Policy Language
A Pattern Language for Designing Public Policy
Takashi Iba *1 and Heizo Takenaka *2*3
*1 Faculty of Policy Management, Keio University*2 School of Regional Development Studies, Toyo University*3 Professor Emeritus of Keio University

Abstract
In this paper, we apply a pattern language to share practical knowledge ofdesigning public policy, which we call “Policy Language.” By sharing wisdom in
defining problems and solving them, described in the Policy Language, we aim to
make them into common tools in shaping public policies. The patterns we present
in this paper have been formed by reviewing Heizo Takenaka’s experience as a
Minister in Jun’ichiro Koizumi’s Cabinet, and Takashi Iba selected key elements
and described them. We present 18 patterns of policy language, which consists of 3groups: society, public policy, and policy formation.

1. Introduction
We will introduce patterns of a Policy Language for designing public policies. Policy Language
is verbalization of processes in which problems are defined and solved using practical wisdom,
when public policies are formed. Each pattern of the Policy Languages describes a kind ofcontext problems which have occurred, what kind of problem is likely to occur, and how you
can solve the problem, and so on.
By sharing wisdom in defining problems and solving them, described in the Policy
Languages, we aim to make them into common tools in shaping public policies. In today’s
Japan, an action of forming public policies is confined to only a limited number of people, andother people stop at evaluating and criticizing them. However, we would like to strive tocreate a new medium in order to fundamentally change this situation.
The patterns we present in this paper have been formed by reviewing Heizo Takenaka’s
experience as a Minister in Jun’ichiro Koizumi’s Cabinet (2001 – 2006), and Takashi Iba
selected key elements and described them. Therefore what we introduce here is limited to one
Minister’s practical wisdom. We expect more patterns to be constructed in the future in addition
to the patterns here, not only from different perspectives but also in different policy areas. In
this sense we would like to emphasize the fact again that the patterns we present here constitutea small portion of the whole Policy Languages that are yet to be constructed in the future.

2. Pattern Language 3.0 for Human Actions
Pattern languages are used to share practical knowledge in a target domain. Here practicalknowledge refers to the intelligence both to understand problems and to solve them. In otherwords, pattern languages describe the problems that occur in certain contexts with the solutions
and actions that can solve them.
The original idea of using pattern language for design knowledge was proposed by thearchitect Christopher Alexander (1979). The book he wrote with his colleagues in the late 1970s
comprised 253 patterns on practical architectural design (Alexander et al., 1977). In the context
of architecture, pattern language was developed to serve as a lingua franca for architects and1residents when designing buildings (Alexander et al., 1985). Alexander anticipated that people
could become involved in the design processes for their houses and towns.
Ten years after the book was published, Alexander’s idea of pattern language was adopted in
the field of software design (Beck and Cunningham, 1987; Gamma et al., 1995). In scribing
technical knowledge about software design, pattern language’s primary purpose was to diminish
the technical gap between experts and those with less experience. Software designers who
wished to improve their skills could then read patterns to learn from the design knowledge ofmore experienced programmers (Gamma et al., 1995).
Since the 1990s, the fields in which pattern languages are applied have greatly expanded,encompassing education (Pedagogical Patterns Editorial Board, 2012), organisational change(Manns and Rising, 2005, 2015), learning (Iba & Iba Lab, 2014a; Harashima, et al., 2014),
collaboration (Iba & Iba Lab, 2014b), presentation (Iba & Iba Lab, 2014c), project design(Kubota et al., 2016; Mori et al., 2016), change making (Shimomukai, et al., 2015), disasterprevention (Furukawazono, et al., 2015), beauty in everyday life (Arao, et al., 2012), living wellwith dementia (Iba & Okada, 2015), living with continuous self-actualization (Nakada, et al.,2013; Kamada, et al., 2014), living in the age of a global society (Matsuzuka, et al., 2013),
cultural design (Kadotani, et al., 2013, 2014), cooking (Isaku & Iba, 2015, 2016; Akado et al.,2016a; Yoshikawa et al., 2016), natural living (Kamada et al., 2016), and generator as a newrole to facilitate an idea generation (Nagai et al., 2016; Akado et al., 2016b). At this point inpattern language implementation, we term these as ‘pattern language 3.0’ (Iba, 2016).
Alexander’s challenge, actually a challenge for all pattern languages, is to gather words thatcan be understood by anyone to introduce novices into a design process that would otherwise
require professional knowledge. Alexander believed that true beauty and liveliness could only
be achieved if the gap between the designer and users was removed, thereby allowing theparticipation of users in the design process so that they could continue improvement even after
the designer has left the project.
In The Production of Houses, Alexander stated that ‘the house is no longer an “object”
which is manufactured, but a thing of love, which is nurtured, made, grown, and personal’ andtherefore ‘families would design their own houses’ (Alexander et al., 1985). Thus, he invented
the idea of pattern language and described ways of generating good quality towns and buildings.
As in Alexander’s statements, we can describe that society should be ‘a thing of love, which isnurtured, made, grown and personal’, and therefore ‘people would design their own’ society. In
what follows, we propose a new pattern language for designing public policy, which we call“Policy Language.”
Public policy is a new domain into which is applied the pattern language. We proposed,
mined, wrote patterns of Policy Language presented in this paper in 20101, and published as aJapanese book (Iba et al., 2013). Related to our interests, there are patterns about policy in
Liberating Voices patterns by Schuler (2008), a pattern language for governance by Ophuls(2012), and Patterns of Public Policy and Administration by Chalekian (2014). Also, Fearless
Change patterns (Manns and Rising, 2005, 2015) share similar interests to us instead that they
are focusing introducing new ideas into organization and community rather than public policy.
Strictly speaking, there patterns are different focuses from ours, but they show that our approachis not alone to apply pattern language approach to policy design.

