International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.1, 1-2<Editorial>

Welcome to International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
Koubun Wakashima1)
1)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

Towardthe Establishment

Kyoto, Kagoshima, and Fukuoka. The firstof National

Foundation of Brief Therapy

NFBT’s academic conference was held at

Mr. Naohiro Ono founded the first JapaneseTokyo in 2009, where both practitioners andformal study group of brief therapy and family

researchers addressed clinical practices andscience, Tankiryoho Wo Manabu Kai, at Sendai

researches.

in 1994. There have been established otherlocal study groups of same interest across Japan

Launching scientific journals of NFBT

since

local

NFBT published first scientific journal in

representative of Mental Research Institute,Japanese language in 2009: Interactional Mind.

joined the study group in 1995. Thereafter, we

Besides,determined to integrate local study groups tolanguage journal “International Journal of Brief

createtheTherapy and Family Science (IJBF)” in April

development of brief therapy and family

2011. The aim of this journal is to addressscience in Japan. In 2008, we finally founded

works

The National Foundation of Brief Therapy

researchers from Japan or other countries,(NFBT), first Japanese national organization ofespecially East Asian countries to all over thebrief therapy and family science. This wasworld. However, the schedule was postponed

fourteen years after the foundation of the first

because of the enormous earthquake in 11th offormal study group in 1994. The local study

March 2011. We would like to take thisgroups have currently become the NFBT’s local

opportunity to apologize to both Dr. Lucianobranches. There have been established nine

L’Abate and Dr. Calros Sluzki for the delay

branches up to the present date; Sendai,

despite their quick offers of invited papers.

Yamagata, Tokyo, Yokohama, Chiba, Nagoya,

IJBF

Dr.

a

Keizo

national

Hasegawa,

aorganization

for

we

decidedconducted

is

the

by

secondtolaunchEnglishpractitioners

Englishandlanguage

psychological journal in Japan. Furthermore,
CORRESPONDENCETO:

WAKASHIMA,

IJBF is the “FIRST” English language clinicalGraduate

School of Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi,

psychological journal in Japan.

Aoba-ku, Sendai-city, Japan. 980-8576

The originality of the IJBF is the easy

e-mail: rxv11606@hotmail.co.jp

instruction system for submission, where,
clinical practitioners such as psychologists and1

2

WAKASHIMA

schoolteachers are able to address their unique

About the Editor-in-chiefpractices without any constraints. We believe

Dr. Koubun Wakashima is associate professor

works from individual practitioners are a fertilein the graduate school of education at Tohoku

source of the state of the art of the science.

University. He was born in Ishikawa in 1972

Emphasizing the value of works from clinicaland earned degrees at Tohoku University (Ph.D.

practitioners is the concept of this new journal.

Education).

Therefore,

manuscript

He was an editor for many years of thesubmission of case report as well as research

Japanese Journal of School Counseling (2000-),

from individual practitioners throughout theJapanese Journal of Counseling Science(2003-),world.

and Japanese Journal of Family Psychology

Please feel free to submit your works to(2007-).

editorial office!

He is the author and coauthor of overContact: Editorial office: ijbf@nfbt.org

100 papers

wewelcomeinprofessionalandscientificjournals and author, co-author, editor, andco-editor of 17 books. Total amount of his
publication is over 200.
His research team currently focuses on in the
study of social withdrawal, family reunion ofbattered person and criminals. The otherinterest of the team is to construct and practice
psychosocial support for disaster victims.
As the chief trainer and supervisor of theBrief and Family Therapy training course at
Koubun Wakashima, Ph.D.

NFBT, he has engaged in clinical practice,

Editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Brief Therapy

supervision, and has been a member of regional

and Family Science

NFBT branch of Sendai.

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, Vol.1, 3-56
<Invited Paper>

Recent Developments in Family Science in USA and Italy
Luciano L’Abate1)
1)

Georgia State University

What has happened in USA since the

My Family Background and History

Founding of the International Academy ofI

Family Psychology in 1990? The purpose of

great-grandfather. There are two versions about

this article is to bring my Japanese colleagues

who he was. One version says he was the cookand friends up-to-date about what has happened

for the Marquise Grassi family, an aristocratic

in family science in USA and Italy since thefamily that owed land in Lombardy. The otherfoundation of the International Academy inversion says he was a Catholic priest whose

Kyoto and Tokyo in 1990. Since then a great

uncle was the Bishop of Milan, Italy in 1850, adeal of water has passed under the bridge ofmember of the Grassi family.

time. Unfortunately, I will not be able to cover

this version is correct, my great grand-father

advances in other countries because I have notmight have been destined to rise higher in the

been able to keep up with them.

hierarchy of the Catholic church with the help

I will start with giving more personalof his uncle.

background and eventually enter into the realm

One day when walking through the streets ofof theory, which was my first concern during

Milan, my grandfather, whether a cook or a

the first meeting of the Academy in Tokyo, as

priest, heard a chorus singing a melody he hadwell as in the realm of prevention, which wasnever heard before. Curious to know who was

my second concern then and still is, together

singing this melody he entered the building andwiththeory-driven

saw that after finished singing one man got up

evaluation for any kind of psychologicaland read from the Bible. Since, he knew thatintervention (L’Abate, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c,

only Catholic priests were allowed to read from1990d).

the Bible, after the man finished reading andtheimportance

of

can

trace

my

heritagetomyConsequently, if

explained what the Bible meant, he asked theman who is was and how was he allowed toread and explain the Bible. The man told him
CORRESPONDENCE

TO:

L’ABATE,

that he was a follower of Peter Waldo who in

Georgia State

University, Atlanta, GA. 30345-3917, USA.

the 12th century gave all his money to the poore-mail: llabate3@bellsouth.net

and his followers were persecuted as heretics
by the Catholic Church. This group called

3

4

L’ABATEthemselves ―Waldenses‖ or ―Waldensians‖ andwhere I learned to sing the same hymns sang inwere kept inside the Kingdom of Savoy in

the USA and I grew up in Florence (1931-1948),

Piedmont until February 17th 1948 when they

where, before World War II, my father had awere allowed to cross a river and expand in thejob overseeing the olive yards of Baron

rest of Italy.

Ricasoli, in Tuscany and in the island of

To

make

a

my

Rhodes, that had been given to Italy in betweenathe two world wars. There was an Waldensian

Waldensian, married a Countess who has been

Church in Florence, where I was active in thethrown out from a famous Tuscan family, thechurch youth group. After Second World War

Capponis, for her conversion to being a(1948) I received a scholarship to study in the

Waldensian, and together became missionaries

USA at Tabor College, a Mennonite College infounding an Evangelical Church in Bari, in

Kansas. The Mennonites are a fundamentalist

South Italy which still stands and is still active

Protestant church varying in degrees ofto the present. They had three daughters, one

freedom allowed to individuals. For instance, Iof which was my grandmother. She married an

had to sign a pledge not to dance, smoke, drink

armator who had a fleet of merchant ships andalcohol, or attend movies while I was enrolled

settled in a palace in Brindisi, Italy, where her

there. After I completed a baccalaureate degreehusband had an Evangelical Chapel built next

with majors in English and Psychology and ato the palace, which still stands but is not active.

minor in Bible (1950), I received a Master

They had ten grown children, five men and fivedegree from Wichita University (1950-1952),

women. My mother married my father with thewhere I was introduced to play therapy with

understanding that the children would a raised

children and Rogers’ non-directive counseling.

as Waldenians. I was born in Brindisi. My

I completed my training with a Ph.D. degree

father was a chemical engineer whose family

from Duke University in Durham, N.C (1956).

was in the olive oil and detergent business. He

After receiving this degree, I had to go back to

had been a pilot during First World War and

Italy to change my visa from student to

had remained in the Italian Naval Reserve withpermanent resident status. Before leaving, I

the rank of captain. He served during second

agree to work as a clinical psychologist in a

World War as commander of anti-aircrafts

Mental Health clinic in Greenville, NC, whichbatteries in the Adriatic sea and Greece. He

then facilitated my receiving a preferential visa

retired with the rank of commander andto come back to the USA.

resumed private practice after coming back to

After two years in the Greenville clinic

Florence. He also converted to being a(1956-1958),

Waldensian.

Post-doctoral

Therefore, I grew up as a Waldensian, a very

psychotherapy from the United States Public

small minority in a Catholic majority in Italy,

Health Service at the Psychosomatic andgreat-grandfather

long

story

convertedshort,
to

being

I

appliedand

Fellowship

received
in

a

child

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

5

Psychoanalytic Institute of Michael Reeseindividuals were living in a vacuum of

Hospital in Chicago directed by Roy Grinker,

relation-ships. As I am explaining in the next

MD, who had been analyzed by Sigmund Freudsection, it was my good fortune to realize at thehimself! (1959-1960). I met and married mytime that there was system theory coming inwife in Chicago. Afterwards, I received anstrongly but not in graduate training. The two

appointment as Assistant Professor in clinicalmajor theoretical currents were taught in

psychology in the Psychiatry Department at

graduate schools then were only learning theory

Washington University School of Medicine inand psychoanalysis. Only in the 1970s did

St. Louis, Missouri (1960-1964). After fourhumanism come into being as the Third Forceyears in St. Louis, I received the position as

theoretically. However, under these three forces,

Associate Professor and Chief Psychologist in

systems theory was gaining ground as well but

Child Psychiatry at Emory University School of

not in graduate psychology programs.

Medicine in Atlanta. After one year and a half

As I had practicing since 1956 working withthere, I moved to Georgia State University

disturbed and upset children, it became clear to(GSU, 1965) as Professor of Psychology, whereme that a child’s problems were extensions of

I built the first automated playroom in thefamily imbalance and dysfunctionality. It

world (L’Abate, 2009g), and eventually the firstbecame also clear to me that my clinical

Ph.D. in family psychology in the world.

practice

During my 25 year tenure at GSU, I mentored

empirical evidence, a substantial gap that still

30 Ph.D. and as many master degree students. I

exists in the profession of clinical psychology

retired from GSU in 1990 as Professor

in USA. Therefore, three major issues staid in

Emeritus, but I have been active ever since,

my mind during these formative years andpublishing about one book a year plus many

thereafter: (1) family psychology as a discipline

research papers. For the Japanese readers whoin its own rights; (2) importance of bridging thewant to know more about my play history, theygap between clinical practice and empirical

will have to consult my 2009g book about playevidence, and (3) importance of expanding

across the life span.

from a limited and limiting face-to-face,wascompletely

divorcedfrom

one-on-one, talk-based paradigm to allow to
What Got Me Interested in Family Psychology

help multiple participants at the same time

I became interested in family psychology

efficiently and responsively using standard

while I was taking a course in family sociology

operating procedures that are replicable. To be

for my master at Wichita University (1951).

replicable

After taking that course, I kept on wondering

administered in writing not through words. The

why was not there a family psychology? In

essence of a science is a cumulative, replicable

addition to this question, my graduate training

written record, not words.

at the time was strictly intrapsychic, as if

theseprocedures

have

to

be

6

L’ABATEMy Most Influential Teachers and Mentors

clinician at one hand and as a researcher on the

My first psychology teacher at Tabor College

other with a wide conceptual and practical gap

was T. H. Schellenberg, who received his Ph.D.

between the two. The chance to combine

at the University of Minnesota and who gave

clinical practice with research came by the needme a good conceptual understanding of

to evaluate children at St. Louis Children

psychology. The teachers who were mostHospital within a limited budget (1960-1964).

influential

familyThere I was able to train volunteers to

psychology at Wichita University were two

administer simple tests, like the Draw-A-Person,

Ph.D.s from Indiana University: N. Pronto andthe Bender-Gestalt, and other simple tests,

D. Herman, who were both followers of J. R.

while a part-time graduate student would

Kantor, the founder of inter-beha-viorism -- theadminister the Wechsler Intelligence Scales andview that the immediate context is responsible

projective techniques like the Rorschach andfor behavior to emerge and to survive. This

the TAT according to differences in age. I was

view

but

responsible for interpreting these results andinterbehaviorism was what I consider thewriting clinical reports for referring physicians,

pioneer view of behavior based on relationships

pediatricians, neurologists, and psychiatrists

rather than on a vacuum.

(L’Abate, 1964, 1968). When I transferred thisAt Duke my mentor was G. A. Kimble who

method to the Departments of Psychiatry andwas a well-known expert in conditioning andPediatrics at Emory University School oflearning. There I did my dissertation on transfer

Medicine, and eventually at GSU, I was able toof non-sense syllables that showed importantevaluate 10 children a week, a number thatgender differences between men and women.

would have been impossible if I administered a

At least then, women were allowed to admit towhole battery per child by myself.

being anxious while men were allowed to deny

The important issue of what I called ―The

stoically about being anxious. I followed uplaboratory method in clinical psychology‖ wasthis research with two additional researchthat I never saw the patient. Interpretation of

grants from the U.S. Public Health Service atresults was based completely on the notes ofEast Carolina University in Greenville, NC andvolunteers and the graduate students as well as

at Washington University in St. Louis, toon the objective results from tests. I was also

support the presence of gender differences

accumulating data that would be useful forabout the admission of anxiety since childhood.

research because only standard test batteriesThis work culminated with an article publishedwere used with every child according to age. In

in Science magazine (L’Abate, 1980) where I

this way I was able to evaluate many more

found a quadratic equation between association

children that I would have to perform the wholevalue and association strength.

process myself and I lowered the costs of each

Here, however, I was still operating as aevaluation using para-professional personnel. It

has

for

lost

my

movingpopularity

into

in

USA

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

7

took me 40 years to bring this method to the

supported by the very influential work ofattention of my colleagues in USA (L’Abate,

Balkan’s (1968) differentiation of two different

2008b), but I am afraid that a great deal ofmodels of interacting, communal/expressive

resistance still exists in stressing the expensive

and agentic/instrumental. Both two factor

and limited face-to-face, one-on-one talk-basedmodels become parts of a model in Relational

paradigm (L’Abate, submitted for publication,

Competence Theory (RCT) explained below.

2010c). However, the Internet is bringing down

However, I was also influenced by von

the wall of resistance for both paradigms.

Bertalanffy’s (1964) systems theory, related tobalance and transfer of energy and information

Books that Influenced me the Mostfrom one system to another, especially with the

The book that left a life-long imprint in mynotion of corrective feedback that became

mind was Korzybski’s (1949) Science andprominent in Model1 of RCT. More specifically,

Sanity. He criticized a great many semantic

I was also influenced by Spiegel’s (1971)

errors involved in the incorrect use of words

transactions among individuals, families, andthat caused a great deal of problems in oursocieties.

society: First of all, he emphasized that: ―TheI

map in not the territory‖, that is, words not

Broffenbrenner’s (1977) ecological view thatmatter how accurate are a poor representation

determined the production of an experimentalof concrete reality. Second, he criticized what

ecological questionnaire to evaluate dimensions

we call stereotypes and generalizations found inusually not covered by typical psychologicalpsychiatric diagnoses, whereby we put labels

instruments. Lastly, the most direct andon people that discriminate against theirpractical influence that composes a whole

individuality. Calling a person ―schizophrenic‖

Model7 of RCT was found in resource

and giving another person the same label put

exchange theory of Foa and Foa (1974).

cannotdeny

theinfluenceofboth persons in a category that equalizes themaccording to one dimension while eliminating

What Excites me the Most about Family

other dimensions that are important to them as

Psychology

individuals.

among

The construction of a relational theory has

individuals are important not what labels webeen my most exciting endeavor in the last 30

assign to them.

and more years since I started to think in terms

In line with this thinking, Leary’ (1957)of theory and theory-related models rather thancontribution of a two-factor model based on

the unfettered creation of models without any

two orthogonal dimensions of affiliation andpossible connection with each other thatpower to construct a circumplex figure thatcharacterizes past and recent American blind

accounts for many different relational types

emphasis on rigid empiricism without any

was also very important. This dichotomy wastheoretical back-up or background (Cusinato &Third,

relationships

8

L’ABATE

L’Abate, in press; L’Abate, 1976, 1986, 1994,

What

1997, 2003, 2005; L’Abate & Cusinato, 2007;

Competence Theory?

L’Abate, Cusinato, Maino, Colesso, & Scilletta,

All the books I listed above plus others I did2010).

not list were the theoretical mass that allowed

It was my good luck that in 1988 I was invited

me to start viewing clinical problems according

to be a Visiting Professor at the University of

to models of RCT and assure that most if not all

Padova by Prof. Mario Cusinato, who became

disorders covered in the American Psychiatricinterested in RCT from its outset and began

Association Statistical Manual of Mental

translating my books and using them as

Disorders (Author, 1994) were covered by most

textbooks in his coursework. He was able tomodels. RCT should cover both functional andrecruit and mentor upward of 50 theses anddysfunctional relationships in order to qualify

dissertations to evaluate already-existing and

as a real theory. We cannot have a theory thatcreating new, self-report, paper-and-pencil

covers just functional relationships and anothermeasures derived directly from some models oftheory that covers dysfunctional ones.

RCT. Without his creative and unrelenting work,

can we have a theory for psychopathology

it would have been impossible for RCT todistinct from a theory to explain criminality.

survive in a psychological world dominated by

Not can we have a theory about individuals

sheer and often-blind empiricism without any

void of their most relationships in our lives, thetheory backing it up (Cusinato & L’Abate, infamily, any more than we can have a theory

press; L’Abate et al., 2010).

about the family void of individuals. The theory

Over the years since its inception (L’Abate,should and must encompass all aspects of1976) I was able to define and refine models ofhuman transactions along relational dimensions

RCT until I was able to reframe it into arather then frozen, rigid psychiatric categories.

hierarchical, pyramidal framework (L’Abate &Therefore, the scope of RCT is admittedly

Cusinato, 2007) finding support for its structure

grandiose and ambitious. However, we cannot

in the position emphasized by Harkness (2007)

try to understand and control complex humanthat to exist and function as a real theory, aproblems and relationships according to simple

theory should be framed hierar-chically, asor singular theories and models. Essentially, I

evolution in biology. Consequently, I started tobeganthink of theory in hierarchical terms, as

psychologists have avoided doing all along, andrepresented

humanthat is: emphasizing the importance of aorganizations, such as commerce, industry,

relational theory to orient and organize research

medicine, military, and religion, where a

and applications with human beings (L’Abate,pyramidal hierarchy is necessary for these

2009d).

inmostcomplex,

Factors

toInfluenced

emphasizeorganizations to function and to survive
effectively.

Social Problems and Issues

what

Relational

Nor

AmericanRECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY
My interest in psychopathology expanded alsoas

to finding cost-effective, mass-oriented ways tointimacy,

help functional and dysfunctional populations

verification of these models has occurredin replicable ways that require writing at a

throughself-report

distance

instrumentsinratherthanface-to-face(f2f)

distance

regulation,

9

andpathogenic

negotiation.

theroles,

Empirical

paper-and-pencil
laboratory,

throughtalk-based (tb) interventions, following theenrichment programs in primary prevention,

laboratory

psychology

targeted written practice exercises in secondary(L’Abate, 1964, 2008b). This expansion lead toprevention, and prescribed tasks in tertiary

constructing dozens of workbooks covering theprevention or psychotherapy (Cusinato &whole

L’Abate, in press; L’Abate et al., 2010).

methodgamut

clinicaloffunctionalitytodysfunctionality (L’Abate, 2010b, in press-d),This section, therefore, summarizes a theory

as explained further below.

of relational competence socialization in
intimateandnon-intimate

relationships

The Expansion of Relational Competence

formulated

accordingtoaTheoryhierarchicalframework.

A

theoryThis section outlines and updates a formal,

speculative framework about a topic that lends

hierarchical theory of relational competence

itself to empiri-cal validation in the laboratory(RCT)

intimateand to applications in prevention and clinicalrelationships, comprising (Figure 1): (1) threesettings. The formal hierarchical frameworklevels of evidence, independent, related, andcomprising the theory includes meta-theoreticalderived; (2) four requirements of verifiability,

and theoretical assumptions. Derived fromapplicability, redundancy, and fruitfulness, withthese seemingly abstract assumptions andthe latter requirement implying also longevity;

constructs are more specific, concrete, and(3) three meta-theoretical assumptions about

verifiable through clinical and preventive

the Width and Depth of relationships inapplications. However, as in any organization,

Settings

isall models must show their effectiveness ofsocialized; (4) three theoretical assumptions

their own as well as in relationship to the otherabout abilities to love and to control throughmodels of the theory.

three content-related modalities of Presence,

In America, theory-building in psychology is

Performance,

not viewed positively (L’Abate, 2005, 2009d)

aboutsocialization

whererelational

andidentity

competence

Production;

developmental and normative
include

in

(5)

five

models whichisawith a great deal of confusion in trying tostyles,differentiate among paradigms, theories, andinteractions, selfhood, and priorities; and (6)models (L’Abate, 2009e; Renniger & Cocking,four1993). For example, as Valsinger and van derapplieddifferentiation,

pyramidal

modelsderivedfrommeta-theoretical and theoretical assumptions
relating specifically to clinical conditions, such

Veer (1993) commented on this negative

10

L’ABATERECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY
conclusion:―This

one cannot know how a component part

theoreticalbecome11

weaknessincreasingly

contemporary

seems

to

functions in relation to other parts of the overall

widespreadinframework (L’Abate, 2009e; L’Abate et al.,the

2010; Markon, Krueger, & Watson, 2005).

psychology

withaccentuated empiricist emphasis on inductive

No specific or direct support had beenknowledge assembly, which is not paralled

proffered heretofore to explain the hierar-chicalwith an equal focus on rigor of deductive

organization of this framework, an omission

argumentation. In the theoretical realm ofthat was corrected by L’Abate and Cusinato

contemporary psychology the tyranny of(2007). Here, we are primarily concerned witheclecticism governs, which increases thethe hierarchical structure of the formal theory

imminent danger of psychology becoming aand secondarily about the overall evidence that

non-science at best, and non-sense at worst.

is relevant to the validity of its models. The

Ironically,

extensiveof

seemingly abstract nature of these models has

empiricism

in

leads

been reduced to a concrete structured interview

psychologists to worse (rather than better)for individual verbal administration to couples

possibilities to understand psychologicaland families (L’Abate, 2009b) as well as

phenomena (p. 35).‖

written, interactive practice exercises forThis comment and conclusion about thewide-scale administration through distanceoutcome of blind and uncritical empiricism,writing and the Internet (L’Abate, 2010b). A

without an overarching theoretical frameworkcomplete list of conceptual and research-based

and the proliferation of empirically-based

secondary references (i.e., chapters) is available

models without any theoretical connections

in L’Abate (2009a).

with each other, was expressed by L’Abate

Socialization is the process whereby relational(2005) among many other psychologists asking

competence is articulated, nurtured, molded,

for a comprehensive theory but not producing

andone (L’Abate, 2009d).

non-intimate relationships, by joyful and

Hierarchy is just as important in psychology

hurtful events, and by traumatically painful andas it is in biology, as well as in any otherpleasureful experiences. Relational competencescience, as well as in any complex, commercial,is the totality of an individual’s characteristics

financial, industrial, military, or religious

and effectiveness in relation-ships (Cusinato &organization, for that matter, allowing one to

L’Abate, in press; L’Abate, 1976, 1986, 1994;

divide components according to their relative

1997b; 2003, 2005, 2009d, in press-a; L’Abate

functions and respective position in relation to& Cusinato, 2007; L’Abate et al., 2010;

other constructs or models (Harkness, 2007).

L’Abate & De Giacomo, 2003). Competence

Without hierarchy there is chaos and confusion,

includes how effectively we function in

epistemologically and ontologically, because

intimate,

proliferation
psychology

producedbylifelong

communalandintimate

andexpressive

12

L’ABATE

relationships

that

are

close,

committed,

because relational competence is circularly andinterdependent, and prolonged as well as incontextually the product and producer at the

non-intimate,

instrumental

heart

relationships

that

and

exchange

agentic,

distant,

competencesocialization

occursopportunistic, superficial, autonomous, andcontinuousinteractions

withsignificant

possibly short-lived (Bakan, 1968; Brehm,

intimate

non-significant

non-intimate

Miller, Perlman, & Campbell, 2002; Clark &others. Ideally, if at all valid, this theory should

Mills, 1979; DeGenova & Rice, 2005).

apply not only to individuals in relationships

Socialization in intimate and non-intimate

but also to dyadic and multi-relational systems,

relationships varies along dimensions ranging

such as couple, family, parent-child, siblings,

from functional to dysfunctional styles andin-laws as well as to non-intimate exchange

prototypes classified by traditional psychiatricrelationships.

classification

PsychiatricModels of RCT are supported by evidence

Association, 1994; Davis & Millon, 1995;

bases on: (1) both conceptually similar but

Krueger & Tackett, 2006; L’Abate, 2005,

independent sources (L’Abate, 2005, 2009a,

L’Abate et al., 2010; McHugh & Slavney,

2009e); (2) indirect but related evidence, as, for1989). Connections to dysfunctional prototypes

instance in the case of Models7&14, and (3)anchor and link theoretical models to real life

direct and related evidence specifically createdconditions rather than to abstract, hypothetical,

to validate most of the other models (L’Abate etinferred, or ideally intrapsychic constructs.

al., 2010).

These

are

(American

connections

relational,

andattributecontextual

of

those

and

relationships.

Relational
throughdimensional,
meanings

toRequirements for Relational Competenceotherwise static, monadic, and non-relational

Theorypsychiatric categories. RCT, therefore, serves

Four major requirements have been demanded

as a framework to understand traditionalof this theory:

psychiatric classification according to dynamic(1) Verifiability in the laboratory as well as inrelational dimensions rather than according to

the clinic, all models of RCT are accountablestatic,offor themselves and must be evaluated according

symptoms and syndromes (Beutler & Malik,

to criteria of reliability and validity. To be

2002; Dischion, 1999).

relevant, the theory must be valid in more than

RCT includes 16 models (Figure 1) thatone setting, therefore the laboratory setting

encompass relational competence socialization

alone

in

different

requirement. Models or methods derived from

relationships. It is impossible to disen-tangle

the theory must be replicable also in applied

relational competence socialization from its

and clinical settings. For instance, thus far,relationships with intimates and non-intimates,

RCT has been expanded to describe andnon-relational,

different

settings

categorical

and

in

lists

is

not

sufficienttosatisfy

thisRECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

13

possibly ―explain‖ play across the life cycle

evaluated by different models. In this way, one(L’Abate, 2009g), self-help (Harwood &could also not only describe but also explain a

L’Abate, 2010), and hurt feelings in intimate

particular model as viewed from the lens ofrelationships in Model15 (L’Abate, in press-a).

different but converging models.

(2)

Applicability

to

both

educational,(4) Fruitfulness is the ability to produceaspsychotherapeuticinterest and even enthusiasm in researchers notinterventions with individuals (children, youth,

originally connected to the theory in producing

adults), couples, and families, as well as

research to evaluate the statistical properties ofapplications in schools, in preventive andthe models in the theory. Longevity is anotherclinical settings from different researchers in

aspect of fruitfulness, how long does a theory

different settings and even countries.

last? For instance, evolution has lasted more

(3) Redundancy, the ability to describe andthan a century, while psychoanalysis has lasted

perhaps explain multidimensional constructs

circa a century but it has lost its influence forthrough different versions of the same construct

its being difficult to evaluate empirically.

preventive

from

as

variouspsychopathology

wellmodels.

Forinstance,canbedescribed

Meta-theoretical Assumptions

developmentally according to practically all

These

meta-theoreticalmodels of the theory. In another instance, Lovebeyond the theory itself to encapsulate pastis typically a multidimensional construct Mak

knowledge.

& Marshall, 2004; Rempel & Burris, 2005),

necessarythat is covered(redundantly) by various

competence socialization. These assumptions

models of the theory, as distance between

include the Width (Model1) and Depth (Model2)

people in Model4, as a degree of similarity inof relationships as well as Settings (Model3)

Model7, as Being Present, that is available

where such relationships are concretely andcommunally and agentically to self and todirectly related to the process of socialization.

They
to

any

assumptions

gorepresent

constructs

theoryrelationalof

loved ones, in how one interacts with intimatesand non-intimates at home and outside theWidth of Relationships: Model1

home, according to Model10, how importanceIntimate and nonintimate relationships varyis bestowed to self and others, as in Model11,

alongwhat kind of priorities determine one’s

processing dimension based on a circular model

12ahorizontal

sequential

information

relationships to self and others, as in Model ,involving

how we share joy and hurts and fears of being

Emotionality, Rationality, Activity, Awareness,

15

five

(Width),components:

hurt with loved ones, as in Model .

and Context (ERAAwC, Figure 1.2). Since

The same kind of analysis, following theModel1 is basic to this whole volume, it isrequirement of redundancy can be applied to arelevant to explain it in greater detail than all

multidimensional construct of control, as

the other models.

14

L’ABATE

Emotionality refers to how we experience andtalking about his or her own great tennis skills

receive information from either inside andout-of-context and challenges one of the senioroutsideofmember of the board to a game, who isemotionally-tinged cues, stimuli, and events

extremely well-known for his tennis skills, thisthat are related to our emotional experience,

wouldthat is: our affects and our feelings (Cacioppo

context-discounting behavior that is irrelevant& Gardner, 1999). Emotionally neutral stimuli

to all three levels of the context. The junior

may go directly to Rationality rather thanmember would be denying and discounting the

Emotionality. Rationality includes cognitive

overall X1 organization, the agenda of thefunctioning,

intellectual

functioning,andmeeting X2, and the difference in age andemotional

intelligence,

problem-solving,status between himself and a senior board

ourselves,planning

for

the

the

input

future,andtemporalbeacontext-denying

andmember X3, showing bad social judgment.

perspective. Activity includes action and theEach component of this model is fundamental

verbal, nonverbal expression of feelings,

to past and present schools of thought:

transforming them into emotions. Awareness

Existentialism for Emotionality; (2) Empiricism

includes the ability to introspect and reflect

andabout one’s activity, serving as a change-related

Behaviorism for Activity; (4) Gestalt andfeedback function on all the other components

Eastern approaches for Awareness; and (5)of the model. Context includes how situations

Family psychology and Contextualism forandsubjectively,

Context). In psychotherapy: (1) Existential

independently from the nature of the situation

approaches stressing subjective experienceor setting themselves.

wouldContext, as the subjective perception of a

psychoanalysis,

situation, interaction, or setting can be viewed

behaviorism for Rationality; (3) conditioning

also at various levels. For instance, given aand operant approaches would relate tomeeting of the board of directors in a

Activity; (4) Gestalt therapy would relate tosport-related organization X, the supra-ordinate,

Awareness, and (5) family therapy to Context.

overarching level of the meeting, perhaps evenEachunspoken, would X1, while the agenda for thepsychotherapeutic

specificlies

empirically, or practically emphasizes theunderneath X1 constitutes a second sublevel X2,

hegemony of one particular component over the

with

new,

other four. Emphasis is achieved by fostering

constituting another third sub-level X3. Hence,and publishing a myriad of publica-tions in thatthese three levels organize how the meeting is

one specific area of interest, each one of thebeing conducted. However, if a new, junior

five components. Most if not all models andmember of the board out of the blue, starts

applications of this theory are derived in partsettings

board

board

are

perceived

meeting

members,

itself

old

that

and

Rationalism

relateschoolfor

toRationality;

Emotionality;

rational-emotive,ofthought

approach,

(1)

(3)

(2)

cognitive

and

each

conceptually,

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALYfrom components of this model, because thesedescription

five components, in one way or another and to

consists of two sublevels: an easily observablea certain degree or another, enter in all the

public-presentational facade, what is outwardly

models of RCT. This is the reason why thisexhibited (Clark, Pataki, & Carver, 1996; Metts

model has been extensively evaluated in& Grohskopf, 2003), such as saving face inCusinato and L’Abate (in press) and L’Abate etJapan, and a private-phenotype kept hidden inal. (2010), because it is fundamental to all the

one’s mind or the privacy of one’s home.

other models of RCT (L’Abate, 2005).

Explanation consists also of two sublevels: an

There are three major characteristics of thisinternalmodel, as shown in Figure 2, and that is: (1) the

hypothetical, such as id, ego, and superego or

size of each component in relationship to theself-esteem, (expanded here into observablesize of the other four components; (2) the

Identity-differentiation and Selfhood Models10

permeability

&11

of

the

lines

defining

each

),

and

genotype,

andexplanation.

15

usually

generational

Description

inferredorcharacteristics

component that would determine (3) thetransmitted from one’s family of origin,amount of overlap among the components.

including physical, emotional, and intellectual

These three variables determine how eachdevelopment. Consistency and incon-sistencycomponent

between levels and sublevels is crucial torelates

to

the

other

four

components.

observe and interpret relational competencesocialization in different settings. The subplevel
2

Depth of Relationships: Modelof self-presentation or Impression Management

Complementary to the Width model, levels ofis measured with a scale related to this sublevel

observation and interpretation of relationships

in Appendix A of Cusinato and L’Abate (invary along a vertical dimension of Depth basedpress).

onamultilayered

Model

2

Figure 2
An Information Processing Modelcomprising

16

L’ABATE

Socialization Settings: Model3

Ability to Love: Model4

Socialization occurs between intimates and

The ability to love relies on a dimension of3

non-intimates in various settings (Model )space or distance defined by extremes inrelated to survival and enjoyment in life,

approach-avoidance (Cocking & Renninger,

including1993).

extra

orsurplusleisuretime

Functionality

occurswhen(Csiks-zentmihaly, 2004). This model includes

approach-avoidance tendencies are balanced.

home, school/work, transit (airplanes, buses,

Dysfunctionality

cars, roads, hotels, etc.) and transitory (bank,approach-avoidance tendencies are at polar

church, grocery store, barber, beauty salon,

extremes of this dimension. Usually, one’setc.) settings. Each setting is a necessary aspectdistance and motiva-tion to approach-avoidanceof socialization. How much time and energy is

are measured by self-report paper-and-pencil

spent in one particular setting? Which relational

tests. In this model, distance is assessedcompetence characteristics determine how

objectively—how much time, how frequently,

much time and energy is spent in one setting

how often, when and where one approaches orover another? How are these characteristics

avoids self, a particular person, a setting, a task,

reflective of these settings? These questions

or an object? How strong or weak are thesewill be answered by other models of the theory,

approach or avoidance tendencies? Is approach12

especially Model .

occurswhenstronger than avoidance or vice versa? At whatlevel of observation and interpretation is either

Theoretical Assumptions

tendency occurring? Does it occur in public or

The theory proper assumes that relational

in private? We might need to approach disliked

competence comprises two basic relational

co-workers or neighbors, but we wish we didabilities, processes that include the ability tonot4love (Model ) and the ability to self-control or5self-regulate (Model ), with a combination of
6

have

to.

