The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education  Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016

An Analysis of Creative Process Learning in Computer Game
Activities Through Player Experiences

Wilawan Inchamnan

119	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	  Abstract

This research investigates the extent to which creative processes can be fostered throughcomputer gaming. It focuses on creative components in games that have been specificallydesigned for educational purposes: Digital Game Based Learning (DGBL). A behavior analysis
for measuring the creative potential of computer game activities and learning outcomes is
described. Creative components were measured by examining task motivation and domainrelevant and creativity-relevant skill factors. The research approach applied heuristic checklists
in the field of gameplay to analyze the stage of player activities involved in the performanceof the task and to examine player experiences with the Player Experience of Need Satisfaction(PENS) survey. Player experiences were influenced by competency, autonomy, intuitive
controls, relatedness and presence. This study examines the impact of these activities on theplayer experience for evaluating learning outcomes through school records. The study isdesigned to better understand the creative potential of people who are engaged in learningknowledge and skills during the course while playing video games. The findings show thecreative potential that occurred to yield levels of creative performance within game play
activities to support learning. The anticipated outcome is knowledge on how video games foster
creative thinking as an overview of the Creative Potential of Learning Model (CPLN). CPLN
clearly describes the interrelationships between principles of learning and creative potential,
the interpretation of the results is indispensable.
Keywords: creative potential; learning model; digital game based learning; player experience;
game; creative component.

	
  

120	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	
  Introduction
A digital game involves role-play characters, complex problems to solve, and compellingmusic and graphics (Shute, 2011), with knowledge and skills being learned during the courseof playing. Games, in general, support the development of critical thinking throughvisualization, experimentation, and creativity (Amory, 2007). Game elements often provide
problem solving experiences as players try to break down the tasks, engage meta-cognitive
skills, and think critically (Turcsányi-Szabó, Bedő, & Pluhár, 2006). Games also offer an
opportunity to explore new ideas and actions through the diversity of game play opportunities
generated by communities of players. While there has been significant growth in game-basedlearning research in the past two decades (Habgood and Ainsworth, 2011), this research focuseson the games that have been specifically designed for educational purposes and facilitate
problem-solving skills. This study investigates how video games foster creative problem
solving and learning processes.
Creative Potential
To identify the potential of games to engage the players in creative processes, criteria related
to the activities undertaken need to be clearly defined. As mentioned in the works of Paras andBizzocchi (2005), games have great potential to support creative processes (Paras andBizzocchi, 2005). Furthermore, creative ideas resulted from the novel combination of ideas(Spearman, 1930). This creativity involves a process of divergent and convergent thinking(Amabile, 1996), in which problem solving plays an important role (Clark, Veldman, &Thorpe, 1965).
Divergent and convergent thinking are the core elements of the creative process. Divergent
thinking is important for idea generation (Amabile, 1996) and is necessary to produce many
alternative solutions to the problem (Gordon, 1961). Convergent thinking, as a creative process,occurs in the idea validation stage (Amabile, 1996). It allows an individual to select the correct
way to approach the task at hand (Sviderskaya, 2011), with the ability to select a single response
from a series of alternatives (Clark et al., 1965). To develop interactive experiences thatincorporate these valuable and educative learning processes, a clear understanding of how
different game elements are combined to produce the creative potential is needed.
Game Activity Components for Creative Gameplay
The creative game potential measures can be identified by analyzing game activities. The gameplay activities and the creative process components can facilitate creative processes, and thegame activities related to the creative potential during game play. Thus, these activities are able
to support the learning of individuals (Inchamnan and Wyeth, 2013). Playing games has asignificant role in learning to solve problems (Myers, Well, & Lorch, 2010). Game activities
have influences on creative potential through creative gameplay. For example, game activity
facilitates creative-relevant skills and provides greater opportunities for players to take a wide
focus when engaging in gameplay with open-ended goals. The feedback activities provide
positive reinforcement, which enhances free-choice and self-awareness (Inchamnan andWyeth, 2013).
Self-Motivation Reports
The game environment is the medium that allows players to achieve self-motivation. Gamessignificantly extend the range of experiences available to an individual. Enjoyable game

	
  

121	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	
  experiences result from players being able to work through the game interface to become
immersed in playful activity. Within this study, measurement of player experience is based on
self-determination theory (SDT) (Ryan, 2000). SDT has been successfully applied in many
study discipline such as sports, education, and leisure domains. Przybylski, Rigby and Ryan
(2010) applied SDT to video game player motivation. Based on SDT and other relevant theories(e.g., presence), Przybylski (2010) and his colleagues developed the Player Experience of Need
Satisfaction (PENS) measure, which assesses the game play experiences in terms ofcompetence, autonomy, relatedness, intuitive controls, and presence/immersion (Przybylski etal., 2010). The PENS measure the individual player experience by assessing the interface
between the player and the action taking place within the game environment and how the action
and reaction between player and game satisfies specific psychological needs (Rigby and Ryan,
2011).
In this study, to assess game play experiences, the 21-item PENS survey was adopted. It
evaluates game play experience from five dimensions: competency, autonomy, relatedness,presence, and intuitive controls. Each item consists of a statement on a seven-point scale,ranging from 1 to 7. The interactive experience with the game environment allows players to
express their creativity and intentions (Sweetser and Johnson, 2004). This learning experience
allows players greater freedom in terms of decision-making.
Game Based Learning
There are many new approaches towards education, teaching and learning. Young people arechallenged and engaged to identify rewarding learning experiences that will inspire them in the
21st Century (Perrotta, Featherstone, Aston, & Houghton, 2013). The use of video games in
education is focused on the emergence of new trends like Game-based learning that support
teaching and learning. Game-based learning refers to the use of video games to support
teaching and learning (Perrotta et al., 2013). Game environments influence learners to foster
their skills, are an essential part of child development today (Prensky, 2005a). and provide funand engagement (Prensky, 2002).
Games for Learning
Learning experiences allow players greater freedom in terms of decision-making. Games offer
an opportunity to explore new creative uses through the diverse ideas generated bycommunities of players. Learners gain meta-cognitive skills and group identity that could
influence experiences for life through motivating game play (Turcsányi-Szabó et al., 2006).
Games keep learners motivated (Prensky, 2005b). The main reason that people play games isbecause the process of game playing is engaging.

