WINTER 2021
VOLUME LVIITHE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE GEMOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

Burmese Sapphire and Peridot from Mogok
History of Emerald Mining at Habachtal, Part I
New Regular Feature: Colored Stones UnearthedWinter 2021
VOLUME 57, No. 4

EDITORIAL
291

Burmese Blue Sapphire and Peridot from Mogok and a History of Emerald Mining in
Habachtal, Austria
Duncan Pay

FEATURE ARTICLES
p. 300292

Blue Sapphires from Mogok, Myanmar: A Gemological Review
Wasura Soonthorntantikul, Ungkhana Atikarnsakul, and Wim Vertriest
A gemological analysis of blue Burmese sapphires from Mogok, based on a series of field
expeditions over the last decade.

318

Gemological Characterization of Peridot from Pyaung-Gaung in Mogok, Myanmar
Montira Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya, Wassana Chongraktrakul, and Tasnara Sripoonjan
Examines the mining and the internal, spectroscopic, and chemical features of peridot from thisdeposit, which possesses a rich olive green color and is available in large sizes.

338

History of Emerald Mining in the Habachtal Deposit of Austria, Part I

p. 347Karl Schmetzer
Contributes to the mining history of Austria’s Habachtal region, which is regarded as one of theearliest emerald deposits.

p. 373

REGULAR FEATURES
372

Lab Notes
Color-zoned cat’s-eye chrysoberyl • Diamond faceted as iconic Apple logo • Two pairs of
antique Mughal spectacles with diamond and emerald lenses • Pink euclase • Vateriteon strand of freshwater cultured pearls • Star rhodochrosite • 31 ct orange sapphire• Flux-induced fingerprints in flame-fusion synthetic sapphire • Unique circuit board
pattern on tourmaline

p. 387382

G&G Micro-World
Apatite-CO2 inclusions in Burmese sapphire • Chondrodite in Burmese red spinel • Blackcoral with polyp structure • Demantoid garnet with spectacular “horsetail” inclusions• Radioactive green diamond • Rainbow graining in diamond • Monazite (?) in quartz• Spiral nacre in natural pearl • Windmill zoning in tourmaline • Quarterly Crystal:
Rutile on hematite

390

Colored Stones Unearthed
The debut of this regular section explores the formation of colored stones from the crustmantle transition and below.

398

p. 400Gem News International
Biogenic carbon in pink corundum from Greenland • Yogo sapphire update • Banded
turquoise from Zhushan County, China • Blue zircon deposit in Malawi • Historic salesof pink and blue diamonds from the Argyle mine • Chalcedony-epoxy composite imitation of “candy agate” • “Floating flower” inclusions in aventurine quartz • GSA
conference reportEditorial Staff
Editor-in-Chief

Editors, Lab Notes

Duncan Pay

Thomas M. Moses
Shane F. McClure

Editor-in-Chief Emeritus

Alice S. Keller

Editors, Micro-World

Editors, Colored Stones
UnearthedAaron C. Palke
James E. Shigley
Contributing Editors

soverlin@gia.edu

Nathan Renfro
Elise A. Skalwold
John I. Koivula

Associate Editor

Editors, Gem News

Technical Editors

Managing Editor

Stuart D. Overlin

Brooke Goedert
Editorial Coordinator

Erica Zaidman

Emmanuel Fritsch
Gagan Choudhary
Christopher M. Breeding

James E. Shigley
Raquel Alonso-Perez
Tao Z. Hsu
Jennifer Stone-Sundberg
Assistant Editor

Erin Hogarth

Production Staff
Creative Director

Photo/Video Producer

Multimedia Associate

Faizah Bhatti

Kevin Schumacher

Christopher Bonine

Production andMultimedia Specialist

Photographer

Video Production

Robert Weldon

Albert Salvato

Michael Creighton

Editorial Review Board
Ahmadjan Abduriyim

Jaroslav Hyršl

Sudarat Saeseaw

Tokyo, Japan

Prague, Czech Republic

Bangkok, Thailand

Timothy Adams

Dorrit Jacob

Karl Schmetzer

San Diego, California

Canberra, Australia

Petershausen, Germany

Edward W. Boehm

A.J.A. (Bram) Janse

Andy Shen

Chattanooga, Tennessee

Perth, Australia

Wuhan, China

James E. Butler

Mary L. Johnson

Guanghai Shi

Washington, DC

San Diego, California

Beijing, China

Alan T. Collins

Stefanos Karampelas

James E. Shigley

London, UK

Paris, France

Carlsbad, California

Sally Eaton-Magaña

Lore Kiefert

Elisabeth Strack

Carlsbad, California

Lucerne, Switzerland

Hamburg, Germany

John L. Emmett

Simon Lawson

Nicholas Sturman

Brush Prairie, Washington

Maidenhead, UK

Bangkok, Thailand

Emmanuel Fritsch

Ren LuD. Brian Thompson

Nantes, France

Wuhan, China

Florence, AlabamaEloïse Gaillou

Thomas M. Moses

Fanus Viljoen

Paris, France

New York, New York

Johannesburg, South Africa

Al Gilbertson

Laura Otter

Wuyi Wang

Carlsbad, California

Canberra, Australia

New York, New York

Gaston Giuliani

Aaron C. Palke

Christopher M. Welbourn

Nancy, France

Carlsbad, California

Reading, UK

Lee A. Groat

Ilene Reinitz

Chunhui Zhou

Vancouver, Canada

Chicago, Illinois

New York, New YorkYunbin Guan

Nathan Renfro

J.C. (Hanco) Zwaan

Pasadena, California

Carlsbad, California

Leiden, The Netherlands

Peter Heaney

Benjamin Rondeau

University Park, Pennsylvania

Nantes, France

Richard W. Hughes

George R. Rossman

Bangkok, Thailand

Pasadena, California

gia.edu/gems-gemology
Customer Service
Amanda Perez(760) 603-4200
gandg@gia.edu
Subscriptions
Copies of the current issue may be purchased for$29.95 plus shipping. Subscriptions are $79.99 for one
year (4 issues) in the U.S. and $99.99 elsewhere. Canadian subscribers should add GST. Discounts are available for renewals, group subscriptions, GIA alumni,
and current GIA students. To purchase print subscriptions, visit store.gia.edu or contact Customer Service.
For institutional rates, contact Customer Service.
Database Coverage
Gems & Gemology’s impact factor is 1.775, according to the 2020 Thomson Reuters Journal Citation
Reports (issued June 2021). G&G is abstracted inThomson Reuters products (Current Contents: Physical, Chemical & Earth Sciences and Science Citation Index—Expanded, including the Web ofKnowledge) and other databases. For a complete listof sources abstracting G&G, go to gia.edu/gemsgemology, and click on “Publication Information.”
Manuscript Submissions
Gems & Gemology, a peer-reviewed journal, welcomes
the submission of articles on all aspects of the field.
Please see the Author Guidelines at gia.edu/gemsgemology or contact the Managing Editor. Letterson articles published in G&G are also welcome.
Please note that Field Reports, Lab Notes, Gem NewsInternational, Micro-World, Colored Stones Unearthed, and Charts are not peer-reviewed sections
but do undergo technical and editorial review.
Copyright and Reprint Permission
Abstracting is permitted with credit to the source.
Libraries are permitted to photocopy beyond the limits of U.S. copyright law for private use of patrons.
Instructors are permitted to reproduce isolated articles and photographs/images owned by G&G fornoncommercial classroom use without fee. Use ofphotographs/images under copyright by external parties is prohibited without the express permission of
the photographer or owner of the image, as listed in
the credits. For other copying, reprint, or republication permission, please contact the Managing Editor.
Gems & Gemology is published quarterly by the
Gemological Institute of America, a nonprofit educational organization for the gem and jewelry industry.
Postmaster: Return undeliverable copies of Gems &Gemology to GIA, The Robert Mouawad Campus,
5345 Armada Drive, Carlsbad, CA 92008.
Our Canadian goods and service registration number
is 126142892RT.
Any opinions expressed in signed articles are understood to be opinions of the authors and not of the
publisher.

About the CoverThis issue features blue sapphire and peridot from the Mogok region of Myanmar. The peridot crystal and cut gem on
the cover are from the Bernard-Myo area of Mogok. The crystal measures 47.85 mm × 21.98 mm, and the gem weighs
36.37 ct. Courtesy of William Larson, Pala International (Fallbrook, California). Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.
Printing is by L+L Printers, Carlsbad, CA.
GIA World Headquarters The Robert Mouawad Campus 5345 Armada Drive Carlsbad, CA 92008 USA© 2021 Gemological Institute of America
All rights reserved.
ISSN 0016-626X

Burmese Blue Sapphire and Peridot
from Mogok and a History of Emerald
Mining in Habachtal, Austria
Welcome to the Winter 2021 issue of Gems & Gemology! This exciting conclusion to thevolume year features new content examining blue Burmese sapphires, the source of richolive color peridot in Pyaung-Gaung, and the history of emerald mining in Austria’s
Habachtal region.
Our lead article by Wasura Soonthorntantikul and coauthors features an extensive gemological analysis of 248 blue sapphires from Mogok, a source long known for producing
high-grade material. This study uses“…an extensive gemological analysis ofsamples collected on a series of expedi248 blue sapphires from Mogok…”
tions by GIA’s field gemologists overthe last decade, filling a gap in modern analytical data. Findings indicate that the sapphires
show a wide range of blue color intensities but maintain a very consistent inclusion scene.
Next, Montira Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya and fellow researchers investigate the internal, spectroscopic, andchemical features of peridot from the Pyaung-Gaung area in the Mogok township of Myanmar. This location is an
essential source of high-quality peridot, producing rough both large in size and rich in olive green color. A combination of various gemological tests and advanced analytical methods presented in this study prove effective in
differentiating Pyauang-Gaung peridot from other sources.
The final article delves into the mining history of Austria’s Habachtal region, which is considered one of the early
emerald deposits, with references dating back to 1797. In part one of this two-part series, Karl Schmetzer traces thehistory of the Habachtal emerald mine through several centuries up to World War I, using largely unpublishedworks sourced from Austrian and German archives.
As always, our regular columns offer an assortment of gemological findings from around the globe. Highlights of
the Lab Notes section include an impressive diamond faceted as the iconic Apple Inc. logo, exquisite antique
spectacles crafted with diamond and emerald lenses in mid-seventeenth-century India, and an exceptionally large
and well-saturated orange sapphire from Sri Lanka. The Micro-World section presents a demantoid faceted toshowcase spectacular “horsetail” inclusions, a remarkable example of rainbow graining in a yellow diamond, and an
unusual occurrence of a hematite crystal hosting a network of rutile crystals. In Gem News International, stay up todate with recent studies on biogenic carbon in pink corundum from southern West Greenland, the latest on
mining the Yogo sapphire deposit in Montana, and a new blue zircon deposit discovered in Malawi.
Finally, this issue includes the debut of an exciting addition to our regular columns, Colored Stones Unearthed,exploring the formation of colored stones from the crust-mantle and below. This first installment covers some of
the gemstones that provide important information on the mineralogy, composition, and evolution of the earth,including peridot, sapphire, and ruby.
We hope you enjoy the Winter issue of Gems & Gemology!

Duncan Pay | Editor-in-Chief | dpay@gia.edu

EDITORIALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

291

FEATURE ARTICLESBLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR:A GEMOLOGICAL REVIEW
Wasura Soonthorntantikul, Ungkhana Atikarnsakul, and Wim Vertriest
Burmese sapphires are among the most coveted colored gemstones in the world. The historical importance of
this source and the fine quality of its high-grade material contribute to the legendary status of these gems. Since
Mogok is such a long-known source, there are many classic studies available, but modern analytical data areoften missing or not up to current standards. This article summarizes the characteristics of Burmese sapphires,
including standard gemological properties, inclusion observations, and spectroscopic and trace element analyses.
This information was collected from hundreds of blue sapphires that GIA’s field gemologists sampled while visiting different mining regions in Mogok over the past decade. Our observations indicate that these sapphires
show a wide range of blue color intensities but very consistent inclusion scenes. Trace element chemistry did
not show any significant differences between various regions apart from a wider range of Fe concentrations insapphires from north of Mogok. Rare observations such as orange fluorescence and unusual FTIR spectra canbe attributed to the chemical compositions of the sapphires.

M

ogok is the most legendary gemstone source
in Myanmar; its fabled rubies have beenhighly desired for centuries. Perhaps equallysought-after by connoisseurs but less known to thegeneral public are its blue sapphires (figure 1). Mogok
is one of the oldest sapphire sources, but its sapphires
have always faced challenges in gemological circles.
Their beauty was often not acknowledged in older
days, but this changed dramatically in recent
decades. In light of the increasing demand for origin
determination services, separating blue sapphiresources has become important for gemological laboratories. Collecting reliable samples had been extremely challenging due to limited access to themines and the rarity of blue sapphire in Mogok. This
paper aims to summarize the current knowledge of
Mogok sapphires based on extensive gemologicalanalysis of samples collected during field expeditionsin the last decade, combined with data available in
the gemological literature.

INTRODUCTION TO MOGOK SAPPHIRES
Myanmar and Mogok. The Asian country of Myanmar, formerly known as Burma, is located on the

See end of article for About the Authors and Acknowledgments.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 57, No. 4, pp. 292–317,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.57.4.292© 2021 Gemological Institute of America

292

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

crossroads between Southeast Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, and China. From 200 BCE to 800 CE, theland was controlled by a group of city-states, often

In Brief• Mogok sapphires have been treasured for centuries, yetmodern gemological studies are scarce and most relyon limited samples. This study summarizes all gemological data for Burmese sapphires collected in the fieldby GIA gemologists.
• The most common inclusions are silk and twin planes,
and their appearance can potentially distinguish themfrom other sources.
• Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of the studied
Mogok sapphires frequently display hydroxyl-related
mineral features, while UV-Vis-NIR spectra commonly
show a pattern typical for metamorphic deposits.
• Trace element chemistry analyses by LA-ICP-MS did
not reveal any significant differences between the sapphire-producing zones in the Mogok area. The trace element chemistry of Burmese sapphires also shows
overlap with other metamorphic sapphire sources. Origin determination still relies heavily on observation ofinclusions.

referred to as the Pyu city-states. This state structure
was replaced by a line of larger kingdoms after the
Burmans drove out the Pyu in the ninth century.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 1. Three roughsamples and three
faceted sapphires (fromleft: 7.63, 9.77, and7.44 ct) from the Baw
Mar mine at Kyatpyinin the Mogok region of
Myanmar. Photo by
Robert Weldon/GIA.

Among the earliest was the Pagan Kingdom, which
laid the foundation for the nation that later became
modern-day Myanmar. This can be seen as the foundation of the Burmese language and culture, including the adoption of Theravada Buddhism as the state
religion. The ancient capital, now referred to as
Bagan and designated as a UNESCO World Heritage
Site, is one of the main tourism destinations in the
country. This kingdom eventually fell to Mongol invasions, after which it took centuries to recover andreunify the nation under the Toungoo Dynasty in the
mid-sixteenth century. In 1752, it was replaced by
the Konbaung Dynasty, which continued the administrative reforms set out by the previous rulers. Initially, the Konbaung rulers tried to resist increasingpressure from European colonial powers. In 1885,
after they lost the third Anglo-Burmese war, Burma
was completely annexed into the British Empire.
The earliest writings from European explorers
mentioned the close connection between the different Burmese empires and their vast gem resources(Hughes et al., 2017; Temple, 1928; Penzer, 1937).
Later explorers with better-documented journals provided detailed firsthand accounts of the “markets
stocked in rubies and sapphires” (d’Amato, 1833;
Luard, 1926–1927). Evidently, the British colonists
took great interest in all natural resources, including
gemstones. During the annexation, large-scale operations were leased out to mining firms for the firsttime. These were most successful in the late 1890s
and early 1900s. World War I shifted economic priorities, and the importance of gemstone mining sub-sided (Brown, 1927; Hughes et al., 2017). European
control was only briefly interrupted during WorldWar II when Japanese forces took control of Burma.
Colonial rule lasted until 1948, when Burma gained
its independence from the British Empire.
In 1962, only 14 years after the country gained its
independence, the military regime took control ofthe state. The military junta, also referred to as Tatmadaw, changed the name of the country to Myanmar in 1989. They refused to give up their total
power until 2011, when the ruling military party wasreformed. However, the military kept tight control
on the young democracy, and after the 2020 elections
it once again took control of the country in a newcoup d’état in February 2021.
The Mogok region is located in central Myanmar,around 120 km northeast of Mandalay (figure 2). The
area is located on the western side of the Shan
Plateau and flanked by the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy)
River to the west. The rugged terrain is characterized
by steep hills and numerous streams cutting through.
The main city is located at an elevation of 1100 m,
but the surrounding mountains can reach nearly2300 m. Due to high rainfall and warm summers,
vegetation is abundant and the jungle quickly reclaims abandoned areas. During winter, the temperatures at higher elevations can dip below the freezing
point.
The name “Mogok” is used to describe manythings and can lead to some confusion. It is important
to know which “Mogok” is being referred to. The
town of Mogok is where much of the gem trading ac-

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

293

Figure 2. Mogok Valley
just after sunrise. Mist
fills the valleys andmixes with smoke fromthe wood fires used tocook breakfast and heat
homes, especially during
the winter months. Photos by Wim Vertriest.

tivity takes place and is near many of the historicalgem mines. Mogok township is the administrative
area comprising Mogok city, Kyatpin, and other surrounding towns. More than 170,000 people live in thetownship. The Mogok Stone Tract, a term introducedby the British administration, does include the Mogok
township but stretches much farther north.
The Mogok administrative area consists of different settlements. Figure 3 covers the extent of the
Mogok township and indicates some notable towns.
The main population concentrations are in the cities
of Mogok and Kyatpin, which lie in the heart of thegemstone mining areas. In the rest of this article, the294BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

term “Mogok” refers to the wider area, not exclusively to the town or a single mine.
Foreigners cannot visit freely and must have permission from the appropriate authorities and be accompanied by a government-approved guide at all
times. Mogok has been subject to sudden closuresand has always been difficult to enter. Even when all
paperwork has been approved, permits can be retracted at the last minute.
Mogok Sapphire. While Mogok is commonly associated with rubies, its variety of gems is unmatched.
Apart from ruby, the other important stones are

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Mogok City

CHINA

MYANMAR(BURMA)

Bernard-Myo

THAILAND

Figure 3. Map of the
Mogok township andsome nearby towns.
Gem mines extend to
the north slope of themountains north of
Bernard-Myo and also
to the south.

Pein-Pyit
Kyauk-Sin

Chaung-Gyi

Mogok City
Kin

Kabaing

Kyatpin City0

spinel, sapphire, and peridot. Rare collector mineralssuch as painite and johachidolite have been discovered there. Mogok’s finest sapphires are of exceptional quality, and a Burmese origin is considered oneof the most desired localities, surpassed only byKashmir (Hughes et al., 2017). Today, Burmese sapphire is held in high esteem by the trade, but this was
not always the case.
At the end of the nineteenth century, Burmese
sapphires were considered too dark (Streeter, 1892).
Only in the middle of the twentieth century did thesestones acquire the reputation they hold today. Smith(1972) wrote that no other source produced sapphires
as superb as Burma’s. Brown and Dey (1955) took amore modest approach: “It has been stated that

5

10 km

Burmese sapphires as a whole are usually too dark forgeneral approval, but this is quite incorrect; next tothe Kashmir sapphires they are unsurpassed.”
As with all origins, only some of the stones recovered have the desired color, size, and clarity, and thus
origin is not synonymous with quality. The best
Mogok sapphires have a saturated, rich, intense blue
color, sometimes with a light violet component. But
Mogok sapphires are by no means restricted to thesetypical rich blue colors. A wide range of tone and saturation in blue color is found, from pale icy blue anddelicate periwinkle to dark navy blue (figure 4). Finestar sapphires have also been reported from the western area, near Kin (Hughes and Win, 1995). While
Mogok rubies are much more common in the trade

Figure 4. Mogok sapphires are traditionally known for darker blue colors, but in reality a vast range of blue tones
and saturations can be found in the mines around Mogok, as shown in this image. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA.

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

295

Figure 5. An invitation for a cup of tea quickly turned into a sapphire extravaganza in this gem trader’s front yard,
near the town of Bernard-Myo in northern Mogok. Blue and fancy sapphires were shown, and a lively debate about
the blue gems lasted for nearly an hour. Photo by Wim Vertriest.

than their blue cousins, the size of Burmese sapphires
is one of the reasons for their fame. Finished gems
larger than 100 carats have been documented, andgray-blue corundum crystals weighing several kilograms have been recovered, although the latter were
not facetable.
Blue sapphires are found all over the Mogok area,
but the town of Pein-Pyit and the Chaung-Gyi Valley
to the northeast of Mogok city in particular are
known to produce a blue sapphire of various intensities and tones. The northern town of Bernard-Myo
and the north-south trending valley it lies in have athriving sapphire mining and trading scene next tothe large peridot mines found in this area. The area
to the west and northwest of Kyatpin, with main centers in Baw Mar and Kyauk-Sin, hosts some of thelargest mines. Many smaller mines are in theThurein-Thaung/Yadana-Kaday-Kadar area a bit farther south. Blue sapphires are also found on the
Mogok Stone Tract’s western border in river gravels
near the towns of Kin and Kabaing. The large secondary deposits in the lower parts of the valleys once held

296

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

significant volumes of sapphire that washed downfrom the surrounding mountains, but most of these
are now exhausted.
Sapphire dealers in Mogok pay very close attention to the source of the rough (figure 5). It is believedthat sapphires from western Mogok maintain theirrich blue color in various orientations, while thosefrom the eastern parts may take a greenish tint when
the c-axis is not precisely perpendicular to the table(Hughes and Win, 1995). Some sapphires from
Bernard-Myo have a stronger violet component,
making them too dark, or a strong green component(Halford-Watkins, 1935). However, these are anecdotal observations from traders, and some of theseviews can be quite dated. There have been no extensive studies to back them up.

GEOLOGY AND MINING OF THE MOGOKSAPPHIRE DEPOSITS
Regional Geology of Mogok. Due to limited access,complicated geological history, degree of weathering,

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

and thick vegetation cover, the local geology of
Mogok is not well understood. Only recently haveadvanced geological studies taken place, but they arefocused on larger scale structures and not directly on
gem-forming processes.
The area is part of the Mogok Metamorphic Belt,a geological feature that extends over 1500 km fromthe Andaman Sea in the south to the edge of the Eastern Himalayas in the north. Marbles metamorphosed
under high amphibolite- and granulite-facies conditions are the dominant lithology in this belt, but avariety of high-grade metamorphic and intrusive
rocks are found (figure 6).
In the Mogok and Kyatpin valleys, where gem
minerals are most common, the marbles have been
intruded by charnockite and syenite intrusions, forming sills. The center of the valley consists of this unit

and stretches WSW-ENE, dipping to the south. Most
intrusions are concordant with the marble layering(figure 6). While the exact age of the marble is unclear,
it formed in the Tethys Ocean, which completely disappeared with the collision of the Indian Subcontinent
with Asia (Iyer, 1953; Oo, 2011; Searle et al., 2007; Zahirovic et al., 2012). The syenite intrusions have been
dated, but interpretation of these ages is not conclusive since some of them might have been reset in laterstages. Most dates place the intrusions in the earlyJurassic period (170–163 Ma), although others point toa younger age (67–22 Ma). These younger dates overlap
with the intense metamorphism associated with theformation of the Himalayas and have probably been
overprinted (Searle et al., 2020).
Field observations have determined the presenceof several sills, with Taung-Met syenite being the

23°00’

Kabaing granite- bt ± ms ± crd leucogranite
Pyang yuang peridotite- dunite, harzburgite, wehrlite
Mogok metamorphic rocks- sil + grt + bt ± cord gneisses

96°33’30”

Figure 6. The geology in Mogok is dominated by a WSW-ENE trending marble layer that dips to the south. In between these marbles are numerous syenite and charnockite layers. Toward the south is a suite of gem-barren
metamorphic rocks. The western border of Mogok is defined by the Kabaing granite, which has several pegmatiterelated gem deposits associated with it. From Searle et al. (2020).

Kyaukpan
Bernard-Myo

Syenite, charnockite
Mogok marble- marbles, calc-silicates, rare psammites
Sapphire mining locations
Peaks, mountains
Pandaw-Pey
Taung

Roads
RiversTaung met

Pein-Pyit

96°20’45”2296m
Chaung-Gyi

Nwaibo Taung

40

Kabaing granite
Kyauk-Sin

Kyint
Taung
40

45

Kin

Mogok City

Kabaing50

G.B.

96°33’30”

Kyatpyin City
Pingu Taung

22°52’00”

22°52’00”

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

297

most obvious with a thickness of 400 m. This intrusion is among the most resistant rocks and stands out
in relief as the hill range north of Mogok and Kyatpin
cities and includes the highest point in the Mogok
area (Taung-Met-Taung Mountain; again, see figure6). The syenite-charnockite rocks can have variable
mineralogical components, but field observations
suggested that the syenites, in combination with marbles and skarn, are more closely related to gem formation than the charnockites (Searle et al., 2020).
Nevertheless, charnockites have been described as
the source for sapphire and other gem mineralizationsin Sri Lanka (Rupasinghe and Dissanayake, 1985).
The intrusions developed extensive calc-silicate
skarns in the marble. The increased heat from the
hot intrusions combined with the low Si-activity inthem created the right conditions for corundum formation. It is in these skarn zones, limited to a structural distance of 1–2 km from the intrusion, thatmost rubies and sapphires are found. Field observations indicate that sapphire typically forms closer tothe intrusions (Searle et al., 2020).
In the immediate vicinity of the intrusions, metasomatized zones form around them. This metasomatization results in the formation of mineralizedzones that are often rich in mica but might also contain sodalite, lazurite, and others, depending on thelocal conditions (Searle et al., 2020).
This means that Mogok was subjected to a localized metamorphic event related to the intrusions of
the charnockite-syenites, probably in the early Jurassic period. The entire region underwent granulite-facies metamorphism in the late Cretaceous to theearly Miocene.
Intrusions of leucogranite and associated pegmatites that are most likely related to the large
Kabaing granite intrusion to the west are also found(Gardiner et al., 2014, 2016; Iyer, 1953; Themelis,2008). These are also related to gem mineralization
but are more likely the source of pegmatite-related
gemstones (topaz, aquamarine, etc.) that appear to be
more common toward the west of Mogok. These intrusions are much younger and only intruded after
peak metamorphic conditions passed (22–18 Ma)(Searle et al., 2020). In western Mogok, they overlap
alongside the older syenite intrusions, but their interaction might have triggered the formation of newminerals.
Toward the north, there is a large ultramafic body.
There is still an ongoing debate whether this intruded
during later metamorphism or represents an ophiolitic
mantle rock (Searle et al., 2017; Thu, 2007).

298

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

Geology of Mogok Sapphire Deposits. While rubyand spinel from Mogok formed in relatively puremarbles, the formation of sapphire is less understoodand likely more complicated (Garnier et al., 2008).
Most studies agree that the intrusions played a significant role in the formation of blue corundum in
Mogok. Still, there is little clarity whether these intrusions are directly responsible for sapphire mineralization or are just one of the factors that played arole. Field observations have shown a strong link between the distribution of gem corundum and thesyenite/charnockite intrusions, although the gems
themselves only formed during later metamorphism(Searle et al., 2020). Many of the intrusions were Sipoor, which meant that they had the capacity toleach silicon from the host rocks, leaving an environment enriched in aluminum, which is required forcorundum formation. The reverse process can also
occur, where silicon is removed from the intrusionby the host rock. This way, the intrusion can be desilicated and relatively enriched in Al, thus forminga suitable environment for corundum. This rock issometimes referred to as plumasite (Giuliani et al.,2014). Some studies found strong indicators that thesapphires found in the syenite intrusions might bexenocrysts. In other words, they did not form in thesyenitic magma but rather were picked up andbrought to the surface (Turnier and Harlow, 2017).
Given the complex geology of the Mogok gem area,
we cannot exclude the possibility that there are multiple types of sapphire-forming processes responsiblefor its wealth of blue sapphire.
While the geological formation of Mogok sapphire
is not yet fully understood, it is obviously unrelated
to alkali basalt extrusions. Some of the richest sapphire deposits on our planet are associated withbasalts, and these gems are often referred to as
basaltic or magmatic. Typical localities are Thailand,
Nigeria, and Australia. They share similar gemological and mineralogical characteristics, which setsthem apart from the second group of sapphires,known as metamorphic. These metamorphic sapphires are found mainly in Sri Lanka and Madagascar,as well as Mogok. While the geological formation ofthese sources is not well understood, they do sharesufficient spectroscopic and gemological similarities
to group them together. These similarities make itchallenging to determine the exact geographic originof metamorphic sapphires.
Mining Techniques. Mogok’s sapphires are mainly
mined in secondary deposits. In these deposits, crystals

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 7. A miner washes
byon that was trapped
between large boulders.
The use of simple techniques allows them toaccess areas that cannot
be reached with heavyequipment. In the far
western part of Mogok,
near the Kin Valley, miners find blue sapphireand spinel mostly inthese gem-rich gravels.
Photo by Wim Vertriest.

have been released from the host rock. Due to various
processes, often related to transport in water, the heaviest minerals are concentrated. This concentrate iscalled byon in Myanmar and contains a mixture of several minerals, including corundum, spinel, tourmaline,
and topaz, depending on the location (figure 7).
Gemstone mining has a long tradition in Mogok,
and several mining methods are used for sapphire(Hughes et al., 2017). The first type is called twin-lon,
where a narrow shaft is sunk into the ground to reachthe byon. Once the byon is reached, horizontal tunnels

branch out to remove as much valuable material as
possible. This system is comparable to traditional gem
mining in many parts of the world, although the scale
is often smaller. Since flooding is a serious risk, thismethod is often limited to the dry season. The second
type is the hmyaw-dwin method, a form of hillside
open-pit mining (figure 8). Water is used to loosen up
and wash away mud and light minerals, leaving behind heavier crystals such as corundum and spinel.
This concentrate is then washed. Since this techniqueuses a lot of water, it is preferred in the wet season.

Figure 8. This modern
hmyaw-dwin minecombines high-pressure
water jets with an excavator. The water breaks
up muddy areas, andthe excavator removes
large, worthless boulders and exposes fresh
ground. The muddy
water carries thesmaller gravel and gemstones down to a gravel
pump. This slurry is
pumped to a washingplant, where the gems
are separated fromother materials. Photo
by Wim Vertriest.

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

299

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Figure 9. There are a few sapphire mines in Mogok
where people extract the blue gems directly from thehost rock. Following underground tunnels, they trace
gem-rich zones. In many places, the rock is fairly
weathered and manual tools are sufficient. On rarer
occasions, blasting is required in the sapphire mines.
Photo by Wim Vertriest.

Cave mining, or lu-dwin, is also common in
Mogok but is mainly used for spinel and ruby since
they form directly in the marble that hosts the caves.
Sapphire formation is not directly linked to the marble formation; as a result, the blue gems are muchless common in cave deposits.
Hard-rock mining has become more common in
Mogok since most of the secondary deposits are becoming exhausted. Several sapphire mining operations
have switched to this technique, although they are notcomparable in size with the massive ruby operations
that work primary deposits in deep tunnels. Thismethod follows gem-rich zones through the rock andexcavates them. Explosives are often required to blast
through the rock in the ruby mines, but most sapphire-hosting rocks are so weathered that the gems
can be removed manually, without the use of heavyequipment (figure 9). The gem-rich rocks are brought
to the surface and further processed to release thegems from their matrix. Even the largest operations
working in the primary deposits rely heavily on manual labor in places where gems are more abundant. Removal of overburden or barren rock is often done withheavy equipment such as excavators.

300

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

Blue sapphires included in this study were collectedfrom different areas in the Mogok Stone Tract by GIA
field gemologists during expeditions between 2014
and 2019 (figure 10). The stones were separated into
groups based on their mining area. This should allow
us to see any variations based on location and to potentially test claims made by traders. While this selection covers most of the important areas, we
acknowledge that not every sapphire mine in Mogok
is represented. Nevertheless, all areas that are locallyknown to produce significant quantities of gem-quality sapphire are included in this study.
A total of 248 Mogok samples were separated into
six groups based on geographic mining location in the
Mogok Stone Tract area (figure 3): 21 from North(Bernard-Myo area), 32 from Northeast (Chaung-Gyi
Valley), 22 from East (Pein-Pyit village and Hta-YanSho mine), 83 from Northwest (Baw Mar and KyaukSin mines), 40 from West (Yadanar-Kaday-Kadar,Thurein-Thaung, Man-Taw-Tin, Kyauk-Tya-That, and
Baw-Lon-Gyi mines, located between Kabaing and Kyatpin), and 50 from Far West (Kin Valley) (table 1).
These samples were studied in three forms: 230
rough samples with one or more polished surface windows, to focus on inclusions; 12 optical wafer samples
Figure 10. GIA field gemologists inspect a parcel ofsmall blue sapphires in the northern part of Mogok,
near the village of Chaung-Gyi. These samples wereclassified as E-type since they were purchased from a
trader in the town. Photo by Wim Vertriest.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

TABLE 1. Sample types of the studied Mogok blue sapphires in GIA’s
reference collection.a
North
(21)

Northeast
(32)

East
(22)

Northwest
(83)

West
(40)

Far West(50)

A type: Mined by
GIA gemologist

—

—

—

—

—

—

B type: Mining observed
by GIA gemologist

—

2

—

—

6

—

C type: Purchased fromminer at the mine

—

—

14

—

5

—

D type: Purchased fromminer, not at the mine

—

5

8

73

3

—

E type: Purchased in thelocal market

21

25

—

10

26

50

Classificationa

From Vertriest et al. (2019). The numbers in parentheses represent the numbers of samples from each area.

with a set of parallel polished surface windows oriented either perpendicular or parallel to the crystal’s
c-axis (Thomas, 2009); and six faceted samples.
Standard gemological properties such as refractive
index (RI), birefringence, and hydrostatic specific gravity (SG) were measured on all samples. A standard
gemological UV lamp with long-wave (LW) and shortwave (SW) radiation at 365 and 254 nm, respectively,
was used for fluorescence observations. Microscopic
examination was performed with GIA binocular microscopes at 10× to 70× magnification, using various
lighting including darkfield, brightfield, diffused, andfiber-optic illumination. Photomicrographs were captured with Nikon SMZ 18 and 1500 systems at different magnifications and lighting.
Ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR)
spectra were collected on the 12 optical wafer samples with a Hitachi U-2900 spectrophotometer specially modified at GIA to include a rotatable polarizer
to allow the separate collection of the ordinary (o-)
and extraordinary (e-) rays at a wavelength resolutionof 1.5 nm. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra
were measured on all 248 samples using a Thermo
Nicolet 6700 FTIR spectrometer operating with a 4×
beam condenser accessory at a resolution of 4 cm–1.
A Renishaw inVia Raman microscope fitted with a
514 nm argon-ion laser was used to identify mineralinclusions, when possible. This was also used forphotoluminescence (PL) analysis with a 457 nm laser
excitation at room temperature.
Trace element chemical analyses were performedon all samples using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) technology with a Thermo Fisher Scientific iCAP Q
ICP-MS coupled with a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser

ablation device operating at a wavelength of 213 nm.
The laser conditions used were 55 μm diameter laser
spots with a fluence of approximately 10 J/cm2 and arepetition rate of 10 Hz. The dwell time of each spot
was 40 s. The forward power was set at 1350 W, andthe typical nebulizer gas flow was approximately at
0.80 L/min. A special set of corundum reference
standards was used for quantitative analysis of Be,
Mg, Ti, V, Cr, Fe, and Ga (Stone-Sundberg et al.,2017), whereas NIST Standard Reference Materials
610 and 612 glasses were used for other elements. Allelemental measurements were normalized on Al as
the internal elemental standard.

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYRESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Gemological Properties and Appearance. Generally,sapphires produced from various areas in the Mogok
Stone Tract have a range of blue color from light tostrong saturation (figure 11). The standard gemological properties of the studied materials are typical ofnatural corundum: RI of 1.760–1.770, birefringenceof 0.008–0.009, and hydrostatic SG of 3.81–4.04.
Viewed under a standard gemological UV lamp
(365 and 254 nm), the vast majority of Mogok blue
sapphires in this study (81%) showed no fluorescence
under long-wave UV radiation, while 10% fluoresced
red (without zoned orange fluorescence). The remainder displayed zoned orange fluorescence (with very
weak or no red fluorescence) in near-colorless to light
blue color zones. The fluorescence intensity underlong-wave UV was generally weak to moderate. It
should be noted that the red and orange fluorescenceobserved in these blue sapphires is caused by different defects (figure 12) and can appear together whenobserved with a gemological UV lamp. Orange fluo-

WINTER 2021

301

NorthNortheast

Figure 11. Colorcalibrated photos ofblue sapphire samples
from six different regions in the Mogok
Stone Tract, Myanmar.
Note that visual color
intensity also depends
on the sample thickness,
ranging here from 0.68
to 3.55 mm. Photos by
Sasithorn Engniwat.

East

Northwest

West

Far West

5 mmrescence is relatively common in metamorphic blue
sapphire from other sources, such as Sri Lanka andMadagascar (Hughes et al., 2017). In figure 12, a stone
with red fluorescence showed R-line emission at
693.0 and 694.4 nm that is caused by Cr3+. The or-ange fluorescent region displayed an additional emission band at around 640 nm that is related to trappedhole chromophores (Hughes et al., 2017). In natural
corundum, the reaction under long-wave UV is generally stronger than that in short-wave UV. This was

NORMALIZED INTENSITYEMISSION SPECTRA

1.0

Orange zoned fluorescence
Red fluorescence

0.8
0.6

0.4
0.2

0.0
500

550

600

650

700

750

800

WAVELENGTH (nm)302BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 12. The emission
spectrum of the orange
zoned fluorescence of
Mogok sapphire fromthe West area (orangeline) and that of the red
fluorescence of anothersample from the Far
West area (red line),using 457 nm laser excitation. Examples of orange zoned (top right)
and red (bottom right)
fluorescence of the samples under long-wave
UV (365 nm). Photos by
Nuttapol Kitdee.

WINTER 2021

LONG-WAVE UV OBSERVATION
100

Inert
Red
Orange% OF SAPPHIRES

80

60

40

20

0
North (21)Northeast (32)

East (22)Northwest (83)West (40)Figure 13. The longwave UV fluorescence
reaction distribution of
Mogok blue sapphires
from different areas. A
majority of the samples
showed no fluorescence
under long-wave UV.
The numbers in parentheses represent the
number of samples
from each area.

Far West (50)

MOGOK AREA

confirmed in the studied Mogok sapphires, whichwere all inert under short-wave UV light.
The graph in figure 13 shows the observed fluorescence color under long-wave UV for Mogok sapphires
in six different regions. Among the studied samples,blue sapphires from the West and East areas showed
the highest percentage (40%) displaying a fluorescent
reaction. Among the samples with observable fluorescence, the North samples displayed only red fluo-

rescence, whereas the samples from other areas exhibited both red and orange zoned fluorescence.
Microscopic Observation. The studied samples from
the Mogok Stone Tract area presented similar internalfeatures and exhibited many inclusions commonly
seen in classic Mogok blue sapphires reported previously (Gübelin and Koivula, 2008; Hughes et al., 2017;
Themelis, 2008), as summarized in table 2. Figure 14

Figure 14. The distribution of common internal features in blue sapphires from different mining regions along the
Mogok Stone Tract. The numbers in parentheses represent the number of samples from each area.

INCLUSIONS
100

Silk/needles
Single twinned
plane
Multiple twinned
planes% OF SAPPHIRES

80

Multiple twinned
planes, withintersection

60

Growth tubes
Growth tubes
with twinning

40

20

0
North (21)Northeast (32)

East (22)Northwest (83)West (40)

Far West (50)

MOGOK AREA

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

303

TABLE 2. General observation of blue sapphires from the Mogok Stone Tract area, Myanmar.
Mining area

North
(21)

Northeast
(32)

East
(22)

Northwest
(83)

West
(40)

Far West(50)

Literaturea

Weight (carats)

0.21– 4.26

0.22–2.14

1.04–27.36

0.07– 4.26

0.11– 6.15

0.28–5.89

—

Color

Light to strong
blue

Light to strong
blue, a few
with violetish
tint

Light tomedium blue

Light to strong
blue, a few
with violetish
tint

Light to strong
blue, a few
with violetish
tint

Light to strong
blue

Light to strong
blue, somewith violetish
tint

Fluorescenceobservation

Generally inert Generally inert under long-wave and short-wave UV; sometimes weak to medium redunder longand/or orange zoned under long-wave UV
wave andshort-wave UV;
sometimes
weak red underlong-wave UVGenerally inert,
weak red toorange fromCr-bearingstones may beobserved underlong-wave UVInternalfeatures

Needles/silk,
polysynthetic
twinning,
growth tubes,
fingerprints,
and negative
crystals.
Generally
uniform blue
color, lacking a
sharp blue
boundary.

Needles/silk,
polysynthetic
twinning,
growth tubes,
fingerprints,
and negative
crystals.
Generally
uniform blue
color.

Needles/silk,
polysynthetic
twinning,
fingerprints,
and negative
crystals.
Generally
uniform blue
color.

Needles/silk,
polysynthetic
twinning,
growth tubes,
fingerprints,
and negative
crystals.
Generally
uniform blue
color.

Needles/silk,
polysynthetic
twinning;
growth tubes,
fingerprints,
and negative
crystals.
Generally
uniform blue
color, lacking a
sharp blue
zone.

Needles/silk,
polysynthetic
twinning,
growth tubes,
fingerprints,
and negative
crystals.
Generally
uniform blue
color, lacking a
sharp bluezone.

Polysynthetic
twinning,
growth tubes,
rutile silk,
secondary fluidinclusions, andnegative
crystals. Evenblue color,rarely withcolor banding,and lacking
sharp growthzoning.

