Copyright © 2020 by Yinji Li and Tamani Namakawa
All rights reserved
Published by
TBTI Global
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons AttributionNonCommercial-No Derivatives 4.0 International License

TBTI Global Book Series

Too Big To Ignore (TBTI; toobigtoignore.net) is a global research networkand knowledge mobilization partnership supported by over 600 members
from around the world. The network aims at elevating the proﬁle of smallscale ﬁsheries, arguing against their marginalization in national andinternational policies, and developing research and governance capacity toaddress global ﬁsheries challenges.
TBTI Global Book Series is a new publication series that aims to highlights
why we need to pay close attention to small-scale fisheries. The series will
be of use to anyone interested in learning more about small-scale fisheries,
especially about their important contribution to livelihoods, well-being,poverty alleviation and food security, as well as to those who are keen to
help raise profile of small-scale fisheries in the policy realm.
Cover illustration:
Front: Kinme fishing boats, Inatori, Shizuoka Pref., Y. Li, 2018;
Back: Abalone fishing operation, Tanohata Village, Iwate Pref., Tanohata
Village Office, 2020. |Cover graphic design by Kaoru Takakura, Japan.
Production manager for the TBTI Global Book Series: Vesna Kerezi.

Contents
Forewordvii

Acknowledgements

xi

List of Acronyms

xiii

I

Introduction

1. The Meaning of Small

3

2. A Bird’s Eye View

14

II

Governance Institutions of JSSF

3. A Long Standing Institution

25

4. Women for the Future33

5. Fisheries Policy Reform

42

6. The Satoumi Concept49

7. Coastal Use Governance58

8. From Attention to Action

69

9. Regional Governance

77

III

Present Conditions of JSSF

10. Traditions and Cultures

89

11. Ama Divers

100

12. Small-Scale Whaling

109

13. Fishing Safety120

14. Fishing Ports Infrastructure

129

15. Landing Markets

137

16. Fishing Ground Improvement

145

17. Business Continuity Plan

155

18. Recruitment and Training

164

IV

New Initiatives and Concepts of JSSF

19. The Sixth Industrialization

175

20. Fish Branding Strategies

184

21. Urban-Village Exchange

193

22. Nagisahaku Initiatives

203

23. Fisheries Management Toolbox

210

24. Hama-katsu Plan

220

25. Local Innovation

228

V

JSSF from a Comparative Perspective

26. Thailand & Japan

239

27. Malaysia & Japan249

28. Cambodia & Japan257

29. The Philippines & Japan265

30. Vietnam & Japan273

31. China & Japan284

32. South Korea & Japan292

33. Taiwan & Japan302

34. The Marshall Islands & Japan312

35. Malawi & Japan320

36. Denmark & Japan

329

37. U.S. & Japan

337

38. Canada & Japan

345

VI

JSSF from a Global Lens

39. Ocean Warming

357

40. Ocean Renewable Energy

366

41. Forest-River-Ocean Nexus

375

42. Marine Protected Areas

387

43. SSF Guidelines

396

44. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development405

45. Transdisciplinarity approach

413

46. The Role of NGOs

422

47. Blue Justice431

48. TBTI Japan

441

VII

Short Communication

49. Suisan Jyoshi Project and Small-Scale Fisheries

453

50. Fishers’ Perspectives on JSSF

456

51. Organizations’ Perspectives on JSSF

473

Japanese Abstracts

484

Bibliography

513

List of Authors

542

Afterword560

Foreword

To say that a book is timely does not generate the sense of novelty or curiosity
as it once did - the claim is being made too frequently, with numerous books
and articles published each day. Yet, there is something noteworthy about
this book, not only because of the splendid content it offers, but also because
it highlights the possibility of doing something together in challenging times.
Similar to what the title of the book suggests about Japanese small-scale
fisheries, the world is in the ‘era of big change,’ with rising concerns related
to global warming, globalization and environmental sustainability. But as
the book shows, many of the changes have origins and deep historical rootsthat need to be traced and examined in order to fully understand why things
are what they are today, and to figure out what to do next. Unavoidably, thenext steps need to take into consideration the uncertainty and the anxiety
around the Covid-19 pandemic, which affects fisheries and marginalized andvulnerable fishing communities in all corners of the world. While the bookdoes not address the impacts of Covid-19 on Japanese small-scale fisheries,
its timeliness is in how it reminds us that even in the era of big change, there
are many small changes that happen along the way.
This book is a real treat for everyone, whether you’re familiar or not withJapanese fisheries. Although the book is about small-scale fisheries, it isobvious, at least in the context of Japan, that they cannot be discussed as if they
exist on their own, disconnected from industrial fisheries and other economic
sectors in the society. This is clearly the vision of Li and Namikawa, the book
editors, as they invited 48 contributors to cover all aspects of small-scale
fisheries without losing sights of the broader picture, and with an intention
to situate Japanese small-scale fisheries in the global context. Such an effort
makes the book a very interest read, in addition to being informative andviithought provoking.
The book begins with two introductory chapters that provide an overview
of small-scale fisheries, followed by several chapters addressing various
aspects of small-scale fisheries governance (Part 2). Here we learn aboutmajor changes facing small-scale fisheries from resource degradation, income
reduction to the ‘successor shortage’ problem, mostly due to aging population
or de-population with fishers’ children receiving higher education and more
job options as they migrate to cities and urban areas. Changes in governanceare also prominent, challenging the role and importance of the traditional
system that recognizes the rights of fishing people. There is no mistaken,
however, about the continued presence and significance of the fisheries
cooperative associations (FCA) in determining the level of activities andthe wellbeing of fishing communities along the coast. The modernization of
the governance system is seen, first and foremost, in the new Fisheries Act(2018), which, similar to other reforms elsewhere, raises issues and questions
about its impact on certain sectors. How the Japanese small-scale fisheries
will affect by the new legislation, and with it other initiatives, like the Sixth
Industrialization leading fisheries into a growth industry (“Seichosangyoka”)
or the modern version of Satoumi (the multi-stakeholder council), remains
to be seen.
The rich and lively portraits about small-scale fisheries and the fishingvillages are presented in Part 3 of the book. These chapters give a vivid
picture of small fishing towns dotted around the coast of Japan, with men
and women, and in some cases young people, involving in various aspectsof the fisheries throughout the value chain. Changes in the demographics,
management, marketing, and consumer preference are common threads inthese chapters. The dynamics in the fisheries and the fishing communities arefurther illustrated in Part 4, with chapters discussing new initiatives such as
local branding strategies, “Nagisahaku” activities that bring tourists to fishingvillages to supplement fishing income, and the ‘Hama-katsu plan’ to revitalize
small-scale fisheries, among others. The interplay between tradition andmodernity is acknowledged throughout.
Part 5 of the book offers something very unique. After looking into theviii

Japanese small-scale fisheries, it is now looking outward, making comparison
with 13 countries in the region and across the oceans. The comparison
with Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, Philippines and Vietnam brings insights
and lessons in governance, whether community-based, ecosystem-basedor market-based. Considering the close connection and exchanges with
China, Korea and Taiwan, some similarities are expected although small-scale
fisheries in Japan seem to be better recognized and are slightly better off than
the neighbouring countries. The inclusion of Marshall Islands and Malawi
offers an interesting comparison that again speaks more to similarities thandifferences. The island setting and the food culture in Marshall Islands, forinstance, resonate well with the fisheries tradition in Japan, but both places
are going through similar changes and challenges. On the other hand, thecomparison with Denmark, USA and Canada shows more differences thansimilarities. Japan is more protective and appreciative of their small-scale
fisheries than these other countries, despite all arguing for heritage andcultural value.
Returning to the point that small-scale fisheries are not isolated fromother sectors or other forces outside of their communities, Part 6 of thebook looks at small-scale fisheries in the broader context, such as ocean
warming and other ocean development like renewable energy. Education andconservation are common themes in the global discourse, which also includes
the discussion about international instruments like the Voluntary Guidelines
for Securing Small-Scale Fisheries Guidelines and the global agenda like theSustainable Development Goals. While several chapters suggest the potential
for Japan to be a role model for balancing growth and development withsustainable small-scale fisheries, as well as in local capacity development,
concerns about social justice and other forms of injustices in policymaking
and management are still prevalent and may affect the viability and wellbeingof small-scale fisheries. As argued by the final chapter in the book, it is forthese reasons the “TBTI Japan Research Network,” which brings together
scientists, practitioners, community groups and organizations interested insmall-scale fisheries, is formed.
The TBTI Japan Research Network begins with the book but it certainlyixdoes not end there. Already within the book, it captures the voices offishers and fishers’ organizations, as well as of those working in different
government agencies and research institutions, about the issues and concernsin small-scale fisheries and vision and priorities for such a network (Part7). Li, Namikawa, the 48 chapter authors and the 17 short communication
contributors have already embarked on this very important mission – toenhance the visibility of small-scale fisheries, to elevate their values and topromote an appropriate governance system for their sustainability. Now it is
up to the reader of the book to join them.
Ratana Chuenpagdee
TBTI Global Director
St. John’s, Canada
July 2020x

Acknowledgements

We would first and foremost like to extend our heartfelt thanks to TBTI Director
and Global Book Series Editor, Professor Ratana Chuenpagdee of Memorial
University, for inviting us to work on this project. We are so honoured tohave received this special opportunity, as well as Professor Chuenpagdee’s
constructive guidance throughout the writing and editing process. We arealso deeply appreciative of Vesna Kerezi, TBTI coordinator, and Andrew Tsai,TBTI research assistant, who developed the e-book’s format and also provided
assistance with English editing.
To the 48 authors who took the time out of their busy lives to contributechapters to this book: thank you. Without your help, this project would nothave been able to come together. We also thank the 17 short communication
contributors who, despite the pandemic, took time out of their busy schedules
to share their valuable insights with us. We would also like to take thisopportunity to express our appreciation for Professor Takeshi Hidaka of
Kindai University for his kind guidance and support, and for his willingness
to respond to various requests relating to this publication. Furthermore, weare deeply grateful for the fruitful cooperation of Shingo Takayoshi, directorof the Japanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities, formobilizing many of his colleagues to contribute to this publication in addition
to authoring a chapter. We would also like to extend our thanks to the following
individuals for providing their expertise and advice to this book: our graduate
school supervisor, Professor Xiaobo Lou of Tokyo University of Marine Scienceand Technology; Professor Mitsutaku Makino of Tokyo University; Tomomasa
Kageyama, Visiting Professor at Tokyo University of Marine Science andTechnology and Adviser to the National Association of Fisheries Infrastructure;
Dr. Tsutom Miyata of the Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency; andxiProfessor Izumi Seki of the School of Marine Science and Technology at Tokai
University.
The launching event of the TBTI Japan Research Network, which included a
policy forum and training workshop, was scheduled to take place in Shizuoka
from May 20th to 23rd, 2020, but was postponed due to COVID-19. Although
the event did not take place as planned, we still wish to thank the School ofMarine Science and Technology of Tokai University for their support and foroffering a venue to present the occasion. Moreover, we are grateful to the
Yui FCA for offering to host the proposed field trip. These acknowledgements
would not be complete without recognizing the many organizations whichhave assisted us with the photographs published in this e-book: the Izu FCA,
the Inatori Branch of the Izu FCA, the Shizuoka Set-Net Fishing Association,
the Higashihazu FCA, the Mochimune Branch of the Shimizu FCA, Tanohata
Village, and Shirayanagi Fisheries. Furthermore, we sincerely thank everyone
from various small-scale fisheries in Japan for inspiring us, the authors of thisbook, to conduct our research and collaborate with these very special fishingcommunities.
This work was partially supported by Tokai University Research & Education
Grant. Yinji Li personally wishes to again thank Professor Chuenpagdee forkindly hosting her one-year sabbatical at the TBTI headquarters at Memorial
University, where she spent the last few months of her stay in Newfoundland
preparing this e-book. A special thank you also goes to Ema Shiroma-Chao
for helping Yinji Li with her English writing.
Yinji Li and Tamano Namikawa (editors)
Shizuoka and Fujisawa
July 2020

xii

List of Acronyms

AIS
ASC
BCP
BVC
CBD
CBFM
CCAMLR
CITES
COP21
CPUE
DEC
DFO
DMCR
DMO
DNA
DOF
EAFM
EC
EEZ
FAO
FCA
FFAW-Unifor
FRA
FRP
FY
GARFO
GDP
GHG
GNP
GPS
GT/GRT

Automatic Identification System
Aquaculture Stewardship Council
Business Continuity Plan
Beach Village Committees
Convention on Biological Diversity
Community Based Fishery Management
Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine
Living Resources
Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
21st Session of the Conference of the Parties
Catch Per Unit Effort
Department of Environmental Conservation
Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Department of Marine and Coastal Resources
Destination Management Organizations
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Department of Fisheries
Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management
European Commission
Exclusive Economic Zone
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Fisheries Cooperative Association
Fish, Food and Allied Workers Union of Newfoundlandand Labrador
Japan Fisheries Research Agency
Fiber Reinforced Plastics
Fiscal Year
Greater Atlantic Regional Fisheries Office
Gross Domestic ProductGreenhouse Gas
Great Northern Peninsula, Newfoundland and Labrador,
CanadaGlobal Positioning System
Gross (Registered) Tonnage

xiii

GTZ
HACCP
HLP-SOEICLARM
ICT
IISD
ILEK
ILO
IMO
IntNRMS
IQ
ITQ
IUCN
IUU
JF Zengyoren
JFA
JICA
JSFE
JSSF
JST
JTED
LKIM
LPLC
MAED
MAFF
Maine DMR
MEL-J
MFRDMD
MHLW
MLIT
MPA
MPAs
MSC
MSY
MTUs
NAFO
NGO
NJFES
NOAA
OECM
OFCF

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit(German Agency for Technical Cooperation)
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy
International Center for Living Aquatic Resources
Management
Information and Communication Technology
International Institute for Sustainable Development
Integrated Local Environmental Knowledge
International Labour Organization
International Maritime Organization
Integrated Natural Resource Management Systems
Individual (catch) Quota
Individual Transferable Quota
International Union for Conservation of Nature
Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated
National Federation of Fisheries Cooperative
Associations
Japan Fisheries Agency
Japan International Cooperation Agency
Japanese Society of Fisheries Economics
Japanese Small-Scale Fisheries
Japan Science and Technology Agency
Juvenile and Trash Excluder Device
Lembaga Kemajuan Ikan Malaysia (Fisheries
Development Authority of Malaysia)
Local Production for Local Consumption
Malaysian Acetes Efficiency Device
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan
Maine Department of Marine Resources
Marine Eco-Label Japan
Marine Fishery Resources Development andManagement Department
Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
Marine Protected Areas
Marine Park Areas
Marine Stewardship Council
Maximum Sustainable Yield
Mobile Transceiver Units
Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization
Non-Governmental Organization
North Japan Fisheries Economics Society
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures
Overseas Fishery Cooperation Foundation of Japan

xiv

OPRI
OTEC
OVA
PAN
PICRC
PLS
PNMS
POP
RISTEXRMI
SATREPSSBSTTASDG
SEAFDEC
SNS
SPF
SPREP
SSF Guidelines/SSFG
SSF
STCW
TAC
TBTI
TD-VULS

TEDs
TURF
UNFCCCUNU-IAS
UPA
VMS
WSFC
WWF
WWII

Ocean Policy Research Institute
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
Outstanding Universal Value
Protected Area Network
Palau International Coral Reef Center
Pooling system
Palau National Marine Sanctuary
Point of Purchase
Research Institute of Science and Technology for Society
Republic of Marshall Islands
Science and Technology Research Partnership for
Sustainable Development
Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical andTechnological Advice
Sustainable Development Goals
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
Social Networking Service
Sasakawa Peace Foundation
Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment
Programme
Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable SmallScale Fisheries
Small-Scale Fisheries
Small Type Coastal Whaling
Total Allowable CatchToo Big To Ignore
Transdisciplinary Study of Natural Resource
Management under Poverty Conditions Collaboratingwith Vulnerable Sectors
Turtle Excluder Devices
Territorial Use Rights Fisheries
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
ChangeUnited Nations University Institute for Advanced Studyof Sustainability
Underwater Protected Areas
Vessel Monitoring System
World Small-Scale Fisheries Congress
World Wide Fund for Nature
World War IIxv

I
Introduc on1. The Meaning of Small

Definition, Governance, Roles and Challenges of Japanese Small-Scale
Fisheries

Yinji Li
Tokai University
Tamano Namikawa
Japanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities

Yui fishing port (Inner port), Shimizu-Ku, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. Y. Li, 2020

3

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The rapid spread of COVID-19 took place while planning this book on thestatus of Japanese small-scale fisheries (JSSF). More than ever, they are
at risk of folding under the pressures of an increasingly changing world.
Despite this, various initiatives from coast to coast are being organized byfishers to help JSSF survive these circumstances. Given the uncertainty of
the current climate, this book provides timely insights into JSSF and theirsignificant roles. The opening section begins by providing necessarycommentary on how JSSF are defined in this book. Next, significant
challenges currently facing JSSF are explained, coined as the “triple
pains” and “triple changes.” The governance system of Japan’s fisheries
is then analyzed, shedding light on the far-reaching and little-known
influence of JSSF. Finally, in addition to outlining the book’s structure,
the chapter closes by detailing the book’s objectives and messages.

Coastal fisheries vs. small-scale fisheries
In the process of sending chapter invitations for this book, the first issue weencountered was how to answer the question, “What is considered a smallscale fishery (SSF)?” Its definition is not rigidly fixed in the vast body ofresearch of the fishing industry. This is due to the fact that the definitionof SSF can vary around the world, depending on different factors such as
the natural, social, and cultural environments of the fishery in question.
However, this book solely focuses on Japanese small-scale fishery (JSSF). In
Japan, fisheries are classified into three categories: pelagic fisheries, offshore
fisheries, and coastal fisheries, based on vessel size and fishing location. In
terms of identifying SSF within those categories, the coastal fisheries, which
are generally small in scale, first come to mind. This group refers to many
types of fisheries, including ones that use non-powered boats or powerboats
less than ten metric tons, set-net fisheries, and aquaculture. Operated by morethan 90% of Japan’s self-employed fishers (MAFF, 2019a), coastal fisheries
41. THE MEANING OF SMALL

include fishery enterprises of various sizes, ranging from those that sell large
volumes of fish to those that engage fisheries independently and have a muchsmaller scale of sales. This is the primary source of confusion in finding a
consensus on the definition of SSF in Japan.
Having established the above, we consider Japanese coastal fisheries to be
SSF. The first reason for this is due to the fact that coastal fisheries include
all types of fisheries operating along Japan’s coasts. With coastal fisheries
already largely considered to be SSF, they offer a logical starting point to
explore what constitutes prototypical JSSF. Another reason for this position
is to emphasize the importance of coastal fisheries in Japan, during a timein which the fishing industry as a whole has been dramatically impacted bychanges in social and natural environments (Tada et al., 2014). Adding tothis current wave of change, Japan’s government has also recently enacted a
new fisheries policy with the aim of “making the fishery industry a growthindustry (MAFF, 2018c).” This policy may affect the crucial role that coastal
fisheries play, making it essential to identify which of their functions maychange versus those which should remain intact.

The challenge of small: triple pains and triple changes
Now that Japan’s coastal fisheries have been identified and defined as JSSF,
we will briefly consider the various challenges that they are facing.

The triple pains
The environment surrounding Japanese fisheries is becoming increasingly
difficult to manage every year. Here, we will borrow the words “triple pains”(Masubuchi, 1987) to refer to three significant challenges currently facing
JSSF: the deterioration of fishery resources, a decrease in fishing income,and finally, successor shortage. Regarding marine resources around Japan,
resource evaluations have been conducted for 84 stocks of 50 fish species. The
government assessment conducted in 2018 (MAFF, 2019a) determined there
were 14 stocks with high resource levels (17% of the total stocks), 29 stocks5

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

with moderate levels (34%), and 41 stocks with low levels (49%). Of the 37
stocks that were analyzed of the 15 major fish species in Japan’s fisheries andbiomes, just 60%–70% were at moderate or high levels. These numbers havebeen declining for decades, as Japan’s fisheries and aquaculture production
peaked in 1984 at 12.82 million tons, before rapidly decreasing until 1995 when
the decline slowed to a more gradual pace. Coastal fisheries had successfully
maintained steady production at a rate of approximately 2 million metric tons
per year. However, their production rates have been falling since 1995, withan output of 890,000 metrics tons recorded in 2017 (MAFF, 2018a).
With regard to income, fishers’ salaries are much smaller than those ofworkers in most other industries (MAFF, 2018b): individual fishery enterprisesthat engage in aquaculture generate approximately 8 million yen, while
individuals who engage in coastal fishing generate an average of around 2
million yen. This is partly due to the presence of many aging fishers who
continue to fish by reducing the scale of their operations, decreasing thenumber of operating days, and specializing in fisheries that require lessphysical effort. Although the income of the middle-aged generation is notconsidered small and while the unit price of marine products has slightly
increased in recent years (disregarding the impacts of COVID-19), salaries
fluctuate as they are subject to fish prices which vary due to weather, fuelcosts, and catch volumes.
Highlighted against this backdrop is one final major threat to JSSF: a severelack of successors in the fishing industry. The majority of coastal enterprises
in Japan are operated by individual fishers who mainly engage in fishing by
themselves. The only potential successors to these fishers are their children,
who do not always opt to continue their parent’s work due to changes insocietal values related to life and work. Although projects in various places
exist to recruit and train motivated fishers as leaders (such as those who workin the city), the overall number of fishers in Japan has decreased from 238,000
in 2003 to 153,000 in 2017, while the proportion of fishers aged 65 or older
has risen from 30% to 40% (MAFF, 2019b).

6

1. THE MEANING OF SMALL

The triple changes
Japanese fisheries are also exposed to what we will refer to as the “triple
changes,” which include (a) structural changes in the nation’s social environment; (b) global changes in marine systems; and (c) policy changes inJapan’s fishing industry. Structural changes in the social environment include
a decrease in rural populations as urban areas grow, changes in the fishingindustry’s product distribution structure due to the increasing power andinfluence of retailers over SSF, and changes in the lifestyles of urban residents
who increasingly use coastal areas for leisure. The growing presence and theimpact of ocean development, including renewable energy projects in coastal
areas (Kawabe et al., 2016), also represent major structural changes to SSF.
As the Blue Justice concept advocates, it is essential that big development
recognizes and respects the existence of SSF and the fishing communities
which sustain them (Jentoft, 2019).
With regard to changes in the environment of marine ecosystems, Japan’s
fisheries have not been spared by their effects. These global changes, inducedby various natural and anthropogenic stressors, have impacted the ability offisheries to function and deliver goods (Bundy et al., 2016). Often manifested inlarge-scale “natural” disasters such as hurricanes, typhoons, and tsunamis inrecent times, coastal fishing communities, in particular, are most vulnerable
because they are situated so close to the very sea they depend upon. While
all citizens suffer in some way, shape, or form due to damages caused by thechanging sea environment, JSSF and their host villages must now face thereality of living along coastal front-lines.
Finally, the last of the “triple changes” refers to those brought on by
the fisheries policy reform of 2018. Specifically, in the past, set-net anddemarcated fishery rights were governed under a system in which local fishers’
rights were prioritized, as uniformly determined by law. This system has since
been modified to give priority to fishers who are deemed to be operating the“most effective and appropriate” fisheries (MAFF, 2018c), easing the entry ofprivate capital into the fishing industry. As a result, there is a growing chorusof concern that local fishers are being deprived of their usual fishing grounds
7IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE(Asahi News, 2018; Chosyu News, 2019), and that the effects of these newpolicy changes may negatively impact JSSF.

The meaning of small: too big to ignore
Despite these many challenges, this section will explain why we believe thatthe role of JSSF will continue to be significant for years to come.

The governance system
The most crucial law in Japan’s fisheries institutions is the Fishery Act. Under
this law, Japanese fisheries are roughly divided into four major categories:
licensed fisheries, fishery rights-based fisheries, free fisheries, and otherfisheries (FLSG, 2005). The first category comprises a licensing systemthat aims to limit Japan’s number of fishing vessels. It mainly targets
fisheries operating offshore and in distant water fishing grounds and isfurther sub-divided into minister-licensed fisheries and governor-licensed
fisheries. In contrast, fishery rights-based fisheries are primarily composed ofcoastal fisheries and are sub-divided into set-net fishery rights, demarcatedfishery rights, and common (shared) fishery rights (Makino, 2011). Anotherfundamental law in Japan’s fisheries institutions is the “Fisheries Cooperative
Act.” Based on this act, the constitution of each cooperative provides detailed
eligibility requirements for membership, such as disclosure of the annual
number of days engaged in fishery, a declared street address in the concernedarea, approved consent by the general assembly of the cooperative, etc. (Louand Ono, 2001).
Coastal fisheries involve both fishery rights-based fisheries and governorlicensed fisheries. The underlying framework of the fishery rights system
was succeeded by the Meiji Fishery Act, which formalized customary practices established during the Edo Period regarding the use of fishing waters(Hamamoto, 1989). Well-recognized by fisheries researchers, “Iso-Wa-JiTsuki, Oki-Wa-Iri-Ai” is an old Japanese phrase that aptly describes thecustomary use of coastal waters in those days. Roughly translated, it states,81. THE MEANING OF SMALL“the local fishing community manages the foreshore area, while the offshore
area is open to everyone” (Tanaka, 2003). Thus, while the framework of
the Meiji Fishery Act has a history of more than 100 years, it is still thefundamental regime governing the use of Japan’s coastal areas as fishinggrounds (Kaneda, 2001). Under a governance system so based on fisheryrights, fishers gather together around fisheries cooperative associations andself-govern, contributing significantly to the co-management of Japanesefisheries (Makino and Matsuda, 2005).
Meanwhile, a new fisheries policy was enacted in 2018 for the first timein 70 years, revising the fishery rights system in the process. The statedprimary purpose of the policy reform is “Sei-Cho-San-Gyo-Ka,” or “growthindustrialization,” but there are growing concerns about its impacts on SSFs
(The Suisan Keizai Daily News, June 5th, 2018). Cynical about the situation,some critics have been quoting “Sei-Cho-San-Gyo-Ka” but with different
intonations, using wordplay to ask, “Is it really growth industrialization?” In
this climate of change, it is demanded to fully recognize that the real growthindustrialization can only occur by taking the great significance and roles of
SSF into full consideration (Cohen PJ et al., 2019).

Life Above Water and “Life Below Water”
Life Above Water (Jentoft, 2019) compellingly emphasizes the need to securesustainable fishing communities in order to realize the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 14, “Life Below Water,” which aims to “sustainably
manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems.” In alignment with this,Japan’s fishery governance system centered on fishery rights protects life
above water by maintaining the regularity of the fishing industry, thus acting
to stabilize the communities which depend on it (Hamamoto, 1989). Fisheryrights also represent the rights of the fishers’ life. That is, the rights ensure thefundamental viability of fishers’ livelihoods by granting them the exclusive
right to fish. Furthermore, it ensures a form of social justice by providing
fishers with eligibility and priority to obtain fishery rights (Tabira, 1998).
In particular, the common fishery rights are characterized by the fact that9

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

everyone in the community can use them together (Hamamoto, 1999).
The fishery rights system also plays a vital role in protecting life below
water and contributing significantly to the sustainable production of Japanese
coastal fisheries. Trends in data have shown that the coastal fishery’s
production levels have remained relatively stable, while those of the offshoreand distant water fisheries have shrunk (Lou, 2014). This contrast can be
explained by the effectiveness of the fishery rights system in restricting
the entry of external capital and individuals into coastal fisheries, where
authorized users are easily defined and identified. Furthermore, the rightsbased system facilitates the voluntary governance of fishers and fisher’sorganizations by granting them exclusive rights to manage themselves (Lou,2009). In this, we can observe that the Japanese fishery rights structure
demonstrates some of Ostrom’s eight principles for common-pool resource
management (Ostrom, 1990). For instance, clear boundaries have been
defined, and the rule-making rights of community members are respected byoutside authorities.
However, the previously mentioned policy reform will allow companies
easier access to the aquaculture and set-net fisheries, with possible aid fromthe government, which is to evaluate “whether fishing waters are being usedappropriately and effectively (MAFF, 2018c).” Although guidelines regarding
criteria for such evaluations have yet to be announced, it is believed that theamendment of the Fishery Act will necessitate changes to the practice of selfgovernance within coastal fisheries. If they are indeed to occur, it is crucial
that the governance system does not lose its fundamental role of protecting
life above and below water.

JSSF from a global lensPublished by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), The Voluntary
Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context ofFood Security and Poverty Eradication is the first internationally ratified policy
document to address challenges facing SSF around the world (FAO, 2015).
While they are believed to support regional economies and help highlight101. THE MEANING OF SMALL

the social and cultural value of people living in coastal areas, communities
adjacent to SSF are often vulnerable and subject to poor living and working
conditions. In addition to highlighting these harsh circumstances, the SSF
Guidelines have been provocative in supporting the long-term viability of SSF
and their prioritization of access to resources. In doing so, the SSF Guidelines
include mention of land, fishery, and forest rights issues as they relate to SSF,
in light of the key roles SSF play in marine resource conservation.
For JSSF, despite lingering uncertainties regarding the revised Fishery
Act, many of the provisions in the SSF Guidelines have already been clearedby the Japanese fisheries governance system, such as those which ensure
fundamental rights and access to fisheries. That being said, what goes on
to take place in Japan’s fisheries will still be crucial to observe, as it has
been in the past. The Japanese fishing industry, along with its foregoinggovernance system, has played a significant role in the improvement of fishery
management in numerous countries across Asia. These include Vietnam,
Thailand, the Philippines, South Korea, and China, among others (OFCF, 2020).
In today’s era of big change, JSSF are sure to play a significant role in realizing
sustainable fisheries on a global basis.

About this book
The motivation behind this book was born from an idea that occurred as aresult of attending various international conferences; that is, Japan is a nationthat is proud of its renowned fisheries and oceans. However, its coasts are also
home to many small-scale, often family-run fisheries, which do not comeanywhere close to being acknowledged in a manner similar to their large scale,industrial counterparts. Therefore, the primary goal of this book is to raise theprofile of JSSF and to emphasize their importance in establishing sustainable
SSF around the world. With this book, we also wish to inform readers about
new initiatives and concepts modeled by JSSF through which communities are
rallying to support their local fisheries in as many ways possible.
With the above perspectives in mind, this book has been organized into
six parts: (1) Governance Institutions of JSSF, (2) Present Conditions of JSSF,
11

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE(3) New Initiatives and Concepts of JSSF, (4) JSSF from a Comparative Lens,(5) JSSF from a Global Lens, (6) Comments and Messages to JSSF. A wide
range of topics is covered in each part, in order to provide the reader witha basic understanding of JSSF without having to resort to further materials.
While many academic societies exist to conduct studies within the domain offisheries economics and social sciences in Japan, comprehensive research
focused specifically on SSF is less common. Also, compared to existing
literature in the field of fisheries natural sciences, there is a clear lack ofEnglish materials and books on fisheries social sciences. We believe that
this book will provide a much-needed contribution to this gap in research.
Furthermore, this book is notable in that it has collected the valuable insightsof leaders in the fishery: first-hand experts with experiential knowledge of
the “big change” happening daily in the “Era of Big Change.” Input fromresearchers, civil service workers, and members of the mass media was also
received to verify the perspectives of various stakeholders of JSSF.

“… What the Norwegian example does explain, however, is that if there
is a will to foster an organization that makes a difference to small-scale
fishers, to the industry, and to the entire fisheries governance system,
there is a way.” (Jentoft, 2019, p. 40)
This quote refers to an example of fishery governance in Norway, promptedby the nation’s Raw Fish Act and the promotion of fishers’ organizations.
Jentoft indicates that although it is unclear to what extent the Norwegianmodel is linked to the governance system of other countries, one thing canbe said for certain, using the Norwegian case as an example: if there is a will
to change something in a positive manner, then there is a way. We hope that
this message is also communicated through this book.
SSF have protected coastal resources, fishers’ livelihoods, and the traditions
and cultures of communities throughout the ages. And, despite today’s eraof big change, they continue to persevere. JSSF are no exception. Whilstorganizing the publication of this book, COVID-19 spread across the globe
faster than we had ever anticipated. With the restaurant industry suspended
121. THE MEANING OF SMALL

and people staying at home, demand for fish products and prices have sharply
declined, leaving JSSF in circumstances more precarious than ever before.
With proposed government aid unable to make up for the industry’s losses,
various initiatives from coast to coast have been spearheaded in an effort
to improve the outlook of JSSF, demonstrating their resilience and desire
to remain active as meaningful contributors to society. The authors of thischapter contend that where and when there is a will, there is a way, as JSSF
look to survive and thrive in this era of change.

Acknowledgment
This work was partially supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
JP17K12861.

13

2. A Bird’s Eye View

Diverse Forms of Coastal Fisheries and the Future of Fishing Villages

Sachiko Harada
Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology

Fish sorting at Ushitaki fishing port, Aomori Prefecture, K. Suzuki, 201514

2. A BIRD’S EYE VIEWAs the production of Japanese distant water fisheries and offshore fisheries declines, the importance of coastal fisheries, including aquaculture,
is increasing. However, coastal fisheries face a number of problems,such as the declining number of fishers and an aging population. While
blessed with abundant marine environments, the coastal areas of Japanare subject to harsh conditions such as deteriorating aquatic resourcesand global-scale climate change. To preserve beautiful fishing villages
and abundant fish-eating cultures seen all across Japan for posterity,
sustainable business schemes for fishing villages need to be established,such as converting traditional fisheries into a growth industry andutilizing local aquatic resources.

History of the Japanese fisheries industry
Being a country surrounded by oceans with rich fishing grounds, Japan has
been reliant on aquatic resources since antiquity. From shell middens dated
back to the Jomon period (circa 14,000–300 BCE), traces of fish and shellfish
eaten by people back then have been discovered. By the Muromachi period(1336–1573), early port towns and fishing villages started forming, thus
leading to the flourishing of domestic maritime traffic/international trade. In
the Edo period (1603–1868), more people started settling in coastal areas
to work as professional fishers, hence forming the foundation of fishingvillages as we know today. As the consumption of aquatic products increased,businesses for distributing those items developed. The need to assess the
freshness of aquatic products gave birth to the new profession of brokers, thus
further clarifying the division between producers and distributors (Ministryof Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2017).
From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the Japanese fisheries
industry has made unprecedented progress thanks to many technologicalinnovations, such as the establishment of fisheries experimental stations,motorization of fishing vessels, advances in fishing equipment (e.g., fishing15

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

nets), and manufacturing of processed seafood. Amid the post-World War
II rapid economic growth in Japan, the fisheries industry also modernizedby leaps and bounds, mostly replacing non-motorized boats (which used tocomprise the majority of fishing fleets) with motorized vessels. Moreover,advances in fish catching technology have made it possible to operate fishingvessels in more distant waters. These factors contributed to drastic increases
in the overall marine fisheries production in Japan (Annual Report on Fisheries,2017). However, by the early 1970s, the socio-economic situation in Japan hadchanged dramatically, forcing the fisheries industry to face an increasingly
harsh environment. The first oil crisis in 1973 put a halt to the period of
rapid economic growth in Japan, and the second oil crisis in 1979 dampened
the increasing fish prices. Due to the decrease in sardine resources and thesetting of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ), the Japanese annual fisheries
production started declining precipitously after peaking in 1984 (12 million
820 thousand tons), with a gradual declining trend continuing in recent years(Figure 1).