	
  

122	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	
  Table 1. Principals and Mechanics of Learning (Perrotta et al., 2013)
Principals–   Intrinsic Motivation–   Enjoyment and fun–   Authenticity–   Autonomy–   Experiential Learning by doing

Mechanics–   Rules: simple and binary–   Clear and challenging goals–   Fantasy and difficulty–   Self-control and feedback–   Social element

Table 1 shows the principals of learning based on game activity. The principles refer to theunderlying assumptions and concepts. Mechanics refers to processes and dynamics involved
in game-based learning, which are interdependent (Paras and Bizzocchi, 2005). The principals
and mechanics involved in game-based learning are studied based on the extent that video
games can impact overall academic achievement. The majority of the studies examine theimpact of video games on student motivation and their school record: programming, math andart subject areas. Video games allow learners to engage with topics and ideas throughinteraction and simulation, rather than through the conventional materials and formats ofschooling: textbooks, lessons, assignments and so forth (Perrotta et al., 2013). To understandto what extent gaming impacts learning outcomes, this study examined the relationships
between participants’ self-reports and academic learning outcomes.
Behavior Analysis
Behavior is the activity of living organisms including how they move, what they say, what they
think, or how they feel. The experimental analysis of behavior has uncovered a number of basic
principles about how behavior works as a function of environmental variables (Cooper et al.,2007). Behavioral assessment involves a variety of methods including direct observations,interviews, checklists, and tests (Cooper et al., 2007). Direct measurement is concerned withmeasurement of the specific behavior to be taught. For example, direct measurement must
provide data on student response to the actual materials used in the instructional setting(Cooper, 1982). Applied behavioral analysis is concerned with the manipulation ofenvironmental stimuli (Cooper, 1982). Games create environments where each challenge
stands alone and is addressed that way by a player. This study focuses on the gameenvironments that foster creative processes by using behavior analysis. Behavioral assessment
allows analysis of creativity from a divergent thinking and convergent thinking perspective.
Measurement of divergent and convergent thinking can be used in the identification anddevelopment of creative potential (Schaefer, 1969).
Factor Analysis
Factor analysis is one of the most commonly used procedures in the development andevaluation of psychological measures (Floyd and Widaman, 1995). The factor analysis method
is used to divide criteria into groups (Tzeng et al., 2007). Factor analysis is particularly usefulwith multi-item inventories designed to measure behavioral styles, cognitive schema, and othermultifaceted constructs of interest to clinical psychologists (Floyd and Widaman, 1995).
Assessing creative potential requires a focus on how and why an individual responds toactivities (Kaufman et al., 2011). The behaviors that are related to the creative activity must be
clearly stated and readily translated into the assessment (Amabile, 1983).

	
  

123	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	  This study used three main factors. The first factor comes from the model proposed by Ruscio,
Whitney, and Amabile (1998), to identify task motivation as a measure of involvement in tasks.
Behaviors such as set breaking, task pace, exploration, enjoyment, and concentration are
identified as the ways in which intrinsic motivation manifests itself within the creative process.
Second, domain-relevant factors determine the initial set of pathways to search for a solution
and the ability to verify an acceptable solution (Amabile, 1983) through assuredness, difficultyand exhibited uncertainty activities within gameplay. Third, the ability to break away fromstandard thinking, approaches and solutions during problem solving. Individuals can gain
experiences from idea generation that may inform their own strategies (Amabile, 1996).
Creativity-relevant skills are measured through the specific process factors of concrete focus,
concept identification, wide focus and striving (Ruscio et al., 1998).
Methodology
The study methodology was broadly divided into two stages. The first stage involved a gamestudy adapted from an existing creative potential method (Inchamnan et al., 2012). This
creative potential method examines players by using established creativity criteria in order todetermine the levels of creative activity. The process focused on the reliability of the factors
used for measurement determining those factors that are more strongly related to creativity.
The second stage involved the determination of relationships of game play elements. The
objective of this stage was to investigate and establish related elements that supported creative
performance and learning outcome.
To examine the creative process, participants were video recorded while playing the games anda video coding scheme was used to capture the type and frequency of observable behaviors andparticipant verbalizations. To assess the game experiences, this study used the 21-item PENS
survey that consists of five dimensions: competency, autonomy, relatedness, presence, andintuitive controls. Each item consisted of statements on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 to
7. Specifically, the research reported in this paper examined the relationship between creative
game play processes and game play experience as measured by the Player Experience of Need
Satisfaction (PENS) survey: in-game competence; in-game autonomy; in-game Presence; ingame intuitive control and in-game relatedness. This paper examines the relationship between
creative game play processes and game play mptivation experience as measured by the Player
Experience of Need Satisfaction (PENS) survey:•   In game Competence. This scale measures participants’ perception that the gameprovides a competency.
•   In game Autonomy. This scale assesses the degree to which participants felt free, andperceived opportunities to do activities that are interested in them.
•   In game Presence. This scale measures the sense of immersion in the gaming
environment. Three items considered are: physical presence, emotional presence andnarrative presence.
•   In game Intuitive Control (IC). This scale assesses the degree which participants control
their character’s actions in the game environment.
•   In game relatedness. This scale assesses the desire to connect with others in a way thatthey feel authentic and supportive.
	