3. Mining Interview
In order to create Policy Language, we conducted Mining Interview (Table 1, Iba and Yoder,2014) in the setting of the class in our university, 2010. In the interviews, one of the authors,
Takashi Iba, first asked what Heizo Takenaka thinks that the important for designing public
1

The mining interview was conducted in the course of “Pattern Language” at the Faculty of
Policy Management, Keio University. The videos of our interview have been open to public in
online: http://gc.sfc.keio.ac.jp/cgi/flv/flv_play_gc.cgi?2010_25136+07+1 andhttp://gc.sfc.keio.ac.jp/cgi/flv/flv_play_gc.cgi?2010_25136+08+1 in Japanese.

2

policy, so that we could discover Keys Worth Sharing. This phase included core ideas about
solutions, with all people enjoying the ability to share this information. Then, Iba asked what
will happen if you did not practice important points (the ‘keys’) in order to conduct Problem
Digging. For example, we asked what drove the choice for the solution, which helped us toobtain information about the problem solved by the pattern. After that, we asked when or where
the problem occurred in order to conduct Context Catching. Consequently, we obtained
information about the context, the problem and the solution for pattern writing. In the interviews,
Iba wrote down the information of context, problem, and solution into the paper, and locatedthem in a certain format for seed of pattern, which is shown in Figure 2.

Table 1 Summaries of Important Patterns from Mining Interview Patterns (Iba and Yoder, 2014)