Solid
crystalline
inclusions

Apatite, calcite,
corundum,feldspar, mica,
monazite,
nepheline,
zircon, andgreen sheets

Feldspar, mica,
rutile, spinel,
green sheets,
and tiny
opaque black
crystals

Apatite,feldspar, mica,
spinel, zircon,
and tiny
opaque black
crystals

Apatite,feldspar, mica,
rutile, spinel,
zircon, green
sheets, and tiny
opaque black
crystals

Apatite, calcite,
feldspar, mica,
nepheline,
rutile,scapolite,
zircon, andtiny opaque
black crystals

Apatite, calcite,
feldspar, mica,
rutile,scapolite,
spinel, zircon,
and tiny
opaque black
crystals

Apatite,brookite,
dolomite,
fergusonite,feldspar,gibbsite, mica,
monazite,
nepheline,
pargasite,
rutile, spinel,
uraninite,
zircon, andpyrrhotiteaGübelin and Koivula (2008), Themelis (2008), Kan-Nyunt et al. (2013), Saengbuangamlam et al. (2016), and Hughes et al. (2017).

illustrates the distribution of internal features commonly observed in the studied Mogok sapphires separated by mining locations. The most common
inclusion types are rutile needles/silk; they were observed in more than 80% of the samples. Silk can occur
in various patterns, often overlapping with those ofother metamorphic deposits, such as Sri Lanka andMadagascar (Palke et al., 2019). They can consist ofdensely packed short needles, a mix of short and long

304

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

needles in zones or discrete bands, and sometimes arrowhead patterns (figure 15, A–C). Mogok sapphires canalso have irregular/flaky iridescent platelets, presumably ilmenite (Kan-Nyunt et al., 2013), bands/zones ofcoarse particles with short needles, and rounded/elongated reflective platelets (figure 15, D–G). When obliquefiber-optic light is reflected from the surface of the silk,
the needles/platelets exhibit iridescent colors (e.g., figure 15, A and D, and figure 16, left). Using other lighting

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

Figure 15. Patterns of silk and needles in Mogok sapphires. A: Iridescent rutile silk with arrowhead patternobserved with a fiber-optic light from the appropriate angle. B: Densely packed rutile short needles in discrete bands. C: A mix of short and long rutile silk. D: Irregularly shaped reflective platelets and needles. E:
Bands of coarse particles mixed with short needles. F: Intersection of elongated reflective thin films. G: Reflective rounded platelets mixed with short needles. H: A mix of whitish and brownish silk. Photomicrographs by C. Khowpong (A, E, F), U. Atikarnsakul (B, D, G), S. Wongchacree (C), and V.L. Raynaud-Flattot(H). Fields of view: 1.40 mm (A), 3.10 mm (B), 1.40 mm (C), 2.40 mm (D), 1.80 mm (E), 3.65 mm (F), 0.80
mm (G), and 1.05 mm (H). Shown in fiber-optic (A–G) and darkfield illumination (H).

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

305

Figure 16. This Mogok sapphire shows densely packed irregular platelets and needles. This type of silk appears reflective and iridescent when a fiber-optic light is shone through at an appropriate angle (left) and brownish whenviewed with other lighting conditions (right, diffused illumination). Photomicrographs by Ungkhana Atikarnsakul; field of view 1.50 mm.

conditions, the rutile silk commonly appeared whitish(e.g., figure 15, B and G), while irregular/flaky platelets
generally look brownish (e.g., figures 15H and 16, right).
Irregular brownish platelets (presumably ilmenite) are
noticeably seen in the sapphires containing high iron(Fe) content (>800 ppma Fe).
Other frequently observed features are polysynthetic twin planes on the rhombohedron andgrowth tubes along twin planes. Twinning is usuallypresent as multiple planes, sometimes intersecting inthe samples (figures 14 and 17, left). Rose channels(growth tubes at twin intersections) are occasionally
filled by boehmite/diaspore (figure 17, right) (Notari
et al., 2018).
In Mogok sapphires, healed fissures or fingerprints
can be present in various ways, such as folded, coarse,
zig-zag fluid, and fingerprints where individual negative crystals are easily recognized (figure 18, A–D). In
addition, the blue sapphires from Mogok sometimes
contain large negative crystals surrounded by iridescent fluid thin films (“rosettes”) (figure 19) (Raynaud
and Vertriest, 2017). Mogok sapphires typically have

Figure 17. Intersecting twinned sectors viewed under crossed polarizing filters are sometimes observed in Mogok
sapphires (left). Intersecting growth tubes filled by boehmite can also be present along twinned planes (right), usually suggesting a Burmese origin. Photomicrographs by Ungkhana Atikarnsakul; field of view 7.20 mm (left) and1.20 mm (right).

306

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

A

B

C

D

Figure 18. Healed fractures in samples from Mogok. A: Folded fingerprint. B: Coarse and slender healed fractureswith iron stains. C: Fluid fingerprint with a zig-zag pattern. D: Fingerprint-like plane of tabular negative crystals.
Photomicrographs by Suwasan Wongchacree (A and B) and Charuwan Khowpong (C and D). Field of view: 2.40mm (A), 2.88 mm (B), 1.80 mm (C), and 1.10 mm (D). Shown in fiber-optic (A–C) and darkfield illumination (D).

an even blue color. However, in a small percentage(approximately 10%) of the studied samples, diffusedblue color zoning lacking sharp boundaries can be ob-served (figure 20). Color zoning with sharp, well-defined boundaries can sometimes be seen, though rare
(figure 21). Only three out of 248 samples in thisFigure 19. This Mogok sapphire contains a negative
crystal surrounded by iridescent thin films. Photomicrograph by Suwasan Wongchacree, fiber-optic illumination; field of view 1.44 mm.

Figure 20. Diffuse blue zoning can be seen in Mogok sapphires. Photomicrograph by Suwasan Wongchacree, diffused illumination; field of view 14.4 mm.

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

307

Multiple mineral crystals were found in the Mogok
sapphires (table 2), but they are not diagnostic evidence for Burmese origin. In this study, apatite, calcite,
corundum, feldspar, mica, monazite, nepheline, rutile,
scapolite, spinel, and zircon, as well as green sheets
and tiny opaque black crystals were observed andidentified (figure 22, opposite page). Most of thesemineral crystals, except for scapolite, are reported inprevious studies for blue sapphires (Gübelin and
Koivula, 2008; Themelis, 2008; Kan-Nyunt et al.,2013; Saengbuangamlam et al., 2016; Hughes et al.,2017). Scapolite inclusions have been identified in
Burmese rubies (Kammerling et al., 1994), and to ourknowledge this is the first reporting of scapolite in
Burmese sapphires. The occurrence of specific mineralinclusions in Mogok sapphires identified by Raman
spectroscopy is summarized in figure 23, with feldspar
and mica being the most common.

Figure 21. The straight and sharp blue zoning in this
Mogok sapphire from the Northwest area is very rare.
Photomicrograph by Charuwan Khowpong, fiberoptic illumination; field of view 1.40 mm.

study—from the East, Northeast, and Northwest
areas—display straight and sharp blue bands.

Infrared (IR) Absorption Spectroscopy. The infraredabsorption region of interest in corundum is approx-

Figure 23. This graph shows the percentage of the samples that contained at least one conclusively identified crystal. The most common crystals in Mogok sapphire are feldspar and mica. The numbers in parentheses represent
the number of samples from each area.

MINERAL INCLUSIONS
20

North (21)Northeast (32)
East (22)Northwest (83)% OF SAPPHIRES

15

West (40)
Far West (50)

10

5

308

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

on
rc
Zi

el
in

ol
ap
Sc

li d

Sp

i te

e
Ru

lin
So

N

ep

he

az
on
M

til

e

i te

a
ic
M

ar
sp
ld

un
or
C

Fe

du

m

te
ci
al
C

Ap

at

i te

0

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

Figure 22. Mineral inclusions in Mogok sapphires. A: Rounded transparent colorless feldspar crystal. B: Transparent brownish mica crystal. C: Prismatic transparent apatite crystal. D: Rounded, unevenly shaped transparent rutile crystal. E: A row of prismatic transparent scapolite crystals. F: A group of rounded transparent zircon
crystals. Zircon is more often seen as a single crystal. G: Low-relief transparent corundum crystals associatedwith small negative crystals. H: Birefringent crystals of corundum in G viewed with crossed polarizing filters.
I: Rounded transparent yellowish monazite crystal. J: Rounded transparent flat nepheline crystals. K: Unevenly shaped flat green transparent crystals (presumably mica). L: A group of small, blocky black opaque
crystals. Photomicrographs by Charuwan Khowpong (A, B, G, H, K) and Ungkhana Atikarnsakul (C, D, E, F, I,
J, L). Field of view: 1.80 mm (A), 2.40 mm (B), 1.44 mm (C), 2.70 mm (D), 2.70 mm (E), 1.00 mm (F), 1.80 mm(G), 1.80 mm (H), 1.20 mm (I), 1.20 mm (J), 3.65 mm (K), and 1.05 mm (L). Shown in fiber-optic (A–C, E–F, L),darkfield (D, G, J), brightfield illumination (H–I), and diffused illumination (K).

imately 1800–4000 cm–1, which is related to hydroxyl(OH) absorption. IR spectroscopic information canhelp detect heat treatment in corundum, such as thepresence of a series of sharp peaks at approximately

3309, 3232, 3187, and 3368 cm–1 (Smith, 1995), andalso reveal the presence of several OH-related mineral inclusions. The vast majority of Mogok samples
in the study (>90%) showed at least one diagnostic

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

309

1.7

A

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT (cm–1)

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT (cm–1)

FTIR A BSORPTION SPECTRA
1.8

3161

1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3

3240

1.2

2420

3355
2625

1.1
1.0
3500

3300

3100

2900

2700

2500

2300

0.45

B

0.40

3309

0.35

0.30

0.25
3350

4.0
3.5

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT (cm–1)

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT (cm–1)

5.0
4.5

C
3695
(Kao)

3620
(Kao)

3310 3085(Boe) (Boe)

1970
(Boe)

3.0
2.5

2100
(Boe)

2.0
1.5
1.0
3800

3300

2800

3300

3250

3200

3150

WAVENUMBER (cm–1)

WAVENUMBER (cm–1)

2300

1800

4.0

D
3525
3620

3.5

3398
3380
3.0

2.5
4000

WAVENUMBER (cm–1)

3800

3600

3400

3200

WAVENUMBER (cm–1)

Figure 24. Unpolarized FTIR absorption spectra of the studied Mogok blue sapphires showed several features in
the mid-infrared region between 1800 and 4000 cm–1. A: A prominent band at 3161 cm–1, sometimes associatedwith related bands at 2420, 3240, and 3355 cm–1. B: A single peak at 3309 cm–1 (without related bands at 3232 and3186 cm–1). C: A combination of kaolinite (Kao) and boehmite (Boe) features with distinct bands at 3500–3800
and 1800–3600 cm–1, respectively. D: Gibbsite with distinct features at 3300–3800 cm–1.

IR feature (figure 24): the single 3309 cm–1 peak(Beran and Rossman, 2006), the 3161 cm–1 peaksometimes associated with side bands at 2420, 3240,
and 3355 cm–1 (Smith and Van der Bogert, 2006), andsome OH-related mineral absorption features, suchas diaspore, boehmite, kaolinite, and gibbsite (Smith,
1995; Beran and Rossman, 2006).
Figure 25 shows the distribution of FTIR features
observed in samples from each region in the Mogok
Stone Tract. Mineral features were observed in
more than 80% of the samples from all regions. The
single 3309 cm–1 peak is present in the samples fromeach area, whereas the 3161 cm–1 feature can befound in a small percentage (<5%) of Northeast,
East, Northwest, and Far West samples. We notedthat the studied sapphires exhibiting the 3161 cm–1
IR feature frequently show orange zoned fluores-

310

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

cence, which is related to trapped-hole defects (asmentioned in the Gemological Properties and Appearance section).
UV-Vis-NIR Absorption Spectroscopy. All spectralquality samples from the Mogok Stone Tract exhibited similar UV-Vis-NIR spectra, as shown in figure
26. The spectra generally consist of Fe3+-related absorption features with a shoulder at 330 nm and peaks at
377, 388, and 450 nm, and also a Fe2+-Ti4+ intervalencecharge-transfer feature with a broad band centered at
580 nm in the o-ray or at 700 nm in the e-ray spectrum(Dubinsky et al., 2020). Sometimes, the shoulder at
330 nm of an Fe3+-Fe3+ pair is not observed due to thesamples’ relatively high Fe concentration (Dubinsky
et al., 2020). The spectra shown in figure 26A are typical of the metamorphic-type sapphire spectrum

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 25. The distribution of FTIR features
seen in Mogok sapphires from different regions in the present
study. Mineral features(e.g., gibbsite, kaolinite, boehmite, and diaspore) and the single
peak at 3309 cm–1 are
frequently observed,
whereas the 3161 cm–1
peak seems to be uncommon. The numbers
in parentheses represent the number ofsamples studied fromeach area.

FTIR FEATURES
100

Mineral3309 cm-1
3161 cm-1% OF SAPPHIRES

80

60

40

20

0
North (21)Northeast (32)

East (22)Northwest (83)West (40)

Far West (50)

MOGOK AREA

(Smith, 2010; Palke et al., 2019). Some high-Fe Mogok
sapphires show a weak broad absorption band in thenear-infrared region around 880 nm in addition to Fe3+
and Fe2+-Ti4+ absorption features in the UV-Vis region(figure 26B). This feature is common in basalt-related
sapphires but not typically associated with untreatedclassic metamorphic sapphires (Kan-Nyunt et al.,2013; Soonthorntantikul et al., 2017). This 880 nm absorption band is possibly related to Fe clusters (Hughes
et al., 2017).
Spectroscopic characteristics of Mogok blue sapphires in this study were also summarized in table 3.

Trace Element Chemistry. LA-ICP-MS data analyzed in inclusion-free and/or less particle-included
areas for the studied Mogok blue sapphires are reported in table 4. Significant levels of Mg, Fe, Ti, andGa with a few ppma of V and Cr were measured inthose samples (see also Peucat et al., 2007; KanNyunt et al., 2013; Atikarnsakul et al., 2018). The
overall data exhibited a wide range of Fe concentrations from 100 ppma to 2300 ppma. The Mg and Ti
concentrations can vary a lot depending on the presence of microinclusions (nanometers to nearly millimeters in size), with big differences between the

Figure 26. Two representative polarized UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra of Mogok sapphires revealed Fe-related
absorption at 330, 377, 388, and 450 nm in both the o- and e-rays and Fe2+-Ti4+ intervalence charge transfer at
580 nm in the o-ray, which is responsible for blue color in corundum. A: The absence of the 880 nm band is typical of metamorphic-type sapphire. The sample is from the North area, optical path length 1.059 mm, 1457 ± 36
ppma Fe and 42 ± 5 ppma Ti. B: The o-ray exhibited an additional weak broad band around 880 nm, possibly
due to Fe clusters. The sample is from the Northwest area, optical path length 1.008 mm, 1496 ± 100 ppma Fe
and 19 ± 2 ppma Ti.

30
25

A

o-ray (E ┴ c)e-ray (E ll c)

330

20
15
10
5
0
300

377

388

580

700

450

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT (cm–1)

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT (cm–1)

UV-VIS-NIR A BSORPTION SPECTRA
30

B

o-ray (E ┴ c)e-ray (E ll c)

25
20
15

330
580

10

377 388

5

450

0
300

400

500

WAVELENGTH (nm)BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

880

700

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

WAVELENGTH (nm)GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

311

TABLE 3. Spectroscopic characteristics of blue sapphires from the Mogok Stone Tract area, Myanmar.
Mining area

FTIR
spectraUV-Vis-NIR
spectra

North
(21)

Northeast
(32)

East
(22)

Northwest
(83)

West
(40)

Far West(50)

OH-related
mineral features
and/or single
3309 cm–1 peak
are usuallypresent

OH-related
mineral features
and/or single
3309 cm–1 peak
are usuallypresent; 3161
cm–1 peak may
be observed

OH-related
mineral features
and/or single
3309 cm–1 peak
are usuallypresent; 3161
cm–1 peak may
be observed

OH-related
mineral features
and/or single
3309 cm–1 peak
are usuallypresent; 3161
cm–1 peak may
be observed

OH-related
mineral features
and/or single
3309 cm–1 peak
are usuallypresent

OH-related
mineral features
and/or single
3309 cm–1 peak
are usuallypresent; 3161
cm–1 peak may
be observed

Fe-related absorption peaks at 330, 377, 388, and 450 nm and Fe2+-Ti4+ intervalence charge transfer broad band
centered at 580 nm in the o-ray spectrum.
A broad band centered at 880 nm in the o-ray spectrum can be observed in relatively high-Fe sapphires (this study
and Kan-Nyunt et al., 2013).

inclusion-free and the cloudy areas. Significant
amounts of Ga, typically observed in natural corundum, were also detected in all samples in this study.
Apart from those six elements, some other elements, including Be, Zr, Nb, Sn, Hf, Ta, W, and Th,
are sometimes present with very low concentrations
when analyzed on areas containing particles. Tracesof Be can be present in natural untreated sapphires
in cloudy areas with a high particle density, and it isfrequently associated with Nb, Ta, light rare earth
elements, and/or Th (Shen et al., 2007; Lu and Shen,
2011). In the studied samples, the concentrations of
natural Be range from about <0.5 to 2.6 ppma; Zr,
Nb, Sn, Hf, Ta, W, and Th are generally below detection limits, and they can be measured in quantities
of up to 0.5 ppma Zr, 0.8 ppma Nb, 7 ppma Sn, 0.02
ppma Hf, 4 ppma Ta, 9 ppma W, and 0.5 ppma Th.

Trace element concentration distributions in
Mogok sapphires from different regions are shown infigures 27 and 28 for Fe and Cr, respectively. Samples
from the North, Northeast, East, and Northwest frequently had relatively high Fe content compared tothose from the West and Far West areas (figure 27).
All regions generally showed little to no Cr concentrations (figure 28), which corresponds with the lackof fluorescence generally observed in the samples(figure 13).
Mogok sapphires are part of the metamorphic
group, which also includes Sri Lanka, Madagascar,and Kashmir, as well as some lesser-known sources.
Comparing trace element chemistry of Mogok sapphires with the other two major deposits (Sri Lanka
and Madagascar) reveals a significant overlap between these sources (figure 29). In some cases, trace

Fe CONCENTRATION DISTRIBUTION
100

<250
250–500
500–750% OF SAPPHIRES

80

750–1000
1000–1500

60

>1500
40

20

0
North (21)Northeast (32)

East (22)Northwest (83)West (40)Figure 27. The Fe concentration distribution(in ppma) in Mogok
sapphires in this study,
separated by region.
The sapphires fromeach region show relatively high Fe concentrations in general. The
numbers in parentheses
represent the number ofsamples from each area.

Far West (50)

MOGOK AREA

312

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

TABLE 4. Trace element profilesa of 248 Mogok blue sapphires in this study.
Concentration in ppma

Mogok area

Mg

Ti

V

Cr

Fe

Ga

b

North (21)

7–122
(38)

12–135(43)

0.3–44(9)bdl –204(14)

217–2315(1068)

8–41(20)

Northeast (32)

0.6–64
(23)

6–79
(28)

0.1–17(4)

bdl–106(4)

240–2267(1208)

11–51(26)

East (22)

11–83
(46)

10–82
(38)

1.2–3
(2)

bdl–10(0.4)

599–1566
(947)

6–26
(15)

Northwest (83)

5–105
(25)

6–113
(30)

bdl–44(2)

bdl–153(2)

305–2344(1101)

5–82(27)

West (40)

1.1–95
(33)

7–111
(39)

0.9–25(7)

bdl–158(17)

104–1366
(527)

10–56
(23)

Far West (50)

7–109
(42)

14–124(45)

0.5–22(3)

bdl–76(2)

101–1848
(616)

9–52
(22)

Detection limit

0.03–0.4

0.07–0.5

0.01–0.04

0.06–0.4

0.8–5

0.01–0.02

Concentration in ppmw

Mogok area

Mg

Ti

V

Cr

Fe

Ga

North (21)

8–145
(45)

28–137(101)

0.7–110(22)

bdl–520(37)

594–6340(2925)

27–140(68)

Northeast (32)

0.7–76(27)

14–185(65)

0.2–42(10)bdl–270(11)

657–6209(3308)

37–174(89)

East (22)

13–99
(55)

24–193
(89)

3–7
(5)

bdl–25(1)

1640–4289(2594)

20–89(51)

Northwest (83)

6–125
(30)

14–265(70)bdl–110(4)

bdl–390(5)

835–6420(3015)

17–280(92)West (40)

1.3–113(39)

16–260
(92)

2–62
(17)

bdl–403(44)

284–3741(1443)

34–191(78)

Far West (50)

8–130
(50)

33–290
(105)

1–55
(7)

bdl–194(5)

277–5061(1687)

30–178(75)

Detection limit

0.04–0.5

0.2–1.2

0.02–0.1

0.2–1

2–14

0.03–0.07aData reported in minimum to maximum values, average in parentheses.
bdl = below detection limit.

belement profiles can support reliable origin determination, but this type of data is seldom conclusive,
even after advanced statistical data analysis. Origin
determination of metamorphic sapphires still relies
heavily on the inclusion scene (see Palke et al., 2019).

Mogok is among the classic and most coveted
sources of sapphires, which means their properties
have been studied for ages. This article attempts tosummarize the characteristics of these magnificent
blue gems based on samples collected by GIA field
gemologists during more than 10 expeditions to the
Mogok area in Myanmar.

The geology of the Mogok sapphire deposits is still
not well understood. Still, in recent years many studies
on the geology of Mogok and the overall genetic
processes of sapphires are rapidly leading to new insights into the formation of gem-quality corundum
mineralization.
A detailed gemological study showed that blue
sapphires from Mogok can vary from very pale tovery saturated blue colors (figure 30). While most of
the stones are inert under UV light, some show red
fluorescence related to trace amounts of chromium,and a small fraction show zoned orange fluorescence linked to trapped holes in the corundum
structure.

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYCONCLUSIONSWINTER 2021

313

Cr CONCENTRATION DISTRIBUTION
100

<2.5

Figure 28. The Cr concentration distribution(in ppma) in Mogok
sapphires in this study,
separated by region.
The sapphires fromeach region generally
have no to relatively
low Cr concentrations.
The numbers in parentheses represent the
number of samples
from each area.

2.5–5
5–10

% OF SAPPHIRES

80

10–15
>15

60

40

20

0
North (21)Northeast (32)

East (22)Northwest (83)West (40)

Far West (50)

MOGOK AREA

Inclusion scenes are similar in sapphires from different regions of the Mogok Valley, with silk inmany forms being the main internal feature. Although crystal inclusions are relatively uncommon,
mica and feldspar are most commonly encountered.
A variety of other minerals were also detected, butthey were much rarer. Scapolite is one of those rareinclusions, and this study is the first to report its
presence in Mogok blue sapphires. The crystal in-clusions are not conclusive for determining geographic origin. The appearance of silk, twin planes,
and fingerprints can indicate the Burmese origin ofa sapphire.
Color zoning was observed in only 10% of thesamples. Burmese sapphires show a very diffuse
transition from blue to colorless zones. Only a few
samples in our study showed some sharp blue-colorless color zoning.

Figure 29. Trace element plots of the studied Mogok sapphires and other metamorphic sources (Sri Lanka andMadagascar) from the GIA field gemology reference collection showing considerable overlap.

TRACE ELEMENT PLOTS
200

Ga (ppma)

Fe (ppma)

1500

150

15

20

2
0.1

1

10

100

15

150

V (ppma)Fe (ppma)
Mogok (Myanmar)

314

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

1500

Sri Lanka

Madagascar

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 30. This parcel of sapphire rough was examined at a dealer’s office in Mogok, Myanmar. Photo by Robert
Weldon/GIA.

FTIR spectra are typically dominated by mineralfeatures such as kaolinite and gibbsite. UV-Vis-NIR
spectra are dominated by bands related to Fe2+-Ti4+
intervalence charge transfer and other peaks associated with Fe3+ species. In some stones with higher Fe
concentrations, a small broad band is present at 880
nm, which is not commonly associated with untreated metamorphic sapphires.
Trace element chemistry revealed a wide rangeof Fe concentrations, although the maximum values
were much higher in the sapphires from the easternpart of Mogok than those from western Mogok.
Chromium concentrations were very low, andstones with an increased Cr content typicallyshowed a slightly altered color (violetish tint) andred fluorescence. Natural beryllium can be detected
in Burmese sapphires, but it is always measured inparticle-rich areas.

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

315

ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dr. Soonthorntantikul is a research scientist, Ms. Atikarnsakul is a
staff gemologist, and Mr. Vertriest is manager of field gemology, at
GIA’s Bangkok laboratory.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank all the miners and contacts that
helped us during the numerous field visits, especially Aung Naing Jordan, Kyaw Thu, and May Tin Zaw Win. We would also like to extend
our thanks to GIA’s field gemology department for their year-long efforts in collecting and documenting the samples used for this study,

especially Vincent Pardieu, Victoria Raynaud-Flattot, Sasithorn Engniwat, and Suwasan Wongchacree. The GIA colored stone researchteam assisted in collecting some of the data over the past years. We
are grateful to Supharart Sangsawong, Vararut Weeramonkhonlert,
Nattida Ng-Pooresatien, Titapa Tanawansombat, and Charuwan
Khowpong for the collection of inclusion photomicrographs as well as
spectroscopic data and trace element chemistry compositions. We
would also like to thank Dr. Aaron Palke, Shane McClure, Sudarat
Saeseaw, and Nathan Renfro for numerous discussions on Burmese
sapphires. Anonymous peer reviewers are also thanked for providing
helpful comments and suggestions.

REFERENCES
d’Amato P.G. (1833) A short description of the mines of precious
stones in the district of Kyatpyin, in the Kingdom of Ava. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 2, pp. 75–76.
Atikarnsakul U., Vertriest W., Soonthorntantikul W. (2018) Characterization of blue sapphires from the Mogok Stone Tract,
Mandalay region, Burma (Myanmar). GIA Research News,https://www.gia.edu/ongoing-research/characterization-bluesapphires-from-mogok-stone-tract-mandalay-region-burmamyanmar
Beran A., Rossman G.R. (2006) OH in naturally occurring corundum. European Journal of Mineralogy, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 441–
447, http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/0935-1221/2006/0018-0441
Brown J.C. (1927) Gem mining in the Mogok Stone Tract of Upper
Burma from the annexation to the present time (confidential
report). Office of the Superintendent, Rangoon, Burma.
Brown J.C., Dey A.K. (1955) India’s Mineral Wealth. Oxford University Press, Bombay.
Dubinsky E.V., Stone-Sundberg J., Emmett J.L. (2020) A quantitative description of the causes of color in corundum. G&G, Vol.
56, No. 1, pp. 2–28, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.56.1.2
Gardiner N.J., Robb L.J., Searle M.P. (2014) The metallogenic
provinces of Myanmar. Applied Earth Science, Vol. 123, No. 1,
pp. 25–38, http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1743275814Y.0000000049
Gardiner N.J., Robb L.J., Morley C.K., Searle M.P., Cawood P.A.,
Whitehouse M.J., Kirkland C.L., Roberts N.M.W., Myint T.A.
(2016) The tectonic and metallogenic framework of Myanmar:
A Tethyan mineral system. Ore Geology Reviews, Vol. 79, pp.
26–45, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.04.024
Garnier V., Giuliani G., Ohnenstetter D., Fallick A.E., Dubessy J.,
Banks D., Vihn H.Q., Lhomme T., Maluski H., Pêcher A.,
Bakhsh K.A., Long P.V., Trinh P.T., Schwarz D. (2008) Marblehosted ruby deposits from Central and Southeast Asia: Towards
a new genetic model. Ore Geology Reviews, Vol. 34, No. 1-2,
pp. 169–191, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2008.03.003
Giuliani G., Ohnenstetter D., Fallick A., Groat L., Fagan A.J. (2014)
Chapter 2: The geology and genesis of gem corundum deposits.
In L. Groat, Ed., Geology of Gem Deposits, 2nd ed. Mineralogical Association of Canada, Tucson, Arizona.
Gübelin E.J., Koivula J.I. (2008) Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Vol. 3, Opinio Verlag Publishers, Basel, Switzerland, pp.
188–193.
Halford-Watkins J.F. (1935) Burma sapphires—locations and characteristics. The Gemmologist, Vol. 5, No. 52, pp. 89–98.
Hughes R.W., Win U.H. (1995) Burmese sapphire giants. Journalof Gemmology, Vol. 24, No. 8, pp. 551–561.
Hughes R.W., Manorotkul W., Hughes E.B. (2017) Ruby & Sapphire: A Gemologist’s Guide, 1st ed., RWH Publishing/Lotus
Publishing, Thailand.

316BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

Iyer L.A.N. (1953) The geology and gem-stones of the Mogok Stone
Tract, Burma. Memoirs, Geological Survey of India, Vol. 82,
pp. 8–100.
Kammerling R.C., Scarratt K., Bosshart G., Jobbins E.A., Kane R.E.,
Gübelin E.J., Levinson A.A. (1994) Myanmar and its gems – anupdate. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 3–40.
Kan-Nyunt H.-P., Karampelas S., Link K., Thu K., Kiefert L.,
Hardy P. (2013) Blue sapphires from the Baw Mar mine in
Mogok. G&G, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 223–245,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.49.4.223
Lu R., Shen A. (2011) Lab Notes: Unusually high beryllium inthree blue sapphires. G&G, Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 232–233.
Luard C.E. (1926–1927) Travels of Fray Sebastien Manrique: 1629–
1643. Hakluyt Society, Oxford, UK.
Notari F., Fritsch E., Caplan C., Hainschwang T. (2018) “Boehmite
needles” in corundum are rose channels. G&G, Vol. 54, No. 3,
pp. 257.
Oo T.K. (2011) Prediction of exploration target areas for gem deposits in Mogok Stone Tract, northern Myanmar by integrating
remote sensing and geoscience data. In K. Satake and C-H. Lo,
Eds., Advances in Geosciences, Vol. 26. World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, pp. 181–198.
Palke A.C., Saeseaw S., Renfro N.D., Sun Z., McClure S.F. (2019)
Geographic origin determination of blue sapphire. G&G, Vol.
55, No. 4, pp. 536–579, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.55.4.536
Penzer N.M. (1937) The Most Noble and Famous Travels of Marco
Polo, Together with the Travels of Nicolò de’ Conti, 2nd ed., fromthe translation by J. Frampton. Adam & Charles Black, London.
Peucat J.J., Ruffault P., Fritsch E., Bouhnik-Le Coz M., Simonet C., Lasnier B. (2007) Ga/Mg ratio as a new geochemical tool to differentiate magmatic from metamorphic blue
sapphires. Lithos, Vol. 98, No. 1-4, pp. 261–274,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2007.05.001
Raynaud V., Vertriest W. (2017) Micro-World: Negative crystals insapphires, G&G, Vol. 53, No. 1, pp. 107–108.
Rupasinghe M.S., Dissanayake C.B. (1985) Charnockites and thegenesis of gem minerals. Chemical Geology, Vol. 53, No. 1-2,
pp. 1–16, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(85)90015-4
Saengbuangamlam S., Narudeesombat N., Atichat W., PisuthaArnond V., Sun T.T., Leelawatanasuk T., Bupparaenoo P.
(2016) Burmese sapphire from Mogok: Its inclusions andcountry of origin determination, GIT Technical Articles,
www.git.or.th/eng/testing_center_en/lab_notes_en/glab_en/
2016/11/B36-1.pdf
Searle M., Noble S., Cottle J., Waters D., Mitchell A., Hlaing T.,
Horstwood M. (2007) Tectonic evolution of the Mogok metamorphic belt, Burma (Myanmar) constrained by U-Th-Pb dating of metamorphic and magmatic rocks. Tectonics, Vol. 26,

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

No. 3, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006TC002083
Searle M.P., Morley C.K., Waters D.J., Gardiner N.J., Htun U.K.,
Nu T.T., Robb L.J. (2017) Chapter 12: Tectonic and metamorphic evolution of the Mogok metamorphic and jade mines belts
and ophiolitic terranes of Burma (Myanmar). Geological Society, London, Memoirs, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 261–293,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/M48.12
Searle M.P., Garber J.M., Hacker B.R., Htun K., Gardiner N.J., Waters D.J., Robb L.J. (2020) Timing of syenite‐charnockite magmatism and ruby and sapphire metamorphism in the Mogok
Valley Region, Myanmar. Tectonics, Vol. 39, No. 3,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2019TC005998
Shen A., McClure S., Breeding M., Scarratt K., Wang W., Smith C.,
Shigley J. (2007) From the GIA Laboratory: Beryllium in corundum: The consequences for blue sapphire. GIA Insider, Vol. 9,
No. 2, Jan 26, 2007.
Smith C.P. (1995) A contribution to understanding the infrared
spectra of rubies from Mong Hsu, Myanmar. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 24, No. 5, pp. 321–335.
——— (2010) Inside sapphires. Rapaport Diamond Report, pp.
123–132.
Smith C.P., Van der Bogert C. (2006) Infrared spectra of gem corundum. G&G, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 92–93.
Smith G.F.H. (1972) Gemstones. Chapman and Hall, London.
Soonthorntantikul W., Vertriest W., Raynaud-Flattot V.L., Sangsawong S., Atikarnsakul U., Khowpong C., Weeramongkhonlert V., Pardieu V. (2017) An in-depth gemological study of blue
sapphires from the Baw Mar mine (Mogok, Myanmar). GIA
Research News, https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research/bluesapphires-baw-mar-mine-mogok-myanmar

Stone-Sundberg J., Thomas T., Sun Z., Guan Y., Cole Z., Equall
R., Emmett J.L. (2017) Accurate reporting of key trace elements in ruby and sapphire using matrix-matched standards, G&G, Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 438–451,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.53.4.438
Streeter E.W. (1892) Precious Stones and Gems, 5th ed. Bell,
London.
Temple R.C., Ed. (1928) The Itinerary of Ludovico di Varthema of
Bologna from 1502 to 1508. Argonaut Press, London.
Themelis T. (2008) Gems & Mines of Mogok. Publ. by the author,
Bangkok.
Thomas T. (2009) Corundum c-axis device for sample preparation. GIA Research News, www.gia.edu/ongoingresearch/corundum-c-axis-device-for-sample-preparation
Thu K. (2007) The Igneous Rocks of the Mogok Stone Tract: Their
Distributions, Petrography, Petrochemistry, Sequence,
Geochronology and Economic Geology. University of Yangon,
Myanmar.
Turnier R., Harlow G.E. (2017) Syenite-hosted sapphires: What’s
going on. Fourteenth Annual Sinkankas Symposium—Sapphire. Pala International Inc., pp. 22–33.
Vertriest W., Palke A.C., Renfro N.D. (2019) Field gemology: Building a research collection and understanding the developmentof gem deposits. G&G, Vol. 55, No. 4, pp. 490–511,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.55.4.490
Zahirovic S., Müller R.D., Seton M., Flament N., Gurnis M.,
Whittaker J. (2012) Insights on the kinematics of the IndiaEurasia collision from global geodynamic models. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, Vol. 13, No. 4,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011GC003883

For online access to all issues of GEMS & GEMOLOGY from 1934 to the present, visit:

gia.edu/gems-gemology

BLUE SAPPHIRES FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

317

FEATURE ARTICLESGEMOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF
PERIDOT FROM PYAUNG-GAUNG IN
MOGOK, MYANMAR
Montira Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya, Wassana Chongraktrakul, and Tasnara Sripoonjan
The Pyaung-Gaung area in the Mogok township of Myanmar is one of the essential sources of high-quality peridot
for the international gem trade. Pyaung-Gaung peridot possesses an attractive deep olive green color and canbe found in large sizes (>10 ct) in the market. It has long been mined from ultramafic rocks, largely dunite, ata primary deposit near Bernard-Myo. Internal features consist mainly of circular decrepitation halos (“lily pads”),
fluid inclusions, and fiber tufts. Common mineral inclusions are dark biotite-phlogopite and chromite, sometimes
coexisting with serpentine, magnesite, chlorite, and talc. Pyaung-Gaung peridot also contains olivine inclusions
not previously found in peridot from other locations. 2D and 3D cross-plots of the trace element contents of
Cr, V, Co, Sc, Ni, and Ti provide helpful separations among Burmese, Chinese, and Pakistani localities.

P

eridot is a gem-quality variety of the mineralforsterite. It belongs to the olivine group, an
isomorphous series whose main members areforsterite (magnesium silicate, Mg2SiO4), fayalite(iron silicate, Fe2SiO4), and tephroite (manganese silicate, Mn2SiO4) (Sinkankas et al., 1992; Deer et al.,2013). It crystallizes in the orthorhombic systemwith a rhombus-shaped habit (figure 1, right). In general, peridot yields a range of colors, including paleyellowish green to deep green, greenish brown tobrown, and rarely brown with a dull, vitreous/greasy
luster. The most desired and valuable color is saturated green without any tinge of yellow or brown.
The green color is caused by iron content (Fe2+)
within the structure.
Among the major modern localities, the primarysources of peridot are peridotite xenoliths in alkali
basalts (United States and China) (Shen et al., 2011)
and serpentinized dunites showing recrystallized
olivine in tension gashes in sheared dunite bodies(Pakistan) (Bouilhol et al., 2015). Several articles havepresented geological and mineralogical data for gem
peridot deposits worldwide, including Zabargad(Egypt), Arizona (United States), Mogok (Myanmar),See end of article for About the Authors and Acknowledgments.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 57, No. 4, pp. 318–337,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.57.4.318© 2021 Gemological Institute of America

318

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

Yiqisong (China), Kohistan (Pakistan), the Central
Highlands of Vietnam, and localities in Ethiopia andTanzania (Gübelin, 1981; Jan and Khan, 1996;
Fuhrbach, 1998; Thuyet et al., 2016). Other studies
have focused on peridot’s gemological, chemical, andIn Brief• Peridot from Pyaung-Gaung in Mogok occurred inultramafic rocks and later recrystallized during a tectonic event.
• Various inclusions found in these peridot samples provide an indication of retrograde metamorphism and/or
recrystallization.
• Tufts of very fine fibers and distinctive protogenetic
olivine are found to be diagnostic inclusions in
Pyaung-Gaung peridot.
• LA-ICP-MS trace element analysis can separate
Pyaung-Gaung peridot from one deposit in China andanother in Pakistan.

spectroscopic characteristics (e.g., Stockton and Manson, 1983; Koivula and Fryer, 1986; Fritsch and Lulzac,
2004; Adamo et al., 2009; Bouihol et al., 2015; Surour,2018; Sripoonjan et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019).
Mogok is well known as one of the single mostimportant sources of high-quality ruby, sapphire, andGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 1. Left: Five faceted peridot samples from the Pyaung-Gaung mine in Mogok, Myanmar, weighing 5.18–
7.52 ct, were examined in this study. Right: This 15.0 × 16.9 × 6.5 mm rough crystal showing a rhombus-shaped
tabular habit and rounded faces, with minor white carbonate and talc, is also from the Pyaung-Gaung mine.
Photos by T. Sripoonjan.

spinel (Kane and Kammerling, 1992; Waltham, 1999).
But Mogok is also a significant supplier of large, fineperidot to the global gem trade. Mogok peridot has
been known since the fifteenth century (Iyer, 1953).
Its intense green is quite distinct and sometimes comparable to that of Pakistani peridot, but with a slightdifference in clarity. Much of the finest-color peridot
comes from Myanmar and Pakistan (GIA, n.d.).
The peridot mines at Mogok lie in the PyaungGaung, Htin-Shu Taung, and Bernard-Myo areas(Thu and Zaw, 2017). Of these, the Pyaung-Gaungmines produce the finest color and largest sizes.
Pyaung-Gaung peridot is typically yellowish green,
while the highest-quality stones possess a rich olive
green color (figure 1). Harlow and Thu (2014) studied
samples in peridotite rocks from Pyaung-Gaung andcompared them with those from the original Sapat
deposit of Pakistan and the ancient Zabargad Island
deposit of Egypt. They suggested that Mogok peridot
was recrystallized in a cavity containing hydrous
fluid of olivine, with the help of Earth’s tectonic activity. However, no insight into the gemologicalcharacteristics of peridot from Mogok has been
widely available.
In May 2019, two of the authors (MS and TS) had
the opportunity to visit the Pyaung-Gaung mine,

where they witnessed the mining process, collected
firsthand information, and briefly examined olivine
samples on-site. The first sample group (five facetedstones and ten pieces of larger rough) was purchasedfrom miners in the area, and additional samples wereobtained through various marketing channels in
Mogok. The present article provides an update on the
Pyaung-Gaung peridot deposit.

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYGEOLOGICAL SETTING
Mogok is known as one of the world’s oldest andmost famous gem sources. The gem-rich area of
Mogok (also known as the “Mogok Stone Tract”) is
located in Kathe District of Upper Burma, 200 km
northeast of Mandalay (Kyaw Thu, 2007). The area issituated in the central part of the Mogok Metamorphic Belt (MMB), which is composed mainly of rocks
such as marble, gneiss, quartzite, and calc-silicate, as
well as various types of igneous rocks from felsic toultramafic (Iyer, 1953; Phyo et al., 2019). The complex
structure involving folds and faults indicates that
Mogok has been subjected to several major tectonic
processes over extended periods of time, and thisyielded a wide range of mineral assemblages and gem
materials (e.g., ruby, sapphire, peridot, and spinel) that

WINTER 2021

319

o

o

o

o

96 26

96 24

96 30

96 28

QUATERNARY

N

Alluvium

Bernard-Myo

NEOGENE Miocene
Pyaung-Gaung

Pegmatite and aplite
Biotite microgranite(Kabaing granite)

2300

PALEOGENE Early-late Oligocene
Syenitic rocks
Calc-silicate and graphitic marble
Ruby-bearing marble(Wabyu Taung)
22
58

Gneiss (Kabe)

Kyauksin

Leucogranite
CRETACEOUS Early

Inn Chauk

Augite-biotite granite

Bawpadan
22
56

JURASSIC

Kyi Taung

Mafic and ultramafic rocks

Pyaung Pyin

Baw Mar

Kyauksaung

Bawlongyi

Mogok

Yebu
Myeme

312

31

Kyatpyin
22
54
0

km

4

0

mi

2.5

GEM DEPOSITS
Peridot

Ruby & Sapphire

Spinel

River

Fault

Ruby

Sapphire

Mine visitedRoad

Approx. Fault Location

Figure 2. The Pyaung-Gaung peridot deposit is located in Bernard-Myo, north-northwest of Mogok township. Modified after Thu (2007), Themelis (2008), and Kan-Nyunt et al. (2013).

are the result of magmatic/metamorphic events inthe area (Kane and Kammerling, 1992) (figure 2).
Mogok has been mined for gemstones from both primary deposits (underground and open pits) and secondary deposits (in alluvial and eluvial placers).
The Pyaung-Gaung peridot mining area is locatedapproximately 10 km north-northwest of the town of

320

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

Mogok (again, see figure 2) and situated on a ridgealong Taung Me Mountain, the highest mountain in
the Mogok metamorphic complex, underlain by large
granitic intrusives of biotite microgranite (Kabaing)(Iyer, 1953; Harlow and Thu, 2014; Sripoonjan et al.,2017). Kyaw Thu (2007) suggested that the Kabaing
granite intruded into the peridotite at Pyaung-Gaung,

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

A

B

C

D

Figure 3. A: Mountains in the Pyaung-Gaung area. B: A mining site at the primary deposit in Pyaung-Gaung. C: A
pit dug into the peridot-rich area of the peridotitic host rock. D: Serpentinized fine-grained dunite, the precursor
host rock of gem-quality peridot, was abundant around the mine. Photos by T. Sripoonjan.

indicating the possible emplacement of ultramafic
rocks during the early Jurassic and generally earlier
than the Mogok Metamorphic Belt. However, peridot
from Pyaung-Gaung is derived from ultramafic rocks
that occurred as a layered intrusion in the associatedgarnet-biotite gneiss (Kabe). The area has been mined
mainly for fine-quality peridot in the outcrops of precursor dunite, an olivine-dominant variety of peridotite, as this rock was commonly present around themine area. Nevertheless, well-formed crystals are usually found in veinlets and pockets within fine-grained
serpentinized peridotites (Kyaw Thu, 2007), partly due
to recrystallization of olivine in tension gashes or tectonic fractures during lateral displacement and uplift
along the Momeik fault (Lin, 2014; Bouilhol et al.,2015; Thu and Harlow, 2017) (figure 3).
Traditional mining methods are used at the
Pyaung-Gaung peridot deposits. The rock along thehillside is drilled with a jackhammer and blasted off
with dynamite. This results in an extensive networkof tunnels, generally 3–5 m wide and extending inward or downward to more than 50 m deep. Within

the tunnels, the miners use a pneumatic hammer or
primitive tools such as hammer and chisel to extract
peridot embedded in the partially serpentinized
dunite host rock along the tunnel walls. An electric
generator is used for lighting and power tools (figure4). A mine cart and rope system transports the minedmaterial and equipment out from the tunnels. For
safety reasons, we were not allowed to see the in situ
samples after the fresh exposure of rock was cut open.
However, the rough peridot is typically extracted andcollected from the mines, followed by cleaning, cutting, and polishing locally in the town of Mogok before entering the gem markets.