  
	
  

124	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	
  Study Procedure
To explore the relationships between the uses of creative processes during game play and theplayer experiences, this study focused on four games, that is, Portal 2, I-Fluid, Gunz 2: The
second Duel, and Braid. While these games had different mechanics, goals and settings, they
all required the players to solve problems in the game tasks to progress through the game play.
Evaluation methods involved examining the creative process as measured by task motivation,
domain-relevant skills and creativity-relevant skills. Game task behaviors and verbalizations
were coded to obtain the empirical indices of the creative processes in which game players
were engaged. Participants (N=120) were observed during play of the four selected games. To
examine the creative process, participants were video recorded while playing the games. A
video coding scheme was used to capture the type and the frequency of the observablebehaviors and verbalizations. This coding scheme was implemented based on the criteria belowthat were developed for analyzing creative process (Inchamnan, Wyeth, & Johnson, 2012). The
results from stage 1 were used to establish the extent to which the games facilitated creativity
and how the components of creativity were involved. A video coding scheme was used tocapture the type and the frequency of the observable behaviors and verbalizations in which
participants engaged. The coding used items that were identified as significant in the creative
process (Ruscio et al., 1998). The coding was performed using both 7-point Likert scales andfrequency counts.
In terms of learning, the pilot study included 15 students. The unit outcomes of participants
during the study period were observed in order to evaluate logical skills (math andprogramming) and creative art skills (i.e., animation drawing). The study examined the impactof video games on the students’ motivation and their school records: programming, math andart subjects. The participant group played the game Gun Z 2: The second, Duel online between
their friends and Bots. In the experiments, gameplay finished in approximately 15 minutes intotal and completed a Player Experience Needs Satisfaction (PENS) questionnaire (Przybylski
et al., 2012) after playing.
Results
Factor Analysis of Creative Potential Game Activities
The levels of creative problem solving that occured during game play and the determination of
the game design elements were necessary in facilitating creative game play. Objects andresource manipulation within the games were a source of behavior variation across allcomponents. Table 2 shows the actual factors that were extracted from all 16 variables. In table2, all factors account for 72.51 percent of the variability in all 16 variables.
The pilot testing of items performed to ensure a common construct are moderately correlatedwith one another and are correlated with the total scale score. If one item does not satisfy themoderate correlation constraint (e.g., r ≥ .20) to other items in the construction process, that
item tends to perform poorly in a factor analysis. Kaiser-Meyer > .5 (.789, n=120) is acceptable
for this factor analysis technique.
	
  

	
  

125	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education  Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	    Table 2. Behavioral Factor Total Variance Explained
Factor1
2
3
4

Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Total% of Variance

Cumulative %

6.231
2.470
1.618
1.282

38.94754.38664.49572.50838.94715.43910.1108.012

Strong Factor Component
According to table 2, Factor 1 accounts for 38.95% of the variance value of all 16 variables.
Ten variables that are loaded strongly on this factor are involvement (task), set breaking (task),
pace (task), planning (task), playfulness (task), exploration (task), enjoyment (task),
concentration (task), assuredness (domain), difficulty (domain) and wide focus (creative).
Table 3. Components Matrix of Creative Components
Component Matrixa
FactorCreative Component
1
2
Involvement (Task).753 -.257
Stability (Task).232 .705
Set breaking (Task).863
Pace (Task).787 -.246
Planning (Task).888 .149
Playfulness (Task).830 .361
Exploration (Task).843 .317
Enjoyment (Task).804 .384
Concentration (Task).790
Exhibited uncertainty (Domain).605
Assuredness (Domain).748 -.506
Difficulty (Domain).298 -.461
Wide focus (Creative).329
Striving (Creative)-.257 .834
Concrete focusses (Creative).131
Concept identification (Creative) .248 .295

3

4
-.131

.314

.127
-.111
.111
.118
.569
.185
.574 -.157-.556 -.321-.215-.328 .860-.515 -.328

This issue regarding measured variables concerns the scale on which scores fall. Factor 1
finding refers to the player who can work on solving problems (involvement game activity).
The game play gives players the opportunity to manipulate materials; uses or attaches them in
new combinations (set breaking game activity). Speed while playing the game allows theparticipant to work on tasks/challenges (pace game activity), allows players to organize
material, to establish an idea, and to order to build on (planning game activity). Playfulness(playfulness game activity) activities engage the player in tasks in a curious manner; trying out
ideas in a carefree way and exploration (exploration game activity), being curious, or playful,
	