What

approach-avoidanceabout

conflicts

tendencies?

Are

in
the

gradients of these tendencies different?

both models (Model ). An additional corollary

Relational competence includes personality

7

specifies the contents of both abilities, Model .

disorders of the DSM-IV (Author, 1994) Axis II

These abilities imply that in order to love andCluster C with exemplary prototypes forto control self. There should be prolonged

extremes in a dimension of distance. These

interactions between at least two individuals.

prototypes are defined at one extreme by

Whether positive or negative, functional orexcessive approach, needing and wanting

dysfunctional, these inter-actions occur incontinual closeness, as observed in helpless

intimate relationships at home and develop in

dependent or codependent, parasitic personality

ongoing non-intimate settings, such as school

disorders.

or work, where prolonged interactions are mostapproach and rely continuously on others tolikely to occur.

survive.

Individuals

The

with

other

this

disorderextremeofRECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

17

distance—avoidance of others—is observed in

objectively by assessing reaction time, duration,

an increasingly severe continuum of phobias,

frequency,rate,social anxieties, and avoidant personality

temporalperspective

disorders (McHugh & Slavney, 1989, p. 135).

pp.181-182; L’Abate et al., 2010). For example,

These prototypes help to define a dimension of

how fast or slow does one respond to internal

distance basic to the ability to love. We

or external stimuli or events? More specifically,

approach and want to live with someone whom

how fast or slow does one approach or avoid

we love; we approach what we love; we try toanother person, activity, task, object, or setting

avoid (not always successfully!) individuals,

can be directly observed and measured overactivities, objects, tasks, and settings we do nottime without relying solely on self-reports.

like.

The locus of control could be internal or

Functionality

occursintensity,

direction,(L’Abate,

and
2005,

when

external as shown in prototypes defined byapproach-avoidance tendencies are balanced

extremes of control. Extreme prototypes foraccording to ages and stages of the life cycle.

discharge and externalization of the locus of

Dysfunctionality

whencontrol are observed in Axis II Cluster B

approach-avoidance tendencies are at polar

personality disorders. These disorders show

extremes of this dimension. Usually, one’s

consistent and sometimes extreme discharge or

distance and motivation to approach-avoidance

inadequate controls, as in impulsive antisocial,are measured by self-report paper-and-pencil

narcissistic, and histrionic personality disorders.

tests (Feeney, 1999; Hess, Fannin, & Pollom,

At the other end of this dimension, extremes in

2007; Impett, Peplau, & Gable, 2005).

avoidance, internalization in the locus ofoccurscontrol, and delayed discharge include most5

Ability to Control Self: Modelpersonality disorders of Cluster C. Model16

The ability to control or self-regulation relies

will expand on how control is basic to theon a dimension defined by extremes instructure and process of negotiation anddischarge, or disinhibition, at one end andproblem-solving (McHugh & Slavney, 1989).

extremes in delay, inhibition or constraint, atModel16 elaborates on how the ability tothe other end (Baumeister, & Vohs, 2004;

control self is relevant to negotiation.

L’Abate, 1984). Functionality occurs whencontrol tendencies are balanced according to

Combining Abilities to Love and to Control

appropriate age and stage-of-life demands

Self: Model6(Nigg, Carr, Martel, & Henderson, 2007).

Constructs highly similar to dimensions ofUsually, this dimension is measured by

space/distance(closeness,

self-report paper-and-pencil tests (Gable, Reis,time/control(negotiation,& Elliot, 2000; Mansell, 2005; Roloff, Putman,

problem-solving) are present in a variety of& Anastasiou, 2003). Here, control is defined

two-factor models (see Figure 3). Originally,

intimacy)

andbargaining,

18

L’ABATE

both dimensions were pioneered by Bakan

Rationality produces delayed discharge, as in(1968),

procrastinators

whose

distinction

between(love)

anddisorders of Cluster C. Furthermore, both

agentic/instrumental (control) is still considered

distance and control may derive from or relate

relevant

nonintimate

to different neurolo-gical underpinnings (Depue

relationships (Jung Suh, Moskowitz, Fournier,& Lenzenweger, 2006; Patrick & Bernat, 2006).

& Zuroff, 2004; Mills, Clark, Ford, & Johnson,

Other components of Model1, namely Activity,2004).

is

Awareness, and Context need to be taken into

consistently viewed as an agentic exchange

consideration for a satisfactory description andratherexplanation of this model.

communal/expressive

to

By

than

intimate

the

as

same

a

and

token,

communal

control

constructandobsessive-compulsive(Baumeister & Vohs, 2004).

The abilities to love and to self-regulate

The same two dimensions appear also in

combinemonadic, nonrelational models. For instance,

quadrants with three levels of functionality: (1)appetitive approach and defensive avoidance

when love and control are high, they produce

tendencies are orthogonal with polarities ofthedischarge/impulsivity

andrelationships; (2) when love is high and control

delay/inhibition/constraint at the other pole.

low, or love low and control high, they produce

Approach-avoidance tendencies stem from oran intermediate level of functionality; (3) when

are related to Emotionality. We approach or

both abilities are low, they produce the lowest

avoid according to how consistently orlevel of functio-nality, that is, psychopathology.

inconsistently we feel toward somebody or

Functionality

something. Discharge-delay tendencies stem

therefore, is an appropriate balance offrom or are related to either limited orapproach-avoidanceexcessive Rationality. Impaired Rationality

tendencies that vary developmentally according

produces quick discharge, as in the impulsivity

to realistic task demands at various ages andof Cluster B personality disorders. Excessive

stages of socialization in the life cycle.

at

one

pole

to

highest

form

level

in

Model6offunctionality

human

and

yielding

four

inrelationships,

discharge-delay

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

19

Figure 3
Two Factors Models of Intimate Relationships*
Space

Time

Distance
Affiliation
Communion
Communal
Intimacy
Affiliation
Cohesion
Intimacy
Connectedness
Nurturance
SupportWarmthCommunion
Intimacy

SourceLeary (1958)
Bakan (1967)
Clark & Mills (1979)
McAdams (1988)
Wiggins & Trobst (1999)
Olson (1996)
Canary et al., 1997
Harter et al., 1997)
Fehr & Broughton (2001)
Franks et al., (2004)
Grolnick & Gurland (2002)
Horowitz (2004)
Segrin & Flora (2005)
L’Abate (1986, 1994,
1997,
2005, 2009; L’Abate &Cusinato, 2007; L’Abate &De Giacomo, 2003
Mikulincer&Shaver, 2007

Distance
Being
Presence
Love
Proximity

Self-control
Power
AgencyExchange
Power
Control
Adaptability
Control & Power
Autonomy
Dominance
Control
Control
AgencyPower
Control
Doing & Having
Power
Negotiation
Activation

Note. Adopted and updated from L’Abate (2009d).
Contents of Relationships: Model7

Information, Services, Possessions, and Money.

A corollary to both abilities as processes

Conceptually,

7

includes a triangular Modelregarding the

combining

Importancewith

Intimacy produces a modality of Presence, that

contents of relationships: what is exchanged

is,

Being

emotionally,

communally,

andamong intimates and non-intimates. Contents

instrumentally available to self and intimate

are exchanged through the Triangle of Living

others. Combining Information with Services

derived from Foa’s and Foa’s (1974; Foa,

defines a modality of Doing or Performance.

Converse, Tornblom, & Foa, 1993) resource

Combining Money with Possessions defines a

exchange theory. Resources include Status

modality of Having or Production. Combining(changed to here to Importance, Model11),

Doing with Having defines a supra-ordinate

Love (changed here to Intimacy, Model15),

modality of Power, defined as the ability to20

L’ABATE

control and influence others (Guinote &2005, in press-c).

Veschio, 2010). The latter is democratically

Extremes in either directions of Being produce

negotiatedfunctional

extremes in the other two modalities also. Too

relationships. In dysfunctional relationships

much emphasis on Being would make it

power is negotiated ineffectively or not at all.

difficult to attend to and satisfy realistic needs

In extremely dysfunctional relationships powerand demands requiring Doing and Having.

is neither shared nor negotiated. Hence,Contrarily, decreased emphasis on Being would

Presencedifferent

increase over-reliance on Doing and/or Having.

constructs to view redundantly love and control

Extremes in Doing, for instance, can be foundrespectively.

in driven, what used to be called Type A,

However, there are different types and degrees

perfectionistic personalities, while extremes inof Power. For instance, one could just control

not-Doing can be found in procrastinations and,Information (education, newspapers, radios,at the extreme, in severe psychopathologies

and TV), or one could control services, such as(Flett & Hewitt, 2002). Extremes in excessive

health care in hospitals and clinics, while banks

Having are found in hoarders and tycoons, as

control money, and industries control thewell as in compulsive shoppers within the

production of goods. In some totalitarian

largerregimes like in North Korea, the government

materialistic culture (Grisham & Barlow, 2005).

controls all four resources, equal to total andExtremes in not-Having are found in members

absolute power.

of some religious orders who give away their

Each modality in this Triangle defines

worldly possessions sacrificing themselves andrelationships with functional and dysfunctional

their lives to help others in need, like the earlyextremes. There are excesses in either direction

Waldenses.

in each modality. For instance, when this model

One part of this model, the relationshipis applied to a classification of sexual

between Being Present and Having Production,

relationships, sex and sexuality are functional

is well supported by extensive research thatwhen shared together with fears and anxieties

consistently

from previous expetiences, that is: two people

correlations between measures of materialistic

Being Present together with a minimum ofvalues orientation and measures of well-being,

demands

self-esteem,

and

and

on

sharedPowerinrepresent

performanceor

production.

context

of

found

a

consumer-oriented,

significantly

affiliation,andnegative

community.

Extremes in Doing are represented either by

Positive correlations, on the other hand, weredisorders of low sexual desire or by excessive

found between measures of materialistic values

emphasis on Performance, as in hypersexuality.

orientation and measures of unhappiness,

Money enters in the use of prostitutes, while

neuroticism, and even depression, among

possessions include a whole industry ofothers (Kasser & Kanner, 2004). Measures of

pornography and sexual products (L’Abate,well-being,affiliation,andcommunity

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

21emphasize the importance of Being emotionallyRelationships among previous models justavailable to self and intimates—unconditionaldescribed is shown in Figure 4.

love, without requirements of production,
performance, problem-solving, or perfection.

Models

Negative correlations between the inability toSocialization in Intimate Relationships

be available to self/intimates (Being) and

Five major developmental and normative

Performancemodels are derived from both meta-theoreticalareevident

perfectionist,
personalities

where

in

driven

and

of

and

Performance

Differentiation, (2) Styles, (3) Interactions, (4)Production are more important than Presence

assumptions:Competenceobsessive-compulsive
andtheoretical

Relational

Selfhood, and (5) Priorities.

(Eid & Larsen, 2007).

Figure 4
Relationships among Models 3, 7, 9, 11, 12, & 15 with four Types of Settings and Priorities(1)

Identity

22

L’ABATE

Identity Differentiation: Model8

Alienation

Developmental differentiation in identity in

Neglectful AA styles, combining Sameness

Model8 (―Who am I?‖) is described by awith Oppositeness defines Reactive-Repetitive

curvilinear dialectical distribution (see Figure

RR styles (Cunningham, Shamblen, Barbee, &5). Instead of an either/or, similar/dissimilar

Ault, 2005; Orner & Stolz, 2002), combining

dichotomy,

Similarity

still

prevalentintheextantdefineswith

Abusive-Apathetic

Differentness

definesliterature in relationship science (Berreby,

Creative-Conductive CC styles (L’Abate, 1983).

2008; Cole & Teboul, 2004; Deal, Halverson,

CC styles are the most functional of the three,& Wampler, 1999; Morry, 2005), a Continuum

as found in optimal intimate relationships. RR

of Likeness comprises six conditions that arestylesdialectically related: Symbiosis, Sameness,

including Cluster C disorders with regard to

Similarity, Differentness, Oppositeness, andinternalizations and Cluster B disorders with

Alienation (Cusinato & L’Abate, 2008; L’Abate,

regard1976, p. 79). As Berreby (2008, p. 318)

dysfunctional AA style includes Axis I

concluded about the importance of identity as

disorders, Axis II Cluster A, as in coexistingstudied in animals: ―…the human version candisorders such as addictions, physical, verbal,

perceiveand sexual abuse, and extreme criminalitiesacontinuumofUSnessandareintermediatetoinexternalizations.

functionality,

The

most

THEMness, rather than a simple on or off

overlapping with psychopathologies.

choice.‖CC styles are more focused on the present and

Derivations from these six conditions in a

the future with relational creativity being based

variety

dysfunctionalon the ability to receive, accept, exchange, anddimensions are included in Figures 5 and 6. The

use reciprocally corrective feedback (L’Abate,developmental curvilinearity of this model has

2009c). This ability to introspect, to be aware

been validated by Cusinato and Colesso (2008)

of, and to benefit from external correctivewith functional and non-functional participants.

feedback is either limited in RR styles or

These conditions operate below the level ofseemingly lacking in AA styles. There is an

Awareness (Model1) but have substantial

internal dialogue as well as dialogues witheffects on how we relate with each otherintimates in CC styles, but this dialogue isincludingeitheroffunctional

age,

and

gender, educational

level,

defective,

deviant,

inadequate,orsocio-economic status, and ethnicity, as argued

deceptive in RR styles. If there is a dialogue inrepeatedly by Berreby (2008).

AA styles, it consists of either self-defeating,repetitively

fearful

9internalizationsorrelatedexternalizations (L’Abate, 2005; L’Abate et al.,Styles in Intimate Relationships: Model
9

Model

combines

dialecticallyconditions at either side of the distribution (seeFigure6).

Combining

Symbiosis

with2010).

ruminations

explosive

actinginoutRECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

23

24

L’ABATERECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALYInteractionsin

Intimate

Relationships:

1025

settings are necessary to specify multiplicativeModel

expansions of relational creativity in intimate

This model derives and includes all three

relationships, not in artistic, professional, or

styles CC, RR, and AA expanding them into six

scientific endeavors. Multiplicative interactions

types of interactions by including also all

occur at leadership levels in at least two to7

previous Models but especially Model . This

three settings (home, school/work, leisure time

expansionarithmeticalactivities, charity and community work, etc.). A

classification according to six rather than three

person who fulfills domestic demands anddiffering in levels of functionality (L’Abate,school/work responsibilities extremely well can

2005; L’Abate et al., 2010):

excel in leadership positions in external settings,

1. Multiplicative (x) outcomes occur whensuch as social clubs or charities. Multiplicativeinteractions between at least two individuals

interactions include ca. 5 to 10% of the

produce creative and integrative personal andpopulation and include what has been called

relational growth, both within and beyond the―relational creativity‖ (L’Abate, 2009e).

immediate demands of that relationship. There

2. Additive (+) interactions between two or

are indeed individuals, couples, and families

more intimate individuals could produce

who are not only creative within themselves but

positive change, but not multiplicative growth.

are also creative in settings beyond intimate

Positive change occurs only internally to therelationships, in addition to fulfilling domestic

relationship.

and school/work responsibilities. In exemplary

self-regulate are relatively high. However, these

intimate relationships at home and success atabilities remain within the confines of homeschool/work, they exude an overflow ofand work and do not overflow beyond thosepositive contributions to external settings

two(volunteering in charity, social, fraternal,

contentment in the relationship, but there may

artistic, political organizations, etc.) with time

not be a creative spark or integration at higher

to spare. These individuals’ abilities to love andlevels of functioning that expand to settings

to self-regulate are strong; they are able tobeyond home and school/work. There islaugh and enjoy life through ritual holiday

laughter and humor, but these expressions ofcelebrations and vacations, and their sense ofemotion are perhaps limited to that intimate

producesan15

settings.

Abilities

There

to

is

love

and

satisfaction

to

and

humor is ever present. Intimacy (Model ),relationship. Energy and time are devoted

defined as the sharing of joys and hurts, isstrictly to intimate relationships. With thestrong and pervades most areas of people’s

exception of school/work, little else is available

personal and relational lives. Inevitable stresses,

or offered beyond those relationships.

strains, and losses are shared with loved ones as

Leadership is exerted in the home setting

well as victories and triumphs.

whereas activities outside the home are limited

Given this definition, we need to include what

to a submissive follower’s role. Such people

26
make

L’ABATEthemselves

memberships,

available

belonginginpassive

These interactions include ca. 40 to 50% of thetocharity

population depending on what criteria are usedorganizations, professional associations, ortosocial clubs, but not assuming leadershipdifferent interactions.

responsibilities. Intimacy is high but it is

5. Subtractive (-) outcomes occur whenusually preserved within the confines ofnegative, abusive, and reactive interactions

intimate relationships. Both multiplicative andbetween at least two intimates take away

additive intimate relationships rely on CC

energystyles that are highly amenable to change andSometimes these interactions remaining static,

resilient to inevitable stresses and strains. Bothsometimes they lead to personal or relationshiptypes of interactions are sensitive to andbreak-up, but they are usually refractory toincorporate corrective feedback necessary forchange and require multiple methods ofchange. Circa 10 to 20% of these inter-actions

interventions during period of intense crisis.

are included in the population.

The abilities to love and to control vary from3 & 4. Static (+/-) positive (3) and negative (4)beinginteractions between two or more intimate

nonexistent and they may vary between RR andindividuals could be passively or actively

AA styles. In this instance, intimacy isrepetitive without change one way or another,

practically nonexistent. Corrective feedback inneither positive nor negative. The relationshipthe form of professional intervention is rejected

remains the same and neither party profits.

becauseOverall, energy and time are not usedpunishment. This interpretation precludes any

effectively. There may be some proffered love

possibility of change for the better. Thesebut abilities to love and to control areinteractions include ca. 10 to 20% of theinadequate if not altogether missing. Static

population.

interactions are characterized by RR styles that

6. Divisive (/) interactions are completely

under certain conditions may be somewhat

negative and produce a breakdown in the

amenable to change, such as during periods ofrelationship, resulting in sudden abandonment,

crisis and stress, as in statically positive

divorce, psychosis, murder, and suicide. An

relation-ships.

occasional,

individual’s energies and time are expanded in

short-lived, and limited to special occasions

unproductive and defeating interactions with(marriages

andfunerals),inintimates and non-intimates. Both subtractive

negatively

staticrelationships.

Corrective

and divisive relationships are characterized by

feedback is accepted only under extreme

AA styles that make these relationships either

circumstances because it is usually interpreted

not amenable to change, or amenable to change

as criticism. This interpretation limits the

only through various interventions: medication,individual’s chances to change for the better.

hospitalization, as well as multiple andIntimacyisespeciallymakereliable

and

time

patentlyitisdiscriminations

from

the

inadequate

interpreted

to

among

relationship.

completely

negativelyasRECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

27

prolonged psychological interventions. The

importance bestowed on self and intimates asabilities to love and to control are almost

shown through reciprocal care, compassion,

nonexistent. Corrective feedback is discounted

concern, and consideration, as in ―perceived

and ignored as abuse, blaming, and punishment.

mattering‖ or in loving relationships. This

These interactions include ca. 5 to 10% of theattribution leads to four possible propensities in

population (Massel, Liberman, Mintz, Jacobs,

relational competence: (1) when importance is

et al., 1990).

attributed positively to self and intima-tes, aThis six fold classification of interactions

propensity called Selfulness develops; (2) when

derives from its three underlying styles seems

importance is attributed positively to self but

consistent with a model based on two

not to intimates, a propensity called Selfishness

fundamental

centrifugal

develops; (3) when importance is attributed to(externalizing), centripetal (internalizing), andintimates but not to self, Selflessness develops;

mixed

&

and (4) when importance is denied to self andbasic

intimates No-self develops. Selfulness includes

dimensions, derive five health/competence

CC styles of various types and degrees, as seen

dimensions. These five dimensions further

in multiplicative and additive interactions.

discriminate among five levels of functionality:

Selfish-ness, in its extremes, is characterized byseverelyandimensions

stylistic

Beavers,2004).

ofdimensions(Hampton

From

two

these

dysfunctional(sociopathic

vs.

externalizing

RR

style:

actingout,

schizophrenic offspring) borderline (borderline

aggression, criminality, and murder (Axis II

vs. severe obsessive compulsive offspring) as in

Cluster B). Selflessness, in its extremes, issubtractive midrange (behavior disordered vs.

characterized by an internalizing RR style:neurotic offspring), healthy adequate, andanxiety, depression, and suicide (Axis II Cluster

healthy optimal.

C). No-self is characterized by an AA style, asConsequently,

severely

dysfunctionalin severe psychopathology (Axis I disorders

dimensions in this model are similar to divisive

and Axis II Cluster A) (L’Abate & Cusinato,

and subtractive interactions characterized by

2008).

AA styles. The midrange dimension seems

The four relational competence propensities ofsimilar to static interactions with RR styles, andModel11 integrate not only three levels of

the healthy dimension seems similar to additive

functionality (superior, intermediate, adequate),and multiplicative interactions with CC styles.

but also disorders in Axes I and II of DSM (seeAgain, many interactions can be viewed

Figure 7). In this Figure, most DSM syndromes

redundantly from different models of theare integrated into a whole framework which

theory.

includes both categorical and dimensional
aspects of seemingly disparate disorders. All
11

Selfhood: Modelthese descriptive models help us to understand11

coexisting or comorbid relational competenceModelis based on the attribution of

28

L’ABATE

disorders as different aspects of personalities in

thisrelationships (L’Abate, 2005; L’Abate et al.,integrated into a whole framework which2010).

includes both categorical and dimensional

The four relational competence propensities of
11

Model

integrate not only three levels offunctionality (superior, intermediate, adequate),model,

mostDSM

syndromesareaspects of seemingly disparate disorders.
Relationships among Models8, 9, 10, & 11 areshown in Figure 8.

but also disorders in Axes I and II of DSM. In
Figure 7789Relationships among four Models of Identity Differentiation , Styles , Interactions , and Selfhood
7

Symbiosis

Sameness

Model : Continuum of Likeness
Similarity/Differentness Oppositeness Alienation
8

AA

RR

Divisive/
Static/Subtractive
Positive

Model : Styles in Intimate Relationships
CC
RR
AA
Model 9 : Interactions
Multiplicative/
Static/Additive
Negative

No-self
Selfish/SelflessSelful* Adapted from L’Abate et al., (2010).

Model 10 : Selfhood
Selfish/Selfless

Divisive/
Subtractive
No-self

Figures 8
Relationships among four Models of Identity Differentiation7, Styles8, Interactions9, andSelfhood

10*

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

Priorities

in

Relational

Competence

12

Socialization: Model
12

protection)…

regulatorystylesThese

29

differentsocialcommunicate

distinct

Model includes synonymous constructs suchconcerns about getting along in the world.

as goals, motives, intentions, needs, andNurturant social regulation engenders aattitudes. Eventually, no matter what constructpromotion focus in which self-regulation is

one prefers, it has to be prioritized according toconcerned with the presence or absence ofurgency and importance. Priorities include

positive outcomes. Security social regulation

immediate and long-term plans or expectations

engenders a prevention focus, in whichbased on their reality-orientation, according to

self-regulation is concerned with the absence

realistic age-and stage-related demands: Whatand negative outcomes (p. 518).‖

is more important? What is more urgent (Figure

Regulatory focus theory, therefore, is another2)? The two major horizontal priorities in life

way to expand on Model12 by adding priorities

are survival and enjoyment in varies settingsof3(Model ;Csikszentmihaly,2004).

Verticalpromotionversusprevention

self-regulation, relying also on Model

in
5

as

priorities include self and intimates (parents,

necessary to clarify one’s priorities. Higgins’

partner, children, siblings, in-laws, friends). Is

two dimensions could be viewed as being

home more important than work? Are leisurely

orthogonal with the two priorities of life:

activities more important than home or work?

survival and enjoyment. It would be interesting

Priorities are as important as relational

to expand on this model, since Higgins did notcompetence

characteristics

include survival and enjoyment in his research,

interaction

and

for

coexistence

continuous

withothers.

Measures to evaluate personal and couple

eventhoughheimpliedenjoyment

inpromotion and survival in prevention.

priorities have been published in L’Abate et al.,2010).

Clinical Applications of Theoretical Models
12

Within this Model , one must include theLimitations of space do not allow a proper

contribution of Higgins (2007) concerning

expansion of four additional models, all derived

individual

differencesmotivationalfrom the previous assumptions and major

regulatory

processes

goalmodels. Except for Model16, Negotiation thatinduringpursuitbetween what he called: feeling eager andappliestofunctional

or

13,

14

semi-functional&

15

enthusiastic (promotion focus) versus feeling

relationships, Models

apply tovigilant and careful (prevention focus):

dysfunctional and clinical relationships (AA―Regulatory focus theory assumes thatand RR styles (Model9), static, subtractive, andself-regulation operates differently whendivisive interactions (Model10), Selfishness,

serving fundamentally different needs, such

Selflessness, and No-self (Model11).

as the distinct survival needs of nurturance (e.
g.,nourishment)

andsecurity(e.g.,

Distance Regulation: Model13

30

L’ABATE

This model derives from the assumption ofIntimacy: Model15

Distance (Model4) and includes three roles

Intimacy is defined behaviorally as the sharing

comprising Pursuer, Distancer, and Regulator,of joys, hurts, and fears of being hurt (L’Abate,as present in most Cluster C personality

2009b, in press-a) rather than defined bydisorders. Pursuer involves approach, as inself-report,

extreme dependence on others. Distancer(Mashek & Aron, 2004). This definition

involves avoidance of others, as in denial ofincludesdependence. Regulator involves contradictionstransgressions (Fincham, 2000; Fincham &in approach-avoidance tendencies (―Come here,

Beach, 2002a, 2002b; Friesen, Fletcher, &I need your help,‖ ―Go away, you did not help

Overall, 2005). This model involves all fiveme!‖),

components of Model1 in a circular process,fluctuating

inconsistently

betweendependence and denial of dependence.

paper-and-pencil

forgivenessof

instruments

errorsandofstarting with the feeling of hurt (Emotionality)and progressing to the other components of the

14

Drama Triangle: Model

model (Rationality, Activity, Awareness, andThis pathogenic model is based on immediate

Context). This model derives also more directly

discharge and inadequate control tendencies

from develop-mental identity-differentiation

5(Model ). These tendencies, present in most RR

Model8 to the extent that feelings of hurt andand AA styles, include the roles of Victim,

joy are usually expressed and shared in CC

Persecutor, and Rescuer, as found in mythology,

rarely in RR, and never in AA styles. Thesefiction, religion, politics, and wars (L’Abate,

feelings sometimes are shared at occasions such

2009f). These roles occur contemporaneously

as funerals and marriages but they are

and simultaneously all at the same time, to theotherwise

point that a Victim could be perceived as aexternalized (Selfishness) in RR styles. They

Persecutor, and the Rescuer as a Victim, withare not shared in AA styles (No-self).

internalized(Selflessness)orthe Rescuer eventually being perceived asVictim or Persecutor. For instance, initially in a

Negotiation: Model16

relationship someone who perceived herself or

The process of Negotiation (bargaining,himself as a Victim may fall in love withproblem-solving) implies a certain amount of

someone perceived as a Rescuer. However, if

control (Model5) and functionality necessary toduring the course of the relationship, theconfront

Rescuer may become viewed as a Persecutor byissues (Roloff, Putman, & Anastasiou, 2003).

theThe structure of negotiation and problem

Victim.

In

thisprocess,thedispassionately

includesmostemotionally-laden

Rescuer/Persecutor may view himself or herself

solvingofthepreviousas the Victim of the Victim/Persecutor.

assumptions and models. It is more prevalent in

Examples of this triangle are found in L’Abate,

CC styles than in RR or AA styles. For instance,

2009f, in press-a).

to evaluate the structure and process ofRECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

31

negotiation, one must consider a distinction

through Interactive Practice Exercises or

between who makes decisions (Authority) andworkbooks as homework assignments in

who carries them out (Responsibility) as wellsecondary prevention (L’Abate, 2010c), or

as whether a decision is large and life-changing

through theory-derived prescriptions assigned(Orchestration)

in

or

small

(Instrumentation)(Levine, 1976). Those two processes must be

psychotherapyortertiary

prevention(L’Abate, 2005, in press-b).

imbedded in a multiplicative function of threebasic factors: (1) levels of functionality

Laboratory Evaluations

between negotiating parties (ILL); (2) abilities

A

necessary to negotiate (SKILL); and (3)inventory (L’Abate & De Giacomo, 2003, pp.

motivation to negotiate fairly (WILL).

387-394), derived from models and dimensions

200-item

paper-and-pencil

self-reportlisted in Figure 1.2, has been translated into
ResearchtoSupportthe

Validityof

Italian and evaluated by Mario Cusinato and his

Theoretical Models

students at the University of Padua (personal

Research has been conducted since thecommunication, November 5, 2006). Model1

inception of this theory to support models of

can be evaluated and partially validated withrelational competence socialization with thethe Relationship Answers Questionnaire (RAQ),

creation of models that could be verified

a(L’Abate, 1976). However, not all assumptions

inventory whose initial psychometric properties

or models of the theory can be directly

have been reported (L’Abate, 2005, pp.

2

50-item,

paper-and-pencil

self-reportvalidated. For instance, Model about the depth

108-115). This model and the RAQ are beingof relationships, is difficult to validate inrefined and reevaluated by Eleonora Maino andtotality, though its descriptive and explanatory

her students at the University of Padova

levels can be validated independently, as in the(personal communication, June, 7, 2007).

case of the Self-presentational Scale developed

Models 2-6 have been evaluated with theand validated by Cusinato (Appendix A). Some

EcoMap (L’Abate et al., 2010). Model7, derived

modelsfromfrom Foa’s and Foa’s (1974) theory, could bemodelsevaluated using the same instruments and tasks(L’Abate, 2010a). Some models can be(Foa, Converse, Tornblom, & Foa, 1993) andvalidated in the laboratory through test

adapted to fit the overall Triangle of Living.

instruments specifically derived from theModel8 was originally evaluated (L’Abate,models (L’Abate, et al., 2010). Some can be2005, p. 371) with the Likeness Scale and thevalidated through enrichment programs for

Likeness Grid (L’Abate, 1994; L’Abate &couples and families in primary prevention

Wagner, 1985, 1988). More recently, Cusinato(L’Abate & Weinstein, 1987; L’Abate & Young,and Colesso (2008) evaluated and validated this1987). Other models still can be validated

model. Model9 has been evaluated with aareconceptuallyvalidated
similarindirectly

theoriesor

32

L’ABATE

240-item

Problem-in-Relationships

Scalefrom these instruments. The results indicated(L’Abate, 1992, 1996) and partially validated

that all three models focused on the same10by McMahan and L’Abate (2001). Model has

dimensions but each from different theoreticalnot been directly validated.

viewpoints and with different test instruments.

11

Model

has been

validated

extensively

In addition, the models were conducted inthroughtwo

paper-and-pencil

self-report

different theoretical languages and measured in

instruments, the Self-Other Profile Chartdifferent ways.

(Cusinato & L’Abate, in press, b; L’Abate,

Model12 has been evaluated and validated with

1992, 1997, 2002; L’Abate & De Giacomo,the Priorities Grid and Priorities Scale reported

2003), the Problems-in-Relationships Scaleearlier (Cusinato & L’Abate, in press-a;(L’Abate, 1992; McMahan & L’Abate, 2001),

L’Abate, 1994; L’Abate & Wagner, 1985).

and the Dyadic Relationships Test (Cusinato &Models13&14

L’Abate, 2005a, 2005b).

Model14 has been evaluated and validated

Furthermore,similarities

among

three

different models of relationships, Attachment,
11

Selfhood(Model ),Pragmatic

Model

and

(EPM,

the

Elementary

L’Abate,1997;

directly

have

with

the

not

been

evaluated.

Sharing-of-Hurts

Scale(L’Abate, 2003) and indirectly by the researchof Vangelisti (2009; Vangelisti & Beck, 2007)
and many others (L’Abate, in press-a).

L’Abate, De Giacomo, & De Giacomo, 1997)
prompted an evaluation (L’Abate, 1997, 2003;

Promotional,

L’Abate & De Giacomo, 2003; L’Abate, De

Psychotherapeutic Applications

Giacomo, McCarty, De Giacomo, & Verrastro,

Promotion means applications that approach2000). All three models propose one functionaland deal with relatively competent, healthy

dimension,

populations.

twoborderline

functional

Preventive,

Primary

preventions

and

means

dimensions, and one clearly dysfunctional

applications that try reduce the risk of future

dimension. The Adult Attachment Inventory

incompetence, that is: avoiding incompetence

and the Self-Other Profile Chart for Selfhood(Higgins,

are paper-and-pencil self-report instruments

psychotherapy means face-to-face talk-based

developed for the models Attachment andapproaches to

Selfhood, in order to evaluate their concurrent

incompetence. However, with the Internet

validities. The EPM developed the SISCI-I

taking over how mental health services will befrom screen projections of ninety Holtzman’sdelivered in this century, we are going to rely

ink-blots (L’Abate, 2003; L’Abate & De

more and more on distance writing throughGiacomo, 2003; L’Abate et al., 2000). All threecomputers and the Internet (L’Abate, 1991,

instruments were administered to functional

1992; 1997a, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2004a. 2004b,

and dysfunctional participants. Statistically

2007a, 2007b; 2008a, 2008c, 2010b, in press-d;

significant inter-correlations were obtained

L’Abate & De Giacomo, 2003).