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGY

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Samples. All together, 33 peridot samples from the
Pyaung-Gaung area were collected and used for thisstudy. These consisted of five faceted stones weighing from 5.18–7.52 ct each (again, see figure 1) and 28
pieces of rough stones from 1.78–29.02 ct each (figure5). The rough stones were divided into two groups:

WINTER 2021

321

B

A

C

Figure 4. A: Miners entering the tunnel of an underground mine at the Pyaung-Gaung peridot deposits. B: A miner
drills the rock along the tunnel wall with a pneumatic hammer to extract the peridot samples. C: Miners working
in the main tunnel. Photos by M. Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya (A) and T. Sripoonjan (B and C).

10 larger stones purchased directly from a local
miner and 18 smaller ones from a reliable supplier inthe town of Mogok. All faceted stones and larger

rough stones had a rich olive green color; the smaller
ones were yellowish green. All of the rough stones
were cut and polished with a Facetron faceting ma-

Figure 5. The 28 Pyaung-Gaung peridot rough samples, 1.78–29.02 ct, collected and examined for this study. Photo
by T. Sripoonjan.

322

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

chine to have two parallel windows (regardless of orientation) for gemological and spectroscopic investigation. Standard gemological instruments were used
to measure refractive indices (RIs), specific gravity(SG), pleochroism, and fluorescence reaction to longwave (~365 nm) and short-wave (~254 nm) ultraviolet
lamps. In addition, this study used GIT-GTL peridot
reference samples for elemental comparison and discrimination. These reference samples comprised 15
Pakistani peridots obtained from highly trusted
traders from Pakistan and 26 Chinese peridots provided directly by Yanbian Fuli Olivine Mining Co.,
Ltd. of China. The GIT-GTL reference samples all
ranged in size from 1.60 to 9.80 ct.
Microscopic Analysis and Spectroscopy. Internal features and photomicrographs were observed at 10×–75× magnification with a Zeiss Stemi 508 standard
binocular gemological microscope attached to a
Canon EOS 5D Mark III digital camera. Incident,
darkfield, reflected, and oblique illumination techniques were employed to investigate internal characteristics. A polarizing filter was used to reduce thedoubling effect from the birefringence of peridot.
A Renishaw inVia Raman microscope with a 532
nm laser was used for identifying mineral inclusions in the samples. Raman spectra were collectedin the range of 1500–200 cm–1. The laser output
power was 45 watts, and the spot size was 1.5 μm.
The exposure time per scan was 10 s. The mineralinclusions were identified and compared with the
RRUFF and Renishaw mineral databases throughThermo Scientific’s Spectral ID software. Unoriented ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR)
spectra were collected from 350 to 1500 nm with a
PerkinElmer Lambda 1050 spectrophotometer using
a data interval of 3 nm and a scan speed of 405.07
nm/min operating with a 150 integrating sphere accessory. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy(FTIR) was carried out using Thermo ScientificNicolet iN10 FTIR microscope (mid-IR spectra,
1200–500 cm−1) in reflection mode at 4 cm–1 resolution and 128 scans.
Chemical Analysis. Quantitative chemical composition was analyzed by an electron probe micro-analyzer(EPMA), JEOL model JXA-8100. The analyses werecarried out with an accelerating voltage of 15 kV andbeam current of 25 nA, using a focused beam (smaller
than 1 μm). Measurement times were set at 10 s forboth the peak and background counts of all analyzed
elements, leading to an empirical detection limit of

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARTABLE 1. Summary of gemological properties ofperidot from Pyaung-Gaung, Mogok.
Properties

Observation data

Color

Rich olive green (faceted stones andlarger rough samples) and yellowish
green (smaller rough samples)

Diaphaneity

Transparent

RI

1.648–1.689

Birefringence0.030–0.041

SG

3.24–3.36

Pleochroism

Weak to moderate: green andyellowish green

Fluorescence reaction

Inert to long-wave and short-wave
UV radiation

about 0.005 wt.%. For quantitative analyses, most of
the standards used for calibration were pure oxide andmineral standards, including quartz for Si, periclase
for Mg, manganosite for Mn, nickel oxide for Ni, fayalite for Fe, and wollastonite for Ca.
Laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–massspectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) was applied to analyze
the trace element concentrations, using a Thermo
Scientific iCAP RQ series ICP-MS coupled with an
Elemental Scientific Lasers NWR-213 Nd:YAG laser
ablation system. The laser employed a 10 Hz pulse
rate and 55 μm diameter spot size. The energy density was about 9 J/cm2. Ablation was carried out in a
He atmosphere, and the sample gas was mixed with
Ar before entering the plasma. The gas backgroundfor pre-ablation was measured for 30 s to remove surface contamination, followed by a measurement
time of 60 s and an elapsed interval time of 30 s.
NIST-SRM 610 and 612 glasses reference materials
were used as the external calibration standards(Jochum et al., 2011). Data reduction was carried out
using Thermo Scientific’s Qtegra Intelligent Scientific Data Solution software to analyze the following
elements: Li, Be, B, Na, Mg, Al, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Co,
Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Cs, Ba, Hf, Ta, Th, U,
Pb, and the rare-earth elements from La to Lu.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Gemological Properties. The gemological propertiesof the 33 studied stones are summarized in table 1.
Again, the colors were rich olive green for the faceted
and larger rough samples and yellowish green for thesmaller samples. All of the samples were transparent.
RI and birefringence values fell in the range of 1.648–

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

323

Figure 6. Internal features of Pyaung-Gaung peridot. Left: A typical lily pad inclusion with a black chromite crystal in the center surrounded by a decrepitation halo; field of view 2.8 mm. Right: Typical discoid fissures aroundtiny inclusions; field of view 5.6 mm. Photomicrographs by M. Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya.

1.689 and 0.030–0.041, respectively. SG varied between 3.24 and 3.36. The samples showed weak tomoderate pleochroism in green and yellowish green.
All were inert to both long-wave and short-wave UV
radiation.
Microscopic Characteristics. One of the most common inclusions of the Pyaung-Gaung peridot was theso-called lily pad (figure 6). These are round to ovalshaped decrepitation halos surrounding dark chromite
or other mineral inclusions.
Other common inclusions were opaque black octahedral chromite crystals, sometimes containing
tension fractures oriented in three dimensions (figure7), similar to those previously noted in peridot fromthe United States and China (Koivula, 1981; Koivulaand Fryer, 1986; Sripoonjan et al., 2019; Zhang et al.,2019).
Moreover, most of the samples contained abundant small olivine inclusions that have not been reported in peridot from other locations (figure 8). Someolivine crystals were surrounded by partially healed
fissures (figure 8, A and B). One of the included crystals was cut open on the surface of the host peridot
and identified by Raman spectroscopy and subsequent EPMA and LA-ICP-MS analyses (see figure 15
and the Chemical Composition section below).
Careful observation showed that the external
shapes of the olivine inclusions were partly resorbed,
probably due to the change of environment during
the host’s crystallization (Harlow and Thu, 2014;
Patil et al., 2017; Thu and Harlow, 2017). As such,

Figure 7. Internal features of Pyaung-Gaung peridot. Left: A dark octahedral chromite crystal; field of view 1.8
mm. Right: An isolated octahedral chromite crystal surrounded by tension fractures; field of view 2.2 mm. Photomicrographs by M. Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya.

324

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

A

B

C

D

E

F

Figure 8. Internal features of Pyaung-Gaung peridot. A and B: An olivine crystal surrounded by partially healed
fractures in a peridot host; field of view 3.8 mm. C–E: Olivine crystal inclusions in a peridot host; field of view
7.5 mm. F: Cluster of olivine crystals with wispy or smoky veils along with partially healed fractures; field ofview 7.5 mm. Photomicrographs by M. Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya.

these olivine inclusions could be crystals from anearlier generation incorporated into the peridot host,making them “protogenetic” inclusions (Gübelin
and Koivula, 2005). These protogenetic olivine inclusions may be considered a diagnostic characteristicof Pyaung-Gaung peridot.

Some solid inclusions occasionally found in thesesamples appeared to be biotite-phlogopite micas (figure 9A) and rutile (figure 9B), as well as secondary
magnesite, serpentine, and talc (figure 9C). In addition, an inclusion assemblage of chromite, secondary
magnesite, and chlorite surrounded by white serpen-

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

325

A

B

RutileC

Talc

Serpentine

Magnesitetine was found in one sample (figure 10). Except forthe biotite-phlogopite micas, all were identified by
Raman spectroscopy.
Chromite is often found within olivine-rich cumulates and occurs as small grains in ultramafic rockassociated with serpentine, talc, and magnesite(Barnes, 1998; Salem et al., 2012). Some metamorphisms can also produce predominantly chlorite inassociation with talc (Sharp and Buseck, 1988). The
presence of serpentine is commonly referred to as a
hydration reaction (serpentinization) that occurred
when olivine was infiltrated by aqueous fluids, whiletalc and magnesite were produced through a carbonation reaction when carbon dioxide (CO2) was present (Kelemen and Hirth, 2012; Lafay et al., 2018). The
combined hydration and carbonation processes could
be an indication of retrograde alteration in these
Mogok peridot as the result of tectonic movements(Jan and Khan, 1996; Kelemen and Hirth, 2012; Bouilhol et al., 2015; Tzamos et al., 2020).
In faceted samples, low magnification commonly
revealed unidentified tufts of very fine fibers (proba-

326

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

Figure 9. Internal features of Pyaung-Gaung
peridot. A: Unidentified
flat crystals (probably
phlogopite-biotite
micas) of various sizes;
field of view 3.8 mm. B:
A rutile inclusion; fieldof view 1.8 mm. C: Inclusions of magnesite,
serpentine, and talc (theinclusion in the center
was cut open and identified by Raman spectroscopy); field of view
2.2 mm. Photomicrographs by M. Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya.

bly chrysotile; G. Harlow, pers. comm., 2021) that resembled black needles (figure 11).
Healed fissures (figure 12, A–C) and fluid-like inclusions (figure 12D) were regularly present and exhibited wide variation in appearance. Burmese
peridot, as a product of partial metamorphism, has
undergone recurring inner damage during the growth
process. As a result, healing fissures and fluid-like inclusions formed within it from the process of continuous repair in the crystal itself during therecrystallization process (Gübelin and Koivula,
2004). Unfortunately, these inclusions could not be
identified by Raman spectroscopy. Also observed in
the Pyaung-Guang peridot were needle-like inclusions (figure 12E) showing an iridescent effect in reflected light.
Spectroscopy. UV-Vis-NIR Spectra. The UV-Vis-NIR
absorption spectra of the Pyaung-Gaung peridot samples all showed similar patterns, as illustrated in figure 13. The absorption coefficient (α) was calculated
from the true absorbance in an uncorrected ab-

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

R AMAN SPECTRA
20000

12000
8000
562

4000

696

1095

80000

INTENSITY

INTENSITY

Chromite

Olivine

16000

60000
40000
326

20000

737

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

200

400

600

RAMAN SHIFT (cm–1)

800

1000

1200

1400

RAMAN SHIFT (cm–1)

40000

20000

Chlorite

INTENSITY

12000

682

8000

359

1035

Serpentine

395

32000

16000

INTENSITY

Magnesite

724

24000
16000

1088

484

238
8000

4000

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

200

300

400

RAMAN SHIFT (cm–1)

500

600

700

800

900 1000 1100 1200

RAMAN SHIFT (cm–1)

Chlorite
Magnesite

Serpentine
Chromite

Figure 10. An assemblage of mineral inclusions comprising chromite, magnesite, and chlorite, surrounded in partby serpentine; field of view 5.6 mm. Their Raman spectra were used to prove the mineral species. Photomicrographby M. Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya.

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

327

Figure 11. Tufts of very fine fibers (probably chrysotile) in a Pyaung-Gaung peridot; fields of view 1.8 mm (left) and3.8 mm (right). Photomicrographs by M. Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya.

sorbance (A) and the thickness (t) of the sample incentimeters, according to the equation below (Dubinsky et al., 2020):
α =2.303A/t

The figure 13 spectrum displays a broad absorption
band peak at 1050 nm, a shoulder at about 864 nm
in the near IR, and additional weak bands at 381, 402,
453, 495, and 633 nm. The gradual increase in ab-

BA

Figure 12. Internal features of Pyaung-Gaung
peridot. A: A tiny crystal surrounded bysuperimposed partiallyhealed fractures; fieldof view 9.0 mm. B: Partially healed fissures
showing a fingerprintlike attribute; field ofview 5.6 mm. C: A typical healed fracture;
field of view 4.5 mm.
D: Fluid-like inclusions; field of view 1.8
mm. E: Needle-like inclusions with an iridescent effect; field of view
2.8 mm. Photomicrographs by M. Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya.

D

C

E

328

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

UV-VIS-NIR SPECTRUM

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT (cm–1)

1.50

1.25
1050
1.00

0.75
864

Fe 2+
0.50

381
402

0.25

453
495
633

0.00

-0.25

UV

Infrared
600

400

800

1000

1200

WAVELENGTH (nm)Figure 13. This representative non-polarized UV-VisNIR spectrum of Pyaung-Gaung peridot is characterized mainly by Fe2+ absorption features.

sorption from the visible to the UV region allows abroad transmission window minimum at around 560
nm, giving rise to the green coloration of the stone.
The absorption feature of this Burmese peridot isusually attributed to Fe2+, which is a main chromophore contributing to the green color. This spec-

Figure 14. A representative FTIR spectrum obtained
from a Pyaung-Gaung peridot. All the marked absorption bands are related to internal Si-O vibrations(Burns and Huggins, 1972).

FTIR SPECTRUM
1.0

950
902

ABSORBANCE

0.8

0.6
1053

980
552

0.4

627

845

536

0.2

0
1200

1100

1000

900

800

700

WAVENUMBER (cm–1)

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

600

500

400

Figure 15. Laser spots (marked by arrows) show
where an olivine inclusion and the peridot host wereanalyzed by LA-ICP-MS. Photomicrograph by M. Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya; field of view 1.8 mm.

troscopic feature is also observed in peridot fromother localities (e.g., Adamo et al., 2009; Thuyet etal., 2016; Sripoonjan et al., 2019).
FTIR Spectra. A representative FTIR spectrum of
the Pyaung-Gaung peridot samples is shown in figure 14. Characteristic mid-IR spectra revealed several absorption bands located at 1053, 980, 950, 902,
845, 627, 552, and 536 cm–1. These bands were assigned to internal Si-O vibrations (Burns and Huggins, 1972). Although the IR patterns are quite
similar to those of Sardinian peridot (reported in
Adamo et al., 2009), the maxima positions of all IR
bands can be shifted to either lower or higher frequency values depending on the content of iron(Fe2+), as previously suggested by Duke and Stephens(1964), Burns and Huggins (1972), and Jovanovski etal. (2006).
Chemical Compositions. Olivine Inclusion. To understand the chemical relationship between theolivine inclusion and the host crystal, major element(by EPMA) and trace element concentrations (by LAICP-MS) of a cut-open inclusion and nearby host
crystal were analyzed (see figure 15). The results, presented in table 2, showed that the major contents of
SiO2, MgO, CaO, FeO, MnO, and NiO and trace contents of Li, B, Na, Al, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Zn,
Ge, and Zr of the inclusion and the host are relatively
similar.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

329

TABLE 2. Contents of major elements (by EPMA) and trace elements (by LA-ICP-MS) of the host peridot
sample and the olivine inclusion (average and range).
Chemical composition

Host peridot

Olivine inclusion

Detection limit

Major contents (wt.%) of two spot analyses by EPMA
SiO2

42.77
(42.56–42.98)

42.85(41.92–43.78)

0.005

MgO

49.23
(48.49–49.97)

50.55(49.25–51.85)

0.005

FeO

7.61
(7.35–7.87)

7.25(6.64–7.86)

0.005

MnO

0.04
(0.01–0.07)

0.04(0.02–0.06)

0.005

NiO

0.34
(0.16–0.52)

0.01(0.01–0.01)

0.005

CaO

0.02
(0.01–0.03)

0.02(0.01–0.02)

0.005

Total

100.01(100.01–100.1)

100.71(99.12–102.31)

Trace contents (ppmw) of two spot analyses by LA-ICP-MS
Li

3.33(3.10–3.56)

2.31(0.41–4.22)

0.05

B

7.34
(3.26–11.42)

13.75(13.25–14.25)

0.45

Na

7.63
(bdl–15.25)

33.56(31.49–35.54)

9.45

Al

7.23
(5.56–8.82)

5.08(1.88–8.29)

0.66

Sc

5.95
(5.64–6.26)

5.14(5.09–5.19)

0.08

Ti

3.33
(1.54–5.13)

8.62(bdla–17.23)

1.90

V

0.29
(bdl–0.58)

0.31(0.09–0.53)

0.08

Cr

14.02
(5.14–22.90)

6.73(6.61–6.86)

0.36

Mn

852.11(841.21–863.01)

1018.50(866.59–1170.40)

0.05

Co

148.81(145.56–152.06)

150.15(142.17–158.13)

0.07

Ni

3775.53(3733.27–3817.78)

3481.55(3449.87–3513.22)

0.08

Zn

42.14
(41.07–43.21)

57.32(48.33–66.30)

0.01

Ge

2.75
(1.49–4.02)

0.70(bdl–1.39)

0.30

Zr

0.05
(0.03–0.07)

0.02(bdl–0.05)

0.01

a

bdl: below detection limit

330

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

TABLE 3. Chemical composition of peridot samples from Pyaung-Gaung and otherlocalities by EPMAa (average and range).
Chemical composition

Pyaung-Gaung,
Myanmar(33 samples)

Yiqisong, China(26 samples)

Sapat, Pakistan(15 samples)

Oxides (wt.%)
SiO2

42.62
(41.90–43.20)

40.94(40.30–42.48)

42.58(42.03–43.13)

MgO

50.04
(49.23–50.77)

50.52(50.03–50.79)

48.24(46.95–50.50)

FeO

7.64
(7.25–7.88)

8.42(7.69–9.05)

8.32(6.57–9.58)

MnO

0.10
(0.09–0.16)

0.12(0.09–0.15)

0.12(0.09–0.15)

NiO

0.15
(0.02–0.34)

0.06(0.02–0.14)

0.12(bdlb–0.32)

CaO

0.03
(bdl–0.12)

0.05(bdl–0.16)

0.00(bdl–0.02)

Total

100.59(98.49–102.47)

100.18(98.13–102.77)

99.93(95.64–103.7)

Cations per 4 oxygen

a

Si

1.024
(1.022–1.021)

0.996(0.997–1.007)

1.068(1.053–1.015)

Mg

1.793
(1.791–1.789)

1.832(1.796–1.845)

1.804(1.772–1.754)

Fe

0.154
(0.148–0.156)

0.171(0.159–0.180)

0.175(0.138–0.189)

Mn

0.002
(0.002–0.003)

0.002(0.002–0.003)

0.003(0.002–0.003)

Ni

0.003
(0.000–0.006)

0.001(0.000–0.003)

0.002(0.000–0.006)

Ca

0.001
(0.000–0.003)

0.001(0.000–0.004)

0.000(0.000–0.001)

Sum

2.976
(2.974–2.979)

3.004(3.003–2.993)

2.926(2.947–2.985)

Mg/(Mg+Fe)

0.921

0.915

0.912

Mg/(∑M2+)

0.918

0.913

0.909

Minimum detection limits for EPMA analyses (wt.%): 0.005 for all oxides. bbdl: below detection limit.

Major and Trace Elements. The compositions of major
elements by EPMA and trace elements by LA-ICP-MSof the peridot samples from the three localities of
Pyaung-Gaung, Yiqisong in China, and Sapat in Pakistan (GIT-GTL reference samples) are presented in tables 3 and 4, respectively. The chemical compositionof Pyaung-Gaung peridot ranged from 92.00% to92.37% forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and 7.63% to 8.00% fay-alite (Fe2SiO4), suggesting a mantle source. The composition of major elements was 50.04 wt.% MgO and42.62 wt.% SiO2, averages similar to those of peridot
from Yiqisong and Sapat. The FeO, MnO, NiO, andCaO contents were nearly identical across the three localities. The average MnO and NiO contents were 0.10
wt.% and 0.15 wt.%, respectively, indicating theolivine was from a mantle origin (Ishimaru and Arai,PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

331

TABLE 4. Trace element concentrations of peridot samples from Pyaung-Gaungand other localities by LA-ICP-MS (average and range).
Chemicalcomposition

Pyaung-Gaung,
Myanmar(33 samples)

Yiqisong, China(26 samples)

Sapat, Pakistan(15 samples)

Detection limit

Average trace element values (ppmw)
Li

4.59(1.45–15.77)

3.18(1.58–9.99)

4.43(1.46–9.25)

0.05

B

13.21
(4.40–46.24)

10.25(2.03–33.52)

57.20(13.56–125.79)

0.45

Na

46.02
(23.04–97.75)

128.03(53.14–261.01)

102.80(25.49–572.09)

9.45

Al

44.24
(19.50–103.14)

117.08(60.67–227.14)

37.88(9.62–148.40)

0.66

Sc

11.52
(8.19–15.92)

10.33(8.09–12.39)

23.84(8.25–46.50)

0.08

Ti

13.73
(6.35–57.94)

18.04(8.99–30.44)

13.52(6.05–31.84)

1.90

V

1.88
(1.01–7.69)

3.64(2.15–8.11)

1.58(0.52–6.05)

0.08

Cr

36.46
(12.83–68.97)

112.24(51.40–252.18)

43.54(6.49–160.62)

0.36

Mn

914.16(788.54–1097.55)

1017.62(850.90–1149.53)

1214.88(1013.86–1424.91)

0.05

Co

142.67(123.46–167.77)

151.19(132.14–170.41)

154.92(134.56–178.57)

0.07

Ni

3371.39(2761.62–3965.21)

3348.46(2964.32–3813.38)

2036.65(1208.84–2675.79)

0.08

Zn

62.75
(40.86–119.95)

68.35(50.01–99.25)

25.52(15.63–41.24)

0.01

Ge

2.82
(0.44–5.77)

3.57(2.36–7.77)

4.10(2.14–8.04)

0.30

Zr

0.07
(bdla–0.99)

0.03(bdl–0.41)

0.07(bdl–0.74)

0.01

a

bdl: below detection limit2008). The atomic proportions were recalculated topresent the ratios of Mg/(Mg+Fe), for which all locations had a similar value.
The average trace element contents of peridot
from the three origins, listed in table 4, show somewhat similar concentrations. Ni was the most abundant trace element, followed by Mn, Co, Na, Al, Zn,
Cr, Sc, Ti, B, Li, Ge, V, and Zr. The Pyaung-Gaung
peridot contained higher concentrations of Ni and Zn
than the Sapat peridot but lower B, Na, Sc, and Mn.
The Yiqisong peridot possessed higher Na, Al, and Cr
contents than the Pyaung-Gaung samples. Previous
studies showed that the formation of Yiqisong peridot was related to serpentinization (Zhang et al.,332

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR2019) and/or spinel lherzolite that was quite similar
to those of peridot from Sardinia and Vietnam(Adamo et al., 2009; Thuyet et al., 2016). In contrast,
the study of Harlow and Thu (2014) indicated thatsamples from Pyaung-Gaung and Sapat shared a similar origin. The next section of this study reveals
some differences in trace element concentration thatare very helpful for geographic origin determination.
Origin Determination. The trace element data werethen displayed and discriminated in 2D plots of AlMn, Cr-Ni, Sc-Cr, Co-Mn, V-Ni, and V-Mn (figure 16)
and 3D plots of Ni-Co-V, Ni-Ti-Cr, Ni-Ti-V, Cr-V-Sc,
Co-V-Sc, and Cr-V-Co (figure 17). The 2D and 3D

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

2D SCATTER PLOTS

A

B
1500

4000

1400

3600

Ni (ppmw)

Mn (ppmw)

1300
1200
1100

3200
2800
2400

1000

2000

900

1600

800

1200
50

0

100

150

200

250

0

40

80

Al (ppmw)

120

160

200

240

Cr (ppmw)

C

D
1500
240

1400
1300

Mn (ppmw)

Cr (ppmw)

200
160
120

1200
1100

80

1000

40

900
800

0
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

140

120

Sc (ppmw)

160

180

Co (ppmw)

E

F
4000
1400
1300

3200

Mn (ppmw)

Ni (ppmw)

3600

2800
2400

1200
1100

2000

1000

1600

900

1200

800
0

2

4

6

8

2

0

V (ppmw)
Pyaung-Gaung, Myanmar

4

6

8

V (ppmw)
Yiqisong, China

Sapat, Pakistan

Figure 16. 2D scatter plots of trace element contents in peridot from the three geographic origins.

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

333

3D SCATTER PLOTS
2

1200

3

4

Cr (ppmw)
w)

5

6

B
7

2000

p mw
)
Ni ( p

8

200

150

250

2000

Ni (

1600

100

50

0

1200

w)

A

V (ppm

ppm

1

2800

2400

2800

3600

3200
3600

0

4000

20

Ti

120 140

pm
)
w

1

C

40

(p

160

Co (ppmw)

1200

2

V (ppmw)
3

4

5

6

7

Sc (p p

D

8

40
80
120
160
200
240

20

10

30

40

pm

w)

0

mw)

2400

Cr
(p

Ni ( p

p mw
)

1600
2000

2800

3200
3600

280

4000

0
2

0

Ti

60

20

(pp

E

40

mw
)

C

V
60

p
o (p

120

140

)
mw
160

Sc (ppmw)

180 10 20

30

(p 4
pm 6
w
)
8

F

40

8

V (p

6

)
p mw

4

130

8
2

150

6

V

0

(p

4

pm
w)

80

2
0

Pyaung-Gaung, Myanmar

Yiqisong, China

0

170

Co

(

m
pp

)
w

)
160
w
m
p
240
p
Cr

(

Sapat, Pakistan

Figure 17. 3D scatter plots of trace elements in peridot from the three localities. Plots oriented to show origin separations.

334

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 18. This 17.69 ct
oval-cut peridot is fromthe Bernard-Myo areaof Mogok, Myanmar. It
is part of the GIA Collection. Photo by
Robert Weldon/GIA.

cross-plots showed a positive correlation and proved
very useful in separating Pyaung-Gaung peridot fromthe Yiqisong and Sapat deposits for the samples andreference materials measured. Although overlap may
occur between some Pyaung-Gaung and Yiqisongdata points in the 2D plots, the 3D cross-plots provide a very helpful and straightforward way to determine the origin of peridot from these three deposits.
While Ni can be precisely determined using EPMA,
this technique is less accurate for other elements atlower concentrations (Shen et al., 2011; Leelawatanasuk et al., 2011). LA-ICP-MS has been proven to bean efficient method for origin determination of theseperidot by chemical fingerprinting. However, statis-

tical approaches such as discriminant or multivariate
analysis may be needed since they can potentiallyprovide additional data to enhance the certainty ofthe provenance assignment and reduce error.

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYCONCLUSIONS
Gemological investigation indicates that Burmese
peridot from the Pyaung-Gaung area of Mogok (figure18) contains tufts of very fine fibers and distinctive
protogenetic olivine inclusions. These diagnostic
mineral inclusions, as well as inclusions of chromite,magnesite, and chlorite, provide evidence that retrograde metamorphism and/or recrystallization occurred in tension fractures or veinlets during a

WINTER 2021

335

tectonic event. These inclusions can be used as a locality-specific feature for geographic origin determination in combination with chemical analysis by
LA-ICP-MS. Based on our data, 2D and 3D crossplots of the trace element contents of Al, Sc, Ti, V,
Cr, Mn, Co, and Ni are relatively efficient discriminators to distinguish peridot from the major produc-

ing sites of Pyaung-Gaung, Yiqisong (China), andSapat (Pakistan). However, we used only the data obtained by our own study, in order to control the analytical consistency of reference materials. Additional
data and more reliable samples from these and otherlocalities will further refine the provenance assignment of peridot in the future.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dr. Montira Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya is a research scientist,
and Wassana Chongraktrakul is a gemologist, at GIT in Bangkok.
Tasnara Sripoonjan (tasnara@hotmail.com) is a chief gemologist
at G-ID Laboratories in Bangkok.

appreciate the useful comments and resources from Dr.
George E. Harlow from the American Museum of Natural History. Special thanks also go to Thanong Leelawatanasuk (GIT
deputy director) and Malin Sawatekitithum (former GIT chief of
research and development) for their suggestions and encouragement. We are thankful to Jirapit Jakkawanvibul,
Waratchanok Suwanmanee, Yadawadee Kowinthaweewat, andPattarat Termpaisit for their technical assistance and Dr.
Alongkot Fanka for his helpful discussion during the course ofthis project. Finally, the authors would like to thank Aung Naing
Tun and his family for assistance in the field during our trip to
Mogok.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was fully supported by The Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand (Public Organization). The authors are grateful to academic advisors Assoc. Prof. Dr. Visut Pisutha-Arnond,
Wilawan Atichat, and Prof. Dr. Chakkaphan Sutthirat for theirvaluable comments and kind review of this article. We greatly

REFERENCES
Adamo I., Bocchio R., Pavese A., Prosperi L. (2009) Characterization of peridot from Sardinia, Italy. G&G, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp.
130–133, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.45.2.130
Barnes S.J. (1998) Chromite in komatiites, 1. Magmatic controls on
crystallization and composition. Journal of Petrology, Vol. 39, No.
10, pp. 1689–1720, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/petroj/39.10.1689
Bouilhol P., Schmidt M.W., Burg J.-P. (2015) Magma transfer and evolution in channels within the arc crust: The pyroxenitic feeder
pipes of Sapat (Kohistan, Pakistan). Journal of Petrology, Vol. 56,
No. 7, pp. 1309–1342, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egv037
Burns R.G., Huggins F.E. (1972) Cation determination curves for
Mg-Fe-Mn olivines from vibrational spectra. American Mineralogist, Vol. 57, No. 5-6, pp. 967–985.
Deer W.A., Howie R.A., Zussman J. (2013) An Introduction to theRock-Forming Minerals, 3rd ed. The Mineralogical Society,London, pp. 4–11.
Dubinsky E.V., Stone-Sundberg J., Emmett J.L. (2020) A quantitative description of the causes of color in corundum. G&G, Vol.
56, No. 1, pp. 2–28, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.56.1.2
Duke D.A., Stephens J.D. (1964) Infrared investigation of theolivine group minerals. American Mineralogist, Vol. 49, No. 910, pp. 1388–1406.
Fritsch E., Lulzac Y. (2004) Gem News International: Arizona peridot with unusual inclusions. G&G, Vol. 40, No. 4, pp. 351–352.
Fuhrbach J.R. (1998) Peridot from the Black Rock Summit lava
flow, Nye County, Nevada, USA. Journal of Gemmology, Vol.
26, No. 2, pp. 86–102.
GIA (n.d.) Peridot quality factors. Gem Encyclopedia,
www.gia.edu/peridot-quality-factor, Jan. 12.
Gübelin E. (1981) Zabargad: The ancient peridot island in the
Red Sea. G&G, Vol. 77, No. 1, pp. 2–8,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.17.1.2
Gübelin E.J., Koivula J.I. (2004) Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, 4th ed. Opinio Publishers, Basel, Switzerland, pp. 126–
127, pp. 305–308.
Gübelin E.J., Koivula J.I. (2005) Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones, Volume 2. Opinio Publishers, Basel, Switzerland, pp.
511–540.
Harlow G., Thu K. (2014) Peridot from Pyaung-Gaung, Mogok

336

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMAR

Tract, Myanmar: Similarities to Sapat and Zabargad deposits.
Twelfth Annual Sinkankas Symposium: Peridot and Uncommon Green Gem Minerals, pp. 83–95.
Ishimaru S., Arai S. (2008) Nickel enrichment in mantle
olivine beneath a volcanic front. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, Vol. 156, No. 1, pp. 119–131,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00410-007-0277-6
Iyer L.A.N. (1953) The geology and gem-stones of the Mogok Stone
Tract, Burma. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol.
82, White Lotus Press, Bangkok.
Jan M.Q., Khan M.A. (1996) Petrology of gem peridot from Sapat
mafic-ultramafic complex, Sapat, NW Himalaya. Peshawar,
Vol. 29, pp. 17–26.
Jochum K.P., Weis U., Stoll B., Kuzmin D., Yang Q., Raczek I.,
Jacob D.E., Stracke A., Birbaum K., Frick D.A., Gunther D.,
Enzweiler J. (2011) Determination of reference values for NIST
SRM 610-617 glasses following ISO guidelines. Geostandards
and Geoanalytical Research, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 397–429,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-908X.2011.00120.x
Jovanovski G., Makreski P., Soptrajanov B., Kaitner B., Boev B.
(2006) Silicate minerals from Macedonia. Complementary useof vibrational spectroscopy and X-ray powder diffraction for
identification and detection purposes. Croatica Chemica Acta,
Vol. 82, No. 2, pp. 363–386.
Kan-Nyunt H.-P., Karampelas S., Link K., Thu K., Kiefert L.,
Hardy P. (2013) Blue sapphires from the Baw Mar mine in
Mogok. G&G, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 223–232,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.49.4.223
Kane R.E., Kammerling R.C. (1992) Status of ruby and sapphire
mining in the Mogok Stone Tract. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp.
152–174, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.28.3.152
Kelemen P.B., Hirth G. (2012) Reaction-driven cracking during
retrograde metamorphism: Olivine hydration and carbonation.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Vol. 345-348, pp. 81–89,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2012.06.018
Koivula J.I. (1981) San Carlos peridot. G&G, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp.
205–214, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.17.4.205
Koivula J.I., Fryer C.W. (1986) The gemological characteristics ofChinese peridot. G&G, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 38–40,

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.22.1.38
Kyaw Thu (2007) The igneous rocks of the Mogok Stone Tract:
Their distribution, petrography, petrochemistry, sequence,geochronology and economic geology. Ph.D. thesis, Yangon
University, Yangon, Myanmar, 139 pp.
Lafay R., Montes-Hernandez G., Renard F., Vonlanthen P. (2018)
Intracrystalline reaction-induced cracking in olivine evidenced
by hydration and carbonation experiments. Minerals, Vol. 8,
No. 412, pp. 1–18, http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min8090412
Leelawatanasuk T., Atichat W., Sutthirat C., Wathanakul P.,
Sriprasert B., Naruedeesombat N., Srithunayothin P., Davies S.
(2011) Pallastic peridot: The gemstone from outer space. Proceedings of the 32nd International Gemmological Conference,
Interlaken, Switzerland, July 13–17, pp. 110–113.
Lin N. (2014) Structural deformation of the Momeik-Myitson area,
Momeik township: Criteria for tectonics. Yadanabon University Research Journal, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1–9.
Patil P., Mookherjee A., Marathe T., Sastry T.N. (2017) Inclusions
in rubies from South India. International Journal of AdvanceResearch in Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 6, No. 11, pp. 714–
735.
Phyo M.M., Bieler E., Franz L., Balmer W., Krzemnicki M.S. (2019)
Spinel from Mogok, Myanmar—A detailed inclusion study by
Raman microspectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy.
Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 36, No. 5, pp. 418–435.
Salem A.K.A., Khalil A.E., Ramadan T.M. (2012) Geology, geochemistry and tectonic setting of Pan-African serpentinite of
Um Salim-Um Salatit area, Central Eastern Desert, Egypt. The
Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science, Vol.
15, pp. 171–184.
Shen A.H., Koivula J.I., Shigley J.E. (2011) Identification of extraterrestrial peridot by trace elements. G&G, Vol. 47, No. 3, pp.
208–213, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.47.3.208
Sinkankas J., Koivula J.I., Becker G. (1992) Peridot as an interplanetary gemstone. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 43–51,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.28.1.43
Sripoonjan T., Saengbuangamlam S., Leelawatanasuk T. (2017) GIT
2016 Pre-conference field trip to Mogok, Myanmar, November
2016. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 35, No. 5, pp. 436–443.
Sripoonjan T., Seneewong-Na-Ayutthaya M., Bupparenoo P.,
Narudeesombat N., Leelawatanasuk T., Sawatekitithum M.

(2019) Gemmological and chemical characteristics of Yiqisong
peridot, Jilin, People [sic] Republic of China. Proceedings of the36th International Gemmological Conference IGC, Nantes,
France, August 27–31, pp. 92–95.
Stockton C.M., Manson D.V. (1983) Peridot from Tanzania. G&G, Vol.
19, No. 2, pp. 103–107, http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.19.2.103
Surour A.A. (2018) A Note on the chemical composition and origin of peridot from the Harrat Kishb, Saudi Arabia. Geosciences Research, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 65–73,
http://dx.doi.org/10.22606/gr. 2018.34003
Themelis T. (2008) Gems & Mines of Mogok. A&T Publishing,
325 pp.
Thu K. (2007) The igneous rocks of the Mogok Stone Tract. Ph.D.
Dissertation, University of Yangon, Myanmar.
Thu K., Harlow G.E. (2017) Hydrothermal recrystallization of
dunitic olivine in peridotite from Pyaung-Gaung Mogok Myanmar: Similarities to Sapat and Zabargad deposits. Inaugural
Conference on Applied Earth Sciences in Myanmar and Neighboring Regions, Myanmar Applied Earth Sciences Association(MAESA), Yangon, Myanmar, November 2–3.
Thu K., Zaw K. (2017) Gem deposits of Myanmar. In A.J. Barber
et al., Eds., Myanmar: Geology, Resources and Tectonics. Geological Society Memoir No. 48, Geological Society of London,
pp. 497–529.
Thuyet N.T.M., Hauzenberger C., Khoi N.N., Diep C.T., Lam
C.V., Minh N.T., Hoang N., Hager T. (2016) Peridot from theCentral Highlands of Vietnam: Properties, origin, and formation.
G&G,
Vol.
52,
No.
3,
pp.
276–287,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.52.3.276
Tzamos E., Bussolesi M., Grieco G., Marescotti P., Crispini L.,
Kasinos A., Storni N., Simeonidis K., Zouboulis A. (2020)
Mineralogy and geochemistry of ultramafic rocks from
Rachoni magnesite mine, Gerakini (Chalkidiki, northern
Greece). Minerals, Vol. 10, No. 11, article no. 934,
https://doi.org/10.3390/min10110934
Waltham T. (1999) The ruby mines of Mogok. Geology Today, Vol.
15, No. 4, pp. 143–149, http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.13652451.1999.1504007.x
Zhang Z., Ye M., Shen A.H. (2019) Characterization of peridot
from China’s Jilin Province and from North Korea. Journal ofGemmology. Vol. 36, No. 5, pp. 436–446.

PERIDOT FROM MOGOK, MYANMARGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

337

FEATURE ARTICLESHISTORY OF EMERALD MINING IN THE
HABACHTAL DEPOSIT OF AUSTRIA, PART I
Karl Schmetzer
The sources of emeralds used in Roman jewelry as well as jeweled pieces (including crowns and book covers)
dating from antiquity to the Middle Ages and before the discovery of the Colombian emerald deposits in thesixteenth century remain an ongoing matter of controversy. Two potential localities dominate the discussion:
the mines in the Eastern Desert of Egypt and the Habachtal deposit in Austria. The first published reference tothe Habachtal emerald occurrence dates to 1797. The majority of publications from the nineteenth and twentiethcenturies agree that Samuel Goldschmidt, a jeweler from Vienna, purchased the mountain area in which the
Habachtal emerald occurrence is located and commenced mining soon thereafter, in the early 1860s. A later
period from the mid-1890s to about 1914 is frequently mentioned, in which the mine was owned and workedby an English company. However, further details regarding both periods and the various transitions of ownershipand further circumstances of emerald mining before World War I are rarely given and often are not consistent,
and activities in the times before the 1860s and between 1870 and 1890 are obscure. Using a wide selection ofmaterials from Austrian and German archives, largely unpublished, the author seeks to trace the history of the
Habachtal mine through several centuries and to fill gaps left by existing publications.