  

126	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education  Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	    while testing out new ideas. The enjoyment (enjoyment game activity) refers to the fact thatthe player has a pleasant experience, finds pleasure in the task/challenge and focuses on thetask; not distracted (concentration game activity).
The task motivation game activities relate to the learning domain-relevant skills during gameplay. The results in the domain-relevant skills categories might be expected. Players are
confident: certainty of ability to complete tasks; assuredness in going about the task; notdoubtful, timid, or anxious (assuredness game activity). The player faces the problems within
the game activities and reflects on the game tasks by making a negative statement (difficulty
game activity). The creative-relevant skill has a relationship between the effect of intrinsic
motivation and domain-relevant skill required during game play activities. The creativerelevant skill allows the player to have a future oriented; restatement of the problem given, theself-imposed goal, and statement dealing with a desired final goal (wide focus).
Player Experiences Have an Influence on Creative Process Skills
The significant mean differences of PENS scores (player experience) across creative
components shown in Table 4 point out that players felt competence during involvement in thegame. The autonomy scale assesses the degree to which participants felt free, and perceived
opportunities to do activities that interest them with striving. In game relatedness, the scaleassesses the desire to connect with the others in a way that feels authentic and supportive.
These results show significant (α < .05) player experiences that are significant to the concept
identification within the game play. The intuitive control scale aims to assess the degree towhich participants control their character’s actions in the game environment. These results
show significant (α < .05) player experiences that were significant to the concept identificationand striving within the game play activities. These findings show that player experiences havean influence on creative process skills.
Table 4. The significant mean differences of PENS scores across creative components
ANOVA Between Group

Df. F

Sig.

Involvement and Competence

97.698 .018

Striving and Autonomy

95.301 .040

Concept identification and Relatedness

75.003 .025

Striving and Intuitive Control

106.587 .042

Concept identification and Intuitive Control 106.305 .045

Game Activities Encourage Efficient Learning
The significant mean differences of school record scores across creative components shown in
Table 7 point out that players adjusted speed at particular tasks, in a slow to a fast gradient oftask rate. The logical skills as programming subjects related how students organize gameelements; establishes an idea, order to build in, and steps to take within game activities.

	
  

127	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education  Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	    Table 5. The significant mean differences of school record and creative components
ANOVA Between Group

Df. F

Sig.

Programming and Pace

5

4.104 .032

Programming and Planning45.649 .012

Art and Concept Identification 84.406 .044

These results show significance (α < .05) in the relationships between the Art subject andcreative-relevant skill as concept identification within the game play activities. These findings
show that game activities encourage learning in this domain.
Game Activities Facilitate the Creative Process During the Game Play Experience
The finding identifies (in Table 6) a significant (α < .05) player experience of playing games
that were coded with involvement (task motivation), exhibited uncertainly (domain-relevant
skill) and concept identification (creative-relevant skill) within the game play. The
programming and mathematics results aim to assess the degree that a player has logicalthinking about learning. These results show a significant (α < .05) playful learning that was
signed with exploration, wide focus, and concept identification within the game play.
Table 6. The significant mean differences of PENS scores across creative components
ANOVA Between Group

Df. F

Sig.

Involvement and Year of Game Experience

3

8.103

.004

Exploration and Programming

5

7.784

.004

Exhibited uncertainly and Year of Game Experience

3

5.721

.013

Concept identification and Year of Game Experience 3

14.707 .000

Wide focus and Math

4

6.424

.008

Concept identification and Programming

5

9.068

.003

Creative Potential and Learning Outcome
The creative-relevant skill encourages learning activity through the degree to which player has
logical thinking of learning (involvement, concept identification and year of game experience).
It appears that the ideal conditions for creativity are achieved within self-initiated backtracks
by using intentional moves to previous locations or by revisiting a particular gametask/challenge (exhibited uncertainly and year of game experience).

	
  

128	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education  Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	    Table 7. The significant mean differences of PENS scores across creative components
ANOVA Between Group Df. F
GPA and Competence

Sig.

9

8.361 .015

GPA and Intuitive Control 10

5.977 .050

Table 7 shows a significant difference of learning outcome (GPA) within the players’ feelingof competence and intuitive control during play games. These findings refer to game activities
that can facilitate an individual’s learning outcomes by using creative process skills.
Guidelines for Digital Game Based Learning
As aforementioned, the guidelines presented herein are used to assist game developers to
produce games that facilitate creative problem solving. First, learning outcomes have to bemapped to the mechanisms of learning that are identified as facilitating creative potential.
These conceptual guidelines are shown in figure 1 as an overview of the Creative Potential of
Learning Model (CPLN). In the figure, one can see that all principle concepts are linked into
the circular module. In order to clearly understand the interrelationships between principles oflearning and creative potential, the interpretation of the results is indispensable. A game’s
ability to facilitate task motivation centers on the creation of an environment that instills
confidence to complete tasks and ensures that players have logic skills to explore theirexperiences.