2007).

Tertiary

treat

prevention

and manageorsevereRECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY33

Promotion of Competence

nonclinical couples and families, making theseInterventions have been linked and canprograms completely replicable from one

improve the three styles of relationships

setting to another (L’Abate & Cusinato, 2007).

(Model9). For instance, even though most CC

For instance, Model1 (ERAAwC) can bestyles may not need interventions, they could

evaluated interactively with the Helpfulness

benefit from low-cost vehicles, such as dancing,

Enrichment program (L’Abate &Weinstein,

exercise, massage, and volunteering (Harwood

1987; L’Abate & Young, 1987). Models2, 3, 4, 5&6& L’Abate, 2010; L’Abate, 2007c). RR styles

can be evaluated through various assignments

need to be differentiated according to Clusters(L’Abate & Weinstein, 1987). Model7 can be

B and C personality disorders. Cluster C

evaluated through an enrichment assignment

personality disorders, for instance, with their(L’Abate & Weinstein, 1987) as can Models8-15.

proclivity to delay and introspect, can benefit
from f2f tb psychotherapy and by additional

Workbooks to Promote Mental Health andhomework assignments, using various types ofLife-long Learning

writing or nonverbal tasks (Kazantzis &Self-help,

L’Abate, 2007). Once Cluster B personality

Interactive Practice Exercises or workbooks aredecompensate in a crisis, these individuals

becoming an important part of the whole

can be helped to deal with their impulsivity anddelivery system in primary, secondary, andinadequate inability to introspect using written

tertiary prevention. They indicate also an

homework assignments. Interactive Practiceincreasing reliance on distance writing rather

Exercises developed to increase reflection,

than on face-to-face, talk-based medium in

introspection,

prevention,andgreater

controls

could

mentaltherapy,

healthandProgrammed

rehabilitation.

decrease discharge and impulsivity (L’Abate,(L’Abate, 1992, 2001, 2002, 2004a, 2004b,

1992, 2010b; L’Abate & Goldstein, 2007). AA

2010; L’Abate & De Giacomo, 2003; L’Abatestyles in Axis II Cluster A and disorders of Axis

& Goldstein, 2007).

I may need to be confined to hospitals or jails

Workbooks fall into three classifications: (1)in order to be helped through various

completely independent from models of thetherapeutic approaches, including impersonal

theory, such as workbooks based on clinicalinstruments, such as computers, medication,

experience or from models not related to thesocio-educational training skills, and grouptheory; (2) indirectly linked to the theory

therapies (L’Abate & Harrison, 1992).

(Selfishexternalizationvs.

Selflessinternalization); and (3) directly and completely
Enrichment

ProgramsforCouplesandderived from models of the theory, such as

Families

workbooks derived from Model8 (―Who am

Enrichment programs are written for and can

I?‖),

be

(Negotiation), and Planned Parenting (L’Abate,administeredverbatim

tofunctional,

Model11(Selfhood),

Model16

34

L’ABATE

2010b). Studies of workbooks performed

practically impossible to obtain cumulative

almostnewly

records and progress on the basis of data thatrecalculated effect sizes have been reviewed incan be obtained only through writing not talkL’Abate (2004b). A meta-analysis of mental(L’Abate, 2010c).

and physical health workbooks (Smyth &Given these definitions, workbooks defined as

L’Abate, 2001) yielded an effect size of d= .44

programmed

for mental and an effect size of d= .25 pages for

qualify eminently as a mental health technology

physical health workbooks, attesting to thethat has emerged and surfaced during the last

cost-effectiveness,andgeneration (L’Abate, 1986, 1990, 1991,1992,

versatility of Workbooks. These results, plus

1997, 2001, 2002, 2004a, 2004b, 2007c,

case studies presented in L’Abate (2010b)

2008a, 2008c, 2010b; L’Abate & De Giacomo,indicate how it is possible to help at risk or

2003; L’Abate & Goldstein, 2007; L’Abate &troubled people at a distance, without everKern, 2002). Together with recent advances inseeing them face-to-face and talking with them.

computer technology, the emergence of the

Workbooks as a relatively new mental healthInternet, the growing importance of homeworktechnology imply or denote specialization inassignments (Kazantzis, Deane, Ronan, &mechanical equipment, including computers

L'Abate, 2005; Kazantzis & L’Abate, 2007), theand programs that offer systematic evaluation

growth of self-help (Harwood & L’Abate,

and treatment. By specialization is meant2010), and emergence of low-cost approaches

specificity in evaluation and treatment throughto promote physical and mental health in theira particular equipment or program produced todelivery (L’Abate, 2007c), there are now plenty

deal with a specific condition (L’Abate, 2010a).

of choices available to both professionals andBy systematic is meant a step-by-step process

participants in the mental health field, in thethat allows replicability in standard operatingpromotion

procedures and practices. Both specificity andprevention and psychotherapy of incompetence.

systematic, replicable procedures are the

The issue remains in finding ways to evaluatecornerstone of the scientific method. A

participants to help them find which approachprocedure or program could be replicable andwill be more helpful and less costly to themsystematic but without specificity, it may notthan other approaches (L’Abate, in press-b).

produce the desired outcome (L’Abate, 2008b).

These approaches would suggest targeted or

Furthermore, science progresses with thestep-by-step treatment, starting from the leastaccumulation of written records not just words

expensive of professional help first and then(Beard, Myhill, Riley, & Nystrand, 2009). As

moving on to the most expensive treatment,

long as talk remains the only medium ofthat is: face-to-face (f2f) talk-based (tb)communication,

face-to-facecontacts with professionals, especially if least

psychotherapy and preaching, it will be

expensive approaches are not working. For

30

years

ago

and

their

mass-orientation,asininteractiveofpracticecompetence,

andexercises

intheRECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

35

instance, depression in its least severe forms

Parenting or Negotiation workbooks (Figure 1).

(determined by scores on the Beck Depression

The use of workbooks in no way eliminates

Inventory (Katz, Katz, & Shaw, 1999), could be

the important functions of professionals. On thedealt with first by using much less expensive

contrary, a distance-writing approach requires

activities such as running, physical therapy,

that more attention be given to an objective

yoga, or medi-tation. Somewhere in between

evaluation for the referral reason, concern, or

least and most expensive, f2f tb approaches,

symptom. An objective evaluation is an aspect

interactive practice exercises in workbooks

that may differentiate between professionals

could be used either on their own, or in

whoconjunction with least or with most expensive

professionals who chose to practice as scientists,

approaches. Workbooks essentially perform as

evaluating participants from the very outset of astandardized recipes, furnishing professionals

professional relationship, after termination ofwith specific ways of helping and interveningthat relationship, and on follow-up (L’Abate, inthat can be replicated from one participant topress-a). In addition to an evaluative function,

another. There are no limits on how many times

the professional/scientist needs to evaluate

these Workbooks can be reproduced andresponses to each single workbook andadministered to as many participants asfeedback appropriate and specific information

possible (L’Abate, 2010b), just like recipes

about the nature of those responses tofrom a cookbook.

participants. This function is implicit in the

If one particular workbook does not work forinteractive nature of the process.

a specific condition, let’s say depression, one

Consequently, this conviction (L’Abate, in

would have to: (1) question the initial reason

press-b) would not allow a professional to

for

and

administer a entire series of Workbooks without

developmental background for the referral; (3)breaking them down into one assignment after

evaluate results from a test battery administeredanother, one assignment at one time, witheven before seeing (or not seeing) the

corrective feedback on completion of eachparticipant; (4) see whether another, different

assignment, after an Informed Consent Formworkbook for depression may be

about

referral;appropriate

(2)

than

evaluatethehistorical

one

more

originallyadministered; or (5) administer a completely
different, not depression-related

chose

the

to

practice

importanceasofartists

pre-post-

from

and

follow-up evaluation is emphasized from theoutset of the professional relationship.

workbookthat may be more appropriate for the context ofExpanding on the Nature of Workbooks

the referral, such as one related to over-all

Workbooks

functioning rather than a specific workbook

practice exercises are composed by four

related to a diagnosis or to the reason for thecharacteristics: (1) administered in writing at areferral, as would be the case with Planned

distance from professionals, in (2) continuousasprogrammed

interactive

36

L’ABATE

interactions with professionals who request (3)participants composed of individuals, couples,consistenthomework

or families. In the past, this distance may haveassignments, and who try (4) to matchbeen covered though regular mail. Nowadays,

Workbooks with the referral question, concern,

distance is covered through computers and the

diagnosis, or symptom.

Internet. Being written means that thesepractices,

such

as

exercises

completely

replicableandextremely specific for determined situations or

Programmed
Workbooks

are

are

writtenaccordingtodisorders, as shown in self-explanatory Figuressystematic procedures outlined in Figures 9 and

9 and 10. There is no need to expand on these

10 to be administered at a distance between

Figures here because they have been alreadymental health professionals and participants, be

expanded in previous publications cited above.

Figure 9
Toward a Classification of Distance Writing Dimensions*

1. Structured can be open, as in diaries or closed, as in answering specificquestions in writing on pre-established topic, either positive, happy or unhappy
memories. Closed writing can be guided or programmed, as discussed in
Figure19.2.
2. Goals could be prescriptive to produce specific outcomes or cathartic to produce
discharge of and release from tensions or traumas.
3. Content can be painful, traumatic, neutral, banal, or joyous, emotional, rational,
problem-solving, individual, or relational/
5. Level of abstraction ranging from very concrete, i.e., ―Write what you ate forbreakfast, to very abstract, i.e., ―Write about the meaning of life.‖
6. Specificity, ranging from general, as in an autobiography to extremely specific,
concrete, and restricted, such as: ―Write about all the clothes you have in yourcloset.‖________________________________________________________
Note. Adapted from L’Abate (2004a).

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

37

Figure 10
A Classification of Distance Writing*

A. Automatic was of questionable usefulness as a fad and in need of more controlled
research before considering its use.
B. Dictionary-aided basic to many self-help practice exercises (L’Abate, 2007a).
C. Expressive, as in ―Pennebaker’s Paradigm‖ writing about hurts and traumas
heretofore not shared with others for 15 minutes a day for four consecutive days.
The literature on this approach is extensive and available in many old (Esterling,
L’Abate, Murray, & Pennebaker, 1999) and new references (Kacewicz, Slatcher,& Pennebaker, 2007; Lepore & Smyth, 2002).
D. Focused, as in autobiographies to be mailed or sent online (L’Abate, 2007c)E. Guided, as in answering written questions in writing, after completion, for instance,of an autobiography, journal, or other homework assignments.
F. Open-ended, as in personal information gathered through diaries or journals.
G. Programmed as in Workbooks for non-targeted conditions and life-long learning andat risk populations (Figure 12) targeted and psychiatrically diagnosed children
and youth, single individuals, couples, and families (Figure 13), single- or
multiple-score tests (Figure 14).
______________________________________________________________________
Note. Adapted from L’Abate (2004b).
when dealing with hurt feelings (L’Abate, inInteractive

press-a) and how important evaluation is in

By this qualification is meant that thesefinding which approach is more appropriate forexercises

which condition.

cannotandshouldnotbeadministered without continuous corrective

Therefore, the ICF should be administered tofeedback betweenaprotect both professionals and participants,

participant. Interactive means that Workbooks

since one cannot predict whether: (1) the reason

are or should be administered after a thorough,for referral is a real and accurate one; (2)objective evaluation of the referring concern,

whether the evaluation uncovered contextual

question, or referral reason (L’Abate, in

aspects of the referral reason that may have notpress-a). Furthermore, Workbooks should bebeen considered through a subjective interview.

administered after an Informed Consent Form

For instance, a participant may want help to(ICF) has been read and signed by all

deal with self-diagnosed anxiety but without an

participants. Participants should know what

evaluation,

possible consequences or unpredictable side

uncritically the participant’s opinion andeffects may occur in many instances, especiallyadminister an anxiety-related workbook. Whena professional

and

the

professional

may

accept

38

L’ABATE

anxiety does not decrease on termination of thewriting the same exercise until it showed thatentire workbook the patient may complain

responsibility was taken in completing theabout the professional’s incompetence andassignment in the best possible manner.

threatens legal action. On the basis of thisIncomplete

reaction, the professional may discover that

unacceptable and participants should not be

there may exist a whole delusional, paranoid

allowed to get away with minimal performance.

system that could have been detected from a

More instructions about this issue are available

thoroughin L’Abate (2010b).

objective

evaluation.

An

ICF

or

irrelevant

answersarerepresents the contract between professionals

In a way Workbooks in and of themselves,and participants about the use of Workbooks.

allow professionals to evaluate whether there is

Copies of such ICFs are available in L’Abate

motivation for change in participants or(2010b, in press-b), including also a control

whether they expect the professional to produce

workbook with seemingly neutral items to bechange miraculously without their active

used for research purposes (L’Abate, 2010b).

participation (L’Abate, L’Abate, & Maino,

Whoever professional chooses to administer2005). In stepped treatment, one could makeWorkbooks without a thorough, objective

homework assignments and completion ofevaluation, a signed ICF, and continuous,

Workbooks as a pre-condition for seeing theexercise-by-exercise

feedback,

professional f2f through talk (Omer, 1985). The

should be considered a charlatan and should

expensive presence of a professional should

receivefromalso be contingent on the completion of theprofessional organizations in which they may

least expensive treatment. This approach isbelong (L’Abate, in press-a).

especially useful to evaluate motivation toprofessional

appropriate

retributionchange in Custer B participants, who may
Practice

manipulatively use professional help as a way

Professionals should be careful to specify how,

to avoid criminal or legal persecution.

when, how often, and where Workbooks as
homework assignments should take place

Exercises(L’Abate, 1986), making sure that participants

Figurerecord place and time of occurrence andclassification of workbooks. As in the previous

checking

beforeparagraphs, the interested reader can findaccepting it as given and administering the next

expanded explanations of this and the two

assignment. For instance, in my experience

previous Figures in references already cited.

oncompletehomework

with acting-out inmates, some of them tried toget away with as little work as possible.
Consequently, they were required to repeat
Figure 1111

includesaself-explanatory

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY

39

Classification of Workbooks in Mental Health*

1. Composition of Participants: singles (adults, children, youth), couples, families,
groups.
2. Reason for Referral, i. e., concern(s), diagnosis(es), single versus dual or multiple,
problem(s), symptom(s),3. Level and Type of Functionality: DSM-IV, Reason for Referral, or botha. Functional: No diagnosisb. Externalizations: Axis II. Cluster B (Aboujaoude & Koran, 2010).
c. Internalizations : Axis II. Cluster C (e.,g. Millon, Blaney, & Davis, 1999)
d. Borderline: Axis II. Cluster A (e.,g. Millon, Blaney, & Davis, 1999)
e. Severe: Axis I. (e. g., e.,g. Millon, Blaney, & Davis, 1999)
4. Practice exercises for specific symptoms versus general conditions
5. Symptom-free versus symptom-related & diagnosis-linked
6. Theory-derived, theory-related, theory-independent (Cusinato & L’Abate, in press;
L’Abate, 2005; L’Abate & Cusinato, 2007; L’Abate, Cusinato, Maino, Colesso,& Scilletta, 2010).
7. Format: (1) fixed (nomothetic); (2) flexible (idiographic); & (3) mixed (nomothetic
and idiographic)
8. Style: Linear versus circular (paradoxical, i. e., Weeks & L’Abate (1982)
9. Derivation: Single versus multiple score tests, i. e., BDI vs. MMPI-2.
10. Content: clinical (addictions, affective disorders, Axis I and Axis II: Clusters A, B,& C etc. and non-clinical, life-long learning for individuals, couples, andfamilies______________________________________________________________________*Adapted from L’Abate, 2004b.

One important aspect of the Workbooks

Workbooks is greatly diminished, allowing

contained in Figures below lies in their being

professionals

producedtestevaluation in ways that would be difficult,or

expensive, or even impossible to accomplish in

instruments,

fromexisting,

verifiedfactorvalidated
analyses,

to

match

treatment

withsymptom lists available in the DSM-IV (Author,

f2f tb psychotherapy.

1994; Kochalka & L'Abate, 1997). This isTransforming inert, passive test or factor

another way to indicate that Workbooks areanalyses items or psychiatric symptoms into

isomorphic with their underlying composition

dynamic Workbooks is a very simple process

based on validated measures (. Hence, the gap

that apparently has not been thought of until

between evaluation and intervention using

recently (L’Abate, 2010b). This process occurs

40

L’ABATEin three easy steps:

to many behavioral dogmas. Change starts at(1) asking participants to define items of

the beginning of a process not at the end.

single score tests, or dimensions of multiple

Through this process, therefore, as shown inscore tests, factor analyses, and DSM-IV

the Figures to follow, it is possible to transform

symptoms lists, if necessary with the help of athousands of passively inert test instruments

dictionary (L’Abate, 2007a), and then give two,

into active and interactive methods of treatment,

possibly concrete, examples of the item justlinking evaluation with treatment in ways thatdefined, a nomothetic task;

would be difficult and expensive to achieve in(2) rank-order items just defined according to

self-help,

how those items refer to oneself in order ofpsychotherapeutic interventions using f2f tb

importance and relevance, an idiographic task

approaches.

preventive,

promotional,orthat individualizes immediately the sequence tofollow in treatment, starting with the item that

Prevention

has been rank-ordered first, moving then to the

Workbooks Targeted for Clinical Conditions

item rank-ordered second, and so on, until mostFigure 12 includes workbooks that can beof the top items (no more than 5 or 6 in myused when no specific clinical concern isexperience) have been administered one by one

present or detected but there is interest andthroughmotivation to learn more about oneself in(3) a standard practice exercise (L’Abate,

individuals,

2010b) where the top item becomes the topic of

Workbooks, therefore, could be used in

an intense scrutiny, that is: asking participants

self-help

to answer queries about the overall nature of

prevention (L’Abate, 1990), and promotionalthat item, its developmental origins, duration,(L’Abate, 2007d) activities with functional or

frequency,

andsemi-functional participants, especially those

dysfunctional outcomes to self and to loved

who are at risk for possible breakdown, such aones.

adult children of alcoholic parents. These

Sometimes, if the behavior represented in a

indivi-duals, couples, and families may not be

particular item is strongly ingrained in theclassified as yet according to a psychiatric label,

individual’s affective, cognitive, and behavioralbutrepertoire, participants may be asked tocharacteristics that may foretell future disorders,

produce and reproduce it at certain times andespecially in children.

rate,

and

functional

places to achieve greater control over it,
following the principle that: ―If we learn toapproach and start a troublesome behavior, we
can learn to stop it.‖ (L’Abate, 1984), contrary

Figure 12ofRelational

couples,(Harwood

they

may

or
&

Incompetence:families.
L’Abate,evidence

These2010),

prodromal

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY41

Self-help Workbooks for Individual, Couple, and Family life-long Learning*
Individual
Character Strengths.
Emotional Expression.
Development of Emotional Competence.
Multiple Abilities.
Normative Experiences: Form AB5C.
Normative Experiences: Form IPIP.
Normative Experiences: Form PSC.
Priorities.
Self-awareness.
Self- Others Importance.
Social Skills.
Speak UP For Yourself.
Who Am I?Aspects of Identity.
CouplesPremarital Preparation.
Relational Quality1.
Relational Quality2.
Relational Quality3.
Relational Styles.
Sexual Motivation.
Families
Foster/Adoptive Care.
Planned Parenting.

Workbooks for Psychiatric Classification

Inventory-2; or on lists of behaviors, signs, orFor

conditions,

symptoms derived from factor-analyses and the

Workbooks (L’Abate, 2002, 2007b, in press-b)

DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association,

are based on reason for referral, that is,1994). Space limitations make it impossible tointernalization versus externalization, as well as

reviewon single and multiple test scores, such as theusefulness. However, complete reviews ofBeck Anxiety and Depression Inventories, theresearch on their effect sizes and applications

Minnesota

are available (L’Abate. 2004b, in press-b).

borderlineorclinicalMultiphasic

Personality

studies

supporting

theirclinical42

L’ABATE

Figure 13 includes workbooks that were

= .44 while the overall effect size for physicalderived from list of symptoms in psychiatrichealth outcomes was d = .25.

diagnoses found in the DSM-IV (American

Results from this analysis as well as from thePsychiatric Association, 1994), Millon, Blaney,

studies summarized in L’Abate (2004b, pp.

and Davis (1999) and other sources, showing

75-92) suggest that Workbooks may produce athat through programmed, distance writing it ismedium effect size in mental health and apossible to link evaluation with specificsomewhat lower effect size for physical health,treatment in ways that would be difficult if noteven though great variability was present for

impossible

such outcomes. This effect size was quite

toachievethrough

f2f,

tb

interventions.

similar

to

the

one

obtainedfromameta-analysis of f2f tb psychological treatment
Workbooks from Research with Single- orin 90 studies conducted across a broad range ofMultiple-score Tests

clinical settings (mean d = .41; Shadish, Matt,

Another way to link evaluation with

Navarro, & Phillips, 2000).

treatment is found in developing Workbooks

Here is where costs and cost-effectivenessdirectly from the items found in factor analyses,

come into being. If the same results are

single- and multiple-score tests as shown in

obtained by two different types of intervention,

Figure 14.

one

would

chose

the

less

expensiveintervention. This, however, is not a either-or
issue but a both/and one. Conceivably, f2f, tb

Research Results
Researchofinterventions may needed with more severe

Workbooks was conducted from the very

cases and even in these cases, adding

beginning starting 30 or more years ago but

Workbooks may decrease the length ofreported more recently (L’Abate, Boyce,

treatment or reduce the possibility of relapse.

Fraizer, & Russ, 1992; L’Abate, 2004b, pp.

However, this was not the case with outpatients

75-92)

who received Workbooks in addition to

with

about

the

unexpected

effectivenessparadoxicalandsometimes inconsistent results. For instance, in

face-to-face,―…few studies control groups obtained higher(L’Abate, L’Abate, & Maino, 2005). Those

gainparticipants (individuals, couples, and families)scoresthanexperimentalgroupsreceived

talk-based

psychotherapy

suggesting that this was an important area towhoinvestigate in the future‖ (L’Abate, 2004b, pp.

significantly greater number of sessions than

91-92). To find a more definitive answer,

those who did not received them. In an

Smyth and L’Abate (2001) performed a

inpatient setting, however, Goldstein (L’Abate

meta-analysis of 18 workbooks, 12 in mental&

health and 6 in physical health. The overall

workbooks reduced significantly the length ofeffect size for mental health outcomes was dhospitalization in decompensating women who

Goldstein,

Workbooks2007),ashowedaproblem-solving

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY
complete that workbook versus a control groupof women who did not receive it.

Figure 13
Workbooks for Participants with Psychiatric Diagnoses*
Disorders of Internalization
Children and YouthAnxiety
Anxiety, Depression, and Fears.
Asperger Disorder .
Depression .
Post-Traumatic Stress .
Separation Anxiety .
AdultsAnxiety .
Depressive Personality.
Loneliness .
Phobias .
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder .
Procrastination. .
Signs of Depression.
Disruptive Developmental Disorders
Anger .
Hyperactive/Attention Deficit .
Juvenile Troublemaking .
Oppositional Defiant .
Disorders of Externalization in Adults
Addendum to Relational Training .
Anger, Hostility .
Troublemaking .
Workbooks for Conflicting Couples and Families
Children and Families
Bing Eating .
Divorce Adjustment in Children .
Domestic Violence .
Lying .
Shyness .
Stealing .
Temper Tantrums .
Time Out .
Verbal Abuse .
CouplesA theory-derived workbook for intimate relationships .
Arguing or Fighting .
Complaints.
Depression .
Difficulties .
Intimacy .
Sexuality .
Violence .
Families
Hurt Feelings .
Intimacy .
Negotiation .
When Parents Argue: From the Child’s Eyes .
When Parents and Child Argue .
*Adapted from L’Abate, 2009c.

43

44

L’ABATE

Figure 14
Workbooks from Research with Single- and Multiple-score Tests*
Single Score Tests
Children: Mixed Internalizing and Externalizing Disorders
School Conduct Problem .
School Social Skills .
Unusual or Troublesome Behavior .
Adults
Butcher Treatment Planning.
Axis II Cluster C Internalizing Personality Disorders
Beck Anxiety .
Beck Depression .
Hamilton Anxiety .
Hamilton Depression .
Help-seeking (Dependent) .
Self-suffering (Masochist) .
Serious (Depressed).
What Are My Concerns?
Axis II Cluster B Selected Externalizing Personality Disorders
Anger Expression.
Compelling (Compulsive).
Distinct (Schizoid ).
Exciting (Histrionic).
Non-conformist (Negativistic) .
Private (Avoidant).
Self-interested (Narcissistic).
Unpopular (Antisocial) .
Unusual (Sadistic) .
Mixed Internalizing and Externalizing Disorders
Personality Disorders, Form 1989.
Personality Disorders, Form 1990.
Personality Disorders, Form 1992.
Multiple Score Tests
Personality Dimensions from the MMPI
Personality Dimensions from Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Inventory (NEO)
Personality Dimensions from Personality Assessment Inventory
Severe Disorders
Individuals
Mood Swings
Over-dependency .
Severe Concerns .
Sexual Abuse
Couples
Improving Relationships
Relationship Conflicts
Couple Satisfaction
Families
Profile Form
Functioning_____________________________________________________________________*Adapted from L’Abate, 2009c.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY45

The inconsistency and contradictions found inincest.

the area of research with Workbooks cries out

Sharing of Hurts. This prescription involves

for more adequate and controlled research thatpartners or family members facing each other,

could be conducted by just one investigatorholding hands, and keeping their eyes closed

alone.

(L’Abate, 1994, 1997b, 2003, 2009c, in press-a).
Participants are asked to concentrate on past

Treatment

andManagementof

Severehurts and verbally express them with their

Incompetence:

partner or family members. Often partners

Homework Prescriptions for Couples andshare these feelings nonverbally through crying.

Families. In addition to theworkbooks

This prescription has been presented in acreated to deal with severe incompetence, twovariety of published clinical reports, not citedprescriptions as homework assignments inhere for reasons of space, but finds its indirect

couples and family therapy derive directly andempirical support in the research of Feeney

7&15—Being Present(2005), Fincham (2000), Fincham and Beachrequirementsfor(2002), L’Abate (2009c, in press-a), andPerformance, Production, Problem-solving, or

Vangelisti (2009), and Vangelisti and Beck

Perfection.

(2007)

respectively from Models
andIntimacy,

without

Hugging, Holding, Huddling, and Cuddling(3HC). This prescription is especially usefulConclusion

with families with young children who cannot

There is no question that the scope of thisexpress themselves. It involves progressive

theory is ambitious if not grandiose. On thestages of Being physically together without

other hand, human relationships are tootalking. Couples or family members lie down

complex to be covered, condensed, andcomfortably in the dark in an exchange ofencompassed by few dimensions or models. All

reciprocal reassurance of being cared forthese descriptive models help us to understandthrough prolonged physical contact rather than

redundantly coexisting or co-morbid relational

through talking: hugging, holding, huddling,competence disorders as different aspects andand cuddling each other without any erotic

extremes of competence and incompetence ingestures or intentions (L’Abate & De Giacomo,

human relationships.

2003). This prescription finds its indirect

Either by themselves or in conjunction with

empirical support in the crucial importance of

medical,close physical contact (Feldman, 2007), touch

psychological(Jones & Mize, 2007), and affection (Gulledge,

performHill, Lister, & Sallion, 2007). This prescription

promotional, and psychotherapeutic functions

is not indicated with severe sexual abuse orthat are either time-consuming and difficult

neurological,
approaches,

synergistic,

psychiatric,

andworkbooks

canself-help,

preventive,

46

L’ABATE

to perform in f2f tb treatments. Only futurethat will allow professionals to investigate

research will determine who will be helped bywhich intervention is more adequate, effective,

which approach. Fortunately, the field ofand specific to deal with particular referral

mental health in the last generation has beenquestions, concerns, and symptoms.

expanded by some many different approaches

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FAMILY SCIENCE IN USA AND ITALY47

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International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.1, 57-67<Invited Paper>

LOSES AT THE CORE OF THE SELF AND THE MERITS OF “PORTABLEFAMILIES” 1
Carlos E. Sluzki1)
1)

Department of Global and Community Health, George Mason University

ABSTRACT. The treatment of a patient who was referred due to hallucinations reveals a world of “magic realism” that is far from
infrequent in elderly people with a small and dwindling social network –especially if coming from cultures where the boundaries
between the inner and the outer world world are fuzzy. Respecting these traits allow for the development of treatment approaches
that can evolve satisfactorily without disrupting the patient’s inscription in this dual world.
KEY WORDS: self boundaries, family, hallucinations, culture

after his death, reeling with the vacuum of

Introduction
Our beloved talking cat, an agile acrobat

his loss, I still quasi-hallucinate him: I haveand tender social being who would jump

the sense every now and again that I see his

onto my desk whenever I was there andshadow outside my studio window wanting tomanaged to create a space to lie down

be allowed into the house after one of his–pushing away whatever paper, pen or

escapades; or I experience him rushing by

stapler was in his way and purr until fallingme in or out when I enter the house. Slowly

asleep--, who would climb into the vane ofand steadily, however, at his own pace andthe window outside my studio and look at memine, he is erasing himself from the world of

while calling imperiously until I would open

the present and into the bittersweet world of

the door, who would follow my wife and I to

the memories of the loved ones.

whatever room we would end up in, parking

What a fascinating process is that transition,himself there sharing the space in goodthat road frequented by so many of our objects

company, was hit by a car and died a monthof love no longer there, inaccessible as theyago, while crossing the street during one ofare to our seeing, hearing, smelling, touchinghis petted, just being there for the sheer joy

and being touched by them but lingering justof incursions into the neighborhood. Weeks

the same for a while. Far from being a
cognitive experience, it is a laborious process

CORRESPONDENCE TO: SLUZKI, Dept Global andin which our senses trick us, probably to help

Community Health George Mason University Fairfax, VA

us learn the painful experience of letting go. 1

22030, USA.

Many friends who lost loved ones describe ae-mail: csluzki@gmu.edu
1

A Pirot version of this article appeared inTranscultural Psychiatry, 45(3): 379-390, 2008.

57

58

SLUZKI

similar process: “I sensed that she/he was there,

The more skin-bound the construction of thethat she/he never left, or had returned”,

self favored by our culture, the more it will

sometimes as a faint hallucination of theirforce us to distinguish between whomever wevoice, or hearing their characteristic footsteps

long and wish to hear, see, touch and embracein the house, smelling a whiff of theiragain, and the vacuum of his or her abence;

preferred perfume, hearing the tingling of theirultimately, between self and the other. The

door keys, “almost” seeing them.

2

spartan dictum of a culture that informs us that

The passage of time may be also a kind and

we are in-dividuals, that the others are “outrelentless healer for, as the traumatic loss

there” and not part of our self, instructs us also

recedes in time, so does the daily imposing

to let go of whatever we cannot retain… andpresence of the absence. One day we discovercontinue with our life. This injunction will bethat we haven’t been tortured by that feeling ofcounter-intuitive to, and clash with, the softer

distress throughout several hours, or that we

injunction emanating from cultures that definelaughed with abandonment at something funny

our self as enveloping others within its–a discovery that may flood us with guilt, as if

perimeter, that give us permission to rebel

that moment of joy or of involvement in ouragainst our letting go of the departed bydaily living would have affronted or betrayedsomehow keeping them with us.

the object of our sorrow.

But that betrayal

The following clinical case will illlustrate thisrepeats itself until we realize that we may bealternative, culture-supported, approach to loss,

able to live a life with at least a modicum ofand some consequences of its cross-cultural

happiness while carrying within us a permanent

clash4.

functional split of the self that may give us theauthorization to re-engage into our capacity for3

joy and creativity .

Clinical presentation
A few years ago, at an outpatient
psychiatric clinic for low income/low-paying

2

The word that comes to my mind when trying to
identify that feeling in its many nuances is theidiosyncraticandperhaps
untranslatable
Portuguese word saudade, derived from the Latin
solitatem, loneliness, and defined as “a feeling of
nostalgic remembrance of people or things, absent
or forever lost, accompanied by the desire to seeor possess them once more" (Correia da Cunha,
1982.)
3
Needless to say, major and prolonged trauma–years in a concentration camp, months ofunending terror —may lead to major splits in ouridentity, creating selves who end up living inparallel, unable to fuse or even to have areas incommon: one moment I am here, with you, afather, a husband, a socially constructive fellow,
and at the next moment I am back there, in theconcentration camp, witnessing myself stealing

insurance patients that I directed within ageneral hospital in California, I was asked tosee a 70 year old bilingual Hispanic (abroad category encompassing people of
Latin American origin living in the UnitedStates) woman, a well-known patient at theclinic. For the past two years she had been
without remorse bread from a dying inmate (cf.
Langer, 1991)
4
While retaining her persona, traits of thepatient’s description have been distorted in orderto preserve her anonymity, in spite of her having
authorized me to write about her.

LOSES AT THE CORE OF THE SELF AND
THE MERITS OF “PORTABLE FAMILIES”

59

seen by a colleague, who asked me to takeMoreau titled “Madonna Guaraní” that I

over her treatment arguing that, due to my

had at home since childhood6.

being bilingual and multicultural, I would be

In order to reduce the chances ofbetter able to connect with her and figure out

contamination –that is, to allow my own

ways to treat her without falling into thebiases to develop rather than incorporating

frequent confrontations that he himself

some colleague’s skews--, I had chosen notexperienced with that patient.

to read her rather thick clinical file prior to

He informed me that this lady –whose

the consultation. So, after some introductory5

improbable first name was Samotracia --social graces, I started from scratch: “Icarried a diagnosis of “atypical chronic

haven’t read the previous notes on yourschizophrenia”, while her symptoms werechart. I will do it later, but, to begin from a

quite

fresh place, in what way, if any, can I be ofimpervious

to

the

neuroleptic

medication she had been taking already forhelp?”

the past several months.

