1: Selected Gender Gaps in Terms of Paid Work, Education,
and Financial and Digital Inclusion

Labor force

Financial anddigital inclusion

Education and society

49%

14%

155

Ratio of female to male labor
force participation rate
(ILO 2017)

Gender gap in mobile phoneownership—low and middle
income countries (GSMA 2015)

Countries that have at least one
law impeding women's economic
opportunities (World Bank 2015b)

25%

6.2%

83%

Women in senior management(Grant Thornton 2017)

Gender gap in Internet
penetration rate (ITU 2017)

Female literacy rate compared to90% for men (World Bank 2016a)

23%

58%

150%

The global gender gap in
earnings(ILO 2016)

Women aged 15+ with a bankaccount compared to 65% of men(World Bank 2015a)

Amount of unpaid household carework women perform over men(ILO 2016)

4

SHARING ECONOMY:EVOLUTION, SCOPE, AND
IMPACT

Defining the Sharing Economy

The sharing economy business model is not new. However, itboth goods and services—typically through online platforms.

has been revolutionized in the digital age, disrupting industries

These platforms enable providers and users to connect

from hospitality to transport, while building highly valued

directly, establishing trust through features such as profiles,

companies at an unprecedented rate.

photos, ratings, and reviews.

However, the full impact of the modern sharing economy

The common threads that bind the elements of the sharing

has yet to be felt, according to Devin Fidler, founder of

economy together are captured by Arun Sundararajan in The

Rethinkery Labs: “While the first wave of ‘platformization’ has

Sharing Economy: The End of Employment and the Rise of Crowd-

been focused on standardized processes, it is now growing

Based Capitalism (2016). He notes that the sharing economy:

The complexity and broad scope of the sharing economy
means no universally agreed definition exists. The purpose of
sharing models is to utilize underused assets and resources—

across a very diverse set of industries including physicians and• Creates markets that enable the exchange of goods andaccounting, which means that, increasingly, more people will

the emergence of new services

be on ‘both sides of the platform’ as users and providers.”• Opens new opportunities to use everything—from assets
and skills to time and money—at levels closer to their full
capacity

Box 2.2: Driver Profile
Rehab, 42, the Entrepreneur (Cairo, Egypt)
Rehab had been working as a driver for 10 years before signing up to
use the Uber app. She has now been driving with Uber for two years,
citing it as a robust way to generate income and boost her financial
independence. Being able to work the hours she wants also helps
her manage the challenge of earning a living while bringing up fourchildren. She now owns three cars, which she rents out to others todrive, including her husband.
Rehab is a pioneer. She has had to contend with cultural
expectations, noting that, “people on the street expect women
to behave in a certain way,” but says that, “there are no limits toof her colleagues “now makes enough money from driving to live
independently from her husband without leaving her full-time job or
having to tell her family about driving.”

5

PHOTO: ARGINVENTOR

what we can do.” And she is not alone; Rehab describes how one

THE SHARING ECONOMY continued• Supplies capital• Draws labor from decentralized crowds of individuals
rather than corporate or state aggregates

ADULTS IN THE UNITED STATES HAVEUSED A SHARING PLATFORM (SMITH 2016)• Commercializes and scales peer-to-peer activities• Blurs the lines between fully employed and casual labor;
between independent and dependent employment; andbetween work and leisureSize and Growth Potential of the Sharing
Economythe Hilton chain (Hall and Pennington 2016). Credit Suisse

Measuring the economic impact of the sharing economy isestimates that the revenues of 44 privately held sharing-

not straightforward. Economist Diane Coyle (2016) notes thatoriented “unicorns” (new businesses valued at a $1 billion or“the sharing economy is blurring the conventional boundarymore) will rise from $15 billion in 2013 to $335 billion in 2025

between ‘the economy’ and everyday life,” adding, “It is(Kindergan 2015).

impossible to track its contribution through official economic
statistics.” (See box 2.3 about participants in the sharing
economy.)Globally, 68 percent of people surveyed
are open to sharing their assets forfinancial gain (Nielson 2014a).

Companies that operate sharing platforms are clearly growing
rapidly and disrupting traditional models in a variety ofindustries. For example, Airbnb built an inventory of 600,000
rooms in its first four years of operation, 23 times faster thanBox 2.3: Who Works in the Sharing Economy?

The sharing economy has broad appeal. A study by

the money they earn as “essential” are more likely to be

the Pew Research Center (Smith 2016) finds thatinvolved in industries such as ride-hailing and cleaning,

24 percent of adults in the United State had earned

compared with the 42 percent who cite the extra

money on sharing platforms over the previous

earnings as “nice to have” and tend to do “online tasks”

12-month period. These participants come from across

such as computer programming (Smith 2016).

the demographic spectrum; however, the population

This report shows how the drivers who use the Uberdata profile is skewed toward the younger, less well-

app have mixed demographics.

educated, and less affluent, and those from an ethnic or
racial minority background. The analysis also suggests
a variance in motivations: the 56 percent who describe

6

Sharing economy business models are well-established indeveloped markets; for example, an estimated 191 million EU
citizens actively engaged in the sharing economy from January“Technology, including ridehailing platforms, is outpacing
our current rules and policies.
If policy frameworks are toprotect the interest of people,
they need to adapt.”

to May 2016, spending approximately €27.9 billion (Hausemer
et al. 2017). However, growth in emerging markets is alsostrong. In China, the State Information Center (2017) expects
the sharing economy to grow by 40 percent per year over the
coming years, and reach 20 percent of gross domestic product(GDP) by 2025.
Future growth is likely to be driven by increases in digital
inclusion (extending Internet access to a larger share of the—Sonia Parul, Global Managing Partner,

global population), the spread of sharing models to new

Thinkthrough Consulting, India

industries, and the increasing integration of sharing andtraditional models. To date, people in more rural, remote,or poorer areas are likely to be excluded from the sharing
economy because of lower Internet access (van Welsum

Policy Approaches2016). But connectivity is growing: in Africa, 60 percent of the

The rise of the sharing economy will challenge the public

population is expected to have a mobile Internet connection

sector to find approaches that protect providers andby 2020, up from just 28 percent in 2015 (GSMA 2016). And

consumers without inhibiting innovation and growth. Abigail

smartphone penetration is expected to reach 66 percent ofHunt, research fellow at the Overseas Development Institute,the world’s population by 2022, up from 50 percent today(ODI), believes addressing the regulatory challenge should be a

(Meena and Kumar 2017).

top priority: “We need to create a system where the platform,
the consumer, and the worker benefit equally. Now is the time

Global Impact

to get it right—before the model becomes so deeply rooted

A study by Nielsen (2014a) shows that willingness to participate

that it is too difficult to shift.”in the sharing economy is strong all over the world, but more

Developing an appropriate public policy response to theso in emerging markets. Globally, 68 percent of people surveyed

sharing economy requires a nuanced approach. For regulators,

are open to sharing their assets for financial gain; and 66

one challenge is to consider the extent to which newpercent are willing to pay to use the assets of others.

entrants need to adopt preexisting regulations. For example,

Sharing economy business models may have special appeal

there is a debate as to whether requirements for insurance,

where they can ease specific, local challenges. For example,

taxes, training, security, and other practices that apply to

Moovr helps farmers in Kenya get their products and livestocktaxi and limousine operators should equally apply to ride-from remote rural areas to markets where they can negotiate

hailing. Research by the World Resources Institute (WRI

better prices. Nairobi-based Lori Systems connects shippers

2017) uncovers 74 different national-, state-, and city-level

and independent truckers to reduce logistics costs (Theregulations related to shared transportation services in Brazil,

Economist 2017).

China, India, and Mexico. Elsewhere, governments haveupdated existing rules to accommodate sharing models andare testing the necessity of existing approaches, such as cost
controls on taxis (Zuluaga 2016).

7

THE SHARING ECONOMY continued

The task of creating appropriate regulatory frameworks iscomplicated by the increasing range of sharing-based services.
This makes it difficult to come up with a single solution for“By empowering citizens,increasing productivity andefficiency, boosting overall
employment, improving market
access, reducing transaction
costs, or even diminishing[the] carbon footprint, sharedeconomy facilitators—if properly
regulated—can improveoutcomes for the bottom
quintile of the population by
opening markets and unlocking
opportunities for the poor, bothas producers and consumers.”

taxes, employment policies, and licensing rules (Zuluaga 2015).
Furthermore, the question remains of how best to harmonize
regulations and legal requirements across city, state, andnational governments. As Libby Reder, a fellow in the Aspen
Institute’s Future of Work Initiative, notes, “Almost everyone
we talk to says the best solution on sharing economy
regulation would be a national solution because it would
create a clear set of guidelines. But for now, we look at cities
and states as the laboratories of democracy, where good ideas
can be tested and then scaled.”
Sound regulation is particularly important since theredistributive effects of the sharing economy are still widely
debated. Lower barriers to entry could offer larger gains topeople whose access to productive resources is currently
limited, while also reducing the need to tap into existing
wealth or to borrow (Goudin 2016). However, studies have also
shown that this same ease of entry can create a crowding-out
effect in which younger, better-educated, and more techsavvy providers use sharing platforms to supplement their—Fruman and Molfetas, World Bank, 2016

incomes by engaging in “manual labor, including cleaning,
moving and other tasks that are traditionally done by workers
with low educational attainment” (Schor 2017, 1). These
debates take place in the context of a broader debate on the

RIDE-HAILING

definitions of employment and independent work (Center for
Development Informatics, 2017).

Ride-hailing is one of the most significant industries to

How regulation affects inequality in emerging markets is

emerge from the new technology-driven sharing economy—

perhaps even more unclear. Emerging markets typicallyboth in terms of its size and its geographic spread. It is

have less robust institutions, and new entrants could quickly

typically only available in cities since its success relies on

gain significant market share due to a lack of competition

network effects requiring a high density of drivers and(Fruman and Molfetas 2016). For the sharing economy toriders. However rapid urbanization and the proliferation of

produce dividends for people with lower incomes, “its ‘analog

smartphones mean consumers can now access ride-hailingcomplements’—such as the institutions that are accountable

services in most countries around the world. This section

to citizens and the regulations that enable workers to accessdefines the scope of the industry, assesses its size and growth,and leverage this new economy—should also be in place,”and explores its various business models.

write Fruman and Molfetas at the World Bank (2016).

8

Ride-Hailing: Definition and Scope
Small-scale shared transportation is not a new concept. In

PROPORTION OF COUNTRIES GLOBALLY
WHERE RIDE-HAILING SERVICES ARE
AVAILABLE (MARCIANO 2016)

1605, a horse-drawn carriage-for-hire service, an ancestor of
the now ubiquitous black cab, was launched in London (Gilbey
1903). During World War II, the U.S. government encouraged
the creation of car-sharing clubs to conserve rubber, andriders and drivers were matched through bulletin boards atwork (Chan and Shaheen 2012). In the 1970s, the oil crisis andaccompanying spike in gasoline costs encouraged another

Size estimates vary significantly, but Goldman Sachs expects

period of ride-sharing (Hahn and Metcalfe 2017).

the ride-hailing industry to expand to $285 billion by 2030, up

What has revolutionized the industry recently is thefrom $36 billion today (Burgstaller, et al. 2017), which would

technology that allows people with a spare transport asset tomake it nearly triple the size of the existing global taxi industry

connect quickly and agree on a cost with people who want to(Huston 2017). According to some estimates, by 2020 the

travel. Around the world, an estimated 338 million consumers

number of riders may climb to half a billion (Rowley 2017), andhave downloaded an app that lets them arrange a ride withuser penetration could reach 13 percent by 2022 (Statista 2018).

the driver of a private automobile (Statista 2017a)—“sharing”

There are up to 70 ride-hailing companies globally (RideGuru

the car for the duration of the trip. This includes 15 percent of2018). Uber, which facilitates an estimated 15 million rides aAmerican adults, according to a study by Pew Research Center

day, is one the world’s most valuable start-ups. Lyft (2017) says

(Smith 2016). Research of Android app data (Marciano 2016)its revenues have doubled every year since 2013. In India, thefinds ride-hailing services present in 171 countries around thenumber of rides arranged via sharing apps such as Ola and Uberworld. (See box 2.4 for ride-hailing definitions, and box 2.5 forjumped fourfold between 2015 and 2016, to approximately 500

connection between ride-hailing and public transportation.)

million (Hector 2016). In Egypt, Careem is expecting ride volume
growth of 30 percent a month (El-Din 2017).

Box 2.4: Definitions of Ride-Hailing

Ride-hailing services—sometimes calledkind under the brand name or trade name of thetransportation network companies—digitally connect

aggregator” (CBEC 2015).

the driver of a car or other vehicle with a user, generally

Ride-hailing is not limited to cars, particularly in

via an app but sometimes using a website.

emerging markets where trips can be booked for

The Indian government classifies companies such as Ubera motorcycle or rickshaw. For instance, in Uganda,

as aggregator services, using the following definition: “aSafeBoda acts as “an Uber for motorcycles” (OpenAir

person, who owns and manages a web-based software

2017) and Roshni Rides is developing a rickshaw-based

application, and by means of the application and aservice in refugee camps, helping to bring transportation

communication device, enables a potential customer toto a severely underserved population.

connect with persons providing service of a particular

9THE SHARING ECONOMY continued

Box 2.5: Ride-Hailing and Public Transportation
Ride-hailing can complement and support public

Easy Taxi, and Le Taxi make select data available throughtransportation in several ways. One example is helping

open platforms. This helps stakeholders to develop

people to complete their journeys securely by filling gaps

better, evidence-based solutions to traffic and roadin first- and last-mile travel, by getting them from theirsafety challenges. Similarly, Uber’s Movement platform

point of origin or departure to a public transportation

also shares selected, anonymized data that can informhub. Of the riders surveyed for this report, 45 percent

the public sector.

use ride-hailing to travel to transport hubs, making it
the most popular trip type after commuting and visiting
friends and relatives.
Ride-hailing can also help fill gaps for people who might“We want to prove that it
is possible to have a world
where private companies that
contribute data as public goods
not only make society betteroff but themselves as well.”

not be able to easily access public transport becauseof their personal circumstances. For example, Lyft andUber work in partnership with the Massachusetts Bay
Transportation Authority in the United States to increasemobility for riders with disabilities. This has increased thenumber of trips by over 30 percent while reducing costs
by 27 percent.
User patterns can also inform public policy on transport
needs. Through the Open Transport Partnership,—Holly Krambeck, Senior Transportation

facilitated by the World Bank, companies such as Grab,

Economist, World Bank

Some companies have also started women-only ride-hailing,

adjusted by an algorithm based on rider demand and driver

matching women drivers and riders, including two start-ups in

supply; simply put, if demand outstrips supply at a given time

Brazil (Haupt and Slattery 2017), two companies in the United

in a given location, riders will be charged more—and drivers

States and one in Mexico (Kroth 2017), and several in India.

will earn more. Some companies offer drivers additional(For further discussion of how ride-hailing caters to women-

incentives or promotional payments if they drive during

only transport options, see “Women and Ride-Hailing.”)

certain hours, operate in certain locations, or complete a
certain number of trips a week.2

Ride-Hailing Business Models

At Uber, drivers who own the cars they operate are known as

Just as Airbnb does not employ the people who rent out their“driver-partners.” Intermediaries—companies or individuals—

homes on its platform, ride-hailing companies do not typicallythat provide cars for drivers are “partners” in Uber terminology.

employ drivers. Drivers deal directly with passengers via theIn the United States, for example, rental companies Enterprise,

app but pay a fee to the operator of the app based primarilyon the total cost of the ride. Fares are dynamic and are2

10

Income figures mentioned in this report do not include bonus
or incentive payments.

In this report, anyone whodrives using a ride-hailing app
is called a “driver” irrespectiveof whether they own theirown vehicle or not.

Hertz, and ZipCar rent vehicles to drivers who use the Uberapp. Across the six countries studied in this report, 17 percent
of drivers surveyed are either leasing or renting from a third
party, ranging from 46 percent in South Africa to 5 percent inIndonesia.
Variations on the basic ride-hailing model have evolved toinclude ride-sharing—carrying multiple passengers who
might not know each other. Services such as UberPOOL,
LyftLine, or Didi Hitch match passengers going to the same

IMPLICATIONS OF GROWTH IN
THE SHARING ECONOMY

place or in a similar direction. UberHOP in the Philippines
enables people to share rides from specific pick-up points tospecific drop-off points at rush hour for a flat fare. These types

This report focuses primarily on the ride-hailing industry, butof services reduce the fare for each passenger.

its impact on women provides valuable insight into how the

The success of ride-hailing models depends on having enoughsharing economy might contribute to development. Given thedrivers available to ensure a fast and affordable service: network

rapid proliferation of sharing economy business models (seeeffects that make the service more attractive to riders. However,“Size and Growth Potential of the Sharing Economy”), more

the turnover of providers in the sharing economy is high,work is needed to understand how they can best be leveraged

meaning growth is highly dependent on either attracting new

to create a future where women and men thrive equally. Thisparticipants or encouraging those signed up to engage more

section addresses key questions surrounding the potential

often (Farrell and Greig 2016). Rates must balance the pricecontribution of ride-hailing and the broader sharing economy

elasticity of riders while providing sufficient earnings for drivers.

to economic and social development. The following sections(See Box 2.6 for a description of dynamic pricing.)

focus specifically on gender dynamics and ride-hailing.

Box 2.6: Dynamic Pricing

The fares riders are charged through the Uber app are

However, this is not surprising given that improved

dynamic. They are adjusted by an algorithm that finds

demand management is a key purpose of dynamic

the market-clearing price according to rider demand

pricing. Increasing the supply of drivers—for example, by

and driver supply; if demand outstrips supply at a given

attracting more women riders and encouraging moretime in a given location, riders will be charged more—andof them to log on at times of peak demand—would

drivers will earn more. Dynamic pricing emerges as the

reduce its impact. That said, lowering the opportunity

top barrier that prevents all riders from taking more trips;

to earn higher fares could reduce driver income and58 percent of women surveyed say it limits their travel,

therefore supply; 36 percent of drivers surveyed say that

ranging from 70 percent in Egypt to 40 percent in South

competition for fares stops them from driving more.

Africa (see chapter 5, “Affordability”).

11THE SHARING ECONOMY continued

Income-Generating Opportunities
Sharing models have the potential to help people find newincome-generating opportunities by matching providers of“If companies in the sharing
economy take a long-termview, they should consider how
women can help build theirmarkets.”

spare assets or skills with people who will pay to use them,“effectively and efficiently, and at a scale never seen before,”according to the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (2016). On
average, women who sign up to drive with Uber, including
both those previously employed and unemployed, increase
their average earnings by 13 percent in the countries studied
for this report, compared with a 7 percent uplift for men (seechapter 4, “Boosting Incomes”).

—Shamika Ravi, Director of Research,
Brookings India

Through reduced barriers to entry and more efficientmatching of demand and supply, sharing platforms may offer
new pathways to paid work. This might be true both for those
who have not participated in the labor market before and

The transportation industry provides numerous examples offor workers whose personal circumstances make it difficult

helping people access assets that they might not be able or

to work in traditional jobs. Early indications suggest that thewilling to buy outright. Indian car-sharing service Zoomcar

range of professionals participating in the sharing economy

offers on-demand vehicle access starting at just 73 cents anwill become increasingly diverse as business models disrupt

hour; while every day, people in China complete 50 million

new sectors.

trips using the 12 million bicycles on the Mobike and Ofo
sharing platforms (Lipton 2017).

People generate income by monetizing their assets such ascars or spare rooms. In India, GrabOnRent.com operates a

In the context of ride-hailing, riders obtain access toplatform on which owners of everything from household

automobile transportation without having to purchase aappliances to camping equipment can rent out their assets.

vehicle or pay for parking and maintenance. And some drivers

However, to benefit from asset monetization, of course,

might attain access to a vehicle they can use for both personal

people must own assets, which is a significant barrier forand professional reasons. This might be especially relevant tomany women—especially in developing economies.

the 43 percent of drivers in the countries studied—rising to48 percent of women—who are leasing, renting, or who have

Access to Assets and Resources

taken out a personal loan to access the vehicle they use with

There is evidence that the sharing economy has the potential

Uber.

to benefit consumers in lower-income groups by providing

Formalization and Transparency

access to products and services that were previously beyond
their financial reach. Analysis by Sundararajan and Fraiberger

Informal sectors dominated by firms with low productivity(2015) concludes: “Below-median income consumers will enjoy

remain large in many emerging markets. According to thea disproportionate fraction of eventual welfare gains” from theWorld Bank (2016b), over 90 percent of the labor force issharing economy, both from economic inclusion and “higher

employed informally across many countries in South Asia andquality rental-based consumption.”

Sub-Saharan Africa. High levels of informality tend to holdback economic development by weakening markets throughreduced tax bases.

12

Sharing platforms formalize economic activity by creating

In addition to providing more robust data records, which

records of transactions. In fact, the speed with which digitalare likely to boost financial inclusion, platforms typically ask

sharing platforms establish records of economic activity andboth providers and users to provide ratings and reviews. This

audit trails of transactions is “historically unprecedented,”systematization of peer-to-peer trust between strangers is asays Devin Fidler. The move to sharing economy businesskey feature of sharing economy business models. As Rachelmodels could also disproportionately help women, given the

Botsman argues in Who Can You trust? How Technology Brought

more complex bureaucracy they face. Women face greater

Us Together and Why It Might Drive Us Apart (2017, 9), “Technology

challenges in gaining access to financial services. For example,

can widen the circle of trust, unlocking the potential towomen are less likely than men to have the identification

collaborate and connect with unfamiliar strangers.” However,documents needed to open formal financial accounts (Lewis

Botsman (2016) also notes that it remains unclear whether

et al. 2016). And in some countries, women’s property rights“men and women trust differently in digital environments.”

are not equal to those of men (World Bank 2015b). The more

Women riders surveyed for this report identify knowing

formalized income history provided by sharing platforms

the price when booking as a key benefit of using the Uber

may also help new entrepreneurs build credit histories. Forapp. They are also more likely than their male peers to cite

instance, Ant Credit, an Alibaba Group subsidiary, provides

features of ride-hailing apps that build a transparent dataloans to entrepreneurs who sell through the online platform

trail, such as knowing driver details in advance and knowing

by using their transactional and behavioral data to gaugethat rides are being tracked.

creditworthiness (IFC 2017d). One woman driver in SouthIn terms of transparency about how these platforms impact

Africa explained during the focus groups how the money she

the ecosystems in which they operate, regulatory bodies

earns through Uber has helped keep her catering businessare constantly weighing the balance between protecting

operational by improving her credit profile. (See profile ofindividual privacy and gathering enough data from companies

driver entrepreneur in box 2.2.)

to ensure a fair playing field. Further discussion is requiredon how these data can inform public understanding withoutcompromising privacy or business sensitivity.

Social Protection
The shift into independent employment means that sharing“Collaborative platforms may
also present an opportunity to
improve formality in activities
that are traditionally difficult tomonitor, since all transactions
facilitated by the platforms arerecorded online and throughbank accounts.”

economy providers make certain trade-offs. One of these isreduced entitlement to employment benefits such as healthinsurance, maternity pay, sick leave, unemployment insurance/
benefits, or pension plans (van Welsum 2016). This affects
workers differently depending on their level of engagementin the sharing economy and whether benefits are linked to
employment or to a national social safety net.
Reduced access to benefits may undermine any boost inincome that providers receive. A study of platform-based
domestic work by the ODI (Hunt and Machingura 2016) findsthat the lack of social protection was a key issue for sharing—Fruman and Molfetas, World Bank, 201613

THE SHARING ECONOMY continued

Box 2.7: Access to Benefits

The nature of self-employment means that women who

However, there are major differences at the country

enter ride-hailing are probably unable to access a range

level. None of the women drivers surveyed cite a lack ofof benefits; for example, maternity leave, paid holidays,

benefits as a challenge in India and Mexico, comparedand sick pay [see “Social Protection”]. Twenty-threewith 31 percent in South Africa and 29 percent in thepercent of the women drivers surveyed say a lack of

United Kingdom. This might be at least partially explained

benefits is a reason more women do not sign up as ride-by the likelihood of women working in the informal

hailing drivers—making it the third highest barrier acrosssector where benefits are typically not available (World

the six countries studied.

Bank 2011). For example, 88 percent of women working
in India are in the informal sector, compared with just 36
percent in South Africa. (See figure 2.7.1).