Figure 1. The Creative Potential of Learning Principles Model (CPLN)
Creativity-relevant skills provide greater opportunities for players to strive to engage in
gameplay. This can be achieved by allowing activities such as Striving and Autonomy and
Striving and Intuitive Control. The results refer to game activity experiences as intuitive control
affects the learning outcome.

	
  

129	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	  This can also be achieved by allowing activities that are future-oriented, to let players workthrough problems which require facilitating interactions with others, and require a feeling of
intuitive control (concept identification and relatedness; concept identification and intuitive
control). Creative-relevant skills encourage learning activities related to logic, such as concept
identification and creative art skill, wide focus and math, and concept identification andprogramming.
The tension parameter has been identified between providing an experience that encourages
striving (creative-relevant skills) and producing gameplay where the player finds it straightforward to understand what they are required to do and how they might go about doing it(domain-relevant skills). In identifying processes, it appears that the ideal conditions forcreativity are achieved within self-initiated backtracks by using intentional moves to previous
locations or revisits of a particular game task/challenge (exhibited uncertainly and year of game
experience).
Task motivation activities results showed that game challenges effectively allowed forcognitive and logical thinking and strategic planning. There were multiple types of challenges
available that players could approach in their own way and at players’ own pace. The level ofchallenge was well matched to player skill level.
The subsequent step of the producing a guideline is to map the game activity components tothe mechanisms identified (Inchamnan et al., 2014), and learning skills in Figure 1. These
guidelines are outlined below. Please notice that creative components which are facilitated areincluded in brackets.
•   Ensure that the class includes clear goals that allow students to develop their own subgoals and problem solving skills (wide focus, math skill).
•   Create challenges in the class that require logical thinking, involvement and strategicplanning in the class (complexity in problem solving, planning, refining problem
solutions)•   Implement challenges that develop at an appropriate pace and match a student’s skill
level (facilitate striving activity, environments that instill feeling autonomy)•   Implement rules that offer freedom of choices, where students have the options about
what actions to use to solve a problem in the class lesson (wide focus, object use andmanipulation, planning)•   Manage student errors by allowing supports for the recovery from errors, and by
ensuring that the impact is minimal (facilitate striving activity, environments that instill
confidence)•   Allow students to receive immediate and continuous feedback on their actions(environments that instill competence, understand what is required, clear pathways tocomplete lesson)
Conclusion
This study examines the aspects of game playing that might help people learn more effectively.
The study maps the results of the analysis of players engaging in creative problem solving
during online game play. Data analysis helps us to better understand how in-game activities
influence a player’s engagement in creative activity and learning. Furthermore, this study
developed preliminary guidelines. The guidelines consider the specific ways that gamedevelopers might align learning mechanisms to support creative problem solving processes.

	
  

130	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	  The activities should provide involvement, exploration and planning. Players should beengaging problem solving skills, concept identification and wide focus. They should be
striving, and exhibiting uncertainty.
Future studies should investigate the applicability of the Creative Potential of Learning Modelto other game genres. Furthermore, the guidelines proposed in this study could be applied andevaluated in game development to support creative activity for educational purposes. Finally,
future works could focus on larger samples in order to find out how games have the potential
to help people to learn more effectively in terms of creative processes.

	
  

131	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education  Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016

References
Amabile, T. M. (1983). The social psychology of creativity: A componential conceptualization.
Journal of personality and social psychology, 45, 357-376.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.45.2.357
Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context. Boulder, Colorado. Westview Press Inc.
Clark, C. M., Veldman, D. J., & Thorpe, J. S. (1965). Convergent and divergent thinking
abilities of talented adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 56(3), 157-163.
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022110
Cooper, J. O. (1982). Applied behavior analysis in education. Theory into practice, 21, 114118.
Cooper J. O, Heron T. E, Heward W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Floyd, F. J., & Widaman, K. F. (1995). Factor analysis in the development and refinement ofclinical assessment instruments. Psychological assessment, 7(3), 286-299.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.286
Gordon, W. J. J. (1961). Synectics, the development of creative capacity. New York: Collier.
Habgood, M. J., & Ainsworth, S. E. (2011). Motivating children to learn effectively: Exploring
the value of intrinsic integration in educational games. The Journal of the Learning
Sciences, 20, 169-206. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508406.2010.508029
Inchamnan, W., Wyeth, P., & Johnson, D. (2013). Does activity in computer game play havean impact on creative behaviour? Proceedings of the Games Innovation Conference(IGIC), 2013 IEEE International. https://doi.org/10.1109/igic.2013.6659169
Inchamnan, W., Wyeth, P., & Johnson, D. (2014). Design for creative activity : A framework
for analyzing the creative potential of computer games. Procedings of the Lecture Notes
in Computer Science : Entertainment Computing.
Myers, J. L., Well, A. D., & Lorch, R. F. (2010). Research design and statistical analysis. New
York: Routledge.
Paras, B., & Bizzocchi, J (2005, June). Game, motivation, and effective learning: An integrated
model for educational game design. Paper presented at the International DiGRA
Conference.
Perrotta, C., Featherstone, G., Aston, H. and Houghton, E. (2013). Game-based Learning:
Latest Evidence and Future Directions (NFER Research Programme: Innovation in
Education). Slough: NFER.
Prensky, M. (2002). The motivation of gameplay: The real twenty-first century learning
revolution. On the Horizon, 10, 5-11. https://doi.org/10.1108/10748120210431349
Prensky, M. (2005). Complexity matters. Educational Technology, 45, 5-20.
Prensky, M. (2005). Computer games and learning: Digital game-based learning. Handbook ofcomputer game studies, 18, 97-122.
Przybylski, A. K., Rigby, C. S., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). A motivational model of video gameengagement. Review of General Psychology, 14(2), 154-166.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019440
132	
  The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education  Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016