Figure 1: Trends in the production volume of Japan’s fisheries and aquaculture.
Source: Fisheries and Aquaculture Production Statistics

16

2. A BIRD’S EYE VIEW

Characteris cs and trends of coastal fisheries
In Japan, the majority of coastal fisheries operators run small-scale fisheriesbusinesses, which are the main theme of this manuscript. Accordingly, let us
focus on the recent trends in Japan’s coastal fisheries. Contrary to the typicalimage invoked by the phrase “coastal fisheries” (where a couple of fishers
embark on a small fishing boat and work on a day-to-day basis), official
statistical survey reports define it as follows: “A collective term for any of thefisheries operations that do not use fishing vessels, use non-motorized boats,
outboard motorboats, or motorized boats weighing less than 10 tons, or use
fixed nets or seawater culture (Fisheries Census)”, or “The term for any of thefisheries operations that use trawling nets, other gill nets, large fixed nets,
salmon fixed nets, small fixed nets, other fishing nets, other long lines, othertrolling lines, other baits, or shell/seaweed gathering nets (Statistic Survey on
the Marine Fisheries Production).” In other words, the term “coastal fisheries”
refers to any of the fisheries operations that do not use fishing vessels or thatuse fishing vessels weighing less than 10 tons.
The major characteristics of the Japanese coastal fisheries include thediversity of fishing operations and the pervasiveness of family-run businesses.
In waters off both the Pacific coast and the Sea-of-Japan coast of Japan, theconfluence of the Oyashio and Kuroshio currents and that of the Tsushima and
Liman currents respectively produce a fertile environment rich in plankton,
which fish can feed on. Moreover, continental shelves spread in these waters,
serving as habitats for many fish species. Thanks to these natural conditions,some of the most abundant fishing grounds in the world are located in thewaters adjoining the Japanese archipelago, inhabited by a wide variety offish species. Additionally, the complexity of the seafloor terrain and naturalenvironment in these waters necessitated fishers to adapt to each specific fish
species and fishing ground and devise multitudes of fishing techniques.
According to the 2018 Fisheries Census, there were 60,201 coastal fisheriesbusinesses (excluding marine culture businesses). Of these, 58,611 wereprivately managed entities, showing that the majority of coastal fisheries
operators were family-run businesses. In a report of a comparison survey on
17IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

the international competitiveness of fisheries production (published in 2017),
the Fisheries Agency documented that the production per fisher was 27.6
tons and the production per fishing vessel was 31.2 tons in Japan, as opposed
to 214.5 tons/fisher and 637.9 tons/vessel in Norway. This underscores
the significantly small production scale of Japanese fisheries businesses(including non-coastal fisheries).
Let us elaborate a little on the types of marine fisheries classified as coastal
fisheries in the Fisheries Census. In addition to cultured fish such as yellowtail,amberjack, sea bream, flatfish, striped jack, balloon fish, and bluefin tuna,a wide variety of marine lives are cultivated in Japan (e.g., seashells likeabalones, scallops, and oysters, and seaweeds like nori and wakame). In
general, Japanese people tend to appreciate natural products more thancultured products. Nevertheless, the demand for cultured aquatic products ishigh at supermarkets and eating establishments because it is easier to adjust
the size, quality, quantity, and procurement time with cultured products;
hence, stable production needs to continue. There are 13,950 marine culturebusinesses in total, of which 12,506 are run by individuals or families (as of2018). While the ratio of corporations to family/individual-run businesses isslightly higher than the coastal fishing vessel operations, approximately 90%
are still run operated by individuals or families.
As above, the majority of coastal fisheries businesses in Japan are characteristically family-run and considerably small-scale. In terms of the production
trends, fisheries production in Japan has been steadily declining since the late1980s, as mentioned above. By fisheries division (as shown in Figure 1), thedivisions that have seen the steepest decline are the deep-sea and offshore
fisheries. The coastal fisheries production fluctuated around 2 million tons
by the mid-1990s and started declining in the late 1990s, falling below 1
million tons in 2016. Meanwhile, marine culture production continued to
grow significantly from the 1960s to the mid-1990s. Albeit a slight decline
in recent years, production has been fluctuating around 1 million tons. In
contrast to the ever-declining deep-sea and offshore fisheries, one can argue
that the positions of the coastal and marine culture fisheries have relatively
increased.
18

2. A BIRD’S EYE VIEW

Challenges faced by the coastal fisheries industry androles played by fishing villages
Given the rapid decline in the offshore and deep-sea fisheries, the importanceof the coastal and marine culture fisheries has been increasing. However,numerous challenges remain. In the coastal fisheries in Japan, the biggestof such challenges may be the difficulty of recruiting new workers. In 1969,
there were nearly 400 thousand self-employed coastal fisheries operators;
however, the number had declined to approximately 90 thousand by 2017
(Annual Fisheries Dynamics Report). Although the number of newly employedfishers has been fluctuating stably at around 2 thousand (including thosein the offshore/deep-sea fisheries; estimates by the Fisheries Agency), theoverall number of newly employed fishers has been consistently dropping.
Besides the decreasing number of fishers, their aging has also been a huge
issue. The aging of the workforce is a problem concerning not only the fisheries
industry but also Japan as a whole. Additionally, many of the fishing villages
are geographically at a disadvantage. With young people flowing into urban
areas, and fishing incomes remaining at low levels, it is extremely difficult tosecure the next generation of fishers.
In order to strengthen the competitiveness of the fishery/marine culturebusinesses that are in such a plight, various measures are being taken atvarious levels, including municipalities and other administrative bodies. For
instance, as part of an effort to make the fisheries industry a growth sector,
state-of-the-art technologies such as ICT, IoT, and AI, as well as drones androbots, have been incorporated into the fishery and marine culture settings inrecent years. These personnel- and labor-saving efforts are expected to turnfishery operations profitable again based on the improved profitability data
(Annual Fisheries Report, 2018).
As the fisheries industry continues to lose its momentum, the vitality offishing villages is also being lost. To not only strengthen the fisheries industry
itself but also reinvigorate local communities, some endeavors have started
to add new values to the local resources inherent in fishing villages, which
in turn are used to benefit the general public. These endeavors (colloquially
19

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

referred to as “Umigyo” (sea business) in Japan) began to be undertaken infishing villages across the country, as proposed in a previous study as “a new
type of businesses by people in coastal communities that fully utilize local
resources including the sea, culture, tradition, and landscapes” (Lou, 2013). In
the 1980s, new uses of coastal resources, such as recreational fishing, diving,whale watching, and fishing tourism, started to be explored. As evidenced bytoday’s ecotourism, blue tourism, hands-on learning, efforts toward local
production for local consumption, the people’s needs for the oceans, fisheries
industry, and fishing villages began diversifying. To cater to those new needs,
and as sources of new incomes for fishers and fisheries cooperatives, more andmore businesses started tapping into local resources in fishing villages. For
instance, in some areas frequented by visitors who come to do diving, fishers
guide these visitors to diving spots by a fishing boat, or fisheries cooperatives
construct and maintain changing rooms and resting facilities in an attempt toimprove their profits.
Furthermore, the Fisheries Agency is promoting extended stays in fishingvillages as a form of tourism called “Nagisahaku” (a stay at a beach town).
From tasting local cuisine using freshly caught seafood, to enjoying beautiful,almost primordial, landscapes of fishing villages, visitors can have first-handexperiences of the industry and culture of fishing villages, including fisheries.
By promoting communication between cities and fishing communities, these
efforts aim to revitalize fishing communities and help urban visitors learn theimportance of the roles played by fishing villages and the fisheries industry.
As more and more tourists from overseas have been coming to Japan in recent
years, restaurants serving fish dishes and fishing tours have become morecommon to carter to the inbound demand.
Such endeavors to respond to the people’s needs by adding new values tolocal resources are considered to be one side of the multifaceted functionsof fishing villages. In addition to supplying aquatic products, the responsibilities of fishing villages include the preservation of natural environments,
monitoring of the national borders, implementation of maritime rescue tasks,
and inheritance of traditional culture. To maintain these functions, it goes
without saying that the continued and sustainable development of coastal
20

2. A BIRD’S EYE VIEW

fisheries and fishing villages is essential.
While blessed with rich marine environments, the coastal areas of Japanare subject to harsh conditions such as deteriorating aquatic resources andglobal-scale climate change. A worldwide food shortage is predicted in
the future due to a population explosion. To preserve beautiful fishingvillages and abundant fish-eating cultures seen all across Japan for posterity,
sustainable business schemes for fishing villages need to be established, suchas converting traditional fisheries into a growth industry and utilizing local
aquatic resources (e.g., Umigyo).

21

II
Governance Ins tu ons of JSSF

3. A Long Standing Ins tu on

Roles and Issues of the Japanese Fisheries Cooperative Association

Masashi Mochizuki
Hitotsubashi University

Traditional fishing village landscape in Ine, Kyoto, Japan, M. Mochizuki, 202025

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The Fisheries Cooperative Association (FCA) in Japan was organized
to improve the livelihood of fishers. It also plays an important role inthe management of coastal fisheries and fishing grounds and in local
community activities. The FCA operates various business services, suchas sales, purchasing, and credit, to support member fishers. The primarydifference between the FCA and other cooperatives, such as agricultural
cooperatives, is that the FCA is the governing body of fishery rights. This
chapter focuses on fishery rights, joint sales, and the FCA’s relationshipwith local communities. It discusses both the role the FCA fills forJapanese small-scale fisheries and the present-day issues confronting
the FCA.

Overview of the FCA
The Fisheries Cooperative Association (FCA) is the national organization ofJapanese fishers. The FCA was established under the Fishery Cooperative Act
in 1949. The association aims to stabilize and manage fishery households,
improve the economic and social status of fishers, and manage marine
resources through the management of fishery rights and business economics.
FCAs can be divided into two broad types: “Local Area FCAs” and “Industryspecific Cooperatives,” the latter organized by fishers involved with specifictypes of fisheries, such as tuna fisheries and salmon fisheries, for example.
Local area FCAs are classified into “Coastal Area FCAs” and “Inland-water
Area FCAs.” According to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries’(2007, 2019a) fisheries cooperative statistics table, on March 31, 1995, there
were 2,008 FCAs for coastal areas, 885 for inland water areas, and 213 industryspecific cooperatives, for a grand total of 3,106 FCAs. However, the numberof FCAs has decreased in recent years. As of March 31, 2018, the total numberof FCAs was 955 for coastal areas, 806 for inland water areas, and 89 forindustry-specific cooperatives, for a grand total of 1,850 FCAs. The reason for26

3. A LONG STANDING INSTITUTION

the decrease in the number of FCAs is the increasing instances of the merger
between neighboring unions, aimed at strengthening the management base.
In particular, the coastal area FCAs have been actively merged, and their scale
has increased.
An FCA has several major business thrusts. The “sale business” sell union
members’ catch; the “purchasing business” supplies union members withnecessary items, such as fishing gear and fuel. The “common-use business”
allows members to use shared facilities. The “guidance business” provides
guidance and advice on adjusting fishing grounds and improving fishery
management and skills, while a “mutual-aid program” deals with mutual
aid insurance concerns, such as pensions, damages, and welfare. An FCA
can also provide credit services, lending necessary funds to members andreceiving savings, but in recent years, an increasing number of FCAs havetransferred the credit business to the prefectural-level federation of fisherycredit cooperatives.
What distinguishes Japanese FCAs the most from other cooperatives, suchas agricultural cooperatives, is that the FCA is the governing body of fisheryrights. In Japanese coastal fisheries, fishery rights have been set for “LargeScale Set Net Fishery rights,” “Coastal Aquaculture rights,” and “Common
Fishery rights” under the Fishery Act; the FCA is granted fishery rights as aprefectural governor’s license. The FCA not only plays a leading role in theproper use and management of fishery resources through the managementof fishery rights and guidance to union members, but it also plays a role inbeach-cleaning activities, tree-planting activities in the upper river basin,marine-disaster-prevention activities, and more. Thus, the FCA is a coreorganization supporting the local economic and social activities of fishingvillages.

Fishery rights and small-scale fisheries
Japan’s marine fisheries are classified administratively as coastal, offshore,and distant water fisheries (Yamamoto, 1995). According to a white paperby the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2019b), the number27

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

of marine fishers in Japan was 153,490 in 2017, of which 91,950 were selfemployed in fisheries, and 61,530 were hired by fisheries.

Of the self-

employed, 88,670 [96.4%] were engaged in coastal fishing, indicating that amajority of marine fishers are engaged in coastal fisheries. As a characteristicof the Japanese coastal fisheries, most of the fishers engaged in coastal
fisheries are small-scale fisheries (SSF), and coastal fishing grounds areset fishery rights. In Japan, fishery rights are granted to the FCA and thesystem does not allow free entry into the fishery. Moreover, Japanese fisheryrights, called the common fishery right, are well known worldwide as involving
community-based management.
Accordingly, let us focus on the common fishery right and explain the legal
definition of common fishery and the management of fishery rights.
The current Japanese Fishery Act defines “common fishery” as a specificarea of the sea where fishers operate jointly. Common fisheries include
fisheries that capture sedentary resources, such as abalone, top shell, bivalves,sea cucumber, sea urchin, and kelp and fisheries that use Gill nets, beachseines, small set nets, and baskets. Common fisheries are diversified fisheries
but are generally small-scale. The common fishery right is owned by the FCA(or by a Federation of Fishery Cooperative Associations). It is stipulated thatfishers who are members of the union may join the common fishery and catch
fish in accordance with the regulations for fishery right established by the
FCA. In other words, to participate in a common fishery, a fisher must be amember of the FCA that manages the common fishery’s fishery rights. To
become a member, a fisher must have lived in the area and must fish for atleast 90-120 days per year (the number of days depends on each individualarea FCA). Therefore, in order to become a union member, a fisher must workat a fishery company or as an apprentice to a senior fisher to accumulate arecord of practice activity.
According to Yamamoto (1995, 2000), Japanese fisheries have been regulated by three separate laws: “Ura” Law [1743-1867], Old Fishery Act[1901-1948], and Current Fishery Act [1949 to present]. During the feudal era
and based on Ura Law, fishing grounds facing a fishing village were managed
and used exclusively by the village as villagers’ common property. Later, the28

3. A LONG STANDING INSTITUTION

Old Fishery Act was enacted; the Fishery Society, a predecessor of FCAs, wasformed under the Old Fishery Act. The law tried to maintain the order offishing villages by allowing the Fishery Society to inherit the managementof the common fishery grounds of fishing villages, along with the villages’
traditional exclusive fishery rights. Based on this historical background, thecommon fishery rights and fishing grounds that are managed by the FCA are
based on fishing village communities. According to Feeny et al. (1990), such
communal-property systems for the Japanese coastal fisheries are consideredgood examples of how traditional fishing-village community-management
is maintained with legal approval.

Joint sales and SSF
An FCA’s economic activities are important in supporting the lives of coastal
SSF fishers. In particular, the sales business, which is the core business ofthe FCA, is directly linked to fisheries income. The majority of FCAs that havea sales business hold a joint sale. A joint-sale system means that the FCA
collects and sells their union members’ fish and earns a portion of the sales
from fishers as fees.
The FCA also opens local markets and manages them. Many fishing catches
are distributed to consumer markets throughout the country through these
local markets. Why was a joint sales system adopted? There are several
reasons. Many coastal fishers are small scale and the production of eachfisher is small. Hence, it is disadvantageous for a small-scale fisher to tradealone with merchants who have bargaining power. An FCA’s sale, in larger
volumes, can eliminate the weaknesses of small fishers. It is the role of the
FCA to achieve economies of scale by combining the power of each fisher inthis way.
Joint sales are also beneficial for distributors participating in the local
market. If there is no local market, local distributors have to trade with eachfisher, which increases transaction costs. The establishment of a local market
makes it easier for local distributors to obtain a certain amount of seafood
with uniform specifications as well. Although coastal fisheries are often SSF,
29

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

the well-functioning local markets have provided a stable supply of marine
products to consumers.

Rela onship with local communi es
The Japanese FCA is a community-based organization that has a deep relationship with the local community. According to the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries’ 2018 census (2020), 1,468 fishery districts have held
meetings and gatherings related to FCA. Of the 1,468 districts, 611 districts[41.6%] have experience holding meetings and gatherings about agendas forfishery area events (festivals and other events). According to the same source,
fishery districts that had implemented FCA-related regional revitalization
efforts numbered 1,520 districts nationwide. Looking at the range of activities
implemented, garbage clean-up activities were the most common in 1,336
districts [87.9%], followed by a wide variety of events in 564 districts [37.1%],
efforts to secure new fishery workers and successors in 453 districts [29.8%],
and traditional festivals focused on fisheries, culture, entertainment, andpreservation in 416 districts [27.4%]. In these ways, the FCA is deeply involvedin the culture and environment of the fishing village and the lives of the people
who live there; the FCA is an active participant in activities outside the fishery,a part of the local community contributing to regional revitalization.

Present-day issues
In recent years, depopulation has been a serious problem facing many fishingvillages in Japan. With depopulation, even the traditional events of fishingvillages are set to disappear. For example, for hundreds of years, a traditional
Kue (the Japanese name for the kelp bass Epinephelus bruneus) festival wasorganized to pray for large catches and safe voyages, in the Ao area of the
Wakayama prefecture. However, it has been discontinued for several years
now due to a shortage of young people (Kim et al., 2017). The Kue festival
was an important tourism resource, not only for the Ao area, but also for theneighboring regions; therefore, the resulting impact on the local economy is30

3. A LONG STANDING INSTITUTION

not small.
One of the main reasons for depopulation is the loss of young people fromthe fishery areas. Fishery households have encountered difficult conditions
for many years, including soaring fuel and materials prices and diminishingvolumes of catches. Therefore, fisheries have become less attractive, even tosons of fishers. Furthermore, the education level in Japan as a whole is higher
than before, and the range of occupational choices available to children infishing villages has expanded. Young people living in fishing villages have
moved to urban areas and neighboring towns in search of more attractive andstable jobs.
Although they are not many, some Japanese young people living in otherareas that are not located in fishery areas are interested in rural life and thesea and are attracted to fisheries. However, the above-mentioned problems
of fishery rights and the exclusive nature of fishing-village communities
make it common for strangers to be denied membership. Therefore, somekind of employment support system is needed to solve the problem. For
example, Kyoto Prefecture’s “Umi no Tami Gakusya (UTG)” is accepting young
people from all over the country who want to work with a fishery in Kyoto.
Established in 2015, UTG is somewhat of a job school. Kyoto Prefecture has
been cooperating with the Kyoto Prefectural Fisheries Cooperative Association
to provide students with the skills and knowledge necessary for fishery workfor two years until they graduate. UTG differs from ordinary fishery schools
in several ways. UTG graduates receive generous support from prefecturaland municipal governments, such as help searching for fishing villages andfishery teachers. A system like the UTG in Kyoto Prefecture is considered tobe effective for newcomers from outside the village and without connections,as graduates have settled in fishing villages as fishers.
In recent years, FCAs have undergone many changes. The lack of successors,a decrease in the number of union members, and a decline in the catch quantity
have reduced the size of fisheries, making it challenging to maintain villagelevel FCAs. To cope with this situation, village-level FCAs have merged toreinforce the management foundation of an FCA’s organization and businessactivities. However, as a result of widespread mergers, the traditional fishing31

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

ground management structure in each fishing village has been changed (Sakita,2015). A new fishing-ground management structure is needed to manage
common fishery rights in each village successfully.
FCAs are economically and socially important for small-scale fishers andfishing villages. However, as described above, the environment surrounding
FCAs has changed significantly. Reviving decrepit fishery as an attractive andlucrative industry will be a major challenge for FCAs and will be an important
issue in revitalizing fishing villages.

32

4. Women for the Future

The Role of Women Towards the Future of the Fisheries

Izumi Seki
Tokai University

Entrepreneurial activities of the Women’s Group of FCA. (L) Operation of cafeteria,
Hachijojima FCA,Tokyo; (R) Fish fillet processing, Oaraimachi FCA, Ibaraki, 2014. I.
Seki.

33

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

This chapter first describes the Women’s Group of FCA as the mostfundamental of the women’s organizations related to fisheries, andit summarizes the background of its establishment, its activities, and the
problems it faces. Next, an overview of women starting business activities
in fishing communities, which has become increasingly common inrecent years, is provided. Finally, it describes women’s new networkin fishing communities. Currently, attempts are being made to create a
network of women in various fields within and outside the region, suchas young women in fishing communities, women in the fishing industry,
and fishing community women in starting business activities.

Women in fisheries and fishing communi es
Women in fishing communities have diverse roles in society. Women’s maintasks in the fishery are work on lands such as sorting of landed marine
products, care of fishing gear, processing and sales. The proportion of land
workers by gender is 62% for men and 38% for women (Fisheries Agency,2017). Also, the ratio of men and women employed in fish processing plants bygender is 38% for men and 62% for women (Fishing Census, 2018). This showsthat many women are engaged in work on land and support the fishing andfishing industries. The total number of fishers, or work on the sea, is 151,701,
of which 134,186 (88.5%) are men, and 17,515 (11.5%) are women. Women’smaritime operations include divers’ fishing with their husbands on a fishingboat to support fisheries and women’s diving into the sea for shellfish andseaweed. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of cases inwhich women themselves become fishing boat owners and engage in fishing.
Additionally, in most areas, women take over the role of household duties
such as housework, childcare and nursing care. Many women are responsible
for accounting, such as payroll for employees and tax returns. Women infishing communities are also helping with local events, cleaning beaches
34

4. WOMEN FOR THE FUTURE

and fishing ports, and supporting the local elderly. Fishers often stay out
at sea all night. For this reason, there are many areas where women’s firebrigades have been formed. These community activities are conducted by
women’s organizations. One of the most fundamental organizations of womenin fishing communities in Japan is the Women’s group of FCA (Fisheries
Cooperative Association).

The birth of the women’s group of FCA
The organization of women in each fishing community began around 1950.
Eventually, a prefectural Fisheries Cooperative Women’s Department Liaison
Council was established to oversee these village units. In September 1959,
the National Fisheries Cooperative Women’s Department Liaison Council wasestablished as a national organization. The initial purpose of creating the
Women’s group of FCA was to improve their lives. The fishery is an industry
that depends on natural resources, and income tends to be unstable. In
order to manage a fisher’s business systematically, it was necessary to savemoney when they could not go fishing, that is, when they had no income.
Without savings, they cannot borrow money from the Credit Federation ofFisheries Cooperative Associations. Therefore, the women of the fisheryhousehold and the cooperative’s credit business department collaborated,
and a savings promotion campaign was started with the amount of moneythat they could do themselves, such as the activity of “10 yen per day.” This
activity spread throughout the countrywide. In addition to savings promotion,
life improvement activities include simplified ceremonial occasions andhousehold account bookkeeping activities (Miki, 2010; Taguchi, 2017). In
order to improve their quality of life, the women in the fishing community
stood up.

35

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Ac vi es of the women’s group of FCA
Japan has entered a period of high economic growth and has become increasingly industrialized. In the 1970s, pollution problems became serious in various parts of the country. Industrial wastewater containing organic substancesand domestic sewage using synthetic detergents polluted important fishinggrounds. Also, large-scale land reclamation work in the coastal waters lost thefishing grounds themselves. Under these circumstances, women in fishingcommunities develop a national environmental conservation movement as
the Women’s group of FCA in order to maintain fisheries and protect theirlives. “The Movement to Eliminate Harmful Synthetic Detergents,” which
was approved by the National Fisheries Cooperative Women’s Department
Liaison Council in 1975, changed its name in 2002 to the “Promotion of the Useof Natural Soaps” and has continued to this day. In 1996, the “Environmental
Conservation Campaign to Connect Forests, Rivers, and the Sea” not only
promoted the use of natural soaps but also planted trees in the mountains
to protect fishing grounds and cleaned beaches and ports. These activities
have been expanded to involve not only the Women’s group of FCA but also
FCA, local government, and local residents (Nakamichi and others, 2009; Seki,2010).
In the 1980s, seafood promoting activities became popular. There wasincrease in the consumption of marine products through activities such asteaching children cutting and cooking fish in cooperation with local schools,
providing local marine products for school lunches, participating in local
events and promoting marine products. The development of processed fisheryproducts by women’s groups in each region has also become active, and theseafood promoting activities have triggered the development of the Women’sgroup of FCA into economic activities (Miki, 2010). In Japan, the word“gender equality” was first used in public in 1991, and the “Basic Law for
Gender Equality Society” was promulgated in 1999. In 1992, the Ministryof Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries presented the Medium to Long Term
Vision on Women in a rural area and began to support awareness-raising
campaigns and women’s starting business activities in order to promote the36

4. WOMEN FOR THE FUTURE

participation of women in the rural area. The Women’s group of FCA has also
started a round-table meeting between the officers of the National Fisheries
Cooperative Women’s Department Liaison Council and the Fisheries Agency
Secretary in 1988 to bring the voices of women in fishing communities to thenational government (Miki, 2010). The round-table conference is held once a
year.
Japan’s population is aging rapidly, but in fishing communities, the population is aging at a rate of 10 percents higher than in Japan. In 2018, the aging
rate in Japan was 28.1%, and the aging rate in fishing communities was 38.9%.
The Women’s group of FCA engaged in activities related to local welfare for theelderly. Main activities include participating in events (such as participating infestivals/events at facilities for the elderly, and handing out commemorative
gifts for Respect for the Elderly), training helpers, visiting day-care facilities
and greeting to the elderly, serving lunches, delivering fresh fish to nursing
homes in the local area, helping the elderly evacuate during disaster drills,
helping to sort garbage for the elderly living alone, and so on. It can be seenthat women support the local elderly on a daily basis and contribute to theirwelfare (Seki, 2010).

Issues for the Women’s group of FCA
Women in fishing communities have played a variety of roles in the community, relying on women’s organizations such as the Women’s group of
FCA. However, the decrease in the number of women’s groups and members
and the aging of the members is a severe problem for the Women’s group of
FCA. In 1997, there were 1,233 women’s groups, and the number of members
was 123,087, but in 2010 the number of women’s groups was 789, and thenumber of members was 56,585, as of April 2019 with 618 women’s groups
and 32,051 members, the organizational power of the Women’s group of FCA
is declining (Seki, 2018). In addition, the age composition of members of the
Women’s group of FCA is 4.8% for those under the 30s, 11% for 40s, 23.1%
for 50s, 33% for 60s, and 28.1% for those over 70s. It can be seen that 60
years or older is over 60% of the total (JF Zengyoren, National Federation37

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

of Fisheries Cooperative Associations Survey, 2018). The reasons for thissituation include the depopulation and aging of the fishing communities
and the lack of participation of young women in fishery households due tocircumstances such as having a job outside.

Women’s social par cipa on and FCA
There is another issue that the Women’s group of FCA has. One of the roles ofthe Women’s group of FCA is that it is a nucleus for a gender equality society.
As part of the women’s group activities, participation in training sessions
on women’s social participation has been conducted. However, only 5.7% of
women are members of FCA, and women have few opportunities to commenton the operation of FCA (Seki, 2019). The percentage of women among theofficers of FCA is 0.5%, which is far lower than the 7.7% of the agricultural
cooperative (Statistics Table of Fisheries Cooperatives, 2017). This does notallow men and women to engage in fisheries in an equal position (Taguchi,
2017; Seki, 2019). In order for women’s opinions that are deeply involved infisheries through work on the land, etc., to be reflected in the management of
FCA, the promotion of women to officers of FCA and women’s organizations
such as the Women’s group of FCA should be given to increasing the numberof opportunities to present opinions on management.

Entrepreneurial ac vi es and women
The Women’s group of FCA has a lot of issues related to the continuity of theorganization and activities performed by the organization. On the other hand,some groups are starting new activities. Until now, most of the activities of the
Women’s group of FCA have been free volunteers. In recent years, however,some women’s groups have performed a wide range of economic activities
such as the manufacture and sale of processed fishery products, the sale offresh and live fish, the operation of cafeterias, management of local tourism
such as fishing experience, and private inn. JF Zengyoren is surveying theactivities of the Women’s group of FCA. For the first time in the 2006 survey,38

4. WOMEN FOR THE FUTURE“Economic activity” was included in the activity content. A study conducted at
the time showed that 42.1% of the 852 women’s groups engaged in economic
activities. A 2017 survey found that each prefecture has women’s groups thathave economic activities. Of the 36 prefectures that responded, 52.8% said
that there are women’s groups that engage in economic activities.
Looking at economic activities by women in fishing communities, themajority of the activities are by the Women’s group of FCA. However, there
are also moves to recruit coworkers and start new organizations to conducteconomic activities. The purpose of economic activity is, of course, to makemoney. Many women seek jobs other than their fishing work to stabilize thefishery household, which income depends on the catch of the day and to makewomen economically independent. However, many fishing communities arelocated in remote areas, and there are few places to work nearby, fisheries
can be done in the middle of the night or early in the morning so it difficult towork outside while helping fish at home, older women do not have a generaljob offer. Therefore, some women start their activities with the motivation tocreate their work with their own hands.
However, the purpose of activities is not limited to economic effects (Seki,2018). In fisheries such as purse seine and a trawl net, that have large catchesat once, some fish are not put on the market and are discarded because they
are not uniform in size, and the market value of some fish is low. Women saythat they do not want to waste the precious resources of their husbands andsons who have caught their lives and that they want more people to eat freshand delicious fish.

The building of the new network
There is a growing movement to network not only the Women’s group of FCA
but also women who are engaged in various activities in fishing communities.
In 2003, three female researchers (Natsuko Miki of National Research Instituteof Fisheries Science, Kumi Soejima of National Fisheries University and Izumi
Seki of Tokai University) engaged in research activities on fisheries and fishingcommunities, have launched “Umi-Hito-Kurashi forum,” or Forum for Sea,
39

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

People and Life (Photo 1). The forum continues to be a group that supports
the activities by fishing community women, especially starting a businessactivity (Miki, 2017). The symposium, which has been held once a year for 15
years, has created a loose network of participants. Women who continued toparticipate in the symposium spontaneously held a meeting saying, ‘’I want
to do something more than just meet once a year’’, and several groups jointly
participated in a department store event in Tokyo to promote their processedfishery products. Also, since 2017, several groups have been exhibiting at
the Japan International Seafood Show as the group of “Umi-Hito-Kurashi
forum.” The networking of women in fishing communities is also spreading ineach prefecture or country (Sato, 2018). The Fisheries Agency launched the ‘’
Fisheries girls’ spirit project’’ in 2018, to support the activities that create newvalue by connecting women involved in the fisheries industry and to maintaina prosperous fishery industry for 100 years, in 2018.
Also, a network of young women in the fishing community has been created.
JF Zengyoren has conducted training for the young member of the Women’sgroup of FCA as a ‘’training program for Freshmizu’’. In the background, there
are issues such as a decrease in the number of the Women’s group of FCA andthe limitations of women’s group activities due to aging. In addition to this,another “Freshmizu meeting” was launched in January 2017. The purpose of
the meeting is to create a place for young women in the fishing community
area to interact and to create opportunities for information disseminationand cooperation. This is for young women who are conscious of engaging
in community activities and starting a series of business activities in fishingcommunities, regardless of the female members of the women’s group of FCA(Seki, 2017).

40

4. WOMEN FOR THE FUTURE

Photo 1. Group photo of Umi-Hito-Kurashi symposium, Shizuoka,
Umi-Hito-Kurashi Forum. 2016

Conclusion
Women’s activities are indispensable for the maintenance and activationof fisheries and fishing communities and have significance for women’s
livelihood and income. Although the Women’s group of FCA has the problemsof drastic decrease in the number of members and of aging members, thevalue of women’s groups in the region is excellent. Some women’s groups
are engaged in starting a series of business activities that allow young
women to participate, while others are reviewing past events to revitalize theorganization. On the other hand, a new network centering on young womenis emerging. In the future, working together to think about the maintenanceand development of fisheries and fishing communities across generations andgenders should be conducted. At the same time, further deepening cooperation
with the surrounding people, such as FCA, administrative bodies, residents,
and women in other regions, would be essential.

415. Fisheries Policy Reform

Increased Efficiency Through Reform and Complementary
Communication

Takeshi Hidaka
Kindai University

Nori-seaweed aquaculture, Lake Hamana, Shizuoka Pref. Y. Li, 201842

5. FISHERIES POLICY REFORM

Currently, the fisheries policy reform centering on the revision of Fishery
Act in Japan is in progress. The Fishery Act forms the basic framework of
the fishery system in Japan and provides the elementary framework offishery right systems such as common fishery rights, aquaculture fisheryrights, and set-net fishery rights for small coastal fisheries. Under therevised Fishery Act, the democratization of fisheries, which has been
the objective so far, has been eliminated. The main aim of the law isto improve fishery productivity by enhancing the efficiency of fisheries.
However, efficient long-term management of the coastal environmentand resources requires concerted effort and collaboration among all
stakeholders. To achieve this, this study proposes the concept of Satoumi
as a type of coastal management initiatives.

Introduc onJapanese fisheries policy is implemented by various systems related to fishery
management and fishery resource protection. At the heart of this is the
Fishery Act, which establishes the basic framework for fisheries and fishery
management. The target fishery categories range from small coastal fisheries
to offshore and distant water fisheries. For small fisheries, this law establishes
an institutional framework for fishery rights that are institutionalized basedon traditional fishing management practices from the feudal era and forms thebasis of fishing ground utilization. Therefore, the amendment of the Fishery
Act is the centerpiece of the “Reform of Fishery Policy.” In December 2018,
amendments to the Fishery Act were passed by the Diet, and the Fishery Policy
Reform was to proceed in earnest. This reform includes full-scale changes
in fisheries management systems and drastic changes in coastal fisheries
management. This study confirms that the main aim of these reforms is topromote fishery management efficiently; however, there still seems to be a
problem in terms of communication between relevant stakeholders.
43IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Main contents of reform of fisheries policy
The purpose of the Fisheries Policy Reform is to adopt appropriate management strategies for fishery resources and facilitate the growth of the fisheryindustry. It also aims to establish a fishery employment structure that canincrease the income of fishers and adopt a balanced age structure. To achievethis, the Fisheries Policy Reform aims to amend the Fishery Act. Criticismson the Policy have emphasized the need to revise the Fishery Act, especiallythe resource management system, which is centered on the expansion of
Total Allowable Catch, the introduction of the Individual Quota system, andthe elimination of the acquisition of priority rights on aquaculture fishery.
Particularly, there are many objections to the amendment of the acquisitionof priority rights (Kase 2018, Sano 2020). However, the amendment of the
purpose set forth in Article 1 of the Fishery Act is considered to be the mostimportant point.
Initially, the purpose of the Fishery Act was to improve fishery productivity
and democratize fisheries, as described in Article 1. However, while amending
the Fishery Act, the part providing for the democratization of fisheries wasdeleted from the purpose of the law together with the Fisheries Coordination
Agency. As a result, the revised Fishery Act is only focused on improving
fishery productivity. This is an important principle that is further echoed in
the “Reform of Fisheries Policy,” and it aims to enhance fishery productivity
through rationalization and improving efficiency.
The former Fishery Act
Article 1: The purpose of this Act is to establish a basic fisheries production
system in which fisheries adjustment organizations, mainly consisting offishery managers and fishery employees, can be operated for systematic
utilization of waters to enhance fisheries productivity and also democratize
the fishing industry. Act No. 267 of December 15, 1949
The revised Fishery Act
Article 1: The purpose of this Act is to ensure sustainable use of fishery44

5. FISHERIES POLICY REFORM

resources, promote comprehensive use of water surfaces, and enhance
fishery productivity by establishing measures and systems for permitting andlicensing fisheries and other basic systems for fishery production, considering
the fact that fisheries are the primary source of seafood to people and theorderly production activities of fishers are instrumental in the fulfillment of
this mission. Act No. 95 of December 14, 2018
The objectives of the former Fishery Act contradict the intention to improve
fishery productivity and facilitate the democratization of fisheries. To achieve
the former, it is necessary to curb wasteful fishing and enhance the efficiencyof quick response to changing situations. A centralized system, where people
with authority and funds make decisions and move them down, is effective
for efficient progress. On the other hand, to facilitate the democratization offisheries, it is necessary for the parties concerned to engage in meaningful
discussions and come to a consensus. Considering the fact that it may take time
for all the stakeholders to embrace the proposed reforms, it is important tocommunicate effectively, create awareness, and explain the importance of thereforms. This will resolve the conflict between the principles of efficiency andthose of communication, which is a glaring challenge in the reform process.
Notably, in an attempt to resolve this conflict, a concept of resourcemanagement oriented fishery targeting small coastal fisheries was developed
and applied to Japanese fisheries in the 1980s. The adoption of this concept
aimed at establishing a rational and efficient fishery management system that
can adequately convey information on fishery resources to fisheries personnel(Hasegawa, 1989). It is worth noting that resource-management oriented
fisheries attempt to solve the contradictions of the current Fishing Law andaim to achieve both efficiency and communication. However, even in resourceoriented fisheries management, balancing efficiency and communication
seemed difficult. To effectively respond to recent changes in the naturaland social environments, the fishing industry has to pursue efficiency andsustainability.
From the above findings, it is clear that when the Fishery Act was amended,
the government did not maintain the two contradictory principles that existed
in the past; instead, it only focused on improving efficiency. The stance of45

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

pursuing this improvement in efficiency appears everywhere in the proposed
amendments. The purpose of this amendment, which is to improve theefficiency of the fishery system and facilitate fishery productivity, is extremely
clear and easy to understand. This is also reflected in the coastal fishing groundmanagement system, which is the focus of this paper.

Changes in coastal fishing ground management
With regard to changes in the coastal fishing ground management, thispaper explores the responsibilities of fishery right holders and the coastal
fishing ground management mechanisms adopted. It also identifies theirshortcomings.
Regarding the responsibilities of fishers, the revised Fishery Act stipulates
that the national government and prefectures have an obligation to preventand resolve conflicts concerning the proper implementation and conservationof fishery resources and the use of fishing grounds. The law further clarifies
that fishery right holders have an obligation to utilize fishing grounds
appropriately and effectively, and they are obligated to report on theirutilization status. In the worst-case scenario, fishery rights can be revoked ifthey are not properly utilized by the holders. This is completely different fromthe framework of the previous law, which allowed fishing communities tomanage the coast as a common fishery right institution. Under the revised law,
the new framework is based on the idea of hierarchical transfer of authority,i.e., national government -> prefecture government -> fisherman’s cooperative association (FCA, fishery right holder). Such a top-down hierarchicalorganization is efficient in achieving a specific purpose (Taguchi 2019). It is
presumed that since FCA, as a fisher’s rights holder, is granted exclusive rights
to the coastal area, which is a public asset and a common fish resource, it has
a social responsibility to manage fishery resources (Hidaka 2002). In addition,
the revised Fishery Act stipulates that FCA has management obligations thatare transferred from the state and prefectures. Although the standards forproper utilization have not yet been set out by the national government,
this will complete the hierarchical management system. The delegation of46

5. FISHERIES POLICY REFORM

authority from the national government to prefectures and from prefectures tofishery cooperatives (fishery right holders) and the accompanying obligations
and rules are further clarified in the revised law.
The newly established coastal fishing ground management plan specifies
fishing ground management operations that can be adopted. They include
red tide monitoring, seagrass bed conservation activities, and monitoringpoaching in fishing grounds. Currently, these management operations arevoluntarily carried out by fishery cooperatives. However, if these amendments
are effected, the prefectures that have the obligation to manage fishinggrounds will have the authority to entrust such operations to FCAs, which
are the coastal fishing ground management bodies. In addition, other groups
can also act as coastal fishing ground management bodies. As a precedent
for this, there were national projects supporting fishery multifunctionality
before the revision. Each project was carried out by a council of stakeholders,
who were mainly fishers, and various regional stakeholders, who acted as
the management body and carried out various conservation and management
activities. The revised Fishery Act system envisages this form of coastal fishingground management organization. If a council for projects supporting fisherymultifunctionality is approved as a coastal fishing ground management body,the council’s management responsibilities will be clearly described in thefishing ground plan and legally legitimized. Its responsibilities may include
activities beyond traditional fishery rights management, such as activities
that are not covered by the fishery rights; activities that span across multiple
fishery rights and fishing grounds; and activities that extend outside specificfishery rights and fishing grounds.
To implement these proposals, concerted effort among all the relevant
stakeholders is needed. However, under the revised Fishery Act, if this effort
is implemented from the perspective of improving efficiency by delegating
authority from the top coming down, it will be difficult to achieve theexpected results. Another issue is whether it will be possible to implement
these proposals even if budgetary allocations are not sufficient. Initially,various people in the region, including fishers, were free to communicate andvoluntarily participate in environmental conservation activities. However,47

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

this provision was deleted from the Reform of Fisheries Policy and therevision of the Fishery Act. Although a path was set up to build a new coastal
fishing ground management system based on the projects supporting fisherymultifunctionality, this still means that the communication that supports theeffectiveness of those activities was lost.

Conclusion
The Fisheries Policy Reform and the revision of Fishery Act are the first major
attempts toward reviewing coastal fishing ground management in 70 years.
The most distinctive feature is that they both aim at improving efficiency
and fishery productivity. It is inevitable that they will be incompatible withtraditional systems such as fishing villages. This implies that the current
Japanese fishery is in critical condition. Therefore, despite the fact that they
have been cut off, communication between fishers and non-fishers is needed
to improve efficiency. From a long-term perspective, it can be more beneficial
if stakeholders in communication can agree to implement a new management
system in the coastal environment. In addition, coastal residents and users,
such as fishers, should be allowed to participate in various activities voluntarilyand spontaneously, and sufficient communication between these parties
should be facilitated. If these management mechanisms are not includedin the Fisheries Policy Reform, then another mechanism of implementing
them should be devised. One such mechanism for that could be the concept ofSatoumi (Yanagi 2013, Hidaka 2016). The contents will be described in detailin another chapter.

48

6. The Satoumi Concept

The Role of Small-Scale Fisheries in Coastal Management

Takeshi Hidaka
Kindai University

Sea cleaning activities by fishers in Hakata Bay, Fukuoka City, Japan, by Fukuoka
City Fisheries Cooperative Association, 2020

49

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Satoumi, a concept proposed by Yanagi (1998), is a new coastal management strategy that is gaining popularity in Japan.[1] Traditionally,
coastal management in Japan has been governed by the Fishery Rights
system that enables fishers to exploit a certain area. However, asa result of a changing social environment, this system is no longer
effective. Satoumi has been introduced as an alternative that consistsof integrated and comprehensive management of the land and coastal
area. Satoumi involves the cooperation of people living in an area where
the environmental and social conditions are similar. The fishers andnon-fisher stakeholders participate in management based on scientificand objective observation. The small-scale fishers have importantroles in Satoumi: they have legitimate access to resources based on
fishery rights as well as means to operate at sea, they are knowledgeable
regarding aquatic resources, and they provide a contact point for various
stakeholders to participate in Satoumi management.

Introduc on
The concept of Satoumi was first proposed in Japan in 1998 but has recently
been adopted around the world, with academic sessions on this theme having
been held at international conferences. The term Satoumi was initiallyused in Japan to refer to a specific area of sea adjacent to a village but isnow used with regard to the management of the coastal environment andmarine resources since proposed in 1998. In this chapter, I first explain the
background, functions, and expectations of this so-called modern Satoumi
and then introduce its role in management.