It is established that emeralds were mined during
the Ptolemaic, Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic erasin Egypt’s Eastern Desert, in the Wadi Sikait andGebel Zabara regions.1 Far less certainty exists withrespect to emeralds from the Habachtal deposit, located in the Pinzgau region of Salzburg Federal State,
Austria (figure 1). Similar to the Egyptian deposits, it
has been speculated that the emerald deposit inHabachtal might have been known to the Celts andRomans,2 with some even going so far as to suggestthat the deposit had been exploited and mined by the
Romans.3 Absent, however, is any written document
or clear archaeological evidence to verify a link to the
Romans or Celts.4 Nor do the few studies aiming toestablish an empirical link between emeralds in historical jewelry and recently mined stones fromHabachtal (through trace element determination, inclusion study, and other approaches) offer any conclusive support.5 The problem is due to the fact thata clear distinction between emeralds from the different mining regions in Egypt and Habachtal has not
yet been worked out in the few existing studies. For
the Middle Ages, the famous Saint Louis emerald of
See end of article for About the Author.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 57, No. 4, pp. 338–371,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.57.4.338© 2021 Gemological Institute of America

338

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

the crown of France was assigned to the Habachtal
occurrence using oxygen isotopic composition values.6 Furthermore, several references (see, e.g., the
Early Evidence of Mining section later in this article)
indicate emerald mining in Austria from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.
The present paper aims to contribute to the mining history of emeralds in Habachtal and first to evaluate the sources referring to the period from thesixteenth to eighteenth centuries, which would—according to the present knowledge—indicate early
published accounts of the mining of Habachtal emeralds. Furthermore, a chronicle of emerald collection,mining activities, and ownership up to World War I
is given, starting with the first known mention of theemerald location in Habachtal in a scientific journal
by K.M. Schroll7 at the end of the eighteenth century
and the beginning of mining operations in the early
1860s by Samuel Goldschmidt, followed by an English company in 1895. The people in the background,
1

Shaw et al., 1999; Rivard et al., 2002.
See Ward, 1993; Gonthier, 1998.
3
Giuliani et al., 2000.
4Ertl, 1982; Grundmann, 1991; Grundmann and Koller, 2003.
5
See Calligaro et al., 2000; Kržic et al., 2013.
6
Giuliani et al., 2000; Stehrer, 2000.
7
Schroll, 1797.
2

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

A

B

Figure 1. A: Emerald crystal from Habachtal, 2.0
cm in length, on a matrixof biotite schist. Photo by
G. Martayan; private collection. B: Emerald crystal from Habachtal, 12
mm in length and weighing 15 ct, found in 1972
and displaying extraordinary quality. Photo by
Tobias Weise; collectionof Christian Weise. C:
Emerald crystal fromHabachtal, 4.5 cm inlength and weighing 128
ct, found in the mid1970s, one of the largestof gem quality discoveredat the locality in thetwentieth century. Shownin reflected light (left) andtransmitted light (right);
courtesy of Kristallmuseum Riedenburg.

C

controlling the English firm within two different
working periods, have not been identified. Conflicts
with the Austrian administration and other problems, which caused a first group of English owners

In Brief• The Habachtal emerald occurrence in Austria was initially known as a secondary deposit, first described in
1797. The primary emerald source was discoveredsome decades later, in the 1820s.
• Prior to the late eighteenth century, single stones may
have been found on occasion, but there is no verifiable
evidence of formal mining activities.
• Open-pit and underground mining were first performed by Samuel Goldschmidt for a few years in theearly 1860s.
• Ownership of the Habachtal property was transferredto the English firm Emerald Mines Limited in 1896 andremained under that entity until 1913. Two periods
within that interval saw underground mining, under thecontrol of different English individuals, before ownership reverted to Austrian citizens in 1914.

THE HABACHTAL LOCALITYThe Habachtal (meaning Habach Valley), throughwhich Habach Creek runs, lies within a network ofvalleys in a mountainous region known as the
Großvenediger [Great Venetian] area, named after the
Großvenediger peak (3662 m) located to the south. A
series of five such parallel valleys containing eponymous creeks flowing essentially south-north all lead
toward the larger Salzach River, flowing west-east in
the Salzach Valley (figure 2). The Habach Valley isflanked on the west by the Untersulzbach and Obersulzbach Valleys and on the east by the Hollersbach
and Felber Valleys. The two larger municipalities in
the Salzach region are Neukirchen (to the west of
Habach Valley) and Bramberg (to the east).
Historically, extensive mining activities havebeen reported for the Pinzgau region. In the Untersulzbach and Hollersbach Valleys, notable copper
mining has been documented since the early sixteenth century. Lead- and zinc-bearing ores have also
been mined to a lesser extent. In the Habach Valley,
mining mainly for lead and silver has frequently beenreported over the course of many centuries.8of the property to sell the firm in 1906 and a second
group of English owners to fail completely in emerald
recovery, are also presented.

8

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGY

Schroll, 1792, 1799; Pillwein, 1839; von Kürsinger, 1841; Ritter von
Köchel, 1859; Fugger, 1881; Lahnsteiner, 1980; Gruber and Ludwig,
1982; Hönigschmid, 1993; Feitzinger et al., 1998; Lewandowski,
2008; Seifriedsberger, 2008.

WINTER 2021

339

Figure 2. Map of a portion of the Oberpinzgau (the western part of the Pinzgau region) where the Habachtal(Habach Valley) is located. Habach Creek flows through the valley, and the Habachtal emerald mine is located on
the eastern flanks of the valley; additional valleys with their eponymous creeks are to the east and west. Mountainridges are shown in gray, and the hammer and pick symbol indicates the emerald mine. Modified after Pechristener, Austria location map, Open Database.

The Habachtal emerald mine is located on theeastern flanks of the valley, approximately 70 km
east of Innsbruck, the capital of Tyrol, Austria. The
main emerald-bearing host rocks in the occurrence
are biotite-, actinolite-, tremolite-, and talc-schists,or mixtures thereof (see again figure 1).9 In addition
to green emeralds, gray to blue beryls (aquamarines)
are also found, while other beryllium minerals suchas phenakite or chrysoberyl are rare. Occasionally,
beryl and emerald crystals are discovered together inthe matrix, but zoned crystals consisting of gray or
bluish aquamarine and emerald are extremely unusual. Four mining galleries exist today at an elevation between 2,100 and 2,200 m above sea level, andon the surface of the hill, emerald-bearing solid rocks(e.g., biotite schist) are found sporadically.

EARLY EVIDENCE OF MINING
In determining the earliest written evidence of
Habachtal emerald mining, contemporary thinking
tends to look in one or more of three general directions. To find early references, the author contacted
the people involved at present in Habachtal emerald
mining and the local Bramberg Museum’s staff respon-

340

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

sible for the mineral collection. The author was informed10 of a reference describing the destruction of
the Habachtal emerald mines prior to 1600, which
could confirm emerald mining in the sixteenth century. The reference in question turned out to be a publication by Herbert Aulitzky.11 Other views center onmaterial resulting from a 1669 journey by the DanishItalian scientist Niels Stensen (figure 3).12 Yet anotherseries of works cites a 1727 mining chronicle as theoldest description, which has now been identified by
9

Grundmann, 1991.
A. Steiner, pers. comm., 2019; E. Steinberger, pers. comm., 2019.
11
Aulitzky, 1973. Herbert Aulitzky (1922–2012) was a professor at
the Institut für Wildbach- und Lawinenverbauung, Universität fürBodenkultur in Vienna.
12
Niels Stensen (1638–1686), also known as Nicolaus Steno, studied
medicine in Copenhagen, publishing on topics involving anatomy
and medicine, before dedicating his interest to the fields of paleontology, stratigraphy, and crystallography. From 1666 to 1672, Stensen
worked in Florence under the Grand Dukes of Tuscany Ferdinand II
and Cosimo III de’ Medici. His principal work on earth sciences,
Prodromus on Solids, published in 1669 in Florence, is considered
the beginning of modern stratigraphy and geology. In 1675, Stensen
renounced his scientific career and was ordained a Catholic priest,
becoming a bishop in 1677. Scherz, 1987; Hansen, 2009; Hauschke,
2019.
10

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 3. Portrait of Niels Stensen (Nicolaus Steno or
Nicolaus Stenonius), likely painted circa 1670 in Florence, when Stensen was in his early thirties. Uffizi
Gallery, Florence.

the present author as the voluminous treatise by Franz
Ernst Brückmann (1697–1753; figure 4), a medical doctor and scientist. Beyond such written references, afourth piece of early evidence comes in the form oforal traditions that have long assumed that particularemeralds must have come from Habachtal. All four
approaches, despite having been accepted uncriticallyand without further evaluation for decades, fall shortof establishing any formal mining at Habachtal.

Figure 4. In a mining chronicle published in Braunschweig in 1727, the medical doctor and scientist
Franz Ernst Brückmann referred to “emeralds” fromthe village of Bach in Bavaria, which has repeatedly
been misinterpreted as a description of emeralds fromthe Habach Valley. The “emeralds” from Bach, however, have since been identified as green fluorites.
This copper engraving by E.L. Creite was published in
the 1727 mining chronicle.

The Aulitzky Reference and the Possibility of Late
Sixteenth-Century Emerald Mining at Habachtal.
The work by Aulitzky listed and described natural disasters (translated from German): “The mines in the
Tauern region, which were still active in this period[end of the sixteenth century, after 1572], were threatened by torrents. In 1593, the structures and buildingsof the emerald mine in the Habachtal were completely
damaged.”13 Although Aulitzky cited no supporting
reference, the basis would appear to be a text by Jos.
Lorenz discussing the effects of landslides and waterfrom the Habach Creek and commenting (also translated from German): “The slopes of this valley frequently create huge landslides. In 1593, one of theselandslides damaged the structures and buildings of theexisting mines.”14
Lorenz’s generic reference merely to mines thus
offers no proof of emerald mines, a misapplication
borne out by descriptions of the same 1593 event detailing that destructive landslides covered the entrances of tunnels to silver mines in the Gamskogel
area but making no mention of emerald mines.15 As

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGY

13

Aulitzky, 1973.
Lorenz, 1857.
15
See Reisigl, 1786; Vierthaler, 1816; von Kürsinger, 1841; Wallmann
1870; Lehmann, 1879; Stiny, 1938; Lahnsteiner, 1980; Rohr, 2007;
Seifriedsberger, 2007.
14

WINTER 2021

341

Medici wrote a letter dated June 16, 1669, to herbrother Ferdinand in Florence.17 The letter noted that
Stensen had visited and reported on the salt works ofHall (“saline d’Hala” in the original Italian text) andthe silver mines of Schwaz (“miniere di Sboz”). Anna
continued that she was now waiting for his returnfrom “the emeralds” (“de’smeraldi”), where he had
traveled to examine what could be done, suggestingthat Anna was already aware of the occurrence andexpected further details about the locality and the feasibility of future mining activities.
As the letter referred only to “emeralds” in theoriginal Italian text and not to emerald mines as insome later translations,18 it cannot prove the exisFigure 5. View of the former mining area of Gamskogel. Old tunnels and the remains of buildings are still
accessible near Peitingalm (left). The site of the large
landslide in 1593 that covered the adits of tunnels tosilver mines is indicated with arrows. Photo from2000 by J. Seifriedsberger.

Gamskogel is located on the western flanks near theentrance of the Habach Valley, a landslide moving in
the direction of the Salzach River (figure 5) would
have had no impact on emerald mines located in the
middle of the valley on the eastern flanks.

Figure 6. Portrait of Anna de’ Medici by G.V. Morandi,
circa 1666. In a letter to her brother in Florence, dated
1669, Anna reported that Niels Stensen had visitedseveral mining locations and that she was waitingfor his return from, and account of, a further trip tothe emerald occurrence. There is general agreementthat Habachtal was the locality signified, and theletter is the earliest written document known to datereferencing these emeralds from Austria. Courtesy ofMuseum of Art History, Vienna.

Niels Stensen’s Trip to the Habachtal (1669). As described by Gustav Scherz, Stensen’s journey took
place between 1668 and 1670, when the scientist
traveled through Italy and various European territories, beginning and ending in Florence.16 First visiting
Rome, Naples, Bologna, and Murano (a small island
near Venice), Stensen reached Innsbruck in May 1669.
There he was a guest of Anna de’ Medici (1616–1676;
figure 6), the sister of Ferdinand II de’ Medici, GrandDuke of Tuscany, and also the widow of Archduke
Ferdinand Charles of Austria, the governor of Tyrol.
Contemporaneous with Stenson’s travels, Anna de’

16

Scherz, 1955. Dr. Gustav Scherz (1895–1971) was a Catholic priest,
born in Vienna. In 1922, he moved to Copenhagen. A focus was his
scientific research on Niels Stensen, which he began in the late
1930s. Scherz published multiple articles and several books concerning Stensen’s life and edited a collection of his letters.
17
Scherz, 1952, 1955, 1971; Zirkl, 1982; Sobiech, 2008. The originaltext of Anna’s letter was published by Scherz and later cited by otherauthors. Scherz did not differentiate between the concepts of an
emerald occurrence versus an emerald mine. Letter of Gustav Scherz
to Josef Lahnsteiner, June 19, 1954, Archive of Alfred Lahnsteiner,
Hollersbach.
18
Scherz, 1987; Kardel and Maquet, 2013.

342

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

tence of emerald mines at Habachtal. There is,nonetheless, general agreement that Habachtal was
the locality signified. This conclusion is further buttressed by a catalog of rocks, minerals, and fossils
prepared by Stensen circa 1671–1672 in Florence. Titled Indice di cose naturali, it listed samples in theGrand Duke’s collection, some of them collected by
Stensen himself. Items 259 to 304 primarily represented samples collected from 1669 to 1670 during
his European journey, some explicitly from Tyrol.19
Item 279 described a collection of various crystals,
including quartz, emeralds, amethysts, and garnets,
thus implying that Stensen might have been able toobtain emeralds from the Habachtal occurrence during the trip.
The Mining Chronicle by Brückmann (1727). In thethird commonly cited reference, the 1727 mining
chronicle, Brückmann collected information about
more than 1,600 mines worldwide, mainly from theliterature.20 The portion describing the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg made no mention of emeralds.
Conversely, the section dealing with Bavaria included
the following entries (translated from German):• Donaustauff [referring to the modern municipality of Donaustauf], 2 miles from Regenspurg[the modern city of Regensburg], here great
quantities of occidental amethysts and emeralds are mined.
• Bach, a village, nearby green emeralds and blue
amethysts are mined.
A revised and more detailed version published in
1730 after samples had been obtained from the locality repeated the foregoing entries and added that
Brückmann could not find any special properties ofthese materials, that they were fragile, and that it
would be extremely difficult to cut and polish samples from the occurrence.21
19

From this information, it becomes extremely
unlikely that Habachtal could be the place underdiscussion. From a geographical perspective, thePinzgau, in which the Habachtal is located, belonged to the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg from1228 until 1803.22 Furthermore, various maps of the
Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg from the first halfof the eighteenth century clearly identify the
Habach Valley (figure 7). Instead, given the placement in Bavaria, it appears that Brückmann gathered his information from three editions of abooklet by the medical doctor Johann Lehner (born1623), describing a center for balneotherapy in themodern-day city of Bad Abbach, a few kilometers
south of Regensburg.23 Mentioned in the booklet’s
dedication to the Duke of Bavaria is an occurrenceof emerald and amethyst located at Bach near
Donaustauf, with the stones even being found together within a single piece of host rock. Lehnerwrote that the information was given to him by an
old stonemason in 1652.
These clues, in turn, add a further mineralogicalaspect eliminating any Habachtal connection. The
Bach-Donaustauf area is a mining region east of Regensburg, and it was a significant source of fluorite
for several hundred years, especially in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.24 An early description mentioned fluorite mining activities in 1703 and1704 and referred to old tunnels dug even earlier.25
Due to the intense green and violet coloration of thefluorites, one of the mines in the area was known as
the “Schönfärbiges Bergwerk,” translating to “beautifully colored mine.”26 Stated bluntly, there is little
doubt that Brückmann’s Bavarian “emeralds” weregreen fluorites.
This only serves to highlight the danger of uncritical repetition and the extent to which information
can become entrenched in modern thinking. To cite
just a few twentieth-century examples, Scherz wrote(translated from German):27
It is known nowadays, that old necklaces from Pinzgau, in the Salzburg area, contain amongst beautiful
regional gemstones such as amethysts and topazes also
emeralds. The oldest written description, which mentions these emeralds, is found in a mining chronicle,
published in Braunschweig in 1727. This book lists theores, rocks and stones of the Duchy, to which the Pinzgau area belonged to at this time. In the chronicle, avillage Bach (Habach) is described, where green emeralds and blue amethysts are recovered, which might
indicate a systematic mining already at the time given.

Scherz, 1956, 1958.
Brückmann, 1727.
21
Brückmann, 1730 (with identical title but designated part II).
22
Pichler, 1865; Freed, 1999; Dopsch and Lang, 2012.
23
Lehner, 1669, 1702, 1718; Fürnohr, 1952.
24
Viernstein, 1987; Jacob, 2006.
25
Flurl, 1792.
26
Mineralienatlas – Fossilienatlas, Grube Kittenrain (Schönfärbiges Bergwerk), https://www.mineralienatlas.de/lexikon/index.php/Deutschland/
Bayern/Oberpfalz%2C%20Bezirk/Regensburg%2C%20Landkreis/Donaustaufer%20Revier/Grube%20Kittenrain%20%28Sch%C3%
B6nf%C3%A4rbiges%20Bergwerk%29
27
Scherz, 1955.

Edward J. Gübelin (1913–2005) likewise noted:“In a mining chronicle published in 1727 the emerald

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGY20

WINTER 2021

343

A

Figure 7. A: Detail from a
map by J.B. Homann,
Nuremberg 1715, of the
Prince-Archbishopric of
Salzburg (Archiepiscopatus Salisburgensis), enlarged to show a portionof the Pinzgau west of
Zell am See. The area between Hollersbachtal andSulzbachtal, now known
as Habachtal, was referred to as Härbachtal
during the eighteenth
century (Tal means valley; for further explanation of the name, see also
Fabri, 1786). A mining
symbol for copper isshown in the Sulzbachtal, and a mining symbol
not related to a specificmetal is shown between
the Härbach andSulzbach Valleys. B:
Map of the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg(Archiepiscopatus Salisburgensis) by J.B.
Homann, Nuremberg
1715. The territory of theArchbishopric is highlighted in yellow, andHabach Creek is highlighted in red. The creek
flows into the Salzach
River and is designatedon the map by the oldname Härbach. The portion of the map enlarged
in figure 7A is also outlined in red. Both maps
courtesy of Bayerische
Staatsbibliothek, Munich.

Bof Habachtal is mentioned among ores, rocks andstones of the Duchy of Bavaria, to which the area belonged in the eighteenth century.”28 This statement
was then relied upon by John Sinkankas, who reiterated the misconception.29
The cited examples from Scherz and Gübelin
were in turn premised on various articles by Dr.
Hans Hanke30 that repeatedly made analogous references to the 1727 mining chronicle but never explicitly identified Brückmann as the author.

344

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

Oral Traditions from the Eighteenth Century. It appears that, in addition to Anna de’ Medici, local residents were aware of the deposit in the eighteenth

28

Gübelin, 1956a, b.
Sinkankas, 1981.
30
See Hanke, 1938, 1939, 1944. Dr. Hans Hanke (1908–1969) studied geology in Innsbruck and later moved to Salzburg. He worked asa scientific journalist and editor, publishing multiple articles regarding
the Alps.
29

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Salzburg. Despite a long-accepted tradition within
the monastery that the gemstones had come fromthe Habachtal deposit, a recent examination by microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence(EDXRF) established them as Colombian emeralds.33
Even if there is no indication of regular mining in
the eighteenth century or before, the collection of alimited number of emeralds in Habachtal and theiruse for jewelry over centuries is always possible.
However, objects with numerous stones of high quality are always suspicious, especially if they originate
from periods in which Colombian emeralds were already available in Europe.

FIRST DESCRIPTION OF HABACHTALEMERALDS (1797) AND EVENTS UNTIL THE
START OF MINING IN 1861

Figure 8. An inventory of the property and possessionsof Anna Maria Rottmayrin from Bramberg, a wealthy
farmer’s widow, listed two emerald rings owned at her
death in 1732. The stones are assumed to have beensourced from the Habachtal occurrence. The painting
represents her circa 1700; photo by Christina Nöbauer.

century or earlier, collecting and making use of thestones before any mineralogical account of the emerald
occurrence was ever published. For instance, the inventory of a wealthy farmer’s widow from the villageof Bramberg (see again figure 2), Anna Maria
Rottmayrin (1648–1732; figure 8), listed two emeraldrings owned at her death, and that tabulation has occasionally been relied upon as evidence of use and evenmining of Habachtal emeralds during the period.31
Furthermore, oral tradition links the emeralds inmonstrances housed in churches of the Pinzgau andSalzburg areas to the Habachtal deposit.32 Although
Colombian emeralds were already available in Europe during the era, the churches’ proximity to
Habachtal renders such an assumption not unreasonable. Nonetheless, the logic should not be stretched
too far, as recently demonstrated by investigation of
emeralds in the pectoral cross of Dominikus Hagenauer (1746–1811), presented to him by his father
upon his election in 1786 as abbot of St. Peters in

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

Leaving aside these four commonly traveled but misleading paths, the first valid published reference to the
Habachtal emerald occurrence dates to a 1797 treatiseby Kaspar (Caspar) Melchior Schroll (1756–1829; seebox A) dealing with minerals from Salzburg.34 Schroll
simply reported that a prismatic emerald crystal was
discovered in a piece of mica schist from that locality.
No further information is given. A rapid succession of
additional references followed in mineralogical and geological texts,35 indicating the information was readily
available, albeit with some variance in naming conventions. In the early decades of the nineteenth century, the older designation Heubachtal for the valley
was particularly common,36 and a number of variations in the name were seen between the sixteenth
and nineteenth centuries.37

31

Lahnsteiner, 1959; Pech, 1976; Hönigschmid, 1993.
Hanke, 1958; Hagn, 2019.
33
K. Schmetzer and H.A. Gilg, unpublished results, 2020.
34
Schroll, 1797; see also Göttingische Anzeigen von gelehrten
Sachen, Vol. 1, Part 83, May 27, 1797, pp. 817–821.
35
See Reuß, 1801; Haüy, 1804; Mohs, 1804; Klaproth and Wolff,
1810; Zappe, 1817; Jameson, 1820.
36
A note elucidating the name identity between Heubachtal(Heubachthal) and Habachtal (Habachthal) is given, for example, byRitter von Zepharovich, 1859.
37
In numerous maps from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries, thecreek now known as Habach Creek was designated Harpach (sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, with the exception of Häbach in
Dückher, 1666), Härbach (eighteenth century), or Habach (nineteenth
century). Multiple examples are depicted by Schaup, 2000; see also
the early geography text by Fabri, 1786. In mining documents fromthe sixteenth century, Heebach was also used. See Urkunden
Salzburg, Erzstift (1124–1805), SLA, OU 1550 I 02, January 1550,
SLA, OU 1552 III 10, March 1552;
https://www.monasterium.net/mom/AT-SLA/Erzstift/fond.
32

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

345

BOX A: THE QUEST FOR EARLY HABACHTAL EMERALD SAMPLES—THE COLLECTIONS OF
K.M.B. SCHROLL AND M. MIELICHHOFER IN SALZBURG
The first published reference to emeralds from the
Habachtal occurrence appeared in the 1797 edition of atreatise entitled Grundriss einer Salzburgischen Mineralogie (Outline of Salzburg’s Mineralogy) by the scientist Kaspar (Caspar) Melchior Balthasar Schroll(1756–1829). An interesting point to consider is whether
the material used by Schroll for his description, or similar pieces from the region and era, remain available incollections today.
Schroll joined the administration of the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg in 1777 as a trainee in the mining
department (Bergwerkspraktikant). In 1780, he was sent
to the Freiberg Mining Academy in Saxony (Bergakademie
Freiberg) to study mineralogy, geology, and mining. He
then returned to Salzburg in 1792 and thereafter held multiple roles within the Prince-Archbishopric’s mining administration, including becoming a mining inspector(Bergrat) in 1793. During the subsequent interim between
the end of the Prince-Archbishopric (1803) and Salzburg’saccession to the Austrian Empire (1816), he served in several high-ranking positions, and from 1823 until his deathin 1829 Schroll was the head of the mining administration.1 Schroll authored works focusing on Salzburg’s mineralogy, and it was the second edition of the above-citedFigure A-1. Title page of the 1797 edition of Kaspar Melchior Balthasar Schroll’s treatise on the mineralogy of
the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg, which incorporated the first description of Habachtal emeralds published in a scientific text.

Figure A-2. The collection of Mathias Mielichhofer contains a small number of samples bearing emeralds fromHabachtal, thereby demonstrating the sizes of crystals
found in the early decades of the nineteenth century.
Copper engraving by B. Weinmann, undated; courtesy ofAustrian National Library, Vienna.

treatise, published in 1797 (figure A-1), that contained thefirst brief description of Habachtal emerald material. According to Schroll, the emerald was found by chance when
breaking up a piece of mica schist. Schroll also dedicateda portion of his practical work to improving ore processing
and smelting.
A generation later, Mathias Mielichhofer (1772–1847;
figure A-2) followed a similar career path in Salzburg.
Mielichhofer joined the mining department as a traineein 1794 and was sent to the Freiberg Mining Academy
from 1803 to 1805. He went on to become a mining inspector in 1823 and held that position until his retirement in 1843. In addition to his activities centered onmineralogy and mining, Mielichhofer also became
known for several discoveries in the field of botany.

1

Günther and Lewandowski, 2002.

346

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure A-3. The mineralcollection of St. Peter’sArchabbey in Salzburg includes the original collections of Kaspar MelchiorBalthasar Schroll andMathias Mielichhofer,mine inspectors with careers spanning from thelate 1700s through theearly 1800s. Copper engraving by F. X. Kinnig,
1769; courtesy of St.
Peter’s Archabbey,
Salzburg.

The mineralogical collections compiled by both
Schroll and Mielichhofer were later acquired by St.
Peter’s Archabbey, a Benedictine monastery in Salzburg(figure A-3). Albert Nagnzaun (1777–1856), a passionate
mineral collector who became abbot of St. Peter’s in
1818, bought the two collections in 1819 and 1839, respectively, to enlarge the existing collection of themonastery.2 Schroll’s collection contained around 9,000
to 10,000 pieces, and Mielichhofer’s consisted of approximately 3,000 samples. In the most recent decade, a project was undertaken by Norbert E. Urban to catalog thearchabbey’s collection, endeavoring in particular to assign the various items to the collectors from whence
they came. The work relied not only on extant originallabels but also old inventories.
Among the items identified to date as most likely
sourced from the Schroll collection, none can properly
be characterized as emerald. There is, however, a beryl
crystal in matrix that, although lacking the green color
to be considered emerald, has an original label describing
the locality of provenance as “Leckbachscharte im
Habachtal.” The crystal is 29 mm in length and has a diameter of 4.5 mm.
Pieces assigned to the Mielichhofer collection, in
contrast, include two emerald samples. The first is a
crystal in matrix, 18 mm in length (figure A-4), and the

Figure A-4. Emerald crystal in matrix, 18 mm in length,from Habachtal, with an original label indicating that itderived from the Mathias Mielichhofer collection acquired in 1839 by St. Peter’s Archabbey, Salzburg. Photoby K. Schmetzer.

2

Rolshoven, 2009.

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

347

Figure A-6. Emerald crystals in matrix from Habachtal,
with the largest crystal measuring 7 mm in length. The
sample was purchased for the collection of St. Peter’sArchabbey, Salzburg, in the early twentieth century.
Photo by K. Schmetzer.

second is a crystal fragment of 5 mm in matrix. These
examples indicate the sizes and quality of emerald
crystals found during the early decades of the nineteenth century, at that time mainly from the secondary deposit downhill, and making their way into thecollections of high-ranking individuals within the
Salzburg mining administration. In particular, theirnature would imply that facet-quality emeralds were
extremely rare during the era.
For further comparison and context, the mineral collection of St. Peter’s also incorporates samples purchased
by Prior Vital Jäger (1858–1943; figure A-5), who oversaw
the collection for many years. Some emerald samples inmatrix, bought in the early decades of the twentieth century, represent material mined during the period when
the Habachtal occurrence was owned by the English entity Emerald Mines Limited. An illustrative example (figure A-6) contains several emerald crystals, the largest
with a length of 7 mm. Again, such samples show that asignificant percentage of the material mined at Habachtal consisted of collector specimens, not of the size andquality necessary for faceting. A pattern that began withthe yield obtained by Samuel Goldschmidt thus continued during the time of Emerald Mines Limited andwould be borne out by the tangled history of the mine
thereafter.

The new occurrence caused great interest because
the only known source at the time was Colombia.
The Russian deposits in the Urals would not be discovered for approximately three decades, and al-though the deposits in Egypt were known from descriptions in antiquity, they had been lost in the Eastern Desert for centuries and would only be
rediscovered two decades later.

Figure A-5. Portrait of Prior Vital Jäger by G. Scheibenzuber, 1923. Prior Jäger oversaw the mineral collectionof St. Peter’s Archabbey, Salzburg, for many years andwas able to purchase various samples of emerald in
matrix from Habachtal during the early decades of thetwentieth century. St. Peter’s Archabbey, Salzburg, Inventory No. M737.

348

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

A

B

Figure 9. A: The emerald occurrence is located high in the mountain range above the Habach Valley, in a small
side valley that includes the secondary deposit known as Leckbachgraben, Leckbachrinne, or Sedl (arrows). The
summit area is called Leckbachscharte and represents the transition to the neighboring Hollersbach Valley. B: Thelarge scree field (boulder field) below the outcrop of the emerald-bearing host rocks has traditionally been
searched by mineral collectors hoping to find emerald specimens. The arrow points to a small hut for a compressor
and other mining tools, built in the second half of the twentieth century. An entrance to one of the undergroundmining galleries is located close to the hut but is not visible in this view. Photos from 2009 by E. Burgsteiner.

During the early nineteenth century, the Habachtal
occurrence was exclusively a secondary source, as theprimary emerald-bearing schists would not be discovered until at least 1815.38 Secondary samples were collected in the valley close to the primary occurrence anddownhill from the emerald-bearing host rocks in a fieldarea known as Leckbachrinne, Leckbachgraben, or Sedl
(figure 9), and these were offered in the mineral tradeas well. A detailed description, again referring only tosecondary materials, was provided in 1821 by the Munich mineral dealer Jakob Frischholz, who visited the
locality on several occasions in the 1810s to search forsamples.39 Even an 1830 travel report mentioned the“famous Habachtal emeralds” but did not refer to any
mining activities, although it did note, most likely forthe first time, the existence of the uphill primarysource.40 Only later would it be noted that “emeralds
were broken [harvested] from the Smaragdpalfen [a primary emerald-bearing cliff of biotite-schist] at mortal
danger.”41 More specifically, collectors hung on ropes
at the steep cliff but were only able to break off a limited number of crystals in matrix.42
Habachtal stones obtained during this era, mostly
prismatic crystals in matrix but no faceted stones,

38

Von Petersen, 1816. Magnus von Petersen (1764–1832) was born in the Duchy of Schleswig, at that time part of Denmark. He studied in Kiel
and was a major in the army of the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. He also served as educator (Hofmeister) of the Princes of Thurn and Taxis atRegensburg (1813–1822), and in that role he was able to travel to various foreign locales to collect or purchase minerals. Such samples were thensubmitted to notable scientists for research, such as David Brewster in Edinburgh. On a trip through Tyrol and Salzburg in 1815, Petersen bought
several emerald samples in the municipality of Mühlbach, east of Bramberg. After his death, his collection was sold in several parts within Germany, but also to collections in France and England, by his wife, Antoinette von Petersen.
39
Frischholz, 1821. Jakob (Jacob) Frischholz (1778–1820) was a mineral dealer working in Munich from at least 1808. His written oeuvre included articles dealing with minerals from Tyrol and a publication on the cutting and engraving of gemstones (1820). Through his work,
Frischholz traveled widely to collect or purchase samples, and he was involved in the description of several new or rare mineral species. After
his death, his widow Anna (1778–1837) took over operation of the mineral trade business.
40
Der Bote für Tirol und Vorarlberg, Vol. 1830, No. 20, March 11, 1830, p. 4; for the primary source, see also Russegger, 1835.
41
Von Kürsinger, 1841; Peters, 1854; Lipold, 1863; Wallmann, 1870; Fugger, 1878.
42
Von Rosenfeld, 1863.

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

349

can be found in numerous collections,43 including
those of Schroll and his successor in Salzburg, Mathias Mielichhofer (1772–1847) (see again box A).

THE LEGAL CONTEXT OF AUSTRIANMINING LAW
Attendant to the transition to formal mining, it is important to understand the legal context. Applicablethroughout the Austro-Hungarian Empire from the
mid-nineteenth century on was the General Austrian
Mining Law dated May 23, 1854.44 That statute established a bifurcated regime, differentiating between minerals regulated by the scheme set forth therein(vorbehaltene Mineralien) and minerals regulated only
by broader and more generalized commercial legislation (nicht vorbehaltene Mineralien). For ores and minerals covered by the mining act, rights to andownership of mined minerals were controlled independently of the land from which they were extracted.
Any exploitation of covered minerals would begin with
an application for an initial exploration and development permit (referred to hereafter as an exploration permit). Such would authorize early exploratory anddevelopment activities, including limited mining, evenunderground, until it could be determined whether thedeposit was of economic value. Under such an exploration permit, the holder was entitled to a largely unrestricted right of access for the purposes covered by thepermit and could not be constrained or limited by thelandowner. Once economic value was ascertained, amining privilege would need to be granted for further
exploitation, and the holder of such mining rights—notthe landowner—would own the underlying minerals.
For ores and minerals not falling within the purview
of the mining act, rights and ownership remained with43

See Niedermayr, 1988, 2003; Grundmann, 1991.
See commentaries by von Gränzenstein, 1855; Stamm, 1855;
Manger, 1857; Leuthold, 1887; Schlüter, 1938; Schoen, 1939.
45
See Manger, 1857; Haberer and Zechner, 1884.
46
Vienna Holdings, Jewish Family Lists, Archive of the Jewish Community in Vienna; family name also written Goldschmid or Goldschmitt.
47
See Redl, 1813; Wiener-Zeitung, No. 119, May 26, 1820, p. 5. Two of
Samuel Goldschmidt’s brothers, Salomon Johann Nepomuk Goldschmidt (1808–1855) and Wilhelm Goldschmidt (born 1814), eventually joined their father, operating as “J. Goldschmidt & Söhne.” Uponthe father’s death and Wilhelm’s departure, Salomon continued thebusiness as “J. Goldschmidt & Sohn.” Wilhelm then briefly associatedwith Samuel before running his own short-lived company from 1842 to1844. Salomon would also go on to lease the Hungarian opal minesfrom 1845 to 1855, which lease was then maintained by his widow
Emilie and son Adolf Louis until 1880. Semrád, 2015. For genealogy of
the Goldschmidt family, see also Gaugusch, 2011; Semrád, 2012.

44

350

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

the landowner. Any commercial activities would becircumscribed by the Austrian Trade, Commerce andIndustry Regulation Act of 1859 and/or, to the extent
relevant, the Austrian Decree for the Admission of Foreign Joint-Stock Companies of 1865.
Complicating the framework was the fact that themining law of 1854 provided no explicit list of the minerals to which it applied. Rather, applicability had to
be decided on a case-by-case basis. While in some instances coverage was obvious—such as with copper,lead, or zinc minerals from which large quantities ofmetal could be extracted—in other cases, controversy
could arise. According to the generally accepted legal
interpretation, gemstones were excluded, meaningthat emerald would typically be treated as the propertyof the landowner.45 However, to the extent that gemquality emeralds might be produced as an adjunct toberyllium minerals and ore extracted under separate
rights per the mining law, they could be sorted, faceted,and sold by the permit holder. The result was a legal
loophole that facilitated bypassing the rights that alandowner would otherwise hold to the gemstones.
An additional complication came from the factthat while mining privileges were granted for specificminerals or ores, exploration permits could be obtained merely by specifying a geographic area. Thus,
as a practical matter, exploration permits were in general sought as an initial step to maximize options, regardless of the intended mineral target. Two types of
permits appear to have been available, one covering abroader area and the other covering a smaller circle.
The former could comprise an entire valley, a mountain range, and so forth, while the latter covered a circle with a radius of 425 meters (referred to as a
Freischurf). Insofar as exploration permits were not exclusive, it was possible for multiple, overlapping permits to be granted to different parties, meaning thatseveral individuals or companies could be authorized
to perform activities in the same area (figure 10).

MINING HISTORY OF THE HABACHTALEMERALDS (1861–1914)
Property Under the Goldschmidt-Brandeis Family(1861–1894). Mining for emerald in Habachtal commenced in the early 1860s, guided by Samuel Goldschmidt (1810–1871), a jeweler from Vienna whoestablished a firm operating as “S. Goldschmidt” in
1839. Samuel Goldschmidt hailed from a family involved in the gemstone and jewelry trade. His father,
Joseph Goldschmidt (1789–1841),46 founded a business in that field in Vienna in 1813.47 In the following

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 10. Under Austrian law, overlapping
exploration permits
could be granted tomultiple parties, asseen in this map for thearea of the Habachtal
emerald mine from the1940s and 1950s. Threedifferent individuals—
Hans Jarolim (greenish
yellow), Johann Zieger(purple), and Julius
Burger (blue)—had
each been authorized
to perform activities
over several circles
with a radius of 425 m
each. File Beryl Bramberg, Collection of W.
Günther, Archive of the
Bergbau- und Gotikmuseum Leogang.

decades, Joseph Goldschmidt and his three sons wereinvolved in several Vienna-based gem and jewelry
firms.
Following publication of a geological study of
emerald-bearing rocks in Habachtal by Karl Ferdinand Peters, a geologist at the k.k. geologischen
Reichsanstalt (Austrian geological survey),48 in August 1861 Samuel Goldschmidt obtained an exploration permit for the entire Habachtal Valley,

including the western and eastern slopes.49 Goldschmidt undertook exploration for samples in the

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGY

48

Peters, 1854. Karl (Carl) Ferdinand Peters (1825–1881) was a geologist at the k.k. geologischen Reichsanstalt from 1852 to 1855. Laterhe became a professor for geology and mineralogy at multiple universities, including those in Budapest, Vienna, and Graz.
49
Initial permit dated August 29, 1861, for a term of one year, with additional one-year extensions dated August 15, 1862, and August 1,
1863. Archive of the Municipality of Bramberg.

WINTER 2021

351

Figure 12. Page one of the notarized contract between
the Austrian government and Samuel Goldschmidt
setting forth the area purchased and the price.
Archive of Peter Lausecker, Kirchhundem, Germany.

Figure 11. Markus Vinzenz Lipold, a geologist at thek.k. geologischen Reichsanstalt (Austrian geologicalsurvey) in Vienna, guided Samuel Goldschmidt on his
excursion to Habachtal in 1861. Portrait 1869, by
Karl Scharak.

summer of 1861,50 assisted by Markus Vincenz
Lipold (figure 11),51 and their efforts proved successful. Insofar as mining of gemstones was not sanctioned through the mining law but only through landownership,52 Goldschmidt in November 1861 obtained authorization to buy the area of interest. A
purchase from the governmental treasury of 175 Joch(approximately one square kilometer; figure 12) was
consummated in February 1862 for 1,000 Gulden(equivalent to about 2,000 Kronen, or US$400 according to the exchange rate for the era).53 The parcel
included portions situated in two different tax regions, namely Habach (Area No. 850) and Hollersbach (Area No. 317) (figure 13).
In late spring 1862, the S. Goldschmidt firm presented emerald crystals in host rock, found in thelarge scree field (boulder field) of the Leckbackrinne

352

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

downhill from the primary emerald-bearing biotite
schist, at the Agricultural, Industrial and Art Exhibition in London.54 Regular mining started in 1862,
combined with further exploration activities in 1863.
Through that work, it became apparent that the primary emerald-bearing rock was not confined to the50

Haidinger, 1861.
Bergrath Markus Vincenz (Marko Vincenc) Lipold (1816–1883)
worked as a geologist at the k.k. geologischen Reichsanstalt from
1849 to 1867. From 1867 on, he was the director of the mercury
mine at Idria. Verhandlungen der Geologischen Reichsanstalt, Vol.
1883, No. 9, pp. 183–184.
52
See von Gränzenstein, 1855; Stamm, 1855; Manger, 1857;
Leuthold, 1887.
53
Notarized contract between k.k. Forstamt Zell am See (Forstaerar)
and Samuel Goldschmidt, February 10, 1862, Peter Lausecker reference collection; Habachtal emerald mine file (Edelsteinbergwerk im
Habachthale), entry March 29, 1862, Mittersill land registry office(Grundbuchamt Mittersill), Grundbucheinlage 155, Parzelle 850 und
Parzelle 317, Archive of Salzburg Federal State (Land Salzburg, Landesarchiv) (hereinafter cited only to the Mittersill land registry office);
Salzburger Zeitung, No. 108, May 12, 1862, p. 3; Bukowina, No. 55,
May 20, 1862, p. 2; Volks- und Schützen-Zeitung, Vol. 17, No. 63,
May 26, 1862, p. 5; Grundmann, 1979; Lausecker, 1986;
Lewandowski, 1997.
54
Wiener Zeitung, No. 263, November 12, 1861, pp. 1–2; Salzburger
Zeitung, No. 108, May 12, 1862, p. 3; Waldheim’s Illustrierte Zeitung,No. 21, May 24, 1862, pp. 2–3; Arenstein, 1862; Peters, 1862.