Samotracia began by listing in detail theI accepted the referral. At the appointed

litanytime, in came this rather voluminous

symptoms, from a heart condition to her highMexican-born woman, with marked Aztec

blood pressure to a lingering fatigue (thefacial features, her long white hair combed

latter probably a combined effect of heart

into a bun, a strong and coarse voice,insufficiency, heart medications, and thedragging herself into my office with somefrequent extra-pyramidal effects of thehuffinggreeting me

neuroleptics she had been prescribed.) Her

respectfully while maintaining a rather

daily life followed a rather tight routine –thesymmetrical stance, shifting to Spanish as

highlights being her daily walks in her

soon as I indicated my fluency in thatneighborhood,language.

neighbors, her frequent contact with her

For me --and perhaps for both of us-- itdaughters, and her visits to her various

was, so to speak, empathy at first sight. In

health care practitioners. Her diet was

fact, she reminded me of the rotund andbalanced, she didn’t drink alcohol, and she

and puffing

and

of

her

physicalsomeproblemssocial

life

and

with

tender aboriginal woman that is central in a6mother-and-child engraving by Clement

5

How come such an utterly Greek and rather
unusual insular name was bestowed at birth on
this Mexican-born woman was a mystery not only
for me but also for her: she didn’t have any
satisfactory explanation for why or how herparents, both semi-analphabet peasants, hadchosen that name for her.

The Guaraní were the natives of Paraguay andnortheast Argentina before the Spanish conquest,
and are still a substantial part of that region’s
population. To further reveal for the readersome added roots about my empathic connections
with this woman through the association she
triggered with that engraving, I should add thatmy nanny—the lady who care for me as amother-extender since birth on-- was a sweet
woman of Guaraní origin. A reproduction of theengraving I mention in the text can be found in
Moreau/Meffert 1978, p.242.

60

SLUZKI

took reasonably good care of her health

had four children, and she worked hard both–leaving aside her lack of interest in

to raise her offspring and to make ends meet,

reducing her excessive weight. She was

especially after she separated from her

followedheart

husband, a man whom she described as

insufficiency, which was reasonably wellalcoholic and physically violent during his

controlledandfrequent weekend binges. She continued withpsychiatrically for what she called “nerves,”

a life of sacrifice, raising her kids whileacategory

working steadily cleaning houses until, whenfrequently used by Latinos to encompass a

her bones informed her that her workload

variety of pains and aches of the soul. She

was becoming too heavy and her heart began

would smoke one cigarette after each meal,

to decompensate clinically, she retired. Withand was not ready to let that habit go, “oneherof the few pleasures I still can indulge in.”security income, some minimal savings, andAfter she exhausted her letany of symptoms

the occasional economic help from her two

and this sketchy description of her context,

daughters, she had lived for the past eight

Samotracia’s story began to unfold, not as ayears in a small but pleasant two room

coherent stream but as a series of anecdotes

rented apartment, open to a forest anddelivered in the course of many subsequent

located in a safe neighborhood. She had had

appointments –I saw her for half an hour

four offspring, two males and two females.

once every two weeks during the first three

Both sons had died years ago: one was killed

months and then once a month during a total

in a gang-related shootout during lateof a year, a total of 15 half hours.

adolescence;

She was born and raised in a very small,musician, had died of AIDS at age 33. The

tight knit countryside village in Mexico. Her

two daughters were alive. The older one, an

parents were poor farmers, severe –sheaccountant with a mid-management job in a

described being belted frequently duringlocal firm, lived with her boyfriend in thechildhood-- but reasonably caring. She

same city as her mother. The younger one, aportrayed herself as a rather wild adolescent,police officer, married, doing well in her

who married early and shortly afterwards

career, lived with her family several hours

entered illegally into the United States,

drive from her mother. Both daughters

following her young husband. Both worked

maintained frequent phone contact with theiras braceros, itinerant hired laborers in

mother. The one living nearby had dinnerdifferent harvests, wandering from job to job

with Samotracia once a week, would

until they settled in an agricultural region of

exchange phone calls frequently and was

California, where they were able to legalize

available for emergencies, while carefully

their status as a permanent resident. They

avoiding interfering with her mother’srathermedicallywithblanket

due

to

her

medication,

diagnostic

carefully

managedtheother,

meagerasocialhomosexual

LOSES AT THE CORE OF THE SELF AND
THE MERITS OF “PORTABLE FAMILIES”

treasured autonomy. The only other family

visits they would converse and joke with hermember with whom Samotracia had any

while reassuring her that they were all right.

contact was a sister, who lived in another

Sometimes they would engage in minor

region but with whom she maintained phonemischief just to make her laugh, occasionallycontact once a week. She had a meager“monkey around” and even be a bit

informalofannoying and distracting, especially while

several acquaintances and neighbors, but noshe wanted to watch undistracted some

intimate friends.

television program that caught her interest,

I explored whether she had any religious

so she would end up scolding them to stop

practices, and she explained to me that she

bothering her. But overall they would be

had been raised Catholic, did not attend

loving and respectful of her, “as theyreligious services, but prayed occasionallyshould”, and even tactful so as move toon her own, as she believed in the afterlife inanother room to allow her privacy if she

a rather undefined way. She would joke thatwanted to disrobe in order to take a showersome of her beliefs –such as “brujerias”--

or to put on her nightgown. I exploredwere more in tune with creeds permeating

whether she would see them or just hear

her Mexican peasant origins than with any

them, and she answered “Doctor, most of thesocialnetwork,

consisting

78

7

61

organized religion.

times I can see and hear them as clearly as I

I couldn’t agree more about that assertion,

can see you.” They would only visit her

especially when Samotracia confided to me,

during the evening and at home. She would

after I gained some of her trust, that her two

not need to do anything in particular to(dead) sons visited her rather frequently. In

evoke them in. They just would appear “onfact, beginning several years ago, she told

their own will”, generally after her dinner,me, her sons would appear three or four

sometimes catching her by surprise. She

times a week, in the evening, after dinner,added that, while she would occasionallywhile she was reading or watching television.

mention the visitations to her daughters, she

The first time one of them appeared, shehabitually kept these events to herself, as her

confided, she was startled and terrified, but

daughters would tease her about it.

slowly she got used to these apparitions and,I asked her whether, in her view, they were

in

them

a product of her imagination, ghosts

immensely. The most frequent visitor was thestemming from another dimension, or any

musician, whom, she confessed almost inother explanation. She said that she wasn’t

secret, had been her favorite. During thosesure: they were probably produced by her

fact,

currently

sheenjoyedSamotracia had been raised near El Real delCatorce, San Luis Potosi, a Mexican region
impregnated with Toltec wisdom and shamanism.

imagination… but perhaps not and, she
added quickly, she didn’t want to dwell onthat question because she feared that

62

SLUZKI

excessive probing into it may disturb theserequest, a prescription of a low dosage ofvisits, which she enjoyed and welcomed, evenanxiolytics, which she would take only as

though they were occasionally tainted withneeded –as she did, on a rather conservative

the background sadness of knowing that her

regime that entailed no risk. As predicted,

sons were, of course, dead. And, she added,

the discontinuation of the neuroleptics

she had so many struggles and so much

resulted in the reduction of her physicalsuffering in her life that she felt that her

discomfort and her somnolence, without any

current life, including he two loyal daughters

negative consequence otherwise.

and her access to her sons, was like a

The follow-up therapeutic encounters –that

long-lasting reward… until she would join

were spaced to once-a-month after the firsther boys in the afterlife.

three bi-monthly consultations-- continued

I praised her repeatedly for such a creative

without major incidents during several

way of keeping loved people near her, andmonths. She would attend punctually and in

didn’t probe further on the issue of thegood mood. Our main themes were hermateriality of her sons. I should add that, at

relationship with each of her four children,

the end of the first interview, I discontinued

ways of expanding her social network, theall neuroleptics –both the diagnosis and that

support of her health-oriented regime, and atype of treatment she came with were, in myrevisitation of episodes of her life. The most9view, erroneous --, while maintaining, at her

challenging situation took place when, to her
understandable distress, her landlord told

9

A clinical disquisition. Once excluded fever,
confusion, use of hallucinogenics, severe sensory
impairment such as macular degeneration, anddementia, what Samotracia experienced could beclassified, in the world of Occidental medicine, as
hypnagogic hallucinations, that is, hallucinations
that not infrequently occur in people in thetwilight process of falling asleep (Manford andAndermann,1998; Ohayon et al, 1996).)
However, unlike what is the frequent case withhypnagogic hallucinations, these experienceswere pleasant, expected and enjoyed rather thanfrightening. This trait may places Samotracia
more in the category of
LaBerge’s“oneironauts”, that is, people capable ofself-inducing a state oflucid dreaming( LaBerge and Rheingold, 1997.) In turn, she did
not meet diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia:
beyond hallucinations, she did not display anyother major requisite symptoms, either positive or
negative,–and her hallucinations were strongly
visual rather than predominantly auditory, as is
the case of most hallucinations in schizophrenia;
and she did not present social/occupational
dysfunctions or a story of pervasive
developmental disorder. In sum, she was

her that she was selling the house and that
she would have to vacate her dwelling within
the following three-to-six months –as her
rooms were an integral part of the house,rather than an independent apartment. Her
older daughter accompanied her to thisconsultation

(she

had

joinedtheconsultations a couple of times before, andhad a standing invitation to join us asneeded),quite

concerned

about

this

disturbance in the otherwise calm routinesand steady environment of her mother. andwishing to participate in the discussion about
cognitively, emotionally and socially appropriate
at all times, even in the discussion about her
unusual encounters with her dead sons. Cf. also
Geltman and Chang, 2004.

LOSES AT THE CORE OF THE SELF AND
THE MERITS OF “PORTABLE FAMILIES”

alternatives.

offeredthe blessed visits of her sons, who teased her

Samotracia to rent a larger apartment withgently about characteristics of the new place

the daughter and her boyfriend so that she

as well as her lack of faith in them, until,

could live together. Samotracia, always

following what was a relational routine, she

careful not to become a burden and staking

told them to move away from the television

her own independent space, expressed her

set because she wanted to watch her favorite

appreciation but stated her preference toprogram. She felt at home again.

exploresomeThedaughter63

nearbySpanish-speaking

retirement community that she had heard of

Discussions

through a friend. In fact, during the

Samotracia had been raised in an extended

followingherfamily and a small-town culture where thedaughter visited several places until they

whole surrounding community was in turn avisited a semi-independent senior community

family extender. A good part of that networkthat both Samotracia and her daughter found

was severed when she migrated into the U.S.

satisfactory and a viable option. However,for economic reasons. She then moved fromduring one of the sessions preceding her

place to place for many years, which in turn

move, Samotracia confessed to me that one

made impossible to develop a stable socialof her main worries was whether the new

network (Sluzki, 1998). Hence, Samotracia wasplace was going to be conducive to her sons’living a reasonably solitary life in spite of her

visits – as she put it, “whether the boyssocial nature. The loss of her two sons reduced

would want to keep on coming to visit her

her meaningful family environment by 50%.

there”. I suggested that it would be a good

Nonetheless, somehow she managed to retain aidea to discuss this issue with her sons

thickduring their next and perhaps last visit to herdaughters, loyally attached to her, and with her

old place (I should highlight that for her itsons --a core bond in Latino families (Falicov,

was clear that I assumed that her visitors

1998, p.170-72)--, who visited her almost daily.

were the product of her imagination, andHalf of her surrounding family was composed

there was always some level of complicity

of, so to speak, apparitions. She knew that.

when the theme was touched.) In fact, theHowever, while at one level she was aware that

following evening, she told me later, they

her visiting sons were of her own creation, at

appeared and tried to calm her down, butanother she did not experience them as her

she remained distressed about the issue.

puppets, but as a presence with autonomy,

For better of worse, and considering her

agency and initiative10.

month

Samotracia

andfamilyconnection,

both

with

her

lack of alternatives, she finally moved to her
10

new dwelling. Fortunately, a few days after
her move she received in her new apartment

That important part of her daily life seemed toemerge from a chapter written in the best style ofmagic realism, a scene worthy of “One Hundred
Years of Solitude” (Garcia Marquez, 1991),

64

SLUZKIIt should be highlighted that, far from being aperson, five clinically significant variables havecharacteristic to which Latinos can claim

been described in terms of this experienceexclusivity, this dual inscription in the “out(Person, Cooper and Gabbard, 2005): I. Sense

there” and “in here” world of perceptions andof boundaries between self and others; II.

constructions seems to happen quite frequently

Self-esteem or self-worth; III. Sense ofamong people stemming from a variety ofwholeness and continuity; IV. Genuineness

non-European(degree of meshing between the private and thecountries/cultures,

especiallythose with a sedentary tradition and a low level

public); and V. Sense of agency.

of literacy, currently defined as “developing”

could be added what Alan Roland (cited inrather than “developed” nations. 11 This dual

Falicov, 1998, p.163), named as the “familial

process can be aptly explored through the lensself,” a construct that includes close relations asof Bakhtyn’s (1981) “dialogic theory,” apart of who one is.

worldview where the world is not logically

It would be interesting to analyze Samotracia

divided into reciprocally exclusive categories,

from this perspective. The value of her sons’

butapresence in her life is clear: they allow her to(change-sameness,retain a sense of wholeness and continuity –and

exist

simultaneously

centrifugal-centripetal
loss-retention)isprovide her with the peace that that sense

particularly apt to analyze ways in whichbrings with it. While she maintains a certain

people out of their original socio-culturallevel of awareness that these visitors are theenvironment negotiate their insertion in the new

product of her imagination –and therefore theyland, and go through life’s gains and losses“belong” to her, are part of her self--, shemeshing apparently incompatible worlds andretains a sense of the skin-bound boundaries ofprinciples in their daily life (DeSantis, 2001.)

her self through her interaction with her visitors

From that perspective, it merits asking, where

as external beings. In fact, Samotracia’sis the location of the boundary of Samotracia’s

trepidation to move to a new dwelling derived(experience of) self? Given that it is a constructin part from that experience of the autonomy toessentiallyintra-personal

her apparitions (it is “up to them” to makeepistemology, good part of the early literaturethemselves present), a fear that was congruent

on the self emerged in the psychoanalytic

with her need not to make too obvious (totradition. Taking as point of departure Kohut’sherself? to others?) that she controlled their(1977) description of the self as the cohesivematerialization. And her relief at their “visit”

experience of being that regulates the entire

after her move provided her with the necessaryborndynamics.

inwithin

This

an

lens

To thiswherein reality and fiction intertwine as part of
the real life of the characters in the story
11
Cf. al-Issa’s (1993) lucid discussion on the
cross-cultural basis of the development andthreshold of hallucinations, as well as the clinicalsituation described in Sluzki 2004.

de-coupling between the apparitions and herskin-bound self that would allow her toperceive them as bona fide visitors… while

LOSES AT THE CORE OF THE SELF AND
THE MERITS OF “PORTABLE FAMILIES”

65

knowing at the same time that she was the

not yielding to the daughter’s tendency toagent, that is, that they were her visitors.

overprotect her, as well as how to regulate the7),“visits of her sons” so as to retain periods of

postulates that, in contemporary, postmodern

solitude and privacy that Samotracia enjoyed. I

society, our self constructs and reconstructs

would occasionally treat those scenarios asitself in its interaction with the myriads of“real” with comments along the lines of “These

relations in which we are embedded (he calledboys seem overindulged by you. If they wouldthat self a “strategic manipulator of thebe my kinds, when they do some mischief orenvironment.”) But perhaps this process is notbother me I would scold them and send them tonecessarily only a result of the “saturation of

sit in the corner until they apologize. Otherwise

our contemporary life” but a universal trait inyour spoiling them will end up playing against

the construction and retention of our identity,

your autonomy!” while being aware that shethat becomes more challenging when we

did not believe that I believed that thosebecome immersed in a society where theembodiments were other than the product ofretention of a stable, reliable, close social

her fantasy. However, in other occasions I

milieu becomes difficult, if not impossible.

would treat her visions as such, asking her, for

Further, different cultures prepare us differently

instance, “Do they appear as having the age

to deal with those circumstances, either throughthey had when you last saw them in life, or doretrenching the boundaries of the self… orthey appear as growing older as times passes?”;through conjuring and molding the social(d) revisiting her life and re-historing it in aenvironment as needed.

way that would reconcile her with difficult

The therapeutic endeavor with Samotracia

periods of her past, including suggesting

became for me a careful mixture of (a)“conversations” with her sons about periods ofadmiring her creation of a “portable family”

their life in which she thought she had been athat completed her family cocoon and allowed

less-than-perfect mother; and (e) facilitating

her to receive the modicum of love, connection

and stimulating the development of new socialand devotion she needed to remain nourished inconnections beyond her meager current one –inan otherwise socially impoverished world; (b)which the health and mental health services

treating

playedGergen(1991,

her

especiallyrespectfully,

chapterthroughnotanimportant

role,

with

the

legitimizing the physicality of her visitors –sheinconvenience that it may require the presence

would have felt infantilized by that--norof symptoms to access it. In fact, her new

disqualifying it –she would have felt alienateddwelling ended up becoming an interesting newfrom me; (c) involving her four offspring inresource for her, as it was mainly populated bydiscussions about family issues, including very

Latinopragmatic discussions on how to avoid

acquaintances with whom she progressively

alienating Samotracia’s older daughter whiledeveloped a closer friendship.

women,

includingacoupleof

66

SLUZKIAs therapy evolved, I also became without a

1-10.

doubt an important member of her personal

Falicov, C. J. (1998). Latino Families insocial network. Visiting me as she did twice

Therapy: A Guide to Multicultural Practice.

and then once a month was one of the

New York, Guilford.

highlights of her social life, and understanding

Garcia Marquez, G. (1991). One Hundred Yearseach other within the frame of her history madeof Solitude. New York, Harper-Collins.

the conversation easy and, well, familiar. The

Geltman, D. & Chang G. (2004). Halluciations

happy coincidence of her moving to a newindwelling in which sociality was facilitatedpreliminary investigation. General Hospitalmade my own having to leave that city soon

Psychiatry, 26(2): 153-7.

after that –transferring her care to anotherGergen, K. J. (1991). The Saturated Self:

Spanish-speaking therapist who agreed toDilemmas of Identity in Contemporary Life.

follow the same general line in therapy, andNew York, Basic Books.

discontinuing the treatment-- more tolerable.

Kohut, H. (1977). The Restoration of the Self.

Having moved geographically many miles

New York, International Universities Press.

from the region where Samotracia lives, I hope

LaBerge, S. & Rheingold S (1997):. Exploringthat I am somehow visiting her occasionally,

the World of Lucid Dreaming. New York,and that those visit evoke in her some tender

Ballantine Books.

feelings, as she has done in me through visiting

Langer, L. L. (1991). Holocaust Testimonies:

me in this article.

The Ruins of Memory. New Haven, Yale

Latinopsychiatricoutpatients:

A

University Press.
References

Manford & Andermann (1998). Complex visual

Al-Issa, I. (1995). The illusion of reality or thehallucinations. Clinical and Neurobiologicalreality of illusion: Hallucinations and culture.

insights. Brain, 121(10), 1819-1840.

The

Menjivar,

BritishJournalof

Psychiatry,C.

(2002).

Fragmented

Ties:

166:368-373.

Salvadoran Immigrant Nertworks in America.

Bakhtin, M. (1981). The Dialogic Imagination:

Berkeley, University of California Press.

Four Essays. Austin, University of Texas

Moreau. C. & Meffert, C. (1978). Clément

Press.

Moreau / Carl Meffert: Grafik für den

Correia Da Cunha A. (1982). Dicionario

Mitmenschen. Berlin, Neue Gesellschaft fűr

Etimologico Nova Fronteirabildende Kunst.

da Lingua

Portuguesa. Rio de Janeiro, RJ: Editora Nova

Ohayon. M.M., Priest, R. E. G., Caulet, M. &Fronteira.

Guilleminault.

(1996).

DeSantis, A.D. (2001). Caught between two

hypnopompic

hallucinations:wolds: Bakhtin’s dialogism in the exile

phenomena? British Journal of Psychiatry

experience. Journal of Refugee Studies, 14(1):169: 459-467.

Hyponagogic

andpathological

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THE MERITS OF “PORTABLE FAMILIES”

Person, E.S., Cooper, A.M., & Gabbard, G.O.
(2005).

Textbookof

Psychoanalysis.

Washington, American Psychiatric Press.
Rosenbaum, F. & Freedman, M. (1987). Visual
hallucinations in sane people: Charles Bonnet
syndrome. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
and Neurology, 35, 66-68.
Sluzki,C.E.

(1998).

Migration

and

the

disruption of the social network, chapter in
McGoldrick, M. ed. In: Re-Visioning Family
Therapy: Race, Culture and Gender in
Clinical Practice. New York, Guilford Press(2nd Edition 2007, in press).
Sluzki, C.E. (2004). A house taken over by
ghosts: Culture, migration and developmental
cycle in a Moroccan family invaded byhallucinations. Families, Systems and Health,22(3):321-37.

67

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.1, 68-77<Review Paper>

Brief Therapy Practice in Japan from 1998 to 2008
-Trends and Future ProspectNorimasa Itakura1), Kohei Sato2), and Editorial Committee of Interactional Mind1)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

2)

Teacher Training Center, Yamagata University

ABSTRACT. In this study, we reviewed 49 articles (66 cases) of Brief Therapy practice published in Japan from 1998 to 2008.
Main focus of this study was to examine the trend of Brief Therapy practice in Japan with the cases classified according to theamount of total sessions, clients’ symptoms and major complaints. We also investigated the application of Brief Therapy techniqueto consult with other professionals, and to single session therapy and eclectic psychotherapy. Moreover, we reviewed Brief Therapy
technique applied by other professionals. Finally, we discussed future prospects.
KEY WORDS: brief therapy, case study, review

Introduction

session and eclectic psychotherapy. Moreover,In recent years, Brief Therapy has been widely

we reviewed Brief Therapy technique applied

used in psychotherapy setting. However,by other professionals.

researchers have not examined Brief Therapy
practices in Japan. Therefore, we reviewed

A trend of Brief Therapy

Brief

The total amount of published papers

Therapycases,

which

have

been

published in Japan from 1998 to 2008. The total

We presented the total amount of publishedamount of publications are 49 articles (66paper from 1998 to 2008 at Figure.1.

1)cases) . Main focus of this study was toComparatively, many case studies had been

examine trend of Brief Therapy practice inpublished from 1999 to 2003. However, theJapan with the cases classified according to theamount of publication has been decreased after

total amount of sessions, clients’ symptom and2003.

major complaints. We also investigated theapplication of Brief Therapy technique toconsult with other professionals, and single

CORRESPONDENCE TO: ITAKURA, Graduate School of
Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi, Aoba-ku,
Sendai-city, 980-8576, Japan.

Figure 1. The amount of published papere-mail: 1takura313@gmail.com

from 1998 to 2008

68

BRIEF THERAPY PRACTICE IN JAPAN FROM 1998 TO 2008

69

Total sessions

psychogenic symptoms, effectiveness of the

Next, we sorted out the publications by theparadox technique has been reported (Aoki ettotal amount of sessions at Figure 2. Most cases

al, 2000; Wakashima, 1998; Wakashima et al,

were finished less than 10 sessions. Moreover,

1999; Wakashima et al, 2000).

certain amount of cases was finished withFor example, Wakashima (1998) reported thesingle session.

case of alopecia. Client (CL) worried about
ruminative thought.

25

Wakashima

20(1998)

presented

to

CL a

15

paradoxical intervention that “to try to think

10

thoroughly”. In the case of olfactory reference

5

syndrome (Wakashima et al, 2000), CL were0

asked to observe the time when others noticed
that he had bad breath.
Figure 2. Total amount of sessions

Aoki et al. (2000) reported the case of
washing compulsion. The intervention for CL

Major Complaints

was to continue to wash his hand.

Figure 3 showed the publications by major

Hirose (2000) reported a therapy with mothercomplaints. In the following analysis, weand child. Child had a special phobia. In thespecifically examined the session process andsessions, Hirose (2000) presented a framework

the intervention by major symptom andthat the symptom of the child was existed forcomplaint. We limited to examine the major"the unity of the family". Hirose (2000)’s

complaints that had been introduced more thanintervention aimed to associate the problem of

4 cases. In addition, we examined the cases thatthe child with family relations.

were treated with Brief Therapy technique.

In addition, Brief Therapy was applied withmuscle relaxation method and "Dohsa-hou"2)

Neuroses and psychogenetic symptoms

for a psychogenic physical symptoms (Makino,

As interventions towards neuroses and the2006;

Miyata,2003;

Nakanishi,

2004;

Takahashi, 2000).
25

Makino (2006) reported the case that CL was

20
15

obsessively worried about urination. Makino

10(2006) utilized an "externalizing" technique by

5

0naming CL’s symptom of the pollakiuria.
This intervention was practiced in line withphysical intervention, muscle relaxation.
Nakanishi (2004) has reported the case that CL
Figure 3. The complaints

wasextremely

tense.

Nakanishi(2004)

70

ITAKURA et al.

conducted Solution Focused Therapy toward

Kondo (2004) has reported the case that a

CL after making CL physically relaxed byfemale student worrying about her insufficienthaving muscle relaxation method.

food intake. Kondo (2004) asked her to observe
the time when she could eat food exceptionally.

School refusal and Withdrawal

In addition, Kondo (2004) asked her to record

Ito et al. (1999) proposed for parents to work

own feeling after a meal and the time when she

together on child’s school refusal. This

could eat food which she could have not eatenintervention led to parental coalition that was

before.

the major factor for solving the problem. In thecase of Wakashima et al (2000), school refusal

Victim support and Crisis interventionof daughter was improved by reframing

Murakami (2001) reported the therapy toward

treatment. They introduced the framework of

a victim of sexual harassment. He proposed two"shyness" toward a gruff attitude of father, andinterventions; 1) to continue what she had beenof "loneliness" toward a rigid attitude of mother.

doing because her answer to scaling questions

The aim of this treatment was to reconstructthat the situation improved from negative 100

marital relationship.

to 0, 2) to observe the time when she did not

Wakashima & Yoshida (2006) reported thesuffer from fear of assailant and how she

effectiveness of “do different approach” forbehaved at that time.

school refusal and domestic violence. They

Massaki et al (2008) conducted a therapy

aimed to change the vicious circle that parents

toward a victim of arson by older brother.

tried to teach IP not to behave violently. The

Therapists aimed to return CL to a normal life.

intervention for parents was to express their

CL criticized his father because father did notpleasure to child when IP was in good mood.

attempt to talk about his brother. Therapists

After the intervention, both school refusal andpresented the framework that father did notdomestic violence had been improved.

want CL to worry any more. Hence, father had
never talked about his brother.

Eating disorders

Massaki et al (2008) also reported the case

Saito et al. (2005) introduced the case of a

toward a victim of robbery. He shed a light ondaughter with eating disorder (IP). He had

CL’s existed exceptions and asked CL to set

sessions only with IP’s mother. He presented

realistic goals. In addition, he worked on

three interventions for the family; 1) not to talkphysical relaxation by hypnosis.

about meal and ,instead of that, talk about

Kondo (2004) conducted a therapy to CL withfather’s mistakes, 2) to give IP the birthday

hypnosis. In the sessions, Kondo (2004)

present from father, 3) to convey IP a message

complimented the part that CL had alreadyfrom mother that father felt lonely because heworked out well.

did not have contact with IP.

BRIEF THERAPY PRACTICE IN JAPAN FROM 1998 TO 2008

71

Characteristic utilization of Brief Therapy

utilized Brief Therapy techniques. (Arikado,

Brief Therapy for consultation

1999; Ichikawa & Miyazaki, 1999; Kaku, 2002;

Brief Therapy was utilized as consultation in

Satake, 2000).

school settings (Tsugawa, 2003; Yoshida &Arikado (1999), a high school teacher,

Wakashima, 2005).

reported the case of a school refusal student. He

Yoshida & Wakashima (2005) reported themade home visits to intervene the problem. He

consultation with mother of a boy withconveyed positive messages toward the student.

psychogenic fever and school nurse of his

He also worked on the interaction between

school. The intervention for mother was not toparents of the students. As the result of thetalk with her child about his physical conditioninterventions, the amount of school absenceor fever but talk about television. On the otherhad been decreased.

hand, Yoshida & Wakashima (2005) asked the

Ichikawa and Miyazaki (2002) reported theschoolnurse

rock-paper-scissors,

to

play

with

the

"janken”,
boycase of junior high school students. The

beforeinterventions were aimed to elicited existing

passing a thermometer to him. Boy’s symptom

resources. The treatments were practiced withhad been improved after the interventions.

study support in educational counseling setting.
Sasatake (2000), a family court probation

Single session Brief Therapy

officer, reported the case of male juvenile

There have been Brief Therapy cases finisheddelinquent, who conducted violence towards

with single session (Omae, 2000, Ichikawa,teachers. He applied the scaling question

2000 Uda, 1999).

toward the boy to change his image of teachers.

Omae (2000) reported Brief Therapy cases

In addition, Kaku et al (2002), psychiatrists infinished with single-session. One of Omae’s

general hospital, introduced the framework that(2000) CL was a mother of male truant, who

the symptoms of a patient as "a physicalcomplained about the classroom teacher of her

disease". As the result of intervention, patientson. The other CL was female junior highhad become to see own symptoms as

school student, who had trouble with friends

manageable.

and with attending class because of abdominal

Furthermore, Oshita (2003), a social worker,

pains. One treatment was to evaluate the way infocused on patient’s existing exceptional

which CL had coped with the problem. Omae

behaviors. The aim of the intervention was to(2000) also worked to normalize the CL’schange from negative self-concept of the

problem and to encourage CL to be optimistic

patient

for future.

problem-solving behaviors of the patient.

Utilization by other professionals

Utilization in eclectic psychotherapy

There have been cases that other professionals

Ando (2003) reported the effectiveness of SFA

to

more

positive

and

to

stop

ITAKURA et al.

72(Solution

Focusedapproach)withintervention was to ask CL to work differently

Rational-emotive behavior therapy to work on

on the problem.

an irrational belief of CL.

In addition, Hanada et al. (2001) reported theKim (2005) showed the effectiveness of thecase with CL who had incestuous affairs with

SFA techniques for a battered child withfather. Hanada et al. (2001) applied theemotional disturbance. In the beginning of the

problem- interaction model for this case.

sessions,

therapy.

Problem-interaction model has been proposed

Subsequently, he utilized play in the therapy asbased on the findings from basic research. Ina treatment based on SFA.

this case, a problem for CL was not to have a

Baba et al. (2002) applied SFA techniques toconversation with father about incest. Hanada

conduct psycho-education for patients of eating

et al (2001) utilized a tool of writing a letter todisorders and their family in group work

talk about the incest with father. Writing a letter

setting.

requiredNakanishi (2004) conducted a SFA based

conversation in face-to-face situation.

therapy toward the student who had an

Wakashima et al. (2000) has proposed Speedirrational belief that "my friend should alwaysof Information Recurrence model, a new

be happy". As the result of the treatment, theframework in system theory. The model

student had noticed the idea as irrational.

involves time concept on the systems theory.

Nakajima (2002) reported the cases attempted

Moreover, Brief Therapy based home visit

to integrate SFA with Transactional Analysis

approach has been reported for truant students

and Redecision Therapy.

(Yoshida et al, 2003).

heconducted

play

less

interaction

thanhavinga

Yoshida et al. (2003) reported the practice of
Proposing new theoretical frameworks andthe Mental Communication Research (MCR)

psychological support systemproject, which worked on truant students andAs a new framework for Brief Therapy

the family. Yoshida et al. (2003) maintained

practice, there has been proposed Doublethat it is effective to support truant students

Description Model (DDM) that integrates thewith Solution Teacher, home teacher for truant

BFTC model and the MRI model (Wakashima

students. Solution Teacher works on study

et al., 2000).

support of truant students and enhances

Wakashima et al. (2000) reported the case that

self-affirmation of the truant student by

was treated in this framework. The client

complimenting them. In the practice of thesuffered from panic attacks. During the sessions,

MCR project, there are also approaches

Wakashima et al. (2000) had trouble to findtowards parents of truant students. MCR

exceptions

Therefore,

Consultants conducted therapy for parents. The

Wakashima et al (2000) turned to paradoxical

aim of conducting therapy with the parents is toapproach,enhance

for

the

CL’s

MRI

problem.

framework.

The

parents’

self-affirmation

and

to

BRIEF THERAPY PRACTICE IN JAPAN FROM 1998 TO 2008

improve marital relationship.

73

SFA have an effect for crisis intervention
including the victim support. SFA has been

Discussions

widely utilized in an individual therapy setting

In this study, we reviewed 49 articles (66where the focus of the sessions is CL’s own

cases) of Brief Therapy practice published inproblem. We can imply that it is effective toJapan from 1998 to 2008. Given that findings

empower CL by focusing on the existingfrom examination, we can indicate suggestions

exceptions．

for Brief Therapy practices.

Next, the Brief Therapy framework had beenFirst, we can suggest the effectiveness of

widely utilized as consultation technique inparadoxical intervention for neurotic symptoms,

school settings. It is necessary for therapists

especially obsession and anticipatory anxiety.

working in school to give concrete advises to

Anticipatory

moreteachers. Consultations based on the Brief

the

Therapy framework are useful to provide

paradox technique was effective to solve thecoping method to problem because Brief

problem because the treatment provides CL the

Therapy practice allows teachers to findsense of control toward the symptom.

concrete goals.

As for the case of school refusal, theThe utilization of SFA is reported for most of

examinationthethe single-session therapy cases, and the cases

effectiveness of work with the other family

applied Brief Therapy Technique by the othermembers rather than truant student directly. It isprofessionals. Especially, searching existing

especially effective to have sessions only withexceptions had been commonly applied thethe other family members when IP is notcases finished with single-session．

motivated to visit therapy sessions.