50

6. THE SATOUMI CONCEPT

Tradi onal coastal management and the fishery rights
ins tu on
The archetype of modern Satoumi was the traditional site management system
in Japan, whereby a given coastal fishing village managed and decided how
to use and preserve the area of sea in front of it. Management systems ofthis nature likely exist around the world, as exemplified by the mechanism of“Sashi” management in Indonesia (Akimiti, 1996). In Japan, this management
system was legalized during the Edo period, when the country had a feudalsocial structure and can be summarized by the phrase “the seashore is ruled by
the coastal community, and the offshore is used commonly.” This means that,during this time, the coastal sea was used and managed by the coastal fishingvillage, while the offshore was used by fishers involved in offshore fishing.
Consequently, the coastal fishing villages established the rules on how the sea
and its resources could be used (i.e., who could catch what and how), createdfishing grounds, and set up prohibited areas to protect the environment andresources. Since the fishing villages of small-scale fishers managed the sea
and resources as a community, these can be considered a traditional and closed
commons whose use was closed to the outside, which is likely to have been asustainable model.
When Japan shifted from this feudal system to a modern, centralized systemin the late nineteenth century, this traditional management system waslegalized as a dedicated fishery right by the Meiji Fishery Act, which wasestablished in 1910. The skeleton of this law is as follows. The Fisheries
Cooperative Association (FCA), which represents the fishing village, is thefishery right holder, and its members exercise the fishery right. According
to the rules set by the FCA, its members can exclusively fish within the area
defined as fishery right grounds, and the FCA sets the rules for using thesegrounds. The FCA also makes various efforts to preserve the fishing groundenvironment and increase fishery resources, for example, by cleaning thefishing grounds and monitoring the water quality to preserve the fishingground environment, releasing seeds and seedlings to maintain and increasemarine resources, and establishing fish reefs as breeding grounds. These51

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

human activities have allowed the environment and resources within thefishery right ground to be maintained. This basic framework has been
inherited by the current Fishery Act, which was established in 1949, and is
now a common fishery right. Thus, it can be said that the prototype of Satoumi
has been institutionalized.

Changes in the environment and the fishery rights
system
In the era when coastal users were mainly fishers, and most of the coastal
fishing villages were comprised of fishers and fisheries-related people, thecoastal area could be managed well under this prototype of Satoumi. However,Japan experienced a period of rapid economic growth in the second halfof the twentieth century, which saw the non-fishing use of coastal areas
increasing and people other than fishers visiting coastal areas, as well as
declines in the total number of fishers and the proportion of fishers living infishing villages. This meant that fisheries made up only part of the use of agiven coastal zone and fishers made up only part of the resident community,
despite their activities being legally guaranteed by a fishery right. The
traditional management system was unable to cope with this situation, as it
became apparent in the 1980s, raising the important issue of how the coastal
environment could be protected. Thus, Yanagi (1998) proposed Satoumi as aconcept for the management of coastal areas.

The emergence of modern Satoumi
Satoumi, as proposed by Yanagi (1998), is defined as “a coastal area where
biological productivity and biodiversity have increased through human interaction” and is said to have been inspired by the fact that forests nearvillages are maintained through the villagers’ management activities, suchas logging and thinning. Countering the long-standing belief that it would
be better not to conserve the marine environment, Yanagi (1998) stated thatproper human involvement would restore and improve the environment and52

6. THE SATOUMI CONCEPT

explored cases from around the world in an attempt to build a theory that
supported this. Examples of these case studies included the thinning of
seaweed beds and the construction of stationary fishing gear using stone
walls. Theoretically, management should be such that the biota does not
become an extreme phase, and the optimum condition of nutrients and fisheryresources is achieved by considering the convex relationship between the twoand manually maintaining appropriate nutrient levels. These are described indetail in Yanagi (2012).
Yanagi’s (1998) concept of Satoumi was adopted by the Japanese Government in the late 2000s since when the Ministry of the Environment
has included Satoumi in its 21st Century Environmental Strategy, createda guidebook for Satoumi, and promoted the expansion of Satoumi throughauxiliary projects. In addition, it was stated in the Marine Basic Plan, which
was prepared based on the Marine Basic Law, that the concept of Satoumi
should be incorporated into marine management. Local governments arealso expanding their efforts in terms of Satoumi, with examples including themanagement of Omura Bay by Nagasaki Prefecture, the coastal management
plan of Kagawa Prefecture, and comprehensive plans by Shima and Fukui City.
Similarly, the number of cases where the private sector is working on Satoumi
is also increasing in Japan, with my survey identifying approximately 240
cases in 2015 and a survey by the Ministry of the Environment identifying 291
cases in 2018.

Overview of modern Satoumi
In addition to Yanagi (1998), many others have been investigating how tomanage or create Satoumi, and research in this field is rapidly evolving.
Therefore, here, I will summarize the ideal model for modern Satoumi that iscurrently assumed, according to Hidaka (2016, 2018).
Satoumi management is mainly conducted by a council consisting ofvarious local stakeholders, such as fishers, local residents, various groups andorganizations, and other relevant people, which largely centers on the FCA
and municipalities. This council acts as the managing body and, as such, not
53IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

only determines and implements the contents of Satoumi management but
also serves as a conduit through which various stakeholders can participate
and communicate with participants.
The target of management is the shallow coastal sea in a local area because
the people and physical/biological conditions are relatively similar withinsuch a local area. However, as such, Satoumi cannot cover a wider area acrossthe region, making it necessary to form a Satoumi network in cooperation with
the neighboring Satoumi. This network sometimes includes Satoyama, which
is a similar concept but concerns mountains and forests. The most important
goal is for the network to cover critical points of the material cycle, but it canalso consider the distribution and movement of living entities, such as fishstocks.
Management activities, such as preserving and improving the environment,
maintaining and increasing marine resources, and creating rules for utilization, are carried out in Satoumi. This differs from traditional fishery rights
management in which some activities are not necessarily directly linked tofisheries, and management is carried out based on scientific evidence andobjective observations. The introduction of new technologies is also expected.
At this time, the presence of scientists who are closely related to the region isimportant because they will allow science-based management to take place.
Participants in the management also include people who live outside the region
and who support activities while outside the region. Thus, it is important thatthe value of the relationship between these people and Satoumi is recognized
and a mechanism for realizing this is developed (Uehara et al., 2019).
The biological effects of Satoumi have previously been recognized, andtheoretical explanations for these effects have been given by previous studies
like Yanagi (2012) and Yanagi ed. (2019). However, unfortunately, not all
Satoumi efforts have been successful in drastically restoring the coastal
environment and increasing biological productivity. This is because these
efforts are localized, and the effects are limited and take time to manifest.
One example of this can be seen at Hinase in Bizen City, Okayama Prefecture,
where it took approximately 20 years before the effects of eelgrass propagation became apparent; however, these effects have rapidly emerged since54

6. THE SATOUMI CONCEPT

then, alongside improvements in the environment, an increase in fisheryproduction, and the expansion of activities in cooperation with other regions,
resulting in this being considered a successful example of Satoumi (Tanaka,2019).
In recent years, the educational benefit of participating in management
activities has also attracted attention as a Satoumi effect (Sakurai et al., 2018),
with the observation that students who participate in Satoumi experience a
dramatically improved awareness of the region and the environment, which
spreads to their parents and the fisher participants who support the activities.
The economic effects of Satoumi have also been considered. It can be assumed
that the improvement of the environment and the restoration of marine
resources will increase fishery production. However, educational travel andmarine tourism for participation in the creation of Satoumi are expected toemerge as new economic activities, and a mechanism has also been establishedfor consumers outside the region to purchase marine products produced inSatoumi as environmental products (Higa et al., 2019), which also contributes
to realizing the value of the relationships between people and Satoumi, as
mentioned previously.

Roles of small-scale fishers in modern Satoumi
In this section, I would like to highlight three key roles that small-scale fishers
play in modern Satoumi areas.
First, small-scale fishers play a role in legitimizing public water activities.
Satoumi is formed in a shallow area along the coast and consequently overlaps
with the common fishery right ground. The FCA, which is made up of smallscale fishers in the region, is the fishery right holder with responsibility for
managing the fishery, making its participation in Satoumi management an
important success factor. Thus, the FCA and its union members lead the way
in the creation of Satoumi so that the various activities that take place on thesurface of public water are justified and can be carried out.
Second, small-scale fishers play a role in the provision of knowledge about
the sea and the various means of activity at sea. Small-scale fishers undertake55

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

production activities based on the region or fishing grounds and have goodknowledge of the environment of the target coastal area and the fisheryresources that are found there. In addition, these fishers have a wealth ofexperience in fishing boats at sea. Such knowledge of the sea and the meansof activity at sea is important in the creation of Satoumi.
Third, small-scale fishers play a role as residents of the coastal region.
Although many coastal residents are not fishers and the proportion of fishers
is decreasing, most small-scale fishers have lived in coastal regions for along time, providing a large window of opportunity for coastal residents
to participate in the creation of Satoumi. For example, they can act as abridge when local residents’ groups need to be involved, which is particularly
important in the creation of a network of Satoumi throughout the region.
Some fishers may feel repelled by the involvement of non-fishers in
the coastal area. However, improvement of the coastal environment andrestoration of the fishing ground environment and fishery resources will
benefit fishers but can no longer be achieved by fishers alone due to thedeclining social share of fisheries.

Furthermore, science is one of thecharacteristics of modern Satoumi, and this is not limited to natural science;social science knowledge is required to build an organization and structure forSatoumi management. Satoumi is concerned with reviewing the connection
between coastal areas and people and proposing a new way of connecting.
Thus, the relationship between people who are involved or interested incoastal areas is also important, making it necessary to consider the humanities.
Satoumi provides the social opportunities for both fishers and other users tohave a social responsibility, and small-scale fishers can take the lead on this,making the significance of their participation clear.

Acknowledgment
A part of this work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
JP18H03432.

56

6. THE SATOUMI CONCEPT

Endnotes[1] https://www.amazon.co.jp/Integrated-Coastal-Management-JapaneseSatoumi-ebook/dp/B07WHP3DJB; Hidaka, T. (2016). Satoumi and coastalmanagement–satoumi management. Tokyo: Association of Agriculture andForestry Statistics. In Japanese.

577. Coastal Use Governance

The Role of Local Fishers in Coastal Recreational Use Management

Tamano Namikawa
The Japanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities

The beautiful coastal area used for fishing and recreation. T. Namikawa, 201558

7. COASTAL USE GOVERNANCE

The coastal area is a geographical space that has high environmental andsocio-economic value. As the needs for coastal zone use diversify alongwith economic growth and advancements in science and technology, it
has become critical to establish rules for the appropriate use of coastal
regions to govern access by prospective users with a so-called “coastal
use governance.” This chapter[1], using a remote island near Tokyo as
an example, will provide an overview of the development of coastal zone
management practices in Japan, as well as demonstrate how local fishers
play an important role in coastal recreational use management.

Introduc on
The coastal area comprises the band of sea and land along the waterfront,such as a sandy beach, seawall, or the banks of a harbor. Coastal zones are
geographical spaces that are socioeconomically valuable due to their diverse
ecosystem and natural resources, and are protected as spaces that not only
safeguard areas of land from seaborne disasters, but can also be used as sites
for development (e.g., manufacturing facilities). People use coastal zones
not only for fishing and shipping, but also for recreational activities suchas beach walks, swimming, shellfish gathering, and fishing. As economic
development and progress in science and technology have led to growth incoastal zones, serious environmental problems appear. Meanwhile, people
have come to demand “richness” in enjoying the environmental utility ofcoastal zones, and integrated coastal zone management frameworks, such as
the conservation of the coastal zone biome and efficient use of resources, areneeded. In coastal zones today, where diversified use needs and integrated
coastal zone management frameworks are being promoted, approaches toappropriate rule-making to ensure the optimal use of coastal zones, as well as
their dissemination, have become important. On this backdrop, the following
sections will discuss what role fishers play or could potentially play in the es59

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

tablishment of a coastal use management system. This is an important factor
to consider in clarifying a method for minimizing environmental degradation
due to overuse and congestion as well as appropriately and sustainably using
resources in coastal areas in the context of regional promotion efforts.

Japanese coastal governance
Since the time when fisheries and shipping were the main uses of coastal
zones, these areas have taken on various types of importance dependingon the diversification of uses, and various uses such as industrial landdevelopment by land reclamation, recreational use, and the re-evaluation ofenvironmental functions, such as tidal flats and seagrass beds, have appeared.
Meanwhile, the focus and methods of their management have also changed.
These can include resource management related to the use of fisheries, themanagement of space in terms of development and national conservation, thecoordination of fisheries and marine recreational activities, and so on. Thissection will provide an overview of the historical background of these uses
and management modes and clarify which actors have played critical roles.

Management of fisheries
The fishing industry has been operating in various parts of Japan since ancient
times, and the roots of the governance framework for this industry are said
to trace back to the Taiho Code of the Nara Period. The “Ritsuryo Youryaku”
enacted by the Tokugawa Shogunate states that “shore hunting is to be donein the area designated to each, while the seas are communal,” which meansthat areas of land are to be managed by villages, while offshore areas arespaces where people can operate freely. The designated village fishery systemof fisheries governance was born from the history of fishery disputes, suchas power and boundary disputes between the fishing villages. This mode, inwhich users self-regulate their use, can be referred to as user management.
In fact, even in Tokyo Bay, voluntary regulations on fishing equipment andmethods were negotiated among fishers in order to conserve resources.
60

7. COASTAL USE GOVERNANCE

A policy aimed at establishing a modern nation was promoted during the
Meiji Era, and in 1875 (Meiji, 8), the government abolished the customary
right to use fishing grounds and began leasing the sea surface owned by
the government to collect rental fees in an attempt to modernize fisherygovernance. However, as a result of the disruption of the customary fishingorder, fishing sites were confused and many conflicts occurred, and fisheries
were also abolished in the following year. After this point, fisheries’ resourceswere managed by convention. Subsequently, in 1910 (Meiji, 43), the “Meiji
Fishery Act” was enacted, and the doctrine of “the beach is part of theland” was established as a “fishery right exclusively for land surface water”
and codified. The 1949 (Showa, 24) Fishery Act has not changed its basic
intent, and some hold the opinion that this policy succeeded regarding therelationship between the fisheries cooperatives and their members under thecurrent “Cooperative Fisheries Rights” of common (shared) fishery rights,
specified fishery rights, and access permits.
Although there are different views as to whether common fishery rights
have the same nature as those from the Edo Period, the principle of “protection/cultivation of resources by users” is adhered to in their resource
management, and there are restrictions originating from the old convention.
As resource management is carried out through the control of inputs, suchas fishing, licensing, and regulations on fishing, most fisheries resource
management measures, such as the adjustment of fishing volumes andprotection/cultivation of fisheries resources, are mainly carried out voluntarily
by fishers.

Space management
During the Edo Period, when the commodities economy was robust, the port
was the key to the distribution of clan specialty products to countries and thetransportation of goods from rural areas to the clan. At that time, estuaries
were numerous, and the buildup of sediment was an issue; mountain and flood
controls to maintain port functionality were also important management
priorities of the era’s politicians. In addition, as many new rice fields were61

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

cultivated due to the increasing population, the coastal zones faced great
demand not only as a place for acquiring marine resources, but also as a spacefor developing ports and rice fields. Projects, such as the development of newrice fields, required large-scale civil engineering work, and were the domainof the feudal clans and the wealthy traders who did business with them. Suchdevelopments were said to require the permission of the Tokugawa Shogunate,
and the political administration was responsible for space management.
During the rapid industrialization of the Meiji and Showa eras, port development was promoted, and during the post-war period of high economic growth,industrial and urban uses, such as land reclamation, also became common.
While a governor’s permit was required to establish a land reclamation landfill
under the Act on Reclamation of Publicly-owned Water Surfaces (enacted
in 1926, amended in 1973), pollution became a chronic concern over thecourse of successive developments of industrial areas in coastal zones. In
addition, as a result of many of the coastal zones on the land side being
owned by companies, a situation arose in which local residents could notsecure access to these coastal zones. As a result, the “Right to Beach Access”
movement, which was a “movement to eliminate pollution, protect the naturalenvironment from destruction, and restore nature,” gained traction in various
places, starting with Hyogo Prefecture. Moreover, several public movements
opposing landfills and demanding the improvement of river water quality
began to appear in various places due to a sense of crisis regarding thedeterioration of the environment in the coastal zones, such as an increase inlandfill creation and the decline in inflow water quality from rivers.
In this way, the management of development spaces has essentially been
undertaken by the state. However, once the environmental value of coastal
zones begins to be widely recognized by society, beneficiaries of this new value,such as local residents, will assert new rights through means such as seeking
to revise laws. This can be identified as a mode of management that does not
fit within the framework of administrative management. This also applies tothe development of coastal facilities that protect the country from destructive
weather, such as storm systems and tsunamis. The coastal development
projects that emphasized business efficiency resulted in the deterioration
62

7. COASTAL USE GOVERNANCE

of coastal landscapes due to the division of land areas and coasts and theplacement of wave-dissipating blocks. As a result of raising awareness of thisissue, consideration of uses with respect to the protection of the environment
was incorporated into the legislative intent of the “Coast Act” (enacted in
1956, revised in 1999), and reflected the opinions of residents. As such, in thesame way, that the opinions of users from the viewpoint of environmental
conservation in the management of development spaces have had an influenceon the administration, a new system is being sought in which the managementof protected spaces will also include new users as well as those in coastal zones.

Management of recrea on
The problem of conflicts of use has also been apparent since the 1980s, which
saw an increase in the number of marine recreational uses. This conflict firststarted between commercial and game fishing. This is a problem because thetarget resource is the same, and it can be said that the issue is how to regulate
fishers in terms of priority of use with respect to coastal resource management.
For example, in 1993 in Iejima, Hyogo Prefecture, a fisher who was dissatisfied
with the fishery use agreement between commercial and game fisher, filed alawsuit to open the entire area to fishing boats. Following the issue of gamefishing, conflicts between fishing and diving activities became the subject ofattention. This conflict came into notice because of the complexity of the legal
basis for diving and the user fees imposed by numerous fisheries cooperatives
on diving patrons; conflicts in Osezaki in Shizuoka Prefecture and Miyakojima
in Okinawa Prefecture have become famous examples. Traditionally, fishers
who have preferential use of coastal zones have collected money from divers
under various guises, a practice that divers have begun to question.
This background is greatly influenced by the recent changes in the environment surrounding fisheries. Compared to other users, fishers have agreater presence in terms of rights regarding the use of coastal zones in thatthey have the right to fish as a property right, but due to the low fish prices
and lack of successors, their status as an industry continues to decline. In
addition, it has been generally recognized in recent years that fishers often find63

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

themselves on the side of being victims of coastal environmental problems,and can be perpetrators of problems such as overfishing and littering discarded
fishing gear causing damage to the coastal environment. Such changes in
the awareness of fisheries and a decline in their overall position in regional
economies are believed to call into question the appropriateness of preferential
use for fisheries.

The role of small-scale fishers in coastal governance inJapan
As described above, coastal zones managed by fishers, who are users offisheries resources under certain rules, have developed both spatial ​andenvironmental values. Various use and management measures are beingsought, and a management framework that reflects the opinions of various
users is in flux. As such, one issue affecting coastal zone management is
how to manage the greater number of users’ individual purposes and whatmanner of an organization should govern this activity. This issue will be
particularly apparent in problematic areas of ​recreational use management.
As I recognized earlier, when the fishing industry was specialized, the coastal
zones were essentially such that “residents of area villages = fishers.” Suchthinking can still be observed in areas where coastal use is specialized forindigenous people. As such, even if not clearly stated, if the scope of users
is defined by tacit understanding and a group of defined scope establishes
and enforces the rules governing the use of resources, this resource will be
managed by the local commons.
Coastal areas have long been local commons. However, as the use of coastal
areas is diversified and multi-layered, the range of users is expanding, as
people other than fishers, such as marine recreation tourists and urban
residents living on seafronts, become included among the coastline users.
Stated differently, the coastal zone is transforming from a local commons
to an open commons and has the characteristics to create a “tragedy of thecommons.”
As such, it is important to determine whether it is possible for fishers to64

7. COASTAL USE GOVERNANCE

function as managers of modern coastal zones, which have an increasingly
diverse body of users and are expanding from local to open commons. Fishers
can establish rules for the sustainable management of local commons byutilizing their deep knowledge of the coastal zones as well as the cooperation ofresearch institutions. However, problems such as resource use, over-fishing,and irrational use, which tend to be specialized to one aspect of seafood
production, have been pointed out, and the role of fishers as traditional
management bodies is in question. It has become difficult to establish aunilateral relationship in which the fishers set rules for using coastal zones
that do not hinder the fishery and will be followed by users. This is theaforementioned conflict faced with the diving industry. Thus, are fishers
no longer suitable to function as coastal zone managers? This is not always
the case, and in some areas, fishers do act as such. The following section will
discuss the case of Hatsushima, Atami City, where fishers have establisheddiving rules and are establishing an orderly use management system. Thisis an example of the management of the coastal zones as local commons
while accepting the new use of diving in response to the social demand fordiversifying the uses of coastal zones.

Examples of recrea on management by fishers
Hatsushima is located on Sagami Bay and is the closest remote island to themetropolitan area. Hatsushima is a small island with a population of 333(as of 2015) and a perimeter of approximately 4 km. Its main industries arefishing and tourism, with tourism being the greater of the two. Like many
parts of Japan, the coastal zone of ​Hatsushima has been used for fishing. A
production structure of mainly fishing and secondary farming, centered on
the family labor of each household, was adopted, but from around 1920, when
the rod net was introduced, a joint fishing labor form was adopted, and an
equal distribution system for each household was introduced. The Tengusa
fishery is also popular, and the profits obtained from the shore sale and thefisheries cooperative’s directly managed business are distributed evenly toeach household. In this way, in Hatsushima, where arable land is scarce,
65

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

marine products obtained from the coastal zones are valuable resources in
the region, and profits have been secured through cooperative use and evenly
distributed among the islanders.
Meanwhile, Hatsushima had been attracting attention as a tourist destination since even before the war. With the development of infrastructure to
support tourism, these coastal zones have become more valuable as a place formarine recreational activities such as fishing and swimming, and the islanders
have become more amenable to accepting tourists. The development of theresort hotel “Hatsushima Club,” which was promoted with the participation of
the islanders (1994), occupies more than one-third of the island’s land surface,
and the island took this opportunity to engage in the tourism enterprise.
Since the islanders’ main businesses have become operating guesthouses
and restaurants, the Hatsushima area had only part-time fishers, indicatingthat fishing has become an industry secondary to tourism.
Amid this wave of tourism, the fisheries cooperatives decided to engage
in the diving business, with the catch phrase “from catching to watching.”
The Hatsushima Diving Center was established in 1998 with a diving shop.
It can be said to have been the pioneer of the Izu Peninsula diving business,
as a business partner to the fishing cooperative. There were rules in placedesigned to both protect the environment and secure profits on the island,such as only accepting shop-run tours and offering benefits for guests staying
on the island. The fishers managed the use of the recreational coastal zone.
The rules fishers set can be roughly divided into the following two:
(1) Rules for restricting use: only shop tours that accept groups led byinstructors belonging to the diving shop for the purpose of safety management
and environmental conservation: “environmental conservation to avoid conflict with the fishing industry,” “diving area restrictions,” and “application
system for dive time,” etc.
(2) Rules for soliciting profits in the area: “No lunch allowed,” which
induces the use of restaurants on the island, and no “guest privileges” thatallows diving earlier than usual.
Both rules greatly limit the actions of users. This is thought to be because
these rules carry legitimacy in that everyone believes that these rules should66

7. COASTAL USE GOVERNANCE

be followed and create a structure that provides incentives to those who
follow them. For example, the use-restriction rules are easy for everyone
to approve as they create a structure to ensure the sustainable use of thelimited resources of the island. Moreover, these rules were establishedby the fishers themselves—the islanders who have devised and used thelimited resources—so it seems that their legitimacy as a management entity
is reinforced and that the rules are easier to be recognized and approved. In
addition, these rules establish incentives for each stakeholder.
For divers who are users, (1) securing a favorable recreation space, (2)ensuring safety, and (3) enjoying appropriate services can be incentives tofollow the rules. In addition, for diving shops, there are the (1) economic
incentives of profiting from tours, and (2) negative incentives that they cannot
be patronized unless the rules are followed. Although the rules restrict thegrowth of businesses and hinder the increase in profits, at the Hatsushima
Diving Center, rather than expanding short-term profits by excessively
increasing the number of users, the center’s policy is to improve satisfaction
and maintain environmental protection by accepting an appropriate numberof patrons corresponding to the capacity of the facility. Stated differently,
the use-restriction rules create an incentive for users in terms of greateruser satisfaction, and also incentives for business operators as well, such as
business continuity and lower management costs.
Meanwhile, what about local profit guidance rules? The establishment ofsuch rules is based on the traditional superiority of fishers and landowners,
namely the islanders. There is no problem as long as the user understands
the legitimacy of the rule and is convinced to follow it, but if the traditional
advantage is asserted and local profits are excessively secured, the fishers
set the rule and manage the use. There is a possibility that the justification
for doing so may fluctuate. Meals and lodging on the island could be more
expensive than users are willing to accept and will be deterred if profits are
solicited excessively.

67

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Conclusion: coastal governance and small-scale fisheries
In order to coordinate diverse uses, avoid the overutilization of coastal zones,
and use resources sustainably, users must accept some restrictions. Those
who manage coastal zones must design their use systems such that users
can understand and accept the restrictions. As the value of the coastalzone increases in response to social demands, fishers in Hatsushima haveencouraged further utilization of the coastal zone and have restricted users
from managing the coastal zone as a local commons. The fishers, who are
the management entities, have the legitimacy of historical ownership, and at
the same time, maintain the system by securing economic incentives for each
entity whose actions are regulated under this framework.
In the case of Hatsushima, these institutional designs are believed to havebeen possible because they were created by fishers who live in the area, own
land, and have fishery rights. In this respect, regional fishers will continue
to play an important role in managing coastal use. In contrast, as the useof coastal zones is diversified, fishers holding the rights to coastal zones
only because they were the first group there will no longer be the case, andis considered a coastal management entity by sole virtue of being a fisher
is no longer compatible with the current social environment. Therefore, inorder for fishers to play a leading role in the management and to maintain andoperate systems limiting the rights of other users, they must clearly build theirown legitimacy, and I believe that it is important to demonstrate this to theincreasing groups of users of the coastal zone and encourage their cooperation.

Endnotes[1] This chapter was written by Tamano Namikawa in reference to “Suitabilityof Fisheries for Recreation Management in Coastal Zones”, Minoru Tada,
Xiaobo Lou, Masahiko Ariji, Takahiro Matsui, Sachiko Harada (Eds.), and “TheChanging Japanese Fishery: Seeking Potential and Sustainability”, Hokuto
Shobo, 2014.
68

8. From A en on to Ac on

A Long Road Towards Gender Equality

Kumi Soejima
Setsunan University
Katia Frangoudes
University of Brest

Fishing as a community, Hikari city, Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan, K. Soejima,
2019
69

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Behind every boat, there is a woman, a family and a fishing community(Slogan of European network AKTEA, 2002). Gender equality is one ofthe objectives of Japanese authorities to fulfill the country’s commitment
to the ratification of international conventions. In addition, genderequality has been integrated into national sectorial policies with the aimof strengthening women’s participation in the economy. In particular,
women’s employment and participation in decision making should bepromoted in economic sectors such as agriculture and fisheries. However,the current legal framework is struggling to be implemented, and genderinequalities still dominate Japanese society. In the fisheries sector, thepaternalistic attitudes of cooperatives prevent women from being fully
employed in fisheries and make it impossible for women to participate
in decision making in the sector. This paper examines national ruraland fisheries policies related to gender equality and highlights the gap
between theoretical objectives and effective implementation.

Japanese gender policy in general
Since 2014, gender equality in all sectors, including agriculture and fisheries,
became one of the objectives of Japanese authorities. However, Japanesesociety is still dominated by paternalistic attitudes and behavior, making thisobjective difficult to achieve. The reason is probably that gender equality policies are only targeting equal opportunities in employment without questioning
the masculine values dominating Japanese society that expect women to stayat home and take care of children, husbands and old parents. In this paper,
we present the main Japanese national policies that have strived to promotewomen’s participation in economic activities, particularly in fisheries, andhighlight women’s views regarding these policies.
The 1945 Japanese constitution is the first legal document introducing theprinciple of equal rights between women and men in education and the family708. FROM ATTENTION TO ACTION

for the first time in Japanese history. Since then, equality principles between
women and men have evolved over time and according to international events.
For example, after the international women’s year in 1975, celebrated by
the United Nations, Japan adopted, in 1977, a national plan for the equalityof women and men, and then, in 1985, ratified the UN Convention on the
Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW-1975).
Subsequently, Japan’s “New National Action Plan Toward The Year 2000”
promoted gender equality and spoke about a “gender-equal society,” a term
which has been mentioned since 1994 in Japanese legislation (Cabinet Office,2001). The “Plan of Gender Equality of the Year 2000” was adopted in 1996,
and the Basic Act for Gender-Equal Society was implemented in 1999, followedby the Basic Plan for Gender Equality in 2000. The Japanese government has
included women’s equal opportunities as one of its important policy areas
since 2014, and has put forward policies that address equality in all sectors.

Gender policy in rural socie es
According to the National Association of Fisheries Cooperatives Women’sGroups, women represent 60% of the labor force in rural communities. Theirmajor contributions are to support family enterprises, bring up children,
take care of the family and take care of the household (1989). However, thiscontribution is invisible, and society pays little attention to it. To modify
this erroneous image and promote the role of rural women in community
development, the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries introduced
the “Day of Rural Women” celebrated every year on the 10th of March, probably
in relation to international women’s day. On this day, through different events,
rural women’s role in communities is promoted by showing their abilities andcapacities (National Association of Fisheries Cooperatives Women’s Groups,
1989).
Another tool used by Japanese authorities to support women’s economic
participation in rural family enterprises has been “Family Management
Agreements.” Thus, family members involved in family enterprises (farms or
fishing) discuss and make an agreement on how tasks are shared among them71

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

both in the enterprise and household. Agriculture and fisheries in Japan are
operated by family-based, small-scale businesses, and like all family-based
activities, they have advantages but also disadvantages, since the line between
the management of enterprises and private life is not clear, indeed, roles,
working hours, earnings of family members are often confusing (Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan).
Therefore, these agreements are made to make agriculture more appealing
to farmers’ wives and successors. Nowadays, national authorities also provide
economic incentives, through subsidies, for agricultural sector with the aim ofincreasing the number of households signing up to these agreements. In 2019,58,182 households involved in agriculture had signed a Family Management
Agreement, and 1,665 more have recently signed one (Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries, 2019). The Japanese government has tried to expand
Family Management Agreements into fishery households. However, thenumbers are not really increasing compared with the agricultural sector
because, unlike the agricultural sector, in fisheries, no economic incentives
have been forthcoming. In addition, the number of fishers who have signed
these agreements at the national level is unknown, as the authorities do notalways register them (Rural Women Empowerment and Life Improvement
Association, 2006). In the prefecture of Yamaguchi, where the number isavailable, there are 54 signatory fishery households (2015) out of a total of
2,858 (Yamaguchi prefecture, 2016). According to the Association of Rural
Women’s Empowerment and Life Improvement, this number of households
is higher than in other provinces (Rural Women Empowerment and Life
Improvement Association, 2006).

Gender policy in fisheries
In 1992, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan prepareda medium to a long-term vision about rural women aiming to promote andsupport their participation in decision-making and entrepreneurship (Miki,2010). Within this context, the National Association of Fisheries Cooperatives
Women’s Groups organized meetings with members of women’s groups and72

8. FROM ATTENTION TO ACTION

the Director-General of the Fisheries Agency to establish a common vision of
women’s needs to be negotiated with decision-makers (National Associationof Fisheries Cooperatives Women’s Group, 1994). It appears that this action
influenced the Fisheries White Paper that included support for women toachieve gender equality and facilitated the introduction of more gendersensitive policies (Miki, 2010). As a result, Women’s Fisheries Groups havereceived interest-free subsidies for fish processing equipment and facilities.
Women’s Groups in Fisheries Cooperatives Associations (FCAs) have also
requested the organization of training courses and workshops about genderequality. Unfortunately, these courses have not produced any tangible effects.
In 2017, the Fisheries Basic Plan tasked FCAs with promoting women’s
participation in the fisheries sector. This objective was better developed inlater plans made by Japanese authorities focusing on promoting women’s
participation in all fields with special emphasis given to improving women’sroles in economic development (Cabinet Office, 2015; Gender Equality Bureau
Cabinet Office, 2016). However, our observations show that women are
still absent from decision-making processes regarding fishing communities.
Moreover, women’s rights are not being acknowledged despite the recommendations made by the 4th Basic Plan for Gender Equality (2015) regarding
women’s appointments to FCA boards; neither is women’s participation indecision making concerning fisheries management and community development (Soejima and Frangoudes, 2019). Thus, it seems to be difficult to achieve
the objectives set by the legislative framework at the local level. For example,
Yamaguchi prefecture’s medium-to-long-term vision about rural womenlaid down in 2016 set as an objective to double the number of women on FCA’s
boards by 2020 (only one woman has been a board member, in 2015). However,as of May 2020, this objective has not been achieved.
The “Hama-katsu Plan (Seashore Revitalization Plans),” the central pillarof Japanese fisheries policy, is a tool targeting the development of local
communities and designates FCAs to achieve this target (Fisheries Agency,2013). According to Hama-katsu Plan policies, women should be part oflocal economic development. FCAs should be open to and facilitate women’s
integration into new activities. The main objective of Hama-katsu Plan is73

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

to increase fishing income by at least 10% over a five-year period throughvoluntary initiatives. This could be possible by introducing measures to add
value to fish catches. Processing, creation of new products, or selling to newmarkets are the main priorities. Women’s groups have long experience inprocessing and creating new products and can come up with new ideas as partof these Hama-katsu Plan, if only the FCAs would open the doors to them. It
seems that in practice, women have not participated in the design of theseplans for various reasons. Among others, women have not been informed
about the plans and their objectives; thus, they were unable to prepare andimplement community revitalization plans. One of the reasons they were
not informed about the plans was because the FCAs only invited their own
women groups whose members were mainly old women. Other fisher womenrunning economic activities in the area were not invited, as they were notmembers of FCAs. Indeed, there are many examples around the country thatshow that women who have attempted to take new initiatives to promote
their communities have been marginalized by FCAs (Soejima and Frangoudes,2019).
The absence of young women in community affairs and fisheries is anotherchallenge for fisheries authorities and the National Association of Fisheries
Cooperatives Women’s Groups. Both have a specific action plan for networking
young women in fishing communities. For example, the Fisheries Agency
is communicating with younger generations of women through the Social
Networking Service (SNS) and organizing lunch meetings with them. In
2017, the National Association of Fisheries Cooperatives Women’s Groups
launched a network (called Fure-Mizu Bukai) for young women in fishingcommunities. This new network organizes not only young women directly
related to fisheries but also all young women in the fishing communities. The
latter group has a high level of awareness about their communities’ activities
or entrepreneurship etc. These new networks aim to create opportunities
for personal exchanges among young women in fishing communities andestablish cooperation between them. In Yamaguchi prefecture, this new local
network was launched in 2018. However, both networks, national and local,
have extremely low budgets, and there is a risk their activities will have to end.
74

8. FROM ATTENTION TO ACTION

In addition, the visibility of these networks is low. Often fisheries staff in local
government have never heard about them.

Fisher women’s opinions about the gender-equal
challenge
Gender-equal opportunities in Japan have evolved little by little at all levels.
However, men in fisheries’ communities are reluctant to change to a moregender-equal society. For example, the leader of a women’s group runninga fish processing activity and a restaurant, as well as leading the local
FCA women’s group (from 2005 to 2017) and the women’s group of the
National Association of FCAs, was rejected when she requested to be a regularmember at her local FCA. This negative response can be interpreted as gender
discrimination (Soejima and Frangoudes, 2019). This was also the case of awoman diver harvesting abalone. The reason for this negative response is thatwomen, even active ones in fisheries, need to be represented by the head of thehousehold, in other words, their husbands. Men, as regular members of thecooperative, are the only ones allowed to discuss and decide how to regulate
the activity and manage fishing stocks (Soejima and Frangoudes, 2019). A
woman diver claimed the right to be a regular member of an FCA in front ofsome board members during an interview conducted by us in June 2016. The
men pretended to listen but did not respond to her request.
Another woman working with her husband in squid fisheries also asked
to become a regular member of the FCA and participate in decision making
during a workshop on SSF voluntary guidelines organized by us with womenleaders of Yamaguchi prefecture in June 2016. These open and public requests
show that fisher women are motivated to become regular FCA members andbe active in decision-making.
As noted above, SRP expects women to be part of the local economic
development. Indeed, many women’s groups contribute to local economic
development (Soejima and Frangoudes, 2019, etc.). Nevertheless, fisheries
officers sometimes ask, “Does fishing production increase by paying attention
to women?”75

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Conclusion
As described above, gender policies in Japan, not only in the fishing sector but
in all economic sectors, arise out of economic policies and are not specifically
aimed at empowerment and gender equality. The government primarily
expects women to contribute to the Japanese economy; thus, it attempts toimprove their working environment. Therefore, in Japan, it seems that genderpolicy needs more time to achieve effective gender-equality. Nevertheless,women have started to earn the right to speak in FCAs or in their communities
through their entrepreneurship and women’s group activities (Soejima andFrangoudes, 2019). It is worth noting that despite the obstacles women facein Japan, some of the younger generations belonging to the Fure-Mizu Bukai
network have produced new ideas to add value to catches and have started
to implement their ideas. We should observe what effects on fishing andcommunities their efforts will be in the near future.

Acknowledgment
This work was supported by JSPS INTERNATIONAL FELLOWSHIPS for RESEARCH in JAPAN:S16089.

76

9. Regional Governance

A Case Study of Government Support in Shizuoka Prefecture

Hidenori Nakahira
Shizuoka Prefectural Government

Real-time information transmission experiment between remote markets,
Shizuoka City Central Wholesale Market, Japan, S.Takase, 2020

77

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

This essay discusses the current situation and issues of the administrative
support for small-scale-fisheries (SSF) being carried out in Shizuoka
Prefecture, where fishery is thriving. In Shizuoka Prefecture, SSF plays animportant role in the region’s employment, supporting a wide variety offood cultures, and developing the unique culture of the region. Therefore,
to make such SSF sustainable, appropriate management of fish resources,
improvement of fish prices, appropriate measures in the distribution
and consumption stages of fish are being implemented. Particularly
in measures in the distribution and consumption stages of fish thathave not much been carried out so far, it is important to cooperate withthe tourism industry, to expand local distribution by actively utilizing
ICT (Information and Communication Technology) tools, and construct
a distribution system within the region. By further expanding thesemeasures, I believe that the possibilities of SSF that are full of regional
characteristics can be further enhanced.