51

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 13. A map dated 1868 showing the area incorporating the emerald occurrence purchased by Samuel Goldschmidt from the Austrian government. Included is the stone residence labeled “Smaragdhaus” (emerald house,green arrow), built for the miners by Goldschmidt and still known as “Goldschmidthütte” (Goldschmidt’s hut).
Two other huts in the area, designated Sedl-Alm (blue arrow), may also have been used by the miners or emeraldcollectors at various times. Remains of these buildings are still visible. In the notarized contract from February
1862, the area purchased by Goldschmidt was given in old Austrian units as a parcel of 175 Joch, consisting ofArea No. 850 (131 Joch 1086 Kl [Klafter]) and Area No. 317. Archive of the Municipality of Bramberg, with a hammer and pick symbol showing the approximate position of the mining area added by the author.

so-called Smaragdpalfen but, rather, extended tolarger areas of mica schist.55
During Goldschmidt’s operation of the property,
only open-pit surface mining was performed until
August 1863.56 Thereafter, three tunnels were apparently dug (figure 14).57 A stone residence was constructed nearby to provide accommodations for theminers. Historical documentation referred to thestructure as “Smaragdhaus” (emerald house, seeagain figure 13), and it is still known as “Goldschmidthütte” (Goldschmidt’s hut). In his jewelry

store in Vienna, Goldschmidt offered Habachtalrough emerald crystals in matrix and published advertisements aimed at mineral collectors (figure 15).58
Conversely, the quantity of facet-quality emeralds
was too low either to support advertisement or to sus-

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGY

55

Lipold, 1863.
Letter by S. Goldschmidt, August 20, 1863. Archive of P. Semrád,
Bergen, The Netherlands.
57
Lipold, 1863; Wallmann, 1870.
58
Fremden-Blatt, Vol. 18, No. 127, May 8, 1964, p. 23.
56

WINTER 2021

353

ph

D
C

B

A

Figure 14. Four underground galleries in Leckbachgraben (A–D) were worked by the English firm Emerald Mines Limited, after initial tunneling had begun
under Samuel Goldschmidt. An occurrence of large
phenakite crystals (ph) is also shown. Photo from August 1977; courtesy of G. Grundmann.

tain mining operations, which terminated after only
a few years.59
Nonetheless, it appears that at least a limited
number of faceted Habachtal emeralds found theirway into the production of jeweled pieces during
the period. Potentially illustrative is a silver goblet
lid made by the Hermann Ratzersdorfer jewelry factory in Vienna between 1850 and 1880 (figure 16A)
and decorated with emeralds. Based on their visual

Figure 15. The S. Goldschmidt firm ran an advertisement in the daily newspaper Fremden-Blatt in
May 1864 offering mineral collectors rough emeralds in matrix from the company’s proprietary minein Salzburg.

appearance—heavily included with a mainly lightto medium green color (figure 16B; see also box A
and figure 17)—these could have originated fromthe deposit.
Goldschmidt died in July 1871.60 As his will, witha final codicil from 1869,61 did not provide for disposition of the Habachtal mine, ownership fell to hisdaughters Jeanette (1846–1924) and Friederike (1851–1911). Jeanette’s husband, Albert Brandeis,62 oversaw
affairs related to the mine.

59

Peters, 1867; Trautwein, 1870; correspondence between the Mittersill tax office and the municipality of Bramberg, April 1874, Archive of theMunicipality of Bramberg. The correspondence stated that Goldschmidt mined for two years only, but it is unclear whether this implies one season each of open-pit mining (1862) and underground mining (1863) or two years of underground mining (1863 and 1864).
60
Leitmeier, 1938; Eberl, 1972; Lausecker, 1986. A death notice published in the daily newspaper Neue Freie Presse (No. 2479, July 21, 1871, p.
16) described Goldschmidt as a jeweler, a jewelry evaluator at the “Lord High Steward’s Office,” an honorary citizen of Vienna, and a memberof several scientific associations.
61
Will of Samuel Goldschmidt, 1856, with codicils, Archive of the City of Vienna [Wiener Stadt- und Landesarchiv].
62
Albert Brandeis (1844–1910) was a descendant of the Weikersheim-Brandeis family of merchants and bankers mainly involved in the Viennese“M.H. Weikersheim & Comp.” and related entities. In the 1870s, he served on the boards of directors at various banks and insurance companies. From 1882 on, he was one of the directors of the Illyrische Quecksilberwerke Gesellschaft located in Idria (Idrija), in present-day Slovenia.
For several centuries, the Idria area was one of the largest mercury-producing regions worldwide. Given this connection, Brandeis likely became
knowledgeable about matters related to mining and mining investments. However, he apparently was not a particularly successful businessman.
Die Presse, Vol. 35, No. 76, March 17, 1882, p. 7; Will of Albert Brandeis, 1910, Archive of the City of Vienna (Wiener Stadt- und Landesarchiv);
Amtsblatt zur Wiener Zeitung, No. 19, January 24, 1911, p. 3.

354

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

A

B

Figure 16. A: Silver goblet lid depicting Ceres, the goddess of agriculture, manufactured by the Hermann Ratzersdorfer jewelry factory in Vienna and consistent in style with the type of Renaissance revival jewelry produced
there between 1850 and 1880. B: The lid is decorated with emeralds that, according to visual features such as colorand inclusions, could have originated from the Habachtal deposit. The diameter of the lid is 155 mm, and theemeralds are approximately 6 × 4 mm (top and middle rows) and 6 × 5 mm (bottom row). Photos by Manfred
Wild, Emil Becker company, Idar-Oberstein.

Following Goldschmidt’s death, the mine appears
to have been leased on one or more occasions. Information provided in the 1930s by Ernst Samuel Brandeis (1872–1942), Albert’s son, suggests that the mine
was leased for a few years under a contract terminating in 1875 and bringing to a close formal mining activities.63 In contrast, an anonymous report circa
191764 implies that the mine was leased to Andreas(Andrä) Bergmann (1813–1882) from Innsbruck for five
years and to Alois Wurnitsch (1834–1909) from Bramberg65 for six years. Both were involved with the epidote deposit in the Untersulzbach Valley, west of
Habachtal. Wurnitsch discovered the material in approximately 1865, and his friend Bergmann leased andworked the deposit, with interruptions, from about
1867 to 1881.66 It is feasible that they pursued limited
mining or exploration at Habachtal in conjunction

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGY63

Leitmeier, 1938.
Anonymous (written on paper with the company logo “Carl Staudt,
Holzhandlung, Traunstein,” most likely by A. Hager), Das SmaragdBergwerk im Habachthale, circa 1917, 6 pp., Archive of the Municipality of Bramberg.
65
Alois Wurnitsch moved in 1882 or even before to Bramberg, where
he died in 1909 and some of his family members continued to live.
Archive of the Municipality of Bramberg, J. Seifriedsberger, pers.
comm., 2020.
66
Ritter von Zepharovich, 1869; Seemann et al., 1990, 1993; Günther, 1994.
64

WINTER 2021

355

Figure 17. These emeralds used by G. Grundmann for
his research on Habachtal show the typical quality
coming out of the mine in the 1960s and 1970s. Courtesy of G. Grundmann.

with their other activities. This is verified by the purchase of two emeralds (together with minerals fromthe Untersulzbach epidote deposit) by the British Museum in London from the Bergmann company in 1872
and 1883.67 The first example is a crystal in matrix,
and the latter is an extraordinarily large crystal of 3.3
cm in length and 82 ct in weight (figure 18). Reported
as having been found during this period was anotherlarge single crystal of 3.5 cm in length and 2 to 3 cm
in diameter, a specimen now in the collection of the
Natural History Museum, Vienna.68
After the leaseholds terminated, the emerald
mine rested largely dormant for the next two
decades, with locals making occasional small-scale

67

R. Hansen, Natural History Museum, London, pers. comm., 2021.
Salzburger Volksblatt, Vol. 4, No. 71, March 30, 1874, p. 3; Tschermak, 1874.
69
Freie Stimmen, Vol. 12, No. 13, January 30, 1892, pp. 1–3.
70
Report by Josef Lahnsteiner, 1942 (relying upon personal communication with Karl Wurnitsch), Archive of Alfred Lahnsteiner, Hollersbach.
71
Notarized contract between Friederike Goldschmidt and Albert
Brandeis, March 1, 1894, Mittersill land registry office, Archive of
Salzburg Federal State; Habachtal emerald mine file, entry March 9,
1894, Mittersill land registry office; Grundmann 1979; Lausecker,
1986.
68

356

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

Figure 18. This emerald crystal from Habachtal, 3.3
cm in length and weighing 82 ct, was sold by the
Bergmann company in 1883 to the British Museum,London; it is one of the largest samples from Habachtal found in the nineteenth century. Courtesy of the
Natural History Museum, London, © The Trustees of
the Natural History Museum, London.

finds.69 More intense activity was not entirely absent,
however, as Wurnitsch continued to work in thearea, even using dynamite, assisted by his son Karl
(1871–1949; figure 19).70
In March 1894, Albert Brandeis purchased
Friederike’s half of the property for a symbolic priceof 200 Gulden (equivalent to about 400 Kronen, orUS$80 according to the exchange rate for the era).71
Transfer to the English Emerald Mines Limited(1894–1896). Nonetheless, it seems that the Brandeis
family did not wish to take on the expense or risk ofdeveloping the mine and instead turned to family

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 19. In the decades after Samuel Goldschmidt’s
death in 1871, only limited mining activities took
place in Habachtal, including under lease to Alois
Wurnitsch. His son, mountain guide Karl Wurnitsch(seen here), occasionally worked with his father in thearea. Photo circa 1928; courtesy of E. Burgsteiner.

connections (figure 20). James Montague Leverson(1828–1908), the husband of Jeanette Brandeis’s
cousin Henrietta, had established a wholesale dia-

mond business in London in 1870, which operated
under the name “Leverson, Forster & Co.” from 1883
to 1906 and then as “James A. Forster & Sons” until
its formal dissolution in 1975.72 Leverson, Forster &Co. also traded in high-value diamonds, such as theImperial73 and the Sancy,74 and held concessions fordiamond mining in British Guiana.75 Principals andfamily members involved in various interconnectedbusinesses—which over time extended to a subsidiary in Vienna,76 efforts to exploit the historicalemerald mines in Egypt,77 and services as directors fora multiplicity of mining businesses78—included
Leverson and his son Louis George Leverson (1860–
1909) and James Amos Forster (1845–1919) and his
son Allan Amos Forster (1874–1946).
After being contacted by Albert Brandeis,79 associates of Leverson, Forster & Co. traveled to the
Habachtal mine and may even have supervised preliminary mining or exploration as a preface to any
decision to invest.80 They also apparently communicated the opportunity to another British diamondmerchant, Anton Dunkels (1844–1911), also known
as Anton Dunkelsbuhler or Anton Dunkelsbühler.
His company was one of the largest wholesale diamond companies in London and one of the ten London-based companies forming the central diamondselling syndicate in 1890.81
In February 1896, Emerald Mines Limited was
registered in London, with an address at Holborn
Viaduct 29-30 identical to that of Leverson, Forster& Co., to “acquire and work an emerald mine inAustria.” James Amos Forster, Louis George Leverson, his cousin David Harry Leverson (1858–1935),
Anton Dunkels, and Albert Brandeis were named as
directors (see again figure 20).82 The stated capitalwas £60,000 (about US$300,000 according to the ex-

72

The London Gazette, May 11, 1883, p. 2517, January 9, 1891, p. 180, February 11, 1975, p. 1935; Grace’s Guide to British Industrial History:
Who’s Who in Business, 1914.
73
Spencer, 1911.
74
Mitchell, 1984; Fort, 2012.
75
British Guiana’s mining industry, The Mining Journal, Railway and Commercial Gazette, Vol. 74, 1903, pp. 89, 185, 362, 418, 625.
76
Kleine Mitteilungen, Journal der Goldschmiedekunst, 1903, p. 166; Neue Freie Presse, No. 13935, June 13, 1903, p. 20.
77
Mac Allister, 1900; Streeter, 1903.
78
Skinner, 1892.
79
Die Zeit, Vol. 9, No. 2714, April 16, 1910, p. 5. Although certain texts suggest that Leverson, Forster & Co. was alerted to the Habachtal opportunity by Alois Wurnitsch, this supposition is unsupported and contrary to logic. It is hardly conceivable that Wurnitsch, primarily a mineral collector and mountain guide, would have selected and contacted a London-based wholesale diamond merchant regarding Habachtal in theabsence of any potential known connection to the firm. See Lahnsteiner, 1980; Hönigschmid, 1993.
80
Leitmeier, 1938; Eberl, 1972; Hönigschmid, 1993. A visit to Bramberg by James Amos Forster was documented in 1894, and various materials
prepared by Austrian authorities offer 1895 as the date mining commenced on behalf of Leverson, Forster & Co.
81
Lenzen, 1966.
82
Skinner, 1899.

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

357

AUSTRIANENGLISH

Joseph Abraham
Lebel Goldschmidt
1789–1841

Jacob Brandeis
1812–1900

AlbertBrandeis
1844–1910

Samuel Goldschmidt
1810–1871

1868

Jeanette(Goldschmidt)
Brandeis
1846–1924

FriederikeGoldschmidt
1851–1911

Salomon Johann
Nepomuk
Goldschmidt
1808–1855

Henriette
1858(Goldschmidt)
Leverson
1840–1911

Ernst SamuelBrandeis
1872–1942

Montague Leverson
1796–1850

James Norman
Forster
1817–1881

James
Montague
Leverson
1828–1908

George Bazett
Colvin Leverson
1826–1906

James Amos
Forster
1845–1919

Louis George
Leverson
1860–1909

David Harry
Leverson
1858–1935

Allan Amos
Forster
1874–1946

Anton Dunkels
1844–1911

John Bryan
Forster
1908–1979

Figure 20. Relationships within and between the Austro-Hungarian Brandeis and Goldschmidt families and theEnglish Leverson and Forster families. With regard to a key connecting link, Jeanette Brandeis, born Goldschmidt, and Henriette Leverson, born Goldschmidt, were cousins. The directors of Emerald Mines Limited arehighlighted in red.

change rate for the era), divided in 60,000 shares of£1 each. The company purchased the mine in May
1896 from Albert and Jeanette Brandeis, with payment in the form of 10,220 shares83 (17 percent of thetotal number of shares). From that point, Albert Brandeis apparently played only a limited role in the mining venture, at least publicly.

Property Under Emerald Mines Limited and Controlled by Leverson, Forster & Co. (1896–1906). Beginning in 1896, Emerald Mines Limited exploitedthe emerald deposit for several years.84 English andAustrian mining engineers were hired to guide operations.85 The years 1898–1901 saw a succession
involving Allan Amos Forster,86 the engineer

83

Notarized contract between Albert Brandeis/Jeanette Brandeis and Emerald Mines Limited, May 11, 1896 (London) and May 20, 1896 (Vienna), Mittersill land registry office, Archive of Salzburg Federal State; Habachtal emerald mine file, entry May 23, 1896, Mittersill land registry
office; Lausecker, 1986. See also Die Zeit, Vol. 9, No. 2714, April 16, 1910, p. 5; Salzburger Volksblatt, Vol. 40, No. 87, April 19, 1910, pp. 4–5;
Grundmann, 1979; Hönigschmid, 1993; Lewandowski, 1997. There is some inconsistency concerning the purchase price paid to the Brandeis
family. A figure of 10,220 shares was presented in the original contract and by Grundmannn and Lewandowski; the 1,022 shares mentioned by
Hönigschmid were presumably a typographical error. Conversely, a figure of 14,720 shares was given in a 1910 statement by Leslie Clarke during court proceedings in Berlin and reported in Die Zeit and Salzburger Volksblatt.
84
File “Illegal mining in Bramberg,” Akte Bergwesen XII B/1 1910, Emerald Mines Limited Aktiengesellschaft in London, unbefugter Bergbaubetrieb in Bramberg, 1902–1910, Archive of Salzburg Federal State (Land Salzburg, Landesarchiv), collecting documents from the period between
1902 and 1910 (hereinafter for convenience cited as File “Illegal mining in Bamberg,” with dated reference to a particular document if available
and generally without further details for facts repeated in several documents).
85
For the 1899 season, Albert Brandeis offered the position as head of mining operations to the Austrian geologist Othenio Abel (1875–1946),
but Abel declined the offer. See Ehrenberg, 1975.
86
File “Illegal mining in Bramberg,” document dated June 29, 1902; see also box B.

358

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Fothringham [Fotheringham?],87 the Cornish minemanager “Captain” John Ackerley Penhall (1842–
1911; see figure B-1),88 and the Austrian mining engineer Paul Hartnigg (1839–1904).89
For the early years of English ownership, few details regarding the precise nature of the operations
are available via original documentation, but moregeneralized information about the mining activities
can be found.90 The mine was worked undergroundin four galleries (see again figure 14) during the summer periods, extending four to five months from May
or June to September or October, depending on
weather conditions.91 Initially, 12–20 miners were
employed, later growing to 20–30 workers together
with two mining engineers (figure 21). The possibility of building a cable railway to transport the emerald-bearing rocks down to the valley for washing andseparating was considered.92 Significant production
was reported for the early years of the twentieth century, with annual numbers such as 68,000 carats one
year and 32,000 carats of milky, cloudy stones plus
7,000 carats of greener emeralds another year.93 The
cleaner material was sent to India for cutting andbrought to the international market as “Indian emerald.” Nonetheless, it appears that very few stones ofsubstantial size, quality, and value were found in thearea.94
Despite these efforts, the ensuing years would
bring a confluence of three factors that prevented
Emerald Mines Limited from establishing a sustainable operation. First, as stated above, was a lack ofprofitability. Given the high percentage of unearthed material that was turbid and heavily included, financial benefit is doubtful.95 Second,
access to the mine was dangerous, hampered by frequent heavy rock falls encompassing up to several
hundred cubic meters in volume. E. Weinschenk, ageologist and petrologist who worked in the areafrom 1890 to 1894, reported that he was unable tovisit the occurrence to obtain study samples andthat treacherous conditions had in general hinderedmining in the region.96 Third, the company was
beset by legal difficulties related to regulatory compliance, authorization, and permits necessary forthe type of work being undertaken.
Early on, an exploration permit had been granted
pursuant to the mining law in June 1893, with theterm subsequently extended in June 1896.97 Allan
Amos Forster, the lead mining engineer at the time,then declared in 1898 that the emeralds within thetalc- and chlorite-schist were only a byproduct of exploration activities that sought minerals for whichmining would be covered by the mining law.
Forster’s statement was accepted at that point without examination by the mining administration in
Wels.98
The situation shifted in March 1902 when the
Ministry of the Interior in Vienna began investigating the activities of Emerald Mines Limited in
Habachtal. A letter was sent to the local state government in Salzburg questioning whether the English company had applied for appropriate permits for
a foreign firm to work in Austria. The government
was also concerned that the company had underreported its export values to avoid fees and taxes.99 As
the year progressed, Austrian authorities on both regional and local levels (in Salzburg, Zell am See,
Wels, and Linz) became involved in the investigation. All ultimately concluded that the principal
product was emeralds of gem quality, that the maininterest of the company was emerald mining, andthat the work was not related to exploration forother minerals.100 Moreover, with an invested capitalof 35,000 Gulden (equivalent to 70,000 Kronen) andwages totaling 45,320 Kronen paid to miners fromHISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGY

87

Eberl, 1972. The information provided by Lausecker (1986) and
Grundmann (1991) about Allan Amos Forster and Fothringham was
all based upon Eberl’s publication, and no other reference was available to those authors. G. Grundmann, pers. comm., 2019; P.
Lausecker, pers. comm., 2019.
88
The Mining Journal, Railway and Commercial Gazette, Vol. 69, No.
3350, November 4, 1899, p. 1314; The Cornishman, February 25,
1904, p. 5, April 27, 1911, p. 4; The Mining Journal, Vol. 43, No.
3949, April 29, 1911, p. 442. During this era, mine “captains” wereexperienced miners who were responsible for organizing all underground activities at the mines. John Buckley, pers. comm., 2020.
89
Salzburger Chronik für Stadt und Land, Vol. 37, No. 138, June 19,
1901, p. 4.
90
Lammer, 1897; Treptow, 1899.
91
File “Illegal mining in Bramberg”; Salzburger Volksblatt, Vol. 29, No.
3, February 10, 1899, p. 2; Salzburger Chronik für Stadt und Land,
Vol. 36, No. 236, October 16, 1900, p. 6; Vol. 37, No. 138, June 19,
1901, p. 4.
92
Salzburger Volksblatt, Vol. 54, No. 174, July 31, 1924, p. 7.
93
See The Mining World, Vol. 26, January 26, 1907, p. 111; Sterrett,
1907; Leitmeier, 1938; Eberl, 1972; Lausecker, 1986. The years given
for these production figures vary from 1902 to 1904 in different references. However, due to the fact that the mine was closed from 1903
to 1905, the information must necessarily refer to the mine yield for
1902 or before.
94
Lausecker, 1986.
95
See Leitmeier, 1938.
96
Weinschenk, 1891, 1896; later visits were prevented by the English
mine owners.
97
File “Illegal mining in Bramberg,” document dated June 29, 1902.
98
File “Illegal mining in Bramberg,” document dated August 7, 1902.
99
File “Illegal mining in Bramberg,” document dated March 10, 1902.
100
File “Illegal mining in Bramberg.”

WINTER 2021

359

A

B

D

C

F

360

E

G

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

Figure 21. Up to 30 miners
worked the different galleries of the Habachtal
emerald mine during thelast decade of the nineteenth century and first
decade of the twentieth century, when the property was
owned by the London-based
Emerald Mines Limited. A:
The Leckbachgraben and its
boulder field. B: Miners andmining engineers at the entrance to the C gallery. C:
Sorting and washing of theemerald-bearing host rocks
in front of the C gallery. D:
Entrance to the D gallery. E:
The Goldschmidthütte withsnow in autumn. F: Accessroute between the Goldschmidthütte and the mine.
G: Transporting wood fortunnel stabilization. Courtesy of E. Burgsteiner, Museum of Bramberg, andArchive of the Municipalityof Bramberg.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

1896 to 1902,101 the activity was deemed to be commercial in nature, exceeding any preliminary, noncommercial character that could still be related toearly exploration and development. Consequently,
rulings issued on June 29, 1902, from Zell am Seeand on February 8, 1903, from Salzburg declared theactivity of Emerald Mines Limited in Habachtal illegal and directed the company to apply for any
legally required permits and authorizations. The rulings in turn were sent to the firm’s representative inAustria, the Vienna lawyer Dr. Ernst Bum (1855–
1927).102 The miners were informed by mail in late
May 1903 that operations would not resume for theupcoming summer season.103

101

Emerald Mines Limited appealed the rulings at
the administrative level, but the company’s arguments attempting to continue operations under themining law were found baseless, and the previous
decisions were upheld by the government on February 11, 1905. A petition was then filed with theSupreme Administrative Court in Vienna, resulting
in a final decision against the company on June 28,
1906.104 The court affirmed that Emerald Mines
Limited’s production at Habachtal did not fallwithin the purview of the mining law and thus required compliance with the more general Trade,
Commerce and Industry Regulation Act, the Austrian Decree for the Admission of Foreign JointStock Companies, and any associated regulatory
requirements and permits.
Meanwhile, the London leadership of Emerald
Mines Limited had opted not to reopen the Habachtal mine after the 1903 closure,105 instead seeking tosell the company.

In 1910, a miner was paid 12 Kronen per week. Peter Nagl v. Emerald Mines Limited, Bezirksgericht Mittersill, November 17, 1911, Mittersill land registry office. Extrapolating from this figure and assuming
five months of work in the annual mining period, the resultant computation suggests payment of 250 Kronen for one miner per year,
leading to an average workforce of approximately 26 miners for theseven years from 1896 to 1902.
102
File “Illegal mining in Bramberg.”
103
Salzburger Chronik für Stadt und Land, Vol. 39, No. 117, May 26,
1903, p. 3; see also Salzburger Volksblatt, Vol. 40, No. 87, April 19,
1910, pp. 4–5.
104
File “Illegal mining in Bramberg”; Budwinskis Sammlung der Erkenntnisse des k.k. Verwaltungsgerichtshofes, 1906; Reif, 1908.
105
See Thompson, 1906a; Die Zeit, Vol. 9, No. 2714, April 16, 1910,
p. 5; Salzburger Volksblatt, Vol. 40, No. 87, April 19, 1910, pp. 4–5.
106
Talking Machine News, July 1, 1905, p. 27.
107
Who’s Who in Mining and Metallurgy, London, publ. by The Mining
Journal, 1910, p. 116.
108
Thompson, 1906a, b; Kunz, 1907; Die Zeit, Vol. 9, No. 2714, April
16, 1910, p. 5; Salzburger Volksblatt, Vol. 40, No. 87, April 19, 1910,
pp. 4–5.
109
The partnership between Louis George Leverson and James Amos
Forster in Leverson, Forster & Co., London, was dissolved the same
year, in July 1906. The Vienna subsidiary of Leverson, Forster & Co.
was formally dissolved in early 1908, with a new company “James A.
Forster & Söhne” having already been established in Vienna in March
1907. The Times (London), Issue 38084, July 28, 1906, p. 17; Wiener
Zeitung, No. 78, April 5, 1907, p. 23; Neue Freie Presse, No. 15687,
April 23, 1908, p. 25.
110
Skinner, 1907.
111
South Bucks Standard, July 3, 1908, p. 2, July 17, 1908, p. 7; The
Bucks Examiner, July 17, 1908, p. 6; The Times (London), Issue
40423, January 17, 1914, p. 3.
112
Thompson, 1906b.
113
See M.INST.M.M., 1908 (indicating that the mine was also worked in1907); South Bucks Standard, August 14, 1908, p. 2 (quoting Leslie
Clarke as stating in August 1908 that “the emerald mine in Austria hadremained closed during the past year”); File “Illegal mining in Bramberg,” document dated October 25, 1909 (concluding that Emerald
Mines Limited was not actively mining in Habachtal by October 1909);
Berliner Volkszeitung, Vol. 58, No. 230, May 20, 1910, p. 2 (quoting
Leslie Clarke as stating that the mine “is closed since two years”); Die
Zeit, Vol. 9, No. 2747, May 20, 1910, p. 4; Prager Tagblatt, Vol. 34, No.
139, May 22, 1910, p. 13; Leitmeier; 1938; Lewandowski, 2008 (mentioning that all activities were canceled in 1907).

Property Under Emerald Mines Limited and Controlled by Northern Mercantile Corporation Limited (1906–1911). Northern Mercantile Corporation
Limited, a Manchester firm with an office in London, founded in 1904 and involved in the phonograph business,106 engaged Edmund Spargo & Sons,
a mining and commissions execution company
from Liverpool,107 to investigate the mine in 1905.
After receiving the report, Northern Mercantile
Corporation Limited in 1906 purchased the sharesof Emerald Mines Limited for 10% of the nominal
value (i.e., £6,000, equivalent to £0.1 per share),thereby acquiring the principal asset, the Habachtal
mine.108 A new board of directors was installed for
Emerald Mines Limited, with only Albert Brandeis
retaining his position and all members of the Leverson and Forster families ceasing any involvement.109
The group comprised Leslie Clarke, William King,
F.K. MacMorran, and the aforementioned Albert
Brandeis.110 Clarke, from the insurance industry,
and King, previously a shipowner, maltster, andgrain importer, were both to serve as mining brokers for Emerald Mines Limited.111
From that point, actual mining operations appear
to have been sporadic at best, with more attention
focused on financial markets. The mine was reopened in 1906, with one of Edmund Spargo’s sonshired to provide oversight for a four-month period
from July to October.112 Although documentation is
ambiguous, certain statements suggest that mining
activities stopped after the 1906 or 1907 seasons.113

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

361

Figure 22. The final
known action by Emerald Mines Limited thatappears to have beentaken with an underlying intent to recommence mining at
Habachtal was the hiring of Peter Nagl (pictured here with hiswife) in July and August 1910, but his
wages were never paid.
Members of the Naglfamily were involvedfor decades in emerald
mining at Habachtal.
Courtesy of Museum of
Bramberg.

A guard was posted for security purposes for a few
years thereafter, but even that effort was eventuallyterminated.114 The only action that indicated a potential desire to recommence was the hiring of Peter
Nagl (1860–1947; figure 22) from Bramberg in Julyand August 1910 for 12 Kronen a week, but his salary
was never paid.115 Accounts suggesting that the English company blasted the main occurrence shortly
before leaving, in order to hide the best material,116
find no documented support.
Mining operations at the now Manchester-based
firm might also have been hampered by regulatory
difficulties similar to those of its predecessor. The
company applied to register as required for a foreigncompany in Austria, but the application was incomplete, and requests from the administration to complete the filing went unanswered. Even as late as the
final available documentation dated February 1910,
no authorization had been granted.117 The absence iscorroborated by the Compass – Finanzielles Jahrbuch
für Oesterreich-Ungarn, a financial and industrial
handbook listing all national joint-stock companies
and those foreign companies that were registered andhad permission to work in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which never included Emerald Mines Limited
in any of its volumes from 1907 to 1914.118
Rather, the focus had turned to attracting investors. Materials such as an anonymous letter to theeditor published by the Institution of Mining andMetallurgy in London, dated February 12, 1908, pre-362

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

sented a glowing picture of prospects.119 There, after
discussing the emeralds originating from Muzo,
Colombia, the letter professed:
It appears that almost the only other recognized emerald mine of importance at present in operation is located in the Salzburg Mountains in Austria, operated
by an English company called “Emerald Mines, Limited,” having their registered office at 37 Princess
Street, Manchester. These mines are situated only 50
hours from London, near Bramberg railway station, at
an altitude of from 7.000 to 8.000 feet above the sea.
The mining rights extend over about 600 acres of specially selected ground, and are practically freehold. Up
to 1906 over 200.000 carats had been produced in theprevious ten working seasons. Of this quantity 56.000
carats were obtained during the last three months’ development,120 from a depth of not exceeding 200 feetfrom the face of the mountain, so that the potentialitiesof the property are undoubted.
Each year as the workings develop in depth, the quality,
colour, and size of the emeralds distinctly improve. The

114

Koenigsberger, 1913; Leitmeier, 1938.
Peter Nagl v. Emerald Mines Limited, Bezirksgericht Mittersill, November 17, 1911, Mittersill land registry office.
116
See Lackner, undated.
117
File “Illegal mining in Bramberg,” documents dated September 30,
1909, February 12, 1910.
118
See Compass – Finanzielles Jahrbuch für Oesterreich – Ungarn
1912, Vol. 45, Band II, Vienna, 1911, Compassverlag, Vienna, 1752
pp.; see also Präsidialbureau des k.k. Finanzministeriums, 1917.
119
M.INST.M.M., 1908.
120
Most likely referring to the 1907 mining period.
115

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 23. In the years 1909 and 1910, Prince Francis
Joseph of Braganza became involved in a financial
scandal during which he was offered, and purchased
at vastly inflated values, shares of Emerald Mines
Limited and “emerald” samples (later proven to beglass) said to originate from the Habachtal mine. The
photo shows the young prince, circa 1900, in a uniform of the armed forces of the Austro-Hungarian
Empire. Courtesy of Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Wien.
deepest workings have so far only attained a depth ofabout one-fourth of that of the Muzo mines, and as thegeological surroundings and emeraldiferous matrix are
analogous to the Muzo mines, no greater assurance canpossibly be desired as to the certainty of the highest quality of this precious gem being eventually obtained as theworkings become prosecuted in depth. All elements ofspeculation may therefore be considered absent.

Conversely, the financial statement from Emerald
Mines Limited itself for the period ending December
31, 1908, reported “cash in hand and emeralds instock £100.”123 The lack of profitability was further
reiterated by the fact that no dividend was ever paid
to the shareholders of the company.124 In addition,
while the entity Emerald Mines Limited continued
to exist, an order was issued in March 1909 by the
Manchester County Court to wind down Northern
Mercantile Corporation Limited.125
Moreover, beyond even the puffery recounted
above, certain transactions involving shares in andthe leadership of Emerald Mines Limited erupted infinancial scandal and litigation during the 1909 to1911 period. Although details remain obscure, Prince
Francis Joseph (Franz Josef) of Braganza (figure 23)126
was offered Emerald Mines Limited shares totaling£200,000 in purported value (50,000 shares at a valueof £4 per share, in total equivalent to about 4.7 million Kronen, or US$1 million at the time) by an impostor playing the role of a millionaire and memberof the American Vanderbilt family. Likewise, 1,009
emeralds with a claimed value of £125,000 in total
were offered to and purchased by the prince but later
found to be glass. In the ensuing litigation, the impostor was sentenced to three years in prison in London in 1911. The precise roles of Clarke and King are
uncertain, but they, too, were targeted. Clarke, who
had been involved in several of the financial transactions, was imprisoned in Berlin in 1910 and formallysentenced to six months incarceration in 1911. Kingwas initially arrested in London but was released
shortly thereafter.127

The general media similarly reported positive
news, including the availability of 50,000 carats ofrough emeralds of high value as well as thousands ofshares being offered or sold by Clarke and King at values starting at a nominal £1 per share.122

121
The referenced amethyst mines of Schlüsselstein were a longknown occurrence of agate and amethyst quartz, near Bergheim in
the Alsace region of France, where amethyst was found in a vein as
banded amethyst quartz. According to available descriptions, the material was merely ornamental and not facet-quality amethyst. Voltz,
1828; Benecke et al., 1900; Panzer, 1961.
122
South Bucks Standard, July 3, 1908, p. 2, July 17, 1908, p. 7; The
Bucks Examiner, July 17, 1908, p. 6.
123
Skinner, 1910.
124
Die Zeit, Vol. 9, No. 2748, May 21, 1910, p. 6.
125
Supplement to the Manchester Courier, March 26, 1909, p. 4.
126
Prince Francis Joseph (1879–1919) was an Austrian citizen, godchild of Franz Joseph I, Emperor of Austria, and grandson of the Portuguese King Miguel I, who reigned 1828–1834.
127
See Neuigkeits Welt-Blatt, Vol. 37, No. 44, February 24, 1910, pp.
31–32; Neue Freie Presse, No. 16349, February 26, 1910, p. 9; Die
Zeit, Vol. 9, No. 2714, April 16, 1910, p. 5, Vol. 9, No. 2747, May
20, 1910, p. 4; Neue Freie Presse, No. 16430, May 21, 1910, p. 4;
Teplitz-Schönauer-Anzeiger, Vol. 50, No. 106, September 10, 1910,
p. 5; Pester Lloyd, Vol. 58, No. 8, January 10, 1911, p. 1; The New
York Times, February 16, 1911.

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYThe Emerald Mines, Limited, have also acquired thefreehold amethyst mines in the Schlusselstein, Commune of Bergheim, Alsace,121 and they were carefully
investigated for the company by Mr. E.J. Spargo, M.F.,
F.G.S., of Liverpool, and Mr. William King, director of
Emerald Mines, Limited, who is a well-known expert
and connoisseur in precious stones and gems.

WINTER 2021

363

BOX B: MINING PHOTOS FROM THE ERA OF EMERALD MINES LIMITED

Figure B-1. Allan A. Forster
led mining operations at
Habachtal during several seasons in the last decade of thenineteenth century and first
decade of the twentieth century. Left: Photo from the winter of 1899–1900, taken during
the “Queen Cleopatra’s Emerald Mines Expedition” inEgypt. See MacAlister (1900)
and Claremont (1913); a similar photo with Forster andother members of the expedition is available online.1
Right: A 1935 photo from theForster family album; courtesy of Maureen Mary Brett.

Operations on-site at Habachtal during the ownership ofthe English firm Emerald Mines Limited were overseen
by a succession of English and Austrian mining engineers
whose actual activities at the property are sparsely documented. Allan Amos Forster (1874–1946; figure B-1) filledthat role at the outset, when the entity was controlled by
Leverson, Forster & Co., and “Captain” John Ackerley
Penhall (1842–1911; figure B-2), for instance, was responsible for the 1899 season. Nonetheless, photos from theera can offer a degree of contemporaneous insight to theworkings (figures B-3 and B-4; see also figure 21).
Interestingly, in a substantial number of mining,mineralogical, and gemological publications that endeavor to cover the Habachtal locality and its history, alldepictions of the period appear to draw from a group ofphotos taken or owned by a single individual, Ernst
Richard Horeis (born 1874), during the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries, before 1903.
Ernst was the son of Ferdinand Horeis, a JuwelenAgent (jewelry agent) in Vienna during the last decade of
the nineteenth century through 1901 whose business was
pursued by his younger son Emil Horeis (born 1877) from1902 on.2 While nothing links Ernst formally to his father’s firm, he likely enjoyed some connection to the gemstone business through his father and, as a young man in
his twenties, came into contact with Emerald Mines Limited. Although few details are ascertainable, Ernst seems

364

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

to have done some work for Emerald Mines Limited that
led to the company owing him 5,102 Kronen. A lien insuch amount was recorded in his favor against the company at the Mittersill land registry office via an entry
dated November 18, 1909, on the basis of a November 16,
1909, judgment by the court in Salzburg.3 After his association with Emerald Mines Limited, Ernst apparently followed a different path, operating as a merchant.

Figure B-2. “Captain” John Ackerley Penhall, an
experienced minerfrom Cornwall,
was responsible for
emerald recovery
on-site during the1899 season at
Habachtal. Photofrom The Cornishman, December
1906.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Linking Ernst to the photos involves a confluence of
circumstantial evidence. At present, a significant numberof these oft-seen photos are archived in three substantiallysimilar collections, one of them housed at Bramberg Museum and the other two archived at the municipality ofBramberg. The collection at Bramberg Museum takes theform of an album. The photos in the album are undated
and in general are labeled only with short notes such as“Bergwerk” (mine) or Habach.4 The album itself, however,incorporates illuminating notations memorializing its creation and its donation to the museum. To wit, a dedication reads, “Herrn Allan A. Forster zur Erinnerung an das
schöne Habachthal” (Mr. Allan A. Forster to remember
the beautiful Habachthal) and is signed by Ernst R. Horeis.
The donation inscription on the same page offers, “To the
Habachthal museum from the Son of the Englishman
who worked this mine in the early 19 hundreds” and issigned “J.B. Forster 19-7-72.”
John Bryan Forster (1908–1979; figure B-5) was the sonof Allan Amos Forster, a relationship that clarifies theprovenance of the album. The annotations together also
verify the association of Ernst Richard Horeis with theearly period when Emerald Mines Limited was under thecontrol of Leverson, Forster & Co. and his close connection with the first mining engineer and son of James Amos
Forster, one of the directors of Emerald Mines Limited.
Nonetheless, the precise nature of Ernst’s activities for thecompany remains obscure. The amount of more than
5,000 Kronen eventually owed to him per the lien
recorded would have equated to the annual compensation
for approximately 25 workers during the 1896 to 1902 period, when Emerald Mines Limited was under the controlof Leverson, Forster & Co. That amount was likely not
merely the annual salary of a single individual, even if heworked as a director,5 presumably signaling a multi-year
association. John Bryan himself would follow in the foot-1

Figure B-3. Up to 30 miners worked the different galleriesof the Habachtal mine in the late nineteenth and earlytwentieth centuries, when the property was owned by the
London-based Emerald Mines Limited. Here the miners
and mining engineers are at the entrance to the D gallery.
Courtesy of P. Lausecker.

https://www.gettyimages.de/detail/nachrichtenfoto/chipping-out-anemerald-this-image-shows-dr-grote-with-nachrichtenfoto/980049796
2
Archive of the City of Vienna (Wiener Stadt- und Landesarchiv), pers.
comm., 2020; Lehmann’s Allgemeiner Wohnungs-Anzeiger nebst
Handels- und Gewerbe-Adressbuch für die k.k. Reichs-Haupt- und
Residenzstadt Wien und Umgebung, Volumes 32–52 (1890–1910).
3
Archive of Salzburg Federal State, pers. comm., 2020. Specifics areminimal because the original file for the Salzburg litigation was notpreserved.
4
E. Burgsteiner, pers. comm., 2019.
5
Eberl (1972) mentioned that Emil Horeis, the younger of the twobrothers, worked for Emerald Mines Limited as a director until 1904,
but available facts suggest a potential mistaking of the two brothers.
Lausecker (1986) and Grundmann (1991) repeated this based solely
on what had been stated by Eberl, without recourse to further documentation. P. Lausecker, pers. comm., 2019; G. Grundmann, pers.
comm., 2019.
6
The London Gazette, February 11, 1975, p. 1935; Maureen Mary
Brett, daughter of John Bryan Forster, pers. comm., 2020.

steps of his father and grandfather as a precious stones
merchant and the last owner of James A. Forster & Sons
(the name under which the company operated after 1906),
which closed in 1975 following his retirement.6
Corroboration of the linkage of the photos to the
Habachtal mine generally and to the name Horeis moreparticularly is offered by the two collections alluded toabove, archived with municipality of Bramberg. One wasin the possession of the descendants of Peter Staudt, whopurchased half of the mine from his brother Anton Hager
in 1920 (see part II of this article in the Spring 2022 issue),

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

365

Figure B-4. Miners andmining engineers at
Habachtal during the era
when the English firm
Emerald Mines Limited
held the property in thelate 1800s and early
1900s. The man in thecenter resembles the English miner “Captain”
John Ackerley Penhall(see figure B-2). Archiveof the Municipality ofBramberg.

and was donated a few years ago to the municipality.7
The other was provided to the municipality accompanied by a note indicating that images were photographedby “Horeis” from “1898-1902”.8 This collection had initially been given by the photographer, also characterized
without documentary support as a director of the
Habachtal mine, to the gem cutter Drazky from Vienna.9
The dating referenced for the photos is also a logicalrange and more consistent with the known circumstances than the various dates between 1902 and 1908
often assigned by the multiple publications reusing thephotos (with different years even being quoted for thesame photo). As explained in the main text, mining activities ceased in 1903 (following the 1902 season) aftera series of more or less productive years, and no further
work took place on-site until after the shares of Emerald
Mines Limited were transferred in 1906 to the Northern
Mercantile Corporation Limited. Meanwhile, all members of the Leverson and Forster families ceased involvement with the mine at the time of the transition.
Consequently, the weight of evidence indicates thatthe photos in the album and the collections at the municipality of Bramberg (as well as similar collections owned
by other individuals) were taken prior to 1903 and photographed or owned by Ernst Richard Horeis. The images
thus represent the situation at the end of the nineteenth
century or beginning of the twentieth century.

Figure B-5. John Bryan Forster inherited from his father,
Allan Amos Forster, an album presented by Ernst Richard
Horeis that contained photos from the Habachtal at theend of the nineteenth century or beginning of the twentieth century. The younger Forster, shown here, donatedthe album to Bramberg Museum in 1972. Photo from themid-1970s; courtesy of Maureen Mary Brett.

7

Brigitte Leitermann, granddaughter of Peter Staudt, pers. comm.,
2020.
8
Materials left by R. Eberl at his death, Archive of the Municipalityof Bramberg.
9Eberl, 1972.

366

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 24. In 1913, the Habachtal emerald property
was bought by Peter Meilinger (pictured), at that time
mayor of the municipality of Bramberg, together withcouncilmen Alois Kaserer and Johann Blaikner. Undated photo; courtesy of E. Burgsteiner.