We can argue that SFA might also be a

In addition, it might be a key factor to

productive approach in the settings of telephonestrengthenforcounseling and child guidance centers. Because

improving school refusal. Application of themost therapy is finished with single session inframework of MRI (Mental Research Institute)

those settings.

model is also recommended in the case of that

SFA is mainly utilized when applying Brief

IP is difficult to participate in the therapy.

Therapy with other therapy framework. Since,As

psychosomatic

it is easier to focus on and utilize the existing

symptoms, the physical approach such aschanges rather than other treatment strategies.

muscleTherefore, SFA can be fit with other therapy

anxietyproblem-solving

for

of

the

generates

behaviors.

thisstudy indicatesmaritalintervention

relaxation

Therefore,

relationship

to

works

on

effectively.

Therapist has better to work on physicalframework.

symptoms in Brief Therapy framework rather

Moreover, studies of Yoshida et al. (2003)

than the problem that is difficult to control andsuggest visit help to the truancy was efficient.

change.

Recently, truant students have not always been

74

ITAKURA et al.

required to return to school because it has beenCounseling Science, 36, 68-80.

common for truant students to go to adaptation

Aoki, T .,Kaku, Y., Wada, K & Watanabe, Y.

class, free school, and correspondence course(2000). Brief Therapy using married couple

school. Because of the social structure change,

toschool refusal and social withdrawal might(Kyohaku-sei syougai ni taisuru fufu wo

have been more prolonged than before. Itriyoushita brief therapy). Japanese Journal ofshould not be limited to have sessions in

Brief Psychotherapy, 9, 96-105.

counseling room to support CL but, as home

Arikado, H. (1999). The MRI approach tovisit, we should be more flexible to work on the

Family Therapy in a School Teacher’s Home

problem in Brief Therapy framework.

visits: A Case of School Refusal with Paint

In addition, Hanada et al. (2001) showed theThinner Abuse. The Japanese Journal of

possibility to apply basic research findings to

School Counseling, 2, 1-4.

clinical practice. Basic research can provide theBaba, A., Kobayashi, S., Tatsuta, N., Oba, M. &validity and its reliability of the interventions

Ito,

for clinical practices and would promote to

Psychoeducation

make revisions of existing framework andJapanese Journal of Family Therapy, 19(2),generate new therapy framework.

155-161.

There have still been limited numbers of Brief

Hanada, R., Ikuta, M. & Wakashima, K.

Therapy cases published in Japan. Therefore,(2001). Psychotherapy for Client Complaining

future studies should examine Brief Therapyofpractice in the other countries to find moreIntervention by Problem-Interaction Model.

amounts of effective interventions.

Psychosomatic Medicine, 5, 287-292.

obsessiveJ.

Variouscompulsive(2002).
forProblems:

disorderSolution-Oriented
EatingDisorder.

Diagnosis

andHirose, H. (2000). Development of Fatherhood
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International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.1, 78-82<Original Paper: Practice>

Brief Therapy for Parents of a College Student Not Attending School:
Interactive Perspectives of Narrative and Structure
Choichiro Saito1), Naohisa Tahara2), and Mieko Mori3)
1)

Tokyo Metropolitan University Graduate School

2)

Tokyo Seitoku University Graduate School

3)

Healthcare Corporation Seiwa-Kai Asai Hospital

ABSTRACT. The present case study reports the process of consultation to parents of a student who were not attending college. In
addition, it examines the significance of sessions that address the possibility for the treatment system to create a vicious cycle inworking on school non-attendance by dealing with parents’ narrative and the relational structure for coping which are in interactive
relationship. The present case demonstrated the importance of supporting parental problem solving behavior by assessing thecommunication problem.
KEY WORDS: narrative and structure, brief therapy, not attending school, college students

Problem

consultation to parents of a student who were

A number of college students, in addition to

not attending college. In addition, it examines

elementary and junior high school students, arethe significance of sessions that address the

not attending schools or attending only poorly.

possibility for the treatment system to create a

Developmentally, this is a period when one

viciouscycle

inworkingonschooldeals with such themes as establishment of

non-attendancebydealingwithparents’

self-identity and career choice (Seki & Sakata,narrative and the relational structure for coping1983), it is conceivable that values concerningwhich are in interactive relationship.

college are part of the background of
non-attending students. On the other hand,

Case Summery

secondary(Adapted without departing from the essence)

communication

problems

that

non-attendance poses to the student and his or

Clients: father (“Fa”) and mother (“Mo”).

her family can remain similar even when the

Chief Complaint: non-attendance of the son

student is in college.

who is a college student (“IP”).
Referral: Parents were referred by a university

CORRESPONDENCE TO: SAITO, Graduate School ofcounselor to counseling agency of the writers.

Humanities,

Counseling Structure: Approximately once aTokyo

Metropolitan

University,

1-1

Minami-Osawa, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo, 192-039, Japan

month, 50 minutes each. Two consultantse-mail: cho16@cameo.plala.or.jp(“Co”) conducted the sessions.
Family Structure78

BRIEF THERAPY FOR PARENTS OF A COLLEGE STUDENTNOT ATTENDING SCHOOL

Fa:business

employee;Mo:

79businesswhich he declined her invitation to go for a ride

employee; older sister: business employee; IP:

to chat on the way. Fa reported that while hecollege student; younger sister: high school

had questioned in strong language what IP had

student.

intended to do, he had also given him a letter inProcess at College Leading to Referrala soft tone that life was not only about school,

After starting college, guidance was provided

but that IP should not cause the members of his

by a faculty member due to repeated poor

seminar trouble.

attendance in the first year.

#2 September, Year X

Guidance wasprovided in the second year due to difficulty in

It had turned out that IP was not attending

attaining the junior status based on the credits

classes although he would answer, “I’ll go,”earned by the first term. Despite friends’

and “OK, OK,” to Fa when he was asked what

encouragement, attendance was not sustained.

he was going to do with college. Fa reported

Juniorforthat IP did not have a sense of emergency.

consideration of those around him, but since theEven when the parents asked him out, IP would

university could no longer reach IP, it contacted

not come.

his parents in June. IP did not express theIt appeared to Co that there was a vicious

reason for poor attendance, leaving thecycle in communication that could be described

university unable to provide intervention. To

as “IP’s problem becomes serious → parents

the university counselor, IP talked about

approach him → IP avoids. ” Hence, Co

communication problems in the family, stating

commended the parents for the ideas that theythat his parents were never home, they did not

had tried to talk to him and gave the Surprise

eat meals together or prepare meals for him, he

Assignment (Hasegawa & Wakashima, 2002)

had little conversation with them, and that heintended to Do Different (Hasegawa, 1987) bywanted to leave home as soon as possible.

asking that ＜ Fa and Mo do something tostatuswasbarelygrantedsurprise IP. It does not matter what.＞Counseling Progress#3-4 October, Year X(＜＞signifies a statement by Co)

Conversation based on the Go Slow Paradox#1 July, Year X(Hasegawa

It was reported that IP had entered his

exchanged, including Co saying, ＜ I don’t

university with reluctance, and the past

think that there have been any notable change

non-attendance was discussed. Recently, he had

to IP in this short period, but is there anythinga life in nocturnal lifestyle, spending much timethat has changed since the last session?＞ Inin playing games.

regard to the Surprise Assignment, it was＜What have you tried so far to deal with it?＞reported that the parents had made a surprise

Mo reported communication difficulty between

visit at IP’s part-time work. Co commended

the parents and IP, for example, an instance inthem for that and suggested them to continue to&Wakashima,

2002)

was

SAITO et al.

80

work on the Surprise Assignment wheneverconsidering the balance with the required

possible.

credits in college. Consequently, according to#5 November, Year X

the parents, IP was again not going to theContinuation of the part-time work anduniversity. He had been staying up late and notcontinued conversations between the parents

waking up in the morning.

and IP during the rides to and from the work

Fa’s narrative, such as “You are not motivated,”

were reported. Fa said about his attitudes withand “This has to stop,” suggested a structure in

optimism, “I can refrain from telling him what

which the current state was conceptualized andto do. I am now able to watch IP calmly. The

attempted to resolve solely based on IP’s

important thing is to mentally support andmotivation. Thus, the need was discussed forwatch. We are growing together with our son.”the parents to communicate without implying to

Co stated a prediction, ＜As is often the case

IP that he ought to generate motivation on his

with adolescents, it might be difficult toown. Co suggested, ＜Perhaps he is not able tomaintain a good condition through events such

go to sleep until early morning because of someas receiving not so great grades on tests andphysical conditions rather than a mere lack offailing to pass onto the next grade year. How

motivation. ＞

To address one of such

would you deal with these?＞ Co suggested toconditions,provided psycho-education＜prepare hypothetical conversational tools in

about the message function of a parental

case of termination of the part time job.＞

proposal to IP to utilize sleep medicine.

#6-8 December-March, Year X+1#10-11 May-June, Year X+1

It was reported that IP had told the parents that

Parents reported handing over-the-counter

he had found what he wanted to do after

sleep medicine to IP. IP did not use it, but

graduating from college. Also reported wereacknowledged that he had been playing games

that IP had increased his hours at the part time

when he could not go to sleep.

work and that conversations between the

He was going to his part-time work but not toparents and IP were going smoothly.

college, and it appeared that the parents were in

Fa planned and carried out a trip abroad withstalemate. Because Co could only imagine what

IP, performing the Surprise Assignment. Fa

IP had in mind from parents’ reports, Co wrote

reported that he had learned during the trip thata letter to IP that it would not move forward

IP could be considerate toward others andwithout his cooperation and invited him to

renewed his view of IP. Co praised Fa forcome to a session with his parents.

performing the assignment.

#12 July, Year X+1#9 April, Year X+1*With IP attending

It

had

turnedoutthatobtainingCotheThe first half of the session was conducted

qualification that was needed to perform whatwith IP only. IP directly stated his sentiments,

IP wanted to do was not very realistic

such as that he did not have anything he wanted

BRIEF THERAPY FOR PARENTS OF A COLLEGE STUDENTNOT ATTENDING SCHOOL

81

to do although he wished he had, he did notthey could join him at his pace and that they

enjoy college and he enjoyed his work more, hewould provide suggestions and assistance, but

did not want to take a leave of absence frombasically he would be on his own. Fa hadcollege, he could study if needed but did not

become able to state that the communication

feel like he could work hard, and that hehad been gradually improving, the trip abroad

wanted to withdraw from college and work

had helped, and that they would be able to deal

more for the time being. He also stated that thatwith problems to some extent. It was confirmed

was difficult to tell his parents.

that counseling could be resumed as needed,

IP’s thoughts and feelings were shared withand the case was terminated.

the parents in the parents-child joint session.
In the parents-only session, Fa stated that IP

Discussions

had gained self-confidence from his part-time

Structure of Problem Solving in the Family andjob and that it was ok to be not sure.

NarrativeMo

stated that she actually wanted him to go, but if

In the present case, the following structural

he would not go, she would accept that.

change and related narrative development were

#13 September, Year X+1

observed (Table 1). In this case, the structure of*Only parents attending

parents-child

It was reported that IP was not attending

problem-solving and parental narrative seemed

college, but he had added another part-time job,

to affect each other as above. Parental narrativeand had been talking about colleagues at work.

about IP fluctuated between affirmation andTermination of the counseling was discussed

negation, and suggested an interrelationshipafter that session.

with the structure. Therefore, Co provided＜There will be various problems with IP in theintervention at the structure, while paying

future. How would you feel about dealing withattention to the narrative. It appeared necessary

them based on the previous experience?＞

to facilitate sessions based on the background

The parents answered that it would be great if

structure as well as the parental narrative

relationshipregarding

Table.1 Strucutural Change and Narrative Development〔Parents intervene at the last moment→IP gives a stopgap response〕『I am now able to watch IP calmly』or『What am I going to do if he couldn’t graduate in four years?』↓〔Become able to maintain contact consistently〕↓〔Contact with Fa becomes strong〕↓〔Communication stalemate concerning college〕↓〔Speculate IP’s inner side and give meaning to his motivation〕『Not motivated』↓〔Apply previous problem solving〕
Note. 〔〕represents structure『』represents narrative

SAITO et al.

82
concerning non-attendance at school.

References

Parent-Co Systems Perspective in Addressing

Hasegawa,

School Non-Attendance

constructivism.Tokyo: Saikosyobo.

Because in dealing with the problem of school

Hasegawa, K. & Wakashima, K. (2002). Family

non-attendance, treatment system that presumes

Therapy,changes in IP sometimes creates a vicious cycle,

Therapy from Case Studies. Tokyo: Kaneko

the Go Slow Paradox was introduced between

Shobo.

sessions. By sharing the assumption that

Seki, J., &changes to school attendance rarely occur, otherCollege Students. Tokyo: Yuhikakusensho.

kinds

in

Shima, S., Kano, T., Kitamura, T. 1985.

parent-child relationship, were discussed in theDevelopment of CES-D Japanese Version.

sessions. In addition, relapse of the problem(Atarashi Yokuutsusei jiko hyouka shiki

was expected, and what could be done prior to

shakudo nitsuite). Psychiatry, 27, 717-723.

ofchanges,

includingthose

relapse was discussed.
The present case demonstrated the importanceof

supporting

parental

problemsolvingbehavior by assessing the communication
problem, including the counseling system, thatis affected by IP’s school non-attendance.

K.

Brief

(1987).

Therapy,

ParadoxandandNarrative

Sakata, K. 1983 Psychology ofInternational Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.1, 83-87<Original Paper: Practice>

Use of Solution Focused Approach in Support for Re-employment
Makoto Shiino1)
1)

Graduate School of Psychology, Rissho University

ABSTRACT. In this study, I discuss the effectiveness of solution focused approach in support for re-employment through the case.
The client in this case hoped for re-employment while feeling the social anxiety and lost confidence from the unemployment
experience of happening one after another. In this case, therapist expanded the solved image the client told. That was empowerment
leading to re-employment. The client has begun to imagine actuality different from now through a miracle question. This talk was
expanded by the method with the effective humor. That promoted the client talking solved images. That was "Hope and possibility"
in the job-hunting for the client. That supported client's re-employment. It is suggested that it is effective to use solution focused
approach in support for re-employment.
KEY WORDS : solution focused approach, support for re-employment, solution building r, miracle question, utilization

Problem and purpose

orientation to present and the future"(Berg &It said that it's difficult that we achieve ego

Miller, 1992).

identity by diversification of a sense of values

There is "Miracle question" in one of theand a cause of depression, internationalizationquestions that turn eyes of the client from "Pastand becoming highly information-oriented. And

and problem" in the direction of "Future andit's difficult to be aware of the work to wish,

solution", and it is assumed that it is the mostand it's also difficult to be engaged in the work

important

to wish.

approach (Berg & Miller, 1992). Because the

In a working environment of such modern

client turns feelings in the future, the client cansociety, we have to choose a turn and a new

be transformed from the image of painful life toroute according to the situation.

theThe psychological support in re-employment"Empowerment". It is most important present

is charged with the important role in such

"Vision of hope and the possibility" from themodern society. In the solution focused

therapist to the client (Berg & Miller, 1992).

approach, there is a principle "Strong

Then, the purpose of this study was to have

image

question

of

in

good

solution

life.

It

focusedbecomes

examined the effectiveness of solution focused
CORRESPONDENCE TO: SHIINO, Graduate School ofapproach

that

Psychology, Rissyo University, 4-2-16 osaki, Shinagawaku,

through the case.

supported

re-employment141-8602, Japan.

Outline of this casee-mail: miraclec@hotmail.co.jp

The client of this case was 27-year-old woman.

83

84

SHIINO

After graduating from a college of gardening,

positively alive. I'm not doing anything to

she got a job in a plant shop. She worked there

improve myself. "for 3 years. However, she retired independently

The therapist said. “You notice, " I'm notbecause the working condition had deteriorated

doing anything to improve myself ". You try toby the store amalgamation. Afterwards, she got

improve yourself. Therefore, you came here fora job in the clerical work for social stability.

the counseling. You are not "Person who is not

However, she was made to retire by financial

doing anything to improve” already.

difficulties of the company (work years about

The therapist did such a reframing, and ended

one year). Next, she got a job in the clericalthe counseling first time.

work of another company. However, thecompany went bankrupt by the scandal of the＜♯2 200X.7.＞

company, and she became the unemployed

Two weeks later from last time

(work years about one year).

She reported the job hunting to find

Afterwards, she got a job in the clerical work.

employment in the clerical work. Therapist

However, she was made to be going to retire in

accepted and asked her "How did you work forthree months (probation). She appealed for thea long time at a plant shop? (Than otherwaning confidence to a full-time employment

workplaces)" "By what kind of motive did youin the current experience though she understoodquit the plant job and take a clerical job?”. She

the importance of getting to a full-time

said "I felt worth doing and the pleasure in

employment. And she wished the part-time

plant work. But when I consulted a friend, theemployment and the part-time job.

friend said “Plant work is unstable, the work of

She felt the conflict, the remorse, and thea clerical job is stable".

self-loathing.

And therapist expanded an image in a last
miracle question according to her work. Then

Passage of this counselingshe said "I'd work with commitment and pride"＜♯１ 200X.7.＞"I'd look for work besides the clerical job

She felt that the interpersonal relationship in

happily" "I don't have to be able to earn muchthe office was difficult because confidence hadmoney" "I think it was such feeling relatively

been lost by the resignation that happened one

when working at a plant store". Therapist gave

after another. She felt the damage feeling thatthe task which "inflates the image whichsurrounding people thought her to be hateful.

became happy" for her (She named this task"

The therapist accepted her and did the miracledelusion talk" while including the positive

question. Then, she said " I will be holding out

meaning). Therapist also gave more task

to something. I will become all-out the"observing myself carrying on job hunting of a

improvement of me like work, study, andclerical job" for her.

beauty, etc. I will be such a person who isUSE OF SOLUTION FOCUSED APPROACH
IN SUPPORT FOR RE-EMPLOYMENT

85＜♯3 200X.7.＞

town.

Two weeks later from last time

Therapist noticed that there are training in 3

She reported "I applied for work of traditional

months and a guidance period to do this work.

arts and crafts and work of forestry, it was

Therapist recommended her to enter for the

declined because of lack of experience andwork. The aim of therapist was that she hasallergy". She said "I noticed from a last task.

guidance of the interpersonal relationship she

The clerical job is stable, but technicaldoesn't like from a professional of service for 3

technology of a clerical job is also requested. A

months. Therapist advised her to have the job

clerical job isn't the work fit for me finding

interview which relaxed.

only the stability. The work I desire needs aneffort. And it's serious until that becomes stable.

＜♯6 200X.8.＞

But I'd like to be the latter. I'd like to do the

Two weeks later from last time

work to feel a heart". Therapist gave task for

She said "Though it was a job interview, The

her "Inflating more delusions and making theinterviewer explained work one-sidedly". The

delusion reflected actually" (do more).

interviewer would explain business to her
subject to the adoption. But she told the＜♯4 200X.8.＞

interviewer negatively. Continuously, she said

One week later from last timenegatively "in a front, only man" "An entrance

She said that I noticed through a last problem

lobby is dirty" "A luxurious flower was"I'd do the work appreciated from people" "I'ddisplayed, but, it withered up". Therapist

do the work to give peace of mind to customer'schanged her remarks using re-framing "Whenheart" "I'd do the work with which not the work

being dangerous, a man protects" "There are noto purchase money, but money comes" " I'd docomplicated human relations peculiar to lady"

work on a plant relation" "I'd like to be"That's worth doing for you who like a plant"

beautifully (I improve myself, and would like

"It may be the viewpoint which doesn't notice a

to do the life-style which isn't disrespected.)".

man" And therapist praised her "You were

Therapist accepted and said her "Next time,observing variously, and it's wonderful".

let’s do" delusion talk" about your behavior in

After that, therapist asked her about gooddetail for you to take a step forward more thanpoints of the Japanese-style hotel. Then she

now".

responded, "A personnel system is clear.""Nature in a base-court is beautiful."＜♯5 200X.8.＞
One week later from last time＜♯７ 200X.9.＞

She said that I hesitated about whether I

Two weeks later from last time

applied to front business of the long-establishedShe reported that the pass notification arrived.

store Japanese-style hotel in the hot spring

Therapist praised her who has made an effort so86

SHIINO

far. Therapist said to her, "If you won't get toclient talks solved images. That was "Hope andthe full-time employment, you should think it

possibility" in the job hunting for the client.

was study of an interpersonal relationship. And

The "Hope and possibility" led the client to

let's exert ourselves together." And counselingforestry and hotel work. That supported client's

was a finish just in case.

re-employment.
In solution focused approach, a therapist＜Developmental report 200X.11.＞

rarely judges client’s want and wish (Berg &Two months later from last sessions

Dolan, 2001). Instead, a therapist does theShe has come to the counseling room to greet

question into which a possibility of the client is

2 months later. She seemed happy and reported

expanded, not to restrict the client's choices.

it "I think that I'm turning to service work.

This is said to be "leading from one stepThank you very much for making them notice"

be-hind". The therapist didn't demand "To take

"I got 3 thank you letters from a customer overa clerical job." "Work on a plant relation." "To

1 month" "Because I like forestry, the heavy

become a regular member." from a client. The

baggage progress and bug extermination are

therapist didn't deny client's clerical job wish

easy for me. Therefore I receive highand made an effort toward client's expansion ofevaluation" "I'm working happily every daya solved image and embodiment of the image. I

because I also concern management in a garden

think that was " leading from one step be-hind "and a flower arrangement at the front".

for the client. I think the stance which expands

2 months later, she has come to thea possibility of the client was the empowerment

counseling room in a greeting again. Herfor client's re-employment.

hairstyle, clothes and make-up changed very

In solution focused approach, it’s said that themuch (A dark and serious impression changed

client often leads a solution independently bycompletely). And she reported that she got thethe future vision which makes a client satisfied

full-time employment.

will be the real vision (de Shazer, 1985).
Moreover, in solution focused approach, it’s

Discussions

said that If seeming able to use a change before

In this case, therapist expanded the solved

counseling and success in the past, a day ofimage the client told. And the power to themiracle can be carried out easily (Berg & Miller,client's change was supported by embodying1992). In other words, there is importantthat the client told. That was the empowerment

meaning that a client should expand "success inwhich leads to re-employment. The client has

the past".

begun to imagine actuality different from now

In re-employment support, I think client's

through a miracle question. This talk wasresume is "treasure house of the difference" andexpanded by the method with the effective"treasure house of false solved circulation". Or

humor (delusion talk). That promoted that the

it's said that it's one of the valuable resources

USE OF SOLUTION FOCUSED APPROACH
IN SUPPORT FOR RE-EMPLOYMENT
which can find success in the past. I think thisutilization (attention to the difference) is
effectiveinre-employment

supportbysolution-focused approach.

References
Berg, I. K. & Dolan, Y. (2001). Tales ofsolutions A Collection of Hope-Inspiring
Stories.[Hasegawa, K., 2003 Kaiketsu nomonogatari

kibou

ga

hukuramu

rinsyoujireisyu] Kongousyupan.
Berg, I. K. & Miller, S. D. (1992). Working
With the Problem Drinker A Solution-Focused
Approach.[Saito, S. (1995). Insyumondai tosono kaiketsu solution-focused approach]
Kongousyupan.
de Shazer, S. (1985). Key to solution in brief
therapy. [Ono, N. (1994). Tankiryouhou
kaiketu no kagi] Seisinsyobo.

87

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No. 88-92<Original Paper: Practice>

An Attempt to Reconsider the Essence of Brief and Family Therapy
Takahiro Kozuka1),

Keigo Asai1),

Taku Hiraizumi1), Takaaki Usami1),

Koubun Wakashima1) and Keizo Hasegawa1)
1)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

ABSTRACT. This article is a report of two cases applying Double Description Model (DDM; Wakashima & Hasegawa, 2000) based
Brief and Family Therapy. Case 1 was an interview with mother whose chief complaint was the relation to her daughter. In this case,
we focused on a mother-child dyad system smaller than whole family system. Case 2 was an interview with mother complained her
son’s problem behaviors. In addition, mother was on bad terms with her husband. Therapists promoted her creative problem solving
ability to deal with the problems. We extracted three essences of Brief and Family Therapy by examining the commonalities of twocases.
KEY WORDS: brief and family therapy, double description model (DDM) , problem solving

In this paper, we aimed to reconsider the

makes a room for TH to choose a better

essence of the Brief and Family therapy. We

perspective from two different perspectives.

have conducted Brief / Family therapy (B/F

Prior studies have revealed the effectiveness oftherapy) based on Double Description Model

DDM based B/F Therapy for symptoms such as(DDM, e.g. Wakashima & Hasegawa, 2000).

school refusal, misdemeanor, child abuse,

DDM has two perspectives to deal with CL’s

eating disorder, and depression (i.e. Hasegawa

problem, one is cutting vicious circle patterns& Wakashima, 2002; Wakashima, 2010). DDM

for the problem, which we label as “dowas introduced more than a decade ago.

something different” (Mental Research Institute

Therefore, we have explored new essences(MRI) model; Watzlawick, Weakland & Fisch,through DDM based B/F Therapy.

1974; Hasegawa, 1987) and the other is to

We conducted DDM based

expand the existed exception of the solution:

two cases in team approach. Team approach“do more” (solution-focused model; de Shazer,

meant the therapy structure, which is observed1985). High applicability of DDM based B/Fthrough the monitor by team members intherapy derives from this framework, which

separate room. We conducted a session in

B/F therapy for

1-month interval for both cases. For Case 1,
CORRESPONDENCE TO: KOZUKA, Graduate School oftherapists (TH) were first and fifth author. For

Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi, Aoba-ku,

Case 2, therapists were second and fifth author.

Sendai-city, 980-8576, Japan.

Case1: Mother who worried about relations

e-mail: tkline1615115@yahoo.co.jp

with daughter.

88

AN ATTEMPT TO RECONSIDER THE ESSENCE OF
BRIEF AND FAMILY THERAPY89

In this case, the client (CL, 40s, housewife)

after #1 session, I become to talk with her (IP)was mother, who came alone to the session.

more carefully because I found that I sometimes

The other family members were father (50s,

had told her something negative. As a result, I

company

communicatedemployee),

anddaughter(20s,

University student, Identified Patient; IP).

with

her

betterandsheappreciated me for listening to what she wassaying.

#1 Setting up the problem and introducing theobservation task.

TH: Your coping was brilliant. You could recover the
relationship with her (IP) even if you would get
trouble with her in the future.

TH: What are your goals from our working together?
CL: My daughter is too vulnerable to stand against
stress, and she is psychosomatic a little bit.

However, CL informed TH that she had somephysical problems.

TH: What is the most worried problem you havenow?
CL: I do not understand her (IP), and I get swayedby her moods. She also verbally abuses me.
However, when we talk about her boyfriend or
clothes, we had not got into quarrels. But, if I

CL: I do not know whether this problem ismenopausal symptoms or fatigues caused by the
rapid change of mother-child relation.
TH: We cannot judge whether it is menopausal
symptoms or fatigues.

told her daughter something negative, she got
in a bad mood. She has not experienced aAdditionally, TH asked CL to continue

rebellious stage yet because she studied abroad

observing herself. Case1 was finished at thisin early adolescence.

session.
As follow-up, TH had made call twice to CL.

TH complimented CL’s effort and care. TH

On the phone, CL reported that she was able tointroduced to CL the idea that IP is in rebellious

live without any major problems although she

stage now. At the end of the session, TH

sometimes went to a physician. She also

proposed the following task; to observe theinformed family relationship was better.

time when CL behaves in a subservient way
toward IP. TH also told CL that she would be

Case2: Wife (mother)’s worries about marital

able to establish better relationship with IP

relations and son’s problem behaviors.

because CL had been able to talk with IP

In this case, the CL was wife (40s, mother)positively and find it by herself.

who came alone to our counseling. IP was
second son (elementary school student). The#2 CL’s devisal toward relationship with IP

other family members were father (40s,company employee), and elderly son (highCL: Through observing the interaction with daughter

school student). IP had Attention-Deficit HyperKOZUKA et al.

90

Activity Disorder (AD/HD) suspect. Moreover,view that husband was Asperger suspect rather

CL had suffered from stress of the job andthan the view which CL have had before.

family, therefore she had taken a leave of
TH: Husband’s behavior is because of Asperger

absence from her job.

disorder, we aim to change from yours negative♯1・♯2 Making clear the main problems

view toward husband to the idea that husband
could not control himself.

CL: I have too many family problems and I am

CL accepted the framework and TH talked

confused by the situation.
TH: What is the most embarrassed problem?

with CL about how to treat him from an

CL: Two problems are marital relation and son’s

onward.

problem behaviors. As for marital relation,husband said to me “it is your responsibility”♯4 CL’s Acceptance of a new aspect toward

when I told him what had happened in the day.

husbandTo begin with, I want to talk with husband. As

CL: I subtly taught my children how to treat

for son’s problem behaviors, he had taken tohusband when he got excite, and children

frequently stealing. Moreover, Husband said, “Ipracticed it. Children and I withdrew from there

want to hit you (IP)”, and he severely scolded

when he got angry. He did not worry about suchhim (IP) for this problems.

family's behavior. As for son’s problem behaviors,he(IP) hasn’t caused the problem since he said to

TH empathized the hardship of CL, and toldme “I stole it with my friends when I got irritatedto CL that husband accepted to your request. It

by father’s directing.”

is important for IP to have parents who havedifferential

parentalrole;fatherseverelyscolded IP and mother talks with IP.

Before the end of the session, TH told to CL.
TH: You can visit here if you had a problem in the
future especially before you return to work.

♯3 Introducing new framework for CL’s
image of husband

Discussions
Purpose of this study was to reconsider the

CL: Husband has been calm down the last session.

essence of the B/F therapy. Three essences are
extracted from 2 cases.

Moreover, CL also told TH about various
suspected episodes husband’s behaviors which

Essence 1

are typical of Asperger disorder; obsession withbe managed by Therapist and Client

cleanness, and arrangement of time and place.

First point is how to pick up the problem. In

TH judged it was effective to introduce theCase1, We dealt with not IP’s personality but

picking up the problem that canAN ATTEMPT TO RECONSIDER THE ESSENCE OF
BRIEF AND FAMILY THERAPY

91

interaction between CL and IP because CL was

Watzlawick et al., 1974).

embarrassed by relationship with her child. If

However, in #1 of Case1, we presented to CL

we applied traditional family therapy idea tothe framework that IP did not intend to

CL in ♯2 of case1, we would have moreembarrass you but she was just in a rebellious

sessions. The traditional family therapy idea isstage now. We believe that this frameworkthat dysfunctional Family homeostasis (Jackson,

enhanced CL to cope with her problem1965) causes CL’s physical symptom. At thiscreatively. In #3 of Case2, We presented CL apoint, we examined whether CL managed

new framework that the husband himself was

physical problems or not. In the result, wedifficult to control himself because he might be

judged that CL could not treat this problem

Asperger disorder suspect. It is arguable that

because it could be menopausal symptom.

we easily present to CL the view that husband

In Case2, we examined whether CL managed

might be Asperger disorder.

husband’s and son’s personality or not. We

Yet, It was not significant for CL whether

decided that we treated that how the familyhusband had the Asperger disorder suspicious

worked on the problem rather than we copedor not. The important point was that CL waswith every problem such as IP’s problem

released from a negative view toward the

behaviors

husbandandhusband’s

behaviors.

By

and

to

promote

that

CL’s

with

husbandwhenCLconducting therapy with this idea, TH and CL

communication

able to work on a problem together, and CL

accepted the idea. We compared two ideas. One

obtained the expectation and experienced theidea was CL had negative view toward husband

feeling that the problem can be controllable.

without reason for his behaviors. The other idea

Therefore, we, as therapists, need to set thewas his character was because of Asperger

controllable problem to work with CL based on

syndrome. We judged the latter profitable for

their chief complainant of CL.

CL than the former. We reframe CL’s view, CL
became easier to think creatively for the

Essence 2

Reframing to construct context

problem and conduct executable behavior.

Second point is to reframe CL’s viewpoint topromote the power of CL and the family and to

Essence 3 Promoting of self-organization of

construct the context that promotes their power.

client and the family

Traditionally, reframing means to change theEssence3 is to promote CL’s and the family's

conceptualorself-organization. For Case1, we asked CL to

viewpoint in relation to which a situation isobserve the behaviors that CL had already done.

experienced and to place it in another frame

For Case2, we focused on the husband's

which fits the “facts” of the same concrete

behavior to IP and CL and treated the CL’ssituation equally well or even better, andframework of husband. What we would like tothereby changes its entire meaning (e.g.

emphasize here is that we have not aimed toand/oremotional

settingKOZUKA et al.

92

improve the relation between CL and IP. We did

References

have the goal that CL was able to manage thede Shazer, S. (1985). Key to solution in brief

problem by herself, even if CL would gettherapy.

trouble with IP. Similarly, in Case2, we have

kaiketu no kagi]Seisinsyobo.

not aimed to get rid of the problem behaviors ofJackson, D. D. (1965). The study of the family.

husband and IP. We did have a goal that couples

Family Process 4, 1-20.

were able to manage the situation that it’sHasegawa,

problem behavior.

constructivism. Tokyo: Saikosyobo.

The point is that neither we specify what is

Hasegawa, K., & Wakashima, K. (2002).

CL’s problem nor we solves every problem

Family Therapy, Brief Therapy & Narrative

which CL complains. One important point is to

Therapy from Case Studies. Tokyo: Kaneko

present the idea that not TH but CL and the

Shobo.

family are the central figures to solve the

Wakashima, K. & Hasegawa, K. (2000). Brief

problem. The other important point is TH

Therapy:empowers self-organization of family. CL andKongoshuppan.

family are required to be self-organized forWakashima, K. (2010). Professional Seminar

coping with problem by themselves, which canfor Family Therapy. Tokyo: Kanekoshobo.

lead to shorten the session.

Watzlawick, P., Weakland, J.H., & Fisch, R.