Introduc on
In my opinion, there are two important points in discussing administrative
support for small-scale-fisheries (SSF: Fisheries take place in the coastal area
using a small fishing boat) in Japan. The first is the division of roles in fisherypolicy between the state and prefectures. Broadly speaking, Japan’s Fishery
Act has a system that allows the state to permit the large-scale-fisheries (LSF:
Fisheries take place at the pelagic and offshore sea using large fishing boat),while the prefectures permit and license SSF as necessary. For this reason,
prefectural governments have provided much direct support (subsidies andfinancial systems, etc.) to SSF, also supported by the national budget. Thisis mainly due to the fact that SSF is region-specific, and it is better that
prefectural governments that are more knowledgeable about the region takethe initiative to deal with various issues related to SSF properly. Therefore,789. REGIONAL GOVERNANCE

when considering how governmental support for SSF should be, it is necessary
to pay close attention to the role that prefectural governments play. The
second is the value that SSF creates. SSF is considered to be much smaller
in terms of fish production volume and value than LSF. In fact, in Japan, theoutput of SSF is only about 40% of the output of LSF (MAFF, 2020b). In
Shizuoka Prefecture, the proportion of SSF is even lower, accounting for only
20 to 30% of the production of LSF (MAFF, 2020b). However, it is necessary tocarefully consider whether the value produced by SSF can be evaluated solely
by the production amount, or whether there is no other value to be evaluated.
Based on the above, this essay discusses the current situation and issues of theadministrative support for SSF being carried out in Shizuoka Prefecture, whichis the epitome of Japan as a whole in the actual situation of SSF compared to
LSF.

The current situa on of the fisheries of Shizuoka
Prefecture and the importance of SSF promo on
Shizuoka Prefecture is one of Japan’s leading areas in fishery thriving.
Shizuoka Prefecture ranks fourth in Japan in terms of marine fisheryproduction (in 2018, about 200,000 tons, MAFF, 2020b), fourth in Japanin terms of production value (in 2018, about 53 billion yen, MAFF, 2020c).
As mentioned in the introduction, about 3/4 of marine fishery production
in Shizuoka Prefecture comes from LSF. But in the LSF, only a few speciesof fish are landed (mainly bonito, tuna and mackerel). On the other hand,even though SSF in Shizuoka Prefecture accounts for only about one-fourthof the total production, a wide variety of catches is landed. Under suchcircumstances, the fishery administration of Shizuoka Prefecture recognizes
that the administrative support for SSF is essential. In this section, I would
like to discuss some of the reasons.
The first reason is the number of fishery enterprises engaged in SSF.
The ratio of the number of fishery enterprises engaged in SSF in Shizuoka
Prefecture is about 90% of the total (MAFF, 2020a). SSF in Shizuoka Prefecture
accounts for only about 1/4 of the total production, but most of Shizuoka’s
79

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

fishery enterprises engage in SSF, supporting the employment of local
residents.
The second reason is the role played by various fish species landed by SSF.
As mentioned above, the amount of SSF production in Shizuoka Prefecture isabout 1/4 of the total, but among them, many individual fish species record
one of the largest catches in the nation such as Shirasu (babu sardine: 3rdplace nationwide, 2018, MAFF, 2020b), Sakura shrimp (1st place nationwide,
2018, SPFRI, 2019b), Kinmedai (red bream: 2nd place nationwide, 2018, NRIFS,
2019) or glass eel (1st place in Japan, 2018, Nihon Yosyoku Shinbun, June 15,2019). Japan is considered to be one of the most developed countries in theworld for the culture of eating fish, but it is not just about eating a large amountof fish, but about eating various types of fish. For this reason, SSF in Shizuoka
Prefecture is a valuable industry that supports Japanese food culture, even if
the total production amount is small.
The third reason is maintenance of cultural diversity in the region. As
mentioned above, a wide variety of fish species are landed by SSF in Shizuoka
Prefecture, the fish species that are landed differ greatly depending on theregion. And that is what makes the region unique. For example, Shirasu islanded in the coastal region of mainly from the west to the central part of theprefecture (Enshu Nada and western and inner parts of Suruga Bay); Sakura
shrimp is landed at Yui and Oigawa area (west of Suruga Bay); Kimmedai islanded at Omaezaki area (southwest of Suruga Bay), and the east coast of
Izu peninsula; glass eels are landed on Lake Hamana. In this way, regionspecific fish species are landed in each region. This kind of situation is linked
to cultural events such as local festivals, and creates a culture unique to theregion. For example, in the Inatori area (southeast side of Izu Peninsula), theKimmedai Festival is held, and in the Yui area, the Sakura Shrimp Festival
is held. The formation of such diverse cultures in the region created by SSF
has enriched human society and also promoted other industries such as thetourism industry, thus producing great economic benefits for the region.

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The current situa on and issues of the administra ve
support for SSF in Shizuoka Prefecture
As mentioned in the second section, SSF in Shizuoka Prefecture plays animportant role in the region’s employment, supporting a wide variety offood cultures, and developing unique culture of the region. This section
describes the current situation and issues of administrative support for SSF in
Shizuoka Prefecture to promote such SSF in Shizuoka Prefecture and makeit a sustainable industry. What is the most important factor to make SSF
sustainable? I think it is to secure workers for SSF. The reason is that, without
workers, the industry cannot be established. What, then, is necessary to secure
employment for SSF? I think the answer is that, at a minimum, SSF needs to beestablished as an industry that can earn income and maintain the livelihoods ofworkers, and for the purpose of attracting more workers, profitable industries
will appeal to people seeking jobs. In the primary industry in Japan, including
the fishery industry, if any industry is not deemed as established industry,
which ensures a certain level of income, those who are currently working inthat capacity have no desire to pass on to their children. In addition, newemployment seekers are not attracted to an industry that cannot guarantee
stable income.

The direc ons of the support
Based on this basic idea, the current fishery administration in Shizuoka
Prefecture is mainly engaged in support for SSF in the following directions.
(1) The first is the appropriate management of fish resources. Currently,
in Shizuoka Prefecture (although there are many similar cases in other areasof Japan), a poor catch is becoming serious in many major fish species. For
example, the catch of Kinmedai is less than half compared to 10 years ago(NRIFS, 2019). In addition, the catch of Shirasu in recent two years has been
about 60% of the previous (SPFRI, 2019a). Furthermore, concerning Sakura
shrimp, which is caught only in Suruga Bay in Japan, there has been very
poor catch in recent years (SPFRI, 2019a). In this way, if the catch of the fish81

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

species that SSF mainly aims to catch becomes very poor, SSF itself will not be
viable. For this reason, it is extremely important to keep the number of fish
resources above a certain level through appropriate resource management.
The problem at this time is that for the fish species targeted by many SSF,
including SSF in Shizuoka Prefecture, the resource surveys and resource
assessments for calculating Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) have not been
sufficiently implemented. So, I think it is important to set catch targets andimplement resource management measures that are as scientific as possible,
also considering the economic sustainability of SSF fishers and also importantto give them sufficient explanations of how to set targets.
(2) The second is the improvement of fish prices. Increasing income earned
by SSF is essential for making SSF attractive. Income is the price multipliedby the catch. Therefore, it is necessary to raise the catch, raise the price, orboth in order to increase income. In most fishery administrations up to now,
it was considered important how to raise the catch. However, as mentioned
above, the amount of fish caught in SSF in many areas of Japan, including
Shizuoka Prefecture, has continued to decline. So, I think that it is becoming
extremely important to raise fish prices. The next question is how to improvefish prices. The answer to this question has often been to take steps at the
production stage, such as increasing the freshness of the catch and branding
the catch. Certainly, assuming that demand is constant when fisher lands
his or her catch and sell that to the market broker, the price increases when
the fish is fresh or has a high brand value. For this reason, even in Shizuoka
Prefecture, measures for the production stage are still being implemented
as one of the important measures. But in recent years, the development ofrefrigeration technology and freshness preservation technology has beenremarkable, making it difficult to differentiate from the same kind of fish
species in other producing areas, and it is becoming difficult to improve thefish price only by such measures. Therefore, I think that measures in the
distribution and consumption stages of fish which I discuss next paragraphwill become important.
(3) The third is appropriate measures in the distribution and consumption
stages of fish. It is necessary to understand the geographical situation of82

9. REGIONAL GOVERNANCE

Shizuoka Prefecture to describe the measures in Shizuoka Prefecture. Shizuoka
Prefecture is located in the middle of the Tokyo area and the Nagoya area,
where both is a metropolitan area, and many of the fish landed by SSF arealso supplied to these areas (Shizuoka Prefectural Government, 2019b). In
this case, since the same kind of fish species gather from all over the country
in these areas, good freshness and brand value are important in order toraise the price of fish landed in Shizuoka Prefecture. However, as describedabove, under the recently developed refrigeration technology and freshness
preservation technology, it is necessary to satisfy the condition that the brandvalue becomes extremely high or the freshness is extremely good, which isconsiderably difficult. For this reason, the measures that Shizuoka Prefectural
Government has been implementing since three years ago are to strengthen
distribution and increase consumption of fish within the prefecture. In
many cases, consumers (especially tourists) have a high interest in “regionspecific.” Especially in the case of Shizuoka Prefecture, many tourists are
visiting areas such as Izu area (Shizuoka Prefectural Government, 2019a),and it is thought that such tourists are looking for “things that can only beobtained there,” which makes it possible to set a certain high price for suchconsumers. The problem that must be solved at this time is the distribution
route of the local fish landed by SSF. Since Shizuoka Prefecture has a large
supply to metropolitan areas, it is thought that the distribution routes to the
local area are limited. Perhaps, in the past, there were only local routes, butwith the development of efficient distribution to metropolitan areas, the local
distribution routes became inefficient and abolished. Therefore, in Shizuoka
Prefecture, we are currently working on expanding the local distribution routeand the local consumption of local fish to areas around landing sites and areas
within the prefecture where relatively great demand can be expected.

The essen al points for implemen ng the measures
What, then, is necessary when implementing such measures? I think thatthree additional points that are important.
(1) The first is cooperation with the tourism industry. As mentioned above,83

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Shizuoka Prefecture is located in the middle of the Tokyo area and the Nagoya
area, and because there are nationwide tourist destinations such as the Izu areaand Mt. Fuji, many tourists come from the metropolitan area. Therefore, it isextremely important to connect such tourist demand to the demand for locallylanded fish. Three years ago, we were conducting business to promote fish
restaurants operated by fishery cooperatives in each region, and the numberof tourists visiting these restaurants has been increasing every year. A total of
approximately 700,000 customers are recorded annually at the 17 restaurants
in fishing ports and other locations (Shizuoka Prefectural Government, 2019c).
I think that it is important to further increase the number of customers byfurther collaborating with tourist spots and experience facilities around thefishing port in the future.
(2) The second is the expansion of local distribution by actively utilizing ICT
tools. The basic idea is to efficiently match the real needs of the broker andthe actual user with local fish, each of which is a small landing volume and alarge variety. Although a certain demand can be expected for locally landedfish species in local distribution, if no measures are taken, it is difficult tocarry out local distribution in which the fish price is higher than distribution
to metropolitan areas. Due to the fact that many of the local fish are notfamiliar to the general public, and landing volumes are small, if the broker
or the actual user cannot know in advance when it will be landed and how
many volumes will be landed, they would not know how to use it. Fortunately,
this problem can be solved to some extent by using ICT tools for distribution.
Specifically, by utilizing ICT tools such as Line, Twitter, Facebook, etc., theinformation of fishes on the fishing boat or in the fixed net on the sea before
landing can be promptly sent to the broker or the actual user so that the broker
and the actual user can place an order according to that information. If thisway of distribution is used for local distribution, where local fish is supplied toareas where it is easy to find special value for locally landed fish, fish prices are
expected to improve, and the increase in cost due to small-volume distribution
can be recovered. Therefore, in Shizuoka Prefecture, from three years ago, we
have been conducting a project to carry out such local distribution as a model.
For example, by selling squid landed in Nishina, located in the southwestern84

9. REGIONAL GOVERNANCE

part of the Izu Peninsula, to a restaurant in Shizuoka City, which is a major
consuming area in Shizuoka Prefecture, there are some cases where theysucceed in selling at a higher price than selling to the Tokyo metropolitan
area. In this case, since there are fewer intermediate distributors in local
distribution, it is also important that the prices purchased by consumers
be lowered than in the Tokyo metropolitan area. Regarding future issues,
I think it is important to make the contents of information transmission
using ICT tools more useful for brokers and actual users (like those withdemands for the local fish, such as retail shops and restaurants). And for that
purpose, it is necessary to work on the utilization of video, improvement of thetiming of information transmission, expansion of information transmission
destinations, and so on.
(3) The third is the construction of a distribution system within the region. In
Shizuoka Prefecture, many fishing ports, which are bases for SSF, are locatedin remote areas and have poor transportation. Therefore, it is important
to construct distribution routes that enable efficient distribution from suchpoorly accessible fishing ports to areas in the prefecture where relatively great
demand can be expected. From the perspective of reducing distribution cost,
it is also important that multiple fishing ports in the region work together
to establish a base that collects the fish landed at each fishing port. Actually,in Shizuoka Prefecture, currently, we are working to transport fish using
ferries from the west side of the Izu Peninsula to the Shizuoka City side of the
Suruga Bay. As a result, distribution time and distribution cost are expected
to be reduced. A future issue is how to increase the volume of transportation
through this distribution route in order to reduce distribution cost further.

Conclusion
In this essay, I have written about the significance, current situation, andissues of administrative support for SSF based on the case of Shizuoka
Prefecture. I think the most important way of thinking when the government
supports SSF is not to save SSF but to believe in the potential of SSF and extend
it. Of course, it may be necessary to reduce the scale of SSF in some regions due85

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

to the declining population in the coastal areas, declining the number of fish
resources caught in SSF, and the demand of fish. However, as mentioned in
the third section, due to the development of ICT technology, it is now possible
to meet a variety of individual needs, even with a small amount of a wide rangeof landings. Moreover, the era has changed from the period of consuming alarge number of homogeneous products to the period of recognizing diverse
values and seeking products that cannot be normally obtained. Based on this, I
believe that the possibilities of SSF that are full of regional characteristics canbe further enhanced. I hope this essay will help to strengthen such possibilities.

86

III
Present Condi ons of JSSF

10. Tradi ons and Cultures

A Look at the Lifestyle of Young Whitebait Fishers

Takahiro Kobayashi
Tokai University

Drawing a net with two boats, Mochimune, Japan, T. Kobayashi, 201689

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The purpose of this research is to explore some of the reasons why one
should pay attention to the lifestyle of youngsters. The reason why thisstudy is focused on their lifestyle is to pay attention to social factors
surrounding them other than the amount of income that is generally
cited as the main factor. The subjects of this research are five young
whitebait fishers. We collected and discussed their stories about theiroccupation and leisure activities. Each young fisher has a professional
pride in fishing. Whitebaiting in Mochimune operates only 130 days ayear and can be done in the morning. In the afternoons, they can engage
in catching sakura shrimps in Yui during that season, as well as various
side jobs. Also, such spare time can be used for leisure activities that arecommon to various generations. Thus, it has become clear that not only
the occupational pride but plenty of leisure time and rich human relations
developed there have encouraged young people to join whitebait fishing.

Introduc on
I met young whitebait fishers through a practical training investigation inwhich I took my students along with me. Whitebait here refers to the fry ofsardines and anchovy. We heard from fishing port officials that there weremany young fishers in Mochimune, and they were not so worried about the
aging of society and a lack of successors. I took an interest in why young
people join whitebait fishery in the Mochimune area, and I made it the purposeof this practical training investigation. In modern times, the aging anddeclining population of rural villages is a serious problem in a society where thepopulation is decreasing. The human resources of the agricultural, mountainand fishing villages have flowed out in the course of the high economic growthsince 1955. It has caused a so-called depopulation problem. It has been so
severe that it has made it difficult to secure basic living conditions in rural
areas. Even today, the national and local governments have been working on
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10. TRADITIONS AND CULTURES

countermeasures for depopulation, aiming to build a unique and autonomous
community through the promotion of local industries and local culture.
Rural fishing villages, where a depopulation problem is occurring, have ahigh proportion of primary and secondary industries, which are particularly
important in the local economy and employment. In order to promotesettlement in local communities, so-called sixth sector industrialization,
where the primary industry is developed into food processing, distribution,and sales, as well as the expansion of employment and securing of income
by adding value to local resources have become another important task toaccomplish. In the primary industry, the decline in the number of fishers
in the fishery and the aging of fishing boats are severe. Japan boasts thesixth largest exclusive economic zone in the world, which is about 12 times
its land area. Also, rich fishing grounds are formed in the waters around
Japan due to the joining of nutrients and ocean currents such as Oyashio
and Kuroshio. However, according to the Ministry of Fisheries, the aging
rate of fishing villages is higher than that of the national average. In thisstudy, we interviewed young fishers from the Mochimune area in Shizuoka
Prefecture, which is said to have many new entrants. We tried to identify thefactors that make these youngsters settle as fishers and sustain their livelihoodin Mochimune, by clarifying their “lifestyle orientations,” focused on their“occupational lives” and “leisure lives.”

The viewpoint of lifestyle
Nakayama (1998) studied the recognition of young people living in metropolitan areas concerning their desired lives in the future, using the framework of
the life structure theory. He says that the important factor that determines
the residence orientation for locally-oriented young people is “lifestyle,”that is, what kind of life they want to live. “Underlying this concept is theperception that living activities of a subject, which are supported by somesense of value, are conducted in a consistent style or pattern. People are
guided by the desire to ‘live like this’ and select desired actions from a varietyof options. By envisioning a desirable life, based on which individual actions
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are selected and combined, a coherent pattern of life activities for an individualis created. It can be said that lifestyle is a concept that includes both thesepatterned behaviors and the element of value consciousness behind it, which
resides in a different dimension.” (Nakayama, 1998)
In this research, the stories obtained through the interviews are classified
into “occupational life” and “leisure life” from the viewpoint of “lifestyle.”
The factors that determine why they settle in Mochimune as fishers andcontinue fishing are identified, based on their behavior and values from theperspective of the specific motives of individuals, that is, the world that
constitutes their experiences and lives from the perspective of their “lifestyleorientation.” In this practical training, a preliminary investigation was
conducted on May 13, 2016, the main investigation was conducted on June4, 2016, and a supplementary investigation was conducted on July 9, 2016.
The method of the investigation was participant observation and interviewing.
Interviews were conducted with five young fishers. The story told by one ofthem is introduced in particular at this time. Below, I will describe it based on
Ichikawa (2017) and Kobayashi ( 2017).

Overview of the Mochimune area
Mochimune is a small town located at the southwestern edge of Shizuoka
City (the southern part of the Nagata district in Suruga-Ku), measuring about
4.06 square km. With a population of 4501 as of 2015, it is suffering from
population decline and aging like other rural fishing villages. The aging rate is
34.6%. From the fact that Japan’s aging rate is 26.7% of the total population,
it can be said that the problem is serious. Mochimune Fishing Port is locatedon the southwestern tip of Shizuoka City, 2 km southwest of the mouth of
the Abe River, which runs through the center of the city from north to south,and 2 km northeast of the Ookuzure Coast. The coastline faces Suruga Bay,and erosion by violent waves is severe. The terrain is somewhat steep near
the coast but becomes gentler as it goes offshore. Due to the mild climate
unparalleled to other cities, it is temperate in summer and warm in winter.
The average temperature is 16 °C, with little snow on the plains. Besides, there9210. TRADITIONS AND CULTURES

are many sunny days despite a large amount of precipitation, and the hours ofsunlight are longer than those of other cities.
The current manager of Mochimune Fishing Port is the Fishing Port Divisionof the Shizuoka municipal government, and it is operated by the Shimizu
Fishery Cooperative Mochimune Branch. According to an interview with oneof its regular members, the Shimizu Fishery Cooperative Mochimune Branch
was composed of 108 members with 38 regular members and 70 associate
members as of May 13, 2016. As for the revenue, 40% of which is earned
from fishers as the sales commission. Other revenues are from direct sales ofwhitebait, farmhouses, and whitebait huts. According to Amano (2014), otherthan whitebait, the types of fishing currently being operated in Mochimune
are gill net fishing, bottom trawling, pole-and-line fishing (also serves as
sport fishing on a boat), and skin-diving fishing from May to September for
abalones and turban shells. The main seafood at the port is whitebait, which
accounts for 95% of the landed fish. Many whitebait fishers are engaged insakura shrimp fishing in Yui as well.

A whitebait fisher Mr. A (28, male)
Mr. A (fictitious name) is a 28-year-old whitebait fisher at Mochimune Port.
He lived with his family consisting of six people: his father, mother, younger
sister, grandparents and himself, and both his father and grandfather werefishers. He started to board a fishing boat soon after graduating from afisheries high school. Mr. A boards the main boat called trawler. One setof whitebait net called ikkato is run by four people on a trawler, two on a skiff(a boat to draw the net), and one on a carrier (a boat to find whitebait andquickly transport whitebait to the port). We asked Mr. A, “What were you
interested in when you were a child?” and “How does it specifically contributeto your current job?” Mr. A replied that he had been thinking of taking overwhitebaiting from his father when he was still a child. Under the influence of
his father, he boarded a fishing boat as a whitebait fisher the next day after
he graduated from high school. His father used to say to Mr. A, “Do whatever
you want to do if you have anything you want to do.” Mr. A himself said to93

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

his father as well as to his close fisherman friends, “I will do it (I will be awhitebait fisher).” (The explanation in the parentheses is supplemented by
the author. The same applies hereafter.) Therefore, the reaction of the people
around him was like “Just as expected.” When he first got on the boat, he hadseasickness and often stopped the boat to throw up. In a week or so, he got
used to sailing on a boat and no longer suffered seasickness. However, Mr. A
said that he can still get sick on a stormy day.
We asked Mr. A some questions about present-day whitebait fishers. WhenI asked about the conditions to be a full-fledged fisher, Mr. A answered asfollows. “The qualifications of a full-fledged fisher? Umm…difficult. Well,
to be able to catch fish on my own without the help of my parent.” When his
father says during whitebaiting for whitebait, “Let’s do the net (lift the net),”he tells other Noriko (crew) the length of rope to the depth of water where
there is whitebait, according to the father’s instruction. Then, he helps to flow
the net into the sea. It is his father’s job to find the points to catch whitebait.
Mr. A assists his father on the trawler, which he boards now. In any case, hemust catch whitebait to make a living. Occasionally, his boat hooks the netsof other fishing boats or collides with another boat, and they may be on theverge of fighting. “That’s what happens because we want to catch whitebait.
Although we are on good terms with each other like this when (the fishing is)finished, but we are desperate once we go out (to sea).” I asked Mr. A what heis most interested in as he whitebaits. “Maybe, how to catch whitebait. I don’tsteer the boat yet, so I stay next to my old man to learn to steer the boat. Afterall, I’m following his instructions on doing this way or that way. Probably,that is my highest interest at this point. I must do it alone when I steer theboat. Like, am I capable of doing it alone? ”
Mr. A does not control the boat. Young fishers who have a fisher parent
will eventually take over the boat. However, how to take over depends on thefamily. Some take it over as soon as he starts fishing on a boat, while others
take time like Mr. A, who is on his father’s trawler and is learning how tofish whitebait step by step. He is often scolded by his father for his way of
doing his job as he thinks he has a poor memory. However, he sometimes
feels his occupation is exciting and challenging. “If a middleman buys the94

10. TRADITIONS AND CULTURES

whitebait that I caught, for a high price, praise the quality of the fish, or if theperformance of mine (the boat he boards) is good, I think I want to do more.”
According to Mr. A, there was a report from Shizuoka Prefectural Fisheries
Research Institute that the haul of sakura shrimps was decreasing. Then he
was asked to refrain from catching the shrimps. However, since whitebait
fishers, including Mr. A, make a living dependent on sakura shrimp fishing,
they cannot stop fishing sakura shrimps. “I mean, we can’t live if sakura
shrimps disappear. We can live like other people with these two as a set. It’s
OK with sakura shrimps because there is a pool system, but once we go out
to sea (pointing to other fishers), it’s competition. If we lose, we’ll get none.
We can’t live without sakura shrimps.” Mr. A has no other side jobs otherthan sakura shrimp fishing. Sometimes, he helps to process whitebait for the
products to be sold at the direct sales store at Mochimune Fishing Port. His
main job is to wash steaming baskets and pots in which whitebait is boiled
while, on the other hand, the staff at the processing factory boils whitebait.
The pool system was introduced for sakura shrimp fishing at an early stage.
It has been introduced in Mochimune as well. They say that it is introduced
on a limited basis, such as when the number of those who cannot take part inwhitebaiting increases because some people lose in a competition for sakura
shrimp fishing, when the middlemen do not buy any more whitebait, or whena large amount of whitebait is caught regularly to avoid price drops. Mr. A
replies that he is not very happy with this. “Well, it may sound greedy, but wewant to ask why we can’t if we are on the side of the boat that can catch a lot.
It may be good for the boat that did not perform well (in fishing), but I think
the people here are not so happy.” According to Mr. A, veteran fishers are
not pleased with the pool system, which reduces their share. For that reason,
the pool system is rarely adopted at Mochimune Port. As for the question
about whether he wants his son to take over his job as a whitebait fisher, heanswers yes. “It’s a respected job. I will support him if he says he wants to
do it. I will probably recommend it because I’m proud of doing it.” Mr. A is
proud of his occupation as a whitebait fisher. He wishes to pass it down to
the next generation. I asked Mr. A about how to spend the fishing suspension
season. On a day off, he went to eat ramen noodles in the morning, then to play95

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

with some members of the youth club (the youth association of the fisherycooperative).
Mr. A’s hobbies are soaking in a hot spring and driving. He finds time tovisit hot springs in the prefecture. Like him, each member of the youth clubhas hobbies and can spend time alone. Most of Mr. A’s friends are membersin their twenties and thirties, and they play doing the same things that they
were doing as students. Mr. A usually spends his spare time with membersof the youth club and the elderly people at the port. The main activities when
he plays with young members are karaoke, bowling, fishing at a fishing pond,
baseball, etc. If there are a couple of days off, he may go on a trip. Basically,
he goes where people gather.
Sometimes, he plays golf with older people working at the port. Mr. A said,“Well, we get together with those faces (friends) in good terms, inviting people
who do the same thing. There is one who plays golf, an older man. I also playgolf myself, so I will go if he invites me. Well, it doesn’t matter whether you
are older or younger because there is no pecking order at this port.” When I
asked him about the vertical relationship, he answered as follows. “No, there
is almost none (no vertical relationship). I mean, it is loose, or the horizontal
relationship is strong. We have a strong sense of camaraderie. For example,
if the net breaks while fishing, these fellows, including the members (on theboat), gather to help without saying a word. What I can say is that a strong
sense of camaraderie exists at this port.”
He feels that the vertical relationship at Mochimune Port is “loose” compared to other ports. This friendly relationship beyond generations has
been pointed out by people from other ports. Mr. A feels that the vertical
relationship at ports is generally strict, and this is the only port where it is“loose.” When asked about when he feels it is “loose,” he answered as follows.
“What can I say, they usually teach me everything, gently. So it is easy to go
and ask. Just teach me what I don’t understand, Invite me for fishing, like ‘Iwill go with you, so come with me.’ I sometimes get advice after whitebaiting,like it might be better to do like this.” Mr. A said that there is competition
while fishing for whitebait. However, people are joking with each other at thisport once fishing is over. Thanks to this friendly environment, they can easily9610. TRADITIONS AND CULTURES

organize employee trips and camps regardless of age. There is no fishing in
February and March, and the only whitebaiting is performed during the period
from early June to late December. I asked him what he was doing outside of
the fishing season. In February and March, he prepares tools with his father,making nets for whitebaiting. From late June, he spends most of his time
playing. If he cannot catch whitebait anymore, he may end up fishing earlier
and go out to have some fun. He says he has free time but does not travel often.
On Sundays, he may be requested to catch whitebait from the direct sales store
operated by the Mochimune Fisheries Cooperative.

Factors behind young fishers entering whitebai ng andcon nuing to pursue this occupa on
One of the factors for young whitebait fishers of Mochimune to continue
whitebaiting is to have plenty of free time with about 130 days of whitebaiting
and about 40 to 50 days sometimes about 30 days) of sakura shrimp fishingper year. The fact that even a Noriko (a crew member) without a boat can live
without any inconvenience with the income from whitebaiting and sakura
shrimp fishing could be a huge factor. As for “occupational life,” all five fishers
interviewed have taken over the job as a fisher from their father, grandfather,or even from earlier generations. The fact that they all have a fisher father has
influenced their “lifestyle” as a fisher and the “lifestyle orientation” behind
it. The decision to be a whitebait fisher was triggered by the experience ofhelping their father with fishing and being acquainted with older fishers at
the port where they often visited to play since they were children. On theother hand, there are people like Mr. B (31, male) who chose to change jobs
to a whitebait fisher because the sales job at a company was unbearably hardfor him. These five fishers oppose the introduction of the pool calculation
system to whitebaiting at Mochimune Fishing Port. One of the opposition
factors is the fear that the gambling nature of whitebait fishing will be lost. It
is this nature that gives them pleasure, motivation, and a sense of purpose
for whitebaiting. However, some people, including Mr. B, have the opinion
that the system could be introduced regularly for the resource management of97IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

whitebait. Another factor was the pride they have in their boats for catchingwhitebait more than others.
While there are those like Mr. A who is learning the fishing know-how at
the side of his father to be a full-fledged fisher by taking over his father while
enjoying whitebaiting, others like Mr. D (26, male) and Mr. E (28, male)are already steering a boat to search whitebait and giving directions to thecrew. Also, there are those whitebait fishers who have become a steerer (boatmaneuver) and go fishing while assuming the responsibility for the lives of
their employees on the boat. They take pride in whitebaiting and hope to pass
the occupation down to the next generation. These factors would contributeto their continuance of whitebaiting until the next generation. As for “leisure
life,” apart from making nets for whitebait fishing, they can use their freetime working part-time. Other than part-time jobs on land, some, like Mr. C
and Mr. D, earn income by taking a boat to sea individually and catching andselling fish. This is an enjoyable side job for those who enjoy fishing as a hobby.
Married whitebait fishers can spend their leisure time with their family. As for
single whitebait fishers, they can call other members upon engaging in someleisure activities due to the existence of a well-developed youth association
for young whitebait fishers (youth club). Having a community of the samegeneration that can spend leisure time together is an attractive environment
for young people. It is clear from the five fishers’ stories that the people
involved in whitebaiting at the Mochimune Fishing Port feel that they have astrong sense of comradeship. Understandably, the human relations with loose
pecking order at the port are another factor that makes it easier for outsiders
to join. From these factors, it has turned out that the five whitebait fishers
continue to be a whitebait fisher at Mochimune Fishing Port to maintain thecurrent “lifestyle” and build a better “lifestyle.” Therein, we can find their“lifestyle orientation.”9810. TRADITIONS AND CULTURES

Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to clarify the reasons why young people in
Mochimune, Shizuoka Prefecture, join whitebaiting and continue fishing fromthe details of their motives. The stories of the Mochimune whitebait fishers
were divided into “professional life” and “leisure life” to clarify the individual“lifestyle orientation.” The annual operation of whitebaiting in Mochimune is
as short as 130 days a year. The daily operation may be finished in the morning,
and they can engage in seasonal sakura shrimp fishing in Yui or various otherside jobs in the afternoon. Not only that, but such spare time can also be used
for the leisure activities that are common across generations. From thesefacts, it has become clear that occupational pride, the gambling nature offishing, and plenty of leisure time and the rich human relations that havebeen developed from there are the factors that have made young people go
whitebaiting.

Acknowledgement
I sincerely thank all members of the fieldwork; Ichikawa, Shirai, Nishikawa,Sou, Tsunoda, Akamatsu, Moriyama, Kurita, and those from the Shimizu Fisheries Cooperative Mochimune branch, and whitebait fishers who cooperated
with the interview.

9911. Ama Divers

Characteristics and Social Status of Women Divers in Fishing Villages

Mai Yoshimura
Mie University

Ama divers, Toba city, Japan, M. Yoshimura, 2018100

11. AMA DIVERS

This chapter introduces Ama fishing, a form of Japanese coastal fishing.
It is said to have started over 2,000 years ago and has recently beenrecognized as a cultural heritage and tourism attraction as well as amodel for sustainable fishing. Two of the characteristics of Ama fishingare its resource management and communality. These characteristics
are related to the geographical and natural conditions of the fishingvillages, the nature of their catches, and the dangers associated with
diving. In recent years, Ama fishing has been facing the problem oflack of successors, and to solve this problem, there is a fishing villagethat has started to accept migrants who are interested in Ama fishing.
This approach brings new challenges to fishing villages. It is essential tounderstand the structural issues surrounding fishing villages as well as
the relationship between coastal fisheries and fishing villages’ history
and culture in order to address such a problem.

Introduc on
In this chapter, I would like to introduce Ama fishing, a form of Japanese
coastal fishing. Some of the characteristics of Ama fishing are resource
management and communality. It is now recognized as a cultural heritage andtourism attraction, as well as a model for sustainable fisheries. On the other
hand, there are also issues related to decrease of resources and difficulties infinding successors. This chapter introduces the characteristics of Ama fishing.
It also discusses its issues and prospects based on the case of the Toba-Shimaregion in Mie Prefecture, where there are the most Ama divers.

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What is Ama fishing?
Ama fishing is a type of fishing where female divers known as “Ama” divers
dive to catch shellfish and seaweed without a tank by holding their breath. It issaid to have started over 2,000 years ago. While male diving fishing is practiced
around the world, it is rare for females and believed to exist only in Japan,
South Korea, and Taiwan. In Japan, Ama fishing is now practiced in several
areas such as the Mie, Ishikawa, Chiba, and Shizuoka prefectures. According
to a survey conducted by the Toba Sea-Folk Museum, in 2010, there were
2,174 Ama divers nationwide. However, this number has been declining (Toba
Sea-Folk Museum, 2010). For example, in 1949, there were 6,109 Ama divers
in Mie Prefecture, but this number had dropped to 660 by 2017 (Toba Sea-Folk
Museum, 2017). In Ama fishing, it is common throughout the country to holdone’s breath and dive with simple equipment, but there are some regional
differences in the details. Hence, in the following paragraphs, I describe thecase of Mie Prefecture, where I’m conducting my research (Yoshimura, 2019a,
2019b). Ama divers in Mie Prefecture catch abalone with an iron tool called“Iso-Nomi.” They also catch turban shells, oysters, lobsters, sea urchins, andsea cucumbers as well as seaweed. The equipment that Ama divers use haschanged. In the old days, they dived without goggles while only wearing acloth around their waist. Around 1880, goggles were introduced, followed bywhite cotton outfits called “Isogi” around 1910. Much later, from the 1960s,
wetsuits and fins were introduced (Toba Sea-Folk Museum, 2019). In thefollowing section, I describe two characteristics of Ama fishing.

Resource management of Ama fishing
Most of the divers’ catches, such as abalone, have limited habitat, so if too
many are caught, they will eventually disappear. Therefore, Ama divers
manage their resources under restrictions. In Mie Prefecture, there are rules
dictating when it is not permitted to catch abalone. The abalone spawningseason is from October to November, so diving is prohibited from September
15 to December 31. During the diving season, diving hours and days are also10211. AMA DIVERS

limited. Although the number of hours depends on the community, generally
diving hours are from 1 to 3 hours per day, and diving days from 7 to 120
days per year (Toba Sea-Folk Museum, 2019). To avoid catching unspawned
abalone, abalone with a shell length of 10.6 cm or shorter is prohibited. Ama
divers carry a tool similar to a wooden ruler called “Sunbou,” and constantly
check their sizes. In addition to individual divers checking measurements,
other divers and fishery cooperative staff also monitor one another andmaintain strict size controls. These strict controls mean that Ama fishingis valued as “fishing that does not overfish,” i.e., it is a sustainable practice.
The background of these controls is a deep understanding of the marine
environment by Ama divers. They are familiar with the seafloor topography,
seaweed growth, and the distribution of abalone and other catches in theirfishing grounds. If they notice that they have caught too much abalone in one
place, they may return several of them back to their original places. One Ama
diver told me that when she returned them, she would say, “See you next year.”
It was interesting for me to realize that some Ama divers develop that kind of
emotional attachment to abalone. Knowledge of the marine environment is
not widely shared among people other than Ama divers. To improve resource
management and the marine environment, I believe it is important to share
the knowledge of Ama divers with government and researchers and to reflect
the divers’ voice in policy decisions.

The communality of Ama fishing
For Ama divers, holding their breath while diving poses a danger to their lives.
To reduce this risk, they maintain high communality, so while they essentiallyfish alone, they go out to the sea in small groups. These small groups areoften called “Kamado,” which is another name for Ama huts used by Ama
divers before and after diving. The Ama huts are used by the women to warmthemselves by setting up a bonfire, changing of clothes, and eating. Women
who have just started diving choose a hut with the help of their mothers,
mothers-in-law, or friends who have already been diving and have been there
for their lifetime. Ama divers often describe their “Kamado” fellows as being103

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE“connected more tightly than our family.” Even when there is no diving, theygather in the huts and enjoy chatting, and when diving, they always monitor
one another closely to ensure that they are not in danger. What is interesting isthat although they get along well, there is also a rivalry in diving. In addition,
there is a mutual monitoring function for resource management, which isalready described in the previous section.
Their relationship also has a function outside of diving. For example,
if someone is unable to dive due to ill health, other members may visit
her house, and they also often share groceries with each other. With suchclose communication in everyday life, they are able to maintain their social
relationships in the community. However, this communality has also led tothe secluded nature of Ama diving. In Japan, to enter coastal fisheries, it isnecessary to become a local fishery cooperative member. Furthermore, inthe case of Ama diving, it is also necessary to gain permission from the local
Ama divers and belong to a certain “Kamado.” This rule makes it difficultfor potential Ama divers outside the fishing villages to enter the community.
However, as I describe later on, in recent years, administrative measures
have reduced these barriers of entry, though I must emphasize that thisbarrier was rationally set up to protect both Ama divers’ lives and the limited
resources. When we change their rules, it is important that this point is
carefully considered.

Geographical and natural background of Ama fishing10411. AMA DIVERS

Figure 1. Location of Toba-Shima Region
Why does Ama fishing have such characteristics? It is influenced by thegeographical and natural conditions of the fishing villages in the Toba-Shimaregion. Fishing villages in the Toba-Shima region are on the mainland andfour islands (Figure 1). The mainland is along the Rias coast, with mountains
behind it. Residential land and farming fields are limited due to the small areaof land on both the mainland and the islands. It is far from the urban area, anduntil the 1970s, roads and sea routes were not well developed, so there waslittle opportunity to work outside the fishing villages; thus, many residents
made a living through fishing. Because those born in the fishing villages lived
together on the same land and used limited resources in the same sea, it isprobable that this is how resource management and communality developed(Makino, 1994).

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Social status of Ama fishing in fishing villages
Ama fishing is an essential element that consists of the social structure andculture of fishing villages. In terms of livelihood, it has been part of the social
division of labor between males and females. In the Toba-Shima region, theexercise of fishery rights is permitted on a household basis. For this reason, infishing villages, husbands usually work in coastal fisheries while their wives
have been Ama divers. As Ama fishing requires only simple equipment andlow initial investment, it is easy for women born in fishing villages to start so
as to gain high economic benefits. I would like to add that there are only a few
Ama divers who specialize in diving because time and days are limited. Ama
divers also work on farming fields, help at their husbands’ coastal fisheries,
and do housework and childcare. In recent years, some young divers havealso engaged in freelance work when they are not diving. Ama fishing is an
important part of the culture of fishing villages, many of which have ritual
festivals that pray for a good harvest and maritime safety. In the case of one
fishing village, after praying to God, Ama divers with white “Isogi” gather
at the shore and start a race to hunt for one set of male and female abalone.
The Ama, who catches the first set, is recognized as the head of Ama divers
for a year. Abalone taken by her is offered to shrine, such as “Maneki Awabi(Welcome abalone).” This is one of the biggest festivals in the fishing villages
and the reason that many tourists visit there.