(see again figure 14). The two lower galleries, A andB, did not cross the emerald-bearing biotite schist, referred to as Smaragdmutter (emerald mother), andwere useless. The two upper galleries, C and D,
crossed an emerald-bearing schist that reached athickness of up to 2 m in the part accessible throughthe D gallery. However, the adit to the D gallery was
blocked by rock masses and needed to be reopened.
Taking into account the low quality of the emeralds
for faceting purposes, Ohnesorge calculated a value
for the property of 8,000 Kronen.
Meanwhile, as the legal machinations moved forward, the emerald deposit apparently remained of interest to the Brandeis family. In 1912, the chemicalengineer Ernst Brandeis applied for and obtained an exploration permit for the area of the Duchy of Salzburg,
but there is no evidence of any practical outcome.130
Insofar as the foreclosure sale proceedings initiated in 1911 failed to attract buyers, ownership of theproperty was transferred to the municipality of Bramberg in January 1913.131 At the end of the year, in December, the property was purchased by a group of
farmers and municipal leaders from Bramberg,
namely Alois Kaserer, Johann Blaikner, and Peter
Meilinger (figure 24).132 The price was 6,000 Kronen,
and ownership was formally transferred in February
1914.133 It appears that no systematic emerald mining

128

Transfers Back to Austrian Ownership (1911–1914).
By the close of the first decade of the twentieth century, the liabilities of Emerald Mines Limited owed
in Austria, including debts to certain individuals suchas Ernst Reichard Horeis from Vienna (born 1874; seebox B), to the municipality of Bramberg, and to various governmental authorities for taxes and fees, had
accumulated to 41,658 Kronen (approximately
US$8,500 according to the exchange rate at the time).
Repeated demands for payment were ignored, and,
consequently, the tax administration in Mittersill initiated a foreclosure action in September 1911.128
In conjunction with these efforts, a report was
prepared for the Mittersill court in August 1912 by
the geologist Dr. Theodor Ohnesorge of the k.k. geologischen Reichsanstalt, Vienna, who had previously
worked in the Pinzgau.129 The report described thegeology of the area and characterized the rocks
crossed by the four underground galleries (designated
A, B, C, and D) used during the English ownership

Kleine Volkszeitung, Vol. 81, No. 317, November 16, 1935, p. 4;
Lewandowski, 1997.
129
Ohnesorge, T., Geologisches Gutachten über den Smaragdbergbau
im Habachtale, 4 pp., Archive of the Geologische Bundesanstalt, Vienna. Copy, undated, 6 pp., Archive of the Municipality of Bramberg.
Dr. Theodor Ohnesorge (1876–1952), a geologist at the k.k. geologischen Reichsanstalt, later the Geologische Bundesanstalt, in Vienna
from 1904 to 1925, worked for many years in the Alps of Salzburg
and Tyrol. See Wiener Zeitung, No. 52, March 3, 1907, p. 6.
130
Die Zeit, Vol. 11, No. 3367, February 9, 1912, p. 13.
131
Habachtal emerald mine file, entry January 16, 1913, Mittersill
land registry office; Kleine Volkszeitung, Vol. 81, No. 317, November
16, 1935, p. 4; Lewandowski, 1997. Later, Emerald Mines Limited
was formally dissolved in the UK in 1921. Skinner, 1922.
132
Notarized contract between the municipality of Bramberg andAlois Kaserer/Johann Blaikner/Peter Meilinger, December 6, 1913,
Mittersill land registry office, Archive of Salzburg Federal State;
Habachtal emerald mine file, entry February 14, 1914, Mittersill land
registry office. At the time of the 1913 transaction, Peter Meilinger(1879–1936) was serving as the mayor of Bramberg, and Alois
Kaserer (1866–1930) and Johann Blaikner (1855–1933) were both
serving as councilmen for municipality. Each of the latter two had
previously been the mayor as well, from 1900 to 1906 and 1906 to
1908, respectively. Meilinger’s term in the position extended from
1911 to 1919. Volksfreund, Vol. 22, No. 1, January 7, 1911, p. 4;
Josef Seifriedsberger, pers. comm., 2020.
133
Salzburger Volksblatt, Vol. 58, No. 240, October 18, 1928, p. 7;
Lausecker, 1986; Lewandowski, 1997; see also Aitkens, 1931; vonArx, 1984; Grundmann, 1991; Exel, 1993.

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

367

was undertaken by the three new owners, either in1914 or in the first years of World War I.
Outlook. The second part of the article will covervarious mining activities between 1916 and the endof the 1940s. After a relatively stable period between
1920 and 1927 under a German and an Austrianowner, the mine was sold to a Swiss company that
did not have the financial resources for active mining
operations. A conflict over control of the mine
started in 1932, which ended in another ownershiptransfer. Further mining was then performed underanother Swiss entity until 1939. Immediately afterWorld War II, small-scale mining resumed.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Schmetzer is an independent researcher residing in Petershausen, near Munich, Germany.

REFERENCES
Aitkens I. (1931) Emeralds. U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular 6459, 18 pp.
Arenstein J. (1862) Austria at the International Exhibition of 1862.
Imperial Royal Court and State Printing Office, Vienna, p. 12.
Aulitzky H. (1973) Hochwasser, Muren, Lawinen: Informationüber Wasserwirtschaft und Katastrophenschutz, 2nd ed. Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Vienna, 272 pp.
Benecke E.W., Bücking H., Schumacher E., van Werveke L. (1900)
Geologischer Führer durch das Elsass. Gebrüder Borntraeger,
Berlin, 461 pp.
Brückmann F.E. (1727) Magnalia Dei in Locis Subterraneis Oder
Unterirdische Schatz-Cammer Aller Königreiche und Länder,in Ausführlicher Beschreibung Aller, mehr als MDC. Bergwercke Durch Alle vier Welt-Theile. Braunschweig, Germany,
368 pp.
——— (1730) Magnalia Dei in Locis Subterraneis Oder Unterirdische Schatz-Cammer Aller Königreiche und Länder,
IIter Theil, in Ausführlicher Beschreibung Aller, mehr als
MDC. Bergwercke Durch Alle vier Welt-Theile. Wolfenbüttel,
Germany, 1136 pp.
Budwinskis Sammlung der Erkenntnisse des k.k. Verwaltungsgerichtshofes, Vol. 30 (1906) Manzschen k.u.k. Hof-Verlags- u.
Univers.-Buchhandlung, Vienna, pp. 831–832.
Calligaro T., Dran J.-C., Poirot J.-P., Querré G., Salomon J., Zwaan J.C.
(2000) PIXE/PIGE characterisation of emeralds using an external
micro-beam. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms,
Vol. 161–163, pp. 769–774, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0168583X(99)00974-X
Claremont L. (1913) Prehistoric emerald mines. Knowledge Magazine, Vol. 36, pp. 124–127.
Dopsch H., Lang J. (2012) Salzburg und Berchtesgaden. Zur Entstehung geistlicher Länder im Ostalpenraum. Österreich inGeschichte und Literatur mit Geographie, Vol. 56, No. 4, pp.
323–343.
Dückher F. (1666) Saltzburgische Chronica. Johann Baptist Mayr,
Salzburg, Austria, 361 pp. and accompanying map.
Eberl R. (1972) Smaragde – Segen und Fluch. Publ. by the author,
Vienna, 105 pp.
Ehrenberg K. (1975). Othenio Abels Lebensweg. Unter Benützung
autobiographischer Aufzeichnungen. Publ. by the author—Österreichische Hochschülerschaft, Vienna, 162 pp.
Ertl R.F. (1982) Smaragd – Namen, Mythos, Fund- u. Entdeckungs-

368

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

geschichte. Die Eisenblüte N.F., Vol. 3, No. 6, pp. 3–11.
Exel R. (1993) Die Mineralien und Erzlagerstätten Österreichs.
Publ. by the author, Vienna, 447 pp.
Fabri J.E. (1786) Geographie für alle Stände. Volume 1, Issue 1.
Schwickertschen Verlage, Leipzig, p. 396.
Flurl M. (1792) Beschreibung der Gebirge von Baiern und deroberen Pfalz. Joseph Lentner, Munich, 642 pp.
Feitzinger G., Günther W., Brunner A. (1998) Bergbau- und Hüttenaltstandorte im Bundesland Salzburg. Land Salzburg, Hausdruckerei, 214 pp.
Fort A. (2012) Nancy: The Story of Lady Astor. Random House,
London, p. 336.
Freed J.B. (1999) Landesbildung, Herrschaftsausbau und Ministerialität. In H. Dopsch et al., Eds., 1200 Jahre Erzbistum Salzburg:
Die älteste Metropole im deutschen Sprachraum. Gesellschaft
für Salzburger Landeskunde, Salzburg, Austria, pp. 87–102.
Frischholz J. (1821) Über den Salzburger Smaragd. Neue
Jahrbücher der Berg- und Hüttenkunde, Vol. 4, pp. 382–385.
Fugger E. (1878) Die Mineralien des Herzogthumes Salzburg. Im
Selbstverlage des Verfassers, Salzburg, Austria, 124 pp.
——— (1881) Die Bergbaue des Herzogthumes Salzburg.
Vierzehnter Jahres-Bericht der K.K. Ober-Realschule in
Salzburg. K.K. Ober-Realschule, Salzburg, pp. 1–24.
Fürnohr W. (1952) Das Patriziat der Freien Reichsstadt Regensburg
zur Zeit des Immerwährenden Reichstags. In Verhandlungendes Historischen Vereins für Oberpfalz und Regensburg, Vol.
93, pp. 153–308.
Gaugusch G. (2011) Wer einmal war: Das jüdische Grossbürgertum Wiens 1800-1938, A-K. Amalthea Verlag, Vienna, 1649 pp.
Giuliani G., Chaussidon M., Schubnel H.-J., Piat D.H., RollionBard C., France-Lanord C., Giard D., de Narvaez D., Rondeau
B. (2000) Oxygen isotopes and emerald trade routes since antiquity. Science, Vol. 287, No. 5453, pp. 631–633,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5453.631
Gonthier E. (1998) Les représentations symboliques de quelquesémeraudes célèbres de l’histoire. In D. Giard, Ed., L’émeraude.
Association Française de Gemmologie, Paris, pp. 27–32.
Gruber F., Ludwig K.-H. (1982) Salzburger Bergbaugeschichte. EinÜberblick. Universitätsverlag Anton Pustet, Salzburg–Munich,141 pp.
Grundmann G. (1979) Geologisch-petrologische Untersuchung derSmaragd-führenden Gesteinsserien der Leckbachscharte,
Habachtal (Land Salzburg, Österreich). Thesis, Technische Uni-

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

versität Berlin, pp. 20–24.
——— (1991) Smaragd – Grünes Feuer unterm Eis. extraLapis No.
1. Christian Weise Verlag, Munich, 93 pp.
Grundmann G., Koller F. (2003) Exkursion: Das Smaragdbergwerk
im Habachtal, Land Salzburg, Österreich. Mitteilungen derÖsterreichischen Mineralogischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 148, pp.
317–343.
Gübelin E.J. (1956a) Emerald from Habachtal. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 5, No. 7, pp. 342–361.
——— (1956b) The emerald from Habachtal. G&G, Vol. 8, No. 10,
pp. 295–309.
Günther W. (1994) Entwicklung des Berg- und Hüttenwesens undihre wirtschaftliche und kulturelle Bedeutung. Diverse Verlagsschriften des Naturhistorischen Museums Wien, Vol. 13,
pp. 113–225.
Günther W., Lewandowski K. (2002) Montanbehörden und Montaninstitutionen in Salzburg. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für
Salzburger Landeskunde, Vol. 142, pp. 267–290.
Haberer L., Zechner F. (1884) Handbuch des österreichischen
Bergrechtes auf Grund des allgemeinen Berggesetzes vom 23.
Mai 1854. Manz’sche k.k. Hof-Verlags- und Universitätsbuchhandlung, Vienna, 457 pp.
Hagn K. (2019) Das “grüne Gold” aus den Tauern. Salzburger
Nachrichten, Juwelen & Uhren Weihnachtsjournal, pp. 40–43.
Haidinger W. (1861) Ansprache des Direktors. Jahrbuch der k.k.
geologischen Reichsanstalt, Vol. 12, No. 1, p. 95.
Hanke H. (1938) Smaragdbergbau in den Hohen Tauern. Neue
Zürcher Zeitung, Vol. 159, No. 286, p. 5.
——— (1939) Das einzige Smaragdbergwerk Europas. Das Werk,
Monatsschrift der “Vereinigte Stahlwerke Aktiengesellschaft,”
Vol. 19, pp. 195–198.
——— (1944) Smaragde aus dem Habachtal. Salzburger Volksbote,Vol. 1944, No. 13, p. 4.
——— (1958) Smaragde aus dem Habachtal. Kosmos, Vol. 54, No.
8, pp. 320–324.
Hansen J.M. (2009) On the origin of natural history: Steno’s modern, but forgotten philosophy of science. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark, Vol. 57, pp. 1–24.
Hauschke N. (2019) Niels Stensen (1638-1686) – Ein Europäer der
Barockzeit als Wegbereiter der Geologie, Paläontologie undMineralogie. Mit bisherigen Würdigungen in der Philatelie. Der
Aufschluss, Vol. 70, No. 6, pp. 358–374.
Haüy R.-J. (1804) Lehrbuch der Mineralogie. Part II. C.H. Reclam,
Paris and Leipzig, 723 pp.
Hönigschmid H. (1993) Bramberg am Wildkogel. Gemeinde Bramberg, Bramberg am Wildkogel, 656 pp.
Jacob K.-H. (2006) Über den Flussspatbergbau in der Oberpfalz von1877 bis 1987. Bergbau, 12/2006, pp. 549–556.
Jameson R. (1820) A System of Mineralogy, in which Minerals Are
Arranged According to the Natural History Method. 3rd ed.,Vol. I. Archibald Constable & Co., Edinburgh, 405 pp.
Kardel T., Maquet P., Eds. (2013) Nicolaus Steno: Biography andOriginal Papers of a 17th Century Scientist. Springer, Heidelberg, Germany, 739 pp.
Klaproth H., Wolff F. (1810) Chemisches Wörterbuch, Vol. 5. In
der Vossischen Buchhandlung, Berlin, 833 pp.
Koenigsberger J. (1913) Versuch einer Einteilung der ostalpinen
Minerallagerstätten. Zeitschrift für Kristallographie und Mineralogie, Vol. 52, No. 2, pp. 151–174.
Kržic A., Šmit Ž., Fajfar H., Dolenec M., Cinc Juhant B., Jeršek M.
(2013) The origin of emeralds embedded in archaeological artefacts in Slovenia. Geologija, Vol. 56, No. 1, pp. 29–45,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5474/geologija.2013.003
Kunz G.F. (1907) Precious stones. In The Mineral Industry – Its
Statistics, Technology and Trade during 1906. Vol. 15, Hill
Publishing Co., New York and London, pp. 665–673.
Lackner N.B.G. (n.d.) Emeralds from Habachtal, Austria. Antique
Jewelry University, https://www.langantiques.com/university/emeralds-from-habachtal-austria

Lahnsteiner J. (1959) Die Seninger-Erbabhandlung von 1732. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Salzburger Landeskunde, Vol.
99, pp. 111–138.
——— (1980) Oberpinzgau von Krimml bis Kaprun, 3rd ed.
Hollersbach, Salzburg, Austria, publ. by A. and M. Lahnsteiner,
723 pp.
Lammer G.E. (1897) Vergessene Tauernthäler. Mittheilungen desDeutschen und Österreichischen Alpenvereins, Vol. 23, No. 3,
pp. 25–26, and No. 4, pp. 37–38.
Lausecker P. (1986) Smaragdfundstelle Habachtal – Geschichte,
Geologie, Bergbau. Hof/Saale, PHL-Verlag, 104 pp.
Lehmann F.W.P. (1879) Die Wildbäche der Alpen. Eine Darstellung
ihrer Ursachen, Verheerungen und Bekämpfung (Theil 1). E.
Gutsmann, Breslau, 32 pp.
Lehner J. (1669) Balnei Abacensis in Bavaria inferior nova descriptio. Das ist: Kurze Beschreibung des Wildbads zu Abach innieder Bayrn. C. Fischer, Regensburg, Germany, 106 pp.
——— (1702) Balnei Abacensis in Bavaria inferior nova descriptio. Das ist: Kurze Beschreibung des Wildbads zu Abach innieder Bayrn. J.C. Haam, Straubing, Germany, 87 pp.
——— (1718) Balnei Abacensis in Bavaria inferior nova descriptio. Das ist: Kurze Beschreibung des Wildbads zu Abach innieder Bayrn. J.B. Lang, Regensburg, Germany, 106 pp.
Leitmeier H. (1938) Smaragdbergbau und Smaragdgewinnung inÖsterreich. Berg- und Hüttenmännische Monatshefte, Vol. 86,
No. 1/2, pp. 3–12.
Lenzen G. (1966) Produktions- und Handelsgeschichte des Diamanten. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin, 280 pp.
Leuthold C.E. (1887) Das Österreichische Bergrecht in seinen
Grundzügen dargestellt. Prague and Leipzig, F. Tempsky and
G. Freytag, 278 pp.
Lewandowski K. (1997) Der Smaragdbergbau in der Leckbachrinne
im Habachtal. Museumsverein Heimatmuseum, Bergbauforschung, Bramberg, Austria, 23 pp.
——— (2008) Der “vergessene” Bergbau im Oberpinzgau. Berichte
der Geologischen Bundesanstalt, Vol. 72, pp. 47–58.
Lipold M.V. (1863) Über das Vorkommen von Smaragden im
Habachthale des Ober-Pinzgaues im Salzburgischen. Jahrbuch
der k.k. geologischen Reichsanstalt, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 147–
148.
Lorenz J.R. (1857) Vergleichende orographisch-hydrographische
Untersuchung der Versumpfungen in den oberen Flussthälern
der Salzach, der Enns und der Mur, oder im Pinzgau, Pongau,
und Lungau. Sitzungsberichte der mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Classe der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 91–151.
MacAlister D.A. (1900) The emerald mines of northern Etbai. The
Geographical Journal, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 537–549.
Manger R. (1857) Das Oesterreichische Bergrecht nach dem allgemeinen Berggesetze für das Kaiserthum Oesterreich vom 23.
Mai 1854. F.A. Credner, Prague, 339 pp.
M.INST.M.M. [Member of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London] (1908) Precious stones and gems. The Mining
Journal, Vol. 83, pp. 189–190.
Mitchell R.K. (1984) Further light on the Sancy diamond. Journalof Gemmology, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 144–146.
Mohs F. (1804) Jac. Fried von der Null Mineralien-Kabinet. Erste
Abteilung. Auf Kosten des Besitzers und in Commission derCamesinaischen Buchhandlung, Vienna, 330 pp.
Niedermayr G. (1988) Mineralien und Smaragdbergbau im
Habachtal. Doris Bode Verlag GmbH, Haltern, Germany, 48
pp.
——— (2003) Mineralien, Geologie und Smaragdbergbau im
Habachtal/Pinzgau. Bode Verlag GmbH, Haltern, Germany, 96pp.
Panzer A. (1961) Amethyst und Achat vom Schlüsselstein/Vogesen. Der Aufschluss, Vol. 12, No. 1, p. 3.
Pech H. (1976) Smaragde – Gauner und Phantasten. Pinguin-Verlag, Innsbruck, Austria, 123 pp.

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART IGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

369

Peters K. (1854) Die geologischen Verhältnisse des Oberpinzgaues,
insbesondere der Centralalpen. Jahrbuch der k.k. geologischen
Reichsanstalt, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 766–808.
Peters K.F. (1862) Herr Karl F. Peters an Herrn G. Rose. Zeitschrift
der Deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp.
248–250 [letter dated May 10].
——— (1867) Aus meinen Erinnerungen an den Pinzgau. Österreichische Revue, Vol. 5, No. 7, pp. 139–156.
Pichler G.A. (1865) Salzburg’s Landes-Geschichte. Verlag derOberer’schen Buchhandlung, Salzburg, Austria, 1076 pp.
Pillwein B. (1839) Das Herzogthum Salzburg oder der Salzburger
Kreis. Joh. Christ. Quandt, Linz, Austria, 554 pp.
Präsidialbureau des k. k. Finanzministeriums (1917) Nachweis
ausländischer, im Inland eine Filiale besitzender Aktiengesellschaften. Mitteilungen des k. k. Finanzministeriums, Vol.
22, pp. 38–40.
Redl A. (1813) Handlungs Gremien und Fabricken Adressen Buchvon Wien und NiederOestreich für das Jahr 1813. Publ. by theauthor, Vienna, 439 pp.
Reif H. (1908) Sammlung von Entscheidungen der k.k. Gerichtsund Verwaltungsbehörden in Bergbauangelegenheiten, I. Administrativer Teil. Manzschen k. u. k. Hof-Verlags- und Universitäts-Buchhandlung, Vienna, pp. 24–26.
Reisigl F.A. (1786) Topographisch-historische Beschreibung desOberpinzgaus im Erzstifte Salzburg. Waisenhausbuchhandl.,
Salzburg, Austria, 116 pp.
Reuß F.A. (1801) Lehrbuch der Mineralogie: nach des Herrn
O.B.R. Karsten mineralogischen Tabellen. Zweiten Theiles Erster Band der Oryktognosie. Friedrich Gotthold Jacobäer,
Leipzig, 466 pp.
Ritter von Köchel L. (1859) Die Mineralien des Herzogthumes
Salzburg. Carl Gerold’s Sohn, Vienna, 160 pp.
Ritter von Zepharovich V. (1859) Mineralogisches Lexicon für das
Kaiserthum Österreich. I. Band. Wilhelm Braumüller, Vienna,p. 57——— (1869) Mineralogische Notizen. Jahrbuch der k.k. geologischen Reichsanstalt, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 225–234.
Rivard J.-L., Foster B.C., Sidebotham S.E. (2002) Emerald city.
Archaeology, Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 36–41.
Rohr C. (2007) Extreme Naturereignisse im Ostalpenraum. Naturerfahrung im Spätmittelalter und am Beginn der Neuzeit.
Böhlau Verlag, Cologne, 640 pp.
Rolshoven M. (2009) Salzburgisches Fürsterzbischöfliches Kabinett und die mineralogisch-petrographischen Sammlungen desBenediktinerstifts St. Peter zu Salzburg. Jahrbuch der Geologischen Bundesanstalt, Vol. 149, No. 2+3, pp. 325–330.
Russegger J. (1835) Über den Bau der Centralalpenkette im Herzogthume Salzburg. Zeitschrift für Physik und verwandte Wissenschaften, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 248–282.
Schaup W. (2000) Salzburg auf alten Landkarten 1551-1866/67.
Stadtgemeinde, Salzburg, Austria, 395 pp.
Scherz G. (1952) Nicolai Stenonis epistolae et epistolae ad eum
datae. Tomus Prior. Hafniae, Nyt Nordisk Forlag, Arnold
Busck, 480 pp.
——— (1955) Niels Stensens Smaragdreise. Centaurus, Vol. 4, No.
1, pp. 51–57.
——— (1956) Vom Wege Niels Stensens. Beiträge zu seiner
naturwissenschaftlichen Entwicklung. Acta Historica Scientiarum Naturalium et Medicinalium, Vol. 14, pp. 128–137,
141–215.
——— (1958) Nicolaus Steno and his Indice. Acta Historica Scientiarum Naturalium et Medicinalium, Vol. 15, pp. 189–275.
——— (1971) Niels Stensens Reisen. Acta Historica Scientiarum
Naturalium et Medicinalium, Vol. 23, pp. 9–139.
——— (1987) Niels Stensen: Eine Biographie, Band I, 1638–1677.
St. Benno-Verlag GmbH, Leipzig, 376 pp. [For an English translation see Kardel and Maquet, 2013]
Schlüter W. (1938) Österreichisches Bergrecht. Glückauf. Berg- undHüttenmännische Zeitschrift, Vol. 74, No. 24, pp. 519–526.

370

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

Schoen H. (1939) Vorbehaltene Mineralien in Großdeutschland.
Montanistische Rundschau, Vol. 31, No. 7, pp. 200–204.
Schroll C.M.B. (1792) Geographisch-mineralogische Uebersicht
der Salzburgischen Berg- und Hüttenwerke. In Briefen an einen
seiner Freunde. Abhandlungen einer Privatgesellschaft vonNaturforschern und Oekonomen, Vol. 1, pp. 261–307.
——— (1799) Geographisch-mineralogische Uebersicht der
Salzburgischen Berg- und Hüttenwerke. In Briefen an einen
seiner Freunde. Jahrbücher der Berg- und Hüttenkunde, Vol.
3, pp. 53–73.
Schroll K.M. (1797) Grundriss einer Salzburgischen Mineralogie.
Jahrbücher der Berg- und Hüttenkunde, Vol. 1, pp. 95–196.
Seemann R., Koller F., Grundmann G., Brandstätter F., Steininger
H. (1990) Historische Kupferlagerstätte “Hochfeld” und Epidot-Fundstelle “Knappenwand”, Untersulzbachtal. Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Mineralogischen Gesellschaft, Vol.
135, pp. 95–117.
Seemann R., Koller F., Höck V. (1993) Die Mineralfundstelle Knappenwand – Erweiterte Zusammenfassung. Abhandlungen der
Geologischen Bundesanstalt, Vol. 49, pp. 33–37.
Seifriedsberger J. (2007) Das Bramberger Blei-, Gold- und Silberrevier. Bramberger Montanhefte, Vol. 6, 92 p.
——— (2008) Bergbau in Hollersbach – vom 16. zum 19. Jahrhundert. Bramberger Montanhefte, Vol. 7, 74 p.
Semrád P. (2012) Opal Kings: Genealogy of the Family Goldschmidt von Libanka. Granit Ltd., Prague, 16 pp.
——— (2015) European precious opal from Cervenica-Dubník –an historical and gemmological summary. Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 25, No. 11–12, pp. 372–388.
Shaw I., Bunbury J., Jameson R. (1999) Emerald mining in Roman
and Byzantine Egypt. Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 12,
pp. 203–215, http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1047759400017980
Sinkankas J. (1981) Emerald and Other Beryls. Chilton Book
Company, Radnor, Pennsylvania, 665 pp.
Skinner W.R. (1892) The Mining Manual for 1891-2. Walter R.
Skinner, London, p. 433, 524, 675.
——— (1899) The Mining Manual for 1899. Walter R. Skinner,
London, p. 864.
——— (1907) The Mining Manual for 1907. Walter R. Skinner,
London, p. 839.
——— (1910) The Mining Manual for 1910. Walter R. Skinner,
London, p. 747.
——— (1922) The Mining Manual and Mining Year Book for 1922,
p. 203.
Sobiech F. (2008) Niels Stensen (1638–1686) und der Bergbau. Seine
Reise durch Tirol, Niederungarn, Böhmen und Mitteldeutschland 1669–1670 im Spiegel seiner Theologie. In W. Ingenhaeffand J. Bair, Eds., 6. Internationaler Montanhistorischer
Kongress Schwaz 2007, pp. 287–304.
Spencer L.J. (1911) The larger diamonds of South Africa. Mineralogical Magazine and Journal of the Mineralogical Society,Vol. 16, No. 74, pp. 140–148, http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/minmag.1911.016.74.11
Stamm F. (1855) Das Österreichische allgemeine Berggesetz vom
23. Mai 1854. Karl André, Prague, 269 pp.
Stehrer S. (2000) Rätsel um Smaragd geklärt. Salzburger
Nachrichten, Vol. 56, April 11, 2000, p. 11.
Sterrett D.B. (1907) Emerald. Austria. Mineral Resources of theUnited States. Calendar Year 1906. United States Geological
Survey, Washington D.C., p. 1215.
Stiny J. (1938) Über die Regelmäßigkeit der Wiederkehr von
Rutschungen, Bergstürzen und Hochwasserschäden in Österreich. Geologie und Bauwesen, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 9–31, 33–48.
Streeter E.W. (1903) Egyptian gold and gem syndicate, limited. The
Economist, Vol. 61, No. 3116, p. 891.
Thompson A. (1906a) Emerald mines of Austria. The Engineeringand Mining Journal, Vol. 82, No. 6, p. 267.
——— (1906b) Emerald mines of Austria. The Mining Journal,
Railway and Commercial Gazette, Vol. 79, p. 857.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Trautwein T. (1870) Wegweiser durch Südbaiern, Nord- und Mittel-Tirol und angrenzende Theile von Salzburg und Kärnten.
3rd Edition, Verlag der J. Lindauer’schen Buchhandlung, Munich, p. 71.
Treptow L. (1899) Das Habachtal und seine Berge. Mittheilungendes Deutschen und Österreichischen Alpenvereins, Vol. 25,
No. 9, pp. 105–108, and No. 10, pp. 117–121.
Tschermak G. (1874) Neue Einsendungen an das k.k. mineralogische Hofmuseum. Verhandlungen der k.k. geologischen
Reichsanstalt, Vol. 1874, No. 4, pp. 86–87.
Viernstein M. (1987) Geschichte des Flußspatbergbaus in Bayern.
Geologica Bavarica, Vol. 91, pp. 95–100.
Vierthaler F.M. (1816) Meine Wanderungen durch Salzburg,
Berchtesgaden und Österreich, Zweiter Theil. Carl Gerold, Vienna, 280 pp.
Voltz (1828) Ueberblick der Mineralien der beiden Rhein-Departemente. In J.F. Aufschlager, Das Elsass. Neue historischtopographische Beschreibung der beiden Rhein-Departemente.
Friedrich Carl Heitz, Strasbourg, France, pp. 1–10.
Von Arx R. (1984) John Taylor & Sons in Switzerland. In British
Mining No. 25, Memoirs 1984. Northern Mine Research Society, Sheffield, England, 5 pp.
Von Gränzenstein G. (1855) Das allgemeine österreichische
Berggesetz vom 23. Mai 1854 und die Verordnungen über die
Bergwerksabgaben vom 4. October 1854. Friedrich Manz, Vienna, 463 pp.

Von Kürsinger I. (1841) Ober-Pinzgau, oder: der Bezirk Mittersill.
Eine geschichtlich, topographisch, statistisch, naturhistorische
Skizze. Oberer’sche lithographisch-typographische Anstalt,
Salzburg, Austria, 288 pp.
Von Petersen M. (1816) Brief aus Regensburg vom 20. Nov. 1815.
Taschenbuch für die gesammte Mineralogie mit Hinsicht auf
die neuesten Entdeckungen, Vol. 10, pp. 591–593.
Von Rosenfeld L. (1863) Vereinsnachrichten für den Monat Juliund August 1863. Verhandlungen und Mittheilungen dessiebenbürgischen Vereins für Naturwissenschaften, Vol. 14,
No. 8, pp. 129–130.
Wallmann H. (1870) Das Habach-Thal. Jahrbuch des Österreichischen Alpenvereins, Vol. 6, pp. 95–105.
Ward F. (1993) Emeralds. Gem Book Publishers, Bethesda, Maryland, 64 pp.
Weinschenk E. (1891) Ganggestein aus dem Habachtal, Oberpinzgau. Tschermak’s Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 328–331.
——— (1896) Die Minerallagerstätten des Gross-Venedigerstockes
in den Hohen Tauern. Zeitschrift für Krystallographie undMineralogie, Vol. 26, No. 1-6, pp. 337–508.
Zappe J.R. (1817) Alphabetische Aufstellung und Beschreibung
alles bisher bekannten Fossilien. Zweite Auflage, zweiter
Band. Carl Ferdinand Beck, Vienna, 327 pp.
Zirkl E.J. (1982) Niels Stensen (Nicolaus Steno) im Habachtal. Die
Eisenblüte N.F., Vol. 3, No. 6, p. 20.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY requires each manuscript
submitted for publication to undergo a rigorous
peer review process, in which each paper is evaluated by at least three experts in the field prior toacceptance. This is essential to the accuracy, integrity, and readability of G&G content. In addition to our dedicated Editorial Review Board, we
extend many thanks to the following individuals
who devoted their valuable time to reviewing
manuscripts in 2021.

HISTORY OF HABACHTAL, PART I

Non-Editorial Board Reviewers
Raquel Alonso-Perez • Kenny Befus• Philippe Belley • Gagan Choudhary • Ron
Geurts • Jennifer Giaccai • George Harlow• Amy Jurewicz • Yan Li • Cigdem Lule
• Han Luo • Peter Lyckberg • Vincent Pardieu• Jeffrey Post • Steven Shirey • Sutas
Singbamroong • Karen Smit • Elena Sorokina• Ziyin Sun • Tim Thomas • Rachelle Turnier

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

371

Lab Notes
Editors
Thomas M. Moses | Shane F. McClure

Color-Zoned Cat’s-Eye
CHRYSOBERYL
Chatoyancy occurs when light is reflected from certain oriented inclusions in a cabochon-cut gemstone. To
be chatoyant, a group of fibers or needles or other reflective inclusions must
be oriented parallel to the cabochonbase. Usually these fibers and/or needles are dense and included throughout
the stone, but occasionally there arecases with localized distribution ofsuch inclusions.
GIA’s Tokyo laboratory examined abrownish green cabochon set in a ringwith numerous near-colorless roundand marquise brilliant cut accent
stones. The center stone showed
pleochroism and a spot RI reading of
1.75. The spectrum observed with ahandheld spectroscope clearly showed
the 444 nm band, consistent withgreen/yellow cat’s-eye chrysoberyl.
Natural inclusions were observed
under the microscope, as describedlater. For confirmation, an FTIR spectrum was collected; it showed peaks at
2163, 2403, and 4150 cm–1 that arecharacteristic of natural chrysoberyl(C.M. Stockton and R.E. Kane, “Thedistinction of natural from synthetic
alexandrite by infrared spectroscopy,”
Spring 1988 G&G, pp. 44–46).
In this stone, we can see obvious
color zoning with a fixed whitishband in the middle between transpar-

Editors’ note: All items were written by staff
members of GIA laboratories.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 57, No. 4, pp. 372–381.
© 2021 Gemological Institute of America

372

LAB NOTES

Figure 1. A color-zoned cabochon measuring 16.33 × 16.07 × 10.27 mm set
in a ring. Left: Distinct zoning with cloud-like inclusions is visible as awhite band in the middle. Right: The stone displays chatoyancy when illuminated with fiber-optic light.
ent brownish green portions (figure 1,
left). This white part is semi-transparent/translucent due to dense clouds
with minute fibrous inclusions (figure2)—these features typically cause chatoyancy in cat’s-eye chrysoberyl. The
cloud inclusions were not only on the
cabochon surface but also locatedbelow the surface. As shown in figure
1 (right), this stone displayed distinct
chatoyancy in the white zone. Even
when viewed from an off-center direction, reflected light striking theclouds below the surface created theweak chatoyancy in the brownish
green portions, which had no clouds
or fibrous inclusions.
For the purpose of showing phenomena, stones with such localized
inclusions can sometimes be oriented
to place the inclusions at the base of
the cabochon (Winter 2017 Lab
Notes, pp. 459–460). Uneven distribution of included zones requires care-

ful observation of the inclusion to
likewise produce a good chatoyancy
effect. This type of localized inclu-

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 2. Dense clouds containing minute fibrous inclusions
create the cat’s-eye phenomenon.
Larger blurry needles are visible
within the cloud inclusions in
the white portion. Field of view
3.0 mm.

the rough was too shallow to allow for
more efficient light return. This
unique shape for a faceted diamond isa welcome addition to the wide range
of novelty cut diamonds currently
available in the trade.
Maryam Mastery Salimi andNajmeh Anjomani

Figure 3. This 1.13 ct Fancy yellow diamond resembles theiconic Apple logo.

Figure 4. The novelty cut diamond showed strong blue fluorescence under long-wave UV light.

sion can sometimes lead cutters to becreative to maximize the appearanceof the stone and the phenomenon.

ical UV-Vis absorption spectra of capediamond, with the N2 (478 nm) andN3 (415.2 nm) defects that are responsible for the fancy yellow color in the“Apple” diamond. The stone showedstrong blue fluorescence when exposed to long-wave UV radiation, typical of cape diamond (figure 4).
New cutting styles of diamonds
are often designed either for efficient
light return and weight retention
properties or to resemble other items.
Examples of the latter include thesword-shaped diamond with “fire andice” fluorescence (Fall 2020 Lab
Notes, pp. 416–419) and the “seated
Buddha” (Fall 1996 Gems News, p.
215). This particular diamond wasmost likely fashioned in the shape ofan apple as a novelty and to retain
weight, as the stone showed significant windowing, which suggests that

Yusuke Katsurada

DIAMOND
Novelty Cut Diamond Faceted as
Iconic Apple Logo
A novelty cut 1.13 ct Fancy yellow
diamond was recently submitted to
the Carlsbad laboratory for color origin and identification service. The diamond was cut in the shape of abitten apple and bore a striking resemblance to the iconic Apple logo foundon Apple Inc. products (figure 3). Standard FTIR absorption spectrum identified it as a type Ia diamond withhigh nitrogen concentration. Standard
UV-Vis spectroscopy revealed the typ-Two Pairs of Antique Mughal
Spectacles with Gemstone Lenses
Lenses play a major role in the daily
work of a gemologist, from magnification using a loupe or microscope tothe optics used in conjunction withlasers from advanced testing instruments. Even our eyes contain organic
lenses, which we use to see the world.
In many cultures, seeing the world incompletely new ways is often achievable by means of introspection suchas contemplative moments or meditation, but sometimes all one truly requires is a pair of glasses.
Recently, GIA’s New York laboratory had the spectacular opportunity
to observe and analyze two pairs of
truly unique antique spectacles (figure5). The two spectacles have a storied
connection dating back to the heightof the Mughal Empire. Their lenses
are crafted from diamond and emerald, respectively. According to information provided by the client andindependent researchers, the twopairs of spectacles were likely fashioned in mid-seventeenth century

Figure 5. These antique spectacles contain diamond (left) and emerald (right).

LAB NOTESGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

373

MID-INFRARED SPECTRA
3.5
3.0

ABSORBANCE

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
3650

3150

2650

2150

1650

1150

650

WAVENUMBER (cm –1)

Figure 6. Left: Overlapping mid-infrared spectra of both lenses revealed them to be type Ia diamonds. Right: Twostrain images, one of each lens, under cross-polarized light showing natural growth structure and internal stressduring natural diamond formation. Field of view 19.27 mm.

India, a period in the Mughal Empire
that had an established lapidary tradition and artisans with the expertise toaccomplish such creations. Information submitted by the client suggeststhat the lenses may have been cut
from the same rough diamond and thesame rough emerald, respectively.
Further evidence suggests that while
the fashioning of the lenses dates backto the seventeenth century, theframes date from the late nineteenth
century based on design and style.
The first of the two spectacles,
called Halqeh-Ye Nur or “Halo ofLight,” consists of two transparent
near-colorless modified pear-shapedlenses in a yellow metal frame surrounded by numerous transparent
near-colorless stones of various
shapes and cuts. The client requested
that only the two near-colorless transparent lenses be tested. Infrared spectra and strain images were collected
as part of the testing (figure 6). Bothlenses were identified as natural typeIa diamonds, sharing matching spectra when overlapped. The strain images revealed natural growth
structures and internal stress during
diamond formation. While GIA’s investigations were limited in scope toidentifying the gem material set ineach pair of spectacles, the evidence

374

LAB NOTES

as a whole seems to suggest that thelenses were cleaved from the samelarge diamond rough.
The second pair of spectacles,
called Astaneh-Ye Ferdaws or “Gateof Paradise,” consists of two transparent green pear-shaped lenses in awhite and yellow metal frame set
with two green rectangular step cuts
and numerous near-colorless stones ofvarious shapes and cuts. According to
information provided by the client,
the pear-shaped lenses originate froma single natural emerald that originally weighed more than 300 carats.
Both spectacles are consistent withthe design and style of the late nineteenth century and are believed tohave been upgraded to the fashion of
the time.

Figure 7. A field of jagged three-phase inclusions hosting gas bubbles,
colorless cubic crystals, and aqueous liquid. Field of view 1.99 mm.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 8. Opaque black grains were also observed, consistent with inclusions observed in emeralds from Colombia. Field of view 1.26 mm.

The client requested that bothgreen transparent lenses as well as all
45 of the surrounding near-colorlessstones be tested. Microscopic observation, one of the main identification
methods for emeralds, revealed an inclusion scene typical for emeraldsfrom Colombia: classic jagged threephase inclusions hosting a gas bubble
and a cubic colorless crystal suspended in fluid (figure 7). It is well established that these daughter crystals
are halides, commonly rock salt, derived from the saline brine containedin the primary fluid inclusion (E.J.
Gübelin and J.I. Koivula, Photoatlasof Inclusions in Gemstones, Vol. 3,
2008, Opinio-Verlag Publishers, Basel,
Switzerland, p. 427). Unidentified tiny
opaque black grains were also observed (figure 8), but otherwise thelenses were relatively inclusion free.
Examination of minor fissures seen
near the gem’s surface using ultraviolet light and microscopic observation
indicated the presence of an oil orresin, but this is not believed to haveaffected the overall appearance.
Therefore, the emeralds were classified as having “no indications of clarity enhancement.”
Standard gemological testing revealed a refractive index of 1.577 to
1.583 with a birefringence of 0.006.

LAB NOTES

Examination between crossed polarizing filters showed a uniaxial optic
figure. The pleochroism was green toblue-green, and a handheld spectroscope revealed a typical emerald
spectrum. These properties and observations confirmed that the green
transparent lenses were natural
emeralds.
All 45 of the transparent near-colorless stones surrounding the two
emerald lenses were identified as diamonds using GIA’s iD100 device,microscopic observation, and additional advanced testing.
Even by today’s standards, theseastonishing curiosities are objects oftechnical mastery by the artisans andthe brilliant vision of the patrons who
commissioned the spectacles. Fromthese fine examples of Mughal craftsmanship, to more modern examples
such as synthetic sapphire sunglasses
made for Sir Elton John (see Winter1997 Lab Notes, p. 296), we continue
to be pleasantly surprised by gem materials passing through GIA that havebeen fashioned into unique items
such as these lenses. We imagine Sir
Elton would approve of these Mughal
spectacles.
Christopher Vendrell, Augusto
Castillo, and Emily Jones

Pink EUCLASE
GIA’s Tokyo laboratory had the opportunity to examine an orangy pinkfaceted stone, weighing 4.08 ct andmeasuring 13.00 × 9.90 × 5.23 mm,with a hydrostatic specific gravity of
3.09 (figure 9). It had optically biaxial
features based on trichroic colors ofyellowish orange, pale orange, andorangy pink, and refractive index values of 1.652–1.671 with a birefringence around 0.019. The stone wasinert to ultraviolet light sources.