Pattern Name

Mining Interview

Keys Worth Sharing

Problem Digging

Context Catching

Summary (Context, Problem, and Solution)
You are creating a pattern language in which you have little or no
experience. In this context, The patterns extracted from people whohave less experience can often be weak or wrong. Therefore, conduct
an interview with experienced people in the area of the patternlanguage you are creating. Use this information to gather the core
information needed to write the patterns.
You are going to begin the Mining Interview in the area that you arecreating a pattern language. In this context, it can be difficult to getgood information from an experienced person by asking in generalterms about their experience or their expertise. What is obvious to theexperienced person is often not so obvious to the newcomer.
Therefore, ask what are the important points that colleagues or
newcomers need to know when dealing with the area of interest.
You have outlined the Keys Worth Sharing from the Mining Interview.
In this context, you cannot write patterns based only on theinformation of the keys. In each pattern, you will need to specify more
information such as the problem that the key solves. Therefore, ask
what will happen if they don’t practice their Keys Worth Sharing inorder to specify the reason why they are important. To be concrete,choose one of the solutions and ask about each key separately.
You just got the Keys Worth Sharing and the reason why they areimportant by Problem Digging in the Mining Interview. In thiscontext, you cannot write patterns if you only know the problems andsolutions. In each pattern, it is also important to specify a context
where the problem occurs. Therefore, ask when and where theproblems solved by Keys Worth Sharing occur.

The relation among seeds of pattern were also mined by interview. In a pattern languages,
each pattern does not exist alone; every pattern has relationships with other patterns. After that,
Iba write all the patterns in the same format: pattern name, context, problem, solution in full
sentences. When writing and revising patterns, Iba read several times the books introducing
experience of designing public policy as a Minister in Jun’ichiro Koizumi’s Cabinet (Takenaka,
2008).

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Figure 1 Mining Interview with Heizo Takenaka

Figure 2 Fomart of a Seed of Pattern

4. Overview of Heizo Takenaka’s Policy Language
The prototypes of the Policy Languages we formed this time are 18 patterns in total (figure 3).
These patterns are presented in 3 groups: society, public policy, and policy formation. The
policies we discuss here are not confined in the area of public politics. You will notice it when
you actually look at the content of the patterns; all patterns are applicable not only at thenational government level, but also in the local governments, enterprises, and otherorganizations. Therefore it is conceivable that the Policy Languages can offer support to those
who work in all types of governments as well as in communities and private industries, and soon.

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Figure 3 Overview of Policy Language of Heizo Takenaka

5. Patterns
Policy Language of Heizo Takenaka consists of three groups: Patterns in the Society,
Patterns for Public Policy, and Patterns for Public Policy Formation. First, Patterns in
the Society include 4 patterns: Self-Help, Trusting People on the Spot, Beneficiary Pays, andBoundaries of the Government. Second, Patterns for Public Policy have 3 patterns: Simple
Policy, Securing Vital Point, and Strategy is in the Details. Third, Patterns for Public Policy
Formation consists of 11 patterns: Opening a Policy Window, Practicable Agenda, Stirringup Trouble, Passion of the Leader, Direction on the Stage, Best Policy at the Moment,
Overturning a Garbage Can, Early Small Success, Reactive to Proactive. CPU (Communication& Policy Unit), and Policy Watcher.

53.1 Patterns in the SocietyWith respect to what kind of society we would like to aim for, we would like to start from theprincipal of self-help. Four patterns will be introduced here: Self-Help, Trusting People on theSpot, Beneficiary Pays, and Boundaries of the Government.

No. 1

Self-Help
There are many issues and problems that need to be solved.
▼ In this context
The resources are limited, therefore we cannot help everyone equally, and if we try to do so, thesociety as a whole may collapse.
▼ Therefore
Let those who can help themselves do so on their own. We set the principal as helping only
those who are in need of other people’s help. “Heaven helps only those who help themselves,”
said Samuel Smiles in his book, Self-Help. Recommend people to help themselves if they can
do so, as Smiles said.

No. 2

Trusting People on the Spot
The quality of life has improved, and our values diversified.
▼ In this context
Centralized management and operation can no longer catch up with the diversified values ofpeople, and it has become ineffective. The centralized management and operation was necessary
in the past in order to raise the standard level across the board by allocating the resources
efficiently. But responding from one source to diversified needs and personalities is difficult,and the efficiency inevitably suffers as well.
▼ Therefore
Trust the people in the field and let them handle it, enabling them to deliver individualized
fine services. More concretely speaking, let the private industries do what they can, and let the
local governments do what they can. In order to achieve this, Boundaries of the Government
needs to be clarified, and a clear division of roles between the central and local governments is

6

indispensable. And achieving the principal of the Beneficiary Pays becomes essential inconstructing a system to make responsible choices.

