International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family ScienceVol. 5, No. 1, 2015

CONTENTS
Original Paper: Research and Experiment
A Study on Korean Married Couples’
Conflict Resolution Strategies and Family Structure
Kyung-Ran Yu ........................................................................................................................ 1-18
The Development of Solution Building Inventory Japanese version- Validation of the SBI-JGen Takagi, Koubun Wakashima, Kohei Sato, Michiko Ikuta, Ryoko Hanada,
Sara Smock Jordan................................................................................................................ 19-25

Case Report
School consultation to promote cooperation between elementary and junior high schools: A case of apreventive intervention in the school transition problem
Shuhei Iwamoto ...................................................................................................................... 26-40

International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2015 Vol. 5, No.1, 1-18
< Original Paper: Research and Experiment >A Study on Korean Married Couples’
Conflict Resolution Strategies and Family Structure
Kyung-Ran Yu 1)
1)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

ABSTRACT. This study provides a discussion on how family structure affects marital conflict resolution strategies for middle-aged
married women in South Korea and its socio-cultural contexts. A questionnaire survey was conducted on 187 South Korean married
women. The result found a model explanation of relationships between family structure and marital conflict resolution strategies: (1)Bond of father and mother causes mother’s high other-orientedness, and power of mother over father does mother’s highself-orientedness. (2) When mother’s recognition that bond of father and child is strong, there is high possibility that mother selects
yielding than conciliation.(3) When bond of mother and child is strong, there is high possibility that mother selects yielding thancompetition. Power of child over mother causes mother’s low self-orientedness and high other-orientedness, in particular, yielding.
These results can be ascribed to distinctive South Korean family structure, that is, family-orientedness, child-orientedness, andpatriarchal system.
KEY WORDS: Marital relationship, Family structure, Conflict resolution strategies, Middle-aged married women

Introduction and purposes

most potent sources of distress in daily life

Interpersonal conflict can be defined as “the(Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler, & Schilling, 1989).

state in which the process of a person’s

Nonetheless,behavior, feelings and thoughts is hindered bypositive aspects as well: Conflicts occur overthe behavior of another person” (Kelley, 1987),

time, so they can involve a progressiveor “a dynamic process first occurs between

transformationinterdependent parties as they experienceinteraction

negative emotional reactions to perceived

2001).

disagreements

theindividual’s understanding of self and his or her

attainment of their goals” (Hartwick & Barki,

interconnectedness with others, (Deutsch, 1973;

2004).

personal

Shantz & Hobart, 1989) and are seen as

relationships, affecting individuals and groups

responsible for giving participants important

alike.

information

Interpersonal conflicts are among one of the(Vuchinich, 1990)

It

and

occursinterference

frequently

in

with

interpersonal

of

the

conflicts

structure(Jensen-Campbell

Also,

conflicts

about

&

can

social

have

of

the

Graziano,enhanceanboundaries.

The way in which people deal with these
CORRESPONDENCE

TO:

Yu

Graduate

Schoolofinterpersonal

conflicts

iscalledconflict

Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi, Aoba-ku,

resolution strategies (CRS). The prototype of

Sendai-city, 980-8576, JAPAN.

CRS was suggested by Blake & Mouton (1964).

e-mail: pinkrang125@gmail.com

They suggested five types of bosses in1

2

organizations,Yu.

namely,withdrawing(low

Vaillant, 1993; Reika, 2006, 2009). It isconcern for both people and productivity),

because conflict resolution is a central task insmoothing (high concern for people and low

the maintenance of marital quality for bothconcern for productivity), forcing (low concern

husbands and wives (Fincham & Beach, 1999).

for people and high concern for productivity),

Marital conflict resolution strategies and theirproblem solving (high concern for both people

effects have been evaluated to be different

and productivity), and compromising (moderate

between the West and the East. For example,

concern for both people and productivity). Then,

European American samples showing that

Thomas (1976) extended this model bycompromising and collaborative behaviors areproposing that a party’s desire to satisfy his/her

related to high marital quality (Greef & De

own concerns, as well as the desire to satisfy

Bruyne, 2000; Marchand & Hock, 2000). Also,

the other’s concerns will determine theunresolved

behaviors used to pursue those concerns.

interactions such as yielding between spouses“Dual concern model” (Pruitt & Rubin, 1986),

leaves dissatisfaction and eroding effects on thewhich was suggested by combining the two,

quality of marital relationships in the Western

divided the goals of problem resolution into theculture (Gottman & Krokoff, 1989; Vaillant &two axes of concern for self (self-orientedness)

Vaillantm 1993). Meanwhile, Reika (2006,

and concern for others (other-orientedness), and2009) reported that yielding, reversely, canseparated resolution strategies into competition

support long-term marital relationships, which(high concern for self and low concern forcannot be thought in the Western culture, where,

other), cooperation (high concern for both self

therefore, she stressed the importance ofand other), conciliation (moderate concern forinterpreting CRS based on cultural contexts.

both self and other), avoidance (low concern

Wheeler, Updegraff, & Thayer (2010) also

for both self and other) and yielding (lowstated that cultural investigation needed to beconcern for self and high concern for other).

proceeded before understanding CRS in marital

Since then, the dual concern model has been

relationships. This cultural difference can be

widely used in research in order to findascribed to Western individualism and Eastern

differences between individuals in their conflictcollectivism, which has been broadly pointed

resolution strategies (e.g. Rubin, Pruitt, & Kim,out (e.g. Kim & Leung, 2000; Lee & Rogan,

1994; Ruble & Thomas, 1976; Van de Vliert &1991; Leung, 1988; Ting-Toomey et al., 1991;

Kabanoff, 1990).

Ting-Toomey

It should be noted that dual concern model has

Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca, 1988;

been implemented in studies on marital

Trubisky, Ting-Toomey, & Lin, 1991)

relationships (e.g. Fincham & Beach, 1999;

However, as Reika (2006, 2009) mentioned,

Greef & De Bruyne, 2000; Marchand & Hock,studies on marital CRS in the East are rarely

2000; Gottman & Krokoff, 1989; Vaillant &found,

conflictwhich&

reinforced

Oetzel,requires

2001;

more

negative

Triandis,

culturalA Study on Korean Married Couples’Conflict3

investigation of marital CRS; there can be othervalues in Mainland China, newly reshaped one

factors beyond mere Eastern collectivism. Songwith stoicism, martial virtues, and extra-family(1997) also underscored the importance ofloyalties in Japan, and to comparatively

future practical studies to support family

well-retained one ascribed to the authoritarian

therapy which can be used in various spectra ofrulership in South Korea. Under the milieu,

collectivism in Asia. Here, it should be noted

South Koreans are paid the attention to inthat, in not only marital CRS but also other

understanding conflict resolution strategies insocio-psychological agenda, most of researches

collectivistic Confucianism.

have

Particularly, this study focuses on middle-aged

beenstudiedintheWesternofindividualism (Triandis, 1989), while 70% of

married women inside family structure.

population in the world live in the area of

because conflict and resolution are repeatedcollectivism (Bell, 1987). This biased flow hasover a long period in marital relationships

been

parochial(Reika, 2006; 2009), and women entering

misapprehension of collectivism (Schwartz,

middle age start to feel more composed as they1986). It is not surprising that thoughts on

are to some extent released from child-rearing

marriage and family can be varied even in

and housework and, amid repeated conflict andbetweenEastern

resolution in numerous aspects, are said to turncollectivism (Berg & Jaya, 1993). In particular,

their attention to the situation that conflicts

as far as East Asia is considered, Confucianism,

have built up and become fixed (Tursunova,

which has requested patriarchal collectivistic

2011). Moreover, Yu (2014) found that South

imperatives of the Five Bonds (where ruler,

Korean middle-aged women with children as

father, husband, elder brother, and friend should“motivation

be the living standard to ruled, son, wife,other-oriented conflict resolution strategies,

younger brother, and friend, respectively) andwhich means that child is a crucial component

the extended patrilineal duty inside familyof South Korean family structure based on

structure (where the dead should be the living

traditional Confucianism. This study also has astandard as sons so that the deceased familytarget of middle-aged married women so that it

may show reverence to the dead by holding

may investigate the relationships between

ceremonies as the dead did to their antecedents

Confucianism and family structure as well.

when he was alive), has been modified under

To corroborate the distinctive collectivistic

modernization, industrialization, and other

Confucian values on married women such associal backgrounds. As Tu (1989) noted, it“good wife, wise mother” (Sekiguchi, 2010)

resulted in running the gamut of various

inside South Korean family structure, this study

metamorphoses in collectivistic Confucianism;

examines the following hypotheses.

from drastically devastated one due to Marxian① In marital conflicts, South Korean women

movements ousting all the so-called feudalisticwith weak power of mother over father will

evaluatednationstoleadsharing

to

the

of

marriage

life”

It is

chose

4

Yu.

yield more than those with the strong power.