By examining the common features of two(1974). Change: Principles of problem

cases, we have extracted three essences. Finally,

formation and problem resolution. New York:we would like to maintain that the essences are

Norton.

the therapist’s principle for therapy rather thantechniques. To reflect these essences to therapy
practice effectively, it is important for TH toshow

sympathy

andacceptancetowardproblems of CL. By listening CL’s words
sincerely, TH obtains useful information from
CL. Moreover, we emphasize the effectivenessof “do more approach”, which esteem what CL
has already said or done before rather than to
introduce different behaviors to CL.

[Ono,N.

K.

(1994).

(1987).

Theory&Tankiryouhou

ParadoxPractice.

andTokyo:

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.2, 94-97<Original Paper: Research and Experiment>

A Discussion on a Communication Theory-based Analysis on Manzai Talk
Ryoko Hanada1)
1)

Kyoto University of Education

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this study is to describe some rich aspects of the interpersonal relationship, for example Manzai Talk,
by using the Redundancy-Interactional Patterns Model. The results of analysis suggest that humor in Manzai talk occurs from thedifference in redundancy level in its interactional pattern.
KEY WORDS: Communication Theory, Humor, Manzai Talk, Redundancy-Interactional Patterns Model

Introduction

concepts of theory. Recorded data of theThis research study aims to examine the

Manzai talk were analyzed and observed using

interactive process in Manzai or Japanese

this model, and the occurrence of humor instand-up comedy (hereon referred to as Manzai

Manzai talks was examined.

talk),

using

theRedundancy-Interactional

Patterns Model (Hanada, 2006, 2010) as part of

Methoda broader explanation of the various aspects ofSubjects of this analysis included nine

redundancy in interactional patterns proposed

Japanese male comedian pairs (18 males inby Gregory Bateson et al.’s communication

total) who specialize in dialogue comedy. The

theory (Bateson, 1972; Bateson Jackson, Haleyrecorded data of Manzai talks (hereon referred& Weakland, 1963).

to as Manzai talk data) and its transcription was

The Redundancy-Interactional Patterns Model

analyzed

quantitatively draws out a set of patterning,

Redundancy-Interactional Patterns Model.

such as “patterning,” “pattern prominence,”

The Redundancy-Interactional Patterns Model“creating patterns” of human relationships

proves the compatibility of Bateson et al.’s(Bateson, 1972). Information (information

redundancy concept in explaining a pattern as aquantity, entropy, redundancy) based on therelation through an examination of Bateson etcommunication patterning derives from various

al’s studies and experiments on communication

based

on

the

theory. In detail, when interaction is viewed as
CORRESPONDENCE TO: HANADA, Center for Clinicala probability process of an order of events such

Psychology and Education, Kyoto University of Education, 1

as turn-allocation (Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson,

Fukakusa Fujinomori-cho, Fushimi-ku, Kyoto-city, 612-8522,

1974) in the conversation analysis field, theJapan.

[rigidity–flexibility] of human relation can bee-mail: hanada@kyokyo-u.ac.jp

drawn

94

out

in

a

[high–low]

level

of

A DISCUSSION ON A COMMUNICATION THEORY-BASED ANALYSISON MANZAI TALKin information theory (Please95

When we take a consecutive pair of events,
the second event’s entropy is 0 bit and therefer to Hanada, 2010 for further details).

redundancy is 100% (R = 1) when the second

Turn-allocation, as explained in a simplest

event depends on the probability of what wassystematics for the organization of turn-taking

selected in the first event (Simple Markov

for conversation (Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson,

Process). This study calculated the redundancy1974), can be divided into two cases: theof each comedian in the Manzai talk data,

current speaker selects the next speaker; or abased on this method.

person selects himself/herself as the next

In addition, the following has been reported

speaker assuming that their turn is next. In a

by previous research on redundancy in actual

conversation, when (a) the current speaker

conversation: approximately 50% redundancy

selects the next speaker, it is to “try to draw

in a chat between two strangers, approximately

someone out,” and when (b) a person selects

25%

himself/herself as the next speaker assuming

approximatelythat their turn is next, it is to “break the ice.” A

conversation during role play, approximately

simple example is described below.

25% in a conflict conversation about a real-life

In this example (Figure.1), a person is

problems between two friends, approximately

selecting himself/herself as the next speaker,

16% in a cooperative conversation during roleassuming that their turn is next, in pairs ofplay,

01–02, 02–03, 03–04, 04–05, and so on. At thisconversation

time, if the interaction were to be viewed as a

between two friends, approximately 35% in aprobability

conflict conversation about a real-life problems

process

of

an

order

of

turn-allocation, it would be (b) (b) (b) (b),

in

a

chat

between16%

approximately
about

in

25%
a

two
a

in

real-lifeG:

Monstre!

02

M:

Cochon!

03

G:

Bête!

04

M:

Canaille!

05

G:

Putain!

Figure.1

cooperativea

conflict
problems

among three friends, and approximately 30%

which turns into 1111 by converting to 0 and 1.
01

friends,

(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)

A dialog between George(G) and Martha(M)
Use Only (b) technique(Watzlawick, Beavin and Jackson, 1967, p.169; Hanada, 2010, p.81)

96

HANADA

when these three friends were instructed on

man–the straight man) and the following

where to look during a conflict conversation

pattern is repeated:about a real-life problem (Hanada, 2010).

(a) the current speaker who is the straight man
selects the funny man as the next speaker, andResults(b) the funny man assumes himself/herself to

Results of each comedian’s Manzai talk data

be the next speaker (a Boke–Tsukkomi

analysis based on Redundancy-Interactional

conversation, for instance (Kokontei,1989) : (a)Pattern Model reveal the following: comedian“I’m not saying it’s bad, but was that woman

A was approximately 52% (R = 0.52),

black (a professional) or white (an amateur)?”comedian B was 100% (R = 1), comedian C(b) “Ah, it was spotted.” (a) “You’re talking

was approximately 66% (R = 0.66), comedianabout the dog.”).

D was 73% (R = 0.73), comedian E was

Aside from the constant turn-allocations,approximately 58% (R = 0.58), comedian F

consistent

was approximately 68% (R = 0.68), comedianintonation, rhythm, pitch, and unique wording

G was approximately 68% (R = 0.68), andreside in these interactional patterns. As for

comedian H was approximately 48% (R =nonverbal elements, smacking the partner’s0.48).

head (known as “dotsuki”), looking away from

use

of

paralanguage such as

the partner, maintaining a distinctive posture,
Discussions and future issues

and uniform dressing are some of the

The occurrence of humor in Manzai talks wascontributing factors. The above factors increase

examined from two viewpoints on the basis of

the level of redundancy and bind the comediananalysis on and observation of the Manzai talkpair together to establish rigidity; in otherdata

words, the pair becomes a fixed form to present

using

the

Redundancy-Interactional

Patterns Model. In this research, humor refers

themselves in front of an audience.

to “uke” or a line that is accepted with laughter.

The second issue is the point of humor

First, let us discuss the foundation of humor

occurrence. Humor, in fact, did not occur solely

occurrence. The redundancy level was muchfrom an increased level of redundancy inhigher in this research study as compared tointeractional patterns, which is the foundationthat of actual conversations in an earlier study.

of Manzai talk, as mentioned in the first point

The

in

of discussion. This means that a Manzai talkredundancy was found in verbal and nonverbal

must be somewhat predictable by retaining its

elements of a binding process unique to Manzai

high level of redundancy and simultaneously betalk.

unpredictable by surprising the audience. The

The fixation of turn-allocation is notable fororder of turn-allocation in Manzai talk data andthe verbal element. This equals the interactional

observation suggest that temporarily reducing

pattern known as Boke–Tsukkomi (the funny

the level of redundancy, or creating randomness

cause ofthisheightenedlevel

A DISCUSSION ON A COMMUNICATION THEORY-BASED ANALYSISON MANZAI TALK

97

in the Manzai talk can create humor. It was

References

observed that such a method for switching theBateson, G., Jackson, D. D., Haley, J., &gear in interactional patterns caused a reduced

Weakland, J. H. (1963). A note on the double

redundancy in Manzai talk data. For example, abind-1962. Family Process, 2, 154-161.

two-way Manzai talk becomes three-way by

Bateson, G. (1979). Mind and nature: A

including the audience (known as “Kyaku-ijiri”

necessary unity: Advances in systems theory,or playing the audience), or the role ofcomplexity, and the human sciences. New

Boke–Tsukkomi can suddenly reverse to break

Jersey: Hampton Press.

the established interactional pattern in order to

Hanada, R. (2006). The measurement of the

reduce the level of redundancy.

pattern in human communication.

The above two points suggest that humor inmeeting of the International Academy ofManzai talk occurs from the difference inFamilyredundancy level in its interactional pattern.

Academy of Family Psychology (Cardiff

The difference, as pointed out by Bateson

University).

(1972),

Hanada,functionsasinformation

while

Psychology,

R.

(2010).

The

ClinicalThe 5thInternational

Psychology

influencing the audience, and the method ofConcerning Interactional Patterns: Empiricalcreating the difference itself is what brings out

Studies of Communication Theory by Gregory

the comedian’s character.

Bateson. Tokyo: Kazamashobo.

As challenges in the future, it is critical to

Kokontei, S. (1989). Shinsyou-syu. Tokyo:

continue to broaden and refine data concerning

Chikumashobo.

the findings obtained from analyses andSacks, H., Schegloff, E. A., & Jefferson, G.

observations in this research, and to specify(1974). A simplest systematics for theconnections between the findings and clinicalorganization of turn-taking for conversation.

cases for practical applications.

Language, 50, 696-735.
Watzlawick, P., Bavelas, J. B., & Jackson, D. D.
(1967). Pragmatics of human communication:
A study of interactional patterns, pathologies,
and paradoxes. New York: W.W. Norton &Company, Inc.

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.2, 98-103<Original Paper: Research and Experiment>

A Study of Examining the Effect of Both Self-determinative Behaviors and Family
Relationship History to the Current Basic Psychological Needs of Child.
-Cross-national Comparison between China, Korea and JapanKoubun Wakashima1), Shuji Noguchi1), Takaaki Usami1),
Kyungran Yu1), Xinhe Zhang1), Yusuke Nagayama2),
Keigo Asai1), Ryutaro Nakajima3),Taku Hiraizumi1), Akari Furuyama1),
Natsuno Morikawa1), Mio Sato1), Airi Shimizu1), and Takahiro Kozuka1)
1)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

2)

Mental Communication Research

3)

Graduate School of Education, Tokyo University

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of two “early developmental period” factors on the current basic
psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) and compare the results cross-nationally between China, Korea andJapan. Two “early developmental period” factors are family relationship and self-determinative behavior. Questionnaire research
was conducted. Research participants were Chinese, Korea and Japanese university students (N=631). Results of cross-national
comparison revealed that 1) Japanese families are less cohesive than Korean and Chinese families, 2)Chinese behave in lessself-determinatively than Koreans and Japanese, and 3)Koreans have higher basic psychological needs than Chinese and Japanese.
Next, we examined the effect of cohesion and self-determinative behaviors on basic psychological needs for each early
developmental period. We also examined the cross-national difference of the results. This study found that 1) for Japanese, cohesion
among family members is more linked with relatedness than Chinese and Koreans, 2) for Koreans, the current basic psychologicalneeds are related with cohesion among family members at elementary school age and self-determinative behaviors at both juniorhigh school and high school age, 3) only for Chinese, competence is associated with cohesion among family members andself-determinative behaviors. This study shows the cross-national differences for family cohesion, self-determinative behaviors, andbasic psychological needs among three Far East countries.
KEY WORDS: family relationship history, self-determinative behavior, basic psychological needs, cross-national comparison

Introduction

behaviors without any external influence andSelf-determined individuals choose theirinterference. In self-determination theory, Deci
and Ryan (1985; 2000) have maintained that

WAKASHIMA, Graduate

three basic psychological needs (autonomy,

School of Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi,

competence, relatedness) should be met to

Aoba-ku, Sendai-city, 980-8576, Japan.

nurture self-determination. In Japan, there havee-mail: rxv11606@nifty.com

been some researches examining the frequency

CORRESPONDENCE

TO:

of child‟s self-determinative behaviors (ex.

98HISTORICAL “INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY” FACTORS FOR
THE CURRENT BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS OF CHILD
Kamiya, et al., 2010). However, researchersal.,2010）.

have

2. Self-determinative behaviors

notexaminedtheeffectof99

self-determinative behaviors on the basic

We applied short version of self-determinative

psychological needs of child.

behaviors scale (Kamiya et al, 2010）. Four

Besides, family relationship might havefactors of self-determinatives behaviors are

impact on self-determinative behaviors based

Time Management, Unusual Occasion, Careeron the findings from prior research. Therefore,

Choice, and Play.

effect of self-determinative behaviors on

3. Basic psychological needs

psychological needs (autonomy, competence,

We applied basic psychological needs scaleand relatedness) should be examined with(Tanaka et al, 2003）. Three factors of basic

family relationship.

psychological needs scales are autonomy,

The purpose of this study is to examine twocompetence and relatedness.

“in early developmental period” factors to theTocurrent basic psychological needs (autonomy,

developmental

competence, and relatedness). Two “in early

developmental period factors into 5 periods; 1)

developmental period” factors are family

lower grade at elementary school, 2) higher

relationship and self-determination. We also

grade at elementary school, 3) junior highaimed to compare the results cross-nationallyschool, 4) high school, and 5) the present. We

between China, Korea and Japan.

mentioned 1) lower grade at elementary school

take

into

“the

consideration
period”,

we

early
dividedto 4) high school as “early developmental
period.”Procedures
Questionnaire

research

wasconducted.

Participants were asked to answer their self-

Research Participants were Chinese, Korean

determinative

and

After

developmental periods, from 1) lower grade at

excluding participants with missing data, weelementary school to 4) high school, FRHG for

conducted the analyses on the following data;all237 Chinese (76 men【M＝21.34 years】, 161

psychological needs at the present.

women【M＝20.47 years】), 225 Korean (102Besides, we asked the degree of recall aboutmen【M＝21.84 years】, 123 women【M＝20.88

each early developmental period, and weyears】) and 169 Japanese (73 men【M＝21.82

excluded the low score samples for analysis.

Japanese

university

students.

5behaviorsdevelopmental

forperiods,

and

early

basic

years】, 96 women【M＝21.62 years】).
Results
Measures

Factor analyses on scales

1. Family cohesion

First, we conducted factor analyses on

We applied cohesion subscales from Family

self-determinative behaviors scales for 4 “early

Relation History Graph (FRHG: Wakashima etdevelopmental

periods”

and

basic

WAKASHIMA et al.

100

psychological needs scales for the present. (seeperformed

when

the

resultsofTable.1).

Kruskal-Wallis test or ANOVA was significant.

Besides, we conducted mean score of each

The results were presented at Table 2 and 3.

subscales of self-determinative behaviors, basic
psychological needs and FRHG. As for mean

Cross-national comparisons of the effect ofscore of FRHG, we added cohesion score offamily cohesion and self-determination on

three dyads (father-mother, father-child, andbasic psychological needs by developmental

mother-child) and divided the score by 3.

periodFinally, we performed two-way ANOVAs on 3

Cross-national comparisons of measurements

factors of basic psychological needs for 4 early

between China, Korea, and Japandevelopmental

We examined cross-national comparison of

Independent variables were cohesion of FRHG

familycohesionandperiods,

respectively.

self-determinative(High group/Low group) and self-determinative

behaviors. We conducted Kruskal-Wallis test for

behaviors (High group/Low group). Main effectthe data that were not normally distributed.

and simple main effect test were also performed

Whereas, we performed one-way analysis ofwhen the result of two-way ANOVAs wasvariancessignificant. The results were presented at Table(ANOVAs)

forthenormally

distributed data. Multiple comparisons were also

4 to 6.

Table.1 α coefficients of each subscales of self-determinative behaviors and basic psychological needs by developmental periods
Self-determinative behaviors
Time Management
Play
Career Choice Unusual Occasion
Lower grade at elementary school（4factors structure）
α ＝.77α ＝.70α ＝.60α ＝.60Higher grade at elementary school（4factors structure）
α ＝.75α ＝.68α ＝.70α ＝.55
Junior high school（3factors structure）
α ＝.68α ＝.60α ＝.64―High school（2factors structure）
α ＝.59α ＝.59――The Present（3factors structure）
Note . factor analyses were conducted by developmental period

Basic psychological needs
AutonomyCompetence Relatedness
α ＝.74α ＝.82α ＝.76

Table.2 The result of Kruskal-Wallis test and Mutiple comparison

Family cohesion

Self-determinative behaviors oflower grade at elementary
school
Self-determinative behaviors ofhigher grade at elementary
school
Self-determinative behaviors ofjunior high school
Self-determinative behaviors ofhigh school
Note. ** ｐ＜.01, *** ｐ＜.001

Lower grade at elementary school
Higher grade at elementary school
Junior high school
High school
The present
Time Management
Play
Career Choice
Unusual Occasion
Time Management
Play
Career Choice
Unusual Occasion
Time Management
Play
Career Choice
Time Management
Play

J = Japan, K = Korea, C = ChinaJapan
M rankN
269.46148
291.12
164
249.33142
259.77167
227.09170
289.00148
302.68148292.97148
245.47148343.71
164
339.38164318.38164277.16164337.94142305.02142311.09142381.59167
336.08167

Korea
M rankN
303.39199
323.67218
276.84203304.63223
352.71225
336.84199
312.78199
317.96
199
332.91
199
368.16218
339.29218
349.10218
360.82218
305.65203
308.72203295.43203
319.01223
331.71223

China

M rank278.87315.65308.08368.77354.57235.86248.31
250.14268.41
239.62268.68274.10291.55223.54242.12250.54272.25291.80

N
222
241
218
244
244
222
222
222
222
241
241
241
241
218
218
218
244
244

χ ²

Multiple comparison

4.15 n.s.
3.24 n.s.
11.57 **
36.92 ***
58.95 ***
41.27 ***
19.15 ***
18.60 ***
30.37 ***
66.13 ***
24.02 ***
20.42 ***
26.28 ***
51.34 ***
25.98 ***
14.55 **
46.28 ***
13.20 **

K＝C＞J
C＞K＞J
K＝C＞J
K＞J＞C
J＝K＞C
J＝K＞C
K＞J＝C
J＝K＞C
J＝K＞C
J＝K＞C
K＞J＝C
J＝K＞C
J＝K＞C
J＝K＞C
J＞K＞C
J＝K＞C

HISTORICAL INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY FACTORS FOR
THE CURRENT BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS OF CHILD

Table.3 The result of ANOVA and Mutiple comparison
Japan（n=169）
Korea（n=225）
AutonomyCompetence
Relatedness
Note. *** ｐ＜.001

M (SD)

M (SD)

4.61 (0.88)
3.51 (1.09)
4.53 (1.01)

5.02 (0.79)
4.34 (0.85)
4.94 (0.73)

4.56 (0.78)
4.26 (0.82)
4.47 (0.83)

Ｆ

Multiple comparison

21.60 ***
47.16 ***
20.58 ***

K＞J＝C
K＝C＞J
K＞J＝C

J = Japan, K = Korea, C = China

Table.4 the result of two-way ANOVA and main effect for Japan
Family cohesion
High groupSelf-determinative behaviors
High group
Low group
M (SD)
M (SD)
Competence
3.68 (1.04)
3.60 (1.12)
Lower grade at elementary
Relatedness
4.88 (0.78)
4.70 (0.85)
schoolAutonomy
4.67 (0.85)
4.57 (0.98)
Competence
3.61 (0.98)
3.58 (0.99)
Higher grade at elementary
4.90(0.76)
4.74 (0.74)
Relatedness
schoolAutonomy
4.61 (0.83)
4.60 (0.85)
Competence
3.57 (0.93)
3.53 (1.06)
Junior high school
Relatedness
4.95 (0.67)
4.70 (0.84)
Autonomy
4.72 (0.84)
4.34 (0.85)
Competence
3.46 (1.06)
3.67 (0.99)
High school
Relatedness
4.95 (0.74)
4.42 (0.93)
Autonomy
4.71 (0.86)
4.43 (0.82)
Note . †p＜.10, *p＜.05, **ｐ＜.01

China（n=244）

M (SD)

101

Low group
High group
Low group
M (SD)
M (SD)
3.63 (0.96)
3.30 (1.15)
4.45 (0.99)
4.15 (1.11)
4.74 (0.84)
4.60 (0.87)
3.45 (1.16)
3.44 (1.13)
4.54 (1.03)
4.14 (1.09)
4.74 (0.88)
4.48 (0.97)
3.54 (1.10)
3.54 (1.31)
4.51 (1.01)
4.38 (1.00)
4.86 (0.84)
4.51 (0.99)
3.54 (1.02)
3.62 (1.35)
4.54 (0.91)
4.02 (1.23)
4.77 (0.85)
4.31 (1.01)

Main effect
Family cohesion
Self-determinative behaviors
Ｆ （comparison of main effect）
F （comparison of main effect）
0.95
1.31
10.10**
H > L
2.40
0.12
0.69
0.78
0.02
11.03**
3.82†
H > L
0.00
0.96
0.00
0.01
6.37*
H > L
1.60
1.11
5.97*
H > L
0.01
0.56
6.48*
H > L
11.22**
H > L
0.05
6.19*
H > L

Low group
High group
Low group
M (SD)
M (SD)
4.41 (0.72)
4.21 (0.79)
4.98 (0.63)
4.71 (0.82)
5.19 (0.69)
4.97 (0.69)
4.47 (0.95)
4.23 (0.79)
4.93 (0.80)
4.71 (0.72)
5.23 (0.82)
4.75 (0.79)
4.58 (0.87)
4.28 (0.91)
5.09 (0.78)
4.80 (0.61)
5.35 (0.72)
4.81 (0.91)
4.57 (0.82)
4.22 (0.99)
5.11 (0.74)
4.68 (0.71)
5.21 (0.63)
4.65 (0.97)

Main effect
Family cohesion
Self-determinative behaviors
Ｆ （comparison of main effect）
Ｆ （comparison of main effect）
0.72
1.49
6.63*
H > L
2.05
0.18
4.13*
H > L
0.00
1.42
7.27**
H > L
5.88*
H > L
0.88
9.11**
H > L
1.20
3.01†
0.14
5.08*
H > L
0.00
15.36***
H > L
0.84
2.98†
0.64
12.24**
H > L
2.77†
11.90**H > L

Low group
High group
Low group
M (SD)
M (SD)
4.39 (0.61)
4.14 (0.85)
4.56 (0.78)
4.35 (0.79)
4.68 (0.65)
4.48 (0.84)
4.29 (0.76)
4.14 (0.75)
4.48 (0.91)
4.39 (0.84)
4.66 (0.77)
4.46 (0.73)
4.34 (0.74)
4.03 (0.73)
4.43 (0.79)
4.46 (0.78)
4.73 (0.71)
4.32 (0.73)
4.28 (0.80)
4.01 (0.83)
4.64 (0.70)
4.20 (0.85)
4.70 (0.78)
4.19 (0.71)

Main effect
Family cohesion
Self-determinative behaviors
Ｆ （comparison of main effect）
Ｆ （comparison of main effect）
0.08
0.07
0.47
0.40
0.06
1.79
0.97
0.69
0.38
0.72
0.15
3.07†
0.64
11.69**
H > L
0.69
1.25
0.52
15.92***
H > L
5.06*
H > L
7.32**
H > L
1.65
6.64*
H > L
6.38*
H > L
22.47***H > L

Multiple comparison
Ｆ （comparison of simple main effect）

0.51
0.16
0.03
0.00
0.67
0.91
0.01
0.16
0.01
0.12
0.00
0.36

H = High group, L = Low group

Table.5 the result of two-way ANOVA and main effect for Korea
Family cohesion
High groupSelf-determinative behaviors
High group
Low group
M (SD)
M (SD)
Competence
4.44 (0.81)
4.37 (0.86)
Lower grade at elementary
Relatedness
5.11 (0.74)
5.09 (0.63)
schoolAutonomy
5.22 (0.78)
5.03 (0.75)
Competence
4.38 (0.77)
4.33 (0.90)
Higher grade at elementary
Relatedness
5.20 (0.62)
4.95 (0.64)
schoolAutonomy
5.17 (0.70)
5.01 (0.81)
4.36 (0.77)
4.24 (0.84)
Competence
Junior high school
Relatedness
5.07 (0.69)
4.90 (0.82)
Autonomy
5.22 (0.64)
4.93 (0.68)
4.32 (0.68)
4.26 (0.86)
CompetenceHigh school
Relatedness
5.09 (0.62)
4.85 (0.75)
5.19 (0.73)
5.03 (0.72)
Autonomy
Note. †p＜.10, *p＜.05, **ｐ＜.01, ***ｐ＜.001

0.32
1.42
0.02
0.67
0.03
2.11
0.56
0.38
1.43
1.59
1.05
3.67†

H = High group, L = Low group

Table.6 the result of two-way ANOVA and main effect for China
Family cohesion
High groupSelf-determinative behaviors
High group
Low group
M (SD)
M (SD)
Competence
4.13 (0.98)
4.33 (0.73)
Lower grade at elementary
Relatedness
4.50 (0.92)
4.57 (0.79)
schoolAutonomy
4.59 (0.88)
4.52 (0.71)
Competence
4.33 (0.92)
4.31 (0.85)
Higher grade at elementary
Relatedness
4.56 (0.80)
4.45 (0.79)
school4.67 (0.78)
4.52 (0.86)
AutonomyCompetence
4.48 (0.72)
4.06 (0.89)
Junior high school
Relatedness
4.68 (0.69)
4.39 (0.98)
Autonomy
4.81 (0.64)
4.38 (0.93)
Competence
4.53 (0.76)
4.23 (0.78)
4.60 (0.77)
4.51 (0.85)
High school
Relatedness
Autonomy
4.88 (0.68)
4.49 (0.75)
Note. †p＜.10, *p＜.05, **ｐ＜.01, ***ｐ＜.001

Multiple comparison
Ｆ （comparison of simple main effect）

Multiple comparison
Ｆ （comparison of simple main effect）

4.28* n.s.
1.62
0.47
0.34
0.01
0.07
0.28
2.00
0.02
0.04
2.80†
0.43

H = High group, L = Low group

Discussions

self-determinative way than Koreans andResults of cross-national comparison revealed

Japanese across the all developmental periods,that 1) Japanese families are less cohesive thanand 3)Koreans have higher basic psychological

Korean and Chinese families after higher gradeneeds than Chinese and Japanese in the present.

of elementary school, 2)Chinese behave in less

Besides, the result showed that there are only 4

WAKASHIMA et al.

102

significantly different variables out of 13

competence across three Far East countries.

variables

behaviors

One difference between three countries was

between Korean and Japanese. Previous studies

cohesion among family members; Japanese isshowed the difference between Japan andlinked with basic psychological needs across all

Korea in terms of self-determinative behaviors

developmental periods but Korean is related(Choi ＆

Arai,2003; Kato et al, 2010).

only before higher grade at elementary school

However, this study did not replicate the result.

and Chinese is related only at high school.

It might be because we asked participants to

There was also difference between three

answerbehaviors

countries for self-determinative behaviors.

retrospectively. On the other hands, both Choi

Korean is linked with basic psychological＆ Arai (2003) and Kato et al (2010) asked theneeds across all periods but Japanese andcurrent self-determinative behaviors.

Chinese are related for after junior high school.

Second,cross-national

As for competence, only Chinese is associateddifferences of the effect of family cohesion andwith cohesion among family members andself-determination on basic psychological needs

self-determinative behaviors.

by developmental period. The results ofThis

Japanese showed that cohesion among family

differences about cohesion, self-determinative

members is linked with relatedness across all

behaviors, and basic psychological needs

developmental periods, and there are someamong three Far East countries. However, weassociations

self-determinative

have not mentioned any specific reasons for the

behaviors and basic psychological needs only

differences yet. Our future subject is toafter junior high school. The result of Koreans

examineshowed that family cohesion is linked withsocio-cultural

relatedness before higher grade at elementaryself-determinative behaviors and nurturing

school whereas not after junior high school.

attitudes in home and school settings.

for

their

we

self-determinative

self-determinative

examined

between

study

shows

the

cross-national
factors;

cross-national

difference
familyofrelation,

Self-determinative behavior of Korean is linked
with autonomy throughout all developmental

Acknowledgements

periods and also associated with relatedness

This study was supported by grants to Koubun

after higher grade at elementary school. The

Wakashima from the Meiji Yasuda Mental

result of Chinese showed that family cohesion

Health Foundation (2010).

and self-determinative behavior are linked witheach basic psychological needs after junior highReferences

school but not before higher grade atChoi, K & Arai, K. (2003). Comparative study

elementary school. Given that findings, we canon child self-determination in Korea andindicate

Japan. The Korean Journal of Developmentalthatfamilycohesionandself-determinative behavior are associated with

Psychology, 16(3), 135-154.

HISTORICAL INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY FACTORS FOR
THE CURRENT BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS OF CHILD
Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic
motivation and self-determination in humanbehavior. New York; Plenum.
Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The „what‟and „why‟ of goal pursuits: Human needs andtheself-determinationofbehavior.

Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268.
Kamiya, T., Kato, M., Wakashima, K., Kozuka,T., Kobayashi, T., Kurita, Y., Kim, H., Han, C.,
Eunjoo, L., & Tanaka, M. (2010). Ａ
comparative

study

of

attitudeofself-determination of children in Japan and
Korea. The 2nd Regional Symposium of CIFA
(Consortium of Institute on Family in Asia
Region), November 25-28th, 2010, Tokyo,
JAPAN. (Poster), p.46.
Kato, M., Tanaka, M., Kamiya, T., Wakashima,K., Kozuka, T., Noguchi, S., Kobayashi, T.,
Hiraizumi, T., and Kurita, Y. (2010). children’s
self-determination–cross-national

comparison

betweenJapan

Korea.(Kodomononiseikatsu

andwokeruzikokettei no zittai ni tsuite) Research-aid
paper of Graduate School of Education of
Tohoku University.
Tanaka, K., Tanaka, A., Ishikawa, H. & Ueda,
H. (2003). Effects of Vocational Education on
Motivation in Job Hunting among Women's
Junior College Students. Bulletin of Osaka
Shin-Ai College, 37, pp.43-50.
Wakashima, K., Kozuka T., Itakura, N., andUsami,

T.

(2011).

SimultaneousandCumulative Family Relationship: Examingwith ICHIGEKI. International Journal of
Brief Therapy and Family Science, Vol. 1,
No.2, 104-110.

103

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.2, 104-110<Original Paper: Research and Experiment>

Simultaneous and Cumulative Family Relationship:
Examining with ICHIGEKI
Koubun Wakashima1), Takahiro Kozuka1), Norimasa Itakura1), and Takaaki Usami1)
1)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

ABSTRACT. This study examined family relationship from two perspectives; multi-generation and family history. Multigenerationalfamily study was participated by mother from middle generation (N=132). Result of multi regression analysis on father-childcohesion in multigenerational family showed that only grandparental generational family relationship from father’s family of origin
predicted father-child cohesion. Historical family relationship study was conducted with Family Relationship History Graph(FRHG). Research participants were late adolescents (N=108). The results showed that declining of mother –child cohesion did notlead to decline maternal power in family, while, father lost power in family along with declining cohesion with child.
Multi-regression analysis on the current father-daughter relationship revealed that both the current and immediately before thecurrent mother-child relationship were predictive of the target family relationship
KEY WORDS: Family History, Family Relationship, Family Structure, Multi-generation

We obtained large amount of results. We,

Introduction
Family is a relationship system based on

however, mentioned only the results oncomplex interactions. Family system is formed

father-child cohesion due to space limitations.

by both simultaneous and cumulative family
relationship. We referred simultaneous family

Study 1:

relationship as the present family relationshipThree-generational Family Relationshipincluding

The purpose of study 1 was to examine

multi-generationalfamilyrelationship. Cumulative family relationship isfather-childregarded as a historical family relationshipfamily relationship. We distinguished three

from past to the present.

generations; first generation (G1) was referred

The purpose of this study was to offer

as grandparents, second (G2) as parents, andinnovative methodologies to comprehend thethird (G3) as child’s generation. Mother fromcurrent

G2

familyrelationship

from

both

concurrent and historical viewpoints.

cohesion

generation

was

in

multigenerational

appliedasresearch

participant. If there were two or more children
in a family, the participants were asked the

CORRESPONDENCE

TO:

family relationship with first-born child.

WAKASHIMA, Graduate

School of Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi,
Aoba-ku, Sendai-city, 980-8576, Japan.

Methods

e-mail: rxv11606@nifty.com

Procedures and Participants
Data were drawn from 132 Japanese middle
104

SIMULTANEOUS AND CUMULATIVE FAMILY RELATIONSHIP

class working mothers (G2). The mean age ofthat

the participants was 42.44(SD±8.37). 63 offather-mother-child triad influences each otherthem had son as first-born child, and 65 having(Erel & Burman, 1995). Therefore, bothdaughter, and 4 did not fill out the question.

mother-child and marital cohesion may become

Mean age of first-born child was 14.22.

more cohesive by strengthening the father-childbond.

MeasuresWe

eachdyadic105

Likewise,cohesivenessbi-directional

in

power

relationship between father and child positively

assessedrelationshipfourfamilyInventory

predicted the father-child cohesion. The result
suggested that adolescent should possess theCharacter of Intra-Inter Generation in Kinshipequal power with father to strengthen their(ICHIGEKI; Noguchi et al, 2009), which wasbond.

devisedpredicted by low child power on mother, lowmeasure

from

of

for

to

applieddomainsfamilyrelationshipMoreover,father-child

bond

was

comprehensively with smallest items.

paternal power on mother, and high maternal

Cohesiveness - Cohesiveness was measured

power on father. Based on these results, motherfor each subsystem by single item. Power -should maintain certain power over father andPower was measured for each subsystemchild for mediating their relationship. Finally,

bi-directionally by two items; for instance, tworelationship between grandparents from father’s

items

for

family of origin and child predicted father-childfather-child subsystem were father’s power onbond. That is, only father’s family of origin

child and vice versa. Interest – single item

may exert influence on father-child cohesion.

assessed interest relationship between dyad.