Issues and prospects of Ama fishing
One of the major issues is the lack of successors. I am interested in this issue
and exploring the conditions for successors to join. As mentioned previously,
the number of Ama divers in the Mie Prefecture has fallen dramatically from6,109 in 1949, to 660 in 2017, a situation reflected throughout Japan. The
background of this decrease is social changes that have come about in fishingvillages (Tsukamoto, 2019). When there was poor access to urban areas, thoseborn in fishing villages lived their whole lives there. However, since the 1970s,
as access such as roads has improved, people in fishing villages began to move106

11. AMA DIVERS

away to work and live outside. Women increasingly chose to be company
employees rather than Ama divers. I heard many elderly Ama divers saying
something like, “I do not want my children to have the same hardships. I am
glad that they can get a job in an urban area.”
In response to this issue, Toba City has introduced a policy to promotemigration from urban areas to fishing villages. The city uses the system of the
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications called “Local Vitalization
Cooperator” to support the migration of urban women who want to become
divers. So far, three women have migrated from the Kanto region, one of whom
has been working as an Ama diver for more than four years, while anotherstarted diving last year. The third has just migrated, so has not yet dived, but
is focusing on creating a good relationship with residents. I also observed thatissues had been created in the local community that accepted migrants. At first,
there were many Ama divers who did not want strangers to participate in thislife-threatening diving. There is a gap in perception between the elderly Ama,
who had no choice but to dive in order to survive in this area, and the young
women who saw diving as a challenge in search of their own way of working
and living. This gap is related to resource management and communality, as
mentioned above. Elderly divers said they were worried about sharing thelimited resources, which they had conserved for a long time, with migrants
seen as “outsiders,” and they were reluctant to dive with migrants in whomthey did not have enough trust. Therefore, the issue we have to consider is
how to rebuild local communality with migrants.
In addition, as mentioned above, Ama fishing has a limit of time and days, so
it is assumed that the migrants have other jobs. However, with the declining
birthrate and aging of fishing villages as well as a decline in the number offishers nationwide, there are few jobs left for young people there. In recent
years, abalone and seaweed are said to have been in rapid decline, so the
future of income from Ama diving is uncertain. Therefore, in order to increase
the number of Ama, policymakers and migrants need first to understandthe history and customs of fishing villages and Ama divers so as to avoid
breaking the social relations in fishing villages. Similarly, it is important for
the inhabitants of the fishing village to understand the social background and107IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

characteristics of the migrants. In addition to merely increasing the numberof Ama, it is indispensable to promote coastal fisheries and Ama fishing as awhole, increase the production of marine resources, and develop an industrial
base that includes non-fishing industries.

Conclusion
This chapter introduces the characteristics of Ama fishing, a form of Japanese
coastal fishing, based on the social structure of fishing villages. Although
Ama fishing methods suggest sustainable coastal fisheries, the shortage ofsuccessors reflects the structural problems in fishing villages. As the outflow
of the population from fishing villages continues, external interventions suchas the “Local Vitalization Cooperator” may be inevitable for the promotionof fishing villages. What I want to emphasize is that Ama fishing is deeply
related to the local geographic and natural conditions, historical background,and social relationships. To increase the successors of Ama, we first needto understand these relationships and consider appropriate measures toovercome obstacles. To this end, I will continue walking in the fishing villages
and listening to the voices of Ama and fishers.

10812. Small-Scale Whaling

Current Status and Future Challenges of Small-Scale Whaling

Shio Segi
Konan Women’s University

Drive hunting for striped dolphins in Taiji, Wakayama, Shio Segi, 2020

109

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

While small-scale whaling has long been practiced in many coastal
villages in Japan, rapid development was seen in the last 150 years.
Since its rise, small-scale whaling has provided food, employment andentertainment intricately linked with people’s lives in the whaling areas
and beyond. This chapter provides a general overview of the history andcurrent status of small-scale whaling, namely the drive hunt, harpoon
hunt, and Small Type Coastal Whaling. In doing so, it describes the origin,development process, and recent conditions of each type of whaling. The
chapter concludes with the future challenges and prospects of small-scale
whaling.

Introduc on
Whaling has been one of the most controversial topics in the realm of marine
resource use for decades worldwide. Japan has always been at the center of thiscontroversy, and it has sparked tension with its Western allies through theprolonged and formidable debates at the International Whaling Commission.
Amid these controversies, the lives of small-scale whale hunters have been
upended by pro- and anti-whaling narratives and policies thereof. This
chapter gives a brief overview of small-scale whaling in Japan – the history,
current status, and future challenges. Small-scale whaling in this chapter
refers to whaling activities with less than 40-ton boats in coastal waters.
This includes the Japanese legal classification of Small Type Coastal Whaling(STCW), which is administered by the Japan Fisheries Agency (JFA), and“dolphin fisheries,” which include the drive hunt and the harpoon hunt. The
latter ones are administrated by each prefecture through licensing individual
hunters and organizations. “Dolphin” in this context refers to a range ofsmall-toothed whale species less than 4m in size. In both cases, the quota fordifferent species is determined by whaling types by the JFA.

110

12. SMALL-SCALE WHALING

Drive hun ng
Hunting of small-toothed cetaceans has a long history in Japan. There havebeen harpoons excavated with dolphin bones from the ancient shell-mounds
found in different parts of Japan. In the Mawaki Site (Map 1), for example,
bones of a few hundred small-toothed whales were excavated, which indicatesthat people may have already driven the dolphins to the bay to hunt 5,000 to
6,000 years ago (Hiraguchi, 1993). This technique, now called drive hunting,became prevalent in coastal villages by the 17th century. The historical archives
show the permitted locations and times of hunting, hunting methods by
species, cutting and cleaning of the meat, and sharing systems among theworkers, community members, and administrators (Nakamura, 2017). The
original method was to hunt dolphins which happened to come into the bay,
but this later became more elaborate by hunters actively searching for a podof dolphins in offshore waters and driving them into the bay (ibid.).
In the post-war period, drive hunting became a vital industry to provide
animal protein to the local food market, but the demand for the meat kept
decreasing due to improving food production systems, and dolphin hunting
became an unviable livelihood in many places (Nakamura, 2017). Currently,
there are only two prefectures of Shizuoka and Wakayama issuing the license,with quotas for nine species. The drive hunting in Shizuoka was interrupted
from 2004 due to protests by environmental activists. It was resumed in the2019 season for the live trade of dolphins; however, this yielded no catch(Asahi Shimbun, 2020). This means that presently, Wakayama is the only
prefecture where active drive hunting continues. Present-day drive hunting
involves a group of boats (generally < 10t) which coordinate to surround thedolphins and collaboratively drive them to a cove. This is done by making
noise with a metal tube and hammer extended down to the water.
The small town of Taiji in Wakayama is the only place in the country where
drive hunting has been actively continued until now. Taiji was the birthplacein the 17th century of the sophisticated and highly organized net whaling
technique, which involved over 1,000 people in catching large whales (Morita,1994). Drive hunting was originally practiced as a supplementary livelihood111

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

during the low season of the net whaling and mainly targeted short-finned
pilot whales (Hamanaka, 1979). However, after the abrupt end of the net
whaling in Taiji in 1878 due to a tragic accident, drive hunting became a more
substantial livelihood for those who survived the tragedy. After the post-war
whale meat boom, drive hunting also decreased its operation due to the riseof pelagic and coastal whaling elsewhere and the subsequent fall in the priceof the lower-quality small-whale meat (Endo, 2011). However, by the 1970s,
the drop in catch from large-scale whaling due to overexploitation of greater
whales brought the price of small-whale meat up again. Around the sametime, drive hunting also regained its popularity among local hunters due tothe live trade of dolphins for aquariums (ibid.).
By the late 1980s, the rise in popularity of drive hunting in Taiji led to thecreation of a separate association for drive hunters (Isana Kumiai) within the
Taiji FCA, which autonomously decides the details of hunting (Endo, 2011).
As of March 2020, there are twenty-two members of the association andtwelve two-man boats are registered. The hunting season is from September
until April and hunters travel 10 to 15 miles offshore, but it generally ends
before February. During the off-season, many hunters engage in trawling,
stick-held dip net fishing, dive fishing, Small Type Coastal Whaling, and othernon-fishing related work. Due to the collaborative nature of the method, thecatch is equally shared among the boats (Nakamura, 2017: 164).
The economic condition of drive hunting today is not particularly healthy.
The size of the catch has been in a downward trend. The most recent publicly
available statistics show that the catch has decreased by over half in 18 years,
amounting to 894 individuals in 2018, and the overall fulfillment rate of thequota has been around 50% in recent years. This is in part because of thedownward trend of the meat price and the increase in operational costs, whichhave both negatively affected the business (Endo, 2011). The low price of meathas led hunters to limit the number of boats participating in the hunt by not
replacing retired boats in an effort to avoid the excessive supply of meat andmaintain an acceptable price level (ibid.). The same approach is taken withlive dolphin capture.
Furthermore, Taiji, being the epicenter of anti-whaling campaigns, has
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been heavily impacted by public outcry around the world. Taiji’s drive hunt
was featured in the so-called documentary film, The Cove, and since its
popularization, the small town has attracted environmental activists who
protest against and obstruct the hunting, and monitor and at times verbally
abuse the hunters. Heightened global criticism of Taiji’s drive hunt led theWorld Aquarium and Zoos Association to demand the Japanese Aquarium andZoos Association (JAZA) to ensure its constituting zoos and aquariums not
to purchase live dolphins from Taiji or risk losing its membership. As themembership is vital for collaboration in research and other partnerships, JAZA
conceded and in 2015 passed a decision not to allow its members to purchase
live dolphins hunted in Taiji. This has limited the relatively lucrative live
dolphin trade there.
These difficulties are somewhat mediated by the building of alliances withother actors. For example, finding a pod of whales can be facilitated throughcollaborative relations with whale watching operators based in the vicinityof Taiji. Drive hunters and whale watching operators, who often have whale
hunting experience, exchange spotting information on whales (Segi, 2003).

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Map 1. Locations of whaling related areas

Harpoon hun ng
Another method of “dolphin fisheries” is harpoon hunting, which has beenpracticed in the coastal waters of 7 prefectures in Japan. This hunting method
involves a one-man boat with a hunter standing on the bow using a hand-held
harpoon, or crossbow in the case of Okinawa, with or without an electrocuting
device to hunt the target. It is more commonly practiced in the northern partof the country, where species such as Dall’s porpoise, which usually swim
114

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along with the offshore current, are more abundant (Nakamura, 2017: 58-168).
The overall catch from this method is highest in Iwate, where large numbersof Dall’s porpoise and True’s porpoise have been hunted since the early 20th
century. The hunting season there is from November until April in offshore
waters. Hunters then shift their hunting grounds following the migratingroute of the target to the waters off the eastern shore of Hokkaido from May
to June, then off its northern shore from September to October (JFA & FRA,
2020).
While the harpoon hunt in Iwate peaked with 40,367 porpoises in 1989,
the catch has been experiencing a considerable drop in recent years (JFA &FRA, 2020). Despite the fact that 14,696 porpoises were hunted in Iwate alone
in 2000, the catch in the same prefecture dropped to 864 porpoises in 2018.
Likewise, harpoon hunting has been progressively downsizing in other areas.
In Wakayama, for example, harpoon hunting yielded only 13 dolphins in 2018,
which is less than 5% of the amount in 2004, leading many harpoon huntersto stop hunting.

Small type coastal whaling (STCW)
STCW is a type of whaling employing around 40-ton boats with harpoon guns
to target Baird’s beaked whale, short-finned pilot whale, false killer whale,
and minke whale at the present time. The prototype of STCW emerged in
the Boso Peninsula, Chiba Prefecture, at the turn of the 20th century witha sailboat equipped with a Norwegian harpoon gun (Ishikawa, 2019: 130).
Around the same time, a similar whaling boat was constructed in Taiji after
the aforementioned accident of 1878. With the long history of catching shortfinned pilot whales in the area, like the case of drive hunting, the remaining
hunters started whaling with a small boat with 5 to 7 men on board, which
was later equipped with a harpoon gun (Akimichi et al., 1988: 13-14). In theearly 1930s, a 6.25-ton whaling boat was constructed in Taiji and was latertransferred to another whaling town, Ayukawa, Miyagi Prefecture, wherea Norwegian harpoon gun was attached to hunt minke whales (Kalland &Moeran, 1992: 60). With modifications, this set the basis for modern STCW
115

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

targeting minke whale and small toothed whales (ibid.). In 1943, the number
of STCW reached 45 (Akimichi et al., 1988), and it was continued during the
war to alleviate worsening food security.
The business of STCW has experienced twists and turns. In the post-war
period, like other whaling types, STCW expanded due to higher demand formeat, marking 86 boats registered in 1947 (Kalland & Moeran, 1992: 61). Thiswas followed by a downturn shortly after due to stiff competition with largerscale whaling, which targeted larger and more commercially valuable species
such as fin whale, sei whale, and sperm whale for meat and oil. With the falling
profitability of STCW, the government intervened to reduce the over-supply
of boats, and by 1967 the number of STCW had dramatically decreased to
10 (Akimichi et al., 1988). However, the profitability picked up again when
the supply of meat from large cetaceans decreased due to over-exploitationand tightening IWC regulations over those species. The value of minke whale
meat rapidly increased until the moratorium on commercial whaling of large
cetaceans, including the said whale in 1988 (Ishikawa, 2019: 141-144). Afterthat time, STCW continued hunting small cetaceans, but the meat price started
to fall due to the fact that research whaling provided a large quantity of morecommercially valuable meat to the market (ibid.: 142-146).
To counter this, the Japanese government decided to include STCW in
research whaling operations targeting minke whale in coastal waters from2002. There are now 5 STCW boats in operation and this number has notchanged since 2004. These boats are based in Abashiri, Ayukawa, Wada,
and Taiji. Until the end of the 2018 season, all five STCW boats engaged inresearch whaling in April in the waters off Ayukawa, then to Hachinohe in May,
and Abashiri in June. They then moved to individual waters to commerciallyhunt Baird’s beaked whale in July and August, then to Kushiro to resume
research whaling. The whaling was paused from November to March. With thegovernment’s progressive expansion of the research hunt, the STCW business
was largely supplemented by government subsidies for chartering boats. It
is believed that STCW was so heavily dependent on research whaling thatcommercial whaling, which was their primary business, was indeed no longer
viable for autonomous and sustainable operation (Ishikawa, 2019: 146-148).
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However, STCW boats are now only engaged in commercial whaling. After
68 years of membership in the International Whaling Commission and decadesof unsuccessful negotiations to resume commercial whaling of large cetaceans,
Japan announced its withdrawal from the ICRW (International Convention
for the Regulation of Whaling) in December 2018. Japan resumed commercial
whaling from July 2019 only within its territorial waters and the Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ), unlike previous research whaling, which included
waters in the South Pacific and Antarctic Region (JFA, 2019b). In the 2019season, STCW was allocated a quota of 42 minke whales. Three months after
the last research whaling and after a 31-year pause in commercial whaling,
STCW boats recommenced commercial whaling for minke whale offshore
at Kushiro in July, September, and October, which yielded 33 catches (JFA,2019a). Like during the research whaling period, STCW engaged in hunting
Baird’s beaked whale in July and August. For the 2020 season, STCW wasgiven the quota of 100 minke whales for commercial whaling, which appears
to be a substantial increase compared to the number for the previous year.
However, considering the net quota for both commercial and research whalingof minke whale totaled 121 in 2019 (The Institute of Cetacean Research, n.d.),
it is essentially a significant decrease. In fact, the commercial catch of STCW
has been in a declining trend (Figure 1). Apart from Baird’s beaked whales
being constantly caught at a substantial level, there is a significant drop in
the catch of short-finned pilot whale. Indeed, there is virtually no catch ofshort-finned pilot whale (northern form) and false killer whale recorded since2008.
Non-commercial distribution of the whale meat from STCW within thecommunity has cultural significance in whaling towns (Akimichi et al.,1988;
Kalland & Moeran, 1992). The meat is shared during daily interactions andrituals with family members, friends, co-workers, and neighbours. It is notuncommon that the shared meat is redistributed to others, which allows themeat to reach a wide range of people. The sharing practices are reciprocatedwith other goods or services to smooth and strengthen social relations among
members of the communities. However, these practices are also subject tochange. In Taiji, according to a whaling manager, after an STCW boat was117

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

purchased by the FCA, crew members refrained from sharing the meat at theirdiscretion as they felt it was unfair to share something which was caught witha communally owned boat.

Figure 1. Commercial Catch of the Small Type Coastal Whaling (STCW) in Japan,
2000-2018. (Sources: JFA and FRA, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020)

Future challenges and conclusion
Japanese small-scale whaling is facing several difficult challenges. Firstand foremost, the continuity of the industry is a serious concern. The
recommencement of commercial whaling for large cetaceans opens up new
possibilities to improve the business but also a big challenge ahead. The endof research whaling means that the STCW industry is required to be financially
viable to sustain its own businesses. While the government continues toprovide subsidies to STCW for the transition period, the expectation is that
the STCW industry will find a way to secure its economic viability and become
autonomous. This is going to become even more challenging as it is becoming
harder for hunters to catch their main commercial species of minke whale and
Baird’s beaked whale over the years, potentially due to decreasing stocks.
There is also a sense of hope: An STCW stakeholder stated his hope to118

12. SMALL-SCALE WHALING

increase the meat price by swift processing immediately after the catch sothat they can provide fresher and tastier meat to the market. Also, without the
research whaling constraint of non-selective catch, STCW boats can selectively
catch more commercially valuable individuals to improve their profitability.
However, an increased quantity of minke whale meat on the market may havea negative effect on drive hunters and harpoon hunters, as was the case in thepast.
Secondly, because of low profitability and uncertainty in its future, securing
successors to their whaling has been a common problem among small-scale
whale hunters. In Taiji, finding a new crew for the drive hunt is not easy andat least some hunters show their hesitation to bring their children into theindustry for its seemingly grim prospects. This also poses a grave concern for
passing down hunting techniques and local ecological knowledge to the next
generations. This concern indeed drove the aged ex-hunters in Futo to revive
the hunting practice after 15 years (Asahi Shimbun, 2020).
Thirdly, anti-whaling campaigns continue to make hunting activities moredifficult. With the intensification of the campaign after Taiji became the epicenter, the small town has become an ideological battlefield of environmental
activists and right-wing activists, and an increased number of police officers
monitoring both sides. Amid the controversy, whale hunters have been forced
to alter their processes of hunting and processing and invest in facilities toprotect their equipment from intruders and vandalism.
All in all, the future of small-scale whaling is not rosy. Yet, be it related to asense of nationalism or concern for cultural continuity, there is a strong desire
among hunters and their community members to maintain their whaling
practices, which are embedded within thousands of people’s lives. Timecan only tell whether the recommencement of commercial whaling for large
cetaceans will revive the small-scale whaling industry or not.

11913. Fishing Safety

Fishery Safety Systems for Better Livelihoods

Natsuko Miki
Japan Fisheries Research & Education Agency

Ama fishery women, Iki Island, Nagasaki, Japan, N. Miki, 2006120

13. FISHING SAFETY

Research into fishery safety systems in Japan has mostly been carried out
as part of the investigation into fishery labor science. The Institute for
the Science of Labor and the Institute for the Science of Maritime Labor
has been central to this research. Their focus has been deep-sea/offshore
fisheries, rather than coastal fisheries; however, Teraoka Gitou, who
was involved in the establishment of the Institute for the Science ofLabor, addressed mostly coastal fisheries, including the Ama, in his own
research, while incorporating a fishery-safety perspective. The fisherysafety systems of small-scale fisheries, including the Ama, which had
initially attracted the interest of labor-science researchers, are includedin the social customs of fishing communities. The mutual-aid approachto shipwrecks and the establishment of practices by fishing associations
have been subjects of labor negotiations and group work, as well as
information sharing through ship operations at sea.

Review of research into fishery safety systems insmall-scale fisheries
Research into fishery safety systems (hereafter “safety systems”) in Japan
has mainly been carried out by the Institute for the Science of Labor. The coreof that research has been done by the Institute for the Science of Maritime
Labor (Ohashi et al., 2009) (hereafter “maritime labor institute”), which was
founded in 1966; it had started off as the Division of Maritime Labor Researchin 1946, and later split from it. It was dissolved at the end of 2006, 40 years
after its founding. In its early days, the maritime labor institute’s main topics
of research were the shipping industry (international and domestic sea freight)
and fisheries. At the time of its founding, the focus within fisheries was not
so much on coastal fisheries as on deep-sea/offshore fisheries. Nevertheless,
Teraoka Gitou, the long-serving director of the Institute for the Science ofLabor who was involved in its founding, had always prioritized coastal fisheries
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in his research. His earliest work was in 1927 in Shima, Mie Prefecture,
studying the Ama; after the war, he conducted a shipboard study of the working
and living conditions of and free time for trawlers in the South China Sea(Teruoka et al., 1950a).
For a comparative study of set net fishing methods, he conducted onsite investigations into performing the activity with a bent posture in Ajiro,
Shizuoka Prefecture, and an erect posture in Himi, ToyAma Prefecture(Teruoka et al., 1950b), (Teruoka et al., 1950c). Gitto’s research extended
well beyond fishing to shipboard environments, health management of ships’
crews, nutrition while at sea, and even methods for storing provisions, leaving
no stone unturned, as reported by Iwasaki Shigeno, who accompanied him forthe fieldwork (Iwasaki, 1967). Shigeno also studied the Ama and the women ofcoastal fishing communities extensively, leaving behind a considerable bodyof research (Iwasaki, 1968, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974). This work—the foundation
for labor-science research at the two institutes—is what helps us understandsmall-scale fisheries. In the 1960s and ’70s, when Japan’s deep-sea fisheries
were expanding, labor-science research focused more on them, but in the
1980s and since, with their operations scaled-down, coastal fisheries haveassumed a more important position, research-wise. One can cite research
into labor incidents in small-scale angling as an example of this, in addition
to research by the small-scale fisheries department at the maritime labor
institute (Miwa, 1988).

Fishery safety and daily life in small-scale fisheries
A key feature of communities engaged in small-scale fishing is that theirwork and everyday life are inextricably linked, in terms of space, labor, andinterpersonal relationships. As such, we need to consider the safety systems
not only with respect to maritime and fishing ports but also daily life. What
made me realize this were my fact-finding surveys of families of children
receiving scholarships on account of their parent/s being lost at sea. Hence, I
hope that this essay is interpreted expansively as an exploration of the safetysystems, particularly with respect to fishing communities’ everyday life.
12213. FISHING SAFETY

How fishing communi es respond to the risk of shipwrecks: froma survey of families with children of fisherfolk lost at sea receiving
scholarships
The scholarship fund for children of fisherfolk lost due to shipwrecks (hereon
referred to as Ikueikai, its Japanese nickname), an organization that gives
educational loans and grants, was established in October 1970. My survey offamilies receiving Ikueikai scholarships focused mainly on deep-sea fisheries,
but I also visited fishing districts practicing small-scale fishing. Fisheries havealways faced a high risk of shipwreck; in the 1960s, when due consideration
was not given to safety, shipwrecks in deep-sea fisheries were numerous—in
1961, 1963, and 1965, at least 500 people died or went missing (Japan Fishery
Agency, 1972).
Even before Ikueikai existed, mutual-aid relationships developed among
fishing communities following a shipwreck. While these communities havealways had mutual-aid societies and relationships, the latter forged in suchdifficult times have been particularly strong. In many of these communities,
after a shipwreck, all fishers in the area would stop fishing and conduct asearch. Onshore, women in particular (either as members of the women’s
auxiliaries of fishing cooperatives or others) would support the fishers partof the search parties by providing them food. In other words, entire regions
united in the event of a shipwreck.
In the 1960s, before life insurance programs were fully in place, the bereaved
families of men or women lost at sea received trivial compensation amounts,
and when women were left as heads of households, they had no choice but
to work for low wages. Depending on the region, one way these mutual-aid
relationships were revealed was the surviving spouse being given priority
for jobs in the region—fishing cooperatives would employ him/her. These
relationships also extended outside regions: the fishers’ auxiliaries held
programs that organizationally supported scholarships for children of thoselost at sea, which led to the establishment of Ikueikai. This was spurred
on in large part by the Agrihan incident of October 1965—Agrihan Island,123

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

a part of the Northern Mariana Islands, was where seven vessels fishing forbonitos got lost during a typhoon, resulting in 208 deaths. In theory, thedanger of shipwreck is the same for all fishing communities, and because
the loss of income often left the bereaved family in dire circumstances,
the women responded by organizing fundraisers and donations to provide
assistance to the children; this snowballed into a national movement. In 1969,a national conference for supporting such children was organized, which iswhen the movement began making real progress. At the time, the movement
was revolutionary, and as a grassroots action to support those children
psychologically and economically, it also caught the public’s attention. The
efforts thus intensified, leading to the establishment of Ikueikai (JF Zengyoren
Women’s Group Liaison Committee, 1999).
What the results of my studies of families of those lost at sea showed isthat, as the life insurance program was set up, the amounts paid for the deathof the men increased, gradually reducing the families’ economic challenges.
However, the fishers engaged in small-scale fishing were not covered under
this, and their insurance payouts tended to be low (Miki, 2001). It can, hence,be said that the aforementioned mutual-aid relationships made up for this.
Nonetheless, there were several instances of bereaved families moving outof their region to avoid the intrusion that was a side effect of such close
relationships. It has been nearly 12 years since I completed my study of Ikueikaifamilies, and I have since had the chance to visit the places I studied. What
impressed me deeply on these visits was finding out that the son of a fisher
lost in the shipwreck, who had been in primary school at the time of my study,
had become a fisher himself upon graduating, instead of avoiding the sea.
This was a household that had already lost two men in the same shipwreck.
Typically, the young wife of a fisher who has died thus faces a hard life livingin the same house with her in-laws, often alienated. In this case, however,
the wife and the mother-in-law, both of whom had lost their husbands tothe sea, continued to live in harmony. The wife was hired by the local fishingcooperative and supported by the region.

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Fishery safety for the Ama
I have already touched upon the fact that the Ama was studied by both Gitou
and Shigeno, who can be regarded as the earliest researchers of the safetysystems for small-scale fisheries. An Ama’s work is different from fishing
while in a boat; it is diving to catch fish, for which they have to hold their breath
for long periods. Thus, their lives and livelihoods are uniquely connected—therisk of death is higher for them as they can get stuck underwater sometimes
and are unable to free themselves to surface in time. An Ama’s work patterns
can be classified into three—group operations aboard a boat: several Ama willride out in a boat as a group to dive; couples operations: a husband and wife
will go fishing as a unit, with the former as the boatman and the latter as thediver; and fishing from land, which is practiced in relatively shallow coastal
regions. In the first pattern, there may be some rivalry among the womenin the group over their catches, but they are still colleagues and organized
as a team. While the boatman would, of course, be constantly checking onthem, the Ama themselves would also be looking out for each other—theywould simultaneously be keeping an eye on who got the biggest catch, and thus
earned the bragging rights as is one. Because of the importance of safety in thework of the Ama, they put considerable energy into maintaining their physicalhealth while working, including frequent doctor visits (Miki, 1991). Shigeno’s
study of the Ama extended beyond their actual work in the water to encompass
their lives on land, as well as the lives of women in fishing communities ingeneral.

Solitary work in small-scale fisheries and fishery safety
At the time when it was relatively common for fishing operations to passfrom father to son, it was also common for maritime workers to work
together—as a father-son duo or two men. However, as fewer and fewer
fishing operations were passed from father to son, and as the technologicalrevolution lightened the burden of maritime work, sometimes fishers went to
sea with their spouses (Kase, 1988). In contrast to father-son operations,
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

where the goal was to increase the value of the catch beyond what eachwould have netted individually, the husband-wife operations aimed to makeshipboard operations more efficient through catch selection, etc., and increasesafety. Since the early 1970s, regional labor markets have expanded, andas more women from fishing families have sought work outside the familybusiness, the number of fishers operating solo has increased. The increasing
average age of fishers and the growing number of one-person operations
have caused some to hypothesize a rise in the number of small-scale fishingincidents. However, as mentioned earlier, research has focused on workrelated injuries by anglers.

Social customs in fishing communi es, and fishery safety systems
If we imagine a fixed volume of aquatic resources, the decreasing number offishers would mean larger pieces of the pie for the ones who are left, whichshould be viewed positively. In reality, however, regional fishing cooperatives
have reached the point in recent years where it is difficult to find the minimum
number of members needed to sustain themselves as organizations, thus
making the dwindling number of fishers a cause for concern. We can view thefollowing as case studies in what fishing organizations are doing in response.
First, they are deciding when fishers can set out and how long they can work for,including whether they can work on a given day. This has been implemented
in many fishing areas (Kawashima, 2019). These decisions are made notsolely from a resource-management perspective but also from a safety one.
The officers are constantly facing the question of how to be fair and equal toeach fisher. The second involves the social customs of labor exchange andshared work by fishing organizations. These, too, can be seen in most fishingcommunities. For example, even after a ship finishes unloading its catch at
the port, none of its crew go home until the last vessel has finished doing
this. In many fishing communities, they also help each other in the tasks onland, such as fixing nets and processing catches. Perhaps counterintuitively,
this mutual assistance can be seen even with big catches. This is not just a
matter of technology but also of social custom; it can be seen as a way to126

13. FISHING SAFETY

maintain fishery safety in the region. The third is information sharing by fleet
organizations when at sea. Ships of a fleet share information about the shoalsof fish, ocean conditions, and so on, which makes finding fishing grounds
easier and strengthens the safety systems. It is not yet clear how the revised
Fisheries Act and other recent policy reforms aimed at increasing efficiency
will change the safety systems that are embedded in social customs. It issomething that should be monitored as the situation develops.

Fishery safety systems, today and tomorrow
Since October 2018, wearing life jackets at sea has been mandatory—fishers’
auxiliaries have held frequent classes on how to wear them correctly. As life
jackets have gotten lighter and easier to wear, attitudes toward them havechanged, and objections reduced, greatly improving the safety of maritime
work. The number of incidents, too, has dipped. As I mentioned previously,
this trend can be seen among Ikueikai families: as deep-sea fishing decreases
and the average age of fishing crews increases, fewer fishers with young
children are involved in incidents; improvement of the safety systems has
further pushed this number down. That said, coastal fisheries have been
assuming a more prominent position in the safety systems.
The following will be issued vis-à-vis the safety systems’ future. First istheir relationship with technology and software. Technology for fishery safety
is advancing and fishing equipment is getting more sophisticated; this willcontribute greatly to overall safety in fisheries. It must, however, be notedthat safety in small-scale fisheries is, in many cases, not just A matter oftechnology but also of social custom. Hence, in fishing communities, it will
be important for fishers to share skills related to technology and how to use
it better. There are numerous cases where to shorten working hours andpreserve freshness, and catches are processed on the ship itself. Furthermore,
it will be important to view fishery safety not only vis-à-vis ship-based work
but also shore-based work, and as related technologies ensure this, there may
be a need to extend the safety systems as part of fishing community culture as
well. Moreover, in recent years, there has been a growing trend, not so much
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

with deep-sea fisheries as with small-scale fisheries, of tech interns coming
to Japan to learn. It will be important to communicate with them and include
them in the safety systems that are part of social customs.
The relationship between the safety systems and fishing community societies is highly interesting. Fisheries are not merely diverse in terms of theircoastal, deep-sea, and aquaculture aspects; the nature of the work changes
significantly according to the season: a single fisher may be involved indifferent kinds of fishing in the course of a year. There are also regional
differences, and as is the case with fishing in general, the safety systems
for small-scale fisheries boast of a diversity that deserves further attention.
Today, among Japan’s comprehensive measures to restructure fisheries, tosupport and promote them and aquaculture, which are being advanced as
aquaculture policy, the deployment of refitted boats is intended to increase
work productivity, comfort, and safety. What will be important in this is thatthey respect the diversity of regional small-scale fisheries, share skills, use
technology effectively, and reconcile with social customs to build better safetysystems.

12814. Fishing Ports Infrastructure

Supporting Seafood Supply and Communities in a Multi-functional
Fishing Industry

Shingo Takayoshi
Japanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities

Aoura fishing port, Matsuura city, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan. S. Takayoshi, 2019129

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Seas, the Pacific ocean, fisheries, and fishing communities that surround
Japan play multiple roles. They supply people with diverse seafood,ensuring the conservation of coastal environments, and protect searelated culture. Therefore, fisheries policies, including the developmentof fishing ports, are being promoted in industrial and regional policies.
Japanese fishing communities are established near good fishing grounds
but are located on narrow flatlands near mountains. For such communities, fishing ports constitute an important means of infrastructure.
These ports support safe, reliable, and comfortable fishing activities;
they provide space for disaster relief activities and relaxation for fishingcommunities. Fishers and fishing vessel numbers have declined in recent
years; hence, the focus of fishing port development has shifted from aquantitative approach, such as scale-expansion, to a qualitative one,such as multi-purpose use, hygiene, and quality control. Furthermore,measures to prolong the lifespan of aged fishing port facilities havebecome a major issue.

Fishing ports for coastal fisheries
There is a popular song called “Kikoubushi” in Japan, a tune composed by Mr.
Ichiro Toba, who became a singer from a fisher. The line “If you see the lightof the mother’s port, it greets you for your hard work” in the lyrics expresses
that calm waters surrounded by breakwater at fishing ports welcome fishers
returning from rough seas. It has now been more than 35 years since I stayedin an isolated island off the Sea of Japan for a month doing fisheries training
practice for the Fisheries Agency. The fishing port on that island is classified
as Type 4 fishing port (as described later). It is also used for the evacuation of
external ships during stormy weather and as a terminal for a ferry connecting
the island to the mainland. The main types of fishing included typical coastal
fishing techniques such as longline, pole and line, and shellfishing. I stayed in130

14. FISHING PORTS INFRASTRUCTURE

two fishing households. In the first half of the period of my stay, a father andhis son aimed at snappers using the longline method from a fishing boat. In
the second half, a married couple, also running an inn, ran a small shellfishingboat, such as the ones used for abalone and turban shells. Although the vicinityof the island was good fishing ground, we sailed out of the fishing port to roughseas once where no obstructions to break waves were present. The boat shookgreatly, so I often felt seasick. Once fishing ended, we returned to the fishingport. As soon as the boat entered the harbor behind the breakwater, the waves
quickly disappeared, and I remember experiencing a sense of great relief. The
fishing port seemed to be a really gentle mother to the small coastal fishingboat.

Role of fishing ports
A fishing port is not just a fishing boat’s mooring facility; it plays distinct
roles in the fisheries industry and in the lives of communities. Let me explainthese roles: (1) a stable supply of fisheries products, such as the base forfish-farming fisheries, production activities, processing and distribution;(2) core facilities for local communities such as infrastructure for fishingvillage residents, the foundation of regional economic development, mainlyof fisheries-related industries, the base for transportation and flow of information connecting fishing villages and external societies on remote islands,
etc., and for fishers training; (3) rich and beautiful leisure space to people,
such as space for marine recreation activities, areas for preserving sea culture
heritage and learning about the sea experience; (4) ensuring the safety of lifeand property of fishing community residents, such as preventing the entry oftsunami and storm surges into villages by means of breakwaters, loading andunloading of emergency supplies; and (5) coastal management bases, such as
facilities to contribute to the conservation of land and the natural environment,
early detection and transmission of information on poaching, smuggling, etc.,base for the evacuation of ships in the event of abnormal weather such as
typhoons, as well as for relief activities in the event of a disaster. In summary,fishing ports bear multiple conservation functions in coastal areas.
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An overview of fishing ports in Japan
Japan is an island country surrounded by a long coastline with rich marine
resources. Fishing has been practiced for a long time; thus, long-establishedfishing ports and communities have developed. Along 35,000 km of Japanese
coastline, 2,806 fishing ports exist at present (as of April 2019). On average,
there is a fishing port for every 12 km of coastline. The existence of fishingports is essential for the effective use of fisheries resources. They are classified
into the following types. Type 1 fishing ports have a range of use, such as local
fishing (2,069 in total); Type 2 ports have a wider range of use than Type 1(524 in total); Type 3 is used nationally (114 ports in total); and Type 4 ports
are necessary for the development of fishing grounds or evacuation of fishingvessels in remote islands and other remote areas (99 ports in total). The scaleof fishing increases from Type 1 to Type 3, the latter accommodating large
fishing boats used for offshore fishing and distant water fishing operationsin addition to coastal fishing and aquaculture. Type 4 fishing ports have a
different character from Type 1 to Type 3; in addition to local fishing boats,
they serve as evacuation ports during stormy weather.
Fishing ports have protective structures and facilities such as breakwaters,
mooring facilities like quays, anchorage areas such as waterways and basins,and land used for drying fields, fish markets, refrigerators, as well as icemaking facilities. The body managing Type 1 fishing ports is the municipality,
whereas from Type 2 to Type 4, it is the prefecture in principle. Construction
and improvement activities are mainly carried out by the managing body.
Fishing ports are defined by the Development of Fishing Ports and Grounds
Act in Japan under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries, while general ports and harbors (993 ports in total as of April2019) by the Port and Harbor Act under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.

13214. FISHING PORTS INFRASTRUCTURE

Coastal fishing and aquaculture in Japan
The production yield related to coastal fishing and aquaculture in Japan was
1,879,000 tons in 2017, accounting for about 44% of total fisheries production.
Coastal fishing can be defined as fishing using a non-powered or motorizedfishing boat lighter than 10 tons, stationary net fishing, or using a land net.
It is often run by small-scale management bodies with women and elderly
workers with families often helping each other. Aquaculture is targeted atfish, shellfish, seaweed, etc., ranging from large-scale company management
to small family businesses. It is essential for coastal fishing and aquaculturethat fishing ports are established close to fishing grounds, as they involve
areas of the sea right in front of the local community that is within reach forsmall fishing vessels. As such, it is impossible to move fishing vessels fromdistant fishing ports to fish; therefore, it is essential to maintain fishing ports
with minimal functions. In addition, the catch is often landed in the formof live fish and needs to be stored in waters of the fishing port temporarily.
Additionally, processing such as seaweed boiling can take place. It has been
demonstrated that coastal fisheries supply a wide variety of fisheries products
to the public, and possess multiple other functions; thus, we must continue tomaintain these fisheries and fishing communities. Therefore, the governmentis developing both industrial policies to promote the fisheries industry andregional policies to revitalize fishing communities.