① A face sheet: family composition, ages of② In marital conflicts, South Korean women

wife and husband, marriage history.

with strong bonds of mother and child will

② Areas of marital conflict: responding to theyield more than those with the weak bonds.

questionnaire “what is the usual reason of

Furthermore, the structure of the family,

conflicts between you and your husband inwhich is a system operated by patterns ofmarital life; select one”, and selecting one frominteraction (Minuchin, 1984), can be seen as“children and their education”, “division of

the amassed result of communications based onhousework”, “daily habits”, “one another’stheTherefore,

speech and behavior”, “values and religion”,

examining the effect that family structure has“finances”, “husband’s family”, and “other”.

on conflict resolution strategies enables us to

These alternatives were prepared by a previous

investigate the effect of culture on conflictresearch of semi-structured interviews about

resolution strategies.

the most frequently happening of marital

cultureof

eachcountry.

conflicts with 7 middle-aged South Korean
Methods

women and another 7 Japanese women (Yu etParticipantsal., 2013).

A questionnaire survey was conducted on 400③ Conflict resolution strategies at such

South Korean married women in Daejeon,

conflicts: responding to the questionnaire

South Korea. The sample was mainly recruited“what is the most common type of solutions infrom two provincial high schools by tellingthe marital conflict; select one”, and choosing

students to ask their mothers to fill the survey.

one from “ avoidance which is to escapeAfter weeding out the questionnaires with items

emotional tense between each other in front ofleft unanswered, 187 qualified questionnaires

problems”, “conciliation which is to suggest awere obtained, which means an overall

mediating idea in the middle of disparate

effective rate of 46.8%.

opinions of the two”, “yielding which is tosatisfy the spouse’s desire and to give up one’s

Data collection methods

own desire in the case that the two have

Participants were asked to take part in the

disparate opinions”, “competition which is tosurvey directly or through acquaintances

assert one’s opinion is right between the

between September 2014 and January 2015.

opposing opinions of the two” and “cooperation

Data were gathered under the participants’

which is to get one’s idea lucid and to do one’s

agreement.

endeavor to cooperate with the spouse in thecase that the two have disparate opinions”.

Contents of questions④ The ICHIGEKI scale regarding three-way

The questions composed of the followings.

relationships between father, mother, andItems

children(Noguchi,Kozuka,Usami,&

A Study on Korean Married Couples’Conflict

Wakashima, 2009; selecting from 1 to 10):

5

University.

bond of mother and father, bond of father andchild, bond of mother and child, power ofmother over father, power of father over mother,

The framework of analysis
For analysis, SPSS Ver.22 was utilized.

power of father over child, power of child overMainly,multiplelogistic

regression

father, power of mother over child, and power

analyses were performed with ICHIGEKI

of child over mother.

variables (bond and power among threepeople) as independent variables andEthical considerations

conflict

Before the survey, the author explained

resolution

strategies

asdependent variables.

about the aim of this study, protection of
their anonymity, and their right to freely

Resultsrefuse to answer questions or take part in

Sample profile

the survey and obtained their agreement

Table 1 shows participants’ details of

to participate in the study. The author

their ages, and ages of their husbands,

also explained to them that the data

first children, and marriage years. The

resulting from the study would be usedsubjects were aged between 38 and 60

only for research purposes and how theyears (average age=45.6, SD=3.8) anddata would be stored, used, and destroyed.

had been married for 13 to 37 years

It should be noted that this research was(average age=20.0, SD=3.3). As a result,operatedofage of husbands were distributed from

Research Ethics Evaluation Board in

41.0 to 65.0 years (average age=48.5,

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku

SD=3.7), and age of the first children

under

the

approbation

6

Yu.

were distributed from 13.0 to 29.0

(F=15.310, df=2, p<.001). With t-tests, it isyears(average age =18.2, SD=2.8).

revealed that power of father over mother was
higher than power of mother over father (t=2.13,

Selection ratio of conflict areas

p<.05), that power of father over child than

Table 2 shows selection ratio of conflict

power of child over father (t=7.10, p<.001), andareas. The most selected conflict areasthat power of mother over child than power of

were, in sequence, children and theirchild over mother (t=2.94, p<.01).

education (29.9%), daily habits (26.2%)
and husband’s family (12.8%).

Conflict resolution strategies depending onfamily structure

Selection ratio of conflict resolution strategies

Next, multiple logistic regression analyses

Table 3 shows selection ratio of conflict

were performed, of which the whole results areresolution strategies. The most selected conflictshown in Table 5. Here, where two choices A vs.

resolution strategies were cooperation (42.2%),

B are show, B is the reference category. The

conciliation (15.5%), and yielding (15.0%).

greater the odds ratio OR is than 1, the higher
the possibility is that A will be chosen over B.

Family structure
Table 4 shows compared results in between

1. Relationships between father and mother

ICHIGEKI scales of South Korean family

1-1. Bond of father and motherstructure. Among bond scores, bond of father

The stronger bond of father and mother was,and child was lower than bond of father andthe greater the possibility was that cooperation

mother, and bond of mother and child bothwould be chosen over avoidance in cooperation

A Study on Korean Married Couples’Conflict7

vs. avoidance (OR=1.951, S.E.=.188, p<.001),

The stronger bond of mother and child was,and that cooperation would be chosen overthe greater the possibility was that yielding

competition in cooperation vs. competition

would(OR=2.002, S.E.=.196, p<.001).

competition vs. yielding (OR=1.806, S.E.=.286,

1-2. Power of mother over father

p<.05).

The stronger power of mother over father was,

3-2. Power of child over motherthe greater the possibility was that conciliation

The stronger power of child over mother was,would be chosen over yielding in conciliation

the greater the possibility was that yieldingvs. yielding (OR=1.622, S.E.=.244, p<.05), thatwould be chosen over conciliation in yielding

competition would be chosen over yielding invs. conciliation (OR=1.740, S.E.=.230, p<.05),

competition vs. yielding (OR=2.033, S.E.=.237,

over competition in yielding vs. competition

p<.01), and that cooperation would be chosen(OR=1.714, S.E.=.234, p<.05), and over

over yielding in cooperation vs. yielding

cooperation(OR=1.442, S.E.=.182, p<.05).

(OR=1.476, S.E.=.188, p<.05).

2. Relationships between father and child

Discussion

2-1. Bond of father and child

From the results, three questions can be

The stronger bond of father and child was, thefollowed: How do relationships between father

greater the possibility was that yielding would

and mother affect mother’s CRS in conflicts

be chosen over conciliation in yielding vs.

betweenconciliation (OR=1.545, S.E.=.221, p<.05)

relationships between father and child affectbechoseninfatheroveryielding

andcompetitionvs.

mother?

incooperation

How

do

mother’s CRS in conflicts between father and3. Relationships between mother and childmother? How do relationships between mother3-1. Bond of mother and childand child affect mother’s CRS in conflicts

8

Yu.

A Study on Korean Married Couples’Conflict

9

10

Yu.

do

Second, relationships between father andrelationships between father and child affectchild affect mother’s CRS in a very

mother’s CRS in conflicts between father andlimited way. When mother’s recognition

mother? How do relationships between motherthat bond of father and child is strong,and child affect mother’s CRS in conflicts

there is high possibility that motherbetween father and mother? Figure 1 visualizes

selects yielding than conciliation. Insofar

their answers.

as relationships between father and childFirst, relationships between father anddo not include mother but affect mother’smother affect mother’s CRS in two ways.

behavior, these can be thought to be

Bondindirect channels for mother.

betweenfatherofandfathermother?

andHow

mothercausesmother’s high other-orientedness, andThird, relationships between mother and

power

does

child affect mother’s CRS in two ways.

mother’s high self-orientedness. In other

When bond of mother and child is strong,words, the less power of mother overthere is high possibility that motherfather was, the more a South Korean

selects yielding than competition.

woman yielded to her husband. Here, thePower of child over mother causes

hypothesis 1 that, in marital conflicts,

mother’s low self-orientedness and highSouth Korean women with weak power ofother-orientedness, in particular, yielding.

mother over father will yield more thanHere, the hypothesis 2 that, in marital

those

was

conflicts, South Korean women withrelationships

strong bonds of mother and child will

between father and mother include andyield more than those with the weakaffect mother’s behavior, they can bebonds

thought to be direct channels for mother.

relationships between mother and child

of

with

confirmed.

mothertheoverstrongInsofarasfatherpower

wasconfirmed.