No. 3

Beneficiary Pays
If the entire service cost is centrally managed across the board, a distortion is likely to be
produced between benefits and burdens.
▼ In this context
Unless the benefit of a service and its cost are directly related to each other, there will be people
who demand more services without paying additional cost. In addition, the division that
allocates available fund in order to cover the cost will become a source of the power andauthority.
▼ Therefore
Create a system that allows people to make responsible decisions by matching thebeneficiary and payer. Concretely speaking, decentralize the government functions bydelegating the authority to the local districts and giving matching rights to collect taxes. It
brings forth an environment that a local area demanding many services needs to bear a large
burden and another area with few services can enjoy a small burden. It means we have to start
making choices.

No. 4

Boundaries of the Government
Some of the government projects are actually undertaken in the private sector, and there areother projects that could be carried out by private hands as well.
▼ In this context
The government cannot take a risk even when funding or innovation is needed to improve theservice. This is because when the risk materializes, it will be a burden on the citizens. However,
if you cannot take advantage of innovation or funding, you will keep offering less than optimal
services or management.
▼ Therefore
Privatize operations that can be undertaken in the private sector and require taking risk.

7For example, designing new service operations, managing financial assets, or going to off-shore
markets all involve taking a risk. Therefore they are better suited to the private organizations.
By privatizing some of the government projects, there will be more degree of freedom,
competition, and they in turn will energize the industry and economy.

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3.2 Patterns for Public Policy
What is a good public policy and how will we make it? We will present Simple Policy, Securing
Vital Point, and Strategy is in the Details, on these issues.

No. 5

Simple Policy
A public policy is to be formed through democratic processes of building consensus.
▼ In this context
When a public policy is complicated, many people fail to understand it and lose interest in it.
Even if the current system has a problem, the topic will not be discussed.
▼ Therefore
Make your policy simple and easy to understand. Such a policy is easy to discuss, and its
implementation is easy to evaluate.

No. 6

Securing Vital Point
There are various stakeholders related to one public policy.
▼ In this context
If you make compromises in order to successfully push the public policy through the consensus
building process, the effect of the policy will be diminished. A public policy with a perfect scoreis hard to come by, but if the score is reduced to 40 or 50 points out of 100, there is no point increating such a policy. You need to avoid such a situation.
▼ Therefore
Stay on the fundamental principles, even when you make small compromises. Select points
on which you cannot give in, keep your position firm, and prevent the policy from being
watered down.

No. 7

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Strategy is in the Details
A public policy is an accumulation of juristic actions.
▼ In this context
A small difference in the wording of a public policy can alter how the policy is to be carried out.
For example, the result could be quite different when you use a phrase “carry out the fullprivatization” instead of “privatize completely” in a description of privatization processes. If aperson knows the detail of a forming policy in and out, and he is also a stakeholder, then special
attention is required particularly.
▼ Therefore
Complete the content of a public policy with thorough attention to the detail. Avoid issuing
an idealistic blueprint, and think through strategically the detail to be materialized. A leader
cannot ascertain every single detail; however, in order to Securing Vital Point, s/he must
confirm important points with her/his own eyes. Furthermore, by CPU (Communication &Policy Unit), construct a multi-faceted structure and a review system. Prevent the policy fromlosing its shape at the stages of designing system or a bill by this method.

