Doshisha Review of Sociology NO. 22, 2018
【Original paper】

Seismic Culture as a Risk andResilience Communication Device

1)

TATSUKI Shigeo
Otto von Bismarck once said, “Fools learn from experience. I prefer to learn from the experience of others.”
The Prussian statesman’s quote well applies to any critical moment of decision­making in everyday life. Seismic
risk involves one such critical situation. Nankai trough earthquakes have been repeatedly occurring once every
one hundred to one hundred and fifty years (Sangawa, 2007). The return period of more than one hundred years,
however, is far longer than average human longevity. It is therefore essential to keep reminding our selves of “theexperiences of others” over successive generations, with regard to seismic risks. It should be noted that “the expe­
riences” include those from both pre­ and post­disaster events. Seismic culture consisting of cultural artifacts,
symbols and related practices against seismic risks has become an important tool for seismic risk communicationand has sustained a preparedness level among people. At the same time, it is also known that new forms of seis­mic culture emerge after disaster events and that they enhance the resilience among people and society. This pa­
per aims to review the characteristics and the history of Japanese seismic culture in order to examine its values
for both seismic risk and resilience communications, followed by an overview of related empirical studies in seis­mic risk and resilience communications and proposals for their future research directions.

1 Seismic culture as a sub-set of disaster subculture
Seismic culture is a sub­set of “disaster subculture” (Moore, 1964 ; Anderson, 1965 ; Wenger & Weller,
1973 ; Wenger, 1978 ; Hannigan & Kueneman, 1978). It is considered to be cultural defenses (Moore, 1964) or
adaptations (Anderson, 1965), which individuals, groups and organizations develop to cope with recurrent seismic
dangers. Seismic culture includes the following components related to seismic disasters : values (i.e., what should
be prioritized), norms (i.e., what should and should not be done), beliefs (i.e., causal relations between the agent
and results), knowledge (i.e., recognition between preceding and consequent events), technology (i.e., mitigationand preparedness procedures and devices) and folklore (success and failure narratives) (Hayashi, 1988).
Social anthropologist Isao Hayashi (2016) illustrates the case of Indonesia’s Simeulue islanders’ practice ofan epic poem singing titled “Smong (tsunami)” as one good example of seismic culture as a form of risk commu­
nication :Enggel mon sao curito
lnang maso semonan
Manoknop sao fanoUwi lah da sesewan

Please listen to this story
one day in the pasta village was sinking
that what have been told────────────１）This paper is based on the invited presentation made for Seismic Cultures Workshop (http : //seismiccultures.org) held at
Denny Hall, University of Washington on September 18, 2017.

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Doshisha Review of Sociology NO. 22, 2018

Unen ne alek linon
Fesang bakat ne mali
Manoknop sao hampong
Tibo­tibo mawi

starting with earthquakes
following by giant wave
whole the country was sinking
immediately

Angalinon ne mali
uwek suruik sahuli
Maheya mihawali
Fano me singa tenggi

if the strong earthquake
followed by the lowering of sea waterplease find in hurrya higher place

Ede smong kahanne
Turiang da nenekta
Miredem teher ere
Pesan da navi da

it is called “Smong”
a history of our ancestor
please always remember
the message and instruction

Note : The original Simeulue language poem was quoted from Hayashi (2016, p.15).
The English translation was from Pasotti (2014).

The above poem taught the islanders the lesson to evacuate to a higher place after earthquakes and was cre­ated after the 1907 tsunami disaster that killed seventy percent of Simeulue residents at that time. Because eachsection consisting of four short lines in rhyme was easy to remember, almost all of the islanders were familiar
with the poem. People in Simeulue have been singing “Smong” from one generation to another while they were
engaged in everyday agricultural or fishery labors and in communal festivities. When the 2004 Indian Ocean
mega­tsunami attacked the island, situated just sixty kilometer South­East from the epicenter, almost all of the
78,000 inhabitants followed the poem’s lesson by running to higher ground and their lives were saved except forseven people (Hayashi, 2016).
Social psychologist Haruo Hayashi (1988) classified the functions of seismic culture into three categories,
complexity reduction, habituation and solidarity maintenance. First, it is a well­known fact that human beings go
through a moment of “whiteout” or disorientation right after the onset of any disaster event (Tatsuki, 2016). Seis­mic culture norms and values help people quickly obtain situational definitions, leading to an immediate and ap­
propriate course of actions, and thus reducing the complexity of the situation. Second, seismic culture is some­times associated with a dysfunction like “the boy who cried wolf” fairy tale. Repetitive individual and organiza­
tional experiences of non­damage to warning and threats can cause the waning of shared perceptions of emer­
gency and thus may delay appropriate actions. Third, “Danger past, God forgotten” is also a well­known fact. As
time passes, a sense of community declines and seismic culture sustenance becomes harder. As Moore (1964) cor­
rectly pointed out, in his book . . . And the Winds Blow, that disasters function as a solidarity maintenance device
and make a community of seismic culture practices.
The next sections portray how seismic culture emerged as a solidarity maintenance device for social renewal
after the 1855 Ansei Edo, the 1923 Great Kanto and the 1995 Kobe Earthquakes. This will be followed by criti­
cal reviews of some recent empirical studies on the effects of seismic culture artifacts as a complexity reduction/
anti­habituation device among the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE) hit local coastal communities inNorth Eastern Japan.