Figure 2.7.1: A Lack of Benefits is Often Cited As a Barrier to Entering Ride-Hailing.
Percent

88

85

58

57

36
31

27

0

29

21

23

0
India

Indonesia

MexicoEgypt,South Africa

Arab Rep.

UnitedKingdom

Proportion of women drivers who cite lack of benefits as a barrier to more women signing up
Proportion of women employed informally (nonagricultural employment)
SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE DRIVER SURVEY 2017; WORLD BANK 2012, 2016, 2017.
NOTE¹: LOW SAMPLE SIZE OF DRIVERS IN INDIA;NOTE²: IN UNITED KINGDOM, WORLD BANK DATA ARE THE PROPORTION OF WOMEN WORKING WHO ARE SELF-EMPLOYEDAS DATA ON PROPORTION WORKING INFORMALLY NOT AVAILABLE.

14

economy workers. The women drivers surveyed for this report
identify a lack of benefits as the third biggest barrier to more
women signing up—behind only security concerns and low
desire to drive for a living (see box 2.7).

“The sharing economy is veryvaried. At the high end of thespectrum it takes the shape ofvery empowered freelancing,but at the lower end of thespectrum it’s a different story.
Sometimes working like thisis the only way to earn an
income.”One potential solution (see chapter 6, “Recommendations”)
is to create a system of “portable benefits” that workers
can take and maintain between roles, even as independent
workers. Under this system, benefits would be attached to a
specific person, rather than to a role or organization, offering
people who operate in the sharing economy—including thoseworking on multiple platforms—protections that are standard
for full-time employees (van Welsum 2016). The key barrier
to this approach is the likely increase in associated costs forproviders, users, or both: Brooks Rainwater, director at the
National League of Cities, identifies the funding model, rather
than the concept itself, as the “key question.”—Libby Reder, Fellow, Aspen Institute Future ofWork Initiative

Training and Development
Opportunities for professional learning and development are
restricted by the nature of the platform-provider relationship.
Sharing economy platform operators have been reluctant toprovide training and development because they fear regulators
would view it as a form of control exercised under a typicalemployer-employee relationship, thereby incurring additional
legal responsibilities in some jurisdictions (Quinton 2017).
However, companies increasingly recognize the long-term
retention value of building providers’ skills. For example, Uber
has partnered with UAP Old Mutual in Kenya to up-skill at
least 4,000 Uber drivers in basic financial management. The
course—which has also been rolled out in Ghana, Nigeria, andSouth Africa and is free for drivers—aims to empower drivers
with skills to manage their finances and to grow their savings.
Lyft now offers discounted access to online education courses
for its drivers. Beyond ride-hailing, Staff Heroes, a Londonbased on-demand temporary employment platform, has aportal with options for different certifications in hospitality

PHOTO: VIEWAPART

and tourism.

15

16

PHOTO: PIXELHEADPHOTO DIGITALSKILLET

3. Women and Ride-hailing

PRIVATE TRANSPORTATION

The lack of appropriate transportation imposes real costs, bothon people and economies. Without access to transportation,
residents of poor areas in large developing economy cities are

Women’s ability to own and access vehicles is held back byoften cut off from employment opportunities in commercial

social, financial, and legal barriers—limiting their ability tozones, contributing to informality and perpetuating inequalities.

work as drivers or to travel independently. A Nielsen study(2014b) finds that, of the 65 percent of people in 44 countries

Given ride-hailing’s relative infancy, it is difficult to gauge

planning to purchase a car over the following two years, justthe extent to which ride-hailing can contribute to improved

42 percent are women. The gaps are largest in the Middle

mobility and better economic opportunities for women.

East and Africa (71 percent, men; 29 percent, women) andHowever, this report suggests that it is already becoming an

Asia Pacific (60 percent, men; 40 percent, women). Women in

important factor in the urban transportation mix.

Saudi Arabia received legal permission to drive in September
2017, in a decision that will come into effect in June 2018.

This chapter explores the current state of transportation

Previously they were required to be driven outside the homeprovision; the challenges women face using certain modes

by a male relative or a private driver.

of transport, such as harassment; and the role ride-hailing
could play in improving accessibility, affordability, and security

There are also significant differences in the modes of private-

for women. (See box 3.1 for details about women’s transport

hire transport used by men and women. Women are less likely

patterns.)

to access motorized vehicles compared with men. In SouthBox 3.1: Women’s Transport Patterns

For women, the risks and opportunities associated withof crime and harassment on public transport (Babinard

transportation are amplified. Not only do women tend

et al. 2010). “Transport can play a significant role into have different transportation requirements, but theameliorating or exacerbating the life conditions ofassociated costs account for a larger proportion of theirwomen, particularly when poor and living in developing

disposable income; they tend to take a wider variety

countries.”of trips, they are less likely to have access to their own
vehicles; and they experience disproportionate levels

17WOMEN AND RIDE-HAILING continued

Women are less likely to own cars thanmen, and often rely on private-hirevehicles such as taxis and rickshaws.

off-peak service periods. In urban areas, in the absence ofdesignated bus lanes, public transport is often considerablyslower if waiting, stopping, and transfer times are included.
Exclusion from faster forms of transport restricts women’s
income generation, unpaid work, and quality of life
opportunities (Rao 2016).

Africa, 32 percent of men drive themselves to work, comparedwith 23 percent of women; 28 percent of women use taxis

Public transport networks are increasingly being designed

to get to work, compared with 22 percent of men (Statistics

through a gender lens, considering not only speed andSouth Africa 2016). When asked how they previously madeconvenience, but aspects such as affordability and security

trips that they now make via ride-hailing services, the malethat are relatively more important to women. For example,

riders surveyed for this report are more likely than women

the initial design of the Liaoning urban transport project into say they drove themselves or cycled for every major trip

China was changed after local women stressed the needcategory. Intermediate modes of transport, such as rickshaws,

for improvements in features such as crossings and street

bicycles, and motorcycles, can provide a relatively lower costlights (Babinard et al. 2010). Similarly, in Jordan, sidewalks

solution for women for short distances in congested urban

and benches have been built and improved as part of theareas (Babinard et al. 2010).

Amman 2025 Master Plan, specifically to break down gendersegregation (Uteng 2012).

PUBLIC TRANSPORTATIONWOMEN AND RIDE-HAILING

Limitations in public transportation coverage disproportionately
affect women—especially those on lower incomes who tend

Women’s participation as drivers is held back by a range ofto rely on it more heavily (Babinard et al. 2010). Women’sbarriers, including the need to secure the financing to buy ortransportation requirements also tend to be more complex inrent a car, cultural biases, and concerns over personal security

terms of volume, scheduling, and trip-chaining compared with(see chapter 4, “Barriers to Ride-Hailing Work”). This means

men, and they are more likely to travel with children (Uteng

the overall number of women drivers remains small. At 5.2

2012). Where women are required to purchase multiple single

percent, Mexico has the highest proportion of women drivers

tickets to complete these journeys, this also weighs on thecurrently using the Uber app of the six countries studied foroverall affordability of travel.

this report. The proportion of women drivers rises to over 20
percent in Canada and the United States, but together these

Women also often face challenges in accessing public

two markets account for 75 percent of all women drivers

transport, especially if private companies decide to limit or

globally who drive with Uber.

even remove services on less profitable lines that might becritical for women who live in rural areas or travel during

This report outlines a range of actions that ride-hailingcompanies and the broader ecosystem could take toencourage more women to take to the road (see chapter 6,

Limited access to qualitytransportation limits women’s
personal and economic
opportunities.

“Recommendations”).

18Women are already a core element of the ride-hailing userbase. An estimated 41 percent of riders using the Uber app
are women across the six markets studied for this report,
ranging from 31 percent in India to 57 percent in Indonesia.3“You have to understand theopportunity for women in the
sharing economy—but you
also have to understand thebarriers to entry for women,such as digital literacy, financial
inclusion, and social stigma.”

As outlined in the subsequent chapters, ride-hailing can help
women travel at times or to places they would otherwise
not be willing or able to, boosting their mobility and senseof independence. Further, two in five of the women riders
surveyed would prefer a woman driver when traveling alone
or at night. Attracting more women drivers could therefore
encourage more women to ride, thereby further increasing
demand for women drivers, creating a virtuous cycle. The
following chapters outline opportunities and barriers for
women as drivers and passengers in ride-hailing.

—Katie Dowd, Digital Communications Director,

PHOTO: EXCENTRIC_01

OneWeb3

Uber does not hold data on the gender identity of riders who use its app. These figures were estimated using Gender API, which matches
people’s first names to their likely gender at the country level.

19

20

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

4. Women Drivers:
Opportunities and Barriers

DRIVER PROFILES

The ride-hailing industry has lowered barriers to entry in a
traditionally male-dominated field, but the overall numberof women drivers remain low. Drawing on data provided by

Who Drives Using the Uber App?

Uber and a survey of 7,357 drivers, this chapter highlights the

The women who drive with Uber in the six countries studied

background and motivation of women who use the Uber

are a diverse group (see table 4.1), but they have someapp, and it explains how and when they work. It examines

commonalities. Almost all have completed at least secondary

the benefits of the role to women drivers, including what

school (98 percent), a figure consistent across all six markets

difference the earnings make to their living standards. Finally,studied. Additionally, more than one-third (37 percent) of

it explores what prevents women from signing up and fromthe women have gone on to tertiary education, rising todriving more.

Table 4.1: Highest Women Driver Scores by Countries in Sample, Excluding India

Demographics

Other employment

Driving patterns

Earnings

Youngest (average age)

36

Indonesia

Oldest (average age)
Unmarried (%)

43
74

Egypt, Arab Rep.
Indonesia

Main earner in household (%)

69

Indonesia

Children under 18 (%)

74

South Africa

Tertiary educated (%)

79

Egypt, Arab Rep.

Below median income (%)

73

South Africa

Proportion of women drivers (%)

5.2

MexicoEmployed full-time before signing up (%)

54

MexicoCurrently also running own separate business (%)

19

Indonesia

Drive with another company, apart from Uber (%)

25

Egypt, Arab Rep.

Driving with Uber for more than 6 months (%)

69

South Africa

Fully own car they drive (%)

43

Indonesia

Drive only on weekdays (%)

21

Egypt, Arab Rep.

Drive every day (%)

73

South Africa

Share of hours driven at night (%)

29

Egypt, Arab Rep.

All income comes from Uber (%)

53

United Kingdom

Take home pay higher since signing up (%)

47

United Kingdom

Make a robust profit from driving (%)

66

United Kingdom

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE SURVEY OF DRIVERS 2017; UBER 2017. NOTE: INDIA EXCLUDED DUE TO LOW SAMPLE SIZE.

21

WOMEN DRIVERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

79 percent in Egypt. Women drivers are approximately half

employed full- or part-time before signing up to drive withas likely to be married as male drivers (36 percent versus 71

Uber, ranging from 64 percent in Mexico to 43 percent

percent, respectively) and most women drivers in each country

in Indonesia. A further 14 percent were entrepreneurs.

identify as the main earner in their household—underscoring

Meanwhile, 10 percent were unemployed, ranging from just 4

their need for financial independence.

percent in Mexico to 25 percent in Egypt. Others were working
informally, caring for relatives, studying, or working in family

Women drivers come to ride-hailing from a variety of different

businesses (see figure 4.1). (See table 4.2 for women driverbackgrounds. Over half (53 percent) of those surveyed werearchetypes.)

Women Driving Patterns
Figure 4.1: Survey Responses by Women Drivers
To the Following Question:

Women drive fewer hours than men across each country

Q: What was your main occupation before you started

Kingdom, the differences are relatively small at 5 percent and 6

driving for Uber?

percent, respectively. In contrast, male drivers in Indonesia andstudied, according to Uber data. In South Africa and the UnitedEgypt spend 16 percent more time on the road each week
Percent(see figure 4.2). Some of this disparity is accounted for by
women being less likely to drive at night across countries.
4

2 2

6
9

Figure 4.2: Men Drive More Per Week than
Women. Men Are Also More Likely to Drive at
Night than Women in Every Market Studied

42

Difference in hours driven by men over women on average

10

per week (%)
11
Indonesia

14

16

5

Egypt, Arab Rep.

7

MexicoUnited Kingdom

Running my own business, 14
Working part-time for a company, 11South Africa

Unemployed, 10
Doing other irregular paid activities, 9Prefer not to say, 615

5Working full-time for a company, 42

0.5

5
5

16

6

Difference in number of hours driven

Caring for relatives, 4Percentage point difference in share of hours driven at night

Working in business owned/managed by your family, 2
Studying, 2

SOURCE: UBER 2017.
NOTE: INDIA EXCLUDED DUE TO LACK OF DATA.

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE SURVEY OF DRIVERS 2017.

22

Table 4.2: What Motivates Women to Drive for a Living?
Through analysis of qualitative and quantitative data, several women driver archetypes emerge,
which are not mutually exclusive.

Professional Motorist

Income Booster

Driving is a full-time career for many providers.

Many women drivers use Uber to earn additional

They are typically driver-partners who own theirincome. They are employed elsewhere and log on

vehicle, drive at least 40 hours a week, and cite

to the app to earn money to improve their quality

their love of driving as a key reason to take up thisof life.

work.

“What I like most about Uber is that I can take leave“I don’t have to work in a stuffy office and I get towhenever I want, I can drive whenever I want, andmeet people I wouldn’t normally meet.”users are happy to be driven by a lady driver.”—Woman driver, United Kingdom—Woman driver, India

Family-Flexer

Entrepreneur

Many drivers are also mothers, who choose driving

More than one in seven women drivers also

because of the flexibility it offers to generate an

operate a separate business. The money theseincome around their childcare commitments.

entrepreneurs earn by driving helps them smoothout their cash flow; they also network with riders“As a single mother of three children, my decision

to find growth opportunities.

[to sign up] was influenced by the fact that I
wanted to educate my children. Working as a

“I also run a cleaning service, so I advertise myself

driver allows me to work more flexibly and towhile I drive. I talk to riders about my business,earn more.”

and ask them to help me if they can.”—Woman driver, India—Woman driver, South Africa

Pioneer

Enthusiast

Women wanting to become drivers in someMany women drivers love the social aspect of

cultures are consciously breaking new ground—driving. They value the independence and chancefacing down resistance from their families andto meet new people, and they sometimes choose

society. Driving is typically done by men and is

to drive at night because it’s more fun.

often seen as “unsuitable” for women.

“I call my car the ‘Party Prius’: we crank up themusic at night and have a lot of fun!”“We are changing the Egyptian mindset towards
the job.”—Woman driver, United Kingdom—Woman driver, Egypt, Arab Rep.

23

WOMEN DRIVERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

For instance, in Egypt, nighttime driving4 accounts for thelargest proportion of women’s time on the road at 29 percent
compared to 36 percent for men.

Ride-hailing has the potential to help close gender gaps in“Driving for a taxi company has
never been much of a ‘women’sthing’—it is still rare to see awomen driver.”several areas, from income generation to access to assets. This

—Jean Chawapiwa, South Africa Country Director,

section assesses the extent to which the experience of women

WEConnect International

BENEFITS OF RIDE-HAILING
WORK

drivers supports the potential benefits identified through theliterature review and expert interviews. (See table 4.3 for a
discussion of benefits of ride-hailing to women.)institutional enablers of gender bias, such as hiring managers,
sponsors, or peer networks. Nonetheless, it remains important

Improved Access to Nontraditional Formsof Workthat the growth of sharing models complements rather thansubstitutes for other efforts to increase female labor force

Occupational segregation begins early in life and is reinforced

participation.

by cultural stereotypes and educational paths (World Bank2013). Women are around half as likely as men to be employed

The percentage of women drivers who use the Uber app

full-time, and those who are tend to be overrepresented inremains small in the markets studied, ranging from 0.2 percent

low-productivity work areas that pay as much as a third lessin Egypt to 5.2 percent in Mexico (see figure 4.3). However,compared to men (World Bank 2017c).

the ride-hailing industry is still in its infancy: across Canada

Women’s access to traditionally male-dominated industries,
such as transportation, is often hindered by a lack of accessFigure 4.3: Share of Women Drivers Who Use
the Uber App

to the social and business networks needed to facilitate initial
opportunities and to grow careers or businesses over time. For
this and other reasons, 98 percent of traditional taxi drivers in

Percent

London are male (Gov. of U.K. 2017).
By lowering barriers to entry for women seeking to join the

Mexico, 5.2

labor force, sharing economy platforms have the potential tobridge some of these gaps. For women who want to drive

South Africa, 3.8

for a living, evidence from the focus groups suggests thatIndonesia, 1.5

signing up on the Uber app is far easier and less intimidating
than applying to work for a traditional taxi operator. As

United Kingdom, 1.0

Arun Sundararajan observes, signing up on a sharing
economy platform at least partially circumvents some of the4

Egypt, Arab Rep. 0.2

Driving conducted between 21:00 hours and 05:00 hours as ashare of total hours driven.

SOURCE: UBER 2017.
NOTE: INDIA EXCLUDED DUE TO LOW SAMPLE SIZE.

24

Table 4.3: Benefits of Ride-Hailing to Women
For drivers, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…open newsources of income
generation in
nontraditional work

Women drivers enter ride-hailing from a range of sociodemographic backgrounds andprevious occupations, including 53 percent who move from being employed full- or
part-time. They receive an average income boost ranging from 11 percent in Mexico to 29
percent in Egypt. Women tend to receive a greater boost to their earnings than men dowhen they sign up—even those previously employed.
Gender gaps in access to productive assets exist in many parts of the world. Thirty-one
percent of drivers surveyed identify finding the money to buy or rent a vehicle as a barrier…offer women aroute into vehicle
ownership or accessto signing up to drive with Uber. However, men are more likely to own their car: 41 percent
of men surveyed own the vehicle they drive, compared with 30 percent of women. Also,
48 percent of women have had to take out a personal loan or lease from a third party;
by comparison, this is true of only 40 percent of men. These types of arrangements do,
however, offer a potential route into vehicle ownership or access—especially if the womenare also able to use the vehicle for personal reasons.
Global gender gaps in digital and financial inclusion persist around the world. Very few…support digital andfinancial inclusion
and help womenobtain official
documentation

women surveyed struggled with opening a bank account (2 percent) or getting a driving
license (3 percent), but many needed to take out a loan or a lease to access the vehicle they
drive (see above). Simply by going through this process, and signing up for the app, women
could in theory become more financially and digitally included. However, 98 percent of
women drivers surveyed have completed at least secondary school; less well-educatedpeers might find the process too daunting to continue—or even to begin. Therefore, thedigital and financial inclusion gaps noted in this report are likely understated.
Women continue to shoulder disproportionate responsibility for household and care

…help women towork around othercommitments

work. The flexibility of ride-hailing work is identified by 74 percent of women surveyed
as a benefit, making it the most valuable aspect of the role for them. Women work more
selectively than their male peers—driving less at night, for example—which can make itharder to qualify for incentives. Despite this, 52 percent of women drivers surveyed turn arobust profit from driving, a rate that is similar to their male peers.
More than one in seven women who drive with Uber operate a separate business. Some

…help women tobuild and run theirown businesses

women give up their other businesses when they start driving, but a broadly equal number
start one, suggesting ride-hailing supports a better matching of entrepreneurial ambitions.
Driver-entrepreneurs are business savvy: 64 percent making a robust profit from their workthrough Uber. Some entrepreneurs use their time driving to engage with their riders togrow their professional networks or the customer base of their separate business.

Strongly supported by the data

Partially supported by the data25

Not supported by the data

WOMEN DRIVERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

Figure 4.4: Earning Boost for Women Ridehailing Drivers Compared to Men
Percent“Platforms have the ability toshape user preferences.”

29—Naomi Schoenbaum, Associate Professor of

14

Egypt, Arab Rep.

Law, George Washington University

4
22
16

United Kingdom

and the United States, its most mature markets, 20 percent of11

drivers who use the Uber app are women. This suggests that14

there is potential for women in other markets to enter the8

South Africa

industry in greater numbers.

4
12

Boosting Incomes
Early evidence suggests that occupational segregation persists

Indonesia

in areas of the sharing economy. For example, research by the

80
11Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers
and Commerce (Balaram et al. 2017) on labor-sharing

Mexicoplatforms in the United Kingdom finds that most drivers

4
1

are men, while women are more likely to offer services
as cleaners. For Naomi Schoenbaum, Associate Professorof Law at George Washington University, the design and

Absolute increase

implementation of platforms is key. She believes “platforms

Percentage point difference relative to men—all drivers

have the ability to shape user preferences,” to the extent that

Percentage point difference relative to men—drivers
previously in paid work

they can either reinforce or mitigate traditional divisions oflabor between men and women.

SOURCES: IFC/ACCENTURE SURVEY OF DRIVERS 2017; UBER 2017.
NOTE: INDIA EXCLUDED DUE TO LOW SAMPLE SIZE.

Women who sign up as ride-hailing drivers tend to increase
their earnings. Analysis of Uber earnings data, combinedwith self-reported survey data, indicates that women drivers’

force participation rate of just 23 percent across the country

income is 13 percent higher on average than it was before they

(World Bank 2017d); a quarter of women drivers surveyedbegan working with Uber, compared with 7 percent for men.

were previously unemployed, compared with just 7 percent

This difference can be explained at least partially by the factof their male peers. So, while on average, women drivers inthat the women drivers surveyed were less likely than men to

Egypt receive an earnings boost of 14 percentage points over

be working full-time prior to signing up—and more likely to be

and above their male peers, this drops to 4 percentage points

unemployed or caring for relatives, and therefore not earning.

considering only those previously in paid work (see figure 4.4).

Women in Egypt see the biggest average increase in earnings,

This contrasts with an 11 percent premium for women drivers

at 29 percent. This could be explained by a female labor

who were previously employed in the United Kingdom where

26the share of women active in the labor force is 57 percent(World Bank 2017d) and just 9 percent of women drivers
surveyed were previously unemployed.

“I tried many vocations fromcooking to tailoring, but I am
able to make much bettermoney driving than elsewhere.”Not all women (or men) raise their incomes when they join
the ride-hailing industry. Around the world, 10 percent ofdrivers say that the money they earn is insufficient to increase
their spending power materially, rising to 20 percent in South
Africa. Those drivers who make a profit of less than 25 percent
from their Uber work—17 percent of women drivers and 14—Woman Uber driver, India

percent of their male counterparts—tend to be less educatedand are more likely to sign up for emotive reasons such as
love of driving and meeting new people, rather than to makemoney. Some drivers surveyed, typically those paying offloans on their vehicles or leasing through third parties, reportmaking a net loss from driving. This suggests that further

WOMEN DRIVERS SURVEYED TURN A
ROBUST PROFIT FROM DRIVING—THE
SAME RATE AS MEN

developing drivers’ financial knowledge and working to create
easy entry and exit rental programs could increase take-homeincome for both men and women.

Box 4.1: Driver Profile

Shanno, 44, the Professional Motorist (New Delhi, India)
After her husband’s death, Shanno decided not to marry again, which was unusual in her religious
community. However, she wanted to give her children a good education and decided to work rather thandepend on anyone else. She tried several jobs before connecting with the Azad Foundation, a Delhi-based
NGO focused on building livelihoods. Through the foundation, she learned how to drive, and she started
driving with Uber after earning her commercial license.
Although she faced resistance from her extended family and community, for Shanno, driving is a fulltime profession and her only source of income. She enjoys the flexibility Uber offers to be around herchildren, and believes that “training is key to make women feel confident enough and see driving as asustainable way to earn money.”
After driving with Uber, Shanno wanted to bring the opportunity to other women. She saw thatspecific training. She decided to form the Ehsaas Foundation, which now trains young women aged 18
to 35 as bus drivers, supporting them in gaining certifications and placing them in jobs.

27

PHOTO: GRETA6

despite the increasing demand for women bus drivers at schools, no existing organization offered this

WOMEN DRIVERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

Box 4.2: What Impact Does Ride-Hailing Have on the Spending Power 		of Women Drivers?
Overall, 65 percent of women drivers surveyed identify

South Africa, less affluent drivers are 16 percentage points

as the main earner in their households, compared withmore likely to use earnings to raise living standards.