The situa on and problems with fishing ports
Plans to develop fishing ports have been systematically constructed andimproved by the Fishing Port Improvement Plan based on the Fishing Port
Act. Starting from the 1st plan, created in 1951, to the 9th plan, fishing ports
and major facilities have been designated for development by the government,
while plans for fishing ports named in the development plan have beenformulated by local governments as a form of implementation. This canbe called a top-down form of legislation. The Fishing Ports and Grounds
Development Act was passed in 2001. Infrastructure development of fisheries133

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE(fishing ports and fishing grounds) was done comprehensively under this law,which had been carried out separately before. The government has formulated
a Basic Policy demonstrating the basic idea of development, as well as a Longterm Plan for Fishing Ports and Grounds that define targets and the levelof improvement for five years. It has also shifted to a bottom-up form oflegislation, where local governments formulate individual development plans
independently.
The division of roles between fishing ports was clarified, and efficient
improvement was implemented in recent years, such as the consolidationof market functions. In addition, due to changes in the fishing situation,
fishing facilities have declined due to the lack of fishing; efforts to use thesefacilities as non-fishing have begun to revitalize fishing communities. Largescale development is almost complete. Currently,we are working to improvefunctions in terms of production, distribution, and working environment, tostrengthen disaster prevention and mitigation functions such as earthquakes,
tsunamis, as well as implementing measures to improve aging facilities.
(1) Functionality and comfort: Due to the substantial aging of fishers, it isimportant to improve the working environment and promote the employmentof women and young fishers. Specifically, floating piers have been constructedin the sea with large tidal differences to facilitate the landing of fish and fishinggear. Roofs and windproof fences have been installed to protect fishers fromstrong winds and heat. Small fishing boats are vulnerable to waves effectively
utilizing natural terrain, such as natural coves. The improvement of slipways,
in addition, in combination with breakwaters to secure calm water, enables
such vessels to reach land safely. Quays having a depth corresponding to raftdepth under the waterline have been improved for aquaculture so that the raftcan be towed directly to the fishing port.
(2) Quality and hygiene management: The seafood culture in Japan, typified
by sashimi, is renowned for its freshness and good quality. In recent years,
the maintenance of loading space and hygiene management in corresponding
quay areas has advanced in terms of quality. The formulation of and compliance with hygiene management rules, such as those regarding water, ice,maintained cleanliness, and the hygiene of working people, is currently being13414. FISHING PORTS INFRASTRUCTURE

implemented.
(3) Disaster prevention and mitigation: Typhoons considered to be a resultof global warming have become increasingly larger in recent years. Japan has
been hit by repeated trench-type earthquakes, such as the Great Earthquake
and Tsunami caused by the Great East Japan Earthquake in March 2011, whichcaused severe damage to almost all fishing ports, mainly along the coast of thenortheastern region of Japan. For this reason, disaster prevention/mitigation
capabilities and evacuation measures are being expanded to alleviate theeffect of waves caused by earthquakes and tsunamis on fishing ports andcommunities.
(4) Measures against the aging of facilities: Fishing port facilities constructedduring the period of high economic growth have been aging; however,preventive maintenance efforts are underway to use them for as long as
possible by carrying out planned repairs based on an aging diagnosis using
breakdown maintenance experience. This will level the budget needed forsuch projects, prevent a massive rebuilding budget from being concentrated,
and allow for a planned response.

Responding to changes in fishing situa ons(1) Restructuring fishing port functions: There is a prevalent opinion thatfishing ports should be integrated, as there are many of them in Japan. During
the debate on how to proceed with fishing port restoration after the Great
East Japan Earthquake, there was an opinion that hub fishing ports should
be given priority, while other fishing ports should only be restored when
the situation allows. In the case of certain aquaculture or coastal fisheries,
it takes a long time to go back and forth between fishing ports and fishinggrounds using existing small fishing boats. Not only is it inefficient but also
dangerous. If certain mooring facilities and worksites cannot be secured, it
will not be possible to implement coastal fishing and aquaculture at suchports. On the other hand, as fishing boats and fishers numbers are falling,a surplus of fishing facilities might arise. Therefore, it is important to
restructure functions between several fishing ports, including the unification
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

and abolition of facilities based on future discussions in the relevant region,
together with minimizing obstacles to fishing activities. This will never mean
abolishing and integrating fishing ports themselves, though.
(2) The effective utilization of fishing ports: Fishing ports developed for fishing activities are subject to strict usage regulations, whereas such regulations
have started to be eased recently so that fishing port use can promote fishingcommunities effectively. a) The promotion of interchanges between urban
areas and fishing communities. Fishers compete for catch and are often not
involved in sales to end consumers after landing. It is necessary to reducethe distribution margin and add value to the seafood that fishers caught
themselves to boost their income. For example, fishing communities canbe revitalized by activities such as tourism by setting up restaurants anddirect sales facilities at fishing ports. b) Exploitation as an aquaculture site.
In response to a decline in fisheries resources, there is a movement to use
quiet waters of anchorage areas at fishing ports as sites for aquaculture,including storage to adjust the shipment time by placing fish in cages at theport, and intermediate breeding for hatchling release. For example, fishingports are used for farming sea cucumbers, and subsequently exporting themby processing them into dried sea cucumbers, or to farm bluefin tuna behindbreakwaters. While fishing port waters may be quiet, problems such as highwater temperature, and depletion of water quality in summer may persist,
which may be resolved by opening a hole for seawater replacement in the
breakwater.

Conclusions
Fishing ports are important infrastructure for fishers and fishing communities, for purposes such as maintaining fishing vessels, making them
comfortable to carry out fishing activities, and improving the added value ofthe catch. Japanese coastal fisheries and fishing communities face various
problems; therefore, it is important to continue to promote an efficient andeffective developmental plan and utilization of fishing ports in accordancewith local community demands in a timely manner.
13615. Landing Markets

A Starting Place for Various Seafood Supply Chains

Hiroshi Hayashi
Japanese Institute of Fisheries, Infrastructure and Communities

Fish landing (left) and fish display (right) at Choshi Fishing Port, Chiba Prefecture,
Japan. H. Hayashi. 2018137

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

There are nearly 800 landing markets throughout Japan, and there areapproximately 3,000 fishing ports. Approximately one of every four ofthese fishing ports has a market for selling fresh catch. Markets witha small scale of transactions experience various issues, including weak
price formation. In Japan, where various fish species are caught mainly
by coastal fisheries, these local markets play an important role in theefficient distribution of fishery products. Many of these landing markets
are established adjacent to these coastal fisheries and, as such, are central
to the local industry.

What is a landing market?
What kind of landscape do you think of when you think of landing markets?
It may be an early morning scene of fishing boats unloading their catch,displaying various kinds of fish, and people bidding at auctions. Alternatively,
you might think of fresh seafood restaurants. With this in mind, what kind of
market serves as a landing market?
In Japan, the Wholesale Market Act governs landing markets. According tothis Act, these markets are defined using the term “wholesale market,” whichare “markets opened to facilitate the wholesale of fresh foods, etc., and that
operate while maintaining the facilities necessary for handling other fresh
foods and cargo.” In addition, these wholesale markets can be subdivided into
central and regional wholesale markets. Central wholesale markets serve as acore base for the distribution of fresh food products over a wide area, whereas
regional wholesale markets function as a collection and delivery base for suchproducts locally. There are also “other markets”’ among these establishmentsthat are not regulated under this law.
The White Paper on Fisheries published by the Japan Fisheries Agency
states that regional wholesale markets are “close to the production regions,where fishers collect, sort, and sell the catches landed,” but these markets do
138

15. LANDING MARKETS

not include “other markets.” No publications discussing such local landing
markets could be found. Under the Wholesale Market Act, the Ministerof Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries establishes Japan’s basic policy forwholesale market development. The basic policy for the maintenance ofwholesale markets (promulgated on January 14, 2016) includes the term“seafood landing market.” While a corresponding maintenance policy is
included in the policy, it does not define how such markets should be identified.
According to Demura (2007) in Article 2 of the Wholesale Market Enforcement Ordinance (minimum scale of facilities of local wholesale markets),the area of ​wholesale markets where goods handled, including seafood,is described as a “wholesale market,” and is established for the use of“those who ship seafood mainly to other wholesale markets, those who
perform work in the seafood processing industry, or those who operate
seafood processing businesses established at the landing site(s) of fisheryproducts destined mainly for wholesale, that have been shipped from fishers
or fishery cooperatives.” “Policies on the Integration and Rationalization ofManagement of Regional Fish Markets” (The Notification No. 12-4504 by the
Director General of the Japan Fisheries Agency) states that such markets are“established for the purpose of wholesale of marine products, are supplied bydirect landing or land transportation of marine products by fishing boats, andare located where the initial stage of trade is carried out after receipt of themarine products from the production area.”
To summarize, for persons involved in fishing port planning, landing
markets providing marine products are local wholesale markets established
for fish landed directly from fishing wharfs (or ports) and marine products
shipped from other fishing ports or other markets.

The fishery distribu on system in Japan
In Japan, the seafood supply chain is as follows. The seafood caught at thefishing grounds is unloaded at the fishing port and sold to the licensed market
participant through an auction carried out by wholesalers at the landing
market. The licensed market participant ships the purchased seafood to139

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

the consumer market or sells it to intermediate wholesalers and retailers.
Seafood shipped to the consumer market is sold to intermediate wholesalers
and retailers through an auction carried out by the wholesaler of the consumer
market. It finally reaches consumers.
Unlike the supply chain for vegetables, fruits, and meat, inter alia, the supply
chain for marine products goes through two wholesale markets: the landing
market and the consumer market. Owing to the fragility of fish and shellfish
and the existence of a food culture where raw fish such as sashimi, sushi, andvinegar are preferred, Japan needs to deliver fresh seafood to consumers. The
supply chain that goes through the wholesale market in Japan is a mechanism
for providing high-quality, fresh seafood to consumers (Figure 1).

Figure 1: The seafood supply chain in Japan. Source: The situation surrounding
Japan’s wholesale market, Food Industry Affairs Bureau, MAFF, 2019.

In the landing market, seafood is priced at the first level, depending on its
freshness and size, and distributed according to its purposes, such as fresh
food, food processing, and non-edible processing. In the consumer market,
seafood (including perishables, frozen products, and processed products)from almost every landing market is priced at the final level to be sold to retailstores and restaurants.
The landing market and the consumer market are crucial infrastructure forthe smooth and stable supply of fresh foods and are indispensable to the dailytable of the people. Both markets play essential roles, such as the efficient and140

15. LANDING MARKETS

continuous collection and shipment of a wide variety and a large amount ofseafood as well as fair and highly transparent price formation.

Role of the landing market
What kind of function do landing markets play? One is the function ofcollecting and distributing marine products and sorting them into the necessary items and quantities according to their needs. They also play a rolein pricing seafood of a range of qualities through fair evaluation and serve a
payment function, where the sales price is quickly and reliably settled. Finally,
they serve the function of receiving and transmitting information between
downstream needs and upstream production between the “consumer market”
and the landing market. According to the White Paper on Fisheries, “various
marine products shipped from different markets (such as wholesale markets)
are collected, sorted by use, and sold to retailers.”
According to the 2018 Fisheries Census, there are 803 fish markets inJapan. According to the fisheries census, fish markets are defined as “markets
where fishery products are directly landed by fishing boats and where suchproducts are brought in from the producing regions by land transport andthe initial stage of trading is conducted, even if fishing boats do not land
directly.” These are identical to marine landing markets. Table 1(a) shows
the number of fish markets by type. The landing market defined above does
not include the central wholesale markets. Thus, when excluding central
wholesale markets, there is a total of approximately 771 landing markets.
Table 1(b) shows the number of fish markets, categorized by the establishingentity. As central wholesale markets are established by local government
entities, such as the prefectural or municipal governments of cities with apopulation of 200,000 or greater, the number of fish markets by the type ofentity establishing the market can be obtained by subtracting 32 from thenumber of local governments (Table 1a). Fishery cooperatives account for
80% of the total number of establishing entities of landing markets. For thisreason, weakness in price formation has become a problem in landing markets
with small transactions, and the maintenance and strengthening of market
141

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

functions are required owing to market consolidation. In Japan, where various
fish species are landed in various regions, landing markets play an importantrole in efficiently distributing marine products.

Table 1 (a) Number of fish markets by type, and (b) number of fish markets by
establishing entity typeLanding markets and small-scale fisheries
To switch focus, how many fishing ports does Japan have? The data used are
based on the fisheries census of April 2018. In total, there are 2,823 fishingports in Japan. Based on the definition of the regional landing market, andassuming that a regional landing market is located at a fishing port, thenwe can approximate that there is a landing market at approximately one inevery four fishing ports. Of the landing volume of ocean surface fisheries in
2018, offshore fisheries accounted for 47% of the landing volume. Of theseoffshore fisheries, those that play a central role in production include purse
seine fisheries, which catch large amounts of sardines, saury, mackerel, horse14215. LANDING MARKETS

mackerel, squid, and other species. These fisheries have limited fishing ports
and landing markets, their landing volume is small, and the fishing ports andlanding markets of pelagic fisheries are limited.
In light of this, let us again consider the numbers of landing markets andfishing ports. There are currently 711 landing markets and 2,823 fishing ports
in Japan. As offshore and deep-sea fisheries are served by limited fishing ports
and landing markets, most of these fish markets consist of landings caught bycoastal fisheries. The amount of fish landed is largest at specific Type 3 fishingports (13 ports), which is used nationwide by fisheries. Revenue earned fromlanding volumes at Type 2 fishing ports (521 ports) and Type 1 fishing ports(2089 ports) exceeds that of the Type 3 fishing ports (114 ports). Type 1 andType 2 fishing ports represent mainly coastal fisheries, indicating the central
role that coastal fisheries play in the regional industry through the landing
market.

Conclusion
Fisheries are an essential industry that supply people with seafood. However,there are various challenges to the industry, such as a decrease in production
because of a reduction in marine resources, a long-term reduction in thenumber of fishers, and a decline in fish prices. Similarly, in the landing market,
the ability to form fish prices has been declining because of a decrease in theamount of fish handled, the sluggish unit price of fish, and the decreasing
number of buyers. However, some of the world’s best fishing grounds arearound Japan, and favorable fishing grounds are spreading along the coast, so
the fishing industry’s potential seems to be positive. However, the increase in
low-priced, imported seafood, the mismatch between demand and production,and the existence of mass retailers seeking a low-cost seafood supply, has
influenced fishing, resulting in sluggish fish prices.
Deliberation on the following topics is necessary to address these challenges.
One is the implementation of appropriate resource management. For thispurpose, it is necessary to record the catch with high accuracy. Providing
information such as the fish species and weight of each fish type when selling143

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

marine products in the landing market to a resource management agency will
be useful for accurate catch determination and resource management. The
other is maintaining the quality of seafood. When the seafood distribution
system starts at the landing markets, on the way to the consumer, quality
deterioration cannot be recovered. Quality control is essential at the landing
market to preclude a decrease in fish pricing.

14416. Fishing Ground Improvement

Indirect Impact of Artificial Reefs on Recreational Fishing

Yasushi Ito
The Japanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities

Artificial Reef at Tsushima, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan. J. Suga, 2003

145

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Artificial reefs are systematically being installed as a national measuremainly for the fishing industry; however, they are also being utilized forrecreational fishing. Recreational fishing activities are often operated bycoastal fishers as a side business, contributing to the income of fishers.
However, the use of artificial reefs by recreational fishers is unclear, andthere are hardly any studies that measure the specific benefit of the useof artificial reefs by recreational fishers. We conducted a questionnaire
survey among recreational fishers and recreational fishing guides in
representative areas of recreational fishing and clarified the use of
artificial reefs by recreational fishers. By estimating the benefits in eachcase, we show the indirect impact of artificial reefs on coastal fisheries.

What is an ar ficial reef?
An artificial reef is a structure that is artificially created to promote theaggregation, protection, and culture of aquatic life. When artificial structures
are installed in water, fish aggregate in the area and seaweed tends to grow.
Prototypes of artificial reefs include the shibazuke fishing that is used acrossJapan, Ishizuka used in the Chikuma River, and ishigama in Lake Koyama,
Tottori Prefecture, where wood, rocks, and other materials are submerged inwater to attract and catch fish; the tsuke fishing method (Ogawa, 1968). Reefs
have been built across Japan by sinking rocks, sandbags, brushwood, andships, and by 1932, they were used as breeding sites as part of the measures
to promote coastal fisheries. Around this time, Yamaguchi and Miyazaki
Prefectures attempted to use concrete, artificial reefs (Goto, 1935). Since the
Taisho Era, federal subsidies have been provided for artificial breeding sites
and reefs, and after World War II, fisheries’ infrastructure systematicallybecame a national policy. In addition to fishing grounds built with stones
and concrete blocks, artificial reefs prepared in factories, built on-site, andthose made of steel are popular. Artificial reefs are built primarily for the146

16. FISHING GROUND IMPROVEMENT

fishing industry but are also used for recreational fishing, often operated bycoastal fishers as a side business. Despite guidelines on methods to measure
the benefits of such recreational use of artificial reefs, their actual recreationaluse is unclear. Studies that measure the specific benefits of recreational use of
artificial reefs are scarce. In this chapter, we examine the use of artificial reefs
by recreational fishers in specific areas and calculate benefits in each case.

Use of ar ficial reefs by recrea onal fishers
The use of artificial reefs for recreational fishing in the study areas was
examined through document collection, interviews with recreational fishingguides, and questionnaires administered to recreational fishing guides andrecreational fishers having their own boats. We also performed a trial
cost/benefit calculations of the use of artificial reefs by recreational fishers.
The study areas surveyed were Oiso Town, Kanagawa Prefecture; Omaezaki
Town, Shizuoka Prefecture; Tango Peninsula, Kyoto Prefecture; Inami Town,
Wakayama Prefecture; Ajicho in Takamatsu City, Kagawa Prefecture; Fukuoka
City in Fukuoka Prefecture; and Nomozaki Town in Nagasaki Prefecture.

Recrea onal fishing guide business
The timing and duration of recreational fishing varied depending on fishinggrounds and types of fish. However, many fishers left early in the morningand returned to the port between 15:00 to 16:00 after a duration of seven toeight hours. The cost varied by areas, business, and whether it included bait,
equipment, and ice. When these items were not included, the cost of bait
and equipment was approximately 2,000 to 3,000 yen. Recreational fishingcosts that included bait and equipment were 8,000 (Oiso Town) to 16,000(Tango Peninsula, Kyoto Prefecture) yen, averaging approximately 10,000
yen. Customers of recreational fishing guides were from a wide range ofsurrounding cities. In areas with good transportation, customers used trains;
however, the majority drove to the location. Chartered boats were often rented
by groups, where approximately three customers drove together to the site.
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The overnight stay was not common, as many customers drove throughout
the night to be at the port in time for the early departure. The number of days
recreational fishing guides worked each year varies based on the location andcondition of the area and personality of the recreational fishing guide. Guides
worked more days in Oiso Town, Omaezaki Town, and Inami Town, whichhave been offering recreational fishing for relatively serious recreational
fishers from the Metropolitan areas for a long time, and as part of the Kyoto
Fishing Boat Association that focuses on chartered fishing boats (60% of therecreational fishing guides in these three areas worked for 150 days or more ayear).

Use of ar ficial reefs by recrea onal fishing guides andfishers using their own boats, and associated problems
In terms of awareness regarding artificial reefs, 48% of the recreational fishingguides “know locations of most artificial reefs,” whereas 50% “only know
locations of some artificial reefs.” As many guides are also in the fishingindustry, there was hardly anyone who said they “do not know where reefs
are.” The awareness level was high in areas where large reefs were installed
in relatively uniform areas, with recreational fishing operated as pole andline fishing fisheries (Oiso Town, Omaezaki Town, and Inami Town). In
contrast, awareness was relatively low in areas where several reefs were
installed between natural reefs and remote islands (Kyoto Prefecture, Aji
Town, Takamatsu Setouchi District, and Nomozaki Town). As people learn ofartificial reef locations through fishery cooperatives, awareness was low in the
Kyoto Fishing Boat Association, where many guides are not fishery industry
personnel.
In contrast, 77% of the recreational fishers “do not know locations ofartificial reefs at all” or “only know one to five artificial reefs,” presenting
relatively low awareness of artificial reefs. The Kyoto Fishing Boat Association
and recreational fishers have a strong desire to have the locations of artificial
reefs published and obtain information, and this probably influenced some
responses.
14816. FISHING GROUND IMPROVEMENT

Dependence on artificial reefs (the ratio of time spent at the artificial reef
relative to the total duration of recreational fishing) varied by area and people;
however, the total for the study areas was 24% for the guides and 49% forrecreational fishers. The mean for the study areas that included “those who
do not use artificial reefs” was 21.2% for recreational fishing guides and12.1% for recreational fishers. The areas with high dependence of recreational
fishing guides on artificial reefs were Oiso Town, and Amino Town and the
Kyoto Fishing Boat Association in Kyoto Prefecture. In the case of Amino
Town, artificial reefs were the major fishing grounds in areas with relatively
few natural reefs. In the case of the Fishing Boat Association, based on therecreational fishing agreement with fishery cooperatives, the duration andtiming of the use of major natural reefs for recreational fishing are limited.
This is likely the reason that the use of artificial reefs located around major
natural reefs is high. Similarly, in the case of Oiso Town, artificial reefs
are integrated into the large natural reef (Senoumi), making it difficult todifferentiate between them, which may have had an impact.
Recreational fishing target species were reef fish such as horse mackerel, sea
bream, chicken grunt, amberjack, rockfish, and thread-sail filefish. Natural
reefs and artificial reefs were the main fishing grounds, and dependence on
artificial reefs was higher in areas where the number of natural reefs was
low and in areas where the use of natural reefs was difficult owing to therelationship with the fishing industry.
The reasons for the use of artificial reefs were similar among recreational
fishing guides and recreational fishers. The most common reasons wererelated to catch, such as “easy to catch fish; there may not be many; however,there are always fish to catch, and there are several types of fish like the horsemackerel where one can catch a large number of fish.” Natural reefs wereused when targeting large and expensive fish, whereas artificial reefs wereused for fish species such as horse mackerel and chicken grunt, where a large
number of fish could be caught. Another reason artificial reefs were used wasthat locations of fishing grounds were close by, making them usable on days
with poor weather.

149IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Problems associated with the use of ar ficial reefs andimprovement
Regarding problems associated with the use of artificial reefs, 30% and
12% of the recreational fishing guides and recreational fishers, respectively,said, “there is no problem.” Excluding the technical problem of “fishingequipment tends to get snagged, making artificial reefs difficult to use,”recreational fishing guides mentioned “users get in the way” and “artificial
reefs are difficult to use because there are problems with full-time fishers.”
recreational fishers mentioned “locations are difficult to know” in addition toalso mentioning “artificial reefs are difficult to use because there are problems
with full-time fishers.” These problems were also the reasons for not using
artificial reefs, indicating that preventing competition over the use of fishinggrounds around reefs is important. Approximately 10% of recreational fishingguides and 10% of recreational fishers said, “artificial reefs are not necessary.”
Many recreational fishing guides, many of who were also fishing industry
workers, said, “more artificial reefs, similar to the present ones, are needed”(65%). In contrast, many recreational fishers said, “artificial reefs should
be separated into those for the fishing industry and those for recreational
fishing” (42% vs. 29% who said the present situation is acceptable).

Trial benefit and cost-effec veness calcula ons of use ofar ficial reefs for recrea onal fishing
Improvement in leisure func ons
Improvement in leisure functions associated with the use of artificial reefs
by recreational fishing guides was measured using the travel cost method;
however, when including the cost of transportation and recreational fishingguides in the travel cost, it overlapped with the income effect of recreational
fishing guides. Thus, in this summary, we calculated only the improvementin leisure functions based on travel costs that included the cost of recreational
fishing guides for comparison. The travel cost method is based on a simple
150

16. FISHING GROUND IMPROVEMENT

method described in the “Guidelines for Cost-Benefit Analysis for Coastal
Works” by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (for Oiso Town
and Inami Town, we performed these calculations using the simple method
and the consumer surplus method that is derived from a demand curve, andobtained a similar result).
Annual benefit (1,000 yen/year) = number of guests (number of people/year)
× travel cost per guest (1,000 yen/person)• Number of guests = the number of people who use recreational fishingguides × rate of the duration of the use of assessment target artificial reefs• Travel cost (yen/person) = transportation cost (yen/person) + transportation time (h) × unit labor cost + recreational fishing cost (guide cost)(yen/h)• Transportation cost = (return trip distance × cost per trip distance 11.16
yen/vehicle + return trip highway toll) ÷ 3 (people/vehicle)
Table 1 shows the cost/benefits effectiveness calculations of the recreational
fishing guide business. The average travel cost per customer of the recreational
fishing guide per day in the study areas was 22,500 yen/person with a range of
8,800 to 33,100 yen/person. The benefit per person obtained by multiplying
this average value with the artificial reef dependence rate (average of 21%)
ranged from 600 to 10,300 yen/person with an average of 4,700 yen/person.

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Table 1. Calculation of the benefits of improved leisure functions and cost/benefit(C/B) associated with the use of artificial reefs by recreational fishing guides(surveys conducted in the study areas).

Source: Questionnaire survey with recreational fishing guides.
*Number of annual users, total travel cost, and annual benefit are values for thesurveyed areas, where benefits from users of the recreational fishing guide who
visited from areas other than the surveyed areas, were excluded.
*Dependence on artificial reefs is the rate for the days of use, and multiple uses
on one day are treated as one day of use.
*Dependence on artificial reefs is high in Oiso Town. This is because artificial
reefs are integrated into large natural reefs, making it difficult to differentiate
between them.

15216. FISHING GROUND IMPROVEMENT

Effects of the use of ar ficial reefs
In Omaezaki Town, Tango Peninsula in Kyoto Prefecture, Ajicho in Kagawa
Prefecture, and Takamatsu City in Nishihama District, we selected specificartificial reefs and calculated the cost-benefit ratio (C/B) (measurement periodof 30 years and a discount rate of 4.0%, consistent with those recommended
in the guideline). In addition, for the number of guests, only the data fromthe surveyed areas were used, excluding benefits from recreational fishers
visiting from outside the surveyed areas to use the survey target reefs. Benefit
varied greatly based on the number of guests using recreational fishing guides(and the target areas), artificial reef dependence, and travel cost per person(condition of the locations and type of recreational fishing). Calculated C/B
was 0.61 for Omaezaki artificial reefs + large reefs, 3.26 for Nakahama district
artificial reefs in Kyoto Prefecture (Tango Peninsula), 0.21 for large reefs
around Kabuto Island in Kagawa Prefecture (Ajicho), and 0.53 for large reefs
around Ogi Island in Kagawa Prefecture (Takamatsu Setouchi District).

Benefits from improved leisure effects of recrea onal fishing
The survey conducted on recreational fishers targeted owners of pleasureboats affiliated with fishing ports and marinas. The benefit of the use of
artificial reefs by recreational fishers was calculated by using travel cost as
the recreational fishing cost (surveyed areas = surveys conducted in 2003 in
Fukuoka City and Nomozaki Town with 90 respondents). Travel cost for eachrecreational fisher per day (recreational fishing cost = fuel cost + bait cost +meals and drinks on the boat + supplies + transportation cost) varied notably
between Fukuoka City and Nomozaki Town: 10,256 yen/person in Fukuoka City
(pleasure boat owners in marinas) and 4,117 yen/person in Nomozaki Town(boats moored in fishing ports). The average was 7,050 yen/person. Annual
benefit per recreational fisher calculated by multiplying recreational fishingcost with the number of days of recreational fishing per year and artificial reef
dependence was about 31,000 yen/person-year in Fukuoka City and 12,000
yen/person-year in Nomozaki Town.
153IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Conclusions
Artificial reefs are installed mainly for the benefit of the fishing industry.
Although there is the problem of competition between fishery workers andrecreational fishers, the present survey showed that the use of artificial reefs
by recreational fishers is notable. Including the improvements to leisurefunctions by recreational fishing confirmed an increase in the catch, which is
the original objective of reef infrastructure, thereby increasing the benefits ofartificial reef infrastructure further.

154

17. Business Con nuity Plan

Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Management

Tomomasa Kageyama
National Association of Fisheries Infrastructure

Damage by a tsunami, Shimanokoshi fishing port, Japan, Japanese Institute ofFisheries Infrastructure and Communities (JIFIC), 2013

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While having developed a fishing industry since ancient times, Japan is
also known as a country with many natural disasters. Japanese fisheryis always susceptible to such disasters, and it is important to be awareof the risks of disasters and to prepare for them in advance. Based on
self-help efforts, it is important to cooperate well with mutual assistanceand public help at each stage of the time course of a disaster, that is, ateach stage of disaster management, emergency disaster control, disasterrecovery and restoration. In Japanese fishery areas, since the Great East
Japan Earthquake, a council consisting of persons from the fisheries, thefish processing industry, the government, etc. has been set up to createa Business Continuity Plan (BCP) that determines disaster prevention
precautions, mitigation measures, role sharing and cooperation in theevent of a natural disaster.

Disaster risk and JSSF
Japan’s territory is made up of five major islands and is surrounded by morethan 6,800 islands. Within those islands, 421 islands are established as humanhabitat. One of the world’s best fishing grounds has been formed within thewaters around Japan, and fisheries have been flourishing since ancient times.
Hence the fish-eating culture has been nurtured. The coastline of Japan is
also complex, with a total length of over 35,000 km, which corresponds toapproximately 80% of the circumference of the earth. About 6,300 fishingvillages are located along this coastline, which means there are active fishingvillages located every 5.6 km of coastline on average today. One of the major
landscape features of Japan is that there are so few flatlands that fishingvillages are forced to form with densely populated houses on narrow lands
with mountains lying behind. Another characteristic is that many fishingvillages are in places where land transportation is generally poor, such as
capes and remote islands, where good fishing grounds are usually formed.
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On the other hand, Japan is a country with many natural disasters. Lying on
the Circum-Pacific orogenic belt, volcanic and seismic activities are constantly
active. In addition, several typhoons pass through Japan every year, causing
collateral damages from storms and storm surges. In recent years, themagnitude of the typhoons and rainfall during the rainy season and autumn
are becoming remarkably serious and the damages are expanding, which arethought to be caused by global warming. The fishery is heavily dependent on
blessings bestowed by nature. On the contrary, compared to other industries,
the fishery industry also comes with a fundamental high-risk issue that
depends more on nature in a negative way, being more difficult to manage
artificially, and being more susceptible to natural environmental changes or
natural disasters compared with the agriculture industry which is an industry
that is also similarly nature dependent.
Heavy rainfall can easily cause landslides in fishing villages located on
narrow lands, which leads to roads being blocked. Even if it may haveno direct damage from rain, the fishing grounds may be damaged by the
sediment, driftwood, hay, or debris flowing down from nearby rivers, and theblockage at the fishing port preventing mobilization of the fishing boats. Highwaves created by typhoons can cause enormous damage to related fisheryinfrastructures such as fishing port or fishing boats. Storm surges could
damage houses and processing plants within the fishing villages, which Japan
also has a history of losing many lives due to storm surges. The damage
caused by the recent earthquake is still fresh in our memories. One remarkable
example of damages caused by the earthquake itself was from the January
1997 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake. The damage was caused by a socalled epicentral earthquake. The house collapsed, many fires broke out,
and many lives were lost. The Japanese building architecture is generally
excellent in earthquake resistance, but the power of nature still exceeded
human knowledge. In the fishing ports, facilities such as breakwaters, quays,
processing plants and refrigerators were broken, and liquefaction occurred.
Although the damage was devastating, it is also noteworthy that the local
fishing village communities near the epicenter contributed a great deal to savemany lives, including the elderly.
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A tsunami often develops when earthquakes occur on the seabed. The 2011
Great East Japan Earthquake is a notable example, but Japan has experienced
numerous tsunamis. In addition to the Great East Japan Earthquake, major
tsunamis occurred in 1896, 1923, 1933, 1944, 1946, 1960, 1983, and 1993 since
the era of Meiji. A tsunami is one of the natural disasters that is known tocause the most damage to fisheries. It destroys and swipes everything on thebeach. Aquaculture products and facilities farmed in the sea, the homes offishers in fishing villages, and mostly the lives of residents are no exception.
Therefore, the fishing villages hit by a tsunami are overwhelmed to the point
where it becomes devastating to recover on their own, but it is also the historyof Japan that has shown these fishing villages have been revived time and timeagain. In Japan, tsunamis are bound to come eventually from time to time. It
is important to recognize that this is the fate that the Japanese fisheries mustembrace.
In Japan, it may also be necessary to pay attention to the damage caused
by volcanic activities. In addition to the damage caused by the ash fall due tothe eruption, there are several cases where the evacuation of residents on theentire volcanic island is inevitable.
From a different perspective, those involved in the small-scale fishery andliving in harmony with nature can conclude to be people that are constantly
susceptible to natural disasters. Therefore, it is important always to be awareof the risks of disasters and prepare for them in advance.

Disaster management and BCP in the fishery area
“Since it is impossible to completely prevent the occurrence of a natural
disaster, the concept of disaster mitigation, which means to minimize damage
during a disaster and promptly to recover from damages, should be the basic
philosophy of disaster prevention. In the event of a natural disaster, wemust place the highest priority on saving human lives and combine various
measures to prepare for any natural disaster to minimize the economic losses
and to keep their impact on socio-economic activities to a minimum.” (Basic
Disaster Prevention Plan) “Disaster prevention has three stages over time.:158

17. BUSINESS CONTINUITY PLAN

disaster management, emergency disaster control, and disaster recovery andreconstruction. Taking the best measures at each stage will greatly reduce
damage to the minimum.” (Basic Disaster Management Plan)
Disaster prevention studies point out that preparing for a disaster requires
three approaches: self-help efforts, mutual assistance, and public help. In
other words, self-help means that the individuals are aware and proactively
prepare for disaster prevention in order to protect their lives and property.
Mutual assistance is to help each other in the immediate local community
perimeter. Public help is public support from the administrative organization.
It is important for disaster preparedness to be based on these self-help
efforts and to complement with mutual assistance and public assistance ateach applicable stage. In addition, since the Great East Japan Earthquake,it has been strongly recognized that fisheries do not exist independently
by itself, but it is closely tied to related industries like wholesale markets,
distribution, processing, etc., and from that point of view, in order to promoteorganic cooperation among related stakeholders, initiatives have been takenon creation of a council consisting of fishers, distributors, processors, andgovernment officials, etc. to establish a Business Continuity Plan (BCP)in the fishery area that clarifies each responsibility, roles and cooperative
relationships in the event of a disaster. Let’s take a look at what measures arebeing considered at each stage.
(1) Disaster management stage
In disaster management, it is necessary to first anticipate what kind ofdisaster may occur, and to recognize and sort out the damages that may occur
due to the anticipated disaster. Disaster management requires individual
scenario consideration for each type of disaster, such as typhoons, earthquakes
and tsunamis, matched with each type of fishery category conducted. In
Japan, regarding floods and tsunamis, a map called “hazard map” showing the
anticipated flooding area is prepared by the local government administrative
organization and which are being utilized in the study. However, it isimportant to pay attention to the possibility that disasters with much larger
scales than those anticipated by the hazard map may occur. Next, we should159

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

consider the measures necessary to be taken in advance in order to reduce thedamage and to recover rapidly after a disaster.
The first priority is to ensure the safety of human lives. You must confirm
the local evacuation sites and evacuation routes in advance. Typhoons andother predictable disasters can be handled with plenty of preparation time, but
we are not able to predict when an earthquake or tsunami will arrive. It is notuncommon for those events to occur late at night or early in the morning whenmost people are asleep. It is important to ensure if earthquake-resistanceof buildings is meeting sufficient requirements and to prepare the related
infrastructure for safe evacuation. In addition, it is necessary to make sure to
avoid dangerous activities like going near the harbor during a storm to checkthe condition of fishing boats. During the tsunami, there were many cases
where people rowed off the coast to save fishing boats and lost their lives.
The second thing to consider is the conservation and minimization ofdamages of important industrial-goods and facilities such as fishing boats,fishing gear, and other equipment. Evaluating a safe relocation plan to large
harbors and coves should be considered. In the case of a tsunami, evacuation offishing boats offshore is effective if there is enough time, but if the evacuation
is delayed, the possibility of distress will increase, so the risks and options
must be carefully considered. What should also be considered in advance isstoring unused fishing boats and gear on high grounds where tsunamis do
not reach. The emergency power supply should also be located in a place
where there can be no danger of flooding. For food, water, materials, etc.,
you must consider storing surplus inventory separately in a safe location. As
for the fishing port, the quay near the market, which is indispensable forunloading the fish, should be built earthquake-resistant, and the structure of
the breakwater and other facilities should be reconstructed to be resilient. In
addition, countermeasures such as securing the fishing gear, materials, etc.
to prevent it from flowing out to the basin should be considered. Treatmentof abandoned properties is also an important item to note.
The third point to consider is the method to promptly recover after a disasterand mitigate the losses. In Japan, there is a disaster recovery system for fishingports and other infrastructure, which can be recovered promptly at the expense160

17. BUSINESS CONTINUITY PLANof the government. On the other hand, if there is no mechanism to mitigate thelosses incurred by fishers in some way and manage their job stably, it will be
impossible to continue the industry since the damages caused by the disasters
are unavoidable. For these occasions, the insurance system plays a major
role. In Japan, with the support of the government, fishing boat insurance
is provided for fishing boats, and the fishery mutual-aid system is preparedfor fishing products and facilities. From the viewpoint of prompt recovery,
it may be effective to hold an agreement with other fishery communities inother areas, which are not likely to be affected by the same disaster, to be able
to support and provide materials and personnel when necessary.
The collection of recognizing the result of these studies as a common
understanding and sharing the roles among the concerned parties and coming
up with a plan is what BCP is about, but in reality simply just creating theplans may have its flaws and may not function well in the event of an actual
disaster. What is important is to implement repetitive training. The important
aspect of disaster management is to assess what is the appropriate disasterand corresponding mitigation plans and to practice repeatedly according to
the plans.
(2) Emergency disaster control stage
The immediate response after a disaster occurs to first ensure the safety ofhuman lives. It is executing the protocol that was determined in advance toquickly evacuate to the designated place. After the safety of the concerning
lives is secured, the focus should be shifted to restart the fisheries by assessing
the damage situation and contacting relevant organizations. Investigating
the safety of concerned personnel, the status of fishing ports and facilities,
the status of fishing boats and fishing gear, materials, the status of products
and stored goods, etc., we should be sharing that information as a common
understanding among the concerned persons.
Next, we should move on to focusing on emergency measures that require
immediate attention, such as debris removal. At that time, information as
to when the disaster has happened, the magnitude of the disaster, and allother details should be taken into account in determining the priority order of161

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

recovering. The fisheries that have the shortest period until the main fishingseason has the highest priority. Emergency measures should be taken into
action including removal of debris at fishing grounds, sea routes, basins,
emergency recovery of facilities and equipment such as quays at fishing ports,
procurement of equipment such as fishing gear and allocating alternatives tothe damaged or lost fishing boats, securing fuel, water and ice, etc.. In the caseof a large-scale disaster, self-help efforts and mutual assistance play a largerole, as government administrative agencies may take longer time to respondwith support. It is effective to flexibly arrange roles in advance among relatedparties.
(3) Disaster recovery and restoration stage
After a certain amount of time has passed since the disaster, full-scale
recovery and restorations of the region will take place, led by the government
administrative agencies. In Japan, local governments are expected to play thecentral role. Various projects will be implemented promptly in accordancewith the recovery and restoration plans established by local governments.
Regarding the restoration of fisheries, prompt recovery of affected facilities,
payment of insurance money, low-interest loan by the government fund,etc. will be carried out. When recovering and restoring order, there will
always be politicians and scholars who will attempt to take advantage of thedisaster and claim for what they would call a “revolutionary change.” However,that argument should be regarded as mere opportunism unless there wereprior active discussions between the parties concerned building up before thedisaster, and it is harmful and of no benefit without those discussions. In
recovery and restoration of fishing villages, considerable respect must be paid
to the characteristics of coastal fisheries that have been accumulated in thearea by the history and culture that has been built on harmony with nature.
Fisheries, especially coastal fisheries, are susceptible to disasters. Therefore,
it is worthwhile to consider measures to be taken in the event of a natural
disaster or measures to reduce the damages caused by the natural disaster. In
this paper, it was introduced that stakeholders have begun to form a council
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in Japan since the Great East Japan Earthquake and to create a BCP in thefishery area. This document is intended to be helpful for future reference
when thinking about coastal fisheries in other parts of the world.