Insofaras

A Study on Korean Married Couples’Conflict

11

include and affect mother’s behavior,mentioned, Japan and South Korea came tothese can be thought to be direct

have different family structures in the course ofchannels for mother.

modernization, industrialization, and what not,Above all, South Korean middle-aged marriednotwithstanding sharing Confucian culture (Tu,women’s CRS in conflicts between mother and1989). As much as to support the discrete

father is heavily influenced by not indirect but

features among the Confucianism, Byeon, Lee,

direct channels. On the other hand, Figure 2

and Kim (1992) found that perceived familyshows that direct channels affect mothers’ CRS

cohesion and perceived family-identity arein three ways: Bond of father and mother,higher among citizens of Seoul, South Korea

power of mother over father, and relationships

than those of Fukuoka, Japan. Kim (1996) also

betweenhighstudied on family-oriented consciousness ofother-orientedness, high self-orientedness, andSouth Koreans and Japanese, and showed thatlow self-orientedness/high other-orientedness

scores of “emotional family cohesion” and(that is, yielding). Additionally, child’s power“united life style in family” are higher among

over mother lets mother comply with father inSouth Koreans than Japanese. Mikane, Kirino,

conflicts between father and mother. Mother’s

Futoyo, and Nakajima (2011) also operated aself-orientedness can only be achieved via

comparative study on family cohesion between

direct channels between father and mother thatJapan

give mother two alternatives; self-orientedness

Adaptability and Cohesion Scale III (Olson,

and other-orientedness.

Portner, and Bell, 1982). As a result, South

Here, two assumptions on South Koreans’

Korean university students showed higherfamily structure can be given.

scores than Japanese and South Korean parents

First, that most of channels affecting Southalso did higher scores than Japanese, both of

Korean middle-aged married women’s CRS are

which showed South Koreans have a sense of

direct ones can be thought to be ascribed tosignificantly higher family cohesion thanSouth Korea’s distinctive family structure

Japanese.

(Obuchi, 1997). It can be assumed that

Second, that the channel between mother andemotional cohesion is important, and thatchild causes yielding, namely, lets motherattending to relationships between the thirds

comply with father can be ascribed to South

without oneself cannot happen, since all the

Korean conservative and patriarchal family

members should be involved ininterpersonal

system that is based on child’s existence, whereconflicts

family.

To

one can find the Confucian distinctive value,

corroborate this assumption, future study on

namely, “good wife, wise mother” (Sekiguchi,

how different relationships between family2010). Such collectivistic family-orientedness

structures and CRS are between Japan andhas been comparatively retained well in SouthSouth Korea is needed. It is because, as

Korea for all modern industrialization (Tu,mother

in

South

cause

mother’s

Korean

and

South

Korea

with

Family12Yu.

1989). Whilst this conclusion also leaves

50.1% of the married and 38.2% of theimportance of cross-cultural comparative study,

unmarried in South Korea responded the same

one can still find its bases. The followings show

answer.

that South Koreans’ view on children as not

Second, let’s consider what South Korean

independent being but their extension ofchildren think of their parents. Suzuki (2012)

marriage lives, namely, the most important

asserted that South Korea has “Confucian

belongings of family structure that parents

family pattern” based on filial duty whichconstructed.

differs from “Japanese family pattern”. Mikane,First, let’s consider what South Korean

Kirino, Futoyo, and Nakajima (2011) also

parents think of their children. Kim et al.

operated(2006) reported that there were differences in

responsibility between Japan and South Korea

answers to a question that asks “what do you

with the Simple Scale of Attitudes toward Filial

think of having a baby?” between Japanese andResponsibility in East Asia (Mikane et al.,South Koreans. In South Korea, “having a baby2010). As a result, South Korean university

is a natural thing” was answered by 85.1%,

students showed higher scores than Japanese,“having a baby makes marital relationship be

and South Korean parents also did higher

more stable” by 46.1%, and “a baby makes lifescores than Japanese, both of which showed

be joyful” by 43.5%. Otherwise, in Japan,

South Koreans have a sense of significantly“having a baby is a natural thing” washigher filial responsibility than Japanese. Thisanswered by 68.5%, “a baby makes life bedifference of socio-cultural contexts can be

joyful” by 59.7%, and “I wanted to have a baby

seen in parents’ views on child indeed.

of my beloved one” by 21.9%. “Having a baby

Both parents’ views on children and children’s

makes marital relationship be more stable” wasviews on parents for South Koreans manifest

answered merely by 21.5%. Kojima (2006)

children as extension of their marriage lives. As

showed very similar results, as well. For

farexample, to a questionnaire saying “having a

conservative patriarchal system is still a strong

baby in marriage relationships is a must-do”,

factor inside South Korean culture (Ch’oe,

38.8% of the married and 40.8% of the

1984; Sodei, 1995), and that Confucianism

unmarried in Japan answered “yes”, andemphasizes lineal descendants are considered,otherwise, 66.6% of the married and 58.9% of

it is not odd to think that child’s existence leads

the unmarried in South Korea did “yes”.

to mother’s complying with father. That power

Furthermore, to a questionnaire asking “whatof father over mother was higher than that of

do you think of having a baby”, 23.4% of themother over father appears to be also owing tomarried and 16.4% of the unmarried in Japan

patriarchal Confucianism, which needs further

answered “having a baby helps marital

comparative cultural studies for confirming thisrelationship to be more stable”, and otherwise,

assumption. Then, one question may arise:asacomparative

that

study

Confucianism

onfilialformulating

A Study on Korean Married Couples’Conflict

13

How can child’s existence be related toSouth Koreans, in particular, conservative

conservative

Confucianism. However, these suggestions

patriarchal

systemin

Confucianism?

leave an additional cross-cultural comparative

In conservative Confucianism, not holding a

study. Sodei (1995) also noted that “filial duty”

ceremony for the repose of one’s ancestors is a

was weakened as Japanese patriarchal systemgrave sin, and, in order to hold the ceremony

which emphasized lineal descendants had been

and obey filial duty, it is incumbent on married

deconstructed since the post-war era started,

couples to bear babies and retain patrilineal

and that “filial duty” in Japan is not so strong as

descendants rather than matrilineal ones, i.e.,in South Korea. Here, differences of parents’men than women, and sons than daughters

view on children can be assumed between(Ch’oe, 1984; Kaji, 1990). Therefore, it can be

Japanese and South Koreans.

expected

As a future study, a research which examinesthatfamily-orientedness,

Confucianism

leavesandthe influence of culture on conflict resolution

patriarchal system. The three cannot be

strategies by targeting middle-aged women

separated, but convoluted in Confucianism.

from Japan and South Korea and focusing on

Above all, the first assumption is thought to be

the family structures that they recognize isrelated to family-orientedness, and the second

needed.

assumption

Besides, it was found that a mother who hastochild-orientedness,child-orientedness

andpatriarchal system, respectively.

strong power over father would rather choose

In conclusion, this study showed that childhigher self-oriented strategies; conciliation thanhelps mother to yield in marital conflict, whichyielding,

canofcooperation than yielding. Here, it can becollectivistic

deduced that power of father that his wife

Confucianism. However, it was found that low

perceives affects her behavior. This result canself-oriented

tobe related to South Korean distinctive family

unstable emotion (Kato, 2003). When negative

structure based on Confucian values. However,feeling is induced inside a South Korean wife

this study leaves two limits. First, suchby selecting yielding strategy due to her child,interpretation should be dealt with carefully,

marital satisfaction can be lowered. Clinically,

because wife-selected strategies’ dependency

this suggests another perspective of intervening

on power of father over mother was not madein South Korean family therapy.

out significantly. Second, family structure wasbeconsideredinfamily/child-oriented

strategies

areaspects

correlatedcompetitionthanyielding,

andassessed merely via wife’s perceiving. As far as
family is a system operated by patterns of

Future perspectives
This

study

suggestedthat

relationships

interaction (Minuchin, 1984), a future study

between family structure and CRS can bewhere not only wife’s view but also husband’s

ascribed to distinctive socio-cultural contexts ofare considered is needed.

14

Yu.