Overall, mother is likely to get involved inInterest was measured the amount of dyadic

father’s family line when father and child areconnectedness only for benefit. Openness -cohesive. It means that mother connects withsingle item for openness for dyad assessed

grandparents from father’s family of origin. To

communication about them to other family

mediate the relationship between mother andmember. All items were rated on 6-point

grandparents in their family of origin, father is

Likert-style scale for 17 dyads in family.

a key figure. Father considering mother’smeasuring

power

relationshipposition in his family, in return, is mediated his
Results and Discussions

relationship with child by mother.

First, we conducted multiple regression
analysis on father-child cohesion. Predicatorvariables were the other family relationships

Study 2:(see Figure 1).

Historical Family RelationshipResults showed that both marital andWe conducted Study 2 to examine themother-child cohesion positively predicted theassociation of the current family relationshiptarget variable. These results reflected the factwith past family relationship. Regarding with

WAKASHIMA et al.

106

Father→Child(G2 → G3)Power

Father ‐ Mother(G2 - G2)
Cohesion

Dad's Grandmother ‐ Child(G1 - G3)Interest

Dad's Grandmother ‐ Child(G1 - G3)
Cohesion

Mother→Mom's Grandfather(G2 → G1)
Power

Dad's Grandfather ‐ Child(G1 - G3)Interest.35 ***.29 ***-.29 ***.27 ***-.24 ***.23 ***

R 2 =.77, Adj.R ²=.74
Mother ‐ Child(G2 - G3)
Cohesion.22 ***

Child→Father(G3 → G2)Power

.21 ***

Child→Mother(G3 → G2)
Power-.15 *

Mother→Father(G2 → G2)Power

.14 **

Mother→Mom's Grandmother(G2 → G1)Power

.14 **

Father→Mother(G2 → G2)
Power-.14 *

Father ‐ Dad's Grandfather(G2 - G1)
Openness-.13 *

Father - Child(G2 - G3)
Cohesion*p<. 05 .**p<.01 . ***p <.001.

Figure 1
Regressions Predicating Father – Child Cohesion from the other family relationship variables

SIMULTANEOUS AND CUMULATIVE FAMILY RELATIONSHIP

107

historical family relationship, we consideredobtained only inadequate amount of data to

past family relationship as a reconstructed

gain sufficient statistical power.

impression in the present since we did not focus
on what it was exactly like at that time.

Results and Discussions
First, we calculated mean score for each

Methods

variable to examine the developmental change

Procedures and Participants(Figure 2). Based on the trajectories, we

Participants were 108 University andcompared

Vocational School Students; 34 men and 74

relationship. For mother, declining of cohesion

women. Mean age was 20.6 (SD±3.93).

with child did not result in losing power infather-childandmother-childfamily, while, father lost power in family along
Measureswith declining cohesion with child. This

Family relationship history

difference might reflect the fact that mother

Family Relationship History Graph (FRHG)

does not lose her power in family even though(Wakashima et al, 2009) that each participant

she is not be able to maintain cohesive bonddrew a graph to measure the successive changewith her child. Prior studies have shown thatof impression for family relationship frommother usually has frequent contact with child.

3years of age to the present. In the present(e.g. Shek, 2006) However, Father, in many

study, we applied FRHG to assess threecases, has less contact with child than mother.

dimensions of family relationship; 1) dyadic

Therefore, to exercise his influence on child,cohesiveness, 2) each individual power infather might be required to have an intimate

family, and 3) family related stress.

relationship with his child.

In our analyses, we used FRHG data only theperiod when child’s age is from 3 to 19.

Next, we conducted factor analyses on each
FRHG index to divide the continuous data from
3 to 19 years into meaningful time periods.

Analysis Plan

Subsequently,

First, we clarified the mean score transition(stepwise) was conducted on family related

from 3 to 19 years of age. Furthermore, twostress. The predicators for family related stressmultiple regression analyses were conducted onwere the current father-daughter cohesion1) family-related stress at the present and 2)(β=-.49, p<.001) and father’s power whenfather-child cohesion at the present. Predicator

daughter was from 16 to 18 (β=.47, p<.001).

variables were 1) All time family relationships,

Thus, family related stress related to the current

and 2) All time family relationships except

relationship and immediately before the current

father-childmultiplewith father for female late adolescents. This

regression analyses, we did not conduct

result might reflect the findings that influence

analyses on male participants’ data since weof parent-child relationship in childhood iscohesion.

As

for

Multi-regression

analysis

WAKASHIMA et al.

108

10

Ve ry We ak (0） ― Very Strong (10)9MaritalCohesion
Mother-Child
Cohesion

8

Father-Child
Cohesion
7

Father Power

Mother Power
6

Child Power

Family Related
Stress5

4

Figure 2
Estimated Trajectories of each family relationship quality

defined by experiences in later developmental

problem.

stage (Luthar, et al, 2000； O'Connor, 2003）
Next, we conducted another multiple regression
analysis on the current father-daughter cohesion

General Discussions(Figure.3). The result showed that both theWecurrent and immediately before the current

understanding family relationship by two

mother-child relationship were predictive of theinnovative

current father-child relationship. These resultsinter-relatedness of father-mother-child triad

might

inter-relatedness

from both studies. In study 1, importance ofmother-childequal power relationship between father andrelationship. Regarding implication for clinicalchild for father-child cohesion was found. The

practice, we suggest focus more on the current

results of the study 1 also suggested thatfamily relationship than past such as earlycohesive father-child relationship is supported

childhood when treating family with childby mother’s mediating role between them. In

betweenrevealthestrongfather-childandpresentedapart

methodologies.

ofWe

resultsforconfirmed

SIMULTANEOUS AND CUMULATIVE FAMILY RELATIONSHIP

Mother-Daughter
Cohesion
16years to 18years-.76***

Father-Daughter
Cohesion
14years to 18years.72***

109

R 2 =.71, Adj.R² =.69
Present
Father-Daughter
Cohesion

Present
Mother-Daughter
Cohesion.64***

Present
MaritalCohesion.18**p<. 05 .**p<.01 . ***p <.001.

Figure 3
Regressions predicting the Present Father-Daughter Cohesion from Both Historical and the Present
Other Family Relationships

study 2, we found the current and immediately

2004), divorce (Amato & Cheadle, 2005),

before the current family relationship possessedanorexia nervosa (Canetti et al, 2008). Most ofmajor influence on the current target family

the previous studies, however, focused on past

relationship than historical family relationshipmultigenerational family. Therefore, futuresuch as those in early childhood.

research

Prior research has pointed out that there are

multigenerational family relationship because

more multi generational residences in Japan

our study suggests that the current target family

than in other developed countries (Kashiwagi,

relationship might be influenced by both the1998).

other

Despite

the

fact,

few

Japaneseshouldcurrent

focus

familyonthecurrent

relationshipandresearchers have examined three or more

immediately before the current.

generational family relationship (Kawai, 1998;

This study proposes some suggestions to

Ikuta et al, 2007).

overcome the methodological problems forPrevious findings showed that grandparental

understanding simultaneous and cumulative

generation has influence on younger generation

family relationship. More data might be

for many areas; (e.g. child’s problem behavior

required to confirm the results in future study.

(Brook et al, 2002), sexual abuse (Leifer et al.,Furthermore, future research should examine

WAKASHIMA et al.

110

family relationship from several different

Okado (Ed.), Family Psychology Course 6

family members’ viewpoints.

(pp. 98-124). Tokyo: Kaneko Shobo.
Leifer. M., Kilbane. T., Jacobsen, T., &Acknowledgements

Grossman, G (2004). A Three-Generational

This study was supported by grants to Koubun

Study of Transmission of Risk for Sexual

Wakashima

Abuse. Journal of Clinical Child and

from

Japan

society forthePromotion of Science (2010-2011).

Adolescent Psychology, 33(4), 662-672.
Luthar,S., Ciccheti,D., & Becker,B. (2000). The

References

Construct of Resilience: A Critical Evaluation

Amato,P.R., & Cheadle,J. (2005). The Longand Guidelines for Future Work. Child

Reach of Divorce: Divorce and Child

Development, 71(3), 543-562.

Well-Being

Generations.

Noguchi. S, Kozuka, T., Usami, T., Wakashima,

Journal of Marriage and Family. 67,

K. (2009). Development and Examination of

191-206.

Validity

Brook,J.S., Whiteman,M., & Zheng,L. (2002).

Assessment

Intergenerational Transmission of Risks for

Report, Graduate School of Education,

Problem Behavior. Journal of Abnormal

Tohoku University, 58(1), 247-265.

Child Psychology, 30(1), 65-76.

O’Connor,T,G. (2003). Early experiences andCanetti,L., Kanyas,K., & Lerer,B., Latzer, Y.,&

psychological

Bachar, E. (2008). Anorexia Nervosa andquestions,

Parental

implications for intervention. Development

AcrossBonding:Three

The Contribution

of

for

a

New

Scale

FamilyStructure“ICHIGEKI”.

Annualdevelopment:

empirical

Conceptual

illustrations,andParent-Grandparent Relationships to Eating

and Psychopathology, 15, 671-690.

Disorder Psychopathology. Journal of clinicalShek, D, T., Lee, B, M., Lee, T,Y., and, Lam, C,

Psychology, 64(6), 703-716.

M. (2006). Frequency, satisfaction and quality

Ikuta, M., Shimogawa, M., Namiki, K.,

dimensions of perceived parent-adolescent

Takahashi, M., and Shoji, R. (2007). A Study

communication among Chinese adolescents inof Examining Social Skills required for

Hongmultigenerational household. Research-aid

Adolescent Medical Health, 18(2), 259-70.

paper of Meiji Yasuda Mental HealthFoundation, 164-173.
Kawai,

C.

Relationship(1998).

Three

generational–PsychologicalApproachtoward intergenerational relationship -In T.

Kong.

International

JournalofInternational Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.2, 111-116<Original Paper: Research and Experiment>

Examining Family Transition with the Current Narratives
Takaaki Usami 1), Takahiro Kozuka 1), Taku Hiraizumi 1), Natsuno Morikawa 1),
Akari Furuyama 1), and Koubun Wakashima 1)
1)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

ABSTRACT. Family Relationship History Graph: FRHG (Wakashima et al., 2010) is a measure to assess the transition process offamily relationship with the current narratives. The purpose of this study was to examine the validity and reliability of the FRHG.
We also aimed to investigate general developmental process of family relationship with the FRHG. The results showed concurrent
validity for FRHG as a measure of cumulative family relationship was evident and the FRHG scores had moderate temporal stability
after an interval of 1 month. In contrast, the FRHG scores were not temporally stable after 4-month interval. As for family transition
process, the results indicate that developmental change of family triangle in adolescence differed by child gender.
KEY WORDS: Family Relationship History Graph, Family Relationship, Reliability, Validity, Family Transition

Introduction

parent-child cohesion measure, which was

Family Relationship History Graph: FRHG

applied from National Family Research of(Wakashima et al., 2010) is a measure to assess

Japan (NFRJ98, 1999).

the transition process of family relationshipwith the current narratives. First purpose of this

Methods

study was to examine the validity and

The data was drawn from 287 university

reliability of the FRHG. We also aimed to

students in Japan (95 men, 192 women: M =investigate general developmental process of

20.24years, SD = 1.53).

family relationship with the FRHG.
MeasuresFamily transition process was measured with

Validity of the FRHG
To determine the concurrent validity of the

Family Relationship History Graph : FRHG (i.e.

FRHG results as a measure for transition of

Wakashima et al, 2010) which measures thefamily relationship, we correlated mean scoresdevelopmental change of three domains ofof FRHG subscales with those of the otherfamily relationship from 3 years of age to thepresent : dyadic cohesion, power, and stress.

CORRESPONDENCE TO: USAMI, Graduate School of

Adolescents were asked to draw a line to rate

Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi, Aoba-ku,

the transition of each subscale in a figure

Sendai-city, 980-8576, Japan.

with 11-point Likert scale ranging from “verye-mail: part.two.you.day@gmail.com

weak” to “very strong”. Three dyadic
cohesions are cohesion of father-child,111

USAMI et al.

112

mother-child, and father-mother dyad. Three
powers are that of father, mother and child.

Reliability of the FRHG

Two stresses are family related stress and

Next, we examined the stability of thefriend stress. To examine concurrent validity,

FRHG. We assessed the two test-retest

we applied two subscales of the FRHG;

reliabilities of the FRHG by comparing

father-childanswers across the two questionnairecohesionandmother-childcohesion.

researches conducted with 1- and 4-

Family relationship development the data wasmonth intervals. We chose to assess

obtainedreliabilities

for

each

developmental

stage

at

these

two

intervals

cross-sectionally by National Family Researchbecause each represents a potentiallyof Japan 1998, NFRJ98 (1999). We useddifferent assessment.

average scores of two parent-child relationships
from 3 years to 20 years to correlate with the

Methodstransition of parent-child cohesion of FRHG.

Using data collected from university
students in Japan, we examined bothResults and Discussions

1-monthWe correlated the FRHG and thereliabilities of the FRHG. 31 university

NFRJ98. Table 1, 2 respectively shows

students

thefortest-retest reliability (13 men, 18 women:

FRHG as a measure of cumulative family

M = 20.45years, SD = 0.62) and 14

relationshipuniversity students for 4-month (6 men, 8

results.

Concurrent
wasvalidity

evident;

FRHG

subscales had high correlations withand4-monthparticipatedfortest-retest
1-monthwomen: M = 23.00years, SD = 2.04).

scores on a related assessment, theNFRJ98 (.92 for father-child cohesion

Results and Discussions

andcohesion).

Regarding 1-month test-retest reliabilities ofHowever, the present results are specificthree dyadic cohesion subscales, the correlation

to parent-child cohesion. Future researchcoefficients were significant and of moderate toshould assess the concurrent validity ofhigh magnitude throughout the developmental

other subscales of FRHG.

period (range .36-.89 for father-mother

.76

for

Table 1
3
8.12
3.93
Note.**p<. 01 .
FRHG
NFRJ98

Table 2mother-child

Mean Scores for and Correlation between Father-Child Dyad of FRHG and NFRJ98
Age of the child
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
8.11 8.05 8.01 7.97 7.91 7.83 7.71 7.62 7.39 7.03 6.70 6.58 6.61
3.98 3.88 3.92 3.88 3.92 3.90 3.93 3.84 3.92 3.80 3.69 3.72 3.70

17
6.65
3.62

18
r
6.93
.92**
3.72

Mean Scores for and Correlation between Mother-Child Dyad of FRHG and NFRJ98
Age of the child
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
r
FRHG
9.19 9.19 9.20 9.09 9.05 8.97 9.19 9.04 8.65 8.47 8.17 7.92 7.79 7.85 7.87 7.93
.76**
NFRJ98 3.90 3.84 3.84 3.94 3.92 3.86 3.89 3.91 3.87 3.87 3.84 3.63 3.84 3.73 3.73 3.70
Note.**p<. 01 .

EXAMINING FAMILY RELATIONSHIP
WITH THE CURRENT NARRATIVES
cohesion;.43-.81

mother-child4-month test-retest reliability across the familycohesion; .57-.84 for father-child cohesion :transition period (range .46-.78 for father

Table 3). Likewise, father power subscale of thepower; (range .33-.81 for child power).

FRHG was found to have moderate to highMeanwhile, mother power exhibited low to

1-month test-retest reliability across the timemoderate level of 4-month reliability (range(range .30-.87). Meanwhile, mother power and-.28-.78 : Table 6). The results of this study

child power mostly exhibited moderate degree

showed that the FRHG scores have moderateof 1-month reliability (range .32-.69 for mothertemporal stability after an interval of 1 month.

power; .38-.67 for child power : Table 4).

In contrast, the FRHG scores were not

Regarding 4-month test-retest reliabilities of

temporally stable

three

most

However, generalization of the results should

correlation coefficients were significant and of

be limited because the analyses were conducted

moderate to high magnitude at early childhoodwithand late adolescence, whereas, not were fromstudy should re-examine the test-retest

late childhood to middle adolescence (Table 5).

reliability of FRHG with larger sample.

dyadicfor

113

cohesionsubscales,

small

after

4-monthsample.

interval.

FutureLikewise, father power and child power of the
FRHG were found to mostly have moderate
Table 3 1-month test-retest reliability of 3 cohesion subscales of FRHG (N = 31)
Age of the child
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
father-mother.36* .42* .47** .64** .64** .63** .61** .66** .74** .59** .62** .72** .81** .85** .89** .86** .71** .89**
cohesion
Dyadicmother-child.76** .79** .82** .76** .81** .77** .69** .43* .72** .76** .72** .71** .72** .78** .74** .70** .55** .67**
Cohesioncohesion
father-child.64** .68** .71** .73** .67** .69** .63** .79** .78** .70** .57** .59** .61** .82** .81** .84** .81** .81**
cohesion
Note.*p<. 05 .**p<. 01 .
Table 4 1-month test-retest reliability of 3 power subscales of FRHG (N = 31)
Age of the child
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
father power .69** .69** .68** .69** .74** .72** .72** .60** .69** .67** .73** .30 .84** .72** .87** .85** .87** .69**
Power
mother power .33 .34 .34 .36 .32 .33 .43* .46** .48** .56** .46** .40* .37* .43* .54** .62** .69** .64**
child power .50** .51** .51** .45* .43* .42* .42* .38* .47** .48** .50** .52** .50** .54** .51** .51** .59** .67**
Note.*p<. 05 .**p<. 01 .

Table 5 4-month test-retest reliability of 3 cohesion subscales of FRHG (N =14)
Age of the child
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
father-mother.52 .51 .56* .60* .42 .16 .24 .13 -.06 .21 .41 .27 .60*.78**.85**.61*.76**.63*
cohesion
Dyadicmother-child.71**.70**.70** .45 .45 .46 .44 .40 .34 .34 .53 .52 .54* .46 .25 .27 .67**.61*
Cohesioncohesion
father-child.58* .57* .54* .46 .41 .43 .43 .33 .34 .47 .61*.68**.69**.81**.65* .63*.83**.65*
cohesion

Note.*p<.05 .**p<.01 .

Power

Table 6 4-month test-retest reliability of 3 power subscales of FRHG (N =14)
Age of the child
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
father power .68**.69**.69**.71**.73**.69**.68**.64* .63* .62* .53*.73**.73** .47 .57* .48 .50 .46
mother power .44 .44 .46 .41 .33 .35 .31 .22 .18 .12 .02 -.13 -.13 -.13 -.08 -.16 -.12 -.20
child power .41 .41 .41 .41 .44 .47 .48 .63* .65*.73** .42 .21 .20 .51 .53 .58* .48 .55*

Note.*p<.05.**p<.01 .

USAMI et al.

114

General family transition and family stability

Results and Discussions

by gender of child

Figure 1, 2 shows the transition of meanscores for each subscale of the FRHG by child’s

Methods

gender. Table 7, 8 presents stability of family

Research participants were identical to thoserelationship by child’s gender.

of study 1. We applied the FRHG scores from 3

This study confirmed that regardless of genderyears to 19 years considering robustness of theof the child, decline in parent-offspring

result based on the differences of the number ofcohesion were limited to early and middle

age by which participants answered.

adolescence, with no changes or improvements

We also applied the same methodology as

in family relationship quality before onset of

Sattin and Klackenberg’s (1992) in order toadolescence and after middle adolescence. Thisobtain more robust results of family stability

result was consistent with prior longitudinalwith the FRHG. We aggregated the annual data

researchusing wider time intervals, 3 years. 3 years

Furthermore, we found that child-opposite

averaged scores of FRHG subscales were

gender parent cohesion was weaker thansubtracted those from the average score of next

child-same

3 years to create one score of family stability.

finding is in line with the research showing that(e.g.

Feinberg

genderparent

et

al.,

2003)

cohesion. Thismothers’ and fathers’ relationships with sons
10.00

Weak (0) - Strong (10)9.00
Father-Mother Cohesion

8.00

Mother-Child Cohesion
Father-Child Cohesion

7.00

Father Power
Mother Power

6.00

Child Power
5.00

Family Related Stress
Friend Related Stress

4.00
3.00
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

age of the child

Figure 1

Estimated trajectories of FRHG subscales for men (N=80)

EXAMINING FAMILY RELATIONSHIP
WITH THE CURRENT NARRATIVES

115

10.00

Weak (0) - Strong (10)9.00
Father-Mother Cohesion
8.00

Mother-Child Cohesion
Father-Child Cohesion

7.00

Father Power
6.00

Mother PowerChild Power

5.00

Family Related Stress
Friend Related Stress

4.00
3.00
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

age of the child

Figure 2

Estimated trajectories of FRHG subscales for women (N=166)

Family relationship stability for male adolescents ( N =80)
Age of the child
3-5
6-8
9-11
12-14
3 years average
7.96
8.05
7.83
7.54
Father-MotherStability
.09
-.22
-.29
Dyadic3 years average
8.69
8.68
8.42
7.64
Mother-Child
Cohesion
Stability
-.01
-.26
-.78
3 years average
7.56
7.45
7.45
7.01
Father-Child
Stability
-.11
.00
-.44
8 .70
3 years average
8.86
8.92
8.81
FatherStability
.06
-.11
-.11
3 years average
8.27
8.35
8.43
8.46
Power
MotherStability
.08
.08
.03
3 years average
5.16
5.17
5.51
6.02
Child
Stability
.01
.34
.51
Table 7

15-17
7.04
-.50
7.06
-.58
6.75
-.26
8.28
-.42
8.38
-.08
6.62
.60

18-19
7.10
.06
7.23
.17
7.19
.44
8.17
-.11
8.26
-.12
7.20
.58

Note: For stability, scores greater than .50 or less than -.50 are shown with boldface.
2 years average score is created for 18 - 19 years.

Family relationship stability for female adolescents ( N =166)
Age of the child
3-5
6-8
9-11
12-14
3 years average
8.55
8.40
8.19
7.48
Father-MotherStability
-.15
-.21
-.71
Dyadic3 years average
9.43
9.14
8.83
8.28
Mother-Child
Cohesion
Stability
-.29
-.31
-.55
3 years average
8.34
8.15
7.79
7.05
Father-Child
Stability
-.19
-.36
-.74
3 years average
9.09
9.04
8.90
8.61
FatherStability
-.05
-.14
-.29
3 years average
8.76
8.79
8.86
8.92
Power
MotherStability
.03
.07
.06
3 years average
6.15
6.21
6.29
6.63
Child
Stability
.06
.08
.34
Table 8

15-17
7.18
-.30
7.97
-.31
6.54
-.51
8.28
-.33
8.91
-.01
7.25
.62

18-19
7.29
.11
8.23
.26
6.97
.43
8.23
-.05
8.93
.02
7.84
.59

Note: For stability, scores greater than .50 or less than -.50 are shown with boldface.
2 years average score is created for 18 - 19 years.

USAMI et al.

116

and daughters differ in their level of warms

Acknowledgements(Russell & Saebel, 1997). The results indicate

This study was supported by grants to Koubunthat developmental change of family triangle inWakashimaadolescence differed by child gender. For girls,

Promotion of Science (2010-2011).

from

Japan

society forthecohesion with mother remained higher than twoother dyadic cohesions after the onset ofadolescence. On the contrast, for boys, three

References

dyadic cohesions in family triangle became

Kotaka, M. (1998). A Study on factorial

equal level from the beginning of adolescence.

structure of late adolescents’ attitudes andPast research has shown that family transition

behaviors towards their parents. Japaneseprocess occurs at adolescence (Kotaka, 1998).

Journals of Educational Psychology, 46,This study adds a finding on the literature of

333-342.

family transition by showing that development

National Family Research Study Group (1999).

of dyadic cohesion in family triangle at

National Family Research of Japan 1998.

adolescence differs by child gender but not that

Stattin,of family member power.

Discordant

A limitation of the present study should be

Families: Developmental Tendencies over 18

considered. The present results are specific toyears. Journal of Marriage and the Family,

general54,940-956.

family transition

process. Future

H.

&

Klackenberg,

FamilyRelationsG.

(1992).

inIntactresearch should focus on difference of family

Wakashima, K., Kozuka, T., Itakura, N., &transition processes across the current family

Usami,

types in order to detect the determinants for

Cumulative Family Relationship : Examining

betterwith ICHIGEKI Interactional Mind 3, 92-98.

familyrelationshipdevelopmental period.

in

later

T.

(2010).

SimultaneousandWakashima,K., Usami,T., Kozuka,T., Itakura,N.
& Noguchi,S. (2010). A study examining theassociation between both past and the current
family relationships and child's family related
stress in late adolescence. 20th Anniversary
Conference, International Academy of Family
Psychology, May 13-16, 2010 Georgia USA.

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.2, 117-122<Original Paper: Research and Experiment>

Predicators for Marital Cohesiveness in Three-generation Family
Taku Kobayashi1), Norimasa Itakura2), Takaaki Usami2), Mio Sato2),
Airi Shimizu2), and Koubun Wakashima2)
1)

School counselor of Sendai-City

2)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this study was to unfold the complicated mutual link in the family. Specifically, we report how marital
relationship relates with other dyads in the three-generation family (first generation (G1) was referred as grandparents, second (G2)
as parents, and third (G3) as child’s generation) with Inventory for Character of Intra-Inter Generation in Kinship –“ICHIGEKI”-.
Result of multi regression analyses on wife-husband cohesiveness in multigenerational family revealed that seven dyadic
relationships are predictive of marital cohesiveness in three-generation family.
KEY WORDS: Multi-generation Family, Marital Relationship, Cohesiveness, ICHIGEKI

Family is a system based on complex

most core factor, marital relationship for anintercommunication. Therefore, it is not easy toassessment of three-generation family (firstunderstand how a specific dyad relates to others.

generation; G1 was referred as grandparents,

Wakashima, et al.(2010) showed the empiricalsecond generation;G2 as parents, and third

way to examine the association between dyads

geberation;G3 as child’s generation). It isin the family, but two limits can be pointed out

important to recover marital relationship forto their methodology. First, it is difficult toclinical treatments, because this relationshipreach any conclusions because they obtained

relate to not only themselves mental health but

excessive amounts of result. Second, there arealso the other family members’ mental health,large amount of potentially predictive factors toespecially child's mental health (Kawashima, etexamineinal. 2008). Therefore, to explore predicators for

multigenerational family. Hence, the analysis

marital relationship is useful for clinician who

should be performed for participants of eachhelps families.

thedyadicrelationshipfamily type.
To overcome the limitations, we focus on the

Methods______________________________________

Participants

CORRESPONDENCE

KOBAYASHI, Graduate

Research participants were Mother from G2.

School of Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi,

If there were two or more children (G3) in a

Aoba-ku, Sendai-city, 980-8576, Japan.

family, the participants rated the familye-mail: t_5884@live.jp

relationship with first-born child.

TO:

Measures

117

118

KOBAYASHI et al.

We assessed dyadic cohesiveness as familyDatamember’sin

middleclass working mothers. The mean age ofmulti-generational family with cohesiveness.

the participants was 43.89. Our purpose of thisCohesiveness-Scale was applied from one ofstudy was to reveal the way to effective family

the subscales of “Inventory for Character ofintervention to improve marital relationships.

Intra-Inter Generation in Kinship” (ICHIGEKI;

Hence, we selected low marital cohesivenessNoguchi et al, 2009). ICHIGEKI was devised

families based on questionnaire response

to measure 4-domains of family relationship(M=4.41), and then, 81 families whose score of(Cohesiveness, Power, Interest, and Openness).

the marital cohesiveness was in 1-4 ranges

Noguchi et al. (2009) pointed out thatwere chosen as objects of analyses.

Cohesivenessinter-relationship

is

most

core

domain

were

drawn

from

167

Japanesein

ICHIGEKI. Cohesiveness was measured forResults

each dyadic relationship by single item whichWe

were rated on 6-point Likert-style scale ranging

analysesfrom “very weak” (=1) to “very strong” (=6).

Analysis plan is shown at Figure 2. We

In this study, 17 dyadic relationships ingradually added the entering variables to reveal

three-generation family (see Figure1) were

the dyads that significantly relate to marital

rated with Cohesiveness-Scale.

cohesiveness on four different unit of family

Procedures

system.

HF

HM

conductedonfour

multiplewife-husband

WF

cohesiveness.

WM

Wi

Hu

regression

Ch
Figure 1. 17dyads in three-generation family※Note HF: husband’s father, HM: husband’s mother, Hu: husband,WF: wife’s father, WM: wife’s mother, Wi: wife, Ch: child.

PREDICATORS FOR MARITAL COHESIVENESSIN THREE-GENERATION FAMILY

119

Wi

Hu
Step 1

Ch
WM

WF
Wi

Hu

Step 2

Ch
HF

HM

Wi

Hu

Step 3Ch

HF

Step 4

HM

WF

WM

Wi

Hu

Ch
Figure 2. 4 analysis plans of this study※Note Solid line: Predictor variables , Broken line: Criterion variable
HF: husband’s father, HM: husband’s mother, Hu: husband,WF: wife’s father, WM: wife’s mother, Wi: wife,
Ch: husband’s and wife’s child.

120

KOBAYASHI et al.

First, we conducted multiple regression

Predicator variables for analysis3 were shown

analysis on marital cohesiveness for analysis1.

at Step 3 of Figure 2. We presented thePredicator variables for analysis1 were shown

supported regression model at Figure 5.

at Step 1 of Figure 2. We presented the
supported regression model at Figure 3.

Figure 3. The result of analysis 1

Figure5. The result of analysis 3

Analysis 2

Analysis 4

Second, we conducted multiple regression

Finally, we conducted multiple regression

analysis on marital cohesiveness for analysis 2.

analysis on marital cohesiveness for analysis 3.

Predicator variables for analysis 2 were shown

Predicator variables for analysis 3 were shownat Step 2 of Figure 2. We presented theat Step 3 of Figure 2. We presented the

supported regression model at Figure 4.

supported regression model at Figure 6.

Figure6. The result of analysis 4

Figure 4. The result of analysis 2
Discussions
Analysis 3

In this study, we focused on cohesiveness

Third, we conducted multiple regression

factor that was suggested as the most core

analysis on marital cohesiveness for analysis 3.

factor in “ICHIGEKI” (Noguchi et al., 2009)and low marital cohesiveness family.

PREDICATORS FOR MARITAL COHESIVENESSIN THREE-GENERATION FAMILY

121

In this study, we revealed dyadic cohesions in

On account of the space limitation, it isthree-generation family that relate to maritaldifficult to discuss about all results in this study.

cohesiveness. Seven dyadic relationships are

Based on our results, we should focus on larger

thefamily system (i.e. three generational family) tosignificant

predicatorsformaritalcohesiveness (see Figure 7 and Figure 8).

intervene marital relationship.
Nozue (2008) pointed out that problems
WM

HF

between married couples may occur resulted
from unsolved problems in their family of

HuWi

origin. However, the results of this study werelimited to dyadic cohesiveness between motherand her family of origin. Therefore, Nozue’sChsuggestion can be limitedly applicable tomother’s family of origin.

Figure 7. Dyads positively related tomarital cohesiveness

Moreover, the result of this study shows that

※Note Solid line: Predictor variables

G1-G3

relationships

as

well

as

G1-G2

Broken line: Criterion variable

relationships are important as predictive factors

HF: husband’s father, Hu: husband,for marital relationships. Given that findings

WM: wife’s mother, Wi: wife,

about G2-G3 relationships, it should be

Ch: child.

cautionstoconsidertwoparent-childrelationships (husband-child and wife-child) as
identical factors for marital relationship.
WF

WM

Future study should explore the nature of thecommunication, which can determine the

HuWi

quality of dyadic cohesiveness and should
examine the causal relationship about thoseCh

results for proving applicability of clinicalintervention.

Figure8. Dyads negatively related tomarital cohesiveness※Note Solid line: Predictor variables ,Acknowledgements
This study was supported by grants to Koubun

Broken line: Criterion variable

Wakashima

from

Japan

society for

Hu: husband, WF: wife’s father,

Promotion of Science (2010-2011) .

theWM: wife’s mother, Wi: wife,
Ch: child.

References
Kawasima, A., Maeshiro, K., Sugawara, M.,
Sakai, A., Ito, K. (2008). Relation between

122

KOBAYASHI et al.

adolescence child’s cognition toparental

conflict and child’s depression. Japanese
Journal of Educational Psychology, 56(3),353-363.
Noguchi. S, Kozuka, T., Usami, T., Wakashima,
K. (2009). Development and Examination of
Validityfor

Assessment

a
Scale

Report, Graduate

New

FamilyStructure“ICHIGEKI”.

AnnualSchoolof

Education,

Tohoku University, 58(1), 247-265.
Nozue, T. (2008). 夫婦関係の危機と援助.
In Nakagama, H., Nozue, T., Nunoshiba, H.,
Muto, S. (Eds.), Family Psychology. Tokyo:
Yuhikaku books, 173-191.
Wakashima, K., Kozuka, T., Itakura, N., &Usami,

T.

(2010).

SimultaneousandCumulative Family Relationship: Examining
with ICHIGEKI. Interactional Mind Ⅲ ,92-98.

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.2, 123-128<Original Paper: Research and Experiment>

Correlates of Family Structure Transition with Depression
in Family Caregivers of Dementia
Taku Hiraizumi1)*, Takahiro Kozuka1), Shuji Noguchi1), Norimasa Itakura1),
Koubun Wakashima1), and Keizo Hasegawa1)
1)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

ABSTRACT. This study examined family relationships between care receivers (CRs), primary caregivers (PCGs) and secondary
caregivers (SCGs) from the perspective of Cumulative Family Relationships and considered how this relationship has changed over
the years, as well as whether there is a difference between these changes and the depression of PCGs. Participants were 170 PCGs
who were caring in-home dementia CRs. The results of ANOVA and t-test showed that 1) Family Structures Transition were
statistically significant, and 2) Family Structure Transition differed according to the degree of depression. These results suggested
that Family Structure Transition should be considered when designing intervention strategies and assessment.
KEY WORDS: family structure transition, depression, family caregiver, dementia, cumulative family relationships

BackgroundPurposeWith the advent of Japan’s elderly society,

Incidentally, the composition of a “family” isproblems such as depression stemming froma crucial issue that needs to be assessed incare giving, elderly abuse, and burnout are

research on caregiving families (Hiraizumi,

drawing

Providing

2011a). Wakashima et al. (2010) and Hiraizumi

adequate support for caregiving families in dire(2011a) has provided the ways of assessing acircumstances is becoming a pressing issue.

family. Wakashima et al. (2010) has stated that

However, we are still in the initial stages ofa family is a “system based on relationships

searching for support avenues within the policy,

through intricate mutual interaction.” Two

in society, and in research. Moreover, weperspectives for understanding this are as

currently have not accumulated an adequate

follows: a) Simultaneous Family Relationships,

amount of comprehensive knowledge about themeaning a family’s current relationship and b)

family as a whole.