Figure 9. The 4.08 ct orangy pink euclase. Parallel pink color zoning isobserved under the table.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

375

UV-VIS SPECTRUM
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT (cm –1)

Transparent platy crystals andstraight graining were observed underthe microscope (figure 10). There
were no signs of treatment such as
coating or clarity enhancement.
Gemological properties matched euclase, which was confirmed by comparing the Raman spectrum with the
RRUFF database (reference spectrum
R050032).
Euclase is one of several collector’s
minerals discovered in the eighteenth
century in Brazil (D. Atencio, “Thediscovery of new mineral species andtype minerals from Brazil,” Brazilian
Journal of Geology, Vol. 45, No. 1,
2015, pp. 143–158) and classified as aberyllium aluminum hydroxide silicate, with an ideal chemical formulaof BeAlSiO4(OH). Crystals are foundworldwide and occur in a range of colors such as colorless or white, blue,
green, and yellow (e.g., S.M. Stocklmayer, “A new occurrence of euclasein Western Australia,” Australian
Journal of Mineralogy, Vol. 18, No. 2,
2017, pp. 39–44). Gem-quality pink
euclase was first reported in 2018
(M.B. Leybov, “Denver 2018: ‘Minerals of Mexico,’” Mineralogical Almanac, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 58–63), andthis color is considered rare.

7
6
5
4
3

470

381

540

2
1
300

350

400

450

500

550

600

650

700

750

800

WAVELENGTH (nm)Figure 11. UV-Vis spectrum of this orangy pink euclase. The 470 and 540
nm absorption peaks probably originated from Mn3+ and the 381 nm
peak from Fe3+.

The causes of color for euclase
have been discussed in many studies(e.g., E. Gübelin, “Sapphire-blue euclase, a new collector’s gem,” Winter1978-1979 G&G, pp. 104–110; M.
Mattson and G.R. Rossman, “Identifying characteristics of charge transfer transitions in minerals,” Physics
and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 14,
No. 1, 1987, pp. 94–99; S. Stocklmayer, “Blue euclase from Zimbabwe

Figure 10. Transparent platy crystal inclusions and aligned particles
were observed. Field of view 1.85 mm.

– a review,” Journal of Gemmology,
Vol. 26, No. 4, 1998, pp. 209–218). According to these three previous studies, blue to green color in euclase isbelieved to be caused by an Fe2+-Fe3+
charge transfer and Fe2+-Ti4+ transitions or the presence of trivalent iron.
Moses et al. (Summer 1993 Gem
Trade Lab Notes, pp. 125–126) reported a greenish blue euclase coloredby chromium. Gilles-Guéry et al.
(“Mn3+ and the pink color of gemquality euclase from northeast
Brazil,” American Mineralogist,
2021, in press) determined that pinkcoloration due to the absorption between green to blue with two broad
peaks at 470 and 540 nm is caused by
Mn3+, while the orange hue is related
to the rising slope in the UV domain
combined with an additional absorption peak at 381 nm originating from
Fe3+. This stone showed a UV-Vis absorption spectrum (figure 11) similar
to the pattern due to Mn3+ reported by
Gilles-Guéry et al. (2021), and trace
Mn concentrations around 60 ppm
were detected by LA-ICP-MS. These
characteristics suggest that theorangy pink color seen in this stone
is possibly caused by manganese.
This is the first such example examined at GIA.
Mari Sasaki, Makoto Miura, andKazuko Saruwatari

376

LAB NOTESGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 14. X-ray fluorescenceanalysis of the strand showed ayellowish green reaction alongwith a reddish orange reaction on
the irregular white patches.

Figure 12. Single-strand freshwater bead cultured necklace measuring
10.33 × 10.18 mm to 13.36 × 12.72 mm.

Vaterite Found on a Strand of
Freshwater Cultured PEARLS
Recently, GIA’s New York laboratory
received a single-strand necklace with
32 pearls for identification (figure 12).
The pearls were white and near-round,
ranging from 10.33 × 10.18 mm to13.36 × 12.72 mm in size and weighing
81.50 grams total. Real-time microradiography (RTX) analysis revealed that
all of them had a bead nucleus. Chem-

Figure 13. Irregular whitish
patches were visible on the surface of many of the pearls.

ical analysis by EDXRF spectrometry
showed a high manganese concentration and low strontium, indicating
they formed in a freshwater environment. During examination of thestrand, random white patches were observed on the surface of many of thepearls. These irregular patches appeared overgrown on the surface andcrystalline-like (figure 13).
X-ray fluorescence analysis re-vealed a strong yellowish green reaction around each pearl, while the irregular white surface patches showeda reddish orange reaction with moderate intensity (figure 14).
Additionally, Raman analysis of
the nacreous surface and the irregularwhite patches revealed they consistedof two calcium carbonate polymorphs:
aragonite and vaterite, respectively(figure 15). Aragonite peaks were ob-

Figure 15. Raman analysis found aragonite peaks at 701, 704, and 1085
cm–1 and vaterite peaks at 740, 750, 1075, and 1090 cm–1.

R AMAN SPECTRA
1085

A

Aragonite peaks
Vaterite peaks

B

INTENSITY

701 704
1090

1075
740 750
200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

RAMAN SHIFT (cm )–1

LAB NOTESGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

377

served at 701, 704, and 1085 cm–1; vaterite peaks were at 740, 750, 1075, and1090 cm–1.
Formation of the shells and pearls
relies on the epithelial cells of the mollusk. Aragonite and calcite are the twomost common calcium carbonate
polymorphs found in pearls, while vaterite is the third most common andalso the least stable form. Vaterite has
only been found in freshwater pearls
so far (Li Qiao et al., “Special vaterite
found in freshwater lackluster pearls,”
Crystal Growth & Design, Vol. 7, No.
2, 2007, pp. 275–279; Summer 2021
Gem News International, pp. 171–174). Although the reason why vaterite
formed on the pearls’ surface is unknown, the defect is one of the mostunusual formations seen, especially inan entire strand.
Sally Chan ShihStar RHODOCHROSITEThe Carlsbad laboratory received a19.44 ct semitransparent orangy pinkround cabochon for identification (figure 16). With the unaided eye, a fourrayed star could be seen across thedome. Standard gemological proper-

Figure 16. This 19.44 ct orangy
pink rhodochrosite contains afour-rayed star.
ties, including a refractive index of
1.68–1.58 with a birefringence blink
and a specific gravity of 3.71, were
documented and consistent with thegem species rhodochrosite.
Asterism is created when light isreflected off well-aligned inclusions

Figure 17. Fluid inclusions in a step-like pattern running parallel to thebase of the rhodochrosite cabochon. Field of view 4.14 mm.

378

LAB NOTESGEMS & GEMOLOGY

and returns as a star across the surfaceof the stone. Such stones are commonly cut as cabochons to properly
display this phenomenon. The asterism seen in this rhodochrosite wascreated from fluid inclusions that run
parallel to the base of the cabochon(figure 17). The fluid inclusions wererhomboid in shape, which caused thestar to have four rays. It is worth noting that the rays of the star did notcross perpendicular to each other, andthis is due to the rhomboid fluid inclusions intersecting at an angle not
at 90°.
Many gemstone species display asterism, but this was the author’s firstopportunity to see a star rhodochrosite.
This 19.44 ct stone is a perfect example of why one should always keep an
eye out for the unexpected.
Nicole Ahline

Exceptionally Large andWell-Saturated Orange SAPPHIRE
The Carlsbad laboratory recently received an exceptionally large orange
cushion mixed-cut sapphire weighing
31.06 ct (figure 18) submitted for an
identification and origin report. Stan-

Figure 18. 31.06 ct well-saturated
orange sapphire measuring 18.65
× 13.85 × 11.81 mm.

WINTER 2021

dard gemological testing gave a refractive index of 1.769–1.762 and a hydrostatic specific gravity of 3.98,
indicating corundum. This sapphire
exhibits a saturated orange color thatis attributed to the trace element
magnesium in the stone’s crystalline
structure. Microscopic examination
showed altered crystals with healing
and irregular bands of particles. These
altered inclusions suggest that thestone underwent heat treatment. Internal characteristics similar to theseare often found in sapphires from deposits of metamorphic sources. Laser
ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) confirmed the stone had a lower content
of trace element iron. The chemistry
and internal features of this gemstone
indicate an origin of Sri Lanka.
Rough material that will cut large,
high-quality sapphires is rare, withmost finished stones being less than
five carats. Fine gem-quality examples of more than ten carats are considered very rare. The combination ofa large size and a well-saturated orange color makes this 31.06 ct sapphire a notable gemstone.
Jessa Rizzo

Figure 19. Face-up view of the
2.81 ct flame-fusion synthetic
sapphire with flux fingerprints.

LAB NOTES

Figure 20. This flux fingerprint in the lab-grown sapphire is similar to thefingerprints found in natural sapphire. Field of view 1.76 mm.

Flux-Induced Fingerprints in FlameFusion SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE
The Carlsbad laboratory recently received a blue cushion mixed cut
measuring 9.07 × 7.07 × 4.62 mm (figure 19). Standard gemological testinggave a refractive index of 1.760–1.768,
consistent with sapphire. Microscopic
examination uncovered a fingerprint

resembling those found in natural
sapphires (figure 20). Closer examination revealed the fingerprint to be aflux fingerprint. When the stone was
immersed in mineral oil, curved color
banding diagnostic of flame-fusion
lab-grown sapphire became visible(figure 21).
Typically, a flame-fusion-grown

Figure 21. When immersed in mineral oil, curved color banding is visible
along with a natural-looking flux fingerprint and large gas bubbles. Fieldof view 7.19 mm.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

379

Figure 23. The circuit board–like features point mainly in three directions
on the crown (left) and are aligned in only one direction on the pavilion(right). Field of view 3.95 mm (left) and 2.91 mm (right).

Figure 22. This 0.70 ct tourmaline
shows unique surface patterns.

ruby or sapphire with healed fractures
has undergone a process known as“quench crackling,” where fractures
are created in the stone by heating andsubsequent rapid cooling. This stone
did not show the characteristic cellular fracturing created by this process,making the healed fractures appear
even more natural. The randomly
fractured stone had been immersed ina flux melt. The flux melt filled andpartially healed the fractures while
the stone gradually cooled, which resulted in natural-looking fingerprints
of residual flux. This treatment isusually seen in flame-fusion synthetic
rubies (K. Schmetzer and F.-J Schupp,“Flux-induced fingerprint patterns insynthetic ruby: An update,” Spring
1994 G&G, pp. 33–38).

ference pattern, and a hydrostatic specific gravity of 3.10, all consistent
with tourmaline. No Cu was detectedwith energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF). UV-Vis-NIR spectrometry did not show Cu absorption
bands but did show a strong Fe absorption. This stone, therefore, did
not meet the requirement to be designated as a Paraíba tourmaline, whose
dominant coloring agent of green/bluemust be Cu (LMHC Information
Sheet #6, 2012).
Microscopic observation revealeda unique networked pattern, resembling the pattern of a circuit board,
covering the overall surface of thestone. The surface features mainly
pointed in three directions on thecrown but did not show a clear threedirectional pattern on the pavilion(figure 23). Viewed under reflected

Figure 24. Some features on the table facet, photographed in reflected
light, were parallel to the polish lines. Field of view 3.80 mm.

Michaela Stephan

Unique Circuit Board–Like Surface
Pattern on TOURMALINEThe Tokyo laboratory recently received a 0.70 ct blue-green oval modified brilliant measuring 6.62 × 4.99 ×
3.10 mm (figure 22). Standard gemological testing yielded a refractive
index of 1.620–1.640, uniaxial inter-

380

LAB NOTESGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

ment. In addition, this color of tourmaline is commonly heat treated to
improve its color.
Because the unique patterns wererelated to the crystal structure, they
may have been caused by thermal
shock related to heat treatment and/oracid etching. Similar crystallographically aligned surface features havebeen found on rough crystals of Tanzanian tourmaline and Burmese spinel(figure 25; N. Renfro, pers. comm.,2021). What caused this pattern andhow it came to be revealed on a
faceted stone remains a mystery. Moresamples and further experiments areneeded to unravel the cause of theseunique and interesting patterns.
Yuxiao Li and Yusuke Katsurada
Figure 25. Features similar to the tourmaline’s superficial fractures havebeen seen on the surface of rough crystals such as this Burmese spinelwith fractures that likely result from strain in the crystal lattice. Field ofview 2.35 mm.

light, some features at the table facet
were parallel to the “polish lines” (figure 24). No evidence of coating and nocolor concentration along the patternwere found. The conoscope image
with crossed polarized filters showedthat the table facet was perpendicular
to the c-axis. Because tourmaline be-

LAB NOTES

longs to the trigonal crystal system,
the features appeared to be crystallograpically aligned. That could also explain why the patterns were different
between the crown and the pavilion.
We also observed tension cracks
surrounding fluid inclusions, whichindicated the possibility of heat treat-

GEMS & GEMOLOGYPHOTO CREDITS
Shunsuke Nagai—1, 9, 22; Yusuke Katsurada—2; Diego Sanchez—3, 4, 16, 18, 19;
Jian Xin (Jae) Liao—5; Christopher Vendrell—6;
Augusto Castillo—7, 8; Mari Sasaki—10; Sood
Oil (Judy) Chia—12; Sally Chan Shih—13, 14;
Nicole Ahline—17; Nathan Renfro—20, 21, 25;
Michaela Stephan—20, 21; Yuxiao Li—23, 24

WINTER 2021

381

EditorNathan Renfro

Contributing Editors
Elise A. Skalwold and John I. Koivula

Unusual Composite Apatite-CO2 Inclusions in
Sapphires from Ohn Bin Yee Htwet, Myanmar
Routine investigation of a parcel of sapphires from Ohn Bin
Yee Htwet near Mogok in Myanmar revealed something
unexpected. Unusual composite inclusions were observed
where one part of the inclusion exhibited flat, crisp, angular planes, while the other part showed an irregular andrough surface (figure 1). Raman spectroscopy identified thetwo phases as apatite (the flat, crystalline-looking area) andCO2 (the rough and irregular surface).
The rough and irregular part of the inclusion also
showed a gas bubble within the fluid CO2, which disappeared when warmed in the well light of the microscopeas the gas and liquid homogenized. These inclusions generally sit atop a dense nest of rutile silk. The rutile silk istightly clustered in the core of the sapphire crystals andterminates rather abruptly. A myriad of inclusions is often
Figure 1. Composite apatite/CO2 inclusion in a sapphire from Ohn Bin Yee Htwet. Photomicrograph by
Aaron Palke; field of view 1.99 mm.

Figure 2. A myriad of inclusions at the boundary between the dense, silky core and the unincluded rim.
Photomicrograph by Jonathan Muyal; field of view
1.76 mm.

found at the boundary between the dense, silky core andthe unincluded rim (figure 2).
While both apatite and CO2 are routinely observed insapphires from a variety of sources, finding both phases ina single inclusion is unexpected and has not been previously reported, to the author’s knowledge. It is hypothesized that these inclusions formed when apatite was

About the banner: Numerous hexagonal flakes of hematite and ilmenite
are scattered throughout this obsidian from the Jemez Mountains, New
Mexico, causing a silvery aventurescence. Photomicrograph by Nathan
Renfro; field of view 2.04 mm.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, VOL. 57, NO. 4, pp. 382–389.
© 2021 Gemological Institute of America

382

MICRO-WORLDGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 3. Chondrodite crystal in a red spinel from
Mogok viewed under darkfield, diffuse, and fiberoptic illumination. Photomicrograph by Charuwan
Khowpong; field of view 1.05 mm.

trapped within the sapphire and created a growth blockage, thus allowing the fluid present (CO2) to adhere to thesurface of the apatite and sapphire to become included aswell.

was identified as chondrodite by Raman spectroscopy.
Chondrodite is a magnesium-rich variety within the humite mineral group. This mineral requires relatively hightemperature and pressure conditions to form, which arefound in the Mogok Metamorphic Belt. Chondrodite forms
during contact metamorphism of magnesium-rich limestones and felsic intrusions.
Since chondrodite and spinel are both found in metamorphosed Mg-rich marbles, it makes sense that theyoccur in association. Nevertheless, the combination ofboth minerals has rarely been documented in gems and, assuch, is a potential indicator of Burmese origin in gemquality red spinel (M.M. Phyo et al., “Spinel from Mogok,
Myanmar—A detailed inclusion study by Raman microspectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy,” Journalof Gemmology, Vol. 36, No. 5, 2019, p. 423).
Charuwan Khowpong
GIA, Bangkok

Natural Black Coral with Polyp Structure

Myanmar, formerly known as Burma, is one of the world’s
leading sources of gemstones. This includes red spinel withremarkable color, clarity, and appearance. A 1.507 ct red
spinel collected from the Thit Saint Kone mining area in
Mogok is part of GIA’s research collection. Its inclusion
scene is dominated by a single round crystal with small
trigons and a rough surface texture (figure 3). The crystal

The authors recently examined a large black oval cabochon
that was opaque with a slight waxy luster. Microscopic examination revealed a layered concentric tree-like structure
when a fiber-optic light was used, as well as round ringlike spherical structures. These observations are consistent
with coral, and these individual spheres are referred to as
polyps (figure 4). This is a great example of the diagnostic
surface structure produced when black coral is cut and polished into a cabochon. Oblique fiber-optic lighting revealed
an intense orangy brown and black pattern, also consistent
with the polyp structure of natural black coral (figure 5).
This was the clearest example of this polyp structure theauthors have examined in black coral. For additional information and images on black coral, see E.W.T. Cooper et al.,Figure 4. The surface of the black oval cabochon displayed a vivid example of the diagnostic polyp structure
in black coral, shown using reflected light. Photomicrograph by Britni LeCroy; field of view 2.90 mm.

Figure 5. Using oblique fiber-optic illumination, theorangy brown color and polyp structure were clearlyvisible. Photomicrograph by Britni LeCroy; field ofview 2.90 mm.

MICRO-WORLDGEMS & GEMOLOGY

Aaron C. Palke
GIA, Carlsbad

Chondrodite in Red Spinel from Mogok, Myanmar

WINTER 2021

383

Figure 6. This demantoid was faceted to better reveal
the “horsetail” inclusions. The sample is 8 mm indiameter. Photo by U. Hennebois.

Figure 7. Fibrous inclusions in a demantoid garnet. Photomicrograph by U. Hennebois; field ofview 1 mm.

Guide to the Identification of Precious and Semi-precious
Corals: In Commercial Trade, World Wildlife Fund, Vancouver, Canada, 2011.

of formation of the “horsetail” inclusions in demantoid
garnets is again open for discussion.

Amy Cooper and Britni LeCroy
GIA, Carlsbad

Faceted Demantoid Garnet with Spectacular“Horsetail” Inclusions
The Laboratoire Français de Gemmologie (LFG) received
for analysis an example of the yellowish green variety of
andradite garnet known as demantoid. The gem was cut insuch a way that spectacular “horsetail” inclusions are anchored at the center of the table (figure 6). These inclusions
are actually fibers (figure 7), which are present in some demantoids from the Ural Mountains (Russia) but also from
Val Malenco (Italy), Baluchistan (Pakistan), as well as from
Kerman (Iran) (W.R. Phillips and A.S. Talantsev, “Russian
demantoid, czar of the garnet family,” Summer 1996
G&G, pp. 100–111; Spring 2007 Gem News International,
pp. 65–67; I. Adamo et al., “Demantoid from Val Malenco,
Italy: Review and update,” Winter 2009 G&G, pp. 280–
287; I. Adamo et al., “Demantoid from Balochistan, Pakistan: Gemmological and mineralogical characterization,”
Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 34, No. 5, 2015, pp. 428–433).
The exact origin and composition of the “horsetail” inclusions in demantoids are still under discussion. Those indemantoids from Russia, Italy, and Pakistan were reported
to be chrysotile, and those from Iran calcite. On the other
hand, a recent study of these inclusions in some demantoid
garnets from the Ural Mountains showed that these might
be hollow channels, sometimes containing minerals fromthe serpentine group, possibly the result of superficial
weathering (A.Y. Kissin et al., “‘Horsetail’ inclusions in the
Ural demantoids: Growth formations,” Minerals, Vol. 11,
No. 8, 2021, article no. 825). Thus, the exact mechanism

384

MICRO-WORLD

Ugo Hennebois, Aurélien Delaunay, andStefanos Karampelas (s.karampelas@lfg.paris)
LFG, Paris
Emmanuel Fritsch
University of Nantes, CNRS-IMN, France

Radioactive Green Diamond
The rarity of naturally colored green diamonds has createdthe demand for artificially irradiated green diamonds. One
2.42 ct green diamond recently examined by the author
showed signs of radiation treatment by the use of radioactive salts (figure 8). Microscopic analysis revealed telltale
green mottled and shallow radiation stains over large areas
Figure 8. Green diamond treated with radioactive
salts. Photo by Diego Sanchez.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 9. A mottled green appearance was visible on
the table facet of the green diamond treated withradioactive salts. Photomicrograph by Nathan Renfro;
field of view 4.70 mm.

Figure 10. This diamond’s blue fluorescence provides
strong contrast to the inert radiation stains, as shownby the DiamondView. Image by Michaela Stephan;field of view 8.265 mm.

of the stone, causing its green bodycolor (figure 9). Theseradiation stains were produced by exposing a cut and polished diamond to radioactive salts for an extended period.
The inert to ultraviolet light radiation stains were easily
visible against the diamond’s blue fluorescence seen in the
DiamondView (figure 10).
Treatment using radioactive salts (such as radium) is
not often used anymore, as this method may produce dangerously radioactive diamonds. Today, most artificially irradiated diamonds are treated with a low-energy electron
beam (Spring 2013 Lab Notes, pp. 46–47). When tested
with a Geiger counter, this stone was revealed to be
weakly radioactive.

excess strain buildup from the crystallographic defects. The
diamond’s accumulated strain is released by separating alongcleavage planes, leaving a reflective, mirror-like separation
as the most obvious characteristic of this type of graining.
The rarest of all types is known as “rainbow graining.” Inthese remarkable stones, the structural defects in the diamond’s crystal lattice are ordered layers, which act as a diffraction grating to reveal a vibrant display of spectra colors(Summer 2007 Lab Notes, p. 155).
Recently, the author had the opportunity to examinea spectacular example of a yellow diamond containing
prominent rainbow graining (figure 11). When the stone
was rocked and tilted, the rainbow colors would appear
and disappear (see the video at https://www.gia.edu/gemsgemology/winter-2021-microworld-rainbow-graining-

Michaela Stephan
GIA, Carlsbad

Rainbow Graining in Diamond
One of the more subtle inclusion scenes gemologists sometimes observe in natural diamonds is the presence of crystallographically oriented structural defects known as “internal
graining.” Often resulting from octahedral and cubic growth
sectors of a diamond crystal competing for space during
growth, these structural disconformities present as colorless,whitish, reflective, colored, and rarely rainbow varieties ofgraining (J.I. Koivula, The Microworld of Diamonds, Gemworld International, Northbrook, Illinois, 2000). Colorlessgraining is the most common type encountered, while
whitish graining is somewhat less common and shows, as
the name implies, a hazy white appearance in the immediatearea of the structural defect zone. Colored graining often occurs when plastic deformation along the cleavage direction
results in color causing defects in the diamond crystal lattice.
If the defects are numerous enough, they can impart a bodycolor, which in the case of pink and red diamonds greatly enhances their value. Reflective graining occurs as a result of

MICRO-WORLD

Figure 11. This yellow diamond displayed a remarkable example of rainbow graining that appears anddisappears as the stone is tilted. Photomicrograph by
Nathan Renfro; field of view 4.64 mm.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

385

Figure 12. This 10.54 ct
rock crystal quartz ishost to a transparent
yellow mineral inclusion. Photo by Annie
Haynes.

diamond). The elusive beauty of this type of graining andthe difficulty with which it is observed make this type ofgraining a rare and welcome sight in natural gem diamonds.
Nathan Renfro
GIA, Carlsbad

Monazite (?) in Quartz
We recently examined an interesting 10.54 ct transparent,
colorless, square modified step cut with a slightly convex
table facet (figure 12). The faceted rock crystal quartz host,measuring 11.82 × 11.77 × 9.57 mm, is from Itinga in
Minas Gerais, Brazil, and came to us from Luciana Barbosa
at the Gemological Center in Asheville, North Carolina.
The gem played host to an eye-visible transparent yellow crystal located near its center, which was visible fromseveral directions. On examination with a gemological microscope, we observed a transparent yellow angular crystalof what appeared to be monazite, with a skirt of small
stress cracks, suspended in the quartz (figure 13).
Laser Raman microspectrometry was not able to identify the inclusion because it was too deep in the host; all it

Figure 13. The transparent yellow monazite (?)
inclusion in the rock
crystal quartz and thestress cracks immediately surrounding it areboth clearly visible inthis image. Photomicrograph by Nathan
Renfro; field of view
4.86 mm.

386

MICRO-WORLDGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 14. The monazite (?) inclusionshows its birefringent(anisotropic) nature
with bright interferencecolors in polarized
light. Photomicrographby Nathan Renfro; fieldof view 3.06 mm.

returned were quartz peaks. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) also failed to produce hints of unusual
chemistry on the inclusion. After several attempts at
Raman and EDXRF, we realized that destructive analysis
would be needed to clearly identify the yellow crystal, but
destructive analysis was not possible.
As a result, we turned to optical mineralogy and the
crystal habit shown by the well-formed inclusion. Morphologically, the inclusion looked like monazite crystals wehave encountered in the past, and it appeared to be monoclinic. The yellow color also suggested monazite. The inclusion showed its birefringent (anisotropic) nature withbright interference colors in polarized light (figure 14). A
small condensing lens was used to pull a partial biaxial interference figure from the inclusion. The crystal had weakpleochroism, and a Becke line test showed that the inclusion had a higher refractive index than the surrounding
host quartz. All of these findings could lead to its identification as monazite. But there is still a nagging uncertainty,
so we are left with “monazite (?).”

explanation for spiral patterns is complex and involves thedevelopment of screw dislocation defects during nacre formation as predicted by the Burton-Caberra-Frank theory(J.H.E. Cartwright et al., “Spiral and target patterns in bivalve nacre manifest a natural excitable medium fromlayer growth of a biological liquid crystal,” PNAS, Vol. 106,
No. 26, 2009, pp. 10499–10504).
Britni LeCroy

Windmill Zoning in Tourmaline
Tourmaline often displays color zoning. Popular examples
include parti-color tourmaline (color zoning perpendicular
to the c-axis) and watermelon tourmaline (pink and green
color zoning parallel to the c-axis). A more peculiar type of

Figure 15. Concentric spiral nacre formations seen on
a natural saltwater pearl. Photomicrograph by Britni
LeCroy; field of view 2.34 mm.

John I. Koivula and Nathan Renfro
GIA, Carlsbad

Spiral Nacre in Natural Pearl
Nacreous pearls are known to have platelet growth resembling fingerprints or topographic maps, but a less common
appearance is nacre with a concentric spiral pattern. The
feature is sometimes seen in small patches in unprocessedsaltwater pearls. One recent example was exceptional as itshowed spiral formations throughout its entire surface (figure 15). The pearl was determined to be a natural saltwater
pearl from the Pinctada genus. Nacre is composed of aragonite crystals and conchiolin protein, with the crystals acting like bricks and the protein acting like mortar. The

MICRO-WORLDGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

387

c-axis, terminating at the crown and pavilion. This characteristic was visible with or without the use of a microscope.
However, diffused transmitted light was necessary for observation in both cases. The stone did not possess any othervisible inclusions, but some areas showed fully formed colorless hexagonal zoning following the c-axis. This featurebore a mild resemblance to windmill inclusions seen insphalerite (Summer 2020 G&G Micro-World, p. 295).
Britni LeCroy

Quarterly Crystal: Rutile on Hematite
Figure 16. Colorless windmill-shaped zoning in tourmaline, as seen with diffused light. Photomicrographby Britni LeCroy; field of view 9.60 mm.

abundant colorless zoning with windmill structures (figure16) was seen by the author in a 8.55 ct pink faceted tourmaline. The table was cut perpendicular to the length ofthe crystal to reveal the windmill zoning as parallel to the

When we think of the micro-world of gems and minerals,
we usually think of transparent to translucent host materials. However, there are also a number of opaque minerals
used as gems that are composed of chemical elements suchas copper, iron, and titanium. One of these is hematite.
Recently we had the opportunity to study an unusual
hematite crystal sent by Ali Shad of Shad Fine Minerals in
Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. The geographic source for thehematite crystal pictured in figure 17 is the Yangslo mine,
located in the Basha Valley of Gilgit-Baltistan. At 178.33
ct and 39.83 mm in the longest direction, this “floater”

Figure 17. Measuring
39.83 mm and weighing 178.33 ct, this Pakistani hematite crystal
is host to a geometricouter skin of sagenitic
rutile. Photo by Diego
Sanchez.

388

MICRO-WORLDGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 18. The sagenitic
epitaxial structure of
the acicular rutile crystals on the surface of
this hematite gives thesubstrate an otherworldly appearance.
Photomicrograph by
Nathan Renfro; field ofview 11.28 mm.

hematite crystal (with no points of attachment to the surrounding rock) plays host to a sagenitic network of epitaxial, surface-oriented, opaque dark gray acicular rutile
crystals as large as 4 mm in length.
Using laser Raman microspectrometry, the identification of the sagenitic crystals was confirmed as rutile. En-

ergy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis showed
the dominant presence of iron and titanium, with a trace ofmanganese. As shown in figure 18, the euhedral rutile crystals were situated on the hematite crystal in the form of ageometric sagenitic boxwork.
John I. Koivula and Nathan Renfro

Rainbow Graining in Diamond
To see video of a yellow diamond containing spectacularrainbow graining, go to www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/
winter-2021-microworld-rainbow-graining-diamondor scan the QR code on the right.

MICRO-WORLDGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

389

Editors: Aaron C. Palke | James E. Shigley

Colored Stones from the Deep
Minerals used as gemstones are all around us—for example, feldspar minerals [(Na,K,Ca)Al1+xSi3-xO8] and quartz(SiO2) that make up the bulk of the earth’s crust—and if
we were to observe the earth’s mantle down to about 400
km deep, we would find an abundance of the mineralolivine [(Mg,Fe)2SiO4], known as peridot in the gem trade(figure 1). However, most minerals we encounter would
not be considered gems due to their small grain size, lackof transparency, undesirable colors, or lack of durability for
ornamental purposes. Gem-quality minerals require very
specific conditions of pressure, temperature, and chemistry
to occur. These unique geological environments are quite
uncommon, leading to the rarity of fine-quality gemstonesin the earth.
In previous issues of Gems & Gemology, the “Diamonds from the Deep” column addressed aspects of current research on diamond geology. To a geologist, diamonds
and their inclusions are ideal tools to study the deep earth(below about 35 km), a region totally inaccessible to traditional geological studies involving field mapping and petrological observations of hand samples collected at or near
the earth’s surface. On the other hand, most colored gemstones are formed in the crust—the outermost rocky layerof the earth, reaching down to a depth of roughly 35 km.
Still, colored stone deposits are geologically diverse, andmany gem-quality crystals do come from the earth’s mantle or the very deepest parts of the crust. The formation ofcolored stones from the crust-mantle transition and below
will be the focus of our first installment of this new col-umn. Future installments will appear in the journal on aperiodic basis and will focus on geological concepts related
to colored stones that readers now regularly encounter inarticles on gems and gem localities. If there are topics ofinterest for future installments, readers are encouraged tocontact the column editors.

Colored Stones and the Deep Earth
We will now describe some of the colored gemstones thatprovide important information on the mineralogy, composition, and evolution of the earth.
Figure 1. “Healing Sisters” rings with Four Peaks
amethyst and San Carlos peridot, both from the San
Carlos Apache Reservation in Arizona. These stones
represent the geological diversity of colored stone formation from the earth’s near surface in the crust(amethyst) to the mantle (peridot). Photo by Maha
Tannous; courtesy of Apache Gems.

Editors’ note: Questions or topics of interest should be directed to Aaron
Palke (apalke@gia.edu) or James Shigley (jshigley@gia.edu).
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, VOL. 57, NO. 4, pp. 390–396.
© 2021 Gemological Institute of America390

COLORED STONES UNEARTHEDGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 2. Faceted peridot
sitting atop a 1.029 kg
peridot nodule contained
within the host basalt.
The nodule of peridot
was sourced from theearth’s mantle brought
up as a xenolith in thebasalt as it traveled tothe earth’s surface. Photoby Orasa Weldon.

Peridot. If one wanted to lay hands on a rock formed deepin the earth’s mantle, the barren deserts in northern Arizona would be the place to go. On the San Carlos Apache
Indian Reservation, there are fields of geologically recent(~one-million-year-old) lava flows containing xenoliths ofthe mantle rocks these magmas passed through on their
way to the surface. The alkali basalts in this area are adull, dark gray color, but occasionally they contain vividly
colored nodules composed of crystals or grains of apple
green olivine and darker green pyroxene [(Ca,Mg,Fe)SiO3]
minerals (figure 2). San Carlos Apache tribal members
mine the basalts to recover the gemmy olivine (peridot)
contained within the nodules. Because the peridot-bearing
nodules are considered a close analogue for the bulk composition of the earth’s mantle, the olivine is widely used
as a starting material for experimental geochemical studies aimed at interpreting the dynamics and evolution of
the mantle (e.g., Kubo et al., 1998; Liu et al., 2005; Tollan
et al., 2018). Similar xenolith-rich alkali basalts found in
China, Australia, and Vietnam provide information on thecomposition of the earth’s mantle since, as stated earlier,olivine is a principal mineral phase.
Volcanically Sourced Sapphire and Ruby. Another glimpse
deep into the earth comes from volcanically associated rubies
and sapphires. These types of gem corundum (Al2O3) arefound predominantly near the continental margins of Australia and Southeast Asia, where they are associated with vo-luminous alkali basalt extrusions that acted as the mechanism of transportation to bring these gems to the surface.
Some volcanically transported sapphires are found in the U.S.
state of Montana, as well as where other volcanic formations
such as rhyolites (silica-rich volcanic rocks) or lamprophyres(potassic, magnesium-/iron-rich volcanic rocks) would havebeen involved. In contrast to many colored stones, these sapphires and rubies formed in an extensional rather than acompressional tectonic setting in the crust. In this situation,
thinning of the crust allowed for upwelling and eruption ofmagmas largely derived from the mantle, such as alkali
basalts. It is important to point out that the sapphires andrubies were only transported by these basalts—not formed
within or by the basalts themselves. Analysis of inclusions
within the basalt-related gem sapphires—including feldspar,
pyrochlore [(Na,Ca)2Nb2O6(OH,F)], zircon (ZrSiO4), and melt
inclusions—indicates their formation from syenitic-typemagmas. These sodium-rich silicate magmas likely formednear the boundary between the earth’s crust and mantle andmay be related to metasomatism, or the circulation of hot
fluids, in the earth’s mantle (Graham et al., 2008; Giuliani
and Groat, 2019). The basalt-related rubies likely formed
from a more aluminous and mafic (magnesium- and ironrich) protolith. The rubies have been suggested to haveformed through metamorphism of such protoliths, although
the identification of melt inclusions in these basalt-relatedrubies suggests the involvement of melting or magmatic
processes in their formation (Palke et al., 2018).

COLORED STONES UNEARTHEDGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

391

Deep Crustal Gems. The rocks at the earth’s surface contain a tremendous record of the geological evolution of ourplanet. Since the beginning of the earth’s history, the primary dynamic force has been the slow transfer of heatfrom deep in the core and mantle to the surface. This heattransfer is the engine for convection in the mantle and theslow drift of the tectonic plates at the surface. Earth’s continental crust has grown and evolved with these processes,
meaning the crust serves as a sort of record of tectonic activity. Many geologists have spent their careers tracing out
fault lines, dating rocks, and connecting the dots on geological formations to understand how the continents havebeen variously ripped apart and sutured together again.
Geologists specializing in tectonics use specific tectonic
events, especially orogenic (or mountain-building) events
involving the collision of two or more continents, as
markers of the passage of geological time. In fact, mostcolored stone deposits are the direct result of these collisional orogenic events, with the intense heat, pressure,and fluid movement generated acting as the catalyst forcrystallization of gemmy crystals of corundum, beryl(Be3Al2Si6O18), and garnet [(Ca,Mg,Fe)3(Al,Fe)2Si3O12]. However, some of these gems were formed at more extreme
conditions and record a view of the deep earth not seen in
most other precious stones.
Modern collisional tectonic events are generally initiated with subduction of oceanic crust beneath the continental crust and down into the mantle. Subduction of theoceanic crust has been linked to the formation of deep diamonds as far down as the lower mantle (Smith andNestola, 2021). This process is also responsible for the for-mation of one of the most sought-after colored stones:
jadeite jade (figure 3). A high-pressure mineral rich insodium, aluminum, and silicon, jadeite (NaAlSi2O6) is aunique record of the fate of rocks and fluids subducted into
the earth. Estimates of the geological conditions for jadeite
mineralization indicate depths from below about 20 km toan astonishing 80 km below the surface of the earth (Sternet al., 2013; Harlow et al., 2015). At these great depths, theimmense pressure of the overlying rock column enhances
the solubility in water of certain chemical components, including sodium, aluminum, and silicon. The fluids trappedby the subducted oceanic crust (mostly water) can dissolvethese necessary chemical components from their host rockand migrate upward into the overlying mantle wedge including oceanic crustal rocks, and forming the so-calledmélange matrix. As these fluids make their way up into
the mélange matrix, the dissolved chemical components
precipitate out and crystallize jadeite in veins representing
the original fluid flow pathways. The truly astonishing aspect of this is the fact that these deep rocks can now befound right at the earth’s surface. Jadeite deposits represent
the movement of subducted material from 20–80 km up to
the surface in exhumation channels either during or after
the cessation of subduction and collision (figure 4). Jadeite
deposits are useful as markers and indicators, both geographically and temporally, of fossil subduction and collisional tectonic events.
One final example of a colored gemstone recording
deep geological processes comes from the Dora Maira garnets found in the Italian Alps (figure 5). These are uniquein the world in being nearly pure pyrope garnets

Figure 3. Sawn jadeiteboulders, 650 kg total.
Jadeite formed in ancient subduction zones
where the circulation of
fluids brought together
all the necessary chemical components to form
jadeite. These pieces
clearly demonstrate theinvolvement of fluid
flow in the formation of
the jadeite. Photo by
Wim Vertriest.

392

COLORED STONES UNEARTHEDGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Jade (jadeitite)

Volcanic front

HP serpentinite mélange

ic
Ocean

Fluid-fluxed melting

Trenchcrust

mantleLithospheric

Serpentinized forearc
Hydrous eclogite

Accretionary prism

Exhuming HP rocks

Dry eclogite

reAsthenosphe
30 km

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of a jadeite formation environment in a subduction zone. As oceanic crust is subducted, material builds up in an accretionary prism. Further down, jadeite forms in a high-pressure serpentinite
mélange at roughly high-pressure, low-temperature (HPLT) conditions. To reach the surface, this jadeite must betransported from 20 to 80 km in exhumation channels. Lithological variations and thermal structures are modified
after Gerya (2011). High-pressure serpentinite mélange, location of exhuming high-pressure rocks, and environmentof jadeite formation are based on Stern et al. (2013). Used with permission from Tsujimori and Ernst (2014).
(Mg3Al2Si3O12). Their formation would have required extreme pressures as well as a very magnesium-rich and relatively iron-poor source (protolith). Petrological studiesof these garnets and their host rocks indicate formation
at depths of around 120 km (Chopin and Schertl, 1999).
This means Dora Maira pyrope garnets formed in the di-Figure 5. Pyrope garnets
from Dora Maira, Italy.
These garnets formed
as part of the earth’s
continental crust was
subducted down to 120
km in the diamond stability field. The facetedstones range from 0.50
to 1.69 ct. Photo by
Diego Sanchez; courtesy of Todd Wacks,
Tucson Todd’s Gems.

COLORED STONES UNEARTHEDGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

393

BOX A: HOW DO WE KNOW THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH?
Figure A-1 shows the layered structure of the earth. The
crust makes up the uppermost rocky layer down to about
35 km, with the mantle below. The mantle extends down
to about 2,890 km and is divided into three parts: theupper mantle, the lower mantle, and an intermediatetransition zone between the two from 410 to 660 km.
The divisions are based on major changes in the mineralogy and physical properties of each layer. While thecrust is mostly made up of quartz and feldspar minerals,
the mantle is more magnesium- and iron-rich and silicapoor. The upper mantle is believed to be dominantly
composed of minerals olivine, garnet, and pyroxenes. The
major distinction between the upper and lower mantle isthe transition to a mineralogy dominantly composed ofbridgmanite [(Mg,Fe)SiO3] in the lower mantle with various phase transformations occurring in the so-called
transition zone. Below the mantle is the core from 2,890
km to the earth’s center. The core is made of an ironnickel metal alloy and is divided into the solid inner coreand molten outer core. Meteorites represent planetarycores formed at very different pressures and temperatures, and their minerals, such as olivine, are used to understand Earth’s core and structure.
But first, how do we know what we claim to know
about the interior structure of the deep earth? The furthest underground humans have gone to directly observe
deep rocks is 4 km below the surface at the Mponeng gold
mine in South Africa. The deepest rocks brought to thesurface directly in drill core sections have come from theKola Superdeep Borehole in northwestern Russia, whichreached depths of 12.26 km. However, this is only a fraction of the expected thickness of 35 km for the continental crust in this region. Indirectly, by geophysicalmethods and/or by analyzing parts of the deep earthbrought to the surface by geological processes, geoscientists have been able to reconstruct the earth’s interior.
Geoscientists can use several ways to study the interior of the earth:
1. The study of rocks, formed deep in the lower crust or
upper mantle, that are brought to the earth’s surface bygeological activity.
The collision of two continental plates can create
conditions where one plate is carried (or subducted) by
tectonic forces beneath an adjacent plate. This subduction can transport crustal rocks down into the upper
mantle, where they undergo metamorphism. Because
they are less dense than the surrounding mantle rocks,
these altered crustal rocks are sometimes gradually liftedback toward the surface and often carry with them pieces
of mantle. When exposed at the surface by erosion, they
become accessible to geologic study.
Volcanic eruptions, which produce igneous rocks
such as basalt and andesite, occur along mid-oceanic

394

COLORED STONES UNEARTHED

ridges and above subduction zones. Igneous magmas can
incorporate fragments of rocks (called xenoliths) as well
as minerals (called xenocrysts) from regions of the lower
crust or upper mantle through which the magmas pass.
The example most familiar to gemologists is the transport of diamonds from deep in the earth to the surface
by kimberlite or lamproite magmas.
2. The study of inclusions in lower crustal or upper mantle xenocrysts (crystals of different origin (xeno-) included within an igneous body such as diamond, garnet,
olivine (peridot), and pyroxene) that sometimes incorporate inclusions of mineral grains that originated from thedeep environment of xenocryst formation. Inclusions in
diamonds are particularly important as they are insulated deep in the earth from alteration and other mineralogical changes over extended periods of geologic time.
Some mineral inclusions containing certain radioactive
elements can be age-dated to give some idea of when thehost xenocryst formed.
3. Experimental studies carried out in a laboratory canalso be used to understand the deep earth. Several typesof high-pressure and high-temperature experiments canbe conducted in order to better understand the formation, physical properties, and behavior of minerals androcks under lower crust and upper mantle conditions.
Such experiments allow geoscientists to verify observations of geological features made in the field. In theseexperiments, researchers artificially recreate the expected chemical composition of various parts of theearth—either the crust or mantle—and apply high pressures and temperatures to simulate conditions deep inthe earth. Recovery of the experimental charge canallow insight into the mineralogy and composition of
the deep earth.
The use of a diamond anvil cell allows researchers to
subject small fragments of a test material to extreme
pressures by compressing the material in a pressure
medium between the polished culets of two small diamonds. A tiny piece of ruby is included within the cell
as a pressure indicator (since the wavelengths of the fluorescence emission of ruby are known to change withpressure). The test material within the cell can be heatedby external or internal means. It can also be viewed
through the transparent anvils. While at high pressures
such as those existing within the earth, the test material
can be studied by absorption and emission spectroscopy
and X-ray diffraction techniques.
4. Geophysical studies allow us to measure and record
time and intensity variations in energy and other typesof signals traveling through the earth. These methods
help determine changes in physical properties such as
density and acoustic behavior among different rock

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Crust0–35 km
Upper Mantle
35–670 km
Lower Mantle
670–2890 km
Outer Core
2890–5150 km
Inner Core
5150–6370 km

Figure A-1. Schematic diagram of the internal structure of the earth showing the crust, upper and lower mantle, andouter and inner core. The layered structure is a result of changes in mineralogy caused by changes in composition
and/or increasing pressure and temperature with increasing depth. The cutaway diagram is not drawn to scale.

types. Anyone who has ever experienced an earthquake knows that energy waves travel from the sourceof the event. With an extensive network of seismometers deployed around the world, scientists can document the trajectories of seismic waves fromearthquakes and underground explosions. These seismic waves can travel along the surface and below thesurface, where they can be reflected through or refracted by the different internal zones. In an analogous
fashion, variations in magnetic, gravitational, electrical, and electromagnetic signals (measured at the surface and in boreholes and sometimes obtained byregional aerial surveys) can also help us understandthe earth’s internal structure.