84 percent of men. For women in below-median-income

A quarter of these drivers in South Africa fund betterhouseholds, the figure rises to 73 percent. Many womeneducation for their children, something perhaps more

drivers work with Uber alongside other paid activities: 37

affluent drivers already have access to—or that those inpercent of the women drivers surveyed receive all theirmore developed markets such as the United Kingdom canweekly income from driving with Uber, similar to men,

access without paying. (See figure 4.2.1 for data related to

but rising to 46 percent in South Africa and 53 percent inresponses to this survey question.)

the United Kingdom. Women drivers in below-medianincome households are more likely to rely on
earnings through Uber: 43 percent of thosesurveyed cite it as their sole source of income,Figure 4.2.1 Survey Responses by Women Drivers
To the Following Question:compared with 23 percent of women in above-

Q: What are the main things the money you earn throughmedian income households. These differences are

Uber allows you to buy that you could not before?

largest in Mexico, where 42 percent of women
drivers in below-median-income households

Percentage of Respondents

receive all their earnings through Uber, comparedwith 13 percent of their peers in above-medianincome households. In the United Kingdom, thefigures are 60 percent and 35 percent for women

United Kingdom

543

Indonesia

13South Africa

20

52

in below- and above-median-income households,
respectively.

35

52

Almost all drivers surveyed (90 percent) say theiradditional earnings allow them to buy products
and services previously beyond their spending
power. This spending is evenly split between

42

38

basic needs, such as food and rent (44 percent),
and purchases that raise the quality of life, suchas holidays and entertainment (46 percent).

Mexico4

60

36

Egypt, Arab Rep.

8

62

30

Analysis by household income suggests someinteresting differences in what constitutes “basic
needs” for women in countries at different stagesof development. For example, in the United
Kingdom, women in below-median-income
households are 12 percentage points more likely
to use earnings from Uber to cover basic needs
compared with more affluent peers. However, in

Nothing

Basic needs

Improved living standards

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE DRIVER SURVEY 2017.
NOTE: INDIA EXCLUDED DUE TO LOW SAMPLE SIZE; RESPONSE
CATEGORIES GROUPED.

28

Women drivers are just as likely as their male counterparts toturn a healthy profit on their work through Uber. A little morethan half of women drivers (52 percent) report taking home atleast half of their earnings, after factoring in driving expenses.

“Given that in Mexico City, fourout of 10 women are headsof household, working in the
sharing economy is very suitablesince there is flexibility inscheduling.”

This ranges from 66 percent in the United Kingdom to 34
percent in South Africa. This is especially impressive giventhat women are more likely than men to have taken out alease agreement or a personal loan to access the vehicle they
drive. For example, 32 percent of women drivers in the United
Kingdom lease or rent the vehicles they drive with Uber,compared with 17 percent of their male peers; and in Mexico,
37 percent have taken out a loan compared with 25 percent ofmen. (See box 4.1 for a profile of a woman driver in India. See—Teresa Inchaústegui, Director, Instituto Nacionalbox 4.2 for a discussion on the impact of ride-hailing on thede las Mujeres del Distrito Federal

spending power of women drivers.)

Working Around Other Commitments
Flexibility was cited by both men and women survey
respondents as the key reason they signed up to drive

management paradigm, allowing men to earn an income

with Uber. People like the idea of setting their own hours

while also taking on more care responsibilities. While thisand determining how much they want to work. While thisreport did not look at evidence of such a shift, it is a potential

applies to both men and women, the ability to work in small

focus area for future research.

parcels of time around other commitments benefits women

Across the six countries surveyed, almost three-quarters ofdisproportionately, because they continue to perform most

women drivers identify the ability to work when they wantfamily and household duties (Addati et al. 2016). However,to as a key benefit of ride-hailing (see figure 4.5), compared

given that flexibility benefits men too, sharing-economy

with 65 percent of men. Women use this flexibility to bemodels could potentially help shift the existing household

selective about when and how much they drive. Data provided
by Uber indicate that men drive 8 percent more hours per
week compared with women across the countries studied.
The women surveyed are also less likely to drive every day:
49 percent do versus 56 percent of men. This is true of every“What I like most about ridehailing is that I can takeleave whenever I want, I candrive whenever I want, andcustomers are happy to be
driven by a lady driver.”market except South Africa, where close to three-quarters of—Woman Uber driver, India

One key example is at night, when demand for rides might be

men and women drivers log on every day.
The need for flexibility is interlinked with limitations onwhen and how often women can work. As ride-hailingdrivers, women not only tend to work fewer hours, but theysometimes drive less during times of peak demand when theymight have other obligations or might fear for their personal
security. This can negatively affect their earning potential.

29

WOMEN DRIVERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

Figure 4.5: Survey Responses by Men and Women Drivers to the Following Question:
Q: Which, if any, of the following, do you view as the primary benefits of driving with Uber?
Respondents citing factor as one of top three benefits (%)
I can work when I want64

I like driving

29
29

The ease of using the app

27

The money is good
Meeting new people

19
17
16
16

It’s an easy job
Being able to work unlimited hours
Knowing that my vehicle is being tracked by Uber

9

Women

32
40

22

22

14
14

Working with a well-known company

32

24

16

Not needing to carry cash

74

22

Men

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE DRIVER SURVEY 2017.

BARRIERS TO RIDE-HAILING
WORK

higher—but the overall supply of drivers is lower. In addition,
logging fewer hours and completing fewer trips can disqualify
drivers from incentive awards. In the South African focus
groups, women drivers described how, due to lower care

Despite the lower barriers to entry, women face a range ofcommitments and reduced personal security concerns, somechallenges in maximizing the opportunity offered by ride-

men are able to stay logged on all night, working for extended

hailing. Among the women drivers surveyed, a quarter say

periods.

nothing stops them driving more, but a third cite competition
from other drivers on the Uber app (see chapter 2, “Ride-

Further research is needed to understand the extent to which

Hailing Business Models”) and a quarter identify security

the flexibility of sharing economy work helps or hinders

concerns. However, given that the gap between the number

women from pursuing other jobs and roles. While it is possibleof women and men drivers is much larger than the gap

that some substitution of traditional roles may occur (vanbetween the hours they work, this section focuses principally

Welsum 2016), the sharing economy may also help womenon the barriers preventing women from signing up in the firstbuild a work history and an online profile that may open theplace.

door to further income generation opportunities.

When asked why more women do not sign up for ride-hailing,
64 percent of women drivers surveyed cite safety and security

30

Box 4.3: EntrepreneurshipThis report supports literature suggesting that women are

the flexibility and “good money” that driving offers. They

using income, skills, and contacts from sharing economy

are also less likely to rely on driving as their main source ofapps to develop and grow their own entrepreneurial

income: just 33 percent of women entrepreneurs say they

ambitions. For instance, Airbnb (2017) estimates thatmake more than three-quarters of their typical weekly“50,000 women around the world have used Airbnb

income through Uber, compared with 48 percent of all

income to support entrepreneurship for themselves.”

women drivers. They are also business savvy: 64 percent

This is a particularly important point because womenmake a robust profit from driving, compared with 52

entrepreneurs face greater challenges than men in building

percent of all women drivers (see Figure 4.3.1).

the financial resources, knowledge, and networks needed to

In the focus groups, women driver-entrepreneurs explained

start and grow their businesses. For instance, IFC’s MSME

how they expand their professional networks and contacts

Finance report (2017b) estimates an annual credit gap ofwhile driving. For example, in South Africa, a woman driver

approximately $1.7 trillion for women entrepreneurs inencourages riders to use her dry-cleaning business. In theemerging markets. Sharing platforms could help reduce thisUnited Kingdom, a woman driver gets business cards from

gap in several ways: for example, by helping women build

people to help grow her real estate operations. (See figure

capital, providing a secondary income to supply working

4.3.1 for data detailing the survey responses.)

capital, or helping women build a credit history.
Just over one in seven of the women drivers surveyed—and one in eight of the men—are also running separatebusinesses. These women entrepreneurs particularly value

Figure 4.3.1: Survey Responses by
Women Driver-Entrepreneurs to
the Following Questions:
Percent

More than
75% personal
income comesthrough Uber

Entrepreneurs, 33
All women drivers, 48

Q. In a typical week, how much of yourtotal personal income comes from yourwork with Uber?
Q. Approximately what percentage ofyour earnings with Uber are used for

Make a robust

Entrepreneurs, 64

profit fromdriving*

All women drivers, 52

driving expenses?
SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE DRIVER SURVEY 2017.

* EXPENSES ACCOUNT FOR LESS THAN 50 PERCENT OF EARNINGS.

31

WOMEN DRIVERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

concerns (see figure 4.6). This may appear high but security

While laws often cover actions by providers, it is less clear, forconcerns have kept women underrepresented in driver roles

example, how the law protects drivers from riders. In mostacross all modes of transportation. According to the survey,

countries, government requires background checks for ride-

men underestimate both the difficulties women face in getting

hailing drivers, but there are no regulations for identifying

the financial resources to access a vehicle and the challenges

possible assailants among riders. Women, Business and theposed by the lack of access to benefits. However, men are

Law (World Bank 2015b, 23) finds sexual harassment to be amore likely than women to cite social and cultural barriers“common form of sexual violence” against women in bothas key factors that prevent more women from driving for a

public and private spaces. But of the 173 economies analyzed

living. This section also explores barriers that emerged duringin the report, 41 have no laws against sexual harassment,

the focus groups and expert consultations such as licensing,“where laws do exist, they vary in the areas covered, such as

insurance, and registration, and accessing a smartphone.

employment, education and public places.”

Personal Security

Women driver focus groups in the United Kingdom discussed
how the data trail for each trip captured via the Uber

Across the sharing economy, the intimate nature ofapp—including rider identification and ratings, and Global

interactions makes security a key concern (Schoenbaum

Positioning System (GPS) tracking—provides a level of2016). Transactions often take place in personal spaces, suchcomfort to them and their families. Riders know that theyas the Airbnb host’s home or the car of the ride-hailing driver.

are likely to be tracked down if they harass a driver. While

Security is a concern for the user as well: a cleaner booked

instances of actual assaults by riders are relatively rare, somethrough TaskRabbit enters the users’ home without references

drivers reported having experienced verbal abuse and sexualor personal recommendation—but perhaps with ratings andharassment.

reviews shaped by people the user most likely does not know.

Figure 4.6: Survey Responses by Women and Men Drivers to the Following Question:
Q: In your opinion, why do more women not drive with Uber?
Percent
Safety and security concerns

49

Few women want to be drivers

31

Lack of benefits

21

Required hours incompatible with other commitments
Lack of financial resources/access to buy/rent a vehicle

107

Driving cars is typically done by men in my culture
Men

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE DRIVER SURVEY (2017)
NOTE: RESPONDENTS ALLOWED TO SELECT UP TO THREE BARRIERS.

32

23

19

7

Being a driver is not a suitable job for a woman

Women

23

11

23
13

34

64

(compared with 15 percent of men) do not log on at night—
with 57 percent of these women saying they do not drive

WOMEN DRIVERS SURVEYED BELIEVE
SAFETY AND SECURITY CONCERNS PREVENT
MORE WOMEN FROM SIGNING UP

outside daylight hours because of security concerns. But
personal security remains a challenge: it is cited as a barrier todriving more hours by 26 percent of women drivers surveyed,compared with 20 percent of men, making it the biggest
challenge after competition for fares (see figure 4.8). In South
Africa, 51 percent of women drivers surveyed say security is the
top reason for not driving more, followed by women in Mexico

Because of the perceived danger, almost two-thirds of women(33 percent), Egypt (29 percent), and Indonesia (23 percent)drivers surveyed cite “safety and security concerns” as a reason(see figure 4.7).

more women don’t sign up to drive with Uber (see figure 4.6).
Male drivers also cite this as the top barrier for women. While

Drivers generally acknowledge that dealing with security

this point was identified as the top barrier for women in all

challenges is part of the work. However, many say they would

markets studied, large intercountry differences exist, perhaps

welcome more support from Uber on personal security issues.

driven by the overall security environment in each country. For

Sixteen percent of the women drivers surveyed, including a

example, 52 percent of women drivers in the United Kingdom

majority of those in India, and a third of those in Egypt, cite

cite safety and security concerns as highest barrier, compared

the lack of an Uber number to call if they have a problem as awith 79 percent in South Africa.

barrier to driving more. And just over one in 10 women drivers
say they face aggression from traditional taxi drivers, risingSome of the women currently driving with Uber taketo 16 percent in South Africa and 18 percent in the United

precautions. More than a quarter of women drivers surveyed

Kingdom. One woman driver in the United Kingdom put thechallenge simply: “Uber needs to ask itself: ‘How can we be
the safest?’”Figure 4.7: Survey Responses by Women Drivers
to the Following Question:

Restrictive Social Norms
Social norms can influence women’s economic participation

Q: Do security concerns stop you from driving more

and occupational choices. In the labor force, deeply

with Uber?

entrenched social and cultural stereotypes exist regarding

Percentage yes

which jobs are “suitable” for women and men (England 2010).
A Gallup-ILO (2017) study finds substantial regional variationsin the level of preference and acceptability for women to work

South Africa, 51

outside the home.

Mexico, 33

Driving is an example of a role traditionally executed by men

Egypt, Arab Rep. 29(see “Improved Access to Nontraditional Forms of Work”),

Indonesia, 23

to overcome social stigma and cultural biases to drive for aand many of the women interviewed and surveyed have hadliving. Their success highlights both the pioneering nature of

United Kingdom, 12

these women and the substantial barriers that ride-hailingcompanies face as they try to enlist more women drivers.

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE DRIVER SURVEY 2017.
NOTE: INDIA EXCLUDED DUE TO LOW SAMPLE SIZE.

33

WOMEN DRIVERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

Figure 4.8: Survey Responses by Women and Men Drivers to the Following Question:
Q: Is there anything that stops you from driving with Uber more?
Percent

34

Too many other Uber drivers on the road
Security concerns

20

25
26

Nothing stops me from driving with Uber more
16

There is no Uber number I can call if I have a problem

18

14

Riders cancel trips because I am a womana
I have other commitments (e.g. childcare) I have towork around

12

5

11
12

Aggression from traditional taxi drivers

Women

26

Men

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE DRIVER SURVEY 2017.
NOTE: MULTIPLE RESPONSES ALLOWED EXCEPT IF SELECTING “NOTHING STOPS ME DRIVING WITH UBER MORE.”ª MEN RESPONDENTS NOT GIVEN THIS OPTION.

Table 4.4: Concerns Cited by Existing Women Drivers
Percent
Egypt,
Arab Rep.

Indonesia

South
AfricaUnitedKingdom

MexicoMy friends/family disapproved of me
becoming a driver

Women

21

7

14

4

24

Would be unhappy if a female family
member wanted to sign up

Men

57

56

31

17

14

Women

17

23

4

6

1

Men

39

30

9

15

3

Believe being a driver is not a suitablejob for a woman (selected in top threereasons why more women do not sign up)

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE DRIVER SURVEY 2017.
NOTE: DATA FOR INDIA EXCLUDED DUE TO LOW SAMPLE SIZE.

34

37

In India, one Uber driver said that people in her village “didn’tlike” her becoming a ride-hailing driver. In Egypt, another
woman explained that Egyptians don’t “get the culture” ofwomen driving for a living. The survey suggests that women“When I started driving, I had
a catering company that was
struggling. Driving was a gift—since I am getting money
directly, my profile at the bankhas improved.”

in Egypt and Indonesia face the biggest social and cultural
challenges of the six countries studied (see table 4.4). For
example, in Egypt, 57 percent of male drivers say they would
be unhappy if a female family member wanted to sign up,
and 39 percent say being a driver is not a suitable role for awoman.
Restrictive cultural norms are not just a barrier to womensigning up as drivers: they can also have a negative impact—Woman driver, South Africa

when engaging on the platform. During the focus groups,
women drivers in Indonesia and South Africa shared stories
of how they believed they had lost fares due to their gender.
Of those women surveyed, 24 percent in Indonesia and 25

The “pioneers” (see table 4.2) who challenge social and cultural

percent in Egypt say they believe riders had canceled on

norms by becoming drivers in the face of societal disapprovalthem for this reason. Some women drivers also mention

could inspire others to join them: 51 percent of women drivers

that occasionally riders doubt their driving skills, especiallysay they decided to sign up with Uber because a friend orin Indonesia where women are often taught solely by familyfamily member suggested it. These positive network effects

members. And in South Africa, some women riders were afraid

could help in other ways too, says Teresa Inchaústegui,that women drivers would be less able to protect them fromdirector of the Mexico City Women’s Institute: “In Mexico,

external threats such as carjacking. However, occasionally,transportation is perceived as a male industry. Ride-hailing isgender preference can also work in women’s favor. Manyan opportunity to break the negative stereotypes of women

women (and some men) would prefer a women driver,being perceived as bad drivers.”

especially when traveling alone or at night, to increase their
In the absence of legal requirements, companies are making

sense of security.

their own rules about bias and discrimination. Uber, forexample, has a nondiscrimination policy and deactivatesriders and drivers who exhibit discriminatory behavior. Someadvocates have also suggested that sharing apps could trackpatterns of discriminatory user behavior (for example, those“The social stigma is there.
Society sees women who workas drivers as inappropriate,
because they work on the road,in the heat, and hang outside
the house.”

who routinely cancel on women drivers). Such policies canbe difficult to enforce, but the data-gathering capabilities
of sharing economy apps could allow companies to track
repeated patterns of discriminatory behavior by both riders
and drivers. This would require collecting gender, race, andother personal data, which most sharing companies do notcollect, and which may not be legal in some jurisdictions. It
would also require the ability to mediate between users anddrivers when the facts are in dispute. Another option could be—Evilita Adriani, founder, Ojesy (a female-only
driver private-hire car service), Indonesia

35

WOMEN DRIVERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

Raising the money to buy or rent a vehicle emerges as a major
barrier to signing up with Uber across all markets studied (seefigure 4.10). The survey covers only those women (and men)
who find a way to access a vehicle, but many potential drivers“I wanted to buy a car for
driving with Uber, but I didn’t
have the documents requiredby banks…so I had to ask a male
relative to get vehicle loan in his
name and buy me a car.”might have failed to clear this hurdle. The access barrier isparticularly acute for women, since they are less likely thantheir male peers to own the vehicles they drive. Of the drivers
surveyed, 41 percent of men fully own the vehicles they drivewith Uber, compared with 30 percent of women.
To overcome this barrier, 28 percent of the women drivers
surveyed have taken out personal loans to purchase thevehicles they drive. A further 12 percent are accessing their—Women driver, India

vehicle through a loan in someone else’s name, while 21
percent lease or rent their vehicles, rising to 41 percent inSouth Africa (see figure 4.9).

to delay displaying the driver’s first name and photograph until
pickup, forcing riders to pay for a canceled trip if they object toRelative income levels appear to play some part in the modelthe driver behind the wheel.

that women drivers adopt: 50 percent of the women drivers
surveyed from above-median-income households took a loan

Access to Financial Resources and Assets

out to purchase their vehicle (35 percent in their own name; 15Gaps in financial inclusion affect women’s ability to participate

percent in someone else’s) compared with 36 percent of theirin and benefit from the sharing economy. Financial exclusion

peers in below-median-income households. Conversely, 21means that women may not have the prerequisite tools, such

percent of less affluent women rent or lease, compared withas bank accounts, to use sharing platforms. Or women may

14 percent of their more affluent peers—perhaps because suchfind it harder or relatively more expensive to obtain key assets,

agreements are less expensive on a monthly basis or becausesuch as a vehicle to drive. Helping women overcome these

they are easier to exit from.

barriers is one of the key actions that the private sector cantake to building a more equal sharing economy.

Help is available to navigate the complexity of accessing avehicle for potential drivers who are less financially literate. In

Women are approximately 7 percent less likely to have aSouth Africa, the Uber website shows a breakdown of vehicle

bank account compared with men, rising to 9 percent inleasing, renting, purchase, and fleet options, with the relevant

emerging economies. The widest gaps exist in the Middle

costs and benefits of each provider. This is an example of good

East and South Asia (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2014). Gender gaps

practice that could be rolled out more broadly across thein financial inclusion are intrinsically linked with those in theownership of, and access to, assets. Asset ownership can bedifficult to measure, since little research has been done in

Women are less likely to own the cars
they drive compared with men. Thosefrom less affluent households often fill
the gap by leasing or renting from athird party.

this area (Doss, Grown, and Deer 2008). However, becauseof legal, cultural, and financial gender gaps, men tend to own
more high-value and productive assets (Johnson et al. 2016).
This creates “a structural dependence on men for access toresources, which in turn can subject women to insecurity andviolence,” according to the Office of the United Nations HighCommissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR n.d.).

36

Figure 4.9 : Survey Responses by Women
Drivers to the Following Question:

countries studied. Similarly, facilitating the creation of improved
cost calculators and financial tools for drivers could help both
women and men make smart vehicle acquisition decisions

Q: Which of the statements below best describes theand operate more profitably. Given the large gender gaps incar/vehicle you use to drive with Uber?

financial literacy in some emerging markets, these features
could have a disproportionately large impact on women.

Percent

Licensing, Insurance, and Sign-Up
Aside from gaining access to a vehicle, drivers also need43

Indonesia

28

10

to obtain the correct driving license, navigate the sign-up

14 5

process, and secure relevant insurance. The length of time andthe cost associated with these processes is significant in some42

Egypt, Arab Rep.

4

46

markets—especially for women who might simply be looking

8

for flexible work with a limited time commitment. Many of
the women drivers interviewed and surveyed identify theseas major barriers. In addition, given the survey respondents

32

United Kingdom

4

24

9

already drive with Uber, it is likely that other women may have32

found these challenges too difficult.
Obtaining the correct driver’s license is an obstacle for some29

Mexico37

11

women. In markets such as the United Kingdom, drivers must

13 11

obtain a commercial driving license to enter ride-hailing.
Given that women are traditionally underrepresented in theSouth Africa

9

17

14

19

pool of drivers who hold such licenses, this disproportionately

41

affects their ability to participate in the industry. In India,
the mandatory two-year waiting period between obtaining
personal and commercial licenses was rescinded by theSupreme Court in July 2017, although several states have yet to

Fully owned by me

adopt the new decision. However, vehicular restrictions—such

Fully owned by a friend or family member

as age, type, and color—remain, which are again likely to be a

Being paid for through a loan in my namehigher barrier for women considering gender gaps in access to

Being paid for through a loan in someone else's nameassets (see “Access to Financial Resources and Assets”).

Leased or rented from a third party
SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE DRIVER SURVEY 2017.
NOTE: DATA FOR INDIA EXCLUDED DUE TO LOW SAMPLE SIZE.

Facilitating the creation of improved
cost calculators and financial tools fordrivers could help men and womenmake smart vehicle acquisition
decisions and operate more profitably.

37

WOMEN DRIVERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

Figure 4.10: Survey Responses by Women
Drivers to the Following Question:

The Uber onboarding process5 emerged as a challenge
for 9 percent of women surveyed, compared to 5 percent
of men. For women, this ranged from 13 percent in South

Q: Which, if any, of the following were the major

Africa to 4 percent in Egypt. Women in below-median-barriers in signing up with Uber?

income households faced slightly elevated barriers, although
the differences are not as large as might be expected. For

Percent

example, 11 percent of less affluent drivers identify onboarding
as a challenge, compared with 7 percent of their more affluent
peers. This is perhaps the most readily controllable area inwhich ride-hailing companies can reduce administrativecomplexity. Digital inclusion is discussed in box 4.4.

Mexico

36

17

7

71

United Kingdom

35

14

3 10 1

South Africa

40

7

13

Outreach to drivers could be better tailored to women orat least a gender-neutral audience. For example, recruiting
more women staff at onboarding centers, locating them inareas where women feel secure, or hosting women-driverrecruitment days could attract more women. Following thereversal of the ban on women driving in Saudi Arabia, Uberand Careem are actively focusing on women drivers. Theiroutreach includes dedicated sign-up support, training, and3“listening sessions” to take suggestions and feedback on how
to better serve women (Hassan 2017).
One form of outreach, widespread in Egypt and South Africa,that merits attention is the use of third parties—such as

Indonesia

19

Egypt, Arab Rep.

17

11 1 6 2

recruitment agencies or fleet partners—that direct potential
drivers to the app. The experience of women regarding theseinteractions is mixed: one driver reported being told to google
a query she had on the sign-up process by a recruiter. Relying

4 8

on third parties to drive engagement increases the chancethat ride-hailing company efforts to include women might
not be realized. For example, agencies might be located inareas that are not easily accessible for women, or they might

Getting the money to buy or rent a car/vehicle

use marketing strategies that focus on easier targets (namely,

Getting car/vehicle insurancemen). Where such third parties are common, it is important

Getting a driving licensethat they are included in efforts to increase the number of

The paperwork required by Uber

women drivers.