2TATSUKI：Seismic Culture as a Risk and Resilience Communication Device

2 Seismic Culture as a Solidarity Maintenance Device for Social Renewal
The 1855 Ansei Edo Earthquake and Namazu-e (Catfish prints) : Dutch social anthropologist, Cornelis Ou­
wehand (1964) conducted comprehensive iconographic analyses of Namazu-e or catfish prints from the 1855 Ansei Edo earthquake period. A big boom of namazu-e printing was one of the most prominent social phenomena
after the 1855 Ansei Edo earthquake (Kitahara, 1983 ; 2000). Namazu or the catfish was believed widely to be
the causative agent of earthquakes during the Edo period. Namazu-e recorded folkloric accounts of how the Ansei
Edo disaster was viewed and thus how its reality was constructed among common people. Like Ouwehand(1964), the social historian, Kitahara (1983 ; 2000) analyzed catfish prints and concluded that namazu or catfish
images were portrayed in two manners, one as a messenger of Heaven­sent punishment and the other as a presage
of social renewal. Although earthquakes may cause perils, they can also bring about something good (Figure 1),such as the rebalancing of inequalities by bringing wealth to laborers, carpenters, plasterers, craftsmen, lumber
dealers, ironmongers, bone fracture doctors and cathouses (Figure 2).

Figure 1 : Namazu-e portrays perils and prosperities(http : //www.bousaihaku.com/wopen/shake/images/cat
17.jpg)Figure 2 : Namazu working for the renewal of the society(http : //www.bousaihaku.com/images/gallery/shake/cat19s.
jpg)

Fukkou-bushi and Emergence of Volunteerism during the 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake : The dual­faceted
nature of earthquake disaster narratives is also apparent form the 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake archives and lit­
erature. For example, a well­established and respected entrepreneur, Eiichi Shibusawa wrote that the earthquake
was not only a peril but also heaven­sent retribution for the decay of morals and ethics in politics, business andmass media in the decadent post­World War I nouveau riche society (Shibusawa, 1923). A sentiment of rebalanc­
ing inequalities in the post disaster utopia was commonly shared among people. A street­ballad singer­songwriter,
Tomomichi (a.k.a., Satsuki) Soeda popularized fukkou-bushi or the recovery ballad (http : //locatv.com/gochisosan­
fukkoubushi/) :3

Doshisha Review of Sociology NO. 22, 2018(the first verse)
Even if we are burned, watch over us
Edo­residents’ spirit will not disappear
Aramah! Oyamah!
We savor the moon while we lay down
In the hastily built barracks
Ezoezo Imperial Capital Recovery Ezoezo:(the fifth verse)
A high society chaperoned school girlNow runs a soup shop
Aramah! Oyamah!
She serves red bean soup with a shy face
The embarrassed customer bows and receives it
Ezoezo Imperial Capital Recovery Ezoezo

In response to the 1923 disaster, a socio­cultural movement toward solidarity also emerged as a form of vol­unteerism. Students from Tokyo Imperial University, for example, were among the most active volunteers. The
emergence of relief volunteerism made long lasting impacts on Japanese society. After the emergency period wasover, those student volunteers along with the dedicated assistance of professors, Izutaro Suehiro, Shigeto Hozumi
and a Christian social reformer, Toyohiko Kagawa, shifted their attention to the root cause of the disaster andfounded the Tokyo Imperial University Settlement House in a neighboring slum district of Honjo in 1924 (seeFigures 3 and 4). The movement was modeled after contemporary social reform movements that had originated at
Toynbee Hall in London and Hull House in Chicago at the end of the 19th century. The settlement house is con­sidered to be the possible birthplace of the modern Japanese volunteerism and social reform movement (Tatsuki,2000).