Przybylski, A. K., Weinstein, N., Murayama, K., Lynch, M. F., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). The
ideal self at play: The appeal of video games that let you be all you can be.
Psychological science, 23, 69-76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611418676
Rigby, S., & Ryan, R. (2011). Glued to Games: How Video Games Draw Us in and Hold Us
Spellbound. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
Ruscio, J., Whitney, D. M., & Amabile, T. M. (1998). Looking inside the fishbowl of creativity:
Verbal and behavioral predictors of creative performance. Creativity Research Journal,
11, 243-263. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326934crj1103_4
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic
motivation, social development, and well-being. American psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.
Schaefer, C. E. (1969). The prediction of creative achievement from a biographical inventory.
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 29, 431-437.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Shute, V. J. (2011). Stealth assessment in computer-based games to support learning. Computer
Games and Instruction, 55, 503-524.
Spearman, C.E. (1930). Creative mind. New York: Cambridge.
Sviderskaya, N. (2011). The EEG spatial pattern and psychophysiological characteristics ofdivergent and convergent thinking in humans. Human Physiology, 37, 31-38.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S0362119710061064
Sweetser, P., & Johnson, D. (2004). Player-centered game environments: Assessing player
opinions, experiences, and issues. Entertainment Computing–Proceedings from theICEC. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-28643-1_40
Turcsányi-Szabó, M., Bedő, A., & Pluhár, Z. (2006). Case study of a team challenge game—e-PBL revisited. Education and Information Technologies, 11, 341-355.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-006-9015-3
Tzeng, G. H., Chiang, C. H., & Li, C. W. (2007). Evaluating intertwined effects in e-learning
programs: A novel hybrid MCDM model based on factor analysis and DEMATEL.
Expert Systems with Applications, 32, 1028-1044.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2006.02.004

133	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Appendix 1. Example of School Record

	
  

134	
  

Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	
  The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	
  Appendix 2. The Pens Questionnaire
ID__________________
	
  

PENS

1= Do Not
Agree(ไม่ เห็นด้ วย),7=Strongly
Agree(เห็นด้ วย)
1 2 3
7

PENS: Competence
C1. I feel competent at the game. ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกเชื.อมัน. ว่าสามารถเล่นเกมได้
C2. I feel very capable and effective when playing.
ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกว่าสามารถเล่นเกมได้ดีและมีประสิ ทธิภาพ
C3. My ability to play the game is well matched with the game's
challengesความสามารถของผูเ้ ล่นเหมาะสมกับด่านต่างๆในเกม
PENS: Autonomy
A1. The game provides me with interesting options and choicesในเกมเตรี ยมทางเลือกต่างๆ ให้ผเู ้ ล่นอย่างน่าสนใจ
A2. The game lets you do interesting things เกมให้ผเู ้ ล่นรู ้สึกสนใจที.จะเล่นเกม
A3. I experienced a lot of freedom in the gameประสบการณ์ในเกมรู ้สึกผูเ้ ล่นมีอิสระในการเล่น
PENS: Relatedness
R1. I find the relationships I form in this game fulfilling.
ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกมีความสัมพันธ์กบั เกมและเติมเต็มผูเ้ ล่น
R2. I find the relationships I form in this game important.
ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกมีความสัมพันธ์กบั เกมมีความสําคัญ
R3. I don’t feel close to other players. (-) ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกไม่รู้สึกใกล้ชิดกับผูเ้ ล่นคนอื.น
Presence/Immersion
P1. When playing the game, I feel transported to another time and place.
ขณะเล่นเกมผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกปิ ติยนิ ดีในช่วงเวลาและสถานที.นO นั ๆในเกม

	
  

135	
  

4 5 6

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	  P2. Exploring the game world feels like taking an actual trip to a newplace.
การท่องและค้นหาในเกมผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกเหมือนได้ไปในสถานที.ใหม่ๆ
P3. When moving through the game world, I feel as if I am actually
there. ในขณะที.ผเู ้ ล่นท่องไปในโลกของเกมผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกเหมือนอยู่ ณ ที.นO นั ๆ จริ งๆ
P4. I am not impacted emotionally by events in the game (-).
เหตุการณ์ในเกมไม่มีผลกระทบต่อจิดใจของผูเ้ ล่น
P5. The game was emotionally engaging. เกมโน้มน้าวใจผูเ้ ล่น
P6. I experience feelings as deeply in the game as I have in real life.
ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกว่าเกมเหมือนในชีวติ อย่างมาก
P7. When playing the game I feel as if I was part of the story.
ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกว่าเป็ นส่ วนหนึ.งของเนืOอเรื. องในเกม
P8. When I accomplished something in the game I experienced genuine
pride. ประสบการณ์ในการเล่นเกมทําให้ผเู ้ ล่นมีความภาคภูมิใจที.สามารถเล่นและแก้ปัญหาภายในเกมได้
P9. I had reactions to events and characters in the game as if they werereal. ผูเ้ ล่นตอบสนองเหตุการณ์และตัวละครภายในเกมเหมือนในชีวติ จริ ง
PENS: Intuitive Controls:
I1. Learning the game controls was easy. สามารถเรี ยนรู ้การควบคุมเกมได้ง่าย
I2. The game controls are intuitive. การจัดการในเกมสร้างความคิดริ เริ. มให้กบั ผูเ้ ล่น
I3. When I wanted to do something in the game, it was easy toremember the corresponding control.
เมื.อผูเ้ ล่นต้องการจะทําอะไรบ้างอย่างในเกมสามารถทําได้สะดวกเนื.องจากอุปกรณ์ควบคุมในเกมสอดคล้องกัน