Opening a bank account
SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE DRIVER SURVEY 2017.
NOTE: MULTIPLE RESPONSES ALLOWED; WOMEN DRIVERS ONLY. DATAFOR INDIA EXCLUDED DUE TO LOW SAMPLE SIZE.

Becoming adequately insured is also a challenge for some
women drivers, especially in Mexico and the United Kingdom,
where 17 percent and 14 percent, respectively, cite it as a major
5

Survey respondents were asked whether “the paperwork requiredby Uber” was a major barrier to signing up.

38

barrier to signing up. However, while it is cited as a barrier by
12 percent of women surveyed, this rises to 15 percent of men,suggesting it could be an industrywide challenge.

“The institution to get yourlicense is a threatening spacefor women, especially if you
don’t speak English or comefrom a privileged background.
The computerized test for(the) learner’s license itself
is not something which anundereducated woman can take.”

In some countries there may be a need for more insurance
products specifically designed for the sharing economy(Holzheu 2017). One survey of U.S. drivers finds that 60
percent to 80 percent do not hold the appropriate commercial
insurance (Jergler 2017). As Holzheu (2017) notes, “Mixing
personal and commercial use was not foreseen in traditional
personal lines of insurance policies, such as private passenger
auto or homeowners, which created a gap in the market…
This protection gap constitutes a new frontier of developing
new innovative solutions and providing much needed
coverage to the sharing economy.” For women specifically,
partnerships between the sharing economy and financial
institutions represent an opportunity to close both income—Meenu Vadera, CEO of Sakha Cabs & Women on

and financial inclusion gaps; for example, through the

Wheels, India

development of policies that link commercial and healthinsurance.

Box 4.4: Digital Inclusion

Owning—or at least having largely unlimited accessThis is clearly a major potential barrier to engaging

to—a smartphone is a prerequisite for anyone wanting

in ride-hailing work. However, rates of smartphone

to work as a ride-hailing driver or, in most cases, toownership in urban areas—where ride-hailing companies

travel as a rider. Smartphone penetration around thetypically operate—are much higher. Research by Pew

world is growing rapidly (see chapter 2, “Size and Growth(Poushter 2017) finds that 72 percent of urban Chinese,

Potential of the Sharing Economy”), but of the estimatedand 29 percent of their Indian peers, own smartphones,

50 percent of the global population who currently docompared with 63 percent and 13 percent in rural

not own or cannot access one, the majority are lessareas, respectively. Combined with the fact that theaffluent, and more likely to be women (GSMA 2017). In

women surveyed for this report already use the Uberfact, women are 14 percent less likely than men to own

app, this perhaps explains why smartphone access anda mobile phone in low- and middle-income countries

connectivity have not emerged as a major barrier for(GSMA 2015); globally, they are 6 percent less likely towomen in this research.

access the Internet (ITU 2017). Even when they do own
phones, women are less likely to use them for moresophisticated services beyond voice calling (GSMA 2015).

39

40

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

5. Women Riders:
Opportunities and Barriers

Women tend to have more complex transportation needs thanIndia to 57 percent6 in Indonesia. Those surveyed are threemen. This is because they are typically more likely to travel withyears younger on average than their male counterparts andchildren or elderly relatives, and because they often share their

are less likely to be married (36 percent of women riders aretime between paid work and unpaid care responsibilities. Thismarried, compared with 48 percent of their male peers). In

section draws on a survey of 3,691 riders who use the Uber app

Mexico, the difference in average age between men andcombined with aggregated company data to understand thewomen is 13 years, and just 18 percent of women riders

profiles of people who use ride-hailing services. It explores why

are married, compared with 50 percent of male peers. This

they choose to travel and what benefits it brings. And finally, it

perhaps reflects a culture in which owning and driving one’s

looks at what stops women from riding more.

own car is a status symbol that older and married women
aspire to, despite heavy urban congestion (Currid-Halkett2017). (See table 5.1.)

RIDER PROFILES

Gender differences are less pronounced in terms of

Who Rides Using the Uber App?

educational attainment: approximately two-thirds of both

Women account for approximately 41 percent of Uber riders

This closely matches the 67 percent of surveyed riders who live

across the six countries studied, ranging from 31 percent inin above-median-income households. The affluence of riders

women and men surveyed have completed tertiary education.

Table 5.1: Highest Women Rider Scores by Country
Youngest (average age)

Demographics

Riding patterns

26

MexicoOldest (average age)

36

South Africa

Unmarried (%)

82

MexicoChildren under 18 (%)

51

Egypt, Arab Rep.

Tertiary educated (%)

87

Egypt, Arab Rep.

Above-median income (%)

72

India

Use multiple private hire services (%)

65

Indonesia

Using Uber for more than one year (%)

67

United Kingdom

Share of trips at night (%)

36

United Kingdom

Ride only on weekdays (%)

13

Egypt, Arab Rep.

Typically travel with others (%)

69

Egypt, Arab Rep.

SOURCES: IFC/ACCENTURE RIDER SURVEY 2017; UBER 2017.

641

In Indonesia, the first name to gender matching software could not
identify 8 percent of riders.

WOMEN RIDERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

could be explained by the relative cost of ride-hailing, the needaccording to data provided by Uber. However, this difference

to be financially and digitally literate, and the location of ride-is largely accounted for by Indonesia and India alone, wherehailing services in urban areas.

women take 16 percent and 15 percent more trips than men,
respectively. In other markets, little significant variation exists

However, male riders tend to be more affluent: almost three-(see figure 5.2). Given women riders tend to be less affluent

quarters (74 percent) live in households above the medianthan their male peers, the differences in the number of trips

income, compared with 61 percent of women riders. One

taken is perhaps explained by the greater variety of destinations

possible explanation is that men are less likely than womenthat women use ride-hailing to reach, as well as the large

to face security threats on other forms of transportation

proportions of women who use lower-cost options in these(see “Increasing Safety and Personal Security for Women”).

markets. For example, in India, 83 percent of women surveyed

Therefore, while less affluent women might be willing pay

use UberGO, which connects with smaller vehicles, and 66

more for “safer” options like ride-hailing, less-affluent men

percent use ride-sharing service UberPOOL.

may opt more often for the cheapest option, like public transit
or walking. A study in India finds that 21 percent of women in

Even though women take more trips, men spend 9 percent

India factor personal security into their transportation choices,more money for each trip on average across the six countries

compared with 10 percent of men (FIA Foundation 2016). The

studied, according to data provided by Uber. This suggests

men surveyed for this report are more likely to identify thethat women take shorter trips or that they ride less frequently

increased comfort offered by ride-hailing, whereas women are

at times of peak demand. Indeed, the data show that women

more likely to cite the increased independence it offers. (Seeride less at night compared with men in all markets studied.

Figure 5.6 on page 49.)

The lower share of trips taken by women at night ranges from
9 percentage points in India to 4 percentage points in the

Women’s Travel Patterns

United Kingdom. (See figure 5.2.)

Women take approximately 6 percent more trips a week on
average across the markets studied compared with men,

Figure 5.2: Average Additional Weekly Trips
Taken by Women Relative to Men Per Week

Figure 5.1: Share of Women as Riders Acrossthe Six Countries Studied

Percent

Percent

Indonesia
India

Indonesia, 57

15-9South Africa

Mexico, 47

Egypt, Arab Rep.

United Kingdom, 46

MexicoSouth Africa, 45

United Kingdom

Egypt, Arab Rep. 40

16

-6

2

-6

0.4

-8
-0.2

-7
-4

-0.2

Difference in number of trips taken

India, 31

Percentage point difference in share of trips taken at night
SOURCE: UBER 2017.

SOURCE: UBER 2017; GENDER API (HTTPS://GENDER-API.COM.

42

BENEFITS FOR WOMEN RIDERS

benefits beyond affordability. Research by Peter Cohen et al.

Transportation plays an important role in economic

UberX service in four cities in the United States generates

development, particularly in terms of raising living standards

about $1.60 in consumer surplus.8 This section focuses onfor both women and their families. Ride-hailing is notthree key benefits of ride-hailing for women: reduced security

necessarily the cheapest mode of transportation, but it offers

threats, improved mobility, and increased cost transparency.

(2016) estimates that each dollar spent by consumers on the

Table 5.2: Summary Assessment of the Benefits of Ride-Hailing to Women Riders
For riders, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…reduce safety
risks for womenwhen traveling

Addressing security concerns is a major area of concern for women riders. Women travelingalone are particularly conscious of personal security risks, which can be quite high in somemarkets and generally higher at night. Women in some markets feel particularly at risk on
public transportation. Security features of the Uber app, such as trip tracking, are cited by 29
percent of women surveyed compared to 20 percent of men as a benefit of ride-hailing, andare identified as being particularly important for women in less secure environments such as
Mexico (49 percent) and South Africa (38 percent). However, a perception that some drivers
do not drive safely, the lack of women drivers, and the threat of sexual harassment remain key
barriers that limit women’s use of ride-hailing.

…improve accessto a range ofservices andopportunities
and increase
women’s sense of
independence

By offering door-to-door transportation, ride-hailing can expand access to employment andservices for both women and men. However, women’s mobility is limited compared withthat of men by a range of factors, including access to vehicles and the inflexibility of public
transportation routes. While relatively few women riders surveyed were unable to travel
before using ride-hailing, they identify the wider access available through ride-hailing as thebiggest “hidden benefit” of the service. A further 24 percent of the women surveyed say usingride-hailing allows them to be more independent, and 20 percent say ride-hailing allows themto travel more—both figures are above the averages for men.

…help womenbudget for theirbroad, complex
travel needs byproviding greater
cost transparency

Women tend to make more frequent, shorter trips compared with men. They also spend ahigher proportion of their overall income on transportation, and price transparency emerges as
the top benefit among the women surveyed, cited by 42 percent of women overall. This figure
rises to 49 percent in the Arab Republic of Egypt and 55 percent in India, markets where some
women riders interviewed for this report believe metered taxi drivers at times inflate fares ortake unnecessarily long routes. Where available, women are also generally more likely thanmen to select low-cost ride-hailing options such as car-pooling or motorcycles.

… increase
women’s mobility
if companies canattract more
women drivers

Forty percent of the women riders surveyed would prefer a women driver when travelingalone or at night, and nearly one in five say the lack of women drivers limits the numberof trips they take. Attracting more women drivers could create a virtuous cycle that would
increase the number of trips taken by women riders, and in turn increase demand for women
drivers. That said, some women riders would prefer a male driver in certain circumstances. And
some women drivers worry that they might lose business or become targets for criminals if
riders could select drivers by gender.

Strongly supported by the data

8

Partially supported by the data

The difference between the cost and what consumers are willing to pay.”43

Not supported by the data

WOMEN RIDERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

Increasing Safety and Personal Security
for Women

One way in which ride-hailing could lower risks for women
involves providing first- and last-mile connections between
public transportation stops and final destinations. Personal

Ride-hailing has the potential to reduce the safety andsecurity in public is a risk for women in some parts of thepersonal security risks women face when traveling, whichworld. For example, in Delhi, India, 95 percent of women andremain persistent barriers to women’s mobility across many

girls feel unsafe in public spaces and over half of men admit

forms of transportation. Gaining a reputation for superior

to having sexually harassed women or committed acts ofsafety and security can become a strong element of any ride-violence against women and girls (UN Women 2013).

hailing company’s brand promise. (See figure 5.3 and box 5.2.)

Another issue is safety. In many markets, women are more likely

In some major Latin American cities, up to 60 percent

to walk because they have lower incomes and reduced accessof women have been physically harassed on public

to vehicles. In India’s largest cities, 37 percent of women walktransportation (Reuters 2014), and in New York City, 30

to work, compared with 27 percent of men (Gov. of India 2011).

percent of women say they have been victims of verbal or

However, the risk of death when walking is nine times higher

physical harassment on public transportation (Reuters 2014).

than when traveling by car (Sustainable Mobility for All 2017).

Risks become greater at night: more than half of womenacross the developed world feel unsafe waiting at a train

The main security features of the Uber app—knowing thestation after dark, compared with just 10 percent during thedriver’s name and registration plate number in advance, andday (FIA Foundation 2016). Many of the incidents women facethat the trip is being tracked—are more important to womenon public transportation do not constitute “crimes,” according

than to men, particularly in markets with more challenging

to research by the Asian Development Bank (2015). However,security environments. For example, 35 percent of the women

they do leave women feeling “unsafe or victimized.”

Figure 5.3: Survey Responses by Women and Men Riders to the Following Question:
Q: Which of these do you now view as the main benefits of using Uber?
Respondents citing factor in their top three benefits (%)
4242

Knowing the price when booking
38

Being able to book via the app
The price
Knowing the driver's name and registration in advance3523Knowing drivers are being tracked

29

20

Saving time compared with public transport
Getting to places not served by public transport

22+11% men

25
26
24
24

Not needing to carry cash
Women

49

38
39

29

+9%
+12%
women women

Men

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE RIDER SURVEY 2017.

44

Women are far more likely than men to
identify the security features of ridehailing apps as major benefits.

“Ride-hailing provides safe
and convenient transport
without the gender segregation
element—and provides a safer
alternative considering thata big percentage of femalesin Egypt experience sexual
harassment.”

surveyed identify knowing the driver’s details in advance asa key benefit, compared with 23 percent of men (see figure5.4). This rises to 44 percent in Egypt and 51 percent in South
Africa (see figure 5.4). Furthermore, 29 percent of the womensurveyed identify trip tracking as a benefit, compared with 20
percent of men. This rises to 49 percent of women surveyedin Mexico. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the security
benefits might be as important to women’s families as they
are to women themselves, for example, where women require
permission from other household members to go out.

—Nivine El Kabbag, Assistant Minister, Ministry of

In Egypt, women specifically choose ride-hailing for added

Social Solidarity, Egypt

security: 51 percent of women surveyed strongly identify with
Uber as a more secure option, compared with 33 percent of

Figure 5.4: Survey Responses by Women Riders to the Following Question:
Q: What are the main benefits of using Uber?
Respondents citing factor in their top three benefits (%)

5149
Knowing the driver's name and registration in advance44

Knowing drivers are being tracked

38
30

33
27

26

28
24
19

South Africa

MexicoEgypt,

UnitedArab Rep.

Kingdom

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE RIDER SURVEY 2017.

45

Indonesia

18

India

WOMEN RIDERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

Rider demand for features that alreadyexist, such as the ability to share live
travel locations, suggests a need toraise rider awareness of current options
alongside innovating new security
features.

women globally. Other security-related advantages cited by
women riders during the focus groups relate to the process ofbooking and paying directly through the app, which reduces theneed to walk to be picked up, to carry cash, or to go to an ATM.
Of course, these features may not ease the security concernsof all women. Those surveyed are active Uber app users, andothers may have stopped using it or never signed up due tosecurity or other concerns. And nearly a quarter of the womenriders surveyed say drivers driving “unsafely” prevent themengage with them more to better understand the nature andfrom taking more trips, rising to 31 percent in Egypt and 36

impact of security incidents they face. Another example relates

percent in Indonesia.

to trip sharing: almost half of the women riders surveyed (46percent) say they would use the Uber app more if they could

However, while judgments about driver skills are largely

share live travel information with a contact. However, thissubjective, most of the riders who attended the focus groups

feature is already available, suggesting a need for raising user

and many of those surveyed indicated that they would likeawareness of existing features as a comparatively easy short-ride-hailing companies to do more to enhance security. For

term measure for ride-hailing companies to address women’s

example, 31 percent of women riders cite the lack of an Uber

security concerns.

number to call if they have a problem as a reason to take fewer
trips. While this type of feature is theoretically possible, it poses

Driver identification is a challenge for some women riders.

major logistical challenges (see box 5.1)—but the message fromA fifth of those surveyed (20 percent) would like to be able

women is that they would like to see ride-hailing companies

to identify drivers through real-time “selfie” photos. Riders

Box 5.1: Panic Buttons

Panic buttons or emergency numbers are ideas raised

One solution could be to introduce a Bluetooth-enabledduring the focus groups by both drivers and riders as

panic button for drivers, and a feature on the app for

potential ways of lowering women’s security concerns.

riders, which would link them directly with local law

Of those women surveyed, 16 percent of drivers andenforcement. Another solution, based on a broader

31 percent of riders say the lack of an Uber number tointerpretation of the “problems” women might want tocall if they have a problem stops them from using thecontact ride-hailing companies for—both emergency andapp more. While introducing an emergency number is

non-emergency—would be for ride-hailing companies totheoretically possible, there is a danger that the ride-

engage more with women in their security concerns. Thishailing company contacted simply acts as a conduit

idea is supported by focus groups discussions in which

between the woman and local law enforcement,

women contrasted the tangibility of the Uber app withpotentially wasting valuable time.

the perceived intangibility of the company behind it.

46

in the South Africa focus groups pointed to the large driver
photos available on the Taxify app as a feature that increases

WOMEN RIDERS SURVEYED SAY THEYCAN TRAVEL MORE NOW THANKS TO
RIDE-HAILING

their confidence. And Didi Chuxing has introduced biometricidentification for drivers to make sure the person logging into
the app is the registered driver.

Improving Mobility
Ride-hailing services have the potential to mitigate gendermobility gaps that limit women’s independence, particularly
in terms of economic and social opportunities. Gaps in public

Women riders surveyed identify greater accessibility oftransportation are likely to affect women disproportionately:ride-hailing versus public transportation as the key hidden

while men typically travel twice a day—to and from theirbenefit of the service. Globally, 24 percent of women riders

places of employment—women might make multiple trips,

cite getting to places not served by public transportation as

often combining paid work with unpaid household anda major benefit of using Uber—similar to men (22 percent).

care responsibilities (Babinard et al. 2010). When women

However, improved accessibility emerges as the key hidden

use public transportation to travel to work, they tend tobenefit of ride-hailing for women, as just 18 percent cited it as

take longer trips than men because they are more likely

an initial attraction. And, while relatively few women surveyed

to be employed as factory workers, cleaners, or healthcare

say they could not make trips before ride-hailing, 20 percent

assistants; occupations that tend to be geographicallysay they are able to travel more since the Uber app was

dispersed (Babinard et al. 2010). This may mean that womenlaunched in their country.

face longer wait times at either end of their journeys, since

Women and men’s travel patterns differ markedly (see “Rider

public transportation systems are designed to connect major

profiles”). The women surveyed are as likely to use the app

residential and employment centers, not offer door-to-door

to commute and to go out at night as men, but more likely

connections. Women are also more likely to travel during off-

than men to book trips for a wide variety of household

peak hours, when service is less frequent, exacerbating time

management and social trips, such as shopping, visiting

lost due to waiting and transferring (Hasson and Polevoy 2011).

relatives and friends, and accessing health services (see figure5.5). Men are much more likely than women to use ridehailing to do business.

Women are more likely to booktrips for a variety of household
management and social trips, suchas shopping, visiting relatives
or friends, and accessing healthservices. Men are more likely to
use the app to do business.

“One of the critical rights,
amongst many, that are denied
to women is the right tomobility.”—Meenu Vadera, CEO, Sakha Cabs & Women on
Wheels47

WOMEN RIDERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

Almost two in five mothers surveyedstrongly believe that Uber helps themmove around with their children—nearly double the rate for fathers.

WOMEN RIDERS SURVEYED SAY
RIDE-HAILING ALLOWS THEM TO BE
MORE INDEPENDENT

where women’s mobility is often restricted by security
concerns and social norms, respectively.

The most important advantages of using Uber comparedwith public transportation, according to the riders surveyed,

Ride-hailing also helps mothers manage the complexity ofare speed and convenience: 49 percent of the women riders

traveling with children. Nearly two in five mothers (39 percent)surveyed strongly identify with ride-hailing this way, ranging

surveyed strongly believe that Uber helps them to travel withfrom 39 percent in Egypt to 56 percent in South Africa (seetheir children—almost double the rate for fathers (20 percent).

figure 5.6). Almost a quarter of women (24 percent) also

Single mothers often face steeper household management

say that ride-hailing increases their travel independence—challenges, have more complex transportation requirements,

compared with 18 percent of men surveyed—climbing to over

and operate on tighter budgets. These women typically use

a third in South Africa (35 percent) and India (34 percent),

Uber to travel with their children (63 percent) and half of them

Figure 5.5: Survey Responses by Women and Men Riders To the Following Question:
Q: What are the main reasons you book trips with Uber?
Percent
To travel to/from my job
To visit relatives/friends

42

To go out at night
To travel to transport hubs e.g., airport, train station
To go shopping
To bring relatives to/from my house, e.g.,children, grandparents

26

To access health services

11

5

To do business for my own company
To access childcare

2

Men

16
13

5
4

To make deliveries (for work)
Women

18

9

To do business for the company which employs me

+7%
women

7

+8% men

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE RIDER SURVEY 2017.
NOTE: RESPONDENTS COULD SELECT A MAXIMUM OF FIVE TRIP TYPES.

48

30
29

45
44
45
46
44

51
50

53

+8%
women

cite the convenience of being able to book via the app as a key
benefit, compared with 38 percent of all women riders. Nearly

WOMEN RIDERS SURVEYED CITE “KNOWINGTHE PRICE WHEN BOOKING” AS A MAJOR
BENEFIT OF TRAVELING USING RIDE-HAILING

a fifth (17 percent) use Uber specifically to access childcare—compared with just 5 percent of all fathers surveyed.

Cost Transparency
While ride-hailing is not necessarily the cheapest form oftransportation (see “Affordability”), women value knowing in
advance how much a ride will cost. This is especially true in

Ride-hailing fares are typically set by a demand- andmarkets such as Egypt and India, where, for example, women

distance-driven algorithm, which means the rider nevermight feel less comfortable negotiating with men driving taxis.

has to negotiate the fare with the driver, providing a layer

Greater certainty over fares allows riders to budget moreof protection for riders who might lack the knowledge

efficiently. This is a particular benefit for women, because

or assertiveness to bargain effectively. Cost transparency

they spend a higher proportion of their disposable incomes

emerges as the top benefit cited by women riders acrosson transportation, especially in emerging markets. Uber data

the six countries. On average, 42 percent of women riders

confirm that women tend to take more trips across the six

surveyed cite it, a number that ranges from 30 percent in the

countries studied but spend less per trip compared to men—

United Kingdom to 55 percent in India. This cost transparency

ranging from 19 percent less in Indonesia to 5 percent less inalso emerges as the top benefit in Egypt, where 49 percent

Mexico.

of the women surveyed cite it. This supports anecdotal

Figure 5.6: Survey Responses by Women Riders to the Following Question:
Q: Which, if any, of the following statements do you most agree with?
Percent
49
47
46
45

Uber is much faster and more convenient than public transport
Uber is cheaper than regular taxi companies
39

Uber allows me to book travel quickly and easily
I feel safe when I travel with a driver booked through Uber

31
28

Uber is more comfortable
Uber allows me to be more independent

Uber helps me move around with my children
Women

18
10

20

15

+6%
women

Men

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE UBER RIDER SURVEY 2017.
NOTE: RESPONDENTS COULD SELECT UP TO THREE STATEMENTS.

49

36

24

18

I am now able to travel more thanks to Uber

42

33

+8% menWOMEN RIDERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

While the top benefit for men surveyed is the ability to book
via the app, at 49 percent, men are nearly as likely to cite
cost transparency as women at 42 percent (see figure 5.7).

“You update your app with yourcard details and you do the trip.
You don’t need an ATM.”

This suggests that more efficient budgeting and avoiding—Women rider, South Africa

BARRIERS FOR WOMEN RIDERS

negotiation is an advantage for all riders—although it remains
relatively more important for women.

Affordability
information from the focus groups in Egypt and India, where

Transportation costs are an important issue for women.

women complained that traditional taxi drivers sometimes

Women who use ride-hailing tend to come from more affluent

refuse to turn on their meters, and where some feel it ishouseholds. Not only do these women have higher disposable

culturally unacceptable for them to put up a fight in public.

incomes, but they are also more likely to have access to the

The fact that trips are tracked means riders also have thenecessary digital and financial resources needed to enjoy the

option of lodging a complaint with Uber if they feel their driver

service. However, even for these riders, overall expense is an

takes an unnecessarily circuitous route.

issue—and many use lower-cost options where available. That

Figure 5.7: Survey Responses by Women Riders to the Following Question:
Q: And which of these do you view as the main benefits of using Uber: Knowing the price when booking?
Respondents citing factor in their top three benefits (%)

55
46

49

46

45

45

44

48
37

38
30

Women

32

India

Egypt, Arab Rep.