10

3.3 Patterns for Public Policy Formation
In order to implement a good public policy, it is indispensable to have a good process toconstruct a good public policy. Firstly it is vital to enhance people’s interest in public policies
and let constructive discussions to take place. These processes are summarized in Opening a
Policy Window, Practicable Agenda, and Stirring up Trouble. Secondly, Passion of the Leader,
Direction on the Stage, and Best Policy at the Moment will point out the importance of theleader’s role. At the opening stage in constructing a public policy or on the orderliness of theconstruction processes, refer to Overturning a Garbage Can, Early Small Success, and Reactive
to Proactive. With regard to the team and its role to construct and evaluate a public policy, there
are patterns called CPU (Communication & Policy Unit), and Policy Watcher.

No. 8Opening a Policy Window
There are many problems that need to be solved, and I cannot solve everything.
▼ In this context
A public policy formation cannot start smoothly because there are many players entangled withcomplicated, intertwined conflict of interests. Nobody can make a starting move, because it isunclear which part of a public policy could be considered problematic and which direction thewhole process is taking. Nevertheless a public policy needs to be put on the table, discussed,
and you need to go through following stages when it is necessary.

▼ Therefore
Clarify what problem needs to be tackled now, and construct a flow of the society as awhole. Take advantage of events or statements involving influential people to present an issue
publicly, then many relevant people will start making their moves, though they have beensuspicious and stymied until now. Then the whole process starts to move at once. In order toopen a policy window, “Passion of the Leader” will be crucial and Simple Policy is significant.

No. 9

Practicable Agenda
A public policy is to be formed through democratic processes of building consensus; therefore itis necessary to set an agenda strategically.
▼ In this context
If an agenda is only eye-catching and not practically feasible, the public policy cannot be

11

implemented. Soothing slogans are easy to sell to the audience, though many of them cannot
be actually carried out. Being idealistic is one thing, but you need to pay close attention to theprocess of implementing the public policy.
▼ Therefore
Present a concrete agenda that has a high potential of being carried out, instead of aslogan. Indicate concretely what needs to be done and how. For example, instead of a slogan“strengthen the economy”, we form and present concrete agendas, such as “halve the businesstax” or “privatize the postal services”. When you carry out these agendas, strategize with
“Strategy is in the Details” in mind.

No. 10Stirring up Trouble
Because a public policy is constructed through democratic processes of building consensus, weneed to ensure that people are interested in it.
▼ In this context
People tend to lose interest in a safe public policy, and such policy is likely to be put on the backburner or even get cancelled.
▼ Therefore
Present an agenda that is likely to attract intense discussions on pros and cons, and stir up
a policy debate. Gather interest of many people and let the supporters and opponents debate.
There are many public policy makers who would rather avoid confrontation or confusion, but if
such confrontation and confusion is visible in the public eyes, it enhances people’s interest andpropels the public debate. In the end, a supporting argument that came out of the debate drives
the policy forward.

No. 11

Passion of the Leader
People have different perspectives, and they act by judging if they can remain safe.
▼ In this context
You don’t know what the leader would do for you. Without knowing if you should follow theleader or not, nothing moves forward.

12▼ Therefore
Let the leader indicate the direction of the whole, with strong intention and preference
expressed in his/her choice of actions. Let the people have confidence in the leader throughhis/her clarity and convincing arguments. The passion of the leader also enables Opening a
Policy Window.

No. 12

Direction on the Stage
Public policy forming processes are monopolized by a limited few people, and they are
scheming to construct a public policy to suit their own interests.
▼ In this context
Because the public policy will affect the policy makers’ interests, the forming process is delayed
and it cannot be completed.
▼ Therefore
Highlight the issue in a public venue and let discussions and criticisms come out
thoroughly. Drive the debate forward with the strong leadership. A good example is foundwhen Jun’ichiro Koizumi was Prime Minister of Japan. He made a controversial statement in
the Committee of Economics and Finances, and later issued his instruction as Prime Minister.
Like Stirring up Trouble, direct people’s attention to the leader and then let him/her issue an
instruction.