	
  

136	
  

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	
  Appendix 3. Observations Checklist
Participant number______________Part 1
CodingStrongly disagree - > Strongly agree

CODE (1-7)(1,2,3,4,5,6,7)
1.   ผูเ้ ล่นพยายามแก้ปัญหาภายในกิจกรรมในเกม (Participant works on solving problems
within the game. [involvement]
2.   ผูเ้ ล่นเสี ยสมาธิหรื อมีสิ.งรบกวนเพียงเล็กน้อยในขณะแก้ปัญหาThere is minimal distraction fromsolving problems in the game. [concentration]
3.   ผูเ้ ล่นสนใจแต่ภารกิจในเกมParticipant becomes focused on the tasks in the game.
[concentration]
4.   ผูเ้ ล่นสามารถปรับดุลความสเถียรภาพของปั ญหาภายในเกมParticipant can work on refining the
integrity or stability of a problem solution within the game. [stability]
5.   อ็อบเจกต์ และ เครื. องมือในเกมพร้อมให้ผเู ้ ล่นใช้ได้อย่างเหมาะสมIn-game objects and materials
are able to be readily manipulated. [set breaking]6.   ผูเ้ ล่นสามารถปรับอ็อบเจกต์ และ
เครื. องมือในเกมตามแนวทางของตนเองเพื.อบรรลุวตั ถุประสงค์เบืOองต้นในเกมParticipant manipulates
objects and materials that can be used in different ways to the primary
purpose. [set breaking]7.   ผูเ้ ล่นสามารถเร่ งความเร็ วจากช้าไปเร็ วตามระดับภายในเกมThe speed at which participant isrequired to interact within the game progresses from a slow to fast gradientof working rate. [pace]8.   การวางแผนคือส่ วนสําคัญในการเล่นเกมPlanning is an important part of game play.
[planning]
9.   เกมขึOนอยูก่ บั การจัดการภายในเกมThe game relies on the organization or manipulateof objects as a part of game play. [planning]
10.  ผูเ้ ล่นสร้างแนวความคิดของตนเองได้ขณะเล่นเกมParticipant is able to establish ideas
within the game. [planning]
11.  ผูเ้ ล่นสามารถวางแผนเป็ นขัOนเป็ นตอนขณะเล่นเกมParticipant can plan the order of actions
and steps to take within the game. [planning]
12.  ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกอยากรู ้อยากเห็นขณะเล่นเกมParticipant can engage in game tasks in a curious
manner. [playfulness]
13.  เกมสามารถตอบสนองการลองคิดสิ. งใหม่ๆ หรื อทดลองแนวคิดของผูเ้ ล่นได้The game provides
opportunities to try out ideas in a carefree way. [playfulness]
14.  ความอยากรู ้อยากเห็นทําให้ผเู ้ ล่นค้นหาแนวทางต่างๆภ่ยในเกมCuriosity during game
exploration is encouraged. [exploration]
15.  เกมสนับสนุนการทดทองแนวคิดของผูเ้ ล่นThe game encourages playful testing out ofideas. [exploration]
16.  ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกเป็ นช่วงเวลาที.ดีในการเล่นเกมThe game allows players to have a good time.
[Enjoyment]
17.  กิจกรรมในเกมสร้างความสนุกGame play tasks are pleasurable. [Enjoyment]

	
  

137	
  

A11
A21
A22
A31
A41
A42

A51

A61
A62
A63
A64
A71
A72
A81
A82
A91
A92

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	
  18.  เกมให้ผเู ้ ล่นรู ้สึกมัน. ใจในการเล่นThe game allows participant to feel assured in going
about required tasks. [Assuredness]
19.  ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกมีความสามารถในการเล่นได้ดีParticipant feels certain about his/her ability tocomplete tasks in the game. [Assuredness]
20.  ผูเ้ ล่นสามารถเดากิจกรรมต่างๆได้ภายในเกมขณะเล่นParticipant demonstrates little doubt
about what she/he required to do during the game play [Assuredness]
21.  ผูเ้ ล่นไม่รู้สึกท้อแท้ขณะเล่นParticipant doesn’t feel anxious or timid as participant
plays the game. [Assuredness]
22.  ผูเ้ ล่นเผชิญปั ญหาภายในเกมขณะเล่นเกมParticipant encounters problems as participant
plays the game. [Assuredness (-)]
23.  กิจกรรมภายในเกมยากต่อการเล่นของผูเ้ ล่นIt was difficult to complete tasks in the game.
[Assuredness (-)]
24.  มีความยากในการจัดการกับ Object ในเกมIt was difficult to work with theobjects/resources in the game. [Assuredness (-)]