Indonesia

MexicoSouth Africa

United Kingdom

(1st)

(1st)

(2nd)

(2nd)

(4th)

(4th)

Men

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE UBER RIDER SURVEY 2017.
NOTE: DATA SHOW PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS CITING “KNOWING THE PRICE WHEN BOOKING” IN THEIR TOP THREE BENEFITS. OVERALL RANKOF BENEFIT FOR WOMEN IN PARENTHESES.

50

Women are more likely than men toprefer low-cost options like UberPool.

said, the data suggest that women riders weigh affordability
against other factors, including access, comfort, and security.
Women with lower incomes tend to rely more heavily on
public transportation, largely because of the affordability ofprivate options. However, the truncated yet geographicallyAnecdotal evidence suggests women riders in Egypt placedispersed nature of trips that women make could significantly

a higher value on comfort and cost certainty; some actively

reduce the cost differential with ride-hailing—especially trips

avoid traditional taxi drivers, who they say might refuse tothat do not follow major transit corridors and require womenturn on their meters or air conditioning.

to buy multiple single tickets.

A third of women riders surveyed (33 percent) strongly identify

Compared to regular taxis, ride-hailing is often cheaperwith trips booked through Uber as cheaper than those with

(Silverstein 2014; Telegraph 2015). Globally, 46 percent oftraditional taxis; this figure rises to 46 percent for men. The

women riders strongly believe trips booked through the Uber

expense of dynamic pricing is cited as a deterrent by 40

app are cheaper than those booked with traditional taxis,

percent of women riders surveyed—but this is the lowest

rising to 60 percent in the United Kingdom and 65 percent

figure for all countries studied, and well below the average ofin Indonesia. However, this figure drops to just 24 percent in

58 percent. That said, 44 percent of women surveyed identify

Egypt, where only 16 percent of women riders cite lower costlong-distance travel as expensive and 30 percent of say theas a benefit of ride-hailing, compared with 38 percent globally.

overall expense limits the number of trips they take. The

Figure 5.8: Survey Responses by Women and Men Riders to the Following Question:
Q: Which, if any, of the following stop you from using Uber more?
Percent
Dynamic pricing is too expensive

56

Long distance travel with Uber is expensive
There is no number to call if I have a problem
It's too expensive

26

The drivers do not drive safely

19

22
21

The company has a bad reputation
Uber has few women drivers
I am concerned about sexual harassment
Women

23

17

6

17

4

Men

NOTE: RESPONDENTS COULD SELECT A MAXIMUM OF FIVE BARRIERS.
SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE RIDER SURVEY 2017.

51

32
30
31
30
29

58

WOMEN RIDERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS continued

women surveyed estimate that a fare decrease of 10 percent

Box 5.2: Women-Only Transport:
Navigating the Debate

could encourage them to take 61 percent more trips on
average per month.
Dynamic pricing emerges as the top barrier that prevents all

Segregation of men and women is one approach toriders from taking more trips: 58 percent of women surveyed

limiting women’s personal security concerns. For

say it limits their travel, ranging from 70 percent in Egypt to 40

example, countries such as Brazil, Egypt, India, Japan,

percent in South Africa. While this suggests that the remaining

and Mexico have introduced women-only train

42 percent of women surveyed are relatively price insensitive,

carriages. A study in Rio de Janeiro finds that manya 10 percent drop in fares could encourage women riders towomen would willingly pay more or wait longer for

take 6.4 more trips a month on average—an increase of 59

women-only metro carriages, a powerful indicator ofpercent from current levels. This figure rises to 63 percent in

the level of demand for secure transport among womenIndonesia, and 68 percent in Mexico.

(Kondylis et al 2017).

It is important to note that the figures for male riders are

Markets such as Kenya, Indonesia, and Mexico, and thevery similar on all three categories of expense, as well as on

UAE have introduced women-only taxi and ride-hailingthe measure of price elasticity. However, given women riders’options, and demand for women drivers from womenrelative levels of affluence and transportation spending, pricing

riders is strong. Seventeen percent of female riders

is likely to have a greater impact on women’s riding patterns.

surveyed say that not having a women driver limited
their use of the service—ranging from just 4 percent in

As noted earlier, the women riders surveyed are fairly affluent.

Egypt to 31 percent in South Africa. These women say

Less affluent women might factor costs into their decision-

they would take an average of 7.6 more trips a month—making much more. This underscores the need for ride-hailingan increase of 69 percent—if guaranteed a womencompanies to continue to develop and roll out lower-cost

driver. A further 44 percent of women surveyed say they

options if they want to improve mobility for women in low-

would be more likely to use the service if they had theincome groups. They also need to recognize that traveling by

option of selecting a woman driver, ranging from 58

motorbike, for example, might not be desirable for all riders, orpercent in Mexico to 35 percent in the United Kingdom.

culturally acceptable in some markets. Uber data suggest thatin general, in cities where lower-cost options are available,

Women riders would especially welcome having awomen are more likely than men to use them. Women in

women driver in potentially higher-risk situations. Forty

Jakarta are more likely to use MOTO than men, and women

percent say they would prefer a women driver whenin London, Mexico City, and New Delhi are more likely to use

traveling at night, ranging from 29 percent in Egypt to 61

POOL than men. A notable exception emerges in India, wherepercent in Mexico (see figure 5.2.1). Anecdotal evidence

women’s use of MOTO is likely limited by strong culturalfrom Kenya suggests that many women use Uber duringnorms that discourage them from riding on motorbikes (inthe day, but switch to women-only services at night for

close proximity to men).

security reasons.
However, the results of separating men and women

Given women riders’ relative levelsof affluence and what they spend on
transportation, pricing is likely to havea greater impact on women’s riding
patterns.

on public transport is mixed, with anecdotal evidence
suggesting that these carriages are not respected
at peak hours and increase harassment for womentraveling in mixed carriages. It also raises questions

52

Figure 5.2.1: Survey Responses by Women
Riders to the Following Question:on the best approach to improve women’s safe accessto transportation. Sally Zohney at GIZ Egypt feels it
exacerbates the segregation of women and men in wider

Q: When using Uber, do/would you prefer male or womensociety. While women-only transportation may allow

drivers in the following situations? (Women only)

some travelers to meet immediate security needs, longterm equality in transportation requires that women are

Percent

able to securely access all transportation options. For
the ride-hailing industry, there are specific challenges toconsider:Mexico

24

61

51

38

• It could increase fares and pick-up times because,
given the low overall numbers of women drivers on

South Africa

20

46

53

the road, even a large increase in women drivers

46

would be unlikely to satisfy demand. Dynamic
pricing is already a key reason women cite for nottaking more rides. They would have to trade off

India

19

55

42

the perceived increase in personal security with43

increased costs, and perhaps longer wait times.
• It could decrease driver incomes by driving down
vehicle occupancy rates if riders are geographically

United Kingdom

11

41

37

29

dispersed.
• Some riders would prefer a male driver. In South
Africa, some women feel men would be better able

Indonesia

15

35

36

to protect them from external threats. In Mexico and29

Indonesia, where getting a driver’s license is relatively
easy, some riders question the skills of women
drivers.

Egypt, Arab Rep.

14 29

30

23

• Some women drivers also fear that they could
be chosen for sinister reasons if riders are able toidentify their gender on the app.

During the day

At night

Traveling alone

In a new city

SOURCE: IFC/ACCENTURE UBER RIDER SURVEY 2017.
NOTE: THE AVERAGE PROPORTION CITING “NO GENDER PREFERENCE”
ACROSS ALL FOUR CATEGORIES IS ~47 PERCENT.

53

54

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

6. Recommendations

This report set out to explore the potential of the sharing

Others, including financial inclusion, the lack of benefits, andeconomy, and ride-hailing specifically, to close social andpersonal security, are perhaps more readily addressable by the

economic gender gaps. As the research shows, the industry in

ride-hailing industry. However, all the challenges identified

some ways boosts economic and social outcomes for women.

in this report must be considered when crafting new policies

However, there are many barriers that prevent women fromand practices to increase women’s participation as drivers andfully realizing these opportunities. Some of these—such as

riders. This section explores how the ride-hailing industry andcultural and social norms, and licensing challenges—require

other stakeholders can collaborate to advance gender equality.

concerted, collaborative efforts from multiple stakeholders.

Recommendations for Ride-Hailing Companies to Get More Women on the Road
CHALLENGE

Ride-hailing outreach practices and processes need to be designed with both men’s and women’s
needs in mind. Some women with less exposure to these processes need more guidance andreassurance during the sign-up process.
RECOMMENDATION

Drivers

To reduce friction in the outreach process and to make it more inclusive and attractive forwomen, ride-hailing companies could:• Improve onboarding by locating support centers in areas accessible to women and bringing more womenon as staff.
• Further simplify driver registration processes where possible, and provide targeted support in locations
where women report bureaucracy as a barrier to registration.
• Work with local licensing authorities to reduce the time required, and the complexity of, applications.
• Open “pop-up” recruitment booths to engage women in spaces where they feel comfortable.
• Better understand to what extent third parties, including recruitment agencies and fleet partners, actively
recruit women—and offer incentives to those that successfully tailor their outreach.
• Introduce diversity requirements for these third-party entities.
• Map out the onboarding process step-by-step for potential drivers, signposting the resources available tothem at each stage.
• Work with NGOs and other organizations to support women learning to drive; this could not only increase
women’s economic opportunities, but could also enable them to become more independent.

55

REOMMENDATIONS continued

CHALLENGE

Gaps in financial inclusion for women, particularly lower access to credit and insurance, are preventing
women from becoming drivers and may also hold back less affluent women from participating.
RECOMMENDATION

Drivers

To increase women’s financial inclusion, ride-hailing companies, together with the financial
sector and other stakeholders, could:• Better connect women with vehicle financing options, particularly short-term flexible options that reflect
many women’s irregular driving patterns and offer easy entry and exit options.
• Expand short-term rental programs that do not require major financial commitment from drivers.
• Connect women with insurers that have created targeted products for the sharing economy.
• Establish partnerships that offer drivers both commercial and discounted personal insurance to further
attract and retain women drivers.
• Work with insurers to facilitate access to health and general insurance for women and their families; this
could help meet the global gap in coverage while boosting sign-up and retention.
CHALLENGE

Women drivers lack access to the support structures that male drivers have, mainly because there
are fewer of them on the road.
RECOMMENDATION

To boost women’s knowledge of how to drive strategically and to build a support community,ride-hailing companies could:• Encourage the creation of informal peer support groups (such as through online messaging services) toallow women drivers to share tips and to engender a greater sense of community.
• Facilitate mentorship opportunities to connect seasoned driver-mentors (men and women) with newer
drivers to guide them through early challenges and help them build personalized driving strategies.
CHALLENGE

Most drivers understand that a key trade-off of the flexibility their self-employed status offers is theabsence of formal training. However, improved access to personal and professional development
opportunities could boost retention and help drivers better serve riders.
RECOMMENDATION

To help women drivers thrive in self-employment, ride-hailing companies—for mutual
benefit—could:• Signpost relevant training opportunities, such as financial acumen or personal security; or, where notavailable, partner with other companies and stakeholders to build tailored training specific to the needs ofsharing economy workers, such as cost and tax management.
• Build and disseminate a simple calculator to help drivers understand their individual driving cost structuresand how much they need to drive to turn a profit.
• Create an entrepreneurship or scholarship program for women drivers who also run separate businesses,
partnering with relevant organizations. Participants would receive advice, mentorship, and PR help for
their businesses, as well as access to an online community. This might also help attract other women
entrepreneurs to drive with Uber.

56

CHALLENGE

Another trade-off that ride-hailing drivers make involves limited access to benefits often associatedwith employment, such as health coverage, maternity or sick leave, and retirement funding. Morewomen than men reject sharing economy work due to the lack of benefits.
RECOMMENDATION

Drivers

To better attract and retain drivers and help them plan for the future, ride-hailing companies
might consider building pioneering solutions that could be used across the wider sharing
economy, such as:• Work with policymakers and other sharing economy platforms to design, test, and implement a system of
portable benefits drivers could carry across multiple platforms and apps.
• Partner with financial institutions to develop insurance, pension, and retirement products tailored forindependent contractors.

CHALLENGE

Women are more concerned than men about security in ride-hailing. They adapt their driving andriding patterns to mitigate perceived risk, reducing their income and mobility.
RECOMMENDATION

Security

To reduce women’s sense of insecurity when traveling—especially alone and/or at night—
ride-hailing companies could:• Raise awareness of existing security features, including more explicitly marketing the benefits of the data
trail, including location sharing options.
• Draw on best practices in security features from across the industry, such as enlarging the size of the driver
photo provided to riders in advance of their trip or introducing biometric driver identification.
• Partner with law enforcement agencies to allow riders to enable in-app information sharing, particularly
when emergency response is requested.
• Actively engage with drivers and riders, perhaps through virtual or online forums, to better understand thenature and impact of security incidents faced by users.
• Get more women drivers on the road to improve the likelihood of women riders and drivers being
matched.

57

REOMMENDATIONS continued

CHALLENGE

Riders tend to be more affluent, but the affordability of ride-hailing remains a challenge for some.
Less affluent women are less able to access ride-hailing services.
RECOMMENDATION

RidersTo open ride-hailing to lower-income populations and accelerate development gains, ridehailing companies could:• Expand lower-cost ride-hailing options, such as smaller cars (Ola Micro in India) and ridesharing (Didi
Hitch, UberPOOL in China).
• Build support for women’s use of affordable options that they might not access for cultural reasons (forexample, riding a motorcycle).
• Further innovate with hybrid methods (such as UberHOP in the Philippines or Lyft Shuttle in the UnitedStates) that can reduce fares for women—while acknowledging that riders may have to trade-off lower
cost against other factors such as longer journey times.

CHALLENGE

The low representation of women employees and persistent internal gender challenges characterizeboth the technology and transportation industries.
RECOMMENDATION

Crosscutting

To build a diverse pool of corporate talent that better represents its users, ride-hailingcompanies could:• Expand tangible diversity and inclusion commitments to better recruit, retain, and promote women in key
roles.
• Facilitate employer supported childcare.
• Obtain gender equality certification, such as the Economic Dividend for Gender Equality.
• Build understanding of—and buy-in for—the business case for working with women as drivers, users,
providers, and community members.
• Develop sponsorship and mentorship programs, as well as a flexible working culture and parental leave.
• Ensure a safe and harassment-free workspace for all.
• Sign the UN Women Empowerment Principles.
• Make a commitment to the UN’s “HeforShe” solidarity campaign.
CHALLENGE

Current marketing language and imagery may inadvertently reinforce gender norms. It also fails tocapitalize on the sense of adventure and independence women feel as both drivers and riders.
RECOMMENDATION

To make women feel more welcome and to reduce the cultural stigma associated withwomen driving for a living, ride-hailing companies could:• Tailor their communications to ensure gender neutrality, using gender-appropriate marketing channels toimprove outreach to women.
• Target groups of women identified by this report as finding the most value in ride-hailing, such as mothers
traveling with children.

58• Use case studies and campaigns to show how ride-hailing can increase women’s ability to travel securely
and independently, at night and to places they would not otherwise have been able to access.
• Create role models by championing their pioneering women drivers.
• Use the words and experiences of women riders and drivers such as fun and revolutionary to portray thebenefits of driving for women.

Crosscutting

CHALLENGE

The lack of sex-disaggregated data makes it difficult to understand how women use ride-hailing or
to innovate to better serve this core user and provider group.
RECOMMENDATION

Applying a gender focus to internal and external research, in line with local legal frameworks7
and privacy best practices, could help ride-hailing companies to:• Better target their services to women’s needs and preferences and so grow the ride-hailing market.
• Continue partnering and sharing data with local and regional governments to help them understandwhere the current “access deserts” are for women and plan infrastructure improvements accordingly.
CHALLENGE

Many drivers work across multiple ride-hailing apps—as do some riders. Therefore, many of thechallenges faced by ride-hailing companies are common.
RECOMMENDATION

To access a wider pool of knowledge and build economies of scale, ride-hailing companies
could:• Share noncommercially sensitive best practices with each other, for example, on driver and rider security.
• Work with third parties to formulate industrywide best practices and recommendations to tackle crossindustry problems such as driver access to insurance, benefits, and skills development.
• Collectively partner with local government and policymakers to develop joint policy approaches to tacklingharassment.
CHALLENGE

Flexibility is often considered a benefit of sharing economy business models for women. However,this also emerges as the top benefit of ride-hailing for men.
RECOMMENDATION

To help shift the prevailing unpaid care paradigm, ride-hailing companies could:• Identify and champion male drivers who, for example, use the flexibility provided by the role to shoulder agreater burden of childcare or household work.
• Ensure that driver recruitment marketing materials pitch the benefit of flexibility in a gender-neutral way.
• Research whether sharing economy models do indeed redistribute care responsibilities.

7

For example, the General Data Protection Regulation.

59

Appendix A:
Country Deep Dives

Egypt

India

Indonesia

page 61

page 69

page 77

MexicoSouth
AfricaUnitedKingdom

page 93page 101

page 8560

ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT continued

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

Arab Republic of Egypt

61

Arab Republic of Egypt
FIGURE A.1: KEY GENDER INDICATORS IN ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT

Women in the labor
force

Financial and digital
inclusion

Key economic/
market indicators

Gender context

23%

6%

96 million

67%

Female share of the labor
force (World Bank 2017a)

Gender gap in Internet
usage (Statista 2017)

Population (UN 2016)

Female literacy ratecompared to 83% for men(World Bank 2013)

57%
Women in informal
employment as proportionof total nonagricultural
employment(World Bank 2016b)

2%$3,47834%

Gender gap in mobile
phone ownership(GSMA 2015)

GDP per capita(World Bank 2016a)

Percentage of women
who have experienced
physical and/or sexual
violencea (2014)

47%

9%

114

134/144

Employed female
population in selfemployment(World Bank 2017c)

Women aged 15+ with abank account compared
to 19% of men(World Bank 2014)

Mobile subscriptions per
100 people(World Bank 2016c)

WEF Gender Equality
Rankings (WEF 2017)a62

From an intimate partner atsome time in their life.

ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT continued

COUNTRY CONTEXT
Egypt demonstrates enormous potential for ride-hailing. While average Egyptian income levels
are relatively low—per capita gross domestic product (GDP) was $3,478 in 2016 (World Bank
2016a)—the population is young and 43 percent live in urban areas (World Bank 2016e). Mobile
phone ownership is high, with access broadly equal among men and women (GSMA 2016). (Seefigure A.1 for an overview.)
Egypt ranks 134 out of 144 countries on the World Economic Forum’s Gender Equality Index(WEF 2017) and women trail men in literacy, as well as measures of financial and digital inclusion(see figure A.1). Egyptian women often face cultural barriers in the pursuit of employment. A
husband, for example, has the legal right to deny financial support to a wife for leaving home
without consent. Some women may also avoid situations in which they might have to come into
close proximity with unrelated males. Women make up less than a quarter of the labor force,and of those employed in nonagricultural roles, 23 percent are in the informal sector (WorldBank 2017a, 2017b).
Transportation is a challenge in Egypt’s cities. Even though vehicle ownership is low—Egypt
ranks 131 out of 191 countries with 45 motor vehicles per 1,000 residents (Nation Master 2014)—
traffic congestion in major cities is severe. Cairo is the fourth most congested city in the world,
according to the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS), the national
statistics agency, a situation that costs more than 3 percent of nationwide GDP (Schafer 2014).
Public transportation is developing rapidly—Cairo’s metro carries 1.1 billion passengers a year,
making it the 13th busiest in the world (UITP 2015) and in Alexandria, the number of buses grewfrom 468 in 2014 to 732 in 2017 (Egypt Today 2017a; El-Din 2017). However, public transportation’s
reach is limited and women often avoid using it where possible due to security concerns: 87
percent do not feel safe using public transportation (UN Women 2013). The government has
introduced women-only carriages and buses to address harassment, but critics argue that thesemeasures do not address the root cause of sexual harassment and may raise risks for womenusing mixed carriages and buses.
Ride-hailing is becoming an increasingly popular way for affluent women to avoid unwanted
attention. No robust data on market share exist, but the head of operations at Careem believes
ride-hailing companies account for 2 percent of the overall transportation market (El-Din 2017),
suggesting room for further expansion, particularly through pooled ride-sharing approaches thatwould reduce congestion. Uber started operating in Egypt in November 2014 and is one of thelargest ride-hailing companies in Egypt with over 100,000 drivers and more than 2 million active
users (Gaballa 2017). Careem, a Dubai-based company, has a strong presence with operationsin 14 cities in Egypt and 80,000 drivers (Egypt Today 2017b). Ousta, a local ride-hailing company,
operates in 11 cities with 3,000 drivers (Rashad 2016).

63“When womenbring home
some income,they bring somestability to theirhome. Theirhusbands usually
appreciate it
as they reducethe burden off
their shoulders
and have more
respect for theirwomen. Women
who makemoney have an
upper hand at
home.”—Egyptian woman driverArab Republic of Egypt
WOMEN DRIVERS IN EGYPT
Driving for a living is far from a typical paid occupation for women in Egypt. However, womenride-hailing drivers generate a healthy boost to their incomes on average, despite driving far
more selectively than their male peers. For some women, driving offers a route to vehicle
access, and for others, a means to support their own entrepreneurial ambitions. (See box A.1 fora driver’s story.)
For drivers, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…open new income generation opportunities in nontraditional sectors for women…offer women a route to vehicle ownership or access…build inclusion through improved digital and financial skills, and access to documentation…allow women to work around other commitments…allow women to build and run their own businesses

Strongly supported by the data

Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

Benefits for Women as Drivers
Who drives?
Just 0.2 percent of drivers who use the Uber app are women, according to thecompany’s data, compared with 2.3 percent on average across the markets studied.
The women drivers surveyed tend to be better educated than their male peers (79 percent havecompleted a university degree compared with 60 percent of their male peers); they are also older
and less likely to be married. Limited wider work opportunities in Egypt may have attracted these

79%
Women drivers have
university degrees

women to become drivers.

What motivates women to drive?
The women drivers surveyed enter ride-hailing from a variety of backgrounds: 46
percent were employed full- or part-time, 13 percent worked for themselves, anda further 25 percent were unemployed. The opportunity to generate income on a convenient

83%
Women drivers

schedule is what typically attracts them: 83 percent identify the ability to work at times that suit

surveyed cite flexibility

them as a key benefit.

as a key benefit

64

ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT continued

When do women drive?
Women drivers surveyed are less likely than men to rely on Uber for their entire
income, and they tend to drive more selectively. They are less likely than men towork at night and almost half as likely to log on every day. This results in male drivers working 16
percent more hours than female drivers on average, according to Uber data. Some of the women

16%
Additional hours driven by

drivers surveyed drive using the Uber app in addition to other income-generating activities: amen over women per weekquarter also drive with other companies; 13 percent hold part-time jobs; and another 13 percent

on average

run their own separate businesses. One driver-entrepreneur interviewed described how she has
now become an Uber “partner,” with three cars that she rents out to other drivers.

What do women earn?
Perhaps because they drive more selectively, the proportion of women drivers
surveyed who make a robust profit from driving is 38 percent, behind their male peers
at 49 percent—although all make at least some profit. Women moving into ride-hailing see theirearnings increase by an estimated 29 percent on average—the highest of the six countries studied.
This rise equates to approximately $42 a month, or around 15 percent of average monthly percapita income in Egypt. This exceeds the 15 percent boost for male drivers, possibly because men’s$42
Average monthly
earnings increase forwomen drivers

wages were higher on average in their previous work. However, even those women employed
previously receive an 11 percent increase in earnings.

How do women spend their earnings?
Almost all women drivers surveyed (92 percent) say the money they earn throughdriving allows them to buy goods or services that were previously beyond their means.
Two-thirds of these women say they use the money for basic needs such as food and rent, while
the remaining women use it to improve their living standards. For many women, driving also
eventually provides the means to purchase a car, which can give them more personal and economic
freedom. Forty-six percent of those surveyed are paying for the vehicle they drive through a loan in92%
Make new or additionalpurchases they could
not otherwise afford

their own name, slightly higher than the 42 percent using a car they already owned.

Box A.1: Driver Profile

Soheir, 60, the Pioneer (Cairo, Egypt)
mainly to use her spare time “constructively,” and that generating income was asecondary consideration. Soheir enjoys the flexibility to log on and drive when she
wants to, and prizes being her own boss. Her challenges involve cultural acceptanceof female drivers and dealing with difficult passengers, but believes that her “age,experience, and character” enable her to cope. She believes ride-hailing companies needto do more to attract and train female drivers.