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International Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2015 Vol. 5, No.1, 19-25< Original Paper: Research and Experiment >The Development of Solution Building Inventory Japanese version- Validation of the SBI-JGen Takagi1), Koubun Wakashima1), Kohei Sato2),
Michiko Ikuta3), Ryoko Hanada4), Sara Smock Jordan5)
1)

Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University

2)

Yamagata University

3)

Kanagawa University of Human Services

4)

Tokyo Woman's Christian University

5)

Texas Tech University

ABSTRACT. Original version of Solution Building Inventory (SBI), developed by Smock et al. (2010), assesses an individual’sability to identify exceptions, solutions and hope in the future. The purpose of this study was to develop a Japanese version of the
Solution Building Inventory (SBI-J) and test its psychometric properties. Six hundred and eighteen Japanese undergraduate students
completed the SBI-J along with the Dispositional Hope Scale (DHS) and the Life Orientation Test- Revised (LOT-R). Factor
analyses found that the SBI-J is a one factor model with an acceptable fit containing 13-items. Strong internal consistency were also
found (α=.879). Moreover, the SBI-J also possesses convergent validity. Overall, the SBI-J is a reliable and valid measure of theconstruct of solution building.
KEY WORDS: Solution-Focused Brief Therapy, Solution Building Inventory

Introduction

them their preferred future in a process

Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT)

known as solution building (De Jong &is a resource-based psychotherapy modelBerg, 2013).

developed by de Shazer & Berg(1986).
SFBT

is

for

focusingon

1. SFBT and Study of Effectivenessone’s

problems

and

Over

known

“exceptions”

to

the

years,

evidenceofthevarious interventions such as: scaling

effectiveness of SFBT has grown. An

questions, the miracle question, andinitial study by de Shazer (1985) foundcopingSolution-focusedthat 23 out of 28 cases improved during atherapists listen, select, and build fromsix month follow-up survey. Anotherthe client’s language to co-construct withfollow-up survey (de Shazer et al., 1986)

questions.

found that 72% of clients (out of 400)
CORRESPONDENCE TO: Takagi Graduate School ofreported improvement. de Shazer &Education, Tohoku University, 27-1 Kawauchi, Aoba-ku,

Molner (1985) found that 50 out of 56

Sendai-city, 980-8576, JAPAN.

studiedclients

reportede-mail: water3flea3@gmail.com

change,

with

of

19

92%

significant

thoseclients

20

Takagi et al.

reporting change in unexpected areas of(Smock et al., 2010). The literature

their life.

suggests that solution building includes
three components: the client clearlyMore recently, three meta-analyses on

identifying their solution (De Jong &SFBT have been completed. Stams, et al.

Berg,(2006) found small to medium effect forawarenessbehavior change. Kim (2008) also found a

problem(s) (De Jong & Berg; de Shazer,

small effect in favor of SFBT for behavior

1991), and the client developing hope forchange.

their future (Berg & Dolan, 2001).

Park

Jung-im’s(2014)

2013),

increasing

of

the

client’s

to

their

exceptions

meta-analysis on SFBT group counselingThe

for children found effect sizes ranging

instrument measure that uses a 5-pointfrom 1.03 – 1.61.

LikertSFBT has been recognized in the US as

Although the literature describes solution

a “promising practice model” by the Office ofbuilding as possessing three components,

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

factor analysis yielded one factor scale(OJJDP, 2009) and the Substance Abuse and(see Smock el al for details). The SBI has

MentalAdministration

been found to be a reliable (α= .88) and(SAMHSA) lists solution-focused group therapy

valid measure on both clinical (Smock,as an evidence-based practice.

2013) and non-clinical (Smock et al.,2010)

HealthServices

While research on SFBT in the US and

SBI

is

scale

a

14-item(Smock,etEnglishal.,2010).

populations.

Europe continues to grow, Japan islacking in effectiveness research on the

3. Purpose of Studymodel. One reason for the lack of

The purpose of this study was toempirical support for SFBT in Japan isdevelop

becauseof

Inventory-Japanese version (SBI-J) andsolution building exists, SFBT’s main

examine its factor structure, reliability,

construct. Thus, the aim of this study isand validity. The Dispositional HopetonodevelopJapaneseameasures

Japanese

Solution-Building

Inventorythe

Solution

Building

versionof

Scale (DHS) and Life Orientation Test-

(SBI)

to

Revised (LOT-R) scales were used to test

measure the effectiveness of SFBT in

the convergent validity of the SBI-J.

Japan.

Methods
2. What is the SBI

1. Data Collection

The purpose of developing the SBIJapanese

instrument was to measure the central

different Universities completed a survey

construct of SFBT, solution building(N= 618) containing the SBI-J, the DHS,

undergraduates

at

three

Solution Building Inventory Japanese version

21

and the LOT-R. The sample consisted oftranslated version of the SBI were found

226 men and 384 women (with 8

when compared to the original SBI. The

unknown responses). The average age offinal items of SBI-J are given in Table1.

the sample was 19.64 years (SD=2.37).

2)

Dispositional

Hope

Scale

(DHS):

According to Smock et al. (2010), the
2. Questionnaires

concept of solution building, measured by

1) Solution Building Inventory-Japanese:

the SBI, possess an aspect of hope. We

We create the 14-item Japanese version

used a Japanese version of the DHS,of the SBI (Smock et al., 2010) with thedeveloped by Kato and Snyder (2005), toauthor’s consent. The development of thetest convergent validity.

SBI-J included:

12-item(i) Translating the original SBI into

Likert scale.

Japanese.

3) Life Orientation Test (LOT-R): Smock(ii) Having the SBI-J back translated foret al. (2010) also used the LOT-R to test

accuracy purposes by a professional

convergent validity.

translation company.

and Tanaka’s (2002) Japanese version of(iii)

Comparing

the

back

translated

instrument

The DHS is a

using

a

4-point

We used Sakamoto

LOT-R to measure goal setting andversion to the original SBI. Modifications

confidence

in

goal

attainment.

The

to natural ordering were made to theJapanese version of the LOT-R contains

SBI-J based on this comparison.

10-items using a 5-point Likert scale.

(iv) Once the modifications were made tothe

SBI-J,

thesame

professional

Resultstranslating company once again back

1. Fundamental statistics

translated our SBI-J into English. No

We show fundamental statistics ofsignificant differences in our final back

SBI-J in Table2. We tested for any ceiling

Table1 14-item of SBI-J
SBI 1
SBI 2
SBI 3
SBI 4
SBI 5
SBI 6
SBI 7
SBI 8
SBI 9
SBI 10
SBI 11
SBI 12
SBI 13
SBI 14

私は，解決を生み出すことができる
私は，人生で起こって欲しいことに，意識を集中する能力がある
私は，自分に良い変化をもたらした出来事について考えることができる
私は，たとえ少しだけでも，自分の状況がそれほど圧倒されていないときに，意識を集中することができる
私は，人生における困難に，上手く対処できているときがある
私は，自分自身，他者，自分の状況の中にある，良いことに気づくことができる
私は，人生における数々の挑戦に取り組んでくることができた
もしも，明日目覚めたときに，自分の人生になにか奇跡が起こっていたなら，きっと自分自身と他者の変化に気づくことができるだろう私は，自分が生み出す，小さい肯定的な変化に気がついている
私は，自分が困難な状況に対処できたことについて，実に誇りに思えるようなときがある
私は，挑戦したことを上手にやり遂げたことが，過去にある
私は生活を向上させるために，新しい一歩を踏み出してきた
私は，自分の状況が部分的にはとても困難に思えるときでも，良い点に目を向けることができる問題を考えすぎることは，解決策を見つけるのに最適な方法ではないかもしれない22

Takagi et al.

Ta b le2 Fundament a l S t a t is t ics of S BI-J
item

M

Median

SD

SBI 1
SBI 2
SBI 3

3.28
3.13
3.61

3
3
4

0.83
0.89
0.79

SBI 4
SBI 5

3.21
3.32

3
3

0.78
0.83

SBI 6
SBI 7
SBI 8

3.58
3.33
3.29

4
3
3

0.79
0.94
0.90

SBI 9
SBI 10
SBI 11

3.10
3.49
3.66

3
4
4

0.86
0.92
0.92

SBI 12
SBI 13
SBI 14

3.36
3.10
3.56

3
3
4

0.91
0.95
0.89

5-point Likert scale(N =618)

Ta b le3 Fa ct or A na l ys is (b y m a j or fa ct or m et hod )itemfactor 1

SBI 11

0.72

SBI 3

0.68

SBI 12

0.66

SBI 1

0.65

SBI 7

0.65

SBI 5

0.64

SBI 6

0.60

SBI 10

0.58

SBI 2

0.56

SBI 13

0.56

SBI 9

0.56

SBI 4

0.50

SBI 8

0.43

SBI 140.27

Solution Building Inventory Japanese version

23

or floor effects in 14-item SBI-J scale. No

5. Validity of the SBI-J

effects were found.