COLORED STONES UNEARTHED

5. Planetary studies and meteorite research have allowed
scientists to gain information about the earth’s interior.
Meteorites originate from inside the solar system, andmost are fragments of asteroids that broke apart long ago
in the “asteroid belt” located between Mars and Jupiter.
The iron-nickel alloy composition of a number of meteorites is thought to be similar in composition to themolten inner core of the earth. These so-called chondritic meteorites are particularly useful for understanding the composition of the earth, as these are thought tohave “primitive” compositions representing the originalcomposition of the solar system. The compositions ofthese chondritic meteorites can also be used as a proxyor an estimate of the bulk composition of the earth.

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

395

amond stability field at a depth where some lithosphericdiamonds may have been sourced (Hermann, 2003). The
Dora Maira garnets could only have formed in what wereoriginally continental crustal rocks, which generally cannot be subducted to such great depths due to the generally
buoyant nature of the continental crust. The Dora Mairadeposit is proof that in some extraordinary conditions
during continental collisional events, some continental
crust can be essentially subducted into the earth. What iseven more surprising is that age-dating of zircons associated with these garnets suggests that the Dora Maira massif would have moved from a depth of around 120 km ina timescale of only 5–6 Ma, an astonishingly brief period
in a geological sense.

Colored Stones and the Earth’s Crust
Geological study of the deep earth is fundamental to an understanding of plate tectonics, the earth’s evolution, and theoverall dynamics of our planet. However, most coloredstones are formed through geological processes at work froma few tens of kilometers deep right up to the earth’s surface,essentially. The interplay between the solid, rocky crust andthe hydrosphere (all the earth’s water), the atmosphere, andthe biosphere (all the earth’s life) gives rise to an enormous
diversity of geological conditions, many of which are capableof producing fine gemstones through geological timescale.
The processes occurring in the earth’s crust that are responsible for colored gemstone deposits will be the primary focus
of future installments of this column.

REFERENCES
Chopin C., Schertl H.P. (1999) The UHP unit in the Dora-Maira massif, western Alps. International Geology Review, Vol. 41, No. 9,
pp. 765–780, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206819909465168
Gerya T. (2011) Future directions in subduction modeling. Journalof Geodynamics, Vol. 52, No. 5, pp. 344–378,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2011.06.005
Giuliani G., Groat L.A. (2019) Geology of corundum and emerald
gem deposits: A review. G&G, Vol. 55, No. 4, pp. 464–489,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5741/GEMS.55.4.464
Graham I., Sutherland L., Zaw K., Nechaev V., Khanchuk A. (2008)
Advances in our understanding of the gem corundum depositsof the West Pacific continental margins intraplate basaltic
fields. Ore Geology Reviews, Vol. 34, No. 1-2, pp. 200–215,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2008.04.006
Harlow G.E., Tsujimori T., Sorensen S.S. (2015) Jadeitites and plate
tectonics. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences,Vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 105–138, http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurevearth-060614-105215
Hermann J. (2003) Experimental evidence for diamond-facies
metamorphism in the Dora-Maira massif. Lithos, Vol. 70,
No. 3-4, pp. 163–182, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S00244937(03)00097-5
Kubo T., Ohtani E., Kato T., Shinmei T., Fujino K. (1998) Experimental investigation of the α-β transformation of San Carlos

olivine single crystal. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol.
26, No. 1, pp. 1–6, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002690050155
Liu W., Kung J., Li B. (2005) Elasticity of San Carlos olivine to 8
GPa and 1073 K. Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 32, No.
16, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005GL023453
Palke A.C., Wong J., Verdel C., Ávila J.N. (2018) A common origin
for Thai/Cambodian rubies and blue and violet sapphires from
Yogo Gulch, Montana, USA? American Mineralogist, Vol. 103,
No. 3, pp. 469–479, http://dx.doi.org/10.2138/am-2018-6164
Smith E.M., Nestola F. (2021) Super‐deep diamonds: Emerging deep
mantle insights from the past decade. In H. Marquardt et al., Eds.,
Mantle Convection and Surface Expressions. Wiley, Hoboken, New
Jersey, pp. 179–192, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119528609.ch7
Stern R.J., Tsujimori T., Harlow G., Groat L.A. (2013) Plate tectonic gemstones. Geology, Vol. 41, No. 7, pp. 723–726,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G34204.1
Tollan P.M., O’Neill H.S.C., Hermann J. (2018) The role of traceelements in controlling H incorporation in San Carlos olivine.
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, Vol. 173, No. 11,
pp. 1–23, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00410-018-1517-7
Tsujimori T., Ernst W.G. (2014) Lawsonite blueschists and lawsonite eclogites as proxies for palaeo‐subduction zone
processes: A review. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, Vol. 32,
No. 5, pp. 437–454, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jmg.12057

For online access to all issues of GEMS & GEMOLOGY from 1934 to the present, visit:

gia.edu/gems-gemology

396

COLORED STONES UNEARTHEDGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Why Does Diamond Origin Matter?

Utilizing our proprietary scientific matching process, we trace the journey of your diamond from crystal to polished
gem to confirm country of origin. Knowing your diamond’s source enables you to invest in a diamond that helped shapecommunities, build schools and improve lives. Know your diamond’s impact with GIA Diamond Origin.

Diamond Origin

learn more

GIA.edu/diamond-origin©2021 GIA. GIA® and the GIA logo are registered trademarks of Gemological Institute of America, Inc.

LAB210038_GIA_DiamondOrigin_Rapaport_v1.indd 1

11/16/21 8:48 AM

Gem News International
Contributing Editors

Emmanuel Fritsch, University of Nantes, CNRS, Team 6502, Institut des Matériaux Jean Rouxel (IMN),
Nantes, France (fritsch@cnrs-imn.fr)
Gagan Choudhary, IIGJ-Research and Laboratories, Jaipur, India (gagan.choudhary@iigjrlc.org)
Christopher M. Breeding, GIA, Carlsbad (christopher.breeding@gia.edu)

COLORED STONES AND ORGANIC MATERIALS
Biogenic carbon in pink corundum from southern West
Greenland. Some of the oldest ruby is found in the southern part of West Greenland. Although the most famous locality is the Aappaluttoq deposit—where corundum ishosted by igneous rocks (N. Keulen et al., “Formation, origin and geographic typing of corundum (ruby and pink sapphire) from the Fiskenæsset complex, Greenland,” Lithos,Vol. 366–367, 2020, article no. 105536)—several smaller
occurrences are found throughout the region. A number ofthese smaller occurrences are hosted by metamorphosed
sedimentary rocks that were tectonically interleaved withultramafic rocks (figure 1). Fluid-assisted movement of silica from the metasedimentary rocks to the ultramafic
rocks and reverse movement of minor amounts ofchromium during metamorphism have been proposed tocause the chemical conditions necessary for ruby growth.
Pink corundum from these smaller occurrences contains various types of mineral inclusions, most notably rutile and graphite (figure 2). Two recent studies investigatedthese rocks with the goals of dating the absolute timing of
corundum growth, understanding the corundum formation
mechanisms, and determining the origin of graphite (V. van
Hinsberg et al., “The corundum conundrum: Constraining
the compositions of fluids involved in ruby formation inmetamorphic melanges of ultramafic and aluminous
rocks,” Chemical Geology, Vol. 571, 2021, article no.
120180; C. Yakymchuk et al., “Corundum (ruby) growthduring the final assembly of the Archean North Atlantic
Craton, southern West Greenland,” Ore Geology Reviews,

Vol. 138, 2021, article no. 104417). Samples were collectedfrom an occurrence near the town of Maniitsoq and froma second occurrence on Storø Island to the northeast ofGreenland’s capital, Nuuk.
Rutile inclusions are about 2.5 billion years old at both
localities, based on uranium–lead geochronology. However,the pink corundum may be slightly older than this, giventhat the isotopic clock in rutile may only start sometimeon the post-growth cooling history. Nevertheless, this constrains the timing of corundum growth during the final stabilization of the continental crust in the region.
This research also analyzed the carbon isotope composition of graphite to determine its origin. In general, bio-

Figure 2. Pink corundum from the Maniitsoq locality
containing a macroscopic inclusion of graphite. Photoby Kristoffer Szilas.

Pink corundum

Graphite

Editors’ note: Interested contributors should send information and illustrations to Stuart Overlin at soverlin@gia.edu or GIA, The Robert MouawadCampus, 5345 Armada Drive, Carlsbad, CA 92008.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, VOL. 57, NO. 4, pp. 398–412.
© 2021 Gemological Institute of America

398

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL

1 cm

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Pink corundum horizon

Ultramaﬁc rock

Metasedimentary rock

Figure 1. Field relationship of aluminum-rich metasedimentary rocks with ultramafic rocks at the Maniitsoq pinkcorundum occurrence in Greenland. Corundum is found along the boundary between these two rock types. Photoby Kristoffer Szilas.

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

399

genic activity modifies carbon isotopes; living organisms
preferentially incorporate the lighter isotope (12C) comparedwith the heavier isotope (13C). Graphite from the Storø Island location was very enriched in the lighter isotope andwas interpreted as a bona fide organic signature, which suggests that the graphitic carbon was originally part of a livingorganism. Graphite from the Maniitsoq pink corundum locality was less enriched in the lighter carbon isotope, but
the isotope signature was still most consistent with a biogenic origin. Although the presence of carbon of biogenic
origin is not surprising given the sedimentary nature of thehost rocks, the research team modeled the chemical conditions necessary for corundum growth and suggested thatthe presence of graphite created the conditions in the rocks
that facilitated corundum formation at the imposed depths
and temperatures of metamorphism.
Although the recognition of biogenic carbon in theform of graphite in pink corundum occurrences is based ona limited number of samples, future work should be able
to determine how widespread this association is in southern West Greenland. In addition, in situ analysis of carbon
in graphite inclusions using secondary ion mass spectrometry would help further test the hypothesis of a biogenic
origin of graphite in 2.5 billion-year-old pink corundum.
Chris Yakymchuk, Jillian Kendrick, and Carson Kinney
University of Waterloo, Canada
Vincent van Hinsberg
McGill University, Canada
Christopher Kirkland
Curtin University, Australia
Kristoffer Szilas
University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Update on mining activity at Yogo Gulch, Montana. The
Yogo sapphire deposit, discovered more than 100 years ago,
has seen renewed mining interest over the last few years.
The fame of Yogo sapphires was established in the first few
decades the deposit was worked by the London-based New
Mine Sapphire Syndicate. Then, a catastrophic flood in
1923 destroyed the mine infrastructure and operations
ground to a halt. Production was sparse and unpredictable
for the next several decades. Notable events in the modern
history of Yogo Gulch include the arrival of Chikara Kunisaki and the Roncor Corporation in 1973, which drilled
the 3,000-foot Kunisaki tunnel at the old American mine,and the discovery of a new extension of the sapphire-bearing dike to the west of the deposit, which became the Vortex mine. Since 2017, there has been renewed interest in
bringing back large-scale mining operations, and the authors had the chance to observe these activities firsthandin the summer of 2021.
In 2017, Don Baide, a jeweler out of Bozeman, acquired
the Vortex mine and started revamping the underground
operations to bring the mine back online. In the 1990s, a
modern 3,000-foot spiral ramp descending 475 feet was installed at Vortex. Due to years of inactivity, Baide and his
miners have had to spend considerable time pumping
water out of the underground shafts and rehabilitating themine, but they are now working through the winter down
to the 400-foot level (figure 3). They have uncovered new
exposures of the sapphire-bearing dike rock and expect toprocess ore from this level by the end of 2021.
While Vortex is the most recently worked mine at Yogo
Gulch, the bulk of the deposit lies to the east of Yogo Creek
in what has become known as the Roncor property. This
includes the old English mine at the far east of the deposit

Figure 3. Underground
operations in the Vortex mine at Yogo
Gulch, Montana. Photoby Don Baide.

400

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 4. A large portion of the Roncor
property is home to
the Gadsden house(lower left) and theeastern portion of the
Yogo dike, which
stretches for miles as along trench (whitearrow). Photo by
Nathan Renfro.

(figure 4), as well as the Kelly Coulee and the Americanmine (figure 5). In 2021, a new venture, Yogold U.S.A. Corporation, was created and acquired a lease to resume mining operations on the Roncor property. Yogold spent thesummer mining open cuts of the Yogo dike as well as installing a washing plant to recover sapphires. Yogold is also
actively rehabilitating the Kunisaki tunnel, which has been

dormant for nearly 35 years. They plan to resume underground mining through the Kunisaki tunnel and significantly increase sapphire recovery underground.
The jewelry company Parle’ of Pocatello, Idaho, has astrategic partnership with Yogold to market loose stones
and manufacture jewelry featuring Yogo sapphires. Also ofinterest, documentary filmmaker Orin Mazzoni is produc-

Figure 5. A view up the valley known as Kelly Coulee to the west of Yogo Creek. Photo by Aaron Palke.

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

401

Figure 6. A miner shows off his collection of Yogo sapphires. Photo by Aaron Palke.

ing a short film featuring the Yogo deposit that should beof interest to anyone fascinated by these brilliant blue
gems. The film is expected to be released in early 2022.
There are certainly many more treasures to be unearthed at this rich deposit. While Yogo sapphires often
carry a premium in the gem market for their rich cornflower blue color (figure 6) and lack of treatment, the higher
overhead costs of mining in the United States pose themain challenge. But with sustained and serious mining activity in progress, the gem trade may be seeing more of thefamous Yogo sapphire in the coming years.
Aaron Palke and Nathan Renfro
GIA, Carlsbad

T1

T2

2 mm

T4

402

T3

2 mm

T5

6 mm

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL

Banded turquoise from Zhushan County, Hubei Province,
China. Zhushan County in China’s Hubei Province is theworld’s most abundant source of commercial gem-grade
turquoise (F. Xu, “Study on turquoise in Shiyan City, Hubei
Province,” Shanghai Art & Crafts, No. 3, 2017, pp. 30–32).
It produces turquoise with special patterns, including“raindrop,” “Tang tricolor,” “growth layer,” “spiderweb,”“water grass vein,” and “Ulan flower” (L. Liu et al.,“Unique raindrop pattern of turquoise from Hubei,
China,” Fall 2020 G&G, pp. 380–400). Turquoise materials
with growth layers display a yellow, red, brownish red,brown, blue, or blue-green banded structure, occasionallyaccompanied by tiny colored spots. This pattern is called“banded turquoise” in the trade. The gemological and mineralogical characteristics, color origin, and origin traceability of common turquoise have been well studied. However,there are few reports on banded turquoise, which is highly
valued in the Chinese market.
Six specimens of banded turquoise were obtained
through long-term cooperation of local miners from theturquoise market in Zhushan. The specimens displayed
numerous bands with various colors, including blue, green,
yellow, red, and brown (figure 7). The band profiles of samples T1, T3, T4, and T6 were separated according to color
for investigation (figure 8). Specimens T3 and T5 were severely damaged during the cutting process and could notmeet the requirements of FTIR testing, but they were
measured to analyze the composition and structure. The
FTIR absorption spectra, which were typical of those forturquoise, were essentially identical in the various bands
within a sample (figure 8). The FTIR absorption fingerprint
peaks of turquoise, produced by the vibrations of the phosphate group, range from 483 to 653 cm–1 and from 1000 to

2 mm

T6

2 mm

Figure 7. Banded
turquoise specimensfrom Zhushan County,
China. Photos of the six
specimens show thevariation in the color
and width of the bands
as well as the sharpnessof the boundaries between bands. Photos byTianting Lei.

2 mm

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

FTIR SPECTRA

A

T1-1

T1-1

T1-2

T1-3

T1-4

T1-5

T1-6

1114 903

3465

ABSORBANCE

T1-2
T1-3
T1-4

T1-5

3509

3278 3074

658

1066

842

634

1016

788

527

1644

T1-6
2 mm

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

WAVENUMBER (cm–1)

B

T3-1

T3-2

T3-3

T3-4

T3-5

T3-6

1112 899
655
1062 841
527

3465

T3-1

3509

ABSORBANCE

T3-2
T3-3
T3-4
T3-5
T3-6

3302 3091

1015

1645

787

507

2 mm

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

WAVENUMBER (cm–1)
T4-1

T4-1
T4-2

T4-3

T4-4

T4-6

T4-2

3461
3508
3290

ABSORBANCE

C

T4-5

T4-7

T4-3

T4-4

T4-5

T4-6

3087

T4-7
1659

1112
1193

915 787 633

1063 842 658 508
1020

516

1000

500

6 mm

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

WAVENUMBER (cm–1)

D

T6-1

T6-2

T6-3

T6-4

T6-5

ABSORBANCE

1112 908

T6-1

T6-2
T6-3
T6-4
T6-5

690 5221062 844 656
3465
3509
3284 3084

1019 788
1645

635
509

2 mm

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

WAVENUMBER (cm–1)

Figure 8. Division of bands and FTIR spectra of specimens T1, T3, T4, and T6, which were sliced open. A: T1-1
through T1-6, six bands. B: T3-1 through T3-6, six bands. C: T4-1 through T4-7, seven bands. D: T6-1 through T6-5,
five bands. Photos by Tianting Lei.

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

403

T1-2 Red

T3-1 Light blue

T1-4 Brown

T3-3 Yellow

T1-5 Blue

T3-5 Light yellow

T2-1 Light red

T6-1 Light green

water molecules and hydroxyl ions (Q.L. Chen et al.,
“Turquoise from Zhushan County, Hubei Province,
China,” Fall 2012 G&G, pp. 198–204), are located near 842,
787, 1659, 3087, 3290, 3461, and 3508 cm–1.
The banded turquoise microcrystals were characterizedby platy, columnar, and layered structures visible with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (figure 9). The samples had
a disorderly crystal structure, except for the deep green band(T6-2) with specific directionality. The more deeply saturated turquoise had higher density, less porosity, and morecompactness than the lighter-colored turquoise. The edgesof the blue band turquoise (T1) microcrystals were straightand clear with sharp corners (T1-5), while the red and brownband turquoise microcrystals did not show sharp corners(T1-2, T1-4). The same was true for specimens T2 and T3.
The edges of the turquoise microcrystals were always
straight, while the corners of blue band turquoise microcrystals (T2-2, T3-1) were sharper than those of the red bands(T1-2) and yellow bands (T3-3, T3-5) in the same samples.
The chemical compositions for turquoise (as a microcrystalline aggregate mineral) obtained from electron probe
microanalysis (EPMA) are often not completely consistent
with the theoretical value, which is mainly due to themixed weathering and leaching of minerals. The chemicalcomposition of bands in specimens T1, T3, and T5 isshown in table 1. There was little difference in the chemical composition of each band within the same turquoise,
except for the FeOT content in specimen T1. Additionally,
there was no obvious linear relationship between the content of other major elements and the color change ofturquoise in each band. In specimen T1, the FeOT contentsof the red band (T1-2), brownish red band (T1-3), brownband (T1-4), and tan band (T1-6) were higher than that of
the blue band (T1-1, T1-5).
Although bands in this turquoise showed obvious color
differences, there was no obvious difference in the infrared
spectrum and chemical composition of each band. The crystallinity of blue bands was higher than that of the red,brown, and yellow bands. An explanation of the formation
mechanism of this material needs further investigation.
Tianting Lei, Yan Li, Fengshun Xu, and Mingxing Yang
Gemmological Institute,
China University of Geosciences, Wuhan

T2-2 Light blue

T6-2 Deep green

Figure 9. SEM microtopography of different bands insamples T1, T2, T3, and T6. Images by Tianting Lei;
field of view 13.5 μm.

1200 cm–1, respectively. The FTIR absorption peaks of thefunctional group area, characterized by the vibrations of404

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL

Blue zircon reportedly from Malawi. Blue zircon is perhaps
best known from Cambodia, with most if not all of the material recovered as brown stones that turn blue upon heating. Recently, Brent Smith of Phoenix Gems supplied us
with a parcel of rough and cut zircons (figure 10) reportedly
from a new deposit in Malawi. According to Smith, themine is located in southern Malawi, near Maripa in the district of Chikwawa. The Michigan-based Phoenix Gems isin partnership with Malawi locals Jepther Ngwira andMatthias Chimbuto, who oversee mining. Heat treating
and cutting operations are handled by Smith in the UnitedStates. Smith also reported that fewer than 10 kg of mate-

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

TABLE 1. Composition of bands in turquoise samples T1, T3, and T5 by EPMA (wt.%).
Band
no.

Al2O3

SiO2

Na2O

P2O5

FeOT

CaO

ZnO

SO3

K2O

CuO

TotalaT1-1

35.940

6.092

0.029

31.022

1.326

0.068

0.094

0.145

0.149

8.765

83.630T1-2

36.840

4.414

0.251

32.129

1.413

0.091

0.169

0.132

0.236

7.862

83.537

T1-3

36.772

2.953

0.296

31.542

2.514

0.279

0.121

0.166

0.188

8.126

82.956

T1-4

35.248

4.952

0.604

29.431

2.856

0.165

0.131

0.096

0.382

7.777

81.642

T1-5

38.735

3.758

0.022

31.996

1.304

0.057

0.065

0.173

0.224

7.529

83.863

T1-6

37.119

2.387

0.033

32.065

2.903

0.089

0.076

0.151

0.045

8.087

82.955

T3-1

35.935

1.522

0.027

32.943

5.049

0.059

0.052

0.432

0.017

9.231

85.267

T3-2

35.317

1.802

0.007

32.292

6.712

0.083

0.021

0.401

0.032

9.186

85.853

T3-4

36.824

0.820

0.024

32.802

5.377

0.073

0.053

0.393

0.029

9.251

85.646

T5-1

35.453

3.782

0.049

32.527

2.307

0.062

0.490

0.310

0.099

7.750

81.433

T5-2

33.467

6.691

0.007

29.844

2.060

0.039

0.393

0.268

0.095

7.064

80.198

T5-3

34.804

4.224

0.043

32.337

2.945

0.076

0.543

0.313

0.092

7.277

81.654

T5-4

34.643

3.464

0.029

31.540

3.315

0.083

0.551

0.320

0.090

7.389

80.424

T5-5

34.303

3.266

0.035

31.620

2.309

0.091

0.586

0.344

0.101

7.407

80.062

T5-6

34.787

4.207

0.049

31.619

2.569

0.060

0.604

0.334

0.094

7.303

81.626

Idealb

37.6009.780

82.28034.900aTurquoise contains an ideal H2O content of 17.72% (J. Čejka et al., “Raman and infrared spectroscopic study of turquoise minerals,” Spectrochimica
Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, Vol. 149, 2015, pp. 173–182). Because this has not been tested in this experiment, the total
content of the measured elements is less than 100%.
b
The ideal contents of Al2O3 , P2O5 , and CuO in turquoise come from the literature (Čejka et al., 2015).

rial has been produced to date, much of which he has heat
treated using a proprietary process to produce a range ofblue and some bicolor blue and colorless stones. So far,only about 20 stones have been faceted.

Figure 10. This suite ofzircons, reportedly from
Malawi, shows unheated brown starting
material, examples ofrough material after
heat treatment, and six
examples of facetedstones (the largest stone
weighs 7.70 ct). Photo
by Diego Sanchez; courtesy of Phoenix Gems.

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

405

Gemological testing revealed properties consistent withblue zircon, including a refractive index that was over thelimit of the RI liquid (with a value of 1.81), a hydrostatic
SG of 4.52, and a handheld visible spectrum typical for zircon, with the most prominent feature being a sharp absorption line visible at about 654 nm. Exposing the rough bluestones to long-wave ultraviolet light for more than 90 seconds did not induce any UV reaction or obvious change incolor, as has been previously reported in blue zircon (N.
Renfro, “Reversible color modification of blue zircon by
long-wave ultraviolet irradiation,” Fall 2016 G&G, pp. 246–
251). Microscopic examination revealed minute needle-likeinclusions, partially healed fractures, and prominent blueand colorless zoning, although the stones were relatively
free of inclusions. The unpolarized ultraviolet/visible/nearinfrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectrum consisted of a broad absorption band centered at approximately 640 nm, which is thecause of the observed blue color and is seen in the absorption spectrum of blue zircons from other localities. Laser
ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry(LA-ICP-MS) chemical analysis confirmed the bulk composition was consistent with zircon, and major trace elements
included the rare earth elements yttrium and hafnium aswell as transition metals titanium and scandium.
In all, this new source of blue zircon reportedly from
Malawi has the potential to yield some beautiful finishedstones and is a welcome addition to the gem trade.
Nathan Renfro, Ziyin Sun, and Aaron Palke
GIA, Carlsbad

DIAMONDS
Historic sales of pink and blue diamonds from the Argylemine. In October 2021, nearly one year after the end of operations at the Argyle mine in Western Australia, Rio Tinto
sold its final production of pink and blue diamonds. The
company announced that the 37th Argyle pink diamond
Figure 11. Five diamonds that headlined the final
Argyle pink diamond tender, titled “The Journey
Beyond.” Courtesy of Rio Tinto.

Figure 12. A selection of blue and violet diamonds
from Rio Tinto’s “Once in a Blue Moon” tender. Courtesy of Rio Tinto.

tender collection of 70 rare pink and red diamonds delivered record-breaking prices across individual diamonds andfor the overall collection. This year’s edition was conducted in a series of virtual and face-to-face viewings. Highlights from the sale (shown left to right in figure 11) werethe 2.03 ct Fancy Deep pink Argyle Lumiere, the 1.79 ct
Fancy Vivid purplish pink Argyle Stella, the 2.05 ct Fancy
Intense pink Argyle Solaris, the 3.47 ct Fancy Intense pink
Argyle Eclipse, and the 1.01 ct Fancy red Argyle Bohème.
(For more on Argyle’s pink diamond sales, see J.M. King etal., “Exceptional pink to red diamonds: A celebration of
the 30th Argyle diamond tender,” Winter 2014 G&G, pp.
268–279.)
Along with the pink diamond tender, Rio Tinto sold its
final collection of Argyle blue and violet diamonds (figure12), which the mine has produced sporadically over the years(see C.H. van der Bogert et al., “Gray-to-blue-to-violet hydrogen-rich diamonds from the Argyle mine, Australia,”
Spring 2009 G&G, pp. 20–37). The entire lot of 41 diamonds
totaling 24.88 carats was purchased by a single bidder.
Stuart Overlin
GIA, Carlsbad

SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS
Epoxy-filled chalcedony as an imitation for “candy agate.”
A special kind of agate known as “candy agate” is producedin the Alxa Plateau of Inner Mongolia. This type of agate
usually comes in irregular shapes and granular gravels,with a diameter ranging from several millimeters to several
centimeters (figure 13). In addition to a variety of bodycolors, these agates occasionally present color zoning between
the inner core and the outer layer. These candy agates havebeen very popular during the past few years, especially in
the Taiwan market.

406

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

RAMAN SPECTRAINTENSITY463

Chalcedony outer layer
Epoxy filling of inner core

501
1606
822

638

250

450

650

850

1112
1184

1050

1250

1450

1650

RAMAN SHIFT (cm –1)

Figure 13. Rough stones of candy agate from the Alxa
Plateau of Inner Mongolia are usually found in irregular shapes and granular gravels, as shown in this picture. Photo by Shu-Hong Lin.

Figure 15. The Raman spectra of the outer layer andthe inner core of the beads matched those expected forchalcedony (K.J. Kingma and R.J. Hemley, “Raman
spectroscopic study of microcrystalline silica,” American Mineralogist, Vol. 79, 1994, pp. 269–273) and epoxy
resin (K.E. Chike et al., “Raman and near-infraredstudies of an epoxy resin,” Applied Spectroscopy, Vol.
47, No. 10, 1993, pp. 1631–1635). The stacked spectra
are baseline-corrected and normalized.

Recently, several strings of beads were submitted to the
Taiwan Union Lab of Gem Research (TULAB) as candy
agate (figure 14). The outer layer of the beads was colorlessand semitransparent, and the inner core presented various
colors of green, purple, orange, yellow, or greenish blue.
These agate beads did not have any fissures extending fromthe surface to the inner core but only a drill hole penetrating each bead so they could be threaded together to makea bracelet. Gemological testing identified the beads as chalcedony, but the unusually bright color of their inner cores
looked unnatural and thus aroused suspicion.
To verify whether the center color of these beads was
natural, the beads were further analyzed by Raman spectroscopy with 785 nm laser excitation at the surface andabout 1–2 mm deep into the colored inner core. Comparisons of the resulting spectra with those reported in previ-

ously published studies identified the materials as chalcedony and epoxy resin (figure 15), which means that these“candy agates” were likely chalcedony beads hollowed out
and filled with colored epoxy resin. Under microscopic observation (figure 16), some of the beads even had bubble inclusions in their inner cores, further supporting thepossibility of epoxy filling. To understand how these beads
were made, we asked the owner to provide samples cut in
half for further testing. Microscopic observation of thecross-sections revealed that the beads were somehow hollowed out through the drill hole and then filled with col-Figure 14. A string of beads submitted to TULAB as“candy agate.” Photo by Kai-Yun Huang.

Figure 16. One bead showed a few bubble inclusions
in its orange core. Photomicrograph by Shu-Hong Lin;
field of view 3.06 mm.

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

407

C

A

B

Figure 17. A greenish blue bead cut in half revealed
its drill hole (A), greenish blue epoxy filling (B), andcolorless chalcedony (C). Photomicrograph by YuShan Chou; field of view 2.83 mm.

ored epoxy resin (figure 17). Finally, a second drilling was
performed along the original drill hole after the epoxy resin
had hardened.
The colored inner core, which makes the agate special
and valuable, is common in natural candy agate from theAlxa Plateau. The imitation candy agate in this study could
be defined as a new type of epoxy-filled chalcedony whichshowed similar colored cores to natural candy agate. The
most effective non-destructive methods for identifying thisproduct are Raman spectroscopy and microscopic observation, but the results may be affected by the location of theinner core and the transparency of the chalcedony.
Shu-Hong Lin
Institute of Earth Sciences,
National Taiwan Ocean University
Taiwan Union Lab of Gem Research, Taipei
Yu-Shan Chou and Kai-Yun Huang
Taiwan Union Lab of Gem Research, Taipei“Floating Flower” inclusions in aventurine quartz bangle.
While gemologists use data to identify a gem, consumers
can only judge the identity of an object by its appearance,
which may lead to differences of opinion in the market.
The identification of the material is not difficult for labs,
but the present case is a good example of the misunderstandings that can happen outside of a gem lab. A recent
submission highlighted this situation. A difference of opinion between a seller and buyer over the identity of a bangle
resulted from the appearance created by “floating flower”
features (akin to falling blossoms) visible with the unaided
eye. One party believed the features were more consistent
with icy jadeite jade, while the other thought they weremore in keeping with albite. Analysis in our laboratory
proved neither was correct.
The object weighed approximately 37 g and measured
72 × 10 mm, and it appeared semitransparent to transpar-

408

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL

Figure 18. Bangles of similar appearance fashioned
from different materials: jadeite jade (top), albite(middle), and aventurine quartz (bottom, client sample). All exhibit green “floating flower” inclusions.
Photos by Lai Tai-An Gem Lab.
ent with a white bodycolor incorporating light green to
green inclusions (bottom photo in figure 18). A spot RI ofaround 1.54 was obtained, together with an SG of approximately 2.66. Both excluded jadeite jade as a candidate, but
albite was still an option. Further examination by FTIR absorbance and Raman spectroscopy (785 nm laser) ruled out
albite and confirmed the material was aventurine quartz(figure 19). Typically, aventurine quartz is not as transparent as the material from which the bangle was fashioned,
and this contributed to the misidentification as “jadeite

GEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

FTIR AND R AMAN SPECTRA
0.9
0.8

Aventurine quartz(client sample)
Albite480
Jadeite jade

1089

0.7

1176

ABSORBANCE

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

WAVENUMBER (cm –1)
463

INTENSITY

Aventurine quartz(client sample)
AlbiteJadeite jade

100

600

1100

1600

Figure 19. FTIR (top)and Raman (bottom)
spectroscopy confirmed
the client’s bangle wasfashioned from aventurine quartz. Peaks
observed in the FTIR
spectra (main peaks at
1176, 1089, and 480cm–1) and Raman spectra (main peak at 463
cm–1) did not match
those expected for albite or jadeite jade.
FTIR and Raman spectra of aventurine quartz
were collected from theclient’s sample; spectraof albite and jadeitejade were from theauthor’s database.

2100

RAMAN SHIFT (cm –1)

jade,” especially given the presence of the green “floating
flower” inclusions.

Further examination of the disorderly green mineral inclusions (figure 20, left) using a Chelsea filter revealed a

Figure 20. Left: The disorderly, flaky green mineral inclusions were clearly visible in the bangle. Field of view 5.5
mm. Right: The green inclusions appeared red through a Chelsea filter when illuminated by strong daylight illumination. Photos by Lai Tai-An Gem Lab.

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

409

distinct red color under strong daylight illumination—
characteristic of fuchsite mica (figure 20, right).
In the past, clients have mistaken highly translucent
albite containing “floating flower” inclusions as jadeite
jade, and vice versa. This particular case proves that thesame misidentification may apply to examples of highly
translucent aventurine quartz containing inclusions often
observed in jadeite jade and albite.
Larry Tai-An Lai (laitaiangemlab@gmail.com)
Lai Tai-An Gem Laboratory, Taipei

CONFERENCE REPORTS
GSA Meeting – GIA Session. A session of presentations on
gemological research topics, organized by GIA, took place
during the recent annual meeting of the Geological Societyof America (GSA) in Portland, Oregon (October 10–13,2021). Aaron Celestian of the Natural History Museum of
Los Angeles began the oral presentations with a descriptionof a famous piece of furniture—the Borghese-Windsor Cabinet—created in Italy around 1620. The large, multi-drawer
wooden cabinet was decorated with semi-precious gems,
including agate and lapis lazuli. A study of the geographic
origin of the agates indicated that most were from the IdarOberstein area of Germany, with the remainder from another source. The early construction date of the cabinet
makes Brazil an unlikely source for the agate; another possibility would have been India.
Cisil Badur of the Department of Geosciences of
Auburn University in Alabama reported on plagioclase
sunstones from the Columbia River basalts in Oregon thatexhibit a schiller effect due to oriented copper inclusions.
Argon-argon geochronological data indicate that the sunstones are younger in age than the host basalt. The author
suggests this age discrepancy might be due to argon loss

over geological time from the feldspar crystals, or it could
be explained by the host basalt having been formed duringa younger period of regional volcanism. A second talk on
copper in Oregon sunstones was given by Shiyun Jin of
GIA (figure 21). Rapid diffusion of copper in labradorite
feldspars can induce red or green colors and aventurescencedepending on the size of the exsolved copper particles.
These tiny particles produce a red color by selective absorption of incident light or, in larger specimens, a green
color by scattering red and orange light.
Rhiana Henry of the Department of Earth, Ocean andAtmospheric Sciences of the University of British Columbia
investigated the sodium and water contents of the main varieties of beryl to develop a method to calculate water contents in beryl based on the more easily measured sodium
contents. Rachelle Turnier of the Geoscience Departmentof the University of Wisconsin in Madison investigated oxygen isotope contents of sapphire from a variety of primaryand secondary sources in Montana. She found a wide rangeof δ18O values in the corundum samples. This large range
suggests that the Montana sapphire deposits originated fromcorundum formation in a variety of protolith source rocks.
Aaron Palke of GIA studied what was initially thought
might represent a rare new group of sapphire from the Rock
Creek deposit in Montana. Although displaying a crystal
shape and inclusions typical of sapphires from this area,
these new sapphires exhibited low iron and gallium compositions. Dr. Palke emphasized the need for caution in using
trace-element contents to decipher the geological origins of
gem corundum and reported that these pale or yellow-colored sapphires do not represent a new group of material.
Rather, they are typical Rock Creek sapphires that exhibit
very low iron and gallium contents.
Zinc-enriched, fracture-filled, and fibrous overgrowths
on classic Paraíba tourmaline crystals from Brazil were described by Darrell Henry from the Department of Geology

Figure 21. Speaking at
the GSA annual meeting, Shiyun Jin of GIA
presents his researchon the rapid diffusionof copper in Oregon
sunstones. Photo by
Robert Weldon.

410

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

Figure 22. A poster illustrating the spectroscopic characteristics of blue spinel before and after heat treatment. Photo by Cathy Jonathan.

and Geophysics at Louisiana State University in Baton
Rouge. Such features are not observed in cuprian tourmalines from Nigeria or Mozambique, and thus they may bediagnostic of the original Paraíba material. Yicen Liu of theGems and Technological Material Laboratory of Tongji
University in Shanghai detailed the color mechanism andeffects of heat treatment on spectral features and color forpink spinel from the famous Kuh-i-Lal deposit in Tajikistan. Che Shen of the Munsell Color Science Laboratory
at the Rochester Institute of Technology described amethod to calculate the color appearance of optically uniaxial colored gemstones.
Gabriela Farfan of the Department of Mineral Sciencesof the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC discussed the effect of environmental factors on freshwater
pearl mineralogy and chemistry. In a study of a lake in Kentucky, the pearl samples recorded oxygen isotope ratios andcrystallographic signatures that could be correlated withseasonal variations in lake temperature, dissolved oxygen,and light levels at a one-meter depth. Chunhui Zhou of

GIA reported the discovery of disordered dolomite crystals
in the central internal structure of a natural pearl from a
Cassius species mollusk.
Matthew Hardman of GIA discussed the use of multidimensional statistical analysis of the peak intensities ofcertain visible and near-infrared spectral features of irradiated green diamonds with and without green radiation
stains. This type of spectral analysis offers a new approachto understanding the lattice defects in diamonds that result
from natural and artificial radiation exposure. Roy Bassooof GIA reported on a study of deuterium-hydrogen ratios
in the low water content of nominally anhydrous minerals(such as olivine, enstatite, and garnet) found as inclusions
in diamonds from the Guiana Shield in South America.
This isotopic information could provide evidence for thegeological conditions of diamond formation and growth in
the upper mantle. Ira Litvak-Kochavi of the Departmentof Chemical Sciences at Ariel University in Israel discussed
the results of a study of the influence on paramagnetic defect centers in diamond at the high temperatures (900°C or
higher) that occur during facet polishing.
In addition to the talks, GIA staff members prepared
several poster presentations for the session. Jennifer StoneSundberg reviewed a quantitative description of the causesof color in corundum in terms of six major chromophoreelements. Stephanie Persaud described five diamonds thatexhibited a temporary color change from gray to yellow or
blue when subjected to extremely low, liquid-nitrogen temperatures. Wasura Soonthorntantikul discussed the spectroscopic characteristics of both unheated and heat-treatedblue spinels (figure 22). Heating tended to produce a less desirable grayish blue color. Paul Johnson reported on several
light blue to purple type Ia diamonds that owe their color
to a lattice defect associated with artificial irradiation. Dona
Mary Dirlam presented a map that showed localities inCentral Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Sri Lanka (as wellFigure 23. Dona
Dirlam (left) and Barbara Dutrow (right)
pose in front of a map
highlighting coloredstone and pearl sources
utilized in seventeenth-century Indian
jewelry. Photo by
Robert Weldon.

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021

411

Figure 24. Robert Weldon talks with visitors
at the GIA booth. Photo
by Cathy Jonathan.

as Europe and the Americas) that were the sources of colored stones and pearls used for jewelry purposes in India
during the seventeenth century (figure 23). Troy Ardon reviewed the different spectral features found in type I andtype II pink diamonds. Evan Smith discussed the discovery
of metallic inclusions with a heavy iron isotopic composition in high-quality type IIa colorless diamonds. This composition is attributed to the subduction of iron minerals
formed by serpentinization of oceanic peridotite. Yusuke
Katsurada described a study of iron and copper absorptionsin the spectrum of blue/green Paraíba tourmalines and amethod to determine whether a particular elbaite would
correctly be classified as a cuprian tourmaline.
Overall, the 2021 GSA annual meeting saw strong attendance and notable interest in the gemology sessions andexhibits (figures 24 and 25). The 2022 event is scheduled
for October 9–12 in Denver.
James Shigley
GIA, Carlsbad

Figure 25. Nathan Renfro(left) and James Shigley(center) chat with conference attendees. Photo by
Cathy Jonathan.

412

GEM NEWS INTERNATIONALGEMS & GEMOLOGYWINTER 2021