65

PHOTO: AHMED HAMDY HASSAN

Soheir is a retired teacher and interior designer. She says she signed up with Uber

Arab Republic of Egypt
Barriers for Women as Drivers
Women who become drivers in Egypt are pioneers who battle deep-rooted cultural barriers. For
some women, working outside the home is a challenge; one exacerbated by the requirement towork in public near men. Personal security is also a concern for many women drivers, and a lackof access to digital and financial resources could prevent less educated women from signing up.

Does society encourage women drivers?
The biggest barriers women face in becoming drivers relate to societal perceptions,particularly vis-à-vis security. Women not only have to challenge cultural norms about
what represents appropriate work for women, but they might also have to deal with the objectionsof those closest to them. A fifth of women drivers surveyed say their families or friends disapprovedof their decision to drive—a number that is likely higher among women who did not successfully
sign up to drive with Uber. Asked how they would feel if a female family member wanted to sign up
as a driver, 57 percent of male drivers surveyed say they would be unhappy—half of these men view

57%
Male drivers surveyed
would be unhappy if afemale family member
wanted to sign up

driving as unsuitable for women and others cited security concerns.
Ride-hailing companies may be unintentionally reinforcing cultural“To recruit more women into ride-hailing,norms through marketing materials that use masculine Arabic words

companies need to explain to women what is

like captain to describe drivers. Reem Wael, the former executive director

expected from them using a language that theyof HarassMap, an anti-harassment NGO in Egypt, notes that “a changeof perception is the only thing that can actually increase women’s
participation, and companies can do this—while publicizing for a service,

will understand … and make it more visible forwomen that they are welcomed in working as
ride-hailing drivers in Egypt.”—Sally Zohney, GIZ gender advisor

they can push for gender equality as well.”

How much of a concern is personal security?
Security is a significant concern: 71 percent of women drivers surveyed identify it as a
key reason more women do not become drivers. A third of women respondents also
say they would drive more hours if there was an Uber number they could call for help if they run

71%
Women drivers surveyed

into trouble. Nevertheless, of the drivers surveyed, men were more likely than women to say they

identify safety and security

had felt unsafe in the past three months, perhaps because they drive more at night and because

concerns as a reason more

the country context might affect men differently.

women do not sign up

Are women digitally or financially excluded?
Access to productive assets is limited for many women in Egypt, and close to a fifthof women drivers surveyed identify getting the money to buy or rent a vehicle as achallenge to signing up. However, Egyptian women are more likely to own their own vehicles

17%
Women drivers surveyed

than peers globally, although 46 percent are paying off a loan in their own names on theircite getting the money

vehicles. They also tend to be well-educated, so it is perhaps unsurprising that none identified

to buy/rent a vehicle as asecuring either insurance or a driving license as a challenge.

major barrier to signing up

66

ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT continued

WOMEN RIDERS IN EGYPT
Most women in Egypt feel unsafe on public transportation and women riders often“Women have a positive perception

choose ride-hailing to allay their personal security concerns. Many choose ride-of ride-hailing due to their trust in

hailing over traditional taxis because it offers cost transparency and comfort. Just

the service.”over a quarter believe Uber allows them to be more independent.

—Muhammad Al Fouly, Executive
Director, UN Global Compact Network

For riders, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…reduce security risks for women when traveling…improve access to employment, and a range of services including local amenities and healthcare…help women budget for their broad, complex travel needs by providing greater cost transparency…increase women’s mobility if companies can attract more women drivers
Strongly supported by the data

Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

Benefits for Women as Riders
Why do women choose ride-hailing?
Women account for an estimated 40 percent of current Uber riders. They are primarily
attracted for safety, comfort, and convenience reasons. Fifty-two percent of womenriders surveyed say they first tried the app because they could see the driver’s name and registrationin advance, and 51 percent strongly identify with booking through Uber as a safe option. This
compares with 33 percent of all women survey respondents in this study. Given the dangers ofusing public transportation—both in transit, and when walking to and from bus stops—ride-hailingis perhaps unsurprisingly seen by many women as a preferable alternative. Thirty-nine percentof the women riders surveyed identify ride hailing as faster and more convenient than public
transportation, and 27 percent say it helps them get to places public transportation does not serve.
A further 27 percent believe that Uber allows them to be more independent.
Cost transparency and comfort are key factors in women’s decisions to use ride-hailing overtaxi alternatives in Egypt. Almost half of women riders surveyed in Egypt (49 percent) say
knowing the cost when booking is a major benefit of using Uber. In contrast, just 24 percent
say Uber is cheaper than traditional taxis, compared with 46 percent of women across the six
countries studied. Some women riders also complain about the poor treatment they receive fromtraditional taxi drivers, including refusals to turn on the air conditioning or their meters. Avoiding
confrontation is perhaps especially important for the 46 percent of women riders surveyed who
use Uber to travel with children under the age of 18. Overall, just over a third of women surveyed(35 percent) strongly believe Uber helps them move around with children.

67

27%
Women say Uber helps
them get to places public
transportation does notserve

Arab Republic of Egypt
How do women use ride-hailing?
Egyptian women take approximately the same number of trips per month as men,according to Uber data, but those surveyed say they use it for a broader range of trips.
The most popular trip is visiting relatives or friends (63 percent), while more than half of womensurvey respondents use the app to go out at night or go shopping. Women and men use ride-hailingservices for commuting almost equally. Women are more likely to ride to access health or childcare
services, underscoring the broader household responsibilities that they shoulder. For many trips,

63%
Women riders visit
friends/relatives using
the Uber app

using Uber is a substitute for regular taxis—a decision often driven by a desire for increased comfort.

Barriers for Women as Riders
Women riders in Egypt identify security and expense as the major reasons they do not take more
trips. While they view ride-hailing as a safer option, personal security remains a concern for
women traveling in Egypt, and the lack of a number to call in the event of an emergency is an
issue for many. While overall cost is not women’s biggest concern, dynamic pricing prevents manyfrom making trips, despite their relative affluence.

How much of a concern is personal security?

percent, respectively). However, this is below the global average of 32 percent, supporting the fact

57%

that most women in Egypt see ride-hailing as a safer transportation option. Women are security

Women riders surveyed

Women riders do not avoid traveling at night, but they are more likely than men tohave felt unsafe in a ride-hailing vehicle in the past three months (25 percent versus 16

conscious, and more than half of respondents identify the lack of a number to call in the event ofan emergency as a reason they do not take more trips (57 percent). Putting more women driverson the road is one potential way to address security concerns, but just 4 percent of women riders
surveyed in Egypt identify this as a barrier to taking more trips, compared with 17 percent of all

identify the lack of anumber to call if they havea problem as a reason not
to take more trips

women riders across all markets. Anecdotal evidence suggests that some riders question women
drivers’ skills, but 36 percent of women surveyed say they would be more likely to use the Uber app
if they had the option of selecting a woman driver. Approximately thirty percent of women riders
also say they would prefer a woman driver when traveling alone or at night.

Is cost a factor that holds women back?
Affordability is a key impediment to female mobility around the world, and does affectwomen’s use of ride-hailing in Egypt. Seventy percent of women identify the expenseof dynamic pricing as a deterrent—compared with 58 percent of women across all six countries.
However, riders tend to fall into higher sociodemographic groups in Egypt, and the Uber app is often
a substitute for traditional taxis. While 38 percent of women riders across the world cite cost as a
key benefit of ride-hailing, this is true of just 16 percent of women surveyed in Egypt.

68

70%
Women riders identify
dynamic pricing as abarrier to taking moretrips

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

India
INDIA continued

69

IndiaFIGURE A.2: KEY GENDER INDICATORS IN INDIA

Women in the labor
force

Financial and digital
inclusion

Key economic/
market indicators

Gender context

25%

12%

1.32 billion

59%

Female share of the labor
force (World Bank 2017a)

Gender gap in Internet
usage (UNICEF 2017)

Population(World Bank 2016c)

Female literacy ratecompared to 79% for men(UNESCO 2011)88%
Women in informal
employment as proportionof total nonagricultural
employment(World Bank 2012)36%$1,71037%

Gender gap in mobile
phone ownership(GSMA 2016)

GDP per capita(World Bank 2016a)

Percentage of women
who have experienced
physical and/or sexual
violencea (OECD 2014)

83%

43%

87

108/144

Employed female
population in selfemployment(World Bank 2017b)

Women aged 15+ with abank account compared
to 63% of men(World Bank 2014)

Mobile subscriptions per
100 people(World Bank 2016b)

WEF Gender Equality
Rankings (WEF 2017)a70

From an intimate partner atsome time in their life.

INDIA continued

COUNTRY CONTEXT
The population in India is young and increasingly urban; one-third of the population now lives inand around cities, up from just over a quarter in 1996 (World Bank 2016). Traffic congestion andpollution are serious problems in India, costing the economy $10.8 billion annually (Agarwal and
Chaturvedi 2016), despite low overall levels of car ownership of 18 per 1,000 residents (Nation
Master 2014).
As noted in figure A.2, women are much less likely to be literate, own a mobile phone, or havea bank account compared with men. India also has one of the widest gender gaps in Internet
access in the world, and in rural areas, female Internet access is 70 percent lower than formen (Facebook 2015). Women’s labor force participation rates are low, with women’s work
concentrated in the informal economy (World Bank 2012, 2017a)
Security is a major issue for women: a UN survey in Delhi (UN Women 2013) finds that 95
percent of women and girls feel unsafe in public spaces, and over half of men admit to having
sexually harassed women or perpetrated acts of violence against them. But danger is notconfined to the streets: 37 percent of women in India have experienced sexual or physicalviolence from an intimate partner (OECD 2014).
Still, some experts indicate that there is a risk that security concerns in the context oftransportation could be overplayed and become self-fulfilling. Meenu Vadera, CEO of Sakha
Cabs & Women on Wheels, describes the idea that roads are dangerous for women as a “myth.”
Dr. Ranjana Kumari, director of the Centre for Social Research states, “We need to break theimage that women face violence on roads; it is more of a perception problem due to inherent
patriarchal design which encourages only certain jobs for women.”
The ride-hailing market is growing rapidly despite these issues. The number of rides per year
completed using apps such as Ola and Uber—which account for approximately 95 percent of
the market (Bhattacharyya 2017)—quadrupled to approximately 500 million between 2015 and2016 (Hector 2016). And the number of app users should more than triple between 2015 and2021, from approximately 15 million to 51 million (Statista 2017), as smartphone penetration,
urbanization, and familiarity with the model rise (see figure A.2).

71“Most of theriders are okaywith a female
driver and are
curious to know
more about us.
But some of them
are doubtful andask if we are able
to drive well.”—Woman driver, India

IndiaWOMEN DRIVERS IN INDIA
Very few women work as drivers of any sort in India. Women who become ride-hailing drivers
must often overcome cultural barriers in the form of stereotypical views on gender roles. Womenare attracted to the flexibility offered by ride-hailing, but gaining access to a vehicle is one of thebiggest barriers to becoming a driver.
For drivers, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…open new income generation opportunities in nontraditional sectors for women…offer women a route to vehicle ownership and access…build inclusion through improved digital and financial skills and access to documentation…allow women to work around other commitments

Strongly supported by the data

Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

NOTE: NONE OF THE WOMEN DRIVERS SURVEYED ARE CURRENTLY RUNNING THEIR OWN BUSINESSES IN INDIA.

Box A.2: Driver Profile

Aarti, 27, the Pioneer (Delhi, India)
When Aarti’s mother died, her family forced her to marry at theage of 17. But she ran away and tried various jobs until she foundan NGO that trains women to drive. When she decided to takeup driving as a profession, her neighbors and family criticized her,but she was determined to succeed and now has a “differentiatedidentity of her own,” she says. Ride-hailing is her primary sourceof income, and she values the flexibility driving offers, allowing
her to take time out to manage her household. She faced
steep administrative barriers to signing up, from applying for aauthority staff. As a driver, she is concerned by the change inincome after a transition to a new incentive structure, and fears
that other women doubt her ability to drive safely.

72

PHOTO: FEYGINFOTO

commercial license to dealing with “discouraging” transportation

INDIA continued

Benefits for Women as Drivers
Who drives?
There are very few women ride-hailing drivers in India on the Uber app. Of the eightcurrently active, the seven who responded to the survey had all been driving with
Uber for longer than six months. At an average of 34 years, they are slightly older than theirmale peers.

What motivates women to drive?
The seven drivers surveyed in India all say that they were motivated to sign up
because the “money is good.” They were also attracted by the flexibility (five outof seven women); by driving with a well-known company (3/7); and because they like driving(3/7). Five of the seven now say that flexibility and meeting new people are the main benefits.

7/7
Women drivers surveyed
cite the “good money” asa key attraction to ridehailing—but flexibility

Anecdotal evidence suggests some women who start driving for ride-hailing platforms migrate

replaces money as the key

to steadier driving options with hotels or other employers.

benefit after joining

When do women drive?
The women drivers surveyed are more likely than men to log on every day, but they

Women drivers surveyed

drive 35 percent fewer hours than men per week on average. Although women

drive a third fewer hours

surveyed all typically drive during the day, one of those interviewed said she enjoys driving atcompared to mennight because it allows her to “spend time with my family during the day.”What do women earn?
India is the only country studied where both men and women drivers surveyedreport a significant dip in earnings on average after entering the ride-hailingindustry. Just under a third of both women and men drivers say their take home pay is higher
than it was before signing up with Uber, with some of those interviewed noting that achange in incentive structures meant their earnings had declined sharply over recent months.

6/7
Women drivers surveyed
earn a robust profit

However, six of the seven women drivers surveyed earn a robust profit, compared with lessthan half of their male peers.

How do women spend their earnings?
After starting to drive, five out of seven drivers surveyed identify themselves as themain earners in their households and say that proceeds from driving are the only
income they bring home. While men typically spend their earnings on improving their living
standards, more than half of the women say the additional income helps them cover their basic
needs. This suggests ride-hailing can have a positive impact on family life.

73

4/7
Women drivers surveyed
use earnings to cover basicneedsIndiaBarriers for Women as Drivers
Driving is a male-dominated profession in India. Women’s access to transportation roles is limited primarily by bureaucracy anda lack of financial inclusion, which make it difficult for women to sign up. Security concerns do not emerge as a major issue forthose already driving, but they could be limiting interest among potential drivers. Due to the low numbers of women drivers
surveyed, the data featured here should be considered with caution.

Does society encourage women drivers?
The small number of women drivers in India underscores that driving is not a common
profession for women. None of the women surveyed say that driving is unsuitablefor women, but three of the seven believe the fact that men typically hold driving roles in India is

3/7
Women drivers said morea barrier to more women signing up. A third of male drivers, on the other hand, think driving is

women do not sign up

unsuitable for women. However, men were half as likely as women to point to cultural norms as the

because driving is usuallyreason women did not sign up to drive.

done by men in their culture

How much of a concern is personal security?
Security concerns do not appear to trouble the women already driving on the Uber app in India, although four of theseven would like to see Uber introduce a number to call if they have a problem. A further three of the seven women
drivers believe safety and security concerns explain why more women do not sign up. And the local experts interviewed tend toagree that the perception of threats keeps women away from the driving profession.

How difficult is it to sign up?
The bureaucracy involved in signing up commercial drivers in India is a major hurdle

Obtaining documentation

for women in the focus groups. Obtaining documentation is a challenge for someis a major barrier for

women, especially those from lower sociodemographic backgrounds, and three of the seven

women

drivers surveyed identify getting a driver’s license as a major challenge. The mandatory waiting
period that exists between obtaining a private and commercial license has now been rescinded,9 but Revathi Roy, the CEO of Hey
Deedee, a last-mile parcel delivery service, notes that it caused “a huge drop in the funnel of female drivers,” and several states
have yet to adopt the decision. Meanwhile several other car regulations—from age to color to the type of vehicle that can be used
for ride-hailing work—remain in force.

Are women digitally or financially excluded?

“The learner’s test is a

Accessing a vehicle can be difficult for women in India: five out of seven womencomputerized test wherecite obtaining the money to buy or rent a vehicle as a key barrier. One of the drivers

you have to complete 10

interviewed says she had tried to get a loan to purchase a car but didn’t have the documentation
required by the bank, so she had to ask a relative to take out the loan in his name. And while fiveof the seven drivers are paying a loan off on the vehicle in their own names, the results do notindicate how many women find this too difficult a barrier to overcome. Digital inclusion may also
be a challenge for potential drivers.

questions in 10 minutes—
but women who did notcomplete secondary school
do not know how to use acomputer.”—Meenu Vadera, CEO,Sakha Cabs

9

In July 2017, the India Supreme Court struck down the two-year waiting period to convert a personal license into a commercial license. Several
states have yet to adopt this decision.

74

INDIA continued

WOMEN RIDERS IN INDIA
Indian women use the Uber app more frequently compared with their peers in the“Older women riders face a double

other markets studied, and value the service for improved access, convenience, anddisadvantage (to) overcome both thebarriers of gender bias and difficulty

independence. They view cost transparency, rather than the overall fare, as the key

in using technology.”

benefit of ride-hailing, but affordability is a concern and low-cost options such as—Parul Soni, Global Managing Partner,

UberGO and UberPOOL are particularly popular.

Thinkthrough Consulting

For riders, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…reduce safety risks for women when traveling…improve access to employment and a range of services including healthcare…help women budget for their broad, complex travel needs by providing greater cost transparency… increase women’s mobility if companies can attract more women drivers

Strongly supported by the data

Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

Benefits for Women as Riders
Why do women choose ride-hailing?
Women riders in India tend to be young and well-educated, and most belong
to households with higher-than-median incomes. They choose ride-hailing forconvenience, independence, and access, as well as certainty over cost. The key benefit women riders
cite is cost transparency (55 percent versus 42 percent of women globally). Cost negotiation is wellingrained in Indian commerce, but may be uncomfortable for many women, especially in public.

55%
Women riders surveyed
cite cost transparency as a
key benefit

The strongest positive association women have with the platform is that it allows them to booktravel quickly and easily (40 percent of respondents). A third of women (34 percent) also strongly
believe that ride-hailing allows them to be more independent, and 21 percent say that they are
now able to travel more. Improved access (getting to places not served by public transportation)
emerges as the second biggest hidden benefit of using ride-hailing.

How do women use ride-hailing?
According to Uber data, women riders make 15 percent more trips compared to men
on average per week. Three-quarters of women riders use ride-hailing to commute.
In India’s largest cities, women are more likely to use public transportation or walkto commute compared with men, so the relative affluence of riders surveyed is perhaps key

15%
Additional trips taken on

to their ability to travel in comparative comfort and safety. Women riders are more likely than

average per month bymen to use lower-cost options: only 26 percent of women report using UberX compared to 47

women over men

75

Indiapercent of men, while 83 percent of women riders use UberGO and 66 percent use ride-sharing
option UberPOOL. Women, however, are less likely to use UberMOTO compared to men. Just 4
percent of women use this service compared to 19 percent of men, perhaps because women are
not physically comfortable using UberMOTO or do not find it socially acceptable to be in direct
physical contact with an unknown male driver.
Women are also more likely than men to use ride-hailing for household activities, from shopping
and transporting relatives to accessing health services. Of the quarter of women riders who use
Uber to go out at night, 7 percent say they were unable to make the trip pre-Uber.

Barriers for Women as Riders
Women in India face security challenges in public spaces. Many would like to be able to contact
service providers directly in case of a problem, and demand for more women drivers is strong.
Cost transparency, rather than the overall fare, emerges as key benefit of ride-hailing.

How much of a concern is security?
Most Indian women feel unsafe in public spaces. However, women riders do notplace a great value on knowing that the vehicle is being tracked (only 24 percent
identified it as a major benefit) or knowing the driver’s name and registration before pickup (18percent)—well below the average for the six countries studied. They do, however, cite the lack of

43%
Women riders surveyed

a number to call in an emergency as the second most important reason for not using the service

say the lack of a number

more (43 percent, compared with 31 percent across all countries). (See Box 5.1—Panic Buttons.)

to call in an emergency

All women riders surveyed sometimes travel alone and 85 percent travel at night. Overall, justlimits the trips they makeover one-fifth of women riders say the lack of women drivers limits the number of trips they
make, but 55 percent would prefer a woman driver when traveling at night, 43 percent when they
are in an unfamiliar city, and 42 percent when traveling alone. Increasing the number of women
drivers on the road could encourage the women riders surveyed to take an estimated 56 percent
more trips on average per month.

Does expense hold women back?
Women riders in India are relatively affluent, perhaps explaining why they identify costtransparency as a more important benefit than cost itself. Nonetheless, 57 percent
of women riders in India identify dynamic pricing as a reason for not taking more trips, and 42
percent also say long-distance travel using ride-hailing is too expensive. Overall, a cost decreaseof 10 percent could encourage the women riders surveyed to take 57 percent more trips on
average per month. For a discussion of dynamic pricing. (See Box 2.6—Dynamic Pricing.)

76

57%
Estimated increase inmonthly trips associatedwith a price decrease of 10%

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

Indonesia

77Indonesia
FIGURE A.3: KEY GENDER INDICATORS IN INDONESIA

Women in the labor
force

Financial and digital
inclusion

Key economic/
market indicators

Gender context

38%

5%

261 million

94%

Female share of the labor
force (World Bank 2017a)

Gender gap in Internet
usage (Statista 2016)

Population(World Bank 2016e)

Female literacy ratecompared to 97% for men(World Bank 2016c)

85%
Women in informal
employment as proportionof total nonagricultural
employment(ILO 2017)10%$3,57033%

Gender gap in mobile
phone ownership(GSMA 2015)

GDP per capita(World Bank 2016a)

Percentage of women
who have experienced
physical and/or sexual
violencea (UNFPA 2017)

61%

38%

149

84/144

Employed female
population in selfemployment(World Bank 2017b)

Women aged 15+ with abank account compared
to 35% of men(World Bank 2014)

Mobile subscriptions per
100 people(World Bank 2016d)

WEF Gender Equality
Rankings (WEF 2017)a78

In her lifetime.

INDONESIA continued

COUNTRY CONTEXT
Indonesia is the fourth most populous country in the world (UN Population Division 2016).
Women make up just 38 percent of the labor force (ILO 2017), and 85 percent of women working
are employed in the informal sector (ILO 2016). According to the Asian Development Bank,a quarter of women not currently employed would like a job if they could find one (Schaner2016). Eighty-five percent of women work in the informal sector (World Bank), and 61 percent
of women are self-employed (World Bank). There is also an 18 percent gender gap in asset
ownership, and the median income of men is 11 percentage points higher than that of women(OECD 2015). (See figure A.3 for Indonesia’s key gender indicators.)
Women in Indonesia also lag behind men in digital and financial inclusion. While 76 percent of
women have access to a mobile phone or Internet at home, this is 10 percentage points below
the rate for men (GSMA 2015). Just 38 percent of women have bank accounts, although thisis marginally higher than men at 35 percent (World Bank 2014). Among those with accounts,
women have lower rates of saving and borrowing and less access to debit cards or mobile
money (World Bank 2014).
Transportation in Indonesia is not widely accessible. Car ownership is low, at around 68 cars per
1,000 people (Nation Master 2017). In Jakarta, 40 percent of the city is underserved by public
transportation because stations are so far from residential neighborhoods (Alphabeta 2017).
One survey finds that Jakarta has the fourth most dangerous public transportation system in
the world for women (Reuters 2014). The most widely used mode of transportation is by private
motorcycle (AIPEG 2017).

What do Jakarta
women want?
Better access,seamlessconnections,decreases intransit time,and good service
quality.”—How Jakarta’s Traffic
Affects Labor Market

The ride-hailing business in Indonesia is projected to grow from $800 million in 2015 to $5.6

Outcomes for Women andbillion in 2025, according to an analysis by Temasek Holdings, a Singapore investment company

People with Disabilities(Purnell 2016). Current ride-sharing apps available in Indonesia include Go-Jek, a widely used

(AIPEG 2017).

motorbike ride-sharing and delivery service, as well as Grab and Bluebird (Jana 2017). Although
women drivers have been encouraged to sign up, there are many barriers, such as sexual
harassment, cultural and religious biases, and safety risks, that have limited female participation.
Uber only entered Indonesia in late 2015, but in 2017 alone, it expanded from six cities to 34(Uber Indonesia 2017).