Cumulative Family Relationships, meaning asignificant

attention.

family’s relationship from the past until thepresent. In addition, they assert that a
CORRESPONDENCE TO: HIRAIZUMI, Graduate School

comprehensive understanding of the familyof Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi, Aoba-ku,

through these perspectives makes it possible to

Sendai-city, 980-8576, Japan.

conduct

e-mail: takuht@hotmail.com

effectiveness of family support. Furthermore,
Hiraizumi

123

research(2011a)for

have

improving

exploredthetheHIRAIZUMI et al.

124

relationship between care receivers (CRs),

structure: Inventory for Character of Intra-Inter

primary caregivers (PCGs), and secondary

Generation in Kinship (ICHIGEKI), (Kozuka et

caregivers (SCGs) from the perspective of a)al., 2008; Noguchi et al., 2009), and (c)SimultaneousandDepression: CES-D Japanese version (Shima etobserved the positive impact of this relationshipal., 1985). Family structure has defined as theon the stress responses of PCGs. Considering

structure of the relationship between CRs,

this, the purpose of this study is to examine

PCGs, and SCGs; in addition, it measured byfamily relationships between CRs, PCGs, andthree factors: Cohesiveness, Openness, and

SCGs from the perspective of b) Cumulative

Power. The instructions asked subjects to recall

Family Relationships and consider how thissituations “before beginning to provide carerelationship has changed over the years, as well(BC)” “immediately after beginning to provide

as whether there is a difference between thesecare (ABC)” and “the present (P)”. “Beforechanges and the depression of PCGs.

beginning to provide care” refers to the

FamilyRelationships

one-yearperiod

from

when

care

was

Methods

unnecessary to the point where the patient has

Procedures and Participants

certified as needing care. “Immediately aftera

beginning to provide care” refers to theself-administered questionnaire survey in a

one-year period of care giving after the patient

prefecture in northeastern Japan. Participants of

was certified as needing care. “The present”

the survey were Family Caregivers (PCGs)

refers to the point at which the survey had

providing care in the homes of the elderly who

conducted.

are or may possibly be afflicted with dementia.

respondents to rate their family structure on a

480 questionnaires were distributed to facilities

scale

and offices within the prefecture, and 170

10=extremely strong) during these three timecompletedperiods.

In

Septembersheets

2010,

we

were

conducted

collected(35.4%

of

The

1

to

questionnaire10(1=extremely

asked

weak,

response rate). The sample was selected on the

Definitions

basis of the following points: 1) whether there

Care receivers (CRs) defined as elderly

was no systematic deficiency, 2) whether thepeople who are or may possibly be sufferinglevel of care required was certified need level 2

from dementia and live at home. CRs wereor higher, or 3) behavioral and psychologicallimited to those who had certified as needing

symptoms of dementia (BPSD). The final

care and used daycare, at-home nursing, or

number of subjects was 140.

other care services. Primary caregivers (PCGs),

Measureson the other hand, defined as those family

The structure of the questionnaire focused onmembers who provided maximum care in terms(a) basic information (age, sex, relationship,of time and content. Secondary caregivers

and level of symptoms; (b) changes in family(SCGs)

definedasthosefamilyFAMILY STRUCTURE TRANSMITION AND DEPRESSION
IN FAMILY CAREGIVERS OF PEOPLE WITH DEMENTIA

125

members/relatives who provided care for CRs

not had SCGs. Including PCGs, the average

equal to PCGs in terms of time and content.

number of family members who lived in theBased on the purpose of this study, whichsame household was 3.85 (SD. = 1.65), thefocuses on several bilateral relationships, weaverage number of years of care provided was

did not exclude the respondents who answered5.95 (SD = 3.91), and the average number of

SCG as family members/relatives who lived inhours of care provided a day by PCGs was 8.47

distant areas.

(SD = 5.63). Specifics on the statistics werementioned in Hiraizumi (2011b). Prior to the

Results

main analysis, respondents were grouped into

The average ages of CRs, PCGs, SCGs were

“normal” and “depression prone” based on the85.68 years (SD = 7.52), 60.42 years (SD =CES-D scale cut-off point, and a Family

9.65), and 55.85 years (SD. = 13.41),

Structure factor score was calculated separately.

respectively. There were 111 PCGs (79.3%)

Results are shown in Figure 1-3.

who had SCGs, and 29 PCGs (20.7%) who did

8.00
7.50

8.00

8.00

8.00

7.50

7.50

7.00

7.50

7.00

7.00

6.50

7.00

6.50

6.50

6.00

6.00

5.50

5.50

6.00

6.50

5.50
5.00

6.00

5.50

ABC

BC
BC

現在
P

Total （n=111）（n=111）
Total
5.00

PCGs and SCGs

SCGs and CRs

5.00

5.00

介護開始以前介護開始直後BC

PCGs and CRs

ABC

ABC

BC

P

P

Normal group （n=40）

BC

ABC

P

ABC

P

Depression prone group （n=71）

BC : before beginning toprovide care

ABC : immediately after
beginning to provide careP : the present

Figure 1 : Average Values for Cohesiveness
6.50

6.50

6.50

6.00

6.00

5.50

5.50

5.00

5.00

4.50

4.50

4.00

4.00

6.00

3.50

3.50

8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00

5.50

3.00

3.00

BC
BC ::: before
beforebeforebeginning
beginning
beginningto
totoBC
provideprovidecare
care
care
provide

8.00

6.00

5.50

7.50

5.00

7.00

4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00

6.50

BC

5.00

ABC

BC
BC

P

Total （n=111）

ABC
ABC

主介護者と要介護者
PCGs and CRs
主介護者と副介護者
PCGs and SCGs
副介護者と要介護者
SCGs and CRs

BC

P

BC

P

ABC

ABC

P

P

Depression prone group （n=71）

Normal group （n=40）
正常群 （n=40）ABC
ABC ::: immediately
immediately
immediatelyafter
after
after
ABC
beginning
beginningto
totoprovide
provideprovidecare
care
care
beginning
Present
P
P :: thethepresent:
Present:present

図２
開放性の平均値のグラフ
FigureFigure21::22:
1
Average
Average: Average
Average
ValuesValuesValuesValues
for
for
for
for
CohesivenessCohesiveness
Openness
Openness
7.50
7.00
6.50
6.00
5.50
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00

7.50
7.00
6.50
6.00
5.50
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
介護開始以前介護開始直後

BC

ABC

Total （ n=111）

現在

P

7.50
7.00
6.50
6.00
5.50
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
介護開始以前介護開始直後

BC

ABC

Normal group （ n=40）

現在

P

PCGs to CRs
PCGs to SCGs
CRs to PCGs
CRs to SCGs
SCGs to PCGs
SCGs to CRs

BC

ABC

P

Depression prone group （n=71）

Figure 3 : Average Values for PowerBC : before beginning toprovide care
ABC : immediately after
beginning to provide careP : the present

HIRAIZUMI et al.

126

Next, we conducted an ANOVA (comparisonin the depression prone group, while Power ofbetween subjects, 5% level) using the Family

SCGs over CRs increases in the normal group.

Structure factor score for both normal and

Results are shown in Table 1 and 2.

depression prone groups at each of the three

Next, we conducted a t-test on the Family

points in time as variables to examine if there

Structure factor score variables for both normal

are any changes in the Family Structure.

and depression prone groups in order to detect

Results demonstrated that Family Structure

any differences between the groups. The result

factor scores are significantly different for bothshowed differences between the normal andnormal and depression prone groups in the

depression prone groups in 1) Cohesivenessthree time periods. Furthermore, both normal

among

and depression prone groups shared theimmediately after beginning to provide care tofollowing

Opennessthe present and 2) PCGs’ Openness from before

increases, 2) PCGs’ Power increases, and 3)

beginning to provide care until the present.

CRs’

Results are shown in Table 3.

changes:

Power

1)

PCGs’

decreases.

In

addition,familymembersfrom

Cohesiveness between PCGs and CRs declines

Table 1: ANOVA Results for Family Structure Scores at Three Time
Periods for Normal Group
Cohes i venes s
PCGs a nd CRs
PCGs a nd SCGs
SCGs a nd CRs
Opennes s
PCGs a nd CRs
PCGs a nd SCGs
SCGs a nd CRs
Power
PCGs to CRs
PCGs to SCGs
CRs to PCGs
CRs to SCGs
SCGs to PCGs
SCGs to CRs

① BC

② ABC

③P

M （SD ）

M （SD ）

M （SD ）

F valuemain effect

6.49 (2.62)

5.68 (2.37)

6.17 (2.87)

F (2, 39) = 2.023

n.s.

7.24 (2.31)

7.56 (2.29)

7.05 (2.32)

F (2, 39) = 1.349

n.s.

6.76 (2.95)

6.39 (2.88)

6.63 (2.97)

F (2, 39) = 0.791

n.s.

5.22 (2.94)

5.98 (2.65)

6.46 (2.91)

F (2, 39) = 5.511***③>①

4.39 (3.07)

4.78 (3.02)

5.37 (2.97)

F (2, 39) = 8.162***③>②=①

4.00 (2.99)

4.17 (2.97)

4.61 (3.01)

F (2, 39) = 3.665*

n.s.

5.02 (2.69)

6.27 (2.71)

7.46 (2.63)

F (2, 39) = 19.055***

5.69 (2.79)

5.95 (2.49)

6.49 (2.68)

F (2, 39) = 4.845*

6.24 (2.99)

5.29 (2.66)

3.49 (2.71)

F (2, 39) = 17.857***①>②>③

5.68 (3.17)

4.95 (2.99)

3.56 (2.77)

F (2, 39) = 15.487***①=②>③

6.37 (2.55)

6.39 (2.38)

6.17 (2.45)

F (2, 39) = 0.459

5.17 (2.66)

5.63 (2.71)

6.49 (3.23)

F (2, 39) = 7.037***(n =41) * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001
BC : before beginning to provide care
ABC : immediately after beginning to provide careP : the present

③>②>①
③>①

n.s.
③>②=①

the

time

FAMILY STRUCTURE TRANSMITION AND DEPRESSION
IN FAMILY CAREGIVERS OF PEOPLE WITH DEMENTIA

127

Table 2: ANOVA Results for Family Structure Scores at Three Time
Periods for Depression Prone Group
Cohes i venes s
PCGs a nd CRs
PCGs a nd SCGs
SCGs a nd CRs
Opennes s
PCGs a nd CRs
PCGs a nd SCGs
SCGs a nd CRs
Power
PCGs to CRs
PCGs to SCGs
CRs to PCGs
CRs to SCGs
SCGs to PCGs
SCGs to CRs

① BC

② ABC

③P

M （SD ）

M （SD ）

M （SD ）

F valuemain effect

6.51 (2.45)

5.54 (2.28)

5.04 (2.97)

F (2, 68)=9.972***①>②=③

6.66 (2.57)

6.23 (2.46)

6.40 (2.76)

F (2, 68)=1.345*

n.s.

5.90 (2.56)

5.40 (2.50)

5.07 (2.83)

F (2, 68)=3.982*

n.s.

3.93 (2.92)

4.80 (2.92)

5.16 (3.24)

F (2, 68)=6.373*③=②>①

3.46 (2.55)

3.79 (2.51)

4.50 (2.87)

F (2, 68)=9.640***③>②=①

3.30 (2.72)

3.54 (2.67)

4.20 (2.92)

F (2, 68)=5.707**③>②=①

4.61 (2.83)

5.50 (2.72)

6.64 (2.95)

F (2, 68)=23.135***③>②>①

5.17 (2.79)

5.69 (2.76)

6.01 (2.78)

F (2, 68)=6.520**③>①

6.19 (2.61)

5.27 (2.66)

3.89 (3.06)

F (2, 68)=33.465***①>②>③

5.23 (2.92)

4.30 (2.72)

3.41 (2.70)

F (2, 68)=23.061***①>②>③

5.94 (2.63)

5.81 (2.51)

6.00 (2.65)

F (2, 68)=0.484

n.s.

5.53 (2.81)

5.54 (2.61)

5.96 (3.07)

F (2, 68)=1.897

n.s.

(n =70) * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001
BC : before beginning to provide care
ABC : immediately after beginning to provide careP : the present

Table 3: t-Test Results for Normal and Depression Prone Group Family Structure Scores
befpre beginning to provide care
Depression
prone group

Normal group

Cohes i venes s
PCGs a nd CRs
PCGs a nd
SCGs a nd CRs
Opennes s
PCGs a nd CRs
PCGs a nd
SCGs a nd CRs

immideiately after beginning to provide caret -value

Depression
prone group

NormalM （SD )

t -value

M （SD )

the present
Depression
prone group

NormalM （SD )

t -value

M （SD )

M （SD )

M （SD )

6.49 (2.62)

6.51 (2.45)

n.s.

5.68 (2.53)

5.54 (2.28)

n.s.

6.17 (2.87)>

5.04 (2.97)

7.24 (2.31)

6.66 (2.57)

n.s.

7.05 (2.32)>

6.23 (2.46)

1.732

†

7.56 (2.29)>

6.40 (2.76)

2.270*

6.76 (2.95)

5.90 (2.55)

n.s.

6.39 (2.88)>

5.40 (2.50)

1.901

†

6.63 (2.97)>

5.07 (2.83)

2.756**>

1.956*

5.22 (2.94)>

3.93 (2.92)

2.243*

5.98 (2.65)>

4.80 (2.92)

2.116*

6.46 (2.91)

5.16 (3.24)

2.128*

4.39 (3.06)>

3.46 (2.55)

1.727

†

4.78 (3.02)>

3.79 (2.51)

1.869

†

5.37 (2.97)

4.50 (2.87)

n.s.

3.30 (2.72)

n.s.

4.17 (2.97)

3.54 (2.67)

n.s.

4.61 (3.01)

4.20 (2.92)

n.s.

4.00 (2.99)(Normal group N = 41, Depression prone group N = 70) , † p<.10, * p<.05
t -values are only given for variable pairs that had a statistically significant average score.
Statistically significant differences in average scores for variable pairs are indicated by “<.”
There were no statistically significant differences in average scores for the three time periods for the power factor, and thus, these values were excluded.

Discussions

Transition differed according to the degree ofThis study examined the relationship between

depression. These results suggested that a

Family Structure Transition and depression in

unique change occurs in the structures offamily caregivers of dementia. Results showedfamilies who faced with the problem of caringthat 1) Family Structures Transitions were

for an elderly relative. Moreover, we canstatistically significant, and 2) Family Structure

predict PCGs’ depression from developmental

HIRAIZUMI et al.

128change of family relationships and thus

Relationships in care family (Ninchishouintervene at an early stage. Future study should

Kaigo

report a short term and/or family therapy

Sougorenkannipractice with viewpoint of this study.

BulletinCounseling

ni

of

okeru

Kazokukannkei

kansuruKenkyu).
Room,

no
The

TohokuUniversity Clinical Psychology, (8), 112-128.
Acknowledgements

Wakashima, K., Kozuka,T., Itakura, N., Usami,

We wish to express our deep appreciation forT., (2010). Simultaneous and Cumulative

cooperation provided by everybody who

Family Relationships : Examining withparticipated in the survey conducted in this“ICHIGEKI”. (“ICHIGEKI” wo Mochiita

study, as well as those who provided us withDoujiteki Ruisekiteki Kazokukannkei ni kan

accommodation and advice. This study wassuru Kenkyu). Interactional Mind Ⅲ, 92-98.

conducted with a grant provided by Tohoku
University

Interactional

Advanced

andEducation Organization (IARE).

References
Kozuka, T., Noguchi, S., Uruma, R., Ishibashi,
Y. & Wakashima, K. (2007). The study ofstructural

factorsinfamilyassessment.

Bulletin of Psychological Clinic, Rissho
University, 6, 19-32.
Shima, S., Kano, T., Kitamura, T. (1985).
Development of CES-D Japanese Version.
(Atarashi Yokuutsusei jiko hyouka shiki
shakudo nitsuite). Psychiatry, 27, 717-723.
Noguchi. S, Kozuka, T., Usami, T., Wakashima,
K. (2009) Development and Examination of
Validityfor

Assessment

a
Scale

New

FamilyStructure“ICHIGEKI”.

AnnualReport, Graduate School of Education,
Tohoku University, 58(1), 247-265.
Hiraizumi, T. (2011a). Correlates of Family
Structure and Stress Response in Caregiversof Dementia. Journal of Japanese Society for
Dementia Care, 10(1), 97-105.
Hiraizumi, T. (2011b). Dynamics of Family

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.2, 129-136<Original Paper: Research and Experiment>

An Idea of Compliment for “Tickling” Mind
Kosuke Ishii1), and Natsuki Maruta1)

1) Kagoshima Immaculate Heart University and Kagoshima City Center for Gender Equality

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this study is to try proposing the idea and analyzing about clinical usage of compliment, which heavily
weighted in the Brief Therapy. Maruta and Ishii (2008, 2009) has been proposed “Tickling” as one of the ideas about compliment.
The demonstrative study was defining “Tickling” as a compliment which was due to finding resource in the bitter reality based on
the three effective conditions about intervention “small, acceptable, and funny” suggested by Hasegawa(2005). This study was
conducted by using questionnaire, and searched the main factor of tickling and how it effects on feeling of comfortableness andprocess of cognition. From the result, some factors of tickling were clarified about their influence. Since the influence of titillating
feeling with “tickling” could confirm, importance of “tickling” as contrive of compliment was shown that the tickling changes
intrapersonal level of comfortableness and cognition regarding problem for positive way.
KEY WORDS: Tickling, Compliment, Change

Purpose“small, acceptable, and funny” suggested by

An Idea of Compliment for “Tickling” Mind

Hasegawa(2005).

The purpose of this study is to try proposing“Tickling” contains the senses of ticklish,

the idea and analyzing about clinical usage ofaccepted, and reality affirmative, and when thecompliment, which heavily weighted in the

ticklish was sensed, the process of cognition

brief-therapy, by demonstrating the compliment.

toward problem tends to change as positively.

Maruta and Ishii (2008, 2009) has been

The purpose of this study is to search the main

proposed “Tickling” as one of the ideas about

factor of tickling, and how it effects on feelingcompliment. The demonstrative study wasof comfortableness and process of cognition.

The

result

shown

that

conducted by using questionnaire, and defining“Tickling” as a compliment which was due toMethodfinding resource in the bitter reality based on

Participants

the three effective conditions about intervention

Participants were chosen from university
students. There were total of 254 participants,

CORRESPONDENCE TO: ISHII, Department of Childand 232, including 52 males and 180 females,studies, Kagoshima Immaculate Heart University, 2365

became an object after excluding data of

Amatatsu-cho, Satsumasendai-city, KAGOSHIMA, 895-0011,

missing value. This study was conducted inJapan.

November to December in 2008.

e-mail: k.ishii@jundai.k-junshin.ac.jp

Questionnaire
The questionnaire that consisted of 3 scales

129

130

ISHII and MARUTA

was made referring to the scale that Maruta andscale that is about how one’s cognition about

Ishii(2008) had produced based on preparatory

problem has been changed, tickling recognition

investigations and previous study of (2004).

scale that measures the feeling after ticklish

The composition of the questionnaire is 1)

word was given, and 6) free response.

demographic profile for each participant which
included gender and age, 2) three brief settings

Resultsof the students who have certain maladaptive

1. Ascertain the factorial structure for eachproblems (factor between individuals : having

scale and calculate subordinate scale score

difficult to make friends, left behind study,

The factor analysis for tickled recognition

juvenilegets

The 3 factor structure was considered to beincomprehension ), 3) comfortable criterion

valid after 18 items were analyzed by principal

that

student’s

factor method. The final pattern of factor andstandpoint about comfortableness of school, 4)

the correlation between factors after executetickling(compliment) scene from teacher to thepromax rotation are in Table1. Each factor wasparticular student, 5) another comfortable

named; ticklish factor was the first (α=.91),

criterion that must be answered from student’s

remaining the status factor was the second

standpoint about after he or she get tickling,(α=.91), and empathy acknowledgment factor

change acknowledgment regarding problem

was the third (α=.80).

mustdelinquentbeanswered

who
fromTable 1
Factor analysis of recognition of tickling scale

Ⅰ

Ⅱfeel bashful

1.01

-.21

-.01 .74

feel ticklish

.96

-.01

-1.10 .81

feel embarrassed

.83

-.02

.07 .72

feel won the praise

.66

.24

-.04 .69

feel proud of myself

.57

.18

-.05 .48

feel encouragement

.41

.32

.12 .56

feel to be able to accept myself

-.08

1.00

-.05 .82

understood

.04

.79

.03 .71

able to think objectively

.09

.75

-.17 .52

feel relieved

.18

.72

.00 .73

feel ok to being myself

-.15

.66

.04 .34

feel being affirmed from others

.17

.48

.21 .60

feel getting understand from others

.27

.42

.28 .73

feel not getting understand from others

.02

.04

-.80 .59

feel denied from others

-.08

.14

-.79 .56

feel not at home

.15

-.10

-.76 .57

Ⅰ

Ⅱ

Ⅲ

.74

.49

correlation factor
Ⅰ
Ⅱ
Ⅲ

―

―

Ⅲ

.65
―

AN IDEA OF COMPLIMENT FOR “TICKLING” MIND

131

The factor analysis for comfortableness scalevalid after 30 items were analyzed by principal

The 3 factor structure was considered to befactor method. The final pattern of factor andvalid after 17 items were analyzed by principal

the correlation between factors after executefactor method. The final pattern of factor andpromax rotation are in Table 3. Each factor was

the correlation between factors after executenamed; feeling of solved problem factor waspromax rotation are in Table2. Each factor was

the first (α=.89), and problem deterioration

named; positive feeling factor was the first

factor was the second (α=.79). Since the third(α=.89), growth factor was the second (α=.90),

factor was configured from only 2 factors, it

and relax factor was the third (α=.84).

was excluded from the data.

The factor analysis for variation about
cognition regard problem
The 3 factor structure was considered to be

Table 2
Factor analysis of comfortableness scale
Ⅰ

Ⅱ

Ⅲ

like to stay at classroom.99 -.08 -.08 .80

have good time at classroom.96 -.14.01 .77

fun to stay at classroom

.74

.13

.08 .78

make friends.64.28 -.16 .57

get cheerful feeling.55.29 -.01 .58

uninteresting to stay classroom-.37 -.16 -.04 .26

muster motivation.07.85 -.08 .73

have someone to talk to.02.85 -.07 .67

able to set goal

-.04

.82

.06 .69

feel looked after from someone

-.02

.81

.06 .69

mentally growing

.07

.50

.29 .58

being able to feel relax.10 -.17.91 .78

being able to stay myself

-.06

.13

.79 .69

being able to stay calm

.08

.01

.79 .72

not being able to obedient myself.19 -.03 -.50 .18

feel comfortable

.23

.08

.45 .46

correlation factor

Ⅰ

Ⅱ

Ⅲ

Ⅰ

―

.68

.63

Ⅱ
Ⅲ

―

.57
―

132

ISHII and MARUTA

Table 3

Factor analysis of acknowledgment variation on problem
motivated to solve problem

Ⅰ

Ⅱ

Ⅲ

.89

.03

-.25

.75

considering to change own behavior

.88

.02

-.25

.74

ways to approaching problems has been changed

.86

-.09

-.16

.74

found the things which should be done

.82

.12

-.05

.63

if I get the same problem in future, my behavior will change

.81

.08

-.12

.62

there should be something that I can do to solve the problem

.80

.04

-.04

.62

got confident myself about solving the problem

.80

-.15

.05

.74

I can understand the problem clearly

.78

.25

.06

.59

the way of thinking has been changed

.77

.01

-.03

.58

I admit that my behavior has a point for improvement

.76

.26

-.22

.59

felt relieved

.75

-.15

.12

.69

.74

-.01

.13

.60

countermeasure toward problem has been settled

.73

.13

.04

.52

got new opinion

.71

-.09

-.08

.52

I believe that I can do a lot of things

.70

.08

.04

.49

feel fine

.70

-.10

.18

.63

understood the importance of problem

.68

.13

.21

.52

feel secure

.67

-.22

.10

.62

reduced anxiety level

.66

-.20

.19

.65

being able to organized own feeling

.66

-.23

.14

.63

reduced stress level

.63

.00

.23

.51

.63

.03

.16

.45

increased stress level

-.10

.90

.09

.80

feel depressed

-.02

.82

.20

.59

feel confused

.10

.66

.14

.37

realized seriousness of problem

.27

.54

-.18

.39

problem became unconcern

-.11

.18

.77

.50
.46

the connection between the problem and myself have beenchangedfound the exceptional behavior in myself that leads goodresultfeel fine even if I have problem

.23

.10

.63

correlation factor

Ⅰ

Ⅱ

Ⅲ

Ⅰ

―

Ⅱ

-.22

.21

―

-.40
―

Ⅲ

In addition, subordinate scaling score was

score

and

standard

deviationofcalculated from average score of recognition ofsubordinate scaling is shown in Table 4.

eachtickling scale, comfortableness scale, andacknowledgement variation on problem scale,

2. Discussions about correlation and causation

based on obtained raw score of subordinate

Cross correlation about tickling recognition

scaling data from factor analysis. The average

scale,

comfortablenessscale,andAN IDEA OF COMPLIMENT FOR “TICKLING” MIND

133

acknowledgement variation on problem scale isacknowledgment variation on problem scale asshown on Table 4. Also, in order to discuss thea dependent variable. The result is shown on

influence about comfortableness scale andTable 5. The path diagram based on multiple

acknowledgment variation on problem scale

regression analysis is shown Figure 1. In thefrom three subordinate scaling score in tickling

Figure 1, correlation of subordinate scaling

recognition scale, multiple regression analysis

score about tickling recognition scale was also

was conducted based on each subordinate

stated.

scaling score of comfortableness scale andindependent variables was exceedingly high,Ticklish

Although.50***.75***
Remaining.40***

Positive feelingthe status(R2=.25).55***
Empathy）acknowledgement

Ticklish.33***.75***
Remaining.40***.35***

the status

Growth(R2=.40).55***
Empathy）acknowledgement

Ticklish.28***

Remaining.61***.75***.40***

the status.55***

Feeling of solved
Problem(R2=.70)

Empathyacknowledgement）

Figure 1. Path Diagram

correlation

between

134

ISHII and MARUTA

Ticklish.75***
Remaining.40***.61***

the status

Relax(R2=.37).55***
Empathy）acknowledgement

Ticklish.75***

ProblemRemaining.40***

Deterioration

the status(R2=.38).55***
Empathyacknowledgement-.61***）

Figure1 (Continued). Path Diagram

AN IDEA OF COMPLIMENT FOR “TICKLING” MIND

135

the variable of VIF and CI was not indicatedremaining the status toward relax showed

multicollinearity.

multiplesignificance, but no significance was shown

regression analysis, standard partial regression

ticklish toward empathy cognition. Ticklish andtowards positive feeling about ticklish indicatedremaining the status toward sense of resolution

significant, but there was no significanceindicated significance, but ticklish toward

between the remaining the status and empathy

empathy cognition did not shown significance.

cognition. Also, ticklish and remaining the

Empathy cognition toward deterioration of

status toward growth indicated significant, but

problemlevel of significance could not found fromsignificance was founded in remaining theempathystatus toward ticklish.

Thecognition

resulttowardofgrowth.

The

showedsignificance,

but

no

136

ISHII and MARUTA

Discussions

References

From the result of this research, some factors

Keizo, H., (2005). Solution Bank. Tokyo:of tickling were clarified about their influence.

KANEKOSHOBO.

First, titillating feeling with “tickling” madeYukako, H., Takako, H., Kosuke, I., Junya, K.,change the negative feeling about maladjusted

Kohei, S., Keizo, H. (2004). A Study ofenvironment,

Communication

increased

motivation

about

between

Clients

andCounselors'

Responses

andgrowth facilitated the transition of problem

Counselors:solving. Second, the feeling about maintain the

Clients' Cognitive Changes. (Counselor tosame status increased relaxation and motivation

Clientabout growth in maladjusted environment, andIchikosatu: Counselor no Oto to Client nofacilitated the change of problem solving.

Ninchitekihenka

Finally, the recognition secured empathy

Conference presentation abstracts of the

suppressed impression about deterioration ofJapanese Association of Family Psychology.

problem. Since the influence of titillating

Natsuki, M., Kosuke, I., (2008). A New

feeling

Approach to the Compliment to Tickle Clients'

with“tickling”

could

confirm,noCommunication

Ⅰ .

no

Kanren).

nikansuruThe

21th

importance of “tickling” as contrive ofHeartscompliment was shown that the tickling

Compliment ni yoru Igokochi Ninchi nochanges intrapersonal level of comfortablenessHenka ni kansuru Kenkyu: Kainyu tosite no

and cognition regarding problem for positive

Kusuguri no Kanosei wo Saguru). The 25thway.

Conference presentation abstracts of the(Kokorowo

Kusuguru

Japanese Association of Family Psychology.
Natsuki, M., Kosuke, I., (2009). A New
Approach to the Compliment to Tickle Clients'
HeartsⅡ .

(Kokorowo

Kusuguru

Compliment ni kansuru Kenkyu: Igokochi to
Mondai no Toraekata no Henka ni Shoten wo
Atete). The 26th Conference presentation
abstracts of the Japanese Association of
Family Psychology.

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2011, Vol. 1, No.2, 137-138<Case Report>

The switch of Self-efficacy: from Undesirable Behaviors to Independent Learning
Michiyo Takahashi1)
1)

Yamagata Branch, National Foundation of Brief Therapy

KEY WORDS: Brief therapy, Problem behavior, Paradoxical intervention

Problematic behaviors

when he finished lunch earlier than other“A” was mental retardation boy who went toclassmates. The pattern of the interaction waselementary school. As he adapted to the school

always unilateral.

and gradually enlarged the field of activities, hestarted to slip out of his classroom during class.

Our support policy to “A”

Moreover, when he went along the corridor, he

His class teacher had tried to control his

turned off all lights in the floor.

behavior. However, his effort had not been

His mischief continued because he enjoyedsucceeded. In actuality, he was pleased with hisreaction of others such as a stir and a rebuke.

teachers’ reactions. In addition, other children

That situation was considered as a vicious

mimic his behaviors. Hence, class teacher wascircle.

not able to manage his class. Team meetings
were held to discuss course of supporting planof “A”.

Character of boy “A”
To put it briefly, he was very humorous boy.
He had a little vocabulary because of mental

Policy of supporting plan

deficiency. However, he used to play the foolGivenby acting in funny manner such as hitting his

communication, class teachers tried to increase

forehead on a door and a pillar. Therefore, hethe visual information in his classroom

always grabbed attentions from both classenvironment (on the desk and wall, and so on).

teacher and classmates. In addition, he played

The intervention aimed for “A” to be able towith toy (paper-made cellar-phone) alone,

have a prospect of plan of the classes and the

that

his

characteristics

ofactivities. We expect the intervention bring him
CORRESPONDENCE TO: Takahashi, Yamagata Branch,a feeling of belongingness to his class.

National

Class

Foundation

of

Brief

Therapy,

5-23-27

teacher

stoppedprohibiting“A”sKojirakawamachi, Yamagata-city 990-0021, Japan.

behaviors. Instead of that, he focused to changee-mail: takahashimak@sky.plala.or.jp“A”s behaviors to be more desirable. Besides,
class teacher was asked to work on building a

137

138

TAKAHASHI

good relationship with “A”s by sharing various

Afterwards,

feelings.

increased in various settings (class, lunch break,desirable

behaviors

wereand event). That happens in line with increasing
Interventions from class teacher to “A”

high-five with class teacher. His undesirable

Teacher (T): Hi, A. Is it …difficult…? Can you do
that…? Is it too difficult for you …?

behaviorofpushingswitches

almostdisappeared.

Boy A (A): What, What is it? What should I do?
T: It’s interesting and exciting thing! …Now you used

Discussions

to push the light switch once…only once...

For “A”, it was easier to understand class“Clack!”… It is too easy for you! So, can youteacher’s suggestion with onomatopoeia thanpush it more? … For example… twice! “Clack,that withclack”! I think very exciting. Do you think so?

expression “Crack!” was suited for him. Before

But it is it too difficult for you to do that? Not

the intervention, he tended to behave based on“Clack”, but “clack, clack”.

emotion and his selfish standard. However,spoken words. Therefore, theA: O.K.! It’s easy for me! I will be able to do that!

positive interaction with class teacher brought

T:.And…in addition to this…, whenever you succeed

him some changes; enjoying various activities

with this big project, please tell me. O.K.? Can

with others in the class and behaving withyou do that, too?

awareness to presence of others. These changes
were a reliable proof of self-awareness,

A: O.K.!

independency and sociality.

-------------- A few days later -----------------A: I could do “clack, clack”!
T:Really?

It’swonderful!

Good

job!

Yeah!

(High-five)

Change of “A”(1) “A” become to talk to a class teacher forreporting “clack, clack”.
(2) Conscious of practicing “clack, clack”, hebecame to act independently, which can lead
to better perceptual-motor coordination(3) Compliments from class teachers led “A” toleave his seat less time(4) He noticed the change of his friends’
reactions to his action. Since, he experienced
that his friends said “thank you!” even though
he intended to play trick on them.