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18. Recruitment and Training

Enhancing and Matching the Human Resource Development System

Naruhito Takenouchi
Ehime University

Traditional fishing vessels, Seto Inland Sea, Ehime Prefecture, Takenouchi N. 2016164

18. RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING

This essay/column describes the present condition and outlook for fishery
workers, including managers and employees, in Japan’s Small-Scale
Fishery (JSSF). The subject of fishery employment is a critical issue toprotect Japanese coastal fisheries or small-scale fisheries. Almost 90%of small-scale fisheries are family-run. It is also true that the smallscale fisheries in Japan have played a central role in fishery employment.
However, the diversification of employment opportunities and the lackof attractiveness of the fishery itself has led to the problem of lack ofsuccessors to the fishery. From the 1960s, when the Japanese fisheries
were robust to the real crisis situation in recent years, we will analyze
the institutional efforts and status of fishery employment. Finally, we
will describe the outlook and measures related to small-scale fisheries
and fishery employment of Japan.

Current situa on of fishery employment in JapanFirst, let’s look at the overall situation of fishery workers. The Japanese White
Paper on Fisheries and the Fisheries Census can verify the statistical data of
the current status of small-scale fisheries and fishery workers. As of 2017, thenumber of fishery workers is 153,490, down 4% from the previous year. The
breakdown of fishery workers age 15 to 24 is about 6,000, age 25 to 39 is about
22,000, age 40 to 54 is about 34,000, age 55 to 64 is about 34,000, and age 65
and over is about 59,000. 38% of the total employment is aged 65 and over.

Trends in new fishery workers
Approximately 2,000 new fishers have been employed each year since 2009,and in 2017, there were 1971 new fishers employed. 70% of these new fishers
are young people under the age of 39. However, as shown in the following
section, the decline in fishery employment is a significant issue for the supply
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of fishery products and the survival of fishing communities. A discussion ofthis matter is essential to solve these problems. The following describes the
structure and characteristics of the small-scale fisheries, its fisheries policy,
and the history of the fishery employment issues.

Structure and features of small-scale fisheries
Article 2 of the Japanese Fisheries Law has the following provisions. In this Act,“a fisher” refers to a person who operates a fishery, and “a fishery employee”
refers to a person who is engaged in gathering, catching, or culturing aquatic
animals and plants on behalf of a fisher (Ministry of Justice website). Fisheryenterprise has been divided into two by the scale. The first division consistsof the Coastal Fisheries Establishment, which operates fisheries by using
the stationary net on small fishing vessels of less than 10 tons, and Coastal
Fisheries Establishment for marine aquaculture. The small-scale fisheriesalso fall under this division. The second division consists of a middle and largescale fisheries establishment that uses more than 10 tons of fishing Vessels.
Only about 5% of the total number of fishery enterprises are accounted forby the middle and large-scale, but their catch is accounted for more than
50% of the total production. The fisheries business management can beclassified by organization, including independent management such as fisheryhousehold, joint management by multiple fishers, and company management
by establishing a company or corporation. Of these, more than 90% of
the coastal fisheries management is independent management, so fisheryhousehold = family-run would be fine.
Japan’s fishing village or district has many small, family-run fisheryenterprises. Then, what could the structure of this fisheries household =family-run fishery enterprise be?
Fishery household is based on the labor of the family member, so the
management is based on the family structure, age, and life cycle. In short, thenumber of family members and their successors determines the quantity andquality of the fishery household’s workforce and income. The successor to
the fishery enterprise is a fishery household member who is engaged in the166

18. RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING

fishery and becomes a fisher in the future. In recent years, the percentage
of management entities that have secured this fishery successor has become
extremely low, and not only the succession of fishers but also the continued
existence of coastal fishery enterprises is in jeopardy. It has been pointed
out that the problems of fishery successors are: (1) unstable income, (2) poor
working environment, and (3) inconvenient lifestyle in fishing villages. For
this reason, the number of aging fishers has increased, and they are fishingalone or in couples (Miki, 2008).

Fisheries policy and employment support ac vi es
In this section, let’s discuss Japan’s fisheries policy only for employment. In
the 1980s, various measures were taken since the decline of the number offishery workers, but they did not show a sign of recovery. In the 1990s, thesituation became more severe. Governments, local governments, and fisherycooperatives made new policies to accept new non-fisher workers in the hopeof improving the number of fishery workers. However, these new workers did
not have a good retention rate. However, in recent years, the management offisheries has not improved much even if the number of management bodies has
decreased, but rather a drastic decrease in the number of fishery workers has
hindered the healthy development of the fishing industry. The text of Article 23of the Fisheries Basic Act enacted in 2002 states that “(1) The Country shall takenecessary measures such as improving technology and management skills offisheries and promoting the acquisition of technical and management skills offisheries for those who will be newly engaged in the fishery in order to develop
and maintain human resources who will be responsible for efficient and stablefishery management” (Ministry of Justice website). The Fisheries Basic Act has
declared that it will encourage newcomers to fishers from outside the fishery.
It was a profound innovative way for fishery employment. The 2018 Fisheries
White Paper estimates that 150,000 fishery workers will decrease to 70,000
in 2048 from 2017 (Figure 1). There is an urgent need to develop motivatedfishers. The Fisheries White Paper points out that measures to develop humanresources should be further enhanced, such as training systems in countries
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

where people can work in the fishery without any experience and fishingschools where practical fishing techniques can be learned.

Figure 1. The prospect of the number of fishers[1]The first revised fishery law in 70 years will be enforced in 2020. This section
describes the improvement of fishery employment and fishery managementin the revised Fishery Law. Many intellectuals and fishers have expressed anegative opinion on the revised Fisheries Law, but on the other hand, therevised Fisheries Law seeks to increase employment opportunities while
increasing fishery income. Also, as companies enter the fishery business,
it can become more difficult for fishery workers. For small-scale fisheries tosurvive while maintaining its social value, it is important to improve fisheries
management. It is, by extension, I think and will lead to an increase in thefishery workers. At present, Japan’s fisheries policy is working on various
missions to improve this situation. In particular, it is actively promoting
the development of human resources who can play active roles in the fishingindustry.
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18. RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING

Now, let’s take a look at the latest data from the 2018 Fisheries Census. The
number of coastal fisheries management totaled 74,151, including corporate
management. Among them, fisheries by fishing Vessels have 54,370 entities,
fixed net fishing has 5,831 entities, and marine aquaculture has 13,950 entities.
Since the total number of coastal fisheries in 1998 was 142,678, it has been
reduced by half. The small-scale fisheries, which do not include corporate
management, totaled 71,117 entities. Among them, fisheries by fishing
Vessels have 53,822 entities, fixed net fishing has 4,789 entities, and marine
aquaculture has 12,506 entities. As of 2018, there are 1280 new employees,
444 fishers, and 836 employees regarding small-scale fisheries. The new
444 fishers consist of 283 vessel fisheries, nine fixed net fisheries, and 152
persons marine aquaculture. In the last section, I would like to discuss the
future prospects of fishing employment.

Conclusion: towards the sustainable small-scale fisheries

Photo 1, A Seminar on Human Resource Development, Uwajima City, Ehime
Prefecture, Myoujou. M., June 2018.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The author has been involved in human resource development seminars forthe water industry leaders in Ehime Prefecture. This seminar is not a direct
program of fishery employment but has been held since 2013 to promote local
fisheries. Participants are mainly fisheries officials, government officials,
and private business people. The seminar curriculum consists of “Fisheries
Study for the Beginner, Environmental Studies for Fisheries, Coastal Marine
Ecology for Fisheries, Aquaculture of Marine Fish, Theory of Fisheries StockManagement, Food Processing Technology, Fish-food distribution” and fieldworks. This seminar has succeeded in providing human resources who cancontribute to the revitalization of local fisheries. The picture is the scene I am
giving at this seminar (Photo 1).
Various actions to support the revitalization of fisheries employment andfisheries are beginning to be implemented around the country. And suchactivities must increase along with quality and ensure that they are linked
to employment. It is becoming increasingly difficult to find a successor tofisheries from their families. I believe it is important to secure motivation for
those who want to work in fisheries in a modern society where employment
opportunities are becoming more diverse. One way is to incorporate thefishery management. In short, the fishery management should incorporate asystem similar to that of a general company, such as labor and social security,
instead of the old-fashioned family labor. It is widely known that work in the
agriculture, forestry and fisheries industries has a poor working environment.
Therefore, securing new workers in the fishery requires as much welfare,
accident prevention, and high income as a business. However, from a different
perspective, fishery workers value pride. The pride is facing natural threats
regardless of the risk of responding to the needs of the seafood supply for thepeople. In other words, it is important that the work of fishery is protected associal dignity.
The role of fishery cooperatives will also be important in tackling fishing
employment. Fisheries households may not have enough systems to accept
fishery workers, so it is important that fishery cooperatives collectively accept
them. Fishery cooperatives are not only accepting foreign workers, butalso training fisheries, introducing local traditional culture and fishing, and170

18. RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING

raising them to be worthy fishers. Fishery cooperatives that have gained such
experience will eventually be able to accept fishers from the general public.
In order for the small-scale fisheries to survive, it must continue to securepeople who want to work in the fishery. Stakeholders in the fishery districtneed to provide accurate information to those who want to work in the fishery.
The information includes the characteristics of the type of fishery for eachproduction area, the requirement of human resources, what kind of labor
is required, how much income can be expected, and the status of the social
welfare system. And for fishery district stakeholders, it may be more effective
to set up a period of internship. Matching the two will increase the retention
rate and become a workforce that is rooted in the community in the future.
Stakeholders in the fishery district must recognize that they will nurture newworkers. This is due to the following reasons.
In the past, human resource development was mainly based on a methodthat did not rely on artisan language unique to Japan due to a large number offamily members. There is a word in Japan that you grow up looking at yourparents’ back. “Children learn from their parent’s example.” However, it does
not include verbal communication. It’s not about verbal communication, but
about observing and mastering the gestures and techniques of their boss.
In modern society, a general human resource development system requires
verbal communication instead of such traditional methods. Stakeholders in
the fishery district need to recognize that communication is a crucial toolfor developing new workers. In addition, the people of the regional fisheries
area aim to reform the fishing industry to a working environment similar tothat of modern enterprises to prepare a system to accept new workers. And
above all, it is imperative to raise the workers’ passion for revitalizing theregional fishery area. An employee development system is a tool for matchinglabor dispatch and local fisheries area. Employee development systems arebeing established in various places. Still, I recognize that it is necessary to
discuss once again what kind of talents we want to develop and develop in
the community. To make the small-scale fisheries of Japan sustainable, what
do you think about the employment issues? Now let’s discuss! And now, in
anticipation of your insight into the future.
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Endnotes[1] FY2018 Trends in Fisheries, FY2019 Fisheries Policy, White Paper on Fisheries: Summary, p.5. Retrieved from https://www.jfa.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/wpaper/pdf/2018_jfa_wp.pdf

172

IV
New Ini a ves and Concepts of JSSF

19. The Sixth Industrializa on

Development of Flexible Income Opportunities Through Regional Appeal

Hiroshi Tomita
Fishery Communities Planning Co., Ltd.

The combined seafood market, restaurant, and processing plant. Iwaizumi Town,
Iwate Prefecture, Yokokawa M., 2017175

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The small fishing communities and coastal fisheries operations acrossJapan provide a safe, stable source of fresh marine products to the country,
while also serving other roles, from protecting and managing coastal
ecosystems to preserving traditional culture and landscapes. However,the fishing households on which these communities depend are aging
and decreasing in number, and their income is far lower than thenational average. The sixth industrialization can provide a solution,
revitalizing coastal communities by leveraging a wide range of local
resources to create community businesses based on distinct regional
appeal.

The defini on of and the need for sixth industrializa on
Agricultural economist Naraomi Imamura defined “sixth industrialization”
to illustrate the concept of expanding operations in industrial sectors such as
agriculture, forestry and fishing, where businesses grow from their respective primary industries to processing (secondary industries) and sales anddistribution (tertiary industries) (Imamura, 2017). Initially, the term wasintended to express a linear expansion by simply summing “1” for primary,“2” for secondary, and “3” for tertiary industries to reach the “6” tally.
Currently, however, the primary industries have declined to the point where
they are no longer sustainable on their own, and so Imamura has shifted thedefinition from straight-forward addition to multiplication (1 x 2 x 3 = 6),
in order to signify the manner in which businesses can plan for organic andcomprehensive combinations of the three levels of the industry. In recent
years, the term has been embraced across Japan in describing the revitalizationof small farming, mountain, and fishing communities, and the diversificationof their local industries, efforts which the national government is actively
working to support.
There is a need for, and distinct definition of, the sixth industrialization
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in small-scale coastal fishing communities and their local fishing industries.
Over the five-year span from 2013 to 2017, the average household income
in Japan was 5.46 million yen (MHLW, 2019). In contrast, for small-scale,individually-run coastal fishing operations, the average combined fisheries
and non-fisheries income was just 2.89 million yen (MAFF, 2019), just overhalf the income of the average household. As shown in figure 1 below, forfishing households, income from fishing made up 90% of total income, butthese activities have unique characteristics such as high expenses and unstable
costs and income (due to large year-to-year fluctuations). Non-fishingincome made up just 7% of the total and is mainly limited to income fromwork such as seafood processing and operating leisure fishing boats.

Figure 1. Income of Japanese fishing households (5-year average: 2015-2018).
Source: Fishing management survey by Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, andFisheries.

The conditions of coastal fisheries communities and businesses in Japanare diverse. In some regions, it is possible for households to generatesufficient income from fisheries activities alone, while in others, such income
is not enough.

This is an important point when considering the sixth177

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industrialization. In areas where fisheries income is sufficient, the sixth
industrialization can be implemented with the goal of proactively reviving
the fisheries sector, while at the same time creating a ripple effect that
revives the broader community, creating new industries in the process. In
areas where fisheries income is not sufficient, the sixth industrialization canbe implemented with the aim of enabling fishing households to continue
operation, through the creation of new opportunities for supplementary
income.

Implementa on of sixth industrializa on in fishingcommuni es
As the sixth industrialization is intended as a method to solve the broad
range of issues and problems facing fishing communities and coastal fishing
operations, naturally actual implementations will be diverse and depend on thecircumstances. In Japan, aging and depopulation are unabated problems forthese communities and businesses, which endanger the continued existenceof not only local fisheries but also their rural societies as a whole.
Experience in such situations has taught that a crucial component when
implementing the sixth industrialization in a given region, even more important than an understanding of the problems to be solved within the local
population, is for the basic goals and overall vision of the implementation
to be shared between the various stakeholders. Caution must be taken at
the beginning of the implementation. It is acceptable if specific details are
not yet well defined, but if there are errors in the fundamental principles
and direction, subsequent discussion and efforts will be unfocused and adrift.
It is important for individuals such as government officials and workers at
local fisheries associations to serve as coordinators for ongoing, constructive
workshops that are focused and produce optimal solutions. In this early stageof implementation, it is also effective to invite opinions from outside experts.
In the next stage, stakeholders such as local fishers and residents should
work to both identify local resources and evaluate their potential for commercialization. This can be thought of as a search for buried treasure. Local
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resources can be divided into four categories: natural resources (including theocean, coast, scenery, waves, wind and tide, and local wildlife); production
resources (including fish and seafood products, fishing methods and technology, fishing boats, and various marine facilities); infrastructural landscape(including fishing ports, noteworthy buildings and homes, paths and roads,
and unique local scenery and spaces); and cultural resources (including
local individuals, knowledge and wisdom, traditional festivals and practices,
customs and etiquette, and food culture) (Fisheries Agency website). Eachresource category should be examined to determine how it can be utilized. At
this stage, care must be taken not to overlook potential commercial offerings,
because local stakeholders live among these various resources and may be too
accustomed to them to identify their appeal and commercial value. For thisreason, canvasing opinions from potential consumers to be targeted by thesixth industrialization can often lead to new discoveries.
While uncovering such resources and identifying the needs of consumers,
the value and commercialization potential of the resources should be considered. One common approach that leads to failure is to take a rigid stance,
where “these are our products and so these are what we will sell.” A more
successful approach is to first ask questions such as “who will we be sellingto?”, “where will we be selling?”, and “how much do we want to sell for?”,the answers to which will lead to “what we should sell.” Keeping these factors
in mind, consider the potential of each of the available resources, evaluating
1) how easy they are to manufacture and offer; 2) whether they fit with theoverall vision for the region; 3) whether they meet the needs of consumers;
4) whether their use is compatible with the local fishing industry; 5) whether
they are compatible with local laws and regulations; 6) how convenient theiruse is; 7) how safe it is; and 8) whether there are sufficient human resources
and know-how to utilize them.
The third stage of implementation considers the ways in which the selectedresources will be combined into an offering that supports the sixth industrialization. Based on the results of the survey of potential resources, thequestion of “who will be involved” should be considered in detail, leading
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details of the offerings are determined by envisaging items such as the main
customers, the service providers, how the product will be offered, as well as
the time of the year, service hours, location, and fees, which taken together
become a plan for the local region to follow. The local stakeholders may decide
to offer a single product or combine several products.
The final stage implements the management structure and conditions forthe operation to support the sixth industrialization. To ensure that, the projectproduces ongoing results and is not a one-time offering. Crucial components
include the establishment of a management structure with high levels of trust,
the right levels of leadership and education on the ground, and methods for
obtaining the participation and cooperation of local residents. Needless to say,there are numerous other areas that need to be considered, including tie-ups
with businesses and hotels, both local and from other regions; restaurants
and sales facilities; the creation of new or renovation of existing facilities
for “hands-on” experiences and other offerings; marketing and strategies tocreate repeat customers; and procedures for handling emergency situations
and customer claims.
While the initial details of the project are determined during the preparatory stages of the sixth industrialization, it is important to remember that
economic conditions in society, including customer demands, are a living,changing creature. For this reason, it is dangerous to stubbornly stick with theinitial project plan. Flexibility is crucial, with constant feedback as the projectproceeds. In order to implement the sixth industrialization for coastal fishing
operations and fishing communities in a manner that produces effective,
sustainable income and employment opportunities, making adjustments andreforms based on a PDCA system, or “Plan-Do-Check-Action,” is indispensable.

Government support
There are currently various support systems from the Japanese government inplace for the sixth industrialization in coastal fishing communities and local
businesses. To take one example, the Fisheries Agency, which has jurisdiction18019. THE SIXTH INDUSTRIALIZATION

over efforts to revive coastal regions, offers schemes to help plan and financeenterprises that provide “hands-on” experiences in fishing communities orrevitalize harbor facilities. The agency provides numerous avenues of support
for projects and pilot programs for both soft enterprises and hard infrastructure projects in areas from reestablishing guest accommodations andtourism activities to support sales of local products, restaurants, and seafood
production. An example of an effective project for the sixth industrialization is
the “Hama no Ouendan,” or “Beach Support Team” website, which introduces
specialists in various fields to stakeholders in fishing communities.
Another productive approach comes from regional governments, non-profit
organizations, and private organizations that work to draw foreign tourists
to farming, mountain, and fishing communities with Japanese Destination
Management Organizations (DMOs). DMOs are companies that establish
strategies to create tourism regions based on clear concepts and have thefunctionality to effectively implement those strategies through cooperation
with various stakeholders by managing tourism development that draws out
local job opportunities while also creating local pride and attachment (DMO
website). Effective DMOs allow those involved with the sixth industrialization
to broaden their information networks and put them to use as part of theimplementation.

Future topics
Japan’s small fishing communities have collectively demonstrated a versatileand crucial functionality, providing a rich assortment of safe, fresh marine
products to the nation. Located all over the country, these communities
are dependent on their coastal fishing operations, which in turn depend
on individual fishers, whose output is small in scale and unstable. For thisreason, it is not just these individually operated fisheries that are in dangerof disappearing, but the local communities themselves. To alleviate thissituation, the sixth industrialization will play an even more important rolein the future, but there remain many problems that must be addressed. The
sixth industrialization can be described as the establishment of methods to181

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

foster systems which lead to supplementary income opportunities for fishinghouseholds, in the form of sustainable community businesses, which in turnleads to the revival of impoverished fishing communities.
(1) Independence and continuity
In order for the sixth industrialization to contribute to the revitalizationof small fishing communities and provide supplementary income to fishingfamilies, regional projects must take root locally, through independent
management and sustainability. For this reason, it is essential to foster andinstall individuals who will take responsibility for the sixth industrialization,
as well as create organizations and bodies that will oversee planning andoperation. There are many examples where organizations fail because they
begin operations without sufficient personnel or management strategies. It is
important to find and foster personnel with sufficient motivation and skills
and facilitate organizations with strong management ability. The search forcontributors must include all parts of local communities, which needless to say
includes often overlooked segments such as elderly fishers and local women.
In some cases, cooperation with business from outside the region or DMOs
can lead to beneficial partnerships.
(2) Regional brands, not products
The core component of the sixth industrialization is to make regional
resources appealing, transform them into products, and create new industries.
But it must be remembered that a key component of the implementationis strengthening the appeal of the region behind the products, which will
increase their value. The implementation of the sixth industrialization allows
this regional appeal to be rediscovered, bringing added value to its offerings,
strengthening local branding, and providing opportunities for consumers toenjoy the region’s local products and services. Further, this implementation
deepens the love for and connection to the region, leading to interactions andconnections with ever greater numbers of people, so that the base of the sixth
industrialization continually broadens. Everyone involved with the effort
must keep in mind that in the end, implementing the sixth industrialization
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is synonymous with local development based on strengthening the appeal of
the region.
(3) Emphasizing community businesses
The sixth industrialization is not just a single regional promotion event.
It is important to take the view that implementation involves communityoriented business operations, with fishers and local residents taking a majorrole in tackling problems using established business methods. The desired
result is not to simply invite external businesses to take the lead, but tofoster the enthusiasm needed to develop local businesses. In situations where
purely local development is not possible, local fishing communities should
work together with outside individuals and organizations that share their
enthusiasm, to create synergies and new models of joint development.

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20. Fish Branding Strategies

A Case study of Regional Brand, Seki Saba and Aji

Mari Hazumi
Kumamoto Gakuen University

Seki Saba fisher and fishing boat, Saganoseki, Oita Prefecture, Japan. M. Hazumi,
2020

184

20. FISH BRANDING STRATEGIESGiven the severe situation marine products find themselves in, there
is a sense of worry in the reduction of resources. Coastal fishing is
a fishing method with low pressure on resources. In particular, thefishing method of Seki Saba and Aji is pole-and-line or single line
fishing, which is suitable for today’s fisheries aiming for sustainableproduction. However, the problem is that such environmental-oriented
fishing methods are not always evaluated economically. If consumers
can find value and increase it, the management of coastal fisheries will
improve. Under these circumstances, the marine product brand needs tochange. This chapter examines the necessity of quality control and a new
business model to establish a brand, taking Seki Saba and Aji as a typicalexample of a celebrity brand, which enjoys the highest brand position.
In addition, it is necessary that marine products caught in moderationout of consideration of maintaining fishery resources be recognized as
valuable.

Seki Saba and Aji, the first established marine productbrand
The branding of marine products was activated in 1996 when Seki saba and Aji
acquired the first trademark registration as marine products.Until then, thebrand of marine products performed based only on external features such asappearance and size. However, the standardization of quality became possible,
so the brand of aquatic products was established. In fact, Seki Saba and Aji will
gain the status of a top brand and develop it nationwide by creating a system tocontrol quality from the production stage (from catching and landing) to the
distribution process. Seki Saba and Aji has gained a reputation nationwide andhas established a solid position as a synonym for branded marine products, but
the current situation is not always satisfactory. As a celebrity brand, the fisherycooperative has developed a business model that cultivates sales channels
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commensurate with its value and supplies it to Tokyo markets and restaurants
where prices are high. However, the business model has ceased to work
due to the decline in market demand after the collapse of Lehman Brothers.
Furthermore, the depletion of resources has become a serious problem. Alongwith environmental issues and changes in the circumstances surroundingorganizations, new developments are required for Seki Saba and Aji.

Fishery situa on-landing amount and landing value
At the Saganoseki branch in 2012, the resources of Seki Saba and Aji, which are
the main catch targets, have been remarkably reduced. The peak of both Seki
Saba and Aji is around 2000.Until the end of fiscal 1998, Seki Aji peaked a valueof around 500 million yen and a quantity of around 250 tons in 1998. Seki Saba
peaked at 530 million yen and 156 tons in 1997. However, both have continued
to decline, Seki Aji is about 200 million yen, and the volume was 47 tons in 2018.
On the other hand, the value of Seki Saba dropped sharply to about 50 million
yen and 25 tons in 2018. In particular, the problem is that the quantity of
Seki Saba has fallen sharply. According to the Fisheries Agency ‘s assessmentof fisheries resources in the waters around Japan, the stock assessment of
Masaba in 2018 shows that the Pacific group is moderate, and the trend isincreasing, while the Tsushima warm current group is low and the trend isrising. Similarly, sesame mackerel tends to decline moderately in the Pacificand moderate in the East China Sea. Mackerel resources are generally sluggish.
Catch of mackerels are carried out in the most purse seine, Oita Prefecture(Saganoseki branch is located in Oita prefecture) currently has a small amountof quota under TAC management and is not explicitly managed. New resource
management will be implemented under the revised Fisheries Law (enacted
in 2018). The goal of resource management is to maintain or restore the stocklevel (MSY level) that can achieve the maximum catch that can be caught
continuously. However, regarding the mackerel in Oita prefecture, a study
meeting between the government and the prefecture has just begun. It is
unknown when and what new initiatives will take place. In terms of resource
management, there is no immediate action to take on resource depletion.
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20. FISH BRANDING STRATEGIESHow Seki Saba and Aji worked on branding
Seki Saba and Aji have been known all over the country since the late 1980s
and have been setting high prices. Under such circumstances, a business wasstarted in which the fishery cooperative became a middleman to buy Seki Saba
and Aji and sell lots in bulk in order to enjoy the benefits of the brand. After
that, Seki Saba and Aji acquired trademark registration in 1996 and introduced
a special agent system in 1997 to manage channels. There, a seal was attachedto the tail of the fish. However, such channel management by the dealer system
has stopped functioning due to the emergence of fake brands. In 2006, theregional collective trademark system was enacted, and “Seki Aji Seki Saba”
was also approved. Taking advantage of this, brand management was started
by using this regional collective trademark to manage the channel, renew theseal, and promote it. At present, one seal is attached to each fish, and in a
restaurant or the like, one fish may be divided into small portions and used
for cooking, so the method of attaching 4 to 5 small-sized seals are used.
Looking at sales destinations, shipments to Tokyo account for 70%, Oita
15%, Fukuoka 4%, and others. The proportion of the Tokyo market is high,where it has been positioned as a major market trading at relatively highprices. However, after the Lehman Shock, the percentage of Auction tradingin the wholesale market increased, where prices fell from 5,000 yen to 3,000
yen. On the other hand, the direct transaction with a restaurant in Tokyo
is about 4500 yen, and it is thought that this part will be increased. The
restaurant business began in 2012 in partnership with Japan Airlines (JAL). In
this system, Seki Saba and Aji are drained blood and nerves in the middle ofthe night, sent by JAL flight the next morning, and delivered to restaurants
in the evening of that day. In the future, it is thought to increase the local
Oita. There is an advantage that transportation costs and labor costs are
not required. To that end, the Saganoseki branch will focus on shipping to
the Oita market and developing sales channels for restaurants. From brandformation to brand expansion through quality control, Seki Saba and Aji isa blessed production area that grows in fast-moving waters and has littlechange in water temperature throughout the year. The “blessed production
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area,” “production and processing technology,” and “quality control at
the distribution stage” created the “Celebrity Brand” of the highest brandposition.
Furthermore, in 2012, the construction of hardware such as floating mooring
berths with Ikesu (a fish cage), cargo handling facilities, and facilities for
introducing clean seawater was completed with the support of the national andprefectural governments, and a system capable of advanced hygienic quality
control. (Figure 1) Seki Saba and Aji have formed brands with high quality. In
addition, efforts are being made to improve hygiene and the freshness of fish
to be delivered by improving hardware and improving the distribution system.
In particular, since Seki Saba resources are declining, technology development
and introduction to ensure stock and stable supply are under consideration.

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20. FISH BRANDING STRATEGIES

Figure 1, Quality control from landing to shipping

The national reputation of Seki Saba and Aji is a great asset to the Saganoseki
branch. Taking advantage of this, the development of single-line fishing“Tai,” “Isaki,” and “Buri” that can be taken at Seki as a family brand has
started. As we have seen, as the resources of Seki Saba and Aji are decreasing,establishing a family brand is an effective strategy to cover this. Seki family
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brand has not acquired trademark registration, but if a seal is attached, theprice will increase about five times. It is necessary for the Seki family brand toactively appeal to consumers that it is the same fishing ground and fishingmethod as Seki Saba and Aji. This will inform consumers that the Seki family
brand is an environmental-oriented fishing method. It is important to create
value by doing so.

Regional branding of Seki Saba and Aji
There is a trend toward regional branding as a new development of Seki
Saba and Aji. Until around 2010, the main target has been Tokyo, but new
businesses are being developed that link to the region. Saganoseki branches as
the business are doing himself, fishery direct management restaurant “Sekiof fishing grounds” (since 2000), local fishery processing companies seafood
processing products business through cooperation with (since 2004), “Themorning market of Seki Saba and Aji Street (since 2005), which is held on
the third Saturday of every week along the shopping street following theSaganoseki branch named by citizens.
The Saganoseki branch is mainly engaged in businesses such as the fisherycooperative restaurant “Seki no Fishing Ground” (since 2000), the marine
products processing business in cooperation with local fishery processors(since 2004), and “Seki Saba” The morning market (since 2005)which isheld on the third Saturday of every week on the shopping street following
the Saganoseki branch, named by citizens as “Seki Saba and Aji-dori.”
Initiatives linked to tourism include holding the Seki Saba and Aji Festival
using Seki Saba and Aji (from 2001) and establishing the” Seki Aji Seki
Sabakan” (since 2007) by Saganoseki Tourism Co., Ltd. Furthermore, in 2006,
the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Saganoseki Branch, and the
Neighborhood Association formed a non-profit organization, the ” Saganoseki
Town Development Council.” The purpose of the formation is to revitalize theregion as a town of Seki Saba and Aji. Activities include the support of the Seki
Saba and Aji festivals and Seki Saba and Aji restaurant maps.
However, many tourists cannot be expected because Saganoseki has no190

20. FISH BRANDING STRATEGIES

tourist facilities such as accommodation facilities and hot springs. Therefore,
it is thought to focus on consumption in the prefecture, and work on direct
sales of Seki Saba and Aji (since 2013) in cooperation with inns and hotels in
Beppu and Yufuin, which are sightseeing spots. In this way, the Saganoseki
Branch is shifting from a business model that emphasizes Tokyo to increasing
consumption in the prefecture. To that end, tens of millions of systems havebeen developed that allow online ordering. This convenient system is intended
to increase transactions with restaurants in the prefecture.

Conclusion
The ultimate goal of the brand is to become a power brand (a brand withstrong loyalty). There are two possible directions: (1) national brands and (2)Regional brands. (1) National brands need to be high in quality and expensive
and scarce and valuable. (2) Regional brands will help develop the region asa business area. In the former case, it is difficult to establish a brand unlessthe conditions are excellent. Seki Saba and Aji is truly a national brand. The
Tokyo market, which was a (1) national brand sales channel, has been highuntil around 2010. However, after the collapse of Lehman Brothers, the pricebegan to fall, and it became a burden that the costs associated with market
development and transportation were high. As a result, development as a (2)regional brand is aimed at. If a regional brand is established, a synergistic
effect can be obtained in which the consumer’s loyalty to the individual brand,
as well as the loyalty to the region, overlap. It is also expected that cooperation
with various business entities will lead to regional revitalization.
Consumers’ needs for food are based on the premise that they feel the food issafe, reliable and rich in nutrition. A marine brand has a variety of indices, suchas the region, culture, relationships with producers, and the environment,
and can be said to offer new values ​that realize richness. At the same time,
there is an environmental problem as a major issue at present. Just as theenforcement of the revised Fisheries Law aims at sustainable production, theseafood products produced from the natural environment, such as seafood,are incompatible with the logic of industrial products that they are cheap
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and efficient in large quantities. So it needs to show this to consumers.
The Seki Saba and Aji are single-line fishing, and this fishing method has
low environmental pressure and is suitable for sustainable production. The
problem is that such an environmentally friendly fishing method has not been
established as an added value. Until now, high quality was valued as a brand,
but it is necessary to consider a mechanism of information transmission so as
to find environmental value.
As the revised Fisheries Law aims for sustainable production, the foodproduced from the natural environment of marine products has a backgroundthat is incompatible with the logic of industrial products that is cheap andefficient in large quantities. It needs to be shown to consumers. The Seki
Saba and Aji, which has been viewed as a case are single-line fishing thatfishing method is pressure on the environment is small; it is suitable forsustainable production. The problem is that such an environmental-oriented
fishing method has not been established as an added value. Until now,brands have been valued for their high quality. In addition, it is necessary toconsider information transmission mechanisms so that value can be added toenvironmental aspects.

19221. Urban-Village Exchange

The Importance of Urban-Village Exchange in Small-Scale Fishing
Communities

Tamano Namikawa
The Japanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities

New Year’s Prayer for the good catch at Kamakura. T.Namikawa, 2019193

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The “Exchange between cities and fishing villages” initiative, whichrefers to residents of cities visiting regions that are home to fishingvillages to enjoy nature and marine products while also stimulating
the economy in these regions, serves as one of many initiatives torevitalize fishing village regions. This chapter discusses how increasing
the population exchange (providing the value of fishing villages to urban
residents), and regional revitalization (securing additional income forfishers) are making important contributions to coastal fishing regions
while providing examples of exchanges between cities and fishingvillages and characterizing the course of development of such exchanges.

Introduc on
Fishing villages function to provide a stable supply of fresh seafood, marine
recreation activities, and the passage of regional food culture and traditional
events to provide a comfortable and mirthful life to the people live in the city.
Fishing villages also serve as major contributors to regional revitalization
efforts by attracting people to the region and stimulating activity. Many ofthe exchange activities between cities and fishing villages include fishingexcursions that take advantage of the rich natural environment and fresh
seafood, morning markets, etc. Activities such as morning markets have beenorganized for many years, particularly in fishing villages near cities. I would
like to review the efforts to facilitate exchanges between cities and fishingvillages and confirm their role with respect to small-scale fisheries.

19421. URBAN-VILLAGE EXCHANGE

Regional development and exchanges between ci es
and fishing villages
Recreational activities in which people stay in rural areas and enjoy theexperience of farming, fishing, and interacting with local people are referred
to as “green tourism.” According to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries’ (MAFF) definition, these are “overnight stay leisure activities inwhich people enjoy the interaction with nature, culture, and people in rural
areas.” In Europe, there is public policy calling for the utilization of travel
styles known as agri-tourism and rural tourism as approaches to regional
promotion and support. In addition, the “Act on Promotion of Developmentof Infrastructures for Leisure Stay in Rural Areas” was enacted in Japan in
1994, and various regulatory reforms were subsequently promoted. Thisversion of green tourism relating to fishing villages is referred to as blue
tourism (overnight stay leisure activities at fishing villages), and was proposed
jointly by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT,
formerly the National Land Agency) and the Japan Fisheries Agency in 1998,
followed by the creation of an exchange program and the rise in popularity offishing trips in Hokkaido and Shikoku.
Fishing villages at this time were promoting fisheries resource management,
while the demand for fisheries saw growth. “Regional Fisheries Research,”
Vol. 37, No. 1 (1996) published by the Japan Regional Fisheries Society of Japan,
mainly included papers on resource-management fisheries and direct-sales
businesses, which also suggests that these activities were garnering attention
during this time. Later, perhaps due to the influence of blue tourism measures,
research and reports on fishing experiences became more common in the
2000s, and fishing experience trips were used as educational field activities
by different organizations. Specific examples of exchange activities between
cities and fishing villages include direct sales markets, fish restaurants, andfishery experience trips. It is in these activities that I have identified value asopportunities for exchange centered around the heritage of marine products,
and I focus my attention here.

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Direct sales
Morning markets and direct sales have been ongoing in fishing villages nearcities for many years. Such events are suitable for selling catches that did
not fall under the existing distribution system through wholesale markets
for producer and consumer regions (e.g., the fish are too small or irregularly
shaped). This was also used to improve fisher’s income by eliminating the costof intermediate distributors. Four papers (Isobe, 1996, Ito 1996, Inui 1996,
Tasaka, 1996) have previously mentioned direct sales (published in “Regional
Fisheries Studies”; Japan Regional Fisheries Society of Japan [1996]); they
analyzed the background of the promotion of direct sales operations while
introducing aspects such as the severe economic reality of fisheries and fishingvillage management due to low marine product prices and the existence of
products that are difficult to adapt to the existing distribution system, theeffective use of such products and their contribution to fishery cooperatives,
and the purpose of direct sales operations to facilitate understanding throughinteraction with the general public.
Direct sales businesses in suburban areas of cities are popular, and the“Munakata Road Station” in Munakata, Fukuoka City, is a tourist productcenter that mainly sells agricultural and marine products. It is a popularestablishment visited by approximately 1.6–1.7 million people annually(FY2018 data), and it is said that the annual sales attributable to goods sold(including agricultural products) is 1.8 billion yen (FY2016 data). At present,
the number of direct sales fisheries outlets in Japan is increasing, and theamount of annual sales is also increasing (Table 1a). In terms of size, 20%of companies have annual sales of 1–5 million yen, 34% have 10–50 million
yen, and 12% have sales of 100 million yen or more. A small proportion ofsmall businesses also exist (Table 1b), and are believed to serve as sources ofadditional income for fishers.

19621. URBAN-VILLAGE EXCHANGE

Table 1 (a) Annual direct sales from seafood products and the number of business
entities; (b) Proportion of business entities by the scale of annual sales revenue(unit: %). Source: 6th Survey on Industrialization

In recent years, there have been cases where fisheries cooperatives utilize
direct sales to promote an understanding of the fishery rather than to empower
fishers to generate additional income. For example, the Kamakura fisheries
cooperative in Kanagawa Prefecture uses direct sales to promote Kamakura’s
fisheries and build connections with local residents. Kamakura, which islocated about 50 km away from Tokyo, has come under the spotlight asa tourist destination because of its warm climate, historical heritage, andverdant scenery, and is still a common tourist destination for the Tokyo
metropolitan area. Kamakura’s fisheries have been operating for centuries,
and Kamakura’s skipjacks are described in books dating back to the first half ofthe 14th century. There are currently two fisheries cooperatives in Kamakuraserving the Koshigoe and Kamakura areas, but because the fishing port
facilities in the Kamakura area remain undeveloped, the fishing boats—mainly
smaller boats weighing less than 1 t—have no choice but to moor on the sandy
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beaches of the Kamakura coast.
Despite this, the annual aggregate landing volume is approximately 150
t; this is about the same as that caught in the Koshigoe area, which has adeveloped fishing port. This is because of the combination of various species
landed, including sardine whitebait, wakame seaweed, Izu crayfish, turban
shell, flounder, filefish, and octopus. There are also many young fishers,
and this area is enthusiastic about developing new markets. The distribution
channels for fish caught in Kamakura can be roughly described as: (1) shippingto the Yokohama City Central Wholesale Market; (2) seafood brokers; (3)seafood processing and sales out of private homes; and (4) seafood products
sold at inns, restaurants, and fresh fish suppliers operated by individual
fishers. Channels (1) and (2) offer local residents less opportunity to purchase“made-in-Kamakura” marine products. As the types of fish suitable for thechannel (3) are narrow and the volume of marine products distributed via
channel (4) is comparatively small, the amount of products available to local
residents is limited. Many residents actually feel that the fishery industry
presence in the Kamakura area is weak due to the lack of fishing ports and few
opportunities to buy “made-in-Kamakura” seafood.
The Kamakura Fisheries Cooperative decided to hold a monthly morningmarket to address this issue. The first was held on November 7th , 2004, andthe event has continued to this day (as of 2018). Produce normally sells out
after just 30 min after the market opens its doors at 10:00 h, and the event has
been hailed as a great success; the event sees about 100 visitors each time, whocome from not only local areas (Kamakura residents) but also from outside
Kamakura. The event is an opportunity to select from a wide variety of seafood
products that cannot be found at large retailers. Sales figures depend on thevolume of each catch and the weather, and during favorable weather, themarket can bring in approximately 300,000–400,000 yen, which is not a large
amount. Fishery cooperatives carry out time-consuming direct sales events byfocusing on boosting the presence of the fisheries in Kamakura and deliveringmarine products caught in Kamakura to residents to maintain the fisheries in
Kamakura rather than the economic aspect.