79Indonesia
WOMEN DRIVERS IN INDONESIA
Indonesia has the second highest absolute number of women drivers who use the Uber app
across the six countries studied—although, relative to men drivers, the number is still small. Someof those who enter ride-hailing might have had to overcome cultural barriers in the form ofstereotypical views on gender roles.
For drivers, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…open new income generation opportunities in nontraditional sectors for women…offer women a route into vehicle ownership or access…build inclusion through improved digital and financial skills, and access to documentation…allow women to work around other commitments…allow women to build and run their own businesses
Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

Strongly supported by the data

80

INDONESIA continued

Benefits for Women as Drivers
Who drives?
Just 1.5 percent of drivers using the Uber app in Indonesia are women. This compareswith 2.3 percent across the markets studied. The women drivers surveyed differ frommen drivers in several ways: they tend to be slightly older and better educated; they are alsomuch less likely to be married and have children compared with men.

What motivates women to drive?
Flexibility is the biggest initial attraction and remains the key benefit of driving for aliving: 82 percent of women drivers cite “I can work when I want” as the top reason
to sign up. The next most important attractions are “the money is good” (43 percent) and “I
like driving” (42 percent). Women drivers come from a variety of backgrounds: 34 percent were
working full-time for a company prior to driving with Uber; 17 percent and 12 percent wererunning their own separate businesses and working informally, respectively.

When do women drive?
Women spend less time on the road compared with men. Those surveyed are lesslikely to drive at night or to log on every day. And, according to Uber data, men on
average drive 16 percent more hours per week. This may reflect the need of women to balance
more commitments than men, which means they need to drive more selectively.

What do women earn?
The average income gain for women who enter ride-hailing in Indonesia is 12 percent,equivalent to an additional $14 per month, or approximately 5 percent of average percapita income in Indonesia. This exceeds the 4 percent boost for male drivers, possibly because
men’s wages were higher on average in their previous work. When only drivers who werepreviously in paid employment are considered, the premium women earn over men disappears.
However, the women surveyed are more likely to be making a robust profit from driving. This is

31%
Women drivers surveyed
are tertiary educated82%
Women drivers surveyed
cite flexibility as key
benefit16%
Average additional hours
driven by men

12%
Average monthly
earnings increase forwomen drivers

true of 47 percent of women compared with 40 percent of men.

How do women spend their earnings?
More than two thirds of women surveyed (69 percent) identify as the main earnerin their household, and 87 percent say their earnings have increased their spending
power. This is split between 52 percent who use their earnings to improve their living standards,

52%
Women drivers surveyed

such as paying for holidays or entertainment, and 35 percent who spend it on their basic needs,

use earnings to improve

such as food and rent.

their living standards

81Indonesia
Barriers for Women as Drivers
How much of a concern is personal security?
Security is the most significant barrier to more women becoming ride-hailing drivers
in Indonesia; 71 percent of women surveyed cite “safety and security concerns” asa reason more women do not sign up. Women drivers are also much more likely than men

71%
Women drivers believe
safety and security

to identify security concerns, the threat of sexual harassment, and limited knowledge on theconcerns dissuadeavailability of phone support as reasons why they do not drive more with Uber.

women from signing up

Does society encourage women drivers?
Gender roles anchored in social norms are a barrier to more women becoming drivers.

“I would not

Of the men drivers surveyed, 56 percent say they would be unhappy if a female family

recommend (that) mymember wanted to sign up. One of the men drivers interviewed states: “Most women drivers candrive, but they are not as skillful as men.”female family members
become drivers becauseof the long distances,

These attitudes appear to affect women’s desire to sign up and their ability to earn as well. Half

which are tiring forof the women drivers surveyed in Indonesia identify a lack of desire among women to become

women.”

drivers as a reason not more of them drive—the highest percentage across the six countries—Man driver, Indonesia

researched for this study. And 24 percent of women surveyed believe riders cancel trips on thembecause of their gender. Monica Oudang, the chief human resources officer at GO-Jek, also
believes that this perception is accurate: “because of the social stigma, many riders cancel on
female drivers.”

How difficult is it to sign up?
Focus group interviews indicate that some women struggle to sign up to drive. Just

“The support number is

11 percent of women drivers surveyed identify obtaining insurance as a challenge,

hard to reach while we aresimilar to the all-country average. However, one woman driver reports that it isworking, and then the only

difficult to contact Uber when issues arise. “The support number was always busy and hard toreach while we are working, and then the only option is email,” she says. Another driver said it
was difficult to go to an Uber office for in-person verification.

82

option is email.”—Indonesian woman driverINDONESIA continued

WOMEN RIDERS IN INDONESIA
Almost three in five Uber riders in Indonesia are women, the highest of the six countries in the
study. They tend to be better educated, younger, and less likely to be married or have children
than their male peers. Women primarily use ride-hailing to commute, and cite low costs as amajor benefit.
For riders, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…reduce security risks for women when traveling…improve access to employment and a range of services including local amenities and healthcare…help women budget for their broad, complex travel needs by providing greater cost transparency…increase women’s mobility if companies can attract more women drivers

Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

Strongly supported by the data83

Indonesia

74%

Benefits for Women as Riders
Why do women use ride-hailing?
Women account for an estimated 57 percent of current Uber riders in Indonesia. Thosesurveyed identify pricing as the major reason to use ride-hailing: 74 percent say they
were initially attracted to use the Uber app because of the cost, and 54 percent cite “knowing the

Women riders surveyedchoose ride-hailingbecause of pricecost when booking” as another major attraction.

How does ride-hailing compare with alternatives?
Sixty-five percent of women identify with Uber as being cheaper than traditional taxi
companies. A further 52 percent say ride-hailing is faster and more convenient thanpublic transport. Just over a quarter of women surveyed (26 percent) strongly believe the Uber app

65%
Women riders surveyed sayallows them to travel more than they could previously—and 19 percent that it allows them to be

ride-hailing is cheaper thanmore independent.

traditional taxi companies

How do women use ride-hailing?
Indonesian women are heavier users of the app than men, making 16 percent more
trips than men. Women primarily use ride-hailing to commute, with 66 percent of
women surveyed (compared with 55 percent of men) reporting that they use ride-hailing to travel
to and from jobs, the second highest of the six countries studied. Women also use ride-hailing fora broader range of reasons than men, including travel to transportation hubs, to visit family and66%
Women riders surveyeduse Uber to commute

friends, and to go shopping.

Does expense hold women back?

63%

Although many of the women surveyed cite low fares as a current benefit, 64 percent

Estimated increaseof women riders say dynamic pricing is a deterrent to greater use. Likewise, 32 percent

in monthly trips

Barriers for Women as Riders

identify the overall cost as a reason to take fewer trips. According to the women riders surveyed, acost decrease of 10 percent would encourage them to take 63 percent more trips on average per

associated with a pricedecrease of 10%

month.

How much of a concern is personal security?
Both women and men in Indonesia are less likely than riders in other markets to taketrips at night—such trips account for just 8 percent of those taken by women according
to Uber data. Just over a quarter of women riders surveyed (26 percent) identify concerns oversexual harassment as a reason to take fewer trips. Over a third of both men and women also
identify poor driving skills as a deterrent to using Uber more frequently. And, while relatively few
women riders (13 percent) surveyed say a lack of women drivers stops them riding more, over a third
say they would prefer a woman driver when traveling alone or at night. That said, during the focus
groups, some women riders said they feel unsafe when picked up by a woman driver.

84

26%
Women riders surveyed
say sexual harassment
concerns stop themtaking more trips

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

Mexico85

MexicoFIGURE A.4: KEY GENDER INDICATORS IN MEXICO

Women in the labor
force

Financial and digital
inclusion

Key economic/
market indicators

Gender context

37%

4%

128 million

93%

Female share of the labor
force (ILO 2017)

Gender gap in Internet
usage (eMarketer 2014)

Population(World Bank 2017d)

Female literacy ratecompared to 96% for men(World Bank 2015a)

58%
Women in informal
employment as proportionof total nonagricultural
employment(ILO 2017)6%$8,20947%

Gender gap in mobile
phone ownership(GMSA 2015)

GDP per capita(World Bank 2016a)

Percentage of women
who have experienced
physical and/or sexual
violencea (OECD 2014)

33%

39%

88

81/144

Employed female
population in selfemployment(World Bank 2017b)

Women aged 15+ with abank account compared
to 39% of men(World Bank 2014)

Mobile subscriptions per
100 people(World Bank 2016c)

WEF Gender Equality
Rankings (WEF 2017)a86

From an intimate partner atsome time in their life.

MEXICO continued

COUNTRY CONTEXT
Ride-hailing seems to present opportunities for income generation for women in Mexico,
particularly given the high levels of social acceptance for women drivers compared with othercountries studied. Despite having similar levels of education as men, only 37 percent of Mexican
women are in the labor force (ILO 2017)—and of those, 58 percent are employed in the informal
sector (ILO 2016). Teresa Inchaústegui, director of the Mexico City Women’s Institute says, “In
Mexico it is very hard to find a part-time job, hence for women, working as drivers could be very
helpful.”According to OECD data (2017), young women (aged 16 to 24) are four times as likely as men
to be out of education, employment, or training. Most women in paid work are employed

their commutes on public transportation (OECD 2017). Women-only train carriages and buses“In Mexico it
is very hard tofind a part-timejob, hence forwomen, working
as drivers could
be very helpful.”

are available, although limited, and “pink taxi” services, with women drivers who cater only to—Teresa Inchaústegui,

informally, and their median earnings are almost 17 percent below their male counterparts,
widening to 48 percent for self-employed workers (OECD 2017). (See figure A.4 for key genderindicators in Mexico.)
For riders, using public transportation entails personal security risks. Mexico City’s public
transportation system has been ranked the second-most dangerous for women in the world(Thomson Reuters 2014), and 48 percent of women report having been sexually harassed duringother women, are available in some areas, including Mexico City.
Ride-hailing services successfully tapped into the demand for a more secure, relatively affordable
means of transportation for Mexico’s women: the number of riders (both women and men) is
forecasted to grow 62 percent by 2021 (Statista 2017b). Mexico is the third largest market for
Uber, after the United States and Brazil. Other ride-hailing companies in Mexico include Easy
Taxi, Cabify, and Yaxi (Valenzia 2017). The World Resource Institute (2018) has documented 16
policies across cities in Mexico that address ride-hailing or on-demand buses.

87

Director, the Mexico City
Women’s InstituteMexicoWOMEN DRIVERS IN MEXICO
The transportation industry in Mexico remains heavily male-dominated. While relatively few
women have become ride-hailing drivers, those who do become drivers receive a moderate
income boost (although this boost is smaller for those previously in formal employment). Women
drivers enjoy the flexibility that driving offers and close to half describe it as an “easy job.”
For drivers, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…open new income generation opportunities in nontraditional sectors for women…offer women a route into vehicle ownership or access…build inclusion through improved digital and financial skills, and access to documentation…allow women to work around other commitments…allow women to build and run their own businesses

Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

Strongly supported by the data

88

MEXICO continued

Benefits for Women as Drivers
Who drives?
Just 5.2 percent of drivers who use the Uber app in Mexico are women, according
to company data—although this is the highest overall proportion of the countries
studied. The women surveyed tend to be better educated than their male peers: 43 percent have

43%
Women drivers surveyed

completed tertiary education, compared with 31 percent of male peers. They are also less likely tohave completed tertiary

be married, and less likely to have children under 18.

education

What motivates women to drive?
Prior to signing up with Uber, over half of the women drivers surveyed worked fulltime for a company, and 13 percent worked informally. Many women are attracted
to the industry by the “good money” (47 percent) and because they see it as an “easy job” (49percent)—the latter is cited by just 15 percent of women drivers across the six countries studied.
Thirteen percent of women drivers run separate businesses in addition to driving.

When do women drive?
Women tend to drive fewer hours compared with men. Of those women surveyed,
54 percent log on every day, compared with 66 percent of men. Overall, according toUber data, men drive 15 percent more hours per week compared with women, and the share of
total driving hours they spend on the road at night is also 5 percent higher than women’s.

49%
Women drivers are
attracted to ride-hailingbecause they view it as
an “easy job”

15%
Additional hours driven
by men per week on
average

What do women earn?
Women who move into ride-hailing see their earnings increase by an estimated 11
percent on average—equivalent to approximately $56 per month. For men, the income
boost is smaller at 7 percent, possibly because they received higher pay in previous work. However,
the increase for women is the smallest observed in the six countries studied—and drops to just 5
percent for those women previously in formal employment. The women drivers surveyed do not see
their earnings grow as much as anticipated: 47 percent cite the “good money” as a reason to signup, but just 8 percent identify it as a current benefit. This gap in their expectations is three times aswide as the six-country average. Women are also less likely than men to make a robust profit from

$56
Average monthly
earnings increase forwomen moving into ridehailingdriving, possibly because they are less likely to rely on ride-hailing as their primary source of income.

How do women drivers spend their earnings?
Despite some dissatisfaction with the money they earn, almost all women drivers
surveyed (96 percent) say the earnings they get through Uber have boosted theirspending power. Sixty percent of women align this with their basic needs, such as food and rent,
while the remainder use the money to improve their living standards. And 37 percent of womensurveyed are also paying off a loan in their own name on the vehicle they drive.

89

96%
Women drivers say
driving has boosted theirspending powerMexicoBarriers for Women as Drivers
Women drivers remain very much in the minority in the ride-hailing industry in Mexico. Security isa major concern that prevents women from driving more. Women’s access to vehicles lags that ofmen, but cultural barriers are less elevated than in some other markets.

How much of a concern is personal security?
Security is a significant barrier to more women becoming ride-hailing drivers in
Mexico. Sixty-three percent of women drivers surveyed (and 51 percent of men) cite
safety and security concerns as reasons more women do not sign up to drive. And 33 percent
say security concerns stop them from driving more, slightly above the six-country average (26percent).

63%
Women drivers surveyed
identify safety and security
concerns as key reasons
more women do not sign up

Are women digitally or financially excluded?
More than a third of the women drivers surveyed (36 percent) identify a lack offinancial resources to purchase a car or vehicle as a major barrier to signing up with
Uber. The women drivers surveyed are almost half as likely to own their vehicle as their male

36%
Women drivers surveyed

peers; 50 percent have taken out a loan in their own name or in someone else’s to access theiridentified getting money

vehicle, while 11 percent are leasing or renting through a third party. However, just 1 percent

to buy/rent a vehicle as a

identified opening a bank account as a challenge.

major barrier to signing up

Does society encourage women drivers?
Just 1 percent of women surveyed, and 3 percent of men, identify unsuitability as amajor reason more women do not sign up as drivers. This compares with 10 percent
and 23 percent, respectively, across the six countries studied. Moreover, 61 percent of male drivers

61%
Men drivers surveyed say

sat they would be “happy” if a female family member wanted to drive—the highest figure in thethey would be “happy” ifstudy. That said, 24 percent of women say their friends or family disapproved of them becoming aa female family member

driver—also the highest figure observed.

wanted to drive

Are women struggling to sign up?
Some of the mandatory administrative tasks prove to be a challenge: for example,
17 percent of women surveyed in Mexico identify obtaining insurance as a barrier,ahead of the figure for women across all markets (12 percent), but below that of men in Mexico(24 percent). A further 7 percent of women surveyed identify the Uber onboarding process
as a struggle.

17%
Women drivers
surveyed identify
getting insurance as amajor sign-up barrier

90

MEXICO continued

WOMEN RIDERS IN MEXICO
The women who ride with Uber in Mexico tend to be relatively young and affluent. They travel
almost as much as men and value the convenience ride-hailing offers over public transportation,and the security features booking via an app provides over traditional taxis.
For riders, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…reduce security risks for women when traveling…improve access to employment and a range of services including local amenities and healthcare…help women budget for their broad, complex travel needs by providing greater cost transparency…increase women’s mobility if companies can attract more women drivers

Strongly supported by the data

Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

Benefits for Women as Riders
Why do women use ride-hailing?
Just under half (47 percent) of Uber riders in Mexico are women, according tocompany data. This is higher than the six-country average of 41 percent. The womenriders surveyed tend to be younger than their male peers; they are also less likely to be marriedor have children. Women in Mexico are primarily attracted to ride-hailing by the security features
and the convenience. On the security side, 49 percent of those surveyed identify ride-tracking

47%
Uber riders in Mexico
are women

as a major benefit, while 30 percent say the same about knowing the driver’s details in advance.
Knowing the price when booking and not needing to carry cash are cited as major benefits by 45
percent and 42 percent of women riders, respectively.

How does ride-hailing compare with alternatives?
Forty-three percent of women riders surveyed say Uber is faster and more convenient
than public transportation. The greater access ride-hailing provides over public transit
emerges as the greatest hidden benefit of the service. Just 13 percent of women cite it as an
initial attraction to use the Uber app, but 28 percent identify it as a current benefit. Almost half ofwomen riders (47 percent)—and 50 percent of men—strongly believe Uber is “more comfortable.”

28%
Women surveyed cite
getting to places notserved by public transport
as a major benefit

91MexicoHow do women use ride-hailing?
Women take a similar number of trips as men according to Uber data, but thosesurveyed take a broader range of trips. Almost half use Uber to commute (47 percent),
but the majority use it for social activities such as going out at night (53 percent) or visiting friends
and relatives (57 percent). More than a third of women surveyed in Mexico (36 percent) say Uberallows them to travel more than they could before, well above the six-country rider average (20percent). Before ride-hailing, many of the women surveyed say they used public transportation

36%
Women surveyed say
they can travel more now
thanks to ride-hailingand taxis to visit friends and family, and relied on public transportation to get to work.

Barriers for Women as Riders
Despite their relative affluence, women riders in Mexico are very cost-conscious, and the expenseof ride-hailing stops many from traveling more. The lack of women drivers on the road emerges
as a smaller barrier, but many women riders would value being able to hail a woman driver,
especially when traveling alone or at night.

Does expense hold women back?
The women riders surveyed in Mexico are much more likely to identify affordability
as a barrier compared with men: 55 percent cite dynamic pricing; 33 percent, thecost of long-distance travel; and 29 percent, the general cost, as reasons they do not use Uber
more. The women surveyed believe a decrease of 10 percent of the current price of riding
could encourage them to take 68 percent more trips per month.

How much of a concern is personal security?
Over a third of the women surveyed in Mexico (38 percent) say they have felt
unsafe in a car booked through Uber over the past three months, above the figure
for men (26 percent). Relatively few women say the lack of an emergency number to callstops them taking more trips (12 percent), but they would like to see more women driverson the road in certain situations. More than half of women riders identify traveling alone (5168%

Proportional increase in trips
taken if prices decreasedby 10 percent, according to
women surveyed

58%
Women surveyed would
be more likely to use

percent) or at night (61 percent) as situations in which they would prefer a woman driver; andUber if they could select58 percent say they would be more likely to use Uber if they could select a woman driver—thea woman driver

highest figure across all six markets.

92PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBERSouth Africa

93South Africa
FIGURE A.5: KEY GENDER INDICATORS IN SOUTH AFRICA

Women in the labor
force

Financial and digital
inclusion

Key economic/
market indicators

Gender context

45%

2%

56 million

93%

Female share of the labor
force (World Bank 2017a)

Gender gap in Internet
usage (Statista 2017)

Population(World Bank 2016d)

Female literacy ratecompared to 95% for men(World Bank 2015a)

36%
Women in informal
employment as proportionof total nonagricultural
employment(World Bank 2016b)

No gap$5,285

13%

Gender gap in mobile
phone ownership(Pew Research 2015)

GDP per capita(World Bank 2016a)

Percentage of women
who have experienced
physical and/or sexual
violencea (OECD 2014)

12%

39%

142

19/144

Employed female
population in selfemployment(World Bank 2017b)

Women aged 15+ with abank account compared
to 70% of men(World Bank 2014)

Mobile subscriptions per
100 people(World Bank 2016c)

WEF Gender Equality
Rankings (WEF 2017)a94

From an intimate partner atsome time in their life.

SOUTH AFRICA continued

COUNTRY CONTEXTIn South Africa, labor force participation for women is relatively high at 45 percent (WorldBank 2017a). Despite efforts to raise rates of financial inclusion, South African women scoresignificantly lower than men in areas of financial control, financial planning, choosing financial
products, and general knowledge and understanding of finance (Statistics South Africa 2015b).
Digital inclusion is high overall in South Africa. Nine in 10 adults own a mobile phone and a third
own a smartphone (Poushter 2015). Meanwhile, the gender gap in mobile phone ownership is
low (GSMA 2015).
Transportation is a challenge for South African women. While private vehicles are the mostcommon source of transportation, fewer than 30 percent of South African households own acar. Taxis are one of the most commonly used forms of public transportation—they transport 60
percent to 70 percent of the commuting workforce (Oxford 2013). However, ActionAid estimates
56 percent of women have experienced sexual assault while traveling in taxis and 69 percent
have witnessed violence and harassment in taxis (Business Day 2017).
Transportation researchers who contributed to this report say that ride-hailing can complement
or fill gaps in existing forms of public transportation. “Ride-hailing can fill a gap because ofpoor public transportation provisions, but realistically, it may only be available to people whoare at the top end,” notes Rose Luke, senior researcher at the University of Johannesburg.
Uber launched in South Africa in 2013, and was followed by Taxify in 2016. Taxify takes a lower
commission compared to Uber, and claims to be 15 percent cheaper than Uber (Brown 2017).

“When I started
driving, I hada struggling
catering
company. But
now I am getting
money directly,
so my profileat the bankhas improved.
I am growing
every single
month from theearnings I am
getting from
Uber.”—Woman driver, South
Africa95

South Africa
WOMEN DRIVERS IN SOUTH AFRICA
Women who join the ride-hailing industry get an average earnings boost of 14 percent, eventhough many lease or rent their vehicles through third parties. They value the flexibility ridehailing offers, and drive twice as much as other women on average across the six markets studied.
(See box A.3 for a profile of a driver.)For drivers, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…open new income generation opportunities in nontraditional sectors for women…offer women a route to vehicle ownership or access…build inclusion through improved digital and financial skills, and access to documentation…allow women to work around other commitments…allow women to build and run their own businesses

Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

Box A.3: Driver Profile

Lindiwe, 42, the Income Booster(Johannesburg, South Africa)
Lindiwe started driving with Uber primarily
to make money. She had her own cleaning
service, but the business was struggling,so she signed up to earn extra income.
Lindiwe now uses her earnings throughUber to smooth the cash flow of hercleaning business—and she also advertises
while she drives, passing out business cards
to her riders.

96

PHOTO: WESLEY LAZARUS

Strongly supported by the data

SOUTH AFRICA continued

Benefits of Women as Drivers
Who drives?
In South Africa, 3.8 percent of all Uber drivers are women, according to Uber data. Thisis well above the 2.3 percent average observed across the markets studied—and thesecond highest proportion overall. This perhaps stems from the fact that women have a range ofoptions for accessing vehicles in South Africa, including leasing, renting, or working through a fleet
agency. The women surveyed differ from their male peers in several ways: they tend to be slightly

3.8%
Drivers who use the Uber
app are womenolder, and are less likely to be married or have children.

What motivates women to drive?

with Uber, and 19 percent and 16 percent were unemployed and running their own businesses,

67%

respectively. Flexibility is key for women: 67 percent of women drivers surveyed cite “I can

Women drivers surveyed

work when I want” as a major initial attraction. The “good money” emerges as the next biggest

cite flexibility as a major

Women drivers are drawn to ride-hailing from a variety of backgrounds. Forty-sevenpercent of those surveyed were working full-time for a company prior to signing up

attraction of becoming a ride-hailing driver for women (46 percent). These remain major benefits

initial attraction

for women using the app, although the proportion citing “good money” drops to 36 percent.

When do women drive?
Women in South Africa drive more hours than their female peers in any other country
studied for this report, according to Uber data. Men still drive 5 percent more hours on

Women in South Africa
drive more than twice as
many hours per week on

average per week, but there is almost no gender gap in the share of driving done at night. Nearly

average as their femalea fifth of the women surveyed have a job in addition to driving: 10 percent run their own separate

peers across the markets

businesses, and 9 percent work part-time for a different company.

studied.

What do they earn?
Women drivers who join Uber get an earnings boost of 14 percent on average,
according to company data. This is equivalent to an additional $158 per month,or approximately 36 percent of average monthly per capita income in South Africa. Whenconsidering only previously employed women, the earnings boost drops to just 2 percent—although this compares to negative 2 percent for men.

14%
Average monthly
earnings increase forwomen drivers

Just a third of women surveyed say they make a robust profit from driving, compared with half ofthe men, a difference that may reflect more selective driving by women. A handful of women drivers
surveyed report a net loss in income since their driving expenses are higher than their earnings.