B11
B12
B13
B14
B15
B16
B17

Part 2
Coding

CODE นับครัOง

25.  ผูเ้ ล่นย้อน ยกเลิกกิจกรรมบางกิจกรรมในเกมParticipant reverses or undoes
steps/actions performed in the game. [exhibited uncertainty (-)]
26.  ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกไม่มนั. ใจที.จะสามารถเล่นเกมได้จนผ่านเสร็ จParticipant feels uncertain
completing tasks in the game. [difficulty (-)]
27.  ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกสามารถเดากิจกรรมในเกมได้Participant has feelings of self-doubt while
playing the game. [difficulty (-)]
28.  ผูเ้ ล่นส่ งเสี ยงในทางลบขณะเล่นเกมParticipant produces negative statements about
his/her ability as participants play the game. [difficulty (-)]
29.  ผูเ้ ล่นส่ งเสี ยงที.แสดงไม่พอใจกับเกมParticipant produces negative exclamations(e.g. curses) as participant plays the game.
[difficulty (-)]

B21
B31
B32
B33
B34

Part 3
CodingStrongly disagree - > Strongly agree

CODE(1,2,3,4,5,6,7)
30.  ผูเ้ ล่นเผชิญปั ญหาภายในเกมขณะเล่นให้ผา่ นแต่ละด่านParticipant encountered problems
while completing tasks in the game. [Striving]
31.  ผูเ้ ล่นมีอุปสรรค์ในการผ่านด่านต่างๆParticipant encountered obstacles while
completing tasks in the game. [Striving]
32.  ผูเ้ ล่นมีคาํ ถามที.จะผ่านแต่ละด่านParticipant questions what to do at particular
stages in the game. [Striving]

	
  

138	
  

B41
B42
B43

1-7

The  IAFOR  Journal  of  Education    Volume  4  –  Issue  2  –  Summer  2016	
  Part 4
Coding

CODE

33   ผูเ้ ล่นแก้ปัญกาที.ละด่านโดยแก้ปัญหาที.ละจุดจนกว่าจะสําเร็ จThe current problem thatneeds to be solved in the game requires more than one step. [widefocus]
34   ปั ญหาที.พบแต่จะจุดเป็ นการนําไปสู่ การแก้ปัญหาด่านต่อไปThe current problem in thegame is future oriented. [wide focus]
35   ผูเ้ ล่นกลับมาแก้ปัญหาเก่าที.ผา่ นมาหลังจากที.ผา่ นบางจุดไปแล้วParticipant restates the
problem presented by the game. [wide focus]
36   ผูเ้ ล่นสามารถพัฒนาวัตถุประสงค์ของตัวเองได้ในขณะเล่นParticipant is able to develop
his/her own goals within the game. [wide focus]
37   ผูเ้ ล่นทําบางอย่างที.ไม่เกี.ยวกับกิจกรรมในเกมParticipant is performing actions not
related to game tasks/goals. [wide focus]
38   ผูเ้ ล่นเปลี.ยนกิจกรรมหรื อทําบางอย่างขณะเล่นเกมParticipant transitions to a new
topic area or action in the game. [Striving]
39   ผูเ้ ล่นรู ้สึกสงสัยว่าจะผ่านแต่ละด่านอย่างไรParticipant questioned how to completetasks in the game. [Striving]่ articipant questions his/her current actions
40   ผูเ้ ล่นสงสัยว่าตอนนีOกาํ ลังทําอะไรอยูPin the game. [Striving]41   ผูเ้ ล่นพูดหรื อทวนคําพูดบางอย่างตามเหมือนที.เกมพูดParticipant repeats instructions,words or concepts presented in the game. [Striving]42   ผูเ้ ล่นควนครางคําพูดบางอย่างในเกมParticipant makes exclamations, as apositive or negative outburst. [Striving]
43   ผูเ้ ล้นพูดว่าชอบหรื อไม่ชอบเกมParticipant makes statements of like or dislike
about game tasks. [Concrete focus]
44   ผูเ้ ล่นพูดถึงคุณภาพของเกมในเรื. องการออกแบบParticipant talks about the qualitiesof the materials, objects or attributes of the game world. [Concrete
focus (-)]
45   ผูเ้ ล่นบรรยายการเล่น กิจกรรม หรื อประโยคต่างๆในเกมParticipant describes
action/tasks/goals in terms of analogies or metaphors. [Concept
identification]
46   ผูเ้ ล่นอุทานออกมาขณะเล่นเกมParticipant had eureka-type moments in thegame. [Concept identification]
47   ผูเ้ ล่นหยุด เปลี.ยนกิจกรรมบางอย่างเพื.อให้เล่นเกมได้Participant has an abrupt changein activity designed to help complete a task. [Concept
identification]

C11

	
  

	
  

139	
  

C12
C13
C14
C15
C21
C22
C23
C24
C25
C31
C32

C41

C42
C43

นับครัOง