No. 13

Best Policy at the Moment
The pool of public policy makers is stagnated and fixed, and they are forming a policy that
contradicts with the past decisions and policies.
▼ In this context
The policy forming process comes to a halt because the policy makers cannot acknowledge theirpast errors by constructing a contradictory policy. Even when they understand the new policy issuitable for the current situation, they have no choice but oppose it in order to justify theirdecisions and policies in the past. Unless they overcome their fixation on the infallibility, areform could not be achieved and the status quo continues.

▼ Therefore

13Let the leader free the relevant agents by declaring that he wouldn’t question the past andwould like to make actions that they can do now. Enable them to promote the policy forwardthat is well suited to the current situation.

No. 14

Overturning a Garbage Can
A problem has arrived out of blue.
▼ In this context
The preparation is far from being complete, and decisions have to be made with incomplete
information. There is not a sufficient time to research on the problem, and there are no textbook
answers available, hardly a person is in sight that could offer answers to the questions on the
problem.
▼ Therefore
Think, based on what you can gather; materials on hand, ideas, data, research reports,
analyses, perspectives, anything available. Create a checklist from a broad perspective, eventhough what you gathered may not offer a concrete plan. You should always store suchinformation.

No. 15

Early Small Success
A public policy is to be formed through democratic processes of building consensus.
▼ In this context
If you try to start a radical reform all of a sudden, it is hard to obtain approval and support frompeople around you and the citizens. Particularly at the beginning of your term, it is necessary tobuild up early results in order to gain people’s confidence.
▼ Therefore
Make successful results early so that people feel hope and expectation directed toward the
public policy framework. To this end, start tackling urgent problems that could be solved
effectively soon, and proceed in a manner described in, Reactive to Proactive.

14

No. 16

Reactive to Proactive
There are problems that need immediate response, but there are also reforms that should be
addressed from a long-term perspective.
▼ In this context
A large reform for the future generations cannot gain support easily when its implementation isannounced all of a sudden. Support is hard to come by if you try to invest in the future without
solving problems in plain view that need to be addressed urgently.

▼ Therefore
Start with a reactive reform and proceed to a proactive one. Carry out reforms first that
reduce the burden inherited from the past, and obtain a result quickly. After producing an Early
Small Success by this method, then move to a proactive reform that is constructive andaggressive. For example, after disposing non-performing loans, carry out privatization of the
postal services.

No. 17CPU (Communication & Policy Unit)
In order to push through a public policy, strong leadership is crucial. But a leader is also alonely existence.
▼ In this context
It is impossible for a leader to process everything alone. A leader receives an extremely large
amount of information including errors and lies, and s/he has to make decisions based on it.
▼ Therefore
Create a tight, small team with members who share the leader’s intention. Support theleader with this team and let them manage the public policy and communication on the public
policy. Let them decide tactics and handle logistical support.

No. 18

Policy Watcher
15

Formation of public policies is monopolized by few people, and members change little overtime.
▼ In this context
Public policy formation and its evaluation cannot be done properly without knowing the policy
in detail. Therefore a convenient public policy might be formed, so that it is beneficial only for
those who have special interests. Or it is difficult to carry out a proper public policy debate fromthe professional point of view.
▼ Therefore
Follow public policies from the professional point of view, examining them from various
perspectives, and train specialists on a public policy that is on your planning board. Suchpolicy watchers should evaluate public policies properly from the outside, provide necessary
information to the public and start a healthy policy debate, and sometimes are expected to be
active in forming public policies.

166. Conclusion
In this paper, we proposed a Policy Language for designing public policies. The patterns
presented in this paper are mined from Heizo Takenaka’s experience as a Minister in Jun’ichiro
Koizumi’s Cabinet, so they are not all patterns for designing public policy. We anticipate thatnew other patterns will be written based on other experience in various domains, and fromvarious standpoint: minister, government official, and so on. Indeed, in Japan, Ministry of
Economy, Trade and Industry have started learning program for mining and writing theirpatterns for designing public policy, under my supervision. This is just starting point for design
research of public policy on the pattern language approach. We would like to discuss andcollaborate with people who are interested in this approach.

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