97

South Africa
Barriers for Women as Drivers
Women seeking to be drivers in South Africa face a range of barriers. These include security
concerns, which represent a key challenge, exacerbated by the challenging external environment.
Accessing a vehicle to drive is another—although there are plentiful third-party options—andsome women struggle with a perceived lack of support during the sign-up process.

How much of a concern is personal security?
Security is a major challenge for women drivers: 79 percent of those surveyed in South
Africa—and 73 percent of their male peers—cite safety and security concerns as areason more women do not drive with Uber. This is the highest figure in the six countries studied.
A further 51 percent of women drivers surveyed say security concerns limit the number of hours
they spend on the road—just slightly ahead of the figure for men (47 percent). Again, both figures
are the highest reported in the markets studied. These concerns may reflect the reality of thechallenging external security environment.

Are women digitally or financially excluded?
Forty percent of women surveyed cite getting money to buy or rent a vehicle as a key
barrier to signing up with Uber—above the six-country average of 31 percent.

79%
Women surveyed cite
safety and security
concerns as a barrier tomore women signing up

40%
Women surveyed cite

Just 41 percent of women drivers have their earnings through Uber paid into their own accounts—

getting money to buy/

compared with 75 percent of women across the six markets studied. However, this is also true forrent a vehicle as a key

50 percent of men, suggesting that access to formal banking is not a gender-specific issue.

barrier to signing up

Are women struggling to sign up?
The women drivers surveyed in South Africa tend to be less educated than their peers
globally: only 11 percent have a tertiary education compared with 37 percent of womenacross the six markets. Relatively few of those surveyed (13 percent) found the Uber onboarding
process a challenge, and just 7 percent found it hard to get insurance. However, during the focus
groups, women described how they were told to search online for their queries; how offices seemed

11%
Women drivers surveyed
with tertiary education

to be open only on certain days; and how when dealing with recruitment agencies, some wereasked to pay bribes, or were told to take tests that were not part of Uber policy.

Is the lack of benefits a challenge?
Just under a third of women (31 percent) cite the lack of benefits—such as holiday pay,sick pay, or maternity pay—as a barrier stopping more women signing up. This is thehighest across the six markets studied for this report.

31%
Women surveyed cite a lackof benefits as a barrier towomen signing up

98

SOUTH AFRICA continued

WOMEN RIDERS IN SOUTH AFRICA
Security is a key consideration for women when traveling in South Africa, making the trip tracking
and driver information features of the Uber app very attractive. And while women travel at thesame frequency as men, the additional household and care work they perform mean their travel
patterns are more complex.
For riders, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…reduce security risks for women when traveling…improve access to employment, and a range of services including local amenities and healthcare…help women budget for their broad, complex travel needs by providing greater cost transparency…increase women’s mobility if companies can attract more women drivers

Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

Strongly supported by the data

99

South Africa
Benefits for Women as Riders
Why do women choose ride-hailing?
Women account for an estimated 45 percent of current Uber riders in South Africa. Convenience and security features
attract them to ride-hailing. Sixty percent of those surveyed—and 63 percent of men—identify being able to book via theapp as a major initial attraction. Security features are also valued: 51 percent of women surveyed cite knowing the driver’s name andregistration in advance as a major benefit. A further 38 percent of women surveyed identify trip tracking as a major benefit—thisemerges as the biggest hidden benefit of the service for women in South Africa. Cost transparency emerges as a less important benefit
compared with the other markets studied.

How does ride-hailing compare with alternatives?
More than half of women riders surveyed (56 percent) strongly believe that trips with
Uber are faster and more convenient than public transportation—and a further 50

35%percent say it allows them to book travel quickly and easily. Women riders surveyed also identify

Women surveyed say ride-

Uber as allowing them to be more independent (35 percent) and to travel more (23 percent). The

hailing allows them to be

figures for men are broadly similar on all points.

more independent

How do women use ride-hailing?
Women in South Africa take 2 percent more trips per week on average comparedwith men, according to company data. However, those surveyed use it for a broader
range of trips. The most popular trip is going out at night (58 percent), followed by going totransportation hubs, commuting to work, and shopping. Women are also more likely to ride toaccess health or childcare services.

2%
Additional trips taken
by women per week on
average compared withmen

Barriers for Women as Riders
Does expense hold women back?
Affordability is a key impediment to female mobility around the world, and cost is one of the main barriers toincreasing female ridership in South Africa. A third of women riders surveyed (33 percent) strongly identify with trips
booked through Uber as cheaper than those with traditional taxis; this figure rises to 46 percent for men. The expense of dynamic
pricing is cited as a deterrent by 40 percent of women riders surveyed—but this is the lowest figure for all countries studied, andwell below the average of 58 percent. That said, 44 percent of women surveyed identify long-distance travel as expensive and 30
percent of say the overall expense limits the number of trips they take. The women surveyed estimate that a fare decrease of 10
percent could encourage them to take 61 percent more trips on average per month.

How much of a concern is security?
Women are less likely than their male peers to travel at night according to Uber data—and almost a fifth say sexual
harassment concerns stop them from taking more trips. Thirty-one percent of women riders surveyed say that a lack ofwomen drivers limits their use of the app—well above the all-market average of 17 percent. Around half of women riders also say
they would prefer a woman driver when traveling alone (53 percent) or at night (46 percent)—although, in the focus groups, someindicate a preference for a man to protect them from external threats.

100PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

United Kingdom

101

United Kingdom
FIGURE A.6: KEY GENDER INDICATORS IN THE UNITED KINGDOMWomen in the labor
force

Financial and digital
inclusion

Key economic/
market indicators

Gender context

47%

No gap66 million

No gapFemale share of the labor
force (World Bank 2017a)

Gender gap in Internet
usage (Statista 2017a)

Population(World Bank 2016d)

Female literacy ratecompared to 96% for men(CIA 2013)

No gap$40,341

29%

Gender gap in mobile
phone ownership(Statista 2017b)

GDP per capita(World Bank 2016a)

Percentage of women
who have experienced
physical and/or sexual
violencea (OECD 2014)23%

No gap122

15/144

Employed female
population in selfemployment(World Bank 2017b)

Women aged 15+ with abank account comparedto 99% of men(World Bank 2014)

Mobile subscriptions per
100 people(World Bank 2016c)

WEF Gender Equality
Rankings (WEF 2017)34%
Women employed
part-time (Office of
National Statistics UK 2017)a102

From an intimate partner atsome time in their life.

UNITED KINGDOM continued

COUNTRY CONTEXT
Growth Potential of Ride-Hailing
The United Kingdom is the most developed and most gender-equal of the countries studied forthis report. High levels of connectivity, relative affluence, and good infrastructure have helped toestablish the ride-hailing industry. In 2016, it accounted for approximately 2.1 percent of global
industry users and 5.2 percent of revenues (Statista n.d.).
Gender gaps across the economy are relatively small. The United Kingdom ranks 15 out of 144
countries on the WEF’s Gender Equality Index (WEF 2017), with no significant gender gaps
evident in literacy, mobile phone ownership, or access to financial products (see figure A.6).
Women make up 46 percent of the labor force (Addati et al. 2016), although they are less wellrepresented at higher levels. Research by Accenture (2017) finds that, on average, for every $100
a woman earns in the United Kingdom; a man earns approximately $160. This earnings gap ispartly explained by 34 percent of women in paid employment who work part-time (Office of
National Statistics 2017).
The United Kingdom’s business environment presents an enormous opportunity for ride-hailingcompanies. In the WEF’s Competitiveness Index (2017), the United Kingdom ranks 11th globallyfor infrastructure; sixth for labor market efficiency; and fourth for technological readiness.
However, both public transportation and incumbent taxi and private-hire operators are strong.
London’s underground has 250 miles of track, and serves 1.3 billion passengers a year. It recently
added 24-hour service on some lines (Gov. of U.K. 2016). Outside the capital, major cities such as
Manchester and Edinburgh have installed extensive tram networks.
Personal security on transportation remains a challenge. Our discussions with law enforcement
do not suggest that security issues are any worse on trips booked through ride-hailing apps
than those through other private-hire operators. Police have said that convictions against
perpetrators are easier to secure when rides are booked through an app (Cox 2017). However,
because women face more severe threats, security perceptions are as important. Bryony
Beynon, founder of Hollaback! London, states, “There is a real difference between perceived andactual safety—but you can’t decouple these within this context. Ride-hailing companies need towork to improve both at once.”
Uber was launched in the United Kingdom in 2012, in London, and is now in over 25 towns andcities across the country (Knight 2016). Most competitors in the United Kingdom operate only in
London, including Addison Lee, BlaBlaCar, MyTaxi, Gett, Kabbee, and MyTaxi.

103“I drive so I cansave money togrow my own
business—andUber offers areliable income.”—U.K. woman driverUnited Kingdom
WOMEN DRIVERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
Drivers must be commercially licensed in the United Kingdom, and women who sign up see abigger boost in earnings compared with the all-country average. Many lease their vehicles, butthey drive more hours per week on average than peers globally and are the most likely to turn arobust profit. Women account for 1 percent of drivers for Uber in the UK.
For drivers, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…open new income generation opportunities in nontraditional sectors for women…offer women a route to vehicle ownership or access…build inclusion through improved digital and financial skills, and access to documentation…allow women to work around other commitments…help women to build and run their own businesses

Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

Box A.4: Driver Profile

Crystal, 26, the Entrepreneur(London, United Kingdom)
Crystal lives in London. She previously worked
for a large financial services multinational but
started driving to escape the “stuffy corporate
environment” and gain the flexibility to build
her own real estate business. She drives asmuch as her other business commitmentsallow—any time of the day, and any dayof the week. The connections she makes
through driving are highly valuable and she
regularly gets business cards from riders
who are interested in helping her realize herentrepreneurial ambitions.

104

PHOTO: COURTESY OF UBER

Strongly supported by the data

UNITED KINGDOM continued

Benefits for Women as Drivers
What motivates women to drive?
Women drivers surveyed enter ride-hailing from diverse backgrounds: 57 percent
were employed either full- or part-time, and a further 14 percent were running theirown businesses. The majority (71 percent) come from households with less than median incomes.
The ability to work when they want emerges as both the top initial attraction, and 82 percent of
women drivers cite it as a key current benefit—they are twice as likely as men to say they haveother commitments such as childcare to work around. Not needing to carry cash is another major

82%
Women drivers surveyed
cite flexibility as a key
current benefit

benefit (49 percent), followed by love of driving (29 percent). The ease of using the app emerges
as the biggest hidden benefit for drivers who sign up to the app.

When do women drive?
A key theme that emerged from the focus groups is that drivers in the United Kingdom
need a strategy to succeed. Just over one-third of women drivers surveyed (36 percent)log on every day, compared with 49 percent of both male United Kingdom drivers and female
peers globally. However, they drive 25 percent more hours than women on average across the six
countries studied, according to Uber data, perhaps due to the relatively high licensing andregistration costs. Sixty-six percent of the women surveyed typically drive throughout the full

25%
Additional hours worked
by women drivers
compared with the
all-country average

week, slightly ahead of men, but more than women across the countries studied (57 percent).
Almost three-quarters (71 percent) of the women surveyed drive at least sometimes at night,
compared with 90 percent of men.

What do women earn?
On average, women earn 22 percent more as ride-hailing drivers than they did
previously—compared to 13 percent for women globally and just 6 percent for theirmale peers. Women who were previously employed increase their earnings by 14 percent on
average, compared with just 3 percent for men. Women also turn a robust profit from driving: 66
percent take home at least half their earnings once expenses are factored in. This is similar to theirmale peers, but well ahead of women drivers across the six markets (52 percent).

How do women spend their earnings?
Financial independence is a key motivator for women drivers in the United Kingdom.
(See the driver profile in box A.4.) They are much less likely to be married comparedwith their male peers; more than three in five identify as the main earner in their households,
and 53 percent rely on Uber for all their income, compared with 37 percent of women globally.
These earnings make a material impact on most women drivers’ lives: 52 percent say they use
the money to improve their standard of living, and 43 percent say they use their earnings to meetbasic needs.

105

22%
Average increase inearnings for women
drivers

62%
Women drivers surveyed
identify as the mainearner in their household

United Kingdom
Barriers for Women as Drivers
Is the lack of benefits a challenge?
The United Kingdom offers financial protection for self-employed workers in areas
such as maternity leave and pensions. However, the provision by the state rarely
comes close to that provided to employees of a company. For example, self-employed mothers
might receive less than a third of the maternity allowance of peers employed by a company(Hamburgh 2014).

29%
Women drivers surveyed
believe a lack of benefits
stops women signing up

Just under a third (29 percent) of women drivers believe that a lack of benefits stops more womenfrom becoming ride-hailing drivers (see chapter 2, “Social Protection”). During the focus groups,
women drivers highlighted the lack of “loss of earnings” coverage if they are injured or their car
needs repairs.

How much of a concern is security?
Women drivers in the UK focus groups said they understand that picking up strangers
carries an element of risk, but they tend to agree that the perception is worse than
the reality. Safety and security concerns—cited by 52 percent of women drivers—are identified
as top barriers to more women signing up. However, just 12 percent of women drivers say safetyconcerns stop them from driving more, compared with 26 percent of women drivers globally.
Nevertheless, women would like to see Uber continue to innovate to become “the safest.” Just

12%
Women drivers surveyed
identify security concerns
as a reason not to drive
more

under half (48 percent) of those who do not drive at night identify safety concerns as the key
barrier, while 18 percent and 19 percent, respectively, cite aggression from regular taxi drivers andthe lack of an Uber number to call in an emergency as reasons not to drive more.

How difficult is it for women to access a vehicle?
Levels of car ownership in the United Kingdom are high: there are 519 cars per 1,000
residents, the 34th highest rate in the world (Nation Master 2014). However, womensurveyed are far less likely than men to own the vehicle they use to drive with Uber. In fact, thegender vehicle ownership gap of 19 percentage points is the highest in the driver survey. Almost athird (32 percent) of women drivers lease or rent from a third party, second only to South Africa.
Overall, 35 percent of women drivers say that getting the money to buy or rent a vehicle is abarrier to signing up, slightly above the global average of 31 percent.

106

35%
Getting the money tobuy or rent a car/vehicle
was a major barrier tosigning up

UNITED KINGDOM continued

WOMEN RIDERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOMWomen in the United Kingdom often use ride-hailing to socialize. Perhaps unsurprisingly, given
relative stages of development and gender equality, women generally feel more secure than
women in the other markets studied. They mostly use the Uber app to go out at night and to feelsafer when traveling alone.
For riders, ride-hailing has the potential to…

…reduce security risks for women when traveling…improve access to employment, and a range of services including local amenities and healthcare…help women manage transportation budgets by providing greater cost transparency…increase mobility if companies can attract more women drivers

Strongly supported by the data

Partially supported by the data

Not supported by the data

Why do women use ride-hailing?

53%

Approximately 46 percent of Uber riders in the United Kingdom are women. Of those

Women riders surveyed

surveyed, 53 percent cite not needing to carry cash as a major benefit—more thanidentify not needing to

Benefits for Women as Riders

double the all-country average for women. And nearly half (49 percent) identify booking via theapp as one of the top benefits, the same as for male riders globally.

How do women use ride-hailing?
Women use Uber mostly for convenient access to social activities. Two-thirds ofthose surveyed use Uber to go out at night—well above the six-country average forwomen of 45 percent—and 64 percent usually travel with others. A further 45 percent use Uberto travel to major transportation hubs, such as airports and train stations. Women in the focus

carry cash as a major
benefit66%
Women riders surveyedgroups identified the ability to book a car while still inside an entertainment venue—as opposed

use Uber to go out at

to looking for one on the street—as a key advantage. They also cited not needing to walk to annight

ATM to withdraw money and door-to-door service as key benefits of ride-hailing at night. Given
the coverage and speed of urban public transport networks in the United Kingdom, just 41 percent
women use ride-hailing to commute, compared with 53 percent of women in across the six
markets studied.

107

United Kingdom
Is ride-hailing increasing women’s mobility?
Public transportation networks are robust in the United Kingdom’s major cities, andvery few women were unable to make trips pre-Uber. However, ride-hailing provides
a level of convenience at an attractive price point for women riders. The women riders surveyedstrongly agree that the Uber app allows them to book travel quickly and easily (61 percent) and 44
percent identify the price as a major benefit.

Barriers for Women as Riders
How much of a concern is security?
Despite relatively limited security concerns, the lack of women drivers on the roadprevents 17 percent of women riders from taking more trips, in line with the sixcountry average. While the gender of the driver makes no difference to most women riders,many would prefer a woman in certain situations, especially when traveling at night (41 percent)or alone (37 percent). Overall, 35 percent of women riders say they would be more likely to use
the Uber app if they had the option of booking a woman driver—with 64 percent saying gender

41%
Would prefer a woman
driver when traveling atnight

makes no difference.
Given the United Kingdom’s stage of development, the relative affluence of riders, and theabundance of long-established taxi and private-hire companies, user service expectations arehigh. Across the six markets studied, just 5 percent of women are concerned that drivers do
not speak their language to a high standard, but this rises to 19 percent in the United Kingdom.
Another 17 percent of women riders are concerned that drivers do not drive safely—almost double
the figure for men (9 percent).

Does expense hold women back?
A majority of women riders surveyed strongly agree that ride-hailing is cheaper than
traditional taxis (60 percent). However, dynamic pricing emerges as a barrier for
59 percent of women riders—although it is even more of a concern for men (67 percent). The
women surveyed would expect to take an estimated 43 percent more trips if fares dropped by 10
percent—the lowest price elasticity observed in the study.

60%
Women riders surveyed say
ride-hailing is cheaper than
traditional taxis

108Appendix B. Methodology

RESEARCH SCOPE

the rider side, the research does not consider the impact that

What Is Covered

competing forms of transportation, for example, other taxi

attracting more women riders to ride-hailing would have onservices or public transportation.

This report is the first piece of research to combine company
data and primary research to better understand the current

In terms of income estimation, the report does not explore

and potential future impact of the ride-hailing industry.

the positive spillover effects of women’s additional income.

By accessing anonymized, aggregated company data andAdditionally, incentive payments are not considered in thereaching out to Uber riders and drivers through a range ofincome calculations. In some markets these constitute a high,primary research techniques, the report provides a unique

but often volatile, element of driver income.

understanding of the key drivers of, and barriers to, women’s

Country and City Selection

participation in the ride-hailing industry; how to enable more
women to participate in ride-hailing; and how increased

The six countries were selected because of their broad

participation could impact women themselves, ride-hailingvariation in terms of market age, demographics, and stage ofcompanies, society and the wider economy.

economic development. The cities researched in each market
were selected based on size and Uber market penetration to

What Is Not Covered

ensure as robust a response to the survey as possible.

The research does not explore the potential impact ofautonomous vehicles on the ride-hailing industry. According

Table B.1: Countries and Cities Selected

to Frey and Osborne’s seminal paper The Future of Employment
Country(2013), there is an 89 percent chance that the role of the taxi
driver will be fully or partially automated—and Uber itself

Egypt, Arab Rep.

recently signed a deal with Volvo to buy up to 24,000 cars for
its driverless fleet. While progressing rapidly, it is uncertain how

India

quickly the technology will be viable, commercially, ethically, or
legally. Additionally, this scenario is not equally likely across all

Indonesia

markets, particularly those in developing economies.

MexicoThe benefits of bringing more men and women onto theroad as drivers and riders are treated in isolation and do not

South Africa

account for broader macroeconomic impacts. For example,
more women drivers could squeeze men off the road; or pull

United Kingdom

women away from other income-generating activities. On

109

CitiesAlexandria
Cairo
Bangalore
New Delhi
JakartaSurabayaMexico City
Monterrey
Cape Town
Johannesburg and Pretoria
LondonManchesterAPPENDIX B: METHODOLOGY continued

Country Variations and Research Limitations

Seven focus groups with women drivers and riders who use
the Uber app were held in Indonesia, South Africa, and theWhile the diverse set of countries selected for thisUnited Kingdom. Some men were included in Indonesia. The

report represent different local contexts for questions offocus groups were held in August and September 2017. The

transportation and gender, drawing insights globally or forgroups were used to explore the barriers and opportunities forother countries using these results should be heavily caveated,

women using ride-hailing apps.

especially given the very local nuances of transportation andgender equality. (See table B.1.)

Accenture subsequently conducted semi-structured
interviews with approximately 25 women Uber drivers in four

The sample for neither the surveys or focus groups was

geographies: Egypt, India, Indonesia, and the United Kingdom.

nationally representative. Respondents were more likely to

These interviews were used to test and refine the draft

be actively engaged in the ride-hailing industry. The research

quantitative questionnaire (see next section).

team did not speak with a robust sample of drivers or riders
who had either attempted to get into ride-hailing but found

QUANTITATIVE

the challenges too steep; or who had tried ride-hailing but
then given it up. This means that the impacts aroundAn online survey was distributed through Uber’s local offices

financial and digital exclusion experienced by women in thisto Uber drivers and riders in Egypt (Alexandria and Cairo),

report are likely to be understated, as women without accessIndia (Bangalore and New Delhi), Indonesia (Jakarta andto the Internet or financial services were unlikely to respond to

Surabaya), Mexico (Mexico City and Monterrey), South Africa

the survey.

(Cape Town and Johannesburg), and the United Kingdom(London and Manchester) in September and October 2017. The

It should also be noted that much of the data provided forsurvey achieved responses from 7,357 drivers and 3,691 riders

this research came from a single company: Uber. Uber runs

who currently use the Uber app. In India, seven women drivers

the largest ride-hailing app in the world (by value) with a(out of a total of eight known to be active as of summer

presence in an estimated 600 cities, across 78 countries, which2017) completed the online survey. Due to the small sample

enabled research across a wide variety of markets. However,size, the driver figures for India are therefore excluded frommany other companies offer similar services, and their data,comparisons across the six markets.

including the experience of their riders and drivers, may differ
significantly from those provided through Uber.

Weighting and Segmentation
If a single country accounted for more than 40 percent of thetotal responses in a given cohort, it was weighted down to

RESEARCH APPROACH

a maximum of 40 percent when calculating the six-country
average, otherwise the sample was used unweighted. The

Primary Researchsamples are not nationally representative.

QUALITATIVEThe segmentation of respondents into above- and below-

IFC and Accenture conducted 40 interviews with topic area

median-income households was based on survey responses

experts across the world to further inform the researchand calculated on an individual country-by-country basis

approach and final recommendations. Their expertiseusing national statistics.

covered ride-hailing, the sharing economy, gender, business,transportation, technology, policing, and security.

110Statistical Significance

DRIVER INCOME ESTIMATION

Six-country average margin of error at the 95 percent

Stage 1—Estimate the current earnings of women and men

confidence level:

drivers by country using the following formula: Earnings =(+/-)

Women %Men %Drivers

4.62

2.54

Riders

2.94

3.32

Number of active drivers * Average number of trips * Average trip
payout.
Stage 2—Estimate the previous earnings of women and men
drivers using average self-reported change in earnings survey
data against average current earnings data by country.

Driver Income Boost Estimation
The analysis estimated the earnings boost for drivers moving

Stage 3a—Calculate the difference between earnings before

into ride-hailing industry from previous economic activities,

and after signing up with Uber to estimate the earnings boost

including employment, unemployment, or entrepreneurship.

achieved by women and men per country.

It compared earnings for women and men drivers before andStage 3b—Remove drivers who were not previously in paid

after entering the ride-hailing industry.

employment from the calculation at stage 3a to estimate
the earnings boost achieved by women and men who were

DATA SOURCES

previously employed per country.

Previous earnings data were based on drivers’ selfAll currency conversions have been rounded up.

assessment of their past earnings using survey data (2017),
specifically:• Q. Is your current take-home pay higher or lower than
before you started driving with Uber? [Higher, Same,
Lower, Not in paid work]• Q. How much more/less do you earn in total afterworking with Uber? [Percentage higher/lower]
Current average earnings data were provided by Uber
(June 2017), split by gender and city:• Number of drivers• Share of active drivers• Average weekly trips per driver-partner• Average organic weekly payout (earnings)
There were no available Uber data for women drivers inIndia—and limited survey data—so India was excluded fromthe cross-country driver income boost analysis.

111

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Arab Republic of Egypt
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———. 2017b. “Careem Empowers Egyptian Women Drivers.”
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BMurti@ifc.org
www.IFC.org/gender@WBG_Gender
ifc.org

March 2018

Driving Toward Equality: WOMEN, RIDE-HAILING, AND THE SHARING ECONOMY