In order to investigate the convergent
validityofthe

SBI-J,

correlations

2. Exploratory factor analysis

between the composite score of the SBI-J,

An exploratory factor analysis was run

the DHS, and the LOT-R were calculated

in SPSS on the SBI-J by major factor(Table4). A correlation matrix shows thatmethod, fixing the number of the factors

the DHS (r=.643) and the LOT-R (r=.404)

to 1 in accordance with the factor

were

structure of SBI (Table3). Any items withcorrelated with the SBI-J. Composite

factor loading less than .30 were dropped

scores of the DHS and the LOT-R werefrom SBI-J. Only one item fell below

also significantly correlated with one

the .30 cut-off leaving the SBI-J with one

another (r=.276).

moderately,yetsignificantly,

factor and 13 items.

Discussion
3. Reliability analysis

1. Factor structure of the SBI-J

A reliability analysis was conducted on

Confirmatory factor analysis of thethe SBI-J in SPSS. The Cronbach's alpha

SBI-J found that this measure has oneof SBI-J was α= .879.

factor scale. This finding is consistent
with the original SBI measure (Smock et

4. Confirmatory factor analysisal., 2010). In addition, the SBI-J possess

In order to confirm the data-driven

a high internal consistency (α= .879).

13-item model of SBI-J, a confirmatory
factor analysis was conducted using

2. Validity of the SBI-J

Amos (Fig.1). The results indicated that

Smock et al. (2010) indicated that thethe data-driven 13-item model met the

DHS

GFI=.94(>.9);

LOT-R

are

AGFI=.91(>.9);high convergent validity. Therefore, the

CFI=.92(>.9); RMSEA=.07(<.1).

SBI-J version of the original instrument
is a valid measure.

Ta b l e4 C orrel a t i ons of S B I-J , DHS , a nd LOT-R
Scale

SBI-J

DHS

LOT-R

.404

***

.276

DHS

.643

***

－

***

P<.001significantly

correlated with SBI. Our study also foundcriteria for a good model fit,p<.00;

andχ2=275.09,

***

24

Takagi et al.
SBI-J

.65

.56

.68

.50

.64

.60

.66

.43

.55

.55

.67

.72

.59

SBI1

SBI2

SBI3

SBI4

SBI5

SBI6

SBI7

SBI8

SBI9

SBI10

SBI11

SBI12

SBI13

e1

e2

e3

e4

e5

e6

e7

e8

e9

e10

e11

e12

e13

Fig.1 C onfirma tory Factor A na lys is wit h 1 3-item M odel of S BI
2

χ =275.09, p <.00; GFI=.94; AGFI=.91; CFI=.92; RMSEA=.07

3. Directions for future research

DC: American Psychological Association.

This study found that the SBI-J is a

futureDe Jong, P., & Berg, I. K. (2013).
nterviewing for solutions (4th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage
Learning.

research on the SBI-J is expected tode Shazer, S., & Molnar, A. (1984). Fourconfirm these findings on a Japanese

useful interventions in brief family

speaking clinical sample. Testing thetherapy. Journal of Marital and Family

SBI-J on a clinical sample will play an

Therapy, 10, 297-304.

importantde Shazer, S. (1985).

valid and reliable measure of solution
building. Smock (2014) validated the SBI
withaclinicalrolesampleinandinvestigating

theKeys to Solution in

effectiveness of SFBT with Japanese

Brief Therapy. W. W. Norton, New York.

speaking clients. In addition, futurede Shazer, S., Berg, I. K., Lipchik, E.,

research on the SBI-J will investigate the

Nunnally, E., Molnar, A., Gingerich, W.,relationship between solution building&

and other psychological and social factors

therapy: Focused solution-development.

in clinical populations.

Family Process, 25, 207-222.
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Psychology, 60, 570–585.

Life

Orientation

Test,

of

Personality

and（the revised Life Orientation Test）の日本語版の検討 健康心理学研究， 15, 59–63.)

Appendix
SBI 1
SBI 2
SBI 3
SBI 4
SBI 5
SBI 6
SBI 7
SBI 8
SBI 9
SBI 10
SBI 11
SBI 12
SBI 13
SBI 1414- item of SBI © Sara Smock Jordan
I am able to generate solutions
I have the ability to focus on what I want to occur in my life
I can think about things that have made a positive difference for me
I am able to focus on times when my situation is not so overwhelming, even a little bit
There are times in my life when I am able to handle difficulties wellI am able to notice good things in myself, others, and my situation
I have been able to cope with life’s challenges
If I woke up tomorrow and a miracle happened in my life I would be able to notice
difference in myself and others
I am aware of small positive changes that I make
There are times when I am really proud of how I am able to handle difficult situations
I have successfully overcome challenges in the past
I have made steps towards improving my life
I am able to see good things in my situation, even though parts of it seem very difficult
Dwelling on my problems may not be the best way to find solutions

SocialInternational Journal of Brief Therapy and Family Science
2015 Vol. 5, No.1, 26-40< Case Report >School consultation to promote cooperation between elementary and junior highschools: A case of a preventive intervention in the school transition problem
Shuhei Iwamoto1)
1)

Doshisha Junior and Senior High School

KEY WORDS: cooperation with elementary school and junior high school, school transition, school counselor, preventive
intervention

Board (2007), there are two ways ofIntroduction
Schooltransition

fromelementary

thinking about it. One is the gap of

school to junior high schools may have aphenomenon;

increasing

bad influence on students. Schwerdt, G.

truant& West, M. R. (2013) surveyed statewide

suffering cause a significant decline inadministrative data from Florida, andacademic achievement. The other is thethey found that students moving from

gap of circumstances; the differences

elementary to middle school suffer a

between elementary school and junior

sharp drop in student achievement. They

high school, for example school rules andalso found that middle school entry

ways of guidance. From the phenomenon

increases student absence. In particular,

point of view, “The survey of the problems

students’ attitudes and achievement inof students’ bad behavior in 2013” by themathematics appear to be negatively

Ministry of Education in Japan said that

affected in this transition( Schielack, J. &theSeeley, C. L., 2010).

(22,340) are about three times as many as

Such a kind of school transition problem

that of 6th graders’ (8,010).

childrennumberofandtruantnumbersbullying

7th

of
and

graders

is called “Chuichi gap” in Japan. This

On the other hand, Usui(2012) talks

phenomenon means that the students

about 5 points with the changes of

who graduated from elementary school

circumstances.

cannot adapt to the junior high school.

1. The scale of school gets bigger (theAccording to the Niigata prefecture Education

number of students and teachers, thearea of the school).

CORRESPONDENCE TO: Iwamoto Doshisha Junior and2. The changes of the relationships

Senior High School, 89, Iwakura Osagichou, Sakyoku,

between students and students (meeting

Kyoto-city 606-8558, Japan.

the newcomers or older members of thee-mail: eto1503@yahoo.co.jp

club activity).

26

School consultation to promote cooperation

27

3. The changes of the relationships

higher school anxiety, and lower school

between teachers and students (Teacher

bonding. Another survey suggests thatin charge of the class system becomes

vulnerable students (e.g., low income,

Subject charge system and that requires

special education) are negatively affected

the students independent).

in school transition. We should know that

4. The student guidance in junior highthere are two types of students. One isschool gets more severe than that innegatively affected by the changes of

elementary school (To make students

circumstances and the other is not. We

follow the rules of the school).

have to find the ways to support high-risk

5. It’s easy for students to feel uneasy

students.

about studying because they have to

How can we support the students who

think about the entrance examination of

may be influenced for the worse by thehigh school.

change of their circumstance? To solve

The differences of circumstances caused

the school transition problem, a lot ofby school transition may be risks forschools have the events such as trial

students not to appropriate to their new

entrance to junior high schools, classschools. The differences of circumstancesinterchange, and meetings about theare not the only reasons to cause thestudents who will enter the junior highproblems

exampleschools. There are some studies to guide

increasing truant students, bullying andthe students to avoid the problems. For

declines in academic achievement, but

example, the study about using assertion

also the interaction of circumstances andand intervening in the ability of theindividuality may predict the school

students (Nishizawa, 2013), or making atransition problems. For example, in thehandbook for the teachers to understandstudy of Goldstein, S. E., Boxer, P., &the school transition problem (Kawamura,

Rudolph, E. (2015), early adolescents’

Osugi,

subjective

experiences

associated

with

in

transition(e.g.,school,

the

the

for

&

Shouji,2012).