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Experien al fisheries
The “comprehensive learning time” schema incorporating interactive instruction was introduced to elementary and junior high schools in 2002 and highschools in 2003. In addition, in fishing villages, many experiential learning
programs have been conducted because of the availability of environments
suitable for experiential learning, such as the unique lifestyles, customs,
nature, and industrial activities. According to several papers (Isobe 2000, Imai
1999, Torii and Yamao, 2001) discussing the background, actual state, andimpact of interactive learning programs, there are many cases of experiential
learning programs aimed at promoting economic benefits and developing
an understanding of the realities faced by fishing villages and fisheries. The
resources used are diverse and include natural resources, fishing villages andtraditional fishing methods, social and cultural resources, industrial resources,and human resources. Meanwhile, as mentioned previously, interactive
tourism businesses have become active, as evidenced by the shift from green
tourism to blue tourism. Interactive tourism allows participants to experiencefishing activities such as net fishing, stationary netting, bottom netting,barbecue events, and cooking and crafting classes.
Although experiential learning and experiential tourism are composed ofsimilar programs, they differ depending on whether they are more focusedon education or recreation. As an example of the exchange between cities andfishing villages achieved through experiential fisheries, let us consider a casefrom southern Tokushima Prefecture in which residents from throughout theregion cooperated to establish such a program. The Minami-Awa Yokubari
Experience Promotion Council is an organization drawing its membershipfrom three towns, Minami-Cho, Mugi-Cho, and Kaiyo-Cho in Minami-Awa
Kaifu-gun, located in Muroto-Anan Kaigan Special National Park, Tokushima
Prefecture. The population of each of the three towns is less than 10,000, andagriculture, forestry, and fisheries are the main industries. The flow of tourists
changed after the opening of the expressway allowed tourists to begin to flowout to Kochi Prefecture. In 2004, a council was established to coordinate thethree towns in Kaifu-gun (Minami-Cho, Mugi-Cho, and Kaiyo-Cho) with199

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Tokushima Prefecture as the originator.
This council aims to promote a variety of experiential tourism programsby utilizing local resources and has started accepting school field trips
as a new initiative. Under the leadership of the government, the council
started accepting fishing experience programs; the Mugi-Higashi Fisheries
Cooperative began accepting school field trips in 2006, and since 2008, they
began accepting elementary schools for long-term stay experience programsin farm, mountain, and fishing villages. The experiences on offer are diverse
and take advantage of the primary industries of these three towns. The
website and pamphlet were designed to be easy to understand, both to attract
customers and reduce clerical work (see details in e-book format: http://www.minamiawa.info/top/top.html). Each fisher becomes an instructor,
and while leading workshops, each person is brought to the front; this leads
to repeat participation. Special attention is paid to safety, such as obtaining
various types of insurance and holding seminars on food poisoning. As a result,word-of-mouth about instructors has led to increased popularity, and thenumber of annual participants has risen to 3,500. These programs also bringeconomic benefits to the area, and some of the fishers who work as instructors
and provide lodging to tourists can earn an additional income of 1 million
yen per year. Challenges faced by these programs include strengthening themanagement framework and making the operation profitable. Of the annual
sales of approximately 40 million yen, 10% is allocated to sales commissions
and council operating expenses. However, the staff salaries are paid by the
program operator, Mugi-Cho, and the shortage of council operating funds isbeing supplemented by funds from the three towns. The major concern for
the future is whether this organization can become self-sufficient.

Conclusion: exchange between ci es and fishing villages
To date, the aforementioned exchange activities have been implemented invarious parts of Japan to increase the number of people experiencing the
programming (to enable residents of cities to enjoy the benefits of fishingvillages) and achieve regional revitalization (secure additional income for200

21. URBAN-VILLAGE EXCHANGE

fishers). These activities can be said to have made a defined contribution
in these respects. For small fishing villages, in particular, the long-term
strengthening of relationships with cities will work effectively. In addition,
small fishing villages near cities are arguably meeting a need of urban residents
in terms of providing a wide and unique variety of marine products that cannot
be found in large retail stores, where efficiency and profitability are important.
In Japan, whose territory stretches longitudinally from north to southand has a diverse climate and culture, coastal fisheries have made a strong
commitment to the coastal environment and use of regional resources
under the fishery rights system, and have shaped the seafood and industrial
structures of their respective regions. This can be said to have led to anabundance of programs promoting exchange between cities and fishingvillages, because different fishery experiences, different seafood, and different
marine products are available depending on the area. In addition, these
activities help to revitalize the entire region by building a reception systemcentered on fisheries cooperatives that can build strong working relationships
with local governments.
Although Japan’s coastal fisheries and fishing villages are certainly responsible for managing exchanges between cities, with the aging of fishers,some areas have started to complain about these efforts. A phenomenon inwhich decreasing numbers of guides and fishers who actively accept private
lodgings is affecting experiential fisheries in particular. This is especiallycommon in areas with many small fishing operations and where there is a
shortage of successors. One of the policies stated in the “Tourism Vision to
Support Tomorrow’s Japan” announced in 2016 calls for the “establishmentof destinations in farming, mountain, and fishing towns capable of hostingovernight stays”; however, since then, the term “farm stays” has come to be
used to refer to “overnight travel to farming, mountain, and fishing villages”
rather than “green tourism.” Among the types of trips to stay in rural areas,
those involving staying at fishing villages are known as “Nagisahaku,” andmeasures to develop this type of destination are being considered (I will leave“Nagisahaku” for another chapter.) Maintaining fisheries and fishing villages
is important not only for the purpose of securing stable food supply, but
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

also to provide people residing in urban areas with the benefits of naturalenvironments. Building a sustainable system while continuing the efforts topromote exchange between cities and fishing villages is crucial to sustaining
the fishing industry and fishing villages.

20222. Nagisahaku Ini a ves

Lessons from Nagisahaku Activities in Small Fishing Villages

Takuji Goto
The Japanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Most fishers engaged in small-scale fishing activities live in small fishingvillages located far from urban areas. Owing to the decline in fisheryproduction in recent years, income from the fishing industry alone may
be insufficient to sustain a living in such small villages. To ensure thefuture survival of these fishing villages, it will be necessary to create
employment opportunities and raise local income. One possible solution
in this regard is overnight trips to the villages that take advantage ofthe local resources referred to as Nagisahaku activities. However, small
fishing villages may encounter substantial difficulties in establishinga framework for serving tourists, not only due to the advanced age ofmany of the remaining village residents and the declining numbersof both fishers and residents, but also to a deterioration of conditionsof houses and other facilities. This chapter introduces the concept, theactual conditions, and the challenges of the promotion of the Nagisahaku
initiative.

What is “Nagisahaku”?
First, I would like to present a few details relating to “Nagisahaku,” asposted on the Japan Fisheries Agency (JFA) website. Japan’s Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF) promotes overnight stay travelin agricultural and mountainous villages known as “Nouhaku,” and trips
to fishing village regions, in particular, known as “Nagisahaku.” The JFA
promotes “Nagisahaku” activities throughout Japan in order to foster further
interaction between cities and fishing village regions and to revitalize fishingvillages. Fishing villages have an abundance of resources attractive to touriststhat cannot be found in cities, such as freshly caught seafood and local dishes
incorporating the daily catch, as well as coastal scenery that can be said to
evoke the classic imagery of Japan. Tourists can also experience the industry
and culture of fishing, which embody Japanese tradition. When participating
20422. NAGISAHAKU INITIATIVES

in Nagisahaku, in addition to gaining a lodging experience unique to fishingvillages, tourists are able to sample local ingredients and traditional foods
at nearby restaurants and shops, find bargains at direct sales outlets, maketheir own craft goods, and enjoy fishing, marine leisure, and an overall scenic
fishing village experience.

Characteris cs of fishing villages and Nagisahaku
In the past, fishing villages could secure a certain amount of income throughan active fishing industry alone, and there were also many active areasof employment-related to the fishing industry. However, in recent years,
the level of income earned by fishers has been decreasing due to a decline
in the Japanese fish populations, and the successors of these fishers, whotraditionally would have inherited the business, have tended to leave thevillages to seek opportunities in cities, resulting in an ongoing decline invillage vitality. In order to restore the vitality of fishing villages against a
backdrop of declining fishery resources, identifying ways to secure income
from activities outside the fishing industry is one solution, and in this regard,
fishing villages have many attractive features that cannot be experienced inurban areas. As such, let us consider the attractiveness of regional resources
and the characteristics of fishing villages from the perspective of city residents.
The most distinctive feature of fishing villages is that they offer opportunities to enjoy the fresh bounty of the sea, as well as refreshing natural
coastal scenery that enables urban inhabitants to forget the hustle and bustleof city life. In addition, fishing villages offer scenes of numerous fishing boats
passing through or being moored at fishing ports, seafood being unloaded
and traded at markets, and the fishers’ gear used for fishing and the fishers
who can service it, which are exclusive to fishing villages, in areas just beyond
the marina. A major feature is that tourists can experience a marked changeof scenery from the cities they inhabit, such as views of quaint, closely spaced
fishers’ homes. In this way, Nagisahaku activities can capitalize on the local
resources unique to fishing villages.

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The a rac on of fishing villages and challenges for
Nagisahaku
Although there are numerous fishing villages throughout Japan, the scale oftheir landing volume is comparatively small, primarily due to the prevalenceof coastal fisheries, which are smaller in scale. These fishing villages havepoor access to urban areas, and the resident fishers are aging. There are many
areas where the local population is decreasing, thereby reducing the overall
vitality of regions. Thus, from the perspective of considering fishing villages
in terms of the “unusual” traits sought by urban tourists, these villages offer
fishing marinas as well as the fishers themselves, provide sights and sounds
that are quite different to those that can be found in cities, and thereby create
an excellent environment for visitors to experience and enjoy marine products.
Nevertheless, in order to exploit the attractive qualities of fishing villages insuch a way that it contributes to the vitality of the region, it is important toestablish Nagisahaku activities as a business. However, the question arises
as to how this can be achieved in regions where the population is both aging
and declining. It is true that there are many areas that are unaware of theirmarketable qualities, and thus although these areas have potential, they have
yet to fully capitalize on their attractiveness. As such, a key issue is how
Nagisahaku programs can be implemented to take advantage of the attractive
features of fishing villages under the prevailing limitations.

Devising Nagisahaku experiences
This section will introduce the characteristics of each of the “stay,” “play,”“eat,” “experience,” and “see” activity menus of Nagisahaku trips, and will
also discuss the planning necessary for small fishing villages in which manysmall-scale fishing operations are run. Stay: There have been numerous
cases of fishers operating guesthouses, which are popular in terms of theinsights they can offer into the lifestyle and experiences of fishers, throughactivities such as enjoying freshly caught seafood and listening to their stories.
Inevitably, however, some travelers may feel uncomfortable with respect to206

22. NAGISAHAKU INITIATIVES

the dilapidated state of some of the village homes and the old-fashioned toilets
and bathroom amenities. To address these concerns, efforts to remodel oldinns and closed school buildings in some villages have recently been making
progress.
Play: Tourists can enjoy a variety of different offerings in fishing villages
such as nature-related activities, including swimming in the sea and beachplay, as well as marine activities such as fishing and diving. At fishing ports,
however, local use of fishing and pleasure boats is restricted to reduce conflicts
between fishers and recreational fishers. Recently, freight docks, which are
now used less frequently than in the past, have been used as jumping-off
points for diving. The use of the facilities and resources of fishing ports is also
being promoted in accordance with regional needs.
Eat: One of the main purposes of tourists who visit fishing villages is toenjoy fresh seasonal seafood and traditional local dishes. However, the smaller
the village, the fewer will be the restaurants and direct sales markets where
tourists can purchase and eat fresh seafood. Under circumstances in which
it is difficult for villages to keep such businesses open on a permanent basis,the villages hold events such as morning and evening markets and convert
old homes or other buildings into cafes.
Experience: In addition to fishing activities such as deep-sea fishing, fixednet fishing observation, and purse seine fishing experiences, various otherexperiences, such as fish handling and craft making, are also being offeredon Nagisahaku trip itineraries. As these experiences do not involve thedevelopment of new facilities, typical small-scale coastal fisheries are well
suited to offer brief fishing experiences. However, a disadvantage in thisregard is that such offerings can be adversely affected by the weather, and thus
to attract school field trips and similar excursions in particular, it is desirable
to design programs that combine indoor activities, such as fish handling andcraft making, that can be pursued in the event of bad weather.
See: Tourists can enjoy not only the natural scenery of the sea and mountains
but also picturesque views of traditional fishing villages, such as the glow oflanterns on fishing boats under a starry night sky. However, first-time visitors
will probably not be aware of where to seek these experiences, and thus it would207

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

be beneficial to create walking guides and to provide other relevant and useful
information.

Toward realizing Nagisahaku programs throughcollabora on
As discussed previously, although the small fishing villages that comprisemainly coastal fisheries have a number of exceptional traits, there is generally
a shortage of resources available to those individuals and organizations in
the business of small lot fish products to enable them to organize Nagisahaku
trips, which has thus tended to hamper any significant progress. To solve thisproblem, it is believed that combining various collaborative efforts would bean effective approach. The first aspect in this regard is local collaboration.
As there is a limit to what can be accomplished by individual fisheries andfishers alone, a system should be established through which groups of local
stakeholders, such as the local government and members of private industry,in addition to fisheries and fishers, can be formed and the roles of different
regions can be shared, which will be effective in enabling Nagisahaku. For
example, with regards to accommodation, if it is difficult for a single husband
and wife to provide meals independently, meals could be provided by anotherfisher or a local eatery. Moreover, reservations could be made possible byutilizing the public relations capacity of the local government or tourism
association, thereby facilitating the collective management of accommodation
facilities in the area.
In this way, whereas the menu of tourism offerings that a single fisher can
provide is limited, by combining the capacities of multiple parties, it becomes
possible to provide a more diverse array of offerings for the region and reducethe burden on each individual. In addition, the local menu and system can be
expected to be further strengthened through collaboration with local farmers
and hotels, as well as governments and tourism associations. As the scaleof Nagisahaku activities grows, it will also become easier for I/U-turners (Iturner refers to people born in urban areas moving to rural areas to work; Uturner refer to people born in rural areas, moving to urban areas for schooling,20822. NAGISAHAKU INITIATIVES

and then returning to birthplace to work), experts, and outside parties to enter
into collaborative ventures. Furthermore, given that I-turners and privatecompanies, in particular, will not devote resources to fishing villages if they
do not receive a certain return, even for Nagisahaku activities, it is important
to attain a certain level of scale.

A view of the future
In order to proceed with Nagisahaku initiatives, it will first be necessary forthe residents of fishing villages to recognize that their everyday activities
are an exceptional and attractive regional resource from the perspective of
urban residents. Currently, although the population of these fishing villages
is aging, the management of fisheries continues while the workers receive
pensions. However, when the current generation of active fishers retire, there
will no longer be any opportunities to work in the area, which will lead todepopulation and disappearance of the villages and fisheries in the not so
distant future. The Nagisahaku initiatives would enable city residents to stayin fishing regions, thereby ensuring the viability of these areas, creating local
employment opportunities, and halting the decline in local populations. To
this end, it is crucial that these Nagisahaku efforts are not simply limited
to event-like, one-off programs, but rather become a sustainable system,
established in collaboration with people from local and surrounding regions,that makes a significant contribution to the continued survival of these fishingcommunities.

20923. Fisheries Management Toolbox

Self-Assessment Scheme for Fishers to Improve Fisheries
Co-management

Shion Takemura
Japan Fisheries Research & Education Agency
Mitsutaku Makino
University of Tokyo
Hidetomo Tajima
Japan Fisheries Research & Education Agency

Scenes from fishers’ workshops in Yamaguchi, Japan; S. Takemura, 2018210

23. FISHERIES MANAGEMENT TOOLBOX

Historically in Japan, fisheries policies have been implemented throughco-management. In April 2017, the New Basic Plan for Fisheries wasestablished, in which co-management is central to the Japanese coastal
fisheries policy. Since then, fishers have been required to steadily
implement and improve their fisheries management activities towards
sustainable resource management and community development. In thischapter, we introduce the “Fisheries Management Toolbox,” which isa self-assessment scheme for improving the management of coastal
fisheries. Then, we present the results of trials in which the toolbox was
utilized to improve the management activities of fisheries in coastal
communities in Japan. Finally, we discuss some lessons from the trial
results. Based on the findings, the toolbox supports the co-creation, coevolution, and co-management of Japanese coastal fisheries throughfacilitating dialogue and mutual learning among local stakeholders(including fishers, government officers, and researchers).

Introduc on
Fisheries co-management is a resource management regime that incorporates
local fishers’ activities and the legal management measures of administrative
agencies (Pomeroy and Berkes, 1997; Charles, 2001). Historically in Japan,
fisheries policies have been implemented through co-management (Makino
and Matsuda, 2005; Makino, 2011). The co-management of fisheries is arealistic solution as management responsibilities are shared between local
fishers and governments (Gutierrez et al., 2011). The Japan Fisheries Agency
established the New Basic Plan for Fisheries in April 2017. In this Basic Plan, comanagement is central to the Japanese coastal fisheries policy. Now, fishers
are required to steadily implement and improve the management activitiesof their fisheries towards sustainable resource management and community
development (Japan Fisheries Agency, 2018).
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

However, coastal fishing villages in Japan face various issues, including
ecosystem alteration due to climate change, reduction of seagrass beds andtidal flats, decline in fish consumption, low fish prices, and declining and aging
fishers (Japan Fisheries Agency, 2019). There is no single solution to theseissues, but a combination of multiple management measures would create asystem resilient to the social-ecological changes and uncertainties (Charles,
2007). If local fishers adaptively derive a combination of management
measures, they can improve the management activities of their fisheries bythemselves. Therefore, a new framework is required for fishers to evaluate
their own activities and utilize the results for improvements. In light of theabove, the aim of this chapter is to introduce the framework for the fisheries
management toolbox, which is a self-assessment scheme for fishers to movetowards sustainable resource management and community development incoastal communities. Then, we present the results of trials in which thetoolbox was utilized to improve the management of coastal fisheries in Japan.
Finally, we discuss some lessons drawn from the trial results.

Framework of the fisheries management toolbox
In 2009, the Japan Fisheries Research Agency (FRA) developed a theoreticalversion of the “Fisheries Management Toolbox” (FRA, 2009), which is akind of theoretical catalog of various management measures. However, thetheoretical toolbox was not user (fisher) friendly. Therefore, a more practicalversion of the toolbox was developed (Makino and Tajima, 2018). Furthermore,various activities related to coastal community development were added tothe toolbox, and the toolbox framework was expanded to include sustainablecommunity development based on fisheries management (Takemura, 2018).
As a result, we developed a hierarchical structure (Table 1) that comprised
3 locations (fishing ground, port, and land), 9 categories, and 46 fisheries
management activities (measures). Based on this structure, we compiled
photos of good practices in various areas to create a slide show to help explain
to fishers the details of the 46 fisheries management activities.
Self-assessments using the toolbox were completed by applying the fol212

23. FISHERIES MANAGEMENT TOOLBOX

lowing standard fishers’ workshop template. At first, facilitators explain
the information, photos of good practices, and content of Table 1, which isprovided in the toolbox structure. Then, fishers discuss and fill in a sheet(Table 1) with self-assessment scores (1 - 5), opinions of their own activities(strengths and/or weaknesses), and ideas for improvement. During theseprocesses, fishers can evaluate their own management activities by comparing
them with diverse fisheries management activities from other locations via acommon theoretical framework. Third, facilitators compile and record all selfassessment results and opinions formed during the discussions. Here, it isassumed that facilitation will be carried out by extension officers of prefectural
fisheries, Fisheries Cooperative Association (FCA) staff, and leaders of local
fishers.

Table 1: Structure of toolbox (practical version) and self-assessment sheet

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Trial 1: Priori zing strategies for improvements at four
coastal fishing villages in Japan
In this section, we introduce a trial for using the toolbox to prioritize theimprovements of fisheries management at four coastal fishing villages inJapan. We conducted fishers’ workshops between June 2014 and September
2015 in four locations across Japan. The workshops took place in the following
regions and involved the following fishing gears: (1) cage fishery in the easternarea of Hokkaido; (2) small-scale bottom trawling fishery in the Kanto area;(3) gillnet fishery in the Inland Sea area; and (4) diving dart fishery in Kyushu
and Okinawa area.
Fig. 1-A shows the results of the self-assessment scores in the four regions.
Here, we introduce an overview of the results, the details for which can befound in Makino & Tajima (2018). In the figures, the blue-colored parts
indicate high scores (over 3.5) and orange-colored parts indicate low scores(under 3.0). From the self-assessment results, fishers can identify thestrengths (high scores) and weaknesses (low scores) of the management
activities of their fisheries. Additionally, fishers can clarify generation gaps inthe perceptions of problems by comparing the self-assessment results among
fishers of different ages. Furthermore, the results of the self-assessments
were confirmed by the extension officers of the prefectural fisheries whooversee each region, from which strategies for improvements were prioritized.
Focusing on the characteristics common to the self-assessment results, theextension officers from all regions gave a high score of 4-5 for the item “(A-1)
Rules for fishing operations” under “(A) Fishing ground.” In addition, in all
regions, this item was rated as being sufficient. Therefore, this item requires
continued efforts and scientific validation of the efficacy. On the contrary, “(B)Port” and “(C) Land” were rated low in all areas, especially “(C-3) Capacity
Building,” which was rated low by all. Thus, authorities and researchers in
the regions must gather fishers’ needs and opinions on this item and support
their efforts to resolve it. In this way, the toolbox can support the prioritizingof strategies for improvements based on fishers’ needs and opinions.

214

23. FISHERIES MANAGEMENT TOOLBOX

Figure 1-A: Results of fishers’ self-assessment scores in the four regions across
Japan

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Figure 1-B: Results of the needs, opinions, and possible solutions for improvementsfrom fishers in Shimonoseki-Gaikai Region, Yamaguchi Prefecture216

23. FISHERIES MANAGEMENT TOOLBOX

Trial 2: Improving the fisheries management plan in
Shimonoseki-Gaikai Region, Yamaguchi Prefecture,
western Japan
In this section, we present a trial for using the toolbox to improve a regional
fishery management plan. Four fishers’ workshops were conducted between
August 2017 and October 2018 in the Shimonoseki-Gaikai Region, Yamaguchi
Prefecture, western Japan. The workshops were conducted as part of theself-assessment scheme and used the toolbox for improving the “Seashore
Revitalization Plan” that was established in this region in 2014 (ShimonosekiGaikai Regional Fisheries Revitalization Committee in Yamaguchi Prefecture2014). Here, the “Seashore Revitalization Plan” is one of Japan’s fisheries policies in which plans to boost fishing incomes are developed and implemented
by local stakeholders (Japan Fisheries Agency, 2019).
The self-assessment results of the fishers’ activities and ideas for improvements in the Shimonoseki-Gaikai Region gathered by the toolbox-based
workshops are shown in Fig. 1-B. The dark gray-colored parts indicate thatboth the fishers’ activities and ideas for improvement are common within theregion, while the light gray-colored parts indicate that either the activities
or ideas for improvement are common within the region. In this manner,local fishers’ activities and ideas for improvement in the region were collected
and compiled into a table according to the toolbox’s common theoreticalframework. From the self-assessment results, we can identify the fishers’
activities and ideas for improvements that are common within the region.
After the fishers’ workshops, we confirmed whether or not the commonly
identified fishers’ activities and ideas for improvements were listed on the“Seashore Revitalization Plan” for the region in 2014 (Shimonoseki-Gaikai
Regional Fisheries Revitalization Committee in Yamaguchi Prefecture, 2014).
Among the identified common fishers’ activities and ideas for improvementsin the Shimonoseki-Gaikai Region, “(A-2-4) Fish seeds release,” “(A-2-5)
Removal of wastes or harmful species,” “(C-1-2) Direct retailing,” “(C-2-1)
Coastal restoration,” and “(C-3-6) Recruitment of new fishers” were already217

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

listed in the basic policy of the 2014 “Seashore Revitalization Plan,” while therest were not listed (Fig. 2-B). Then, we reported the results of the fishers’ selfassessments to local stakeholders to revise the “Seashore Revitalization Plan”
in the region. As a result, “(A-2-3) Fish reef installment,” “(A-3-1) Cares
to quality fish on vessels,” “(A-3-2) Primary treatment on board,” “B-1-2
Primary treatment at the port,” “(B-2-2) Coordination of transport timing,”“(B-2-3) Development of new buyers,” and “(C-1-1) Primary processing wereadded” were installed as new basic policies of the “Seashore Revitalization
Plan” in 2019 (Shimonoseki-Gaikai Regional Fisheries Revitalization Committee in Yamaguchi Prefecture, 2019). Now, the revised “Seashore Revitalization
Plan” is being implemented by local fishers.

Lessons learned from the trial results
During the workshops of our trials, local fishers compared their own activities
with diverse fisheries management activities in other locations, and thenevaluated themselves based on a common theoretical framework (Table 1).
Therefore, the toolbox was useful when identifying important management
measures for improvements in coastal communities. The results from fourareas across Japan showed that the toolbox supported fishers and prefectural
fisheries extension officers in prioritizing improvement strategies based on
the results of their self-assessments (Fig. 1-A). In addition, the toolbox
was useful when identifying the fishers’ needs, opinions, and ideas for
improvements in the region. The results in the Shimonoseki-Gaikai Region
showed that the toolbox supported local stakeholders in improving themanagement plans of regional fisheries, such as the “Seashore Revitalization
Plan” (Fig.

2-B). Therefore, the toolbox is an effective framework forsupporting the co-creation, co-evolution, and co-management of Japanese
coastal fisheries by comparing diverse fisheries management activities via acommon theoretical framework.
Through self-assessments using the toolbox, fishers can share the activities
being undertaken in the region, the challenges they are facing, and ideas
for improvements. In addition, the toolbox provided an opportunity for218

23. FISHERIES MANAGEMENT TOOLBOX

government officers and researchers to recognize the challenges faced byfishers in the region and their needs through fishers’ workshops. For example,
information concerning the problems perceived by fishers and their needs
for improvements can be useful for government officers in policymaking anddissemination work to revitalize coastal communities in the region, and forresearchers in identifying new research topics. Thus, the toolbox facilitates
dialogue and mutual learning among fishers (different fishing gears, different
ages, and different regions), FCA staff, and government officers (national,
prefectural, and municipal) (Makino and Tajima, 2018).
To promote the use of the toolbox, we have published a manual and databaseof innovative fisheries management activities of good practices on the FRA
website (FRA, 2020). As a result, in recent years, there have been increasing
opportunities for local fishers, FCA staff, and prefectural and municipal
government officers to conduct self-assessments using the toolbox at study
groups and training courses organized by prefectures, FCAs, and the Japan
National Federation of Fisheries Co-operatives (Zengyoren). To further
promote and improve fisheries’ co-management in Japan, we will continue todisseminate the toolbox to fishers.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we presented the framework and trial results of the toolbox,which is a self-assessment framework for the management of coastal fisheries.
The results of two trials showed that the toolbox supports the co-creation,
co-evolution, and co-management of Japanese coastal fisheries throughfacilitating dialogue and mutual learning among local stakeholders (including
fishers, government officers, researchers). The methodology of the toolbox isvery simple and could be applied to small-scale coastal fisheries in othercountries. However, we still have not evaluated the other effects of thetoolbox, such as stock, catch, and income gains, in coastal communities.
Further research is necessary to quantitatively evaluate the situation regarding
the stock, catch, and income in local communities before and after the
implementation of the fishers’ workshop to clarify the effects of the toolbox.
219

24. Hama-katsu Plan

Revitalization of Fishing Villages with Coastal Fisheries as A Key Industry

Takamitsu Fumoto
Suidosha Co., Ltd.

Operation of a fixed net fishery. Oi Town, Fukui Prefecture, Japan. Fumoto T, 2017220

24. HAMA-KATSU PLAN

In Japan, the number of coastal fisheries is decreasing significantly,
which is directly linked to the decline in the vitality of fishing villages.
The “Hama-katsu Plan” is a policy based on the basic idea that local
stakeholders will work to solve various and complex issues according to
the actual situation. Currently, the Hama-katsu plan has been approvedin 640 districts and has achieved certain results. On the other hand,issues such as differences in local power, such as the ability to formulate
plans and implement initiatives, have also become apparent. This will
also require more effective and smooth use of external assistance. At
the turning point of the fishery, the future Hama-katsu plan will needto specifically design the local fisheries and related industries. With thearrival of an era where the region plays a leading role, and one’s own
ability is tested, the Hama-katsu plan has opened its beginnings.

The current state of coastal fisheries in Japan
Before entering the body of this paper, I would like to give an overview
of the state of coastal fisheries in Japan, based on the results of a fisherycensus survey conducted every five years. As shown in Table 1, the number offishers in Japan is steadily decreasing. Thirty years ago, more than 200,000
management entities had started, but in 2018, The number of management
entities decreased to under 80,000. The decline rate of coastal fisheries has
increased over the years, with a reduction rate of more than 16% over the past
five years. It can be said that the decreasing trend of the management entities
is accelerating.

221

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Table 1: Position of coastal fishers in Japan

About 94% of the total fishery enterprises are coastal fisheries. In addition,
the percentage of small-scale fishing boat fishery enterprises such as 1 to 3
tons and 3 to 5 tons are high. The degree of decrease in these main classes
has exceeded 20%. On the other hand, among the coastal fisheries, the rateof decline is low for aquaculture farms and those of 5 tons or more (Table 1).
Japan’s total marine fishery production in 2017 was 4,244,000 tons. Amongthem, offshore and pelagic fisheries accounted for about 56% (2,365 thousandtons). Furthermore, small-scale coastal fisheries, mainly family-owned,
account for only about 44% of total production. Among them, 23% are marine
aquaculture, and coastal fishing vessels produce less than 20%. However, thecoastal fishing industry has a very low contribution to the volume of marine
products, but it can supply a wide variety of high-quality marine products. So,
it is making a significant contribution to maintaining the abundant food andfood culture of the citizen.
Therefore, in the Japanese fishery production structure, offshore and pelagic
fisheries with a small number of 6% of the elite (medium- and large-scale
fisheries) support the majority of fishery production. On the other hand, it
is suggested that 94% of small-scale coastal fisheries supply diverse andhigh-quality seafood to meet the needs of consumers. In addition, the222

24. HAMA-KATSU PLAN

coastal fisheries live along the coast to form fishing villages and perform
multiple functions such as environmental protection of coastal areas andborder monitoring in Japan. As mentioned earlier, the number of coastal fisheries, especially small-scale fishing vessels, has been remarkably decreasing.
Despite the effects of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami, the biggest causes are
considered to be the aging of existing fishers and the lack of new fishers. A
decrease in the number of coastal fisheries is directly linked to a decline in thevitality of fishing villages. For this reason, various measures have been taken
so far. However, the decline that has continued for more than 30 years cannot
be stopped, and in recent years it has been spurred.

Why the “Hama-katsu Plan” now
The coastal fisheries and fishing villages, which have been key industries,
have taken various measures to prevent their vitality from declining. In thepast, the government has been promoting the following measures to improve
the productivity of fisheries: (1) improvement of fishing port facilities andfishery-related facilities; (2) expansion of fishing vessels, development andintroduction of highly productive fishing methods and techniques; and (3)efforts to streamline and brand fishery products. It seems that these measures
have been basically implemented with emphasis on how to use the governmentand other administrative support measures. Although the measures haveachieved a certain level of success, it has become difficult to achieve theexpected effects with the times.
In the background, the problems in each region are diverse and complex. For
example, In the case of recruitment and employment problem, in the urban
area, other industries are given priority in comparison to working conditions
than a fishery. In remote islands and peninsulas are difficult to employ new
fishery workers caused by living environment and convenience. If we lookat the situation, the same problem, but causes are different from each other.
Not limited to these simple examples, fishing villages nationwide have theirown unique challenges. Of course, there will be some common issues, butsince local circumstances are different, it is necessary to adopt an approach to223

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

solving problems that is appropriate to the local circumstances. To respondeffectively to such situations, fishers and local residents in the areas that are
most aware of the situation where the areas are located will recognize andshare the issues themselves and take appropriate measures effectively. It
is required to practice in an appropriate way. The “Hama-katsu Plan” is ameasure created under such a basic concept. “Hama” means fishing village
area in Japanese, and “Katsu” means vitality. In other words, the Hama-katsu
plan means a plan to regenerate the vitality of the fishing village area. In the
Hama-katsu Plan, fishers and related local residents themselves consider“what should be in the future” and “the issues to be tackled” according to thecurrent situation in each area, and organize measures to solve the issues. In
other words, it can be regarded as a regional regeneration master plan thataims to restore the vitality of fishing villages by restoring the vitality of coastal
fisheries, which is a key industry in the region.
The Hama-katsu Plan aims to increase local fishery income for more than
10% during the 5-year planning period. Specific measures to achieve this goal
will be reviewed and compiled from both aspects of “income improvement”
and “cost reduction.” Furthermore, formulating the Hama-katsu Plan
is not the purpose; it is important to steadily implement the initiatives
positioned in the plan to achieve the goals. For this reason, in formulating
the plan, a “Regional Fisheries Rehabilitation Committee” was set up by
local stakeholders, and they can formulate effective plans independently. In
addition, this committee will function as a practitioner of the initiative. The
committee requires that fishers’ cooperatives and municipalities be the core
members of the committee, with the participation of local stakeholders, andmore effective effects according to local issues. It is a mechanism that canperform a typical approach. If the fishing area that formulated the Hamakatsu plan uses subsidy projects for the implementation of initiatives, apriority adoption system has been adopted for some projects, and the Hamakatsu plan and related measures will be linked. Based on the Hama-katsu plan,
it is also necessary to cope with issues that should be addressed by each fishingvillage area in coordination, such as the aggregation of market functions overa wide area, the rationalization of distribution, and the development of leaders.
22424. HAMA-KATSU PLAN

For this reason, fishing villages working on the Hama-katsu plan are working
together on a wide area, and the formulation and operation of the “wide-area
Hama-katsu plan” is also progressing. This plan sets out specific initiatives
to promote the reorganization of fishing areas and the development of core
players.

Ac vi es and results of the“Hama-katsu Plan”
Currently, the Hama-katsu plan has been approved in 640 districts. The
first approved plan has a plan period of 2014 as its first year, and many
districts were generally formulated between 2014 and 2016. These districts
have completed Phase 1 plans from 2018 to 2019 and are entering Phase 2.
In Phase 2, a plan is drawn up to reflect on the state of implementation of
the efforts in Phase 1, to address the remaining issues, and to incorporate
new initiatives for further progress. For example, regarding the measures
to improve income, efforts such as strengthening resource management forthe maintenance, conservation and sustainable use of fishery resources, andmeasures for improving the quality of catches (such as Initiatives include theintroduction of Ike-Jime and Shinkei-Jime[1], distribution reforms such as
direct sales, and value-added catch (brand establishment, processing, etc.).
In many cases, cost reduction efforts are aimed at reducing fuel consumption
by practicing efficient navigation through low-speed navigation and cleaningof ship bottoms(Fisheries Agency,2017 revision).
The situation after the end of phase 1, it can be evaluated that efforts
in each region have achieved certain results. It has been confirmed thatthe target increases in income of 10% or more have been achieved in aconsiderable number of districts. However, it should be noted that thefactors of income improvement are greatly affected by changes in resourcesand environmental changes, and are not only attributable to Hama-katsu
plan initiatives. Nevertheless, it is worthy of appreciation that the local
stakeholders themselves considered and implemented the initiatives under
the plan they had formulated and achieved certain results(Tokyo Fisheries
Promotion Foundation, 2015, 2016, 2017).
225

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

On the other hand, there are some issues that have been gained throughout
phase 1. The largest issue is the regional power gap. The pillar of the Hamakatsu plan is that local stakeholders in the region who are formulators andpractitioners. In other words, it is necessary that local stakeholders havethe power to formulate and implement plans. For example, it is necessary
to have the ability to organize, analyze, and understand regional issues, theability to create a vision of the future of the area, the coordination to shareit with stakeholders, and the ability to provide concrete ideas for solving
regional issues. In 2014, several regions were already had the power andothers were unfortunately lacking. In particular, in the implementation stageof the initiatives after the formulation of the plan, it was difficult to achieve
the initially anticipated activities in regions where there were insufficientleaders in the initiatives. In the future, more effective and smooth utilizationof external assistance will be needed to bridge these regional differences. In
areas where the ability to implement the approach is lacking, cooperation andcooperation with external supporters should be actively considered.

“Hama-katsu” plan ini a ves
The Hama-katsu plan sets the primary goal of improving fishery income. I
believe that revitalizing key industries in fishing villages centered on coastal
fisheries scattered along the coast is directly linked to the renewal of vitality
in the region. However, the current fishing village area has undergone amajor transformation. The workplaces of local residents are diverse, and thedevelopment of road networks has greatly improved traffic conditions. Living
spheres and economic spheres are widening, and the state of fisheries andtheir position in the local economy is changing and diversifying. In addition,
as fisheries policy reforms are progressing, the environment surrounding
fisheries is in the process of changing.
In order to maintain the vitality of coastal fisheries and regenerate thevitality of fishing villages under these changes, it is necessary to draw a clearer
and more concrete regional vision to survive in the changes. In other words,
in the future Hama-katsu plan, it is necessary to aim not only for narrow goals
22624. HAMA-KATSU PLAN

such as increasing fishery income but also for a master plan in the original
sense that specifically designs the way of local fisheries and related industries
themselves. In particular, in the context of fisheries, it is necessary to havethe vision to maximize the sustainable production of fisheries in the region
and to revitalize related industries. Specifically, it needs to take into accountand draw the production capacity fishing ground in the coastal area such as
the target management scale, type of fishery, number and age composition offishers, distribution and processing industry utilizing the catches produced
therefrom.
In the current status of the Hama-katsu plan, although such a position
described above cannot be achieved immediately, it is considered to be an
important perspective for maintaining Japan’s coastal fisheries and the areasthat support them. In the future, the Hama-katsu plan opened the way toestablishing sustainable fisheries and the region with the ingenuity of theregion. The era has begun in which the region plays a leading role, and one’s
power is tested.

Endnotes[1] A technique originating in Japan that kills fish immediately removes blood,
destroys the spinal cord, etc., and keeps it fresh.