Figure 3 : Izutaro Suehiro and Toyohiko Kagawa(http : //kagawa 100.blog.shinobi.jp／その他／
賀川豊彦と関東大震災 1, the last accessed on
February 4, 2018)

Figure 4 : Children and Volunteers at Tokyo Imperial
University Settlement House Day Care Center(https : //ameblo.jp/skytree-sightseeing/entry-10855521401.
html, the last accessed on February 4, 2018)

The 1995 Kobe Earthquake and Renaissance of Civil Society : Phrases such as ‘the rise of solidarity’ and ‘adisaster makes a community’ were extensively used after the 1995 Kobe earthquake. The Hyogo prefectural gov­
ernment announced that more than about 1 million volunteers came to assist victims within two months after theearthquake and mass media agencies coined the term “Year one of volunteerism” despite the fact a similar move­
ment was historically recorded during the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake as was mentioned previously. Based on
the 1999 Hyogo Life Recovery Survey, Tatsuki and Hayashi (2000) confirmed the rise of community solidarity as
well as self­governance in a comparison of before and after the earthquake among 993 respondents. Based on the4TATSUKI：Seismic Culture as a Risk and Resilience Communication Device

1999, 2001, 2003 and 2005 Life Recovery Surveys, Tatsuki (2007) concluded that a rise of community solidarity
promoted a sense of normalcy among the surveyed survivors by facilitating a process of “sense making,” i.e., re­evaluation/re­appraisal of ones’ own disaster experiences into positive and meaningful narratives.
The rise of solidarity triggered a new wave of thinking that connected a new solidarity­based solution of“personal troubles” with that of “public issues” by altering how people constructed the reality of the society (Tat­suki, 2000 ; Tatsuki & Hayashi, 2000). Prior to the earthquake, it was taken for granted that a statutory body
would respond to public needs, and that people would concentrate almost all of their energy on private interestsand profit making (see Figure 5). The earthquake literally shook up this reality. Local governments also became
victims and their public serving functions were paralyzed for about three months. In this context, people learned
how hard it was to survive as individuals, disconnected from other people. People then learned that they them­selves, not just city officials, could respond to public needs and that people could serve public interests. The
structure of the new reality about the society is illustrated in Figure 6. On the top is the statutory body. On thebottom, is the voluntary body. From right to left are public and private interests. The emergence of the statutory­
voluntary and public­private interests axes properly locates the civil society sector where volunteerism, non­governmental, non­profit organization activities, and philanthropy play major roles. Public needs are responded toby the non­governmental voluntary sector in this domain. That is the people­based creation of public interests, thedomain where community solidarity and self­governance play a major role. This bottom right corner had been ablind spot since the Tokyo Imperial University Settlement House was banned by the militaristic government in1938. This was due to the enactment of the National Mobilization Law, which transformed Japan into abureaucrat­controlled highly centralized society as illustrated in Figure 5. It took fifty years since the end of theWorld War II until “. . . the winds blew” (Moore, 1964) and the post­1995­earthquake movements led to the ren­aissance of the civic­minded solutions to public issues (Tatsuki, 2000).

Figure 5 : The View of Public Interests Prior to the1995 Kobe Earthquake
Figure 6 : Emergence of Public-Private and Statutory
and Voluntary Axes

3 Seismic Culture as a Complexity Reduction/Anti-Habituation Device
This section reviews two other functions of seismic culture, namely complexity reduction and anti­
habituation against tsunami threats. For example, tsunami memorial monuments have been systematically sur­veyed in recent years and it has been learned that they can be widely observed (see Figure 7) along the coastal
communities from southern Kyushu island, Shikoku island, Wakayama peninsula, Osaka Bay area, Izu and Boso
peninsulas, Tohoku, and northern Hokkaido regions. These historic disaster monuments are considered to be local
indigenous cultural defenses against recurrent tsunami threats and have begun to be extensively studied in disaster
research communities (e.g., Hayashi, 2016, 2017 ; Kawashima, 2016 ; Sato, Hirakawa, Okumura, & Imamura,2017).
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Doshisha Review of Sociology NO. 22, 2018

Like Simeulue Island folklore as was illustrated earlier, similar cultural risk communication symbols against
tsunami threats have been systematically surveyed and archived in recent years by formal disaster management
agencies in Japan (see Figure 7). Each balloon on the map is linked to narratives associated with a given monu­
ment. For example, local residents near Taisho bridge in Osaka’s Naniwa ward gather around their tsunami monu­
ment every obon season (ancestral spirit homecoming day in August) in commemoration of the 1854 Ansei tsu­
nami and they trace stone engraved lessons on early evacuations using freshly inked brushes. This practice is pro­
moted extensively by Osaka city administration (http : //www.city. osaka.lg.jp/naniwa/page/0000000848.html). The
use of a tsunami monument as an indigenous seismic risk communication tool against tsunami threats has been re­cently gaining wide attention by disaster scholars (e.g., Kawashima, 2016 ; Hayashi, 2017 ; Sato et al, 2017).