But

such

of

stressguidance for all the students cannot be

middleschooleffective on the students who experienced

whichbullying,

extenttotruancyor

cannotadapt

students’ friendships had changed overthemselves to circumstances (Ito, 2013).

the course of the transition, and variety

They need individual warmer support.

of academic performance, school bonding

Therefore, to support the students whoand academic motivation) were surveyed.

have the possibility of not adjusting to his

Results

higheror her circumstances, junior high schools

amounts of middle school transition

should associate with elementary schools

stress we could predict lower grades,and pay great attention to such kinds ofindicated

that

with

28

Iwamoto.

students.

Solution

Referring to individual case about school

Shazer, S., Berg, I. K., Lipchik, E.,transition from elementary to junior highNunnally, E., Molnar, A., Gingerich, W. C.,

school, Nishikawa & Ikushima(2010)& Weiner Davis, M. 1986).

show the possibility to solve the school

Brief Therapy has the feature to focus

transition

on interaction, so it may be helpful for the

problembyusingschool

Focusedis necessary to practice again and again

indirectly (Tsugawa, 2003, Suzuki, 2011),

and assess the result (Tomiie & Miyamae,

but those studies are the consultation2009). About this point, as for individual

cases in a single school. I want this reportcases, there are only a few studies. While

to be based on the consultation case ofschoolboth elementary and junior high schools

importanceofassociation

thebetweenthedeteachers

recognize

support

Therapy,counselors. To make a good association, it

counselors

to

Brief

students

using Brief Therapy.

elementary and junior high schools, they
may not try to report a concrete solution.

Ⅱ．Case summary

Sometimes

between【A case about a junior high school whichelementary and junior high school may be

associates with an elementary school】

difficult because of the differences of theThis was the first year for the author to

way of guidance or the culture of thework as a school counselor of “A” juniorschools (Ito, 2013). It is an importanthigh school. I worked 8 hours a day, once

theme for both schools to know how toa week. “A” junior high school is a public

associate with each other.

school and it was founded about 70

thecooperation

In this paper, I will try to show you one

years ago. There are some industrial

case of preventive intervention to solve

complexes and a new residential area.

the school transition problem, and think

In this area, student guidance is moreof the role of school counselors in theimportant than educational counseling.

association of elementary and junior high“A” junior high school had 600 students

schools.

(from 7th graders to 9th graders). ThereI used the double description model ofwere two elementary schools in the area.

the Brief Therapy for the consultation

I made “A” junior high school cooperate(Wakashima, Hasegawa, 2000). Double

withdescription model is the way to see bothelementary school was founded 40 years

interaction of the problem(MRI; Mental

ago and had 600 students (from 1st

Research Institute model, Weakland, J.,

graders to 6th graders). The students ofFisch, R., Watzlawick., & Bodin, A., 1974)

thisand the exception of that (SFBT model;

residential area and public housing.

“B”

emlementary

schoolcomefromschool.

the

“B”

new

School consultation to promote cooperation

29

Figure1：A vicious circle of the association between the elementary school
Between these schools, there were
who adapted to the elementary schooland junior high school
some interchange events for the students
through appropriate support could not
and at the end of the year, the teachers ofadjust to his or her new circumstances.

the school guidance and school nurses of

The MRI model let me know that theyboth schools have a meeting, but there

made a vicious circle (Figure.1.) in

was no meeting which the teacher of theassociation with “A” junior high school

school counseling could attend.

and “B” elementary school. The students
who were supported appropriately could【 Assessment

andinterventionof

adapt to “B” elementary school but in “A”

association】

junior high school, he or she could not

I asked the teachers of educational

adapt to school because “A” junior highcounseling in “A” junior high school why

school could not have the chance to know

they didn’t have meetings with the

how he or she was supported in “B”

elementary school. They said, “maybe

elementary school. When “A” junior highthere is no time to have the meeting

school asked “B” elementary school about

about educational counseling, because

the student, they knew that the student

student guidance takes a long time. The

had needed special support. “A” juniorsystem of the elementary school ishighdifferent from that of the junior highelementary school because they didn’t tellschool, so the homeroom teachers of ourthem about it. So the relation between

school can’t provide the same support as“B” elementary school and “A” junior highthe elementary school to the students.”

school was getting worse and it became

The principal also told me that “A” juniorharder to have a meeting with each other.

highschoolwas

criticized

by

“B”

elementary school because the students

schoolhad

distrust

to“B”

To stop this vicious circle, I looked forresources to make an association of

30

Iwamoto.

Figure 2：IP’s family

school counseling, and found that theon the mother’s side, aunt on theschool nurse of “B” elementary school

mother’s side.

knew the teacher of school counseling

Her mother divorced because of the girl’scoordinationhighfather’s Domestic Violence to her motherschool(January, X). I asked the teacher ofand brother. Her mother had depression

school counseling coordination in “A”

and she and her aunt worked and made ajuniorliving (Figure.2).

highopportunity

in

“A”

schooltohavejuniortocreatetheanmeeting

informally. As a result, we could have the

The process

meeting because the school nurse in “B”

IP busted her arm because she fell downelementary school also wanted to talkat home. So she couldn’t go to school andabout the students who needed support

couldn’t make friends in her new class.

in junior high school. I am going to report

The fact that she didn’t have friends in

how the two schools associated with eachher new class made her feel uneasy atother through the case.

school. She couldn’t go to school without
her mother or her aunt. After thesummer vacation, she tried to go to school,【About the case】

but one of the students who went to

IP was the girl who didn’t go to school

school with her spoke ill of her, and shewhen she was in the 5th grade.

got sick and cried and went home. From
then,

every

morning

she

had

a

Familystomachache or headache. Moreover, theMother, elder brother, IP, grandmotherexperience when she was scolded by theSchool consultation to promote cooperation31

homeroom teacher when she couldn’t

using documents made by her homeroom

make a good presentation made her feelteacher.

scared about her teacher. She felt that

homeroom teacher of IP, the school nurse

only she was scolded even though theof “B” elementary school, the school

homeroom teacher scolded other students.

counseling coordinator and

She usually came late for school and thencounselor (author) of “A” junior highoften came to be absent from school (Herschool.

absence was 43 days in 5th grade).

At the meeting, the homeroom teacher

In “B” elementary school, her goal inin “B” elementary school said that IP was

September to October was to go throughnot good at making friends in the new

the gate of the school with her mother or

circumstances and could not talk to her

her aunt. From November, the schoolclassmates and about studying, IP was

nurse made IP stay at the nurse’s office,not good at math and Japanese. She wasand from January, she moved to thedepressed when she could not understandteachers’ room instead of the nurse’s

what the teachers taught in their classoffice and stayed there. The teachersandtaughtpresentations in front of her classmates.

each

subjecttoherthere.

wasThe

members

scared

when

were

the

the school

she

gave

Especially the head teacher paid great
attention to her and talked to her.

【Assessment and Intervention】

In April, X-1, as her homeroom teacher

I found that a good change could be seenchanged, IP wanted to do her best fromin her, so I asked the homeroom teacher

her 6th grade. She could stay at school forof “B” elementary school to advise to “A”

a long time after her mother or aunt tookjunior high school and she gave five

her to school (She was absent 2 days inpieces of advice.

6th grade). Her homeroom teacher andthe school nurse made her a plan to do[1]Junior high school teachers should

every day and made her decide whichknow IP’s character, for example whatclasses to attend. As a result, in February,

she is good at or she isn’t good at.

X, she could spend all day in her class.

[2]When IP cannot find what to do,teachers should show her some choices

1. The meeting of elementary school andand make her decide what she will do.

junior high school（February, X）[3]Teachers should know some people

The teacher of the “B” school counselingwhom IP can trust to when she is incoordinator (school nurse) came to “A”

trouble.

junior high school and talked about the[4]Teachers should put IP and her friends

student who has the biggest problem,in the same class.

32

Iwamoto.

circle inhigh“B” school.
elementary
school about two things[5]If IP should give Figure3：virtuous
a presentation in the
IP talked
class and she is not good at it, teachers

she worried about.

should give IP the chance to have arehearsal of the presentation.

[1]IP is not good at making friends.
She said, “I’m not good at talking to theUsing the information that I got andclassmates, so I’m worried about making

SFBT model, I found the virtuous circle

friends in junior high school.”like Figure3. When IP is in trouble, the[2]IP is worried about how each different

teacher who knows the character of IP

teacher teaches each subject.

shows the choices. IP can decide how she

She said, “I don’t like some teachers whowill act and experience how to solve theare strict and scold the students. I am

problem, so will be able to solve the next

scared even if they scold other students. ”

problem. That is a virtuous circle.
To keep this virtuous circle in “A” junior【Assessment and Intervention 】

high school, I decided to visit “B”

About problem [1], I found the exception

elementarythat IP could adapt to her class if IP had

school

to

know

the

information about [1] and [3].

a friend who talked to her. This exception
gave IP the possibility to adapt to her

2. The interview with IP and her parent

new class by an environmental control.

（beginning of March, X）

On the other hand, about problem [2], I

I visited “B” elementary school to know

thought that IP regarded the teacher’s

what IP and her parent worry about withguidance as scolding and felt scared, so I

the junior high school and to make a good

tried to change her cognitive frame byrelationshipusing reframing techniques (Watzlawick,

with

them.

The

schoolcounselor heard how IP spent her schoolP., Weakland, J. H., & Fisch, R., 1974).

life at “B” elementary school and asked

I suggested to IP and her parent thesewhat IP worried about with the juniorthree things.

School consultation to promote cooperation33

school and junior high school. The school
1) IP and her parent should visit “A”

counselor had the teachers in “A” junior

junior high school and know where thehigh school make sure about the contents

counseling room and nurse’s room are.

of this booklet.

2) IP should know the person with whom
she can talk to when she is in trouble in

3. To give the 7th graders’ homeroom

the junior high school.

teachers some information to prevent

3) IP should know junior high school

trouble (in late March, X).

teachers’ languages using the booklet,

I asked the teacher who was in charge of

which the school counselor will give her.

counseling

to

tell

the

7th

graders’

homeroom teachers five points of how to
Especially for 3), I said to IP, “juniorhighschoolsometimes

teachers’
different

language

from

that

communicate with IP.

isof1) To make sure what to do when IP is inelementary school teachers, and it may

trouble.

sometimes scare you. But in most of theI asked a school nurse and teachers

cases, teachers don’t mean to scold the(especially a head teacher) to support IP,

students. So don’t be afraid.”

and could prepare the same system as

IP and her parent understood what thethat of “B” elementary school. I also

school counselor said to them.

asked IP’s new homeroom teacher to tellAfter IP graduated from the elementary

her that they can support IP when she isschool, the homeroom teacher of “B”

in trouble.

elementary school took IP to “A” junior2) To make IP decide what she will dohigh school and made sure of where thewhen she is in trouble.

counseling room and nurse’s room were.

I asked the teachers to ask IP not what

In addition to this, “B” elementary school

to do but which to do, because she would

teacher let IP meet a head teacher and abe confused when she is in trouble, and toschool nurse and advised IP to talk to

ask IP what to do may make her thinkthem when she was in trouble. Whenthat she is hopeless.

they visited “A” junior high school, IP got

3) To explain about the language often

the booklet that I asked the school

used in junior high school.

counseling coordinator to give her. The

4) To give IP the chance to have abooklet was named “Junior High School

rehearsal of the presentation especially

Language Dictionary” (see appendix). In

in the classes IP is not good at.

this booklet, I explained the differences ofI introduced IP as a student who wanted

the language between the elementary

to study hard but she was not good at

34

Iwamoto.

presentations, so got in trouble. I asked

good at, she studied well and her

the teachers to let IP practice before thehomeroom teacher reported that IP waspresentation.

doing well at school.

5) To make IP’s friends and IP be in the

In late March, X+1 the teachers who

same class.

were in charge of counseling in “B”
elementary school and “A” junior highAs for the homeroom teacher, the school

school exchanged the information of thecounselor gave the information about thenext years’ 7Th graders’ students.

6th graders’ teacher in the elementary
school. She was a young and calm woman

Ⅲ.Discussions

and IP could make an effort in her class.

Through the case association between
the elementary and junior high school, I【 How IP was doing after she entered

will show you the concrete ways tojunior high school】

associate and how to use the information

IP could start her junior high school lifein the consultations. From here, I amsmoothly with her friends, under a young

going consider the points when school

calm female teacher. Two weeks after IP

counselors have something to do with theentered the junior high school, IP had

association between the elementary andsome troubles when she had to give a

junior high school.

presentation in Japanese class. But atthat time, her classroom teacher gave her

1. School counselors should find thesome choices; to give a presentation orconnection that has already been madenot, or post her presentation. IP could

between the elementary school and juniorsolve the problem because of it.

high school.

July, X. IP was absent because she hated

I thought it is difficult for both schools to

to give the English presentation inarrange new meetings because teachers

English class. At that time, as IP had aare so busy. Mitani, Okuno & Ikuta

rehearsal, she could give the presentation(2014) said that it is important to try toin front of the class afterwards.

find the connection that has already been

IP never came to the nurse’s room or athere. In this case, I found the connection

head teacher and counseling. IP took part

between a school nurse in the elementaryin the club activity positively. When IP

school and the teacher who was in charge

had worries, she could tell her homeroomof school counseling coordinator in juniorteacher how she felt. In March, X+1 IP

high

was sometimes absent from school, but it

connection made a good association

didn’t last. About math which she was notwithout resistance from both schools.

schoolas

the exception.

This

School consultation to promote cooperation

35

If there is no relation between bothparents and let them know about school

schools, I had to get the information

counselors and intervene to reduce theirabout support using the exception where

worries.

the teachers of school guidance and

The interview with IP before enteringschool nurse had a meeting.

junior high school had three meanings.
First, the school counselor could be the2. School counselors should make sureresource for IP after entering junior highhow to support IP in the elementary

school, so meeting IP means preventing

school and get some advice for the juniortroubles for IP. It also may be thehigh school.

rehearsal for when IP get in trouble in

To expand the virtuous circulation, I

junior high school.

made sure of how the elementary school

Second,supported IP. The homeroom teachers inintervene with IP directly. Especially,

the elementary school have a lot of“Juniorinformation about the students because

Dictionary” reframes IP’s understanding

they teach almost all the subjects to them.

of her language. In junior high school,

Schoolteachers’ language sometimes becomescounselors

should

have

the

the
High

schoolcounselor

Schoolcan

Languagesolution-focused way of thinking.

strict so when IP heard such kinds of

A school counselor is able to get thelanguage, IP may be scared.

information from teachers in elementarymake IP understand language used inschool easier than teachers in junior highjunior high school in advance, she canschool because sometimes teachers inunderstand what teachers mean to say.

junior high school may feel uncomfortable

Third, the reliability of the school

when they get advice from the teachers incounselor became higher because thethe elementary school. Based on theschool counselor was the only person who

communication theory (Watzlawick, P.,

met IP in junior high school. So the

Bavelas, J. B. & Jackson, D. D, 1967), theinformation from the school counselor

action to hear the advice itself lets the

became more important and effective forelementaryteachers.

school

know

that

the

But toinformation from them is significant.
That may cause the motivation to hold

4. The school counselor should make thethe meeting between elementary andinformation about IP acceptable one andjunior high school the following year.

tell the junior high school teachers.
If there are few chances to associate

3. School counselors should have an

between the elementary and junior highinterview

school, teachers can’t understand thewithstudents

and

their

36

Iwamoto.

difference; school culture and way of

about how to support IP.

It is theguidance. Such a situation will be a risk

important point to make the teachers

for them to criticize each other througheasily accept the advice.

the case (Ito, 2013). The systems ofelementary school and junior high school

Ⅳ.Conclusion and the perspective

are different, for example in elementary

As a basic attitude about association

school, one teacher teaches all subjects

between elementary school and juniorand stays with students for a long time.

high school, school counselors should

But in junior high school different

know the virtuous circulation of theteachers teach each subject so theelementary school and keep it in theteachers in junior high school feel thatjunior high school. Therefore school

the information from the elementary

counselors should get the information

school cannot be used in junior highfrom the elementary school and giveschool.

feedback to the junior high school. School

In this case, it was supported by the factcounselors should stand between boththat the teachers in the junior high school

schools. I think it will make an acceptable

resisted the advice that teachers should

communication route. To make such an

let IP rehearse before her presentations.

association, Brief Therapy is effective.