Figure 8 : Tsunami Lesson Ink Brush Tracing at Ansei Tsunami Monument( https : / / www. facebook. com / fromosaka / videos /pcb. 864778680348342 / 864778437015033 / ? type ＝ 3 &theater, last accessed on February 4, 2018)

Figure 7 : Tsunami Disaster Historic Monument Map(http : //www.kasen.net/ishibumi/tsunamimap.htm, thelast accessed on February 4, 2018)

Shosuke Sato and his colleagues at Tohoku University are one of the first groups of disaster researchers with
science, engineering and social science backgrounds to have conducted empirical analyses on the impacts of tsu­
nami monument on the effectiveness of defense against tsunami threats. Sato et al. (2017) studied 383 GEJE tsu­
nami inundated localities in Miyagi and Iwate prefectures and examined the effects of tsunami memorials on thecasualties by means of step­wise generalized linear models and found that the number of tsunami monuments hada significant negative effect (p＜.001) on the casualties (i.e., the more monuments, the fewer casualties). A per­sonal communication with Sato (August 5, 2017), however, revealed that because the data was not obtained froma randomized trial but from observations, the analysis did not take confounding factor effects into account. Thismeans that although the intention of the analysis was to compare the casualties between the localities with andwithout tsunami monuments given all the other conditions related to the recorded tsunami height were controlled,
the sampling biases were not controlled. In other words, the Sato et al. (2017) study sample included far fewer
proportions of localities without tsunami monuments where a very high tsunami was recorded or those with tsu­
nami monuments where a very low tsunami was observed. Using the same data from Sato et al. (2017), Okumura(2015), a member of the same research group, statistically adjusted the sample imbalance through propensity scorematching and reported that tsunami monument effect disappeared after the adjustment.

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TATSUKI：Seismic Culture as a Risk and Resilience Communication Device

Acknowledging the sampling biases and the limitations in terms of the generalizability of their study results,
the Tohoku University group initiated exploratory research projects on the characteristics of the GEJE hit commu­
nities where zero casualties were recorded after tsunami attacks. Sato and Imamura (2017) compared three zerocasualty communities in Iwate prefecture. They found that two out of the three communities were characterized
by mitigation initiatives such as relocation and building sea walls while the other community was distinguishedby sustained preparedness efforts such as regular disaster drills with volunteer fire brigades leading villagers inevacuation simulations and also voluntary clean­up activities of tsunami evacuation paths. Although tsunami
monuments were observed in all three communities, only two out of the three communities had regularly been in­volving the tsunami monument for commemoration of those who were killed in the 1896 and 1933 Sanriku Tsu­nami disasters. The tsunami monument in the third community was forgotten partly due to a relocation to higher
ground after the 1933 tsunami and also due to the fact that it was buried after the 1960 Chile tsunami recovery
road construction work. People in the third community living on relocation land, however, kept the norm, values
and beliefs of staying away from the tsunami­inundation­expected lowland by respecting local elders’ warnings
over the generations.
The above report and findings may suggest that seismic cultural artifacts like tsunami monuments alone may
not be influential enough and that if they are incorporated with the solidarity maintaining practices of commemo­
ration ― just like Simeulue islanders singing Smong while they engaged in agricultural/fishery labors as well as
in communal festivities ― this incorporation may act as risk and resilience communication devices for complexity
reduction, habituation prevention and solidarity maintenance. At the same time, tsunami monuments are not the
only effective tsunami risk/resilience communication devices since locality­based narratives may also serve tomaintain the vigilance and resilience against possible tsunami threats. Obviously more empirical research isneeded to come grips with the functions of tsunami monuments and narratives in the local coastal communities.

Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the JSPS Grants­in­Aid for Scientific Research (A) (17H00851) “Research, De­velopment and Systematic Implementation of Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction” (Principal Investigator Shigeo
Tatsuki from FY 2017 to FY 2021), the JSPS Grants­in­Aid for Scientific Research (S) (25220202) “Research andDevelopment of Behavioral Disaster Risk Reduction as the Keystone for Disaster Risk Reduction” (Principal In­
vestigator Haruo Hayashi from FY 2013 to FY 2017), and by the MEXT Grant­in­Aid for Forming Models for
Risk Communication (Principal Investigator Eiichi Itoigawa from FY 2016 to FY 2018). The author also thankProfessor Isao Hayashi of the National Museum of Ethnology for providing a guidance to disaster culture litera­ture and Professor Yuki Yamauchi of the Faculty of Commerce, Doshisha University for providing information on
the works by Mr. Eiichi Shibusawa. Their help was very much appreciated.

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