Because the teachers in junior highBecause I can assess the interaction

school are very busy and it is difficult for

between elementary and junior highthem to take time to take care of IP after

school and intervene in the relation

school because of club instruction.

between two schools.

Therefore, I gave the advice to “A” junior

Tomiie & Miyamae (2009) said that if

highschoolthe meeting of the elementary school andcounselor’s advice, not an elementaryjunior high school were a useful one forschool

wethe teachers in junior high school, they

communicate with someone, there is awould think it is very important for them

most

the

and it’s also a good thing for the

information (Wakashima & Hasegawa,elementary school teachers. In this case,2000).

ofone year after the first meeting of bothsuggestions depends on who gave them.

schools, they had the second meeting. It

The school counselor meant to make theshows that the meeting was very useful

junior high school teachers able to easily

for them. A vicious circle like Figure.1

accept the advice from the elementarychanges into Figure.4.

schoolteachers

teachers’suitableThe

advice.

route

way

as

of

to

a

When
acceptacceptanceschool teachers. At that time, I did notadvise about personnel matters but onlyThis case is only one example of theSchool consultation to promote cooperation

37

Figure4：A virtuous circulation of the association between “B” elementary and “A”
solution.

Schoolaccumulate

thecounselors
solutionstoshouldGoldstein, S. E., Boxer, P., & Rudolph, E.

school(2015) Middle School Transition Stress:

transition problems.

Links with Academic Performance,

In this study, I reported about the

Motivation, and School Experiences.

association at the end of the year.

Contemporary School Psychology, v19,

Actually,n1 21-29.

association

betweenbothschools is also needed within the year

Ito,depending on the case. If they had acomprehensive

meeting within the year, I would have totransition programs: Some concerns

study

viewed from JHS. Bulletin of graduatehowschoolcounselors

havesomething to do with the two schools.

J.

(2013)

Effective

juniorhighandschoolschool of teacher training Yamagata
University, 4, 268-271. [in Japanese](伊References

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Nishizawa, H. (2013) Chuichi Gappu

Satou, R, Hanada. & K, Hasegawa.

kaishou ni muketa gakkou tekioukan no2010

小学校から中学校への変換期

manabuseitosidou

koujyou wo hakaru kenkyu ―jidouseito

shinrosidou(Schoolheno ishikichousa to Chuichi Gappu

guidance, education counseling andkaishou proguramu no jissen wo toosite

career guidance ) 136-149. Tokyo; Toomi―

shobou [in Japanese] (三谷聖也・奥野雅

adaptation sense towards overcoming(Eds.)

Jirei

dekyouikusoudan

子・生田倫子2014

学校組織と関係機(Studies to improve the school

Chuichi gap problem) Research bulletin

関・家庭との連携，事例で学ぶ生徒指導・

ofAomoriComprehensive

School

教育相談・進路指導，佐藤宏平・花田里欧

Education Center [in Japanese](西澤秀子・長谷川啓三（編）, 第 10 章, 遠見書房,

樹136-149.)

校適応感の向上を図る研究―児童生徒へ

2013 中 1 ギャップ解消に向けた学

Boardの意識調査と中 1 ギャップ解消プログラ(2007) Chuichi Gap no kaishou ni

ムの実践を通して―, 青森県総合学校教mukete ― Chuichi育センター研究紀要)

Niigataprefecture

EducationGapkaishou

proguramu (Steps to overcome Chuichi

Japan Ministry of Education (2013)

gap

Heiseiproblem)

25nendo“Jidouseitono

Education Board. [in Japanese] (新潟県

mondaikoudoutou

seitosidoujyouno

教育委員会 2007 中 1 ギャップの解消

shomondaini kansuru chousa” (A surveyに向けて―中 1 ギャップ解消プログラム

on behavior problems of students from―)the view of school guidance ) Japan

Nishikawa, K., & Ikushima, H. (2010)

Ministry of Education [in Japanese] (文Practice research on “Special need that

部科学省 平成 25 年度「児童生徒の問題

supports

行動等生徒指導上の諸問題に関する調査」

Niigataconversion

prefecture

periodfromelementary school to junior high school.”（2014 年 10 月 25 日閲覧）)―Mainly school counselor’s relations to

Schielack, J. & Seeley, C. L., (2010)

the pervasive developmental disorder

Transitions from Elementary to Middle

child ―

Bulletin of Comprehensive

Center for Education Practice, 13,

SchoolMath.

Teaching

Mathematics, v16, n6, 358-362.

ChildrenSchool consultation to promote cooperation

39

Schwerdt, G. & West, M. R. (2013) The

academic motivation in elementary andimpactjunior high school years. ―Goals andofalternative

configurations

onstudent

grade
outcomes

designsoftheresearch

project ―through middle and high school. Journal

Journal of the Society of Humanities, 92,

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308-326.

学校から中学校への学校間移行の学校適Suzuki,S.

(2011)

Effects

the

応と学習動機に対する影響 （1）：研究のconsultation with solution-focused brief

目的と全体計画, 札幌学院大学人文学会

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紀要, 92, 25-39.)

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Yokuwakaru tankiryouhou gaidobukku

75-86. [in Japanese](鈴木俊太郎

2011(Brief therapy: theory & practice) Tokyo:

ソリューション・フォーカスト・ブリー

Kongo shuppan [in Japanese] (若島孔

フ・セラピーを活用した教師コンサルテー

文・長谷川啓三 2000 よくわかる！短期ションが教師の生徒指導対応場面に与え療法ガイドブック, 金剛出版)

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ミュニケーションの語用論

二瓶社）

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resolution W. W. Norton.[in Japanese]

子 2009 教師の視点からみた中 1 ギャ

（長谷川啓三 訳

ップに関する研究, 香川大学教育実践総題の形成と解決 法政大学出版局）

合研究, 18, 89-101.)

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Usui, H. (2012) The effect of schooltransition on school adjustment andformationandproblem

1992 変化の原理─問

40

Iwamoto.
Appendix: extract from“Junior High School Language Dictionary”『中学語辞典』抜中学語(words)
1

アホか。
("Ahoka")

意味(means)①おもしろい子やなぁ。
(You are funny.)②ちがうでしょ。
(It's false, isn't it?)

かいせつ

解説
description

よく使われる中学語です。本気で悪く言うつもりはなく、親しみを込めて注意するときに使います。
This word is often used in junior high school. We don't use this word to speak evil ofyou but to inform you about mistakes friendly.

れいぶん

例文
①「授業中におどったりして、ほんまにアホやなぁ。」
example sentences "I heard that you began to dance suddenly on English class. You are "aho".
②（まちがった答えを言ったときに）「アホか。」
When your answer is wrong, your teacher says, "ahoka."3

何してんねん？
(Nani shitennen?)①どうしたの？
(What's wrong?)②やめないと危ないよ。
(It's dangerous. Stop it.)

かいせつ

解説

description

事情を聞きたいときに使われる中学語です。困っていることがあれ
ばすなおに伝えましょう。危ないことをしているときの注意ことばYour teacher use this phrase when he wants to know your cirsumstance. If you are introuble, you had better let him know honestly. Your teacher use this phrase to notice
you're doing dangerous behavior.

れいぶん

例文

①（授業中ろうかを歩いていて）「何してんねん？」
When you doesn't attend on your class and walk on hallway, your teacher find you andexample sentences
says, "Nanishitennen!?"②（刃物をまちがった使い方をして）「何してんねん！」
When you use a knefe in a wrong way, your teacher says, "Nanishitennen!"

6

ええかげんにせーよ(Eekagennise-yo)

今やるべきことをやろう(Do what you should do now.)

かいせつ

解説

description

やるべきことをやらない人を注意するときや、くりかえし注意されてもなおそうとしない時に使われることばです。何をしないといけYour teacher use this phrase when he find you don't do what you should do or when
you don't change your rude attitude even though you're warned again and agein. If
you're said this phrase, think about what you should do.

れいぶん

例文
「いつも言ってるやろ？ええかげんにせーよ」
example sentences "I warn you again and again, don't I? Eekagennise-yo!"8（呼び捨て）(Yobisute)（親しみの表現）(Expression of affection)

かいせつ

解説
description「～さん」「～君」とは言わずに、名字を呼び捨てにするのもよくある中学語です。親しみをもって呼んでいるのですよ。
Your teacher ofthn call you by your first name or last name only. He doesn't use prefix
for example "-san", or "-kun". He tries to express his affection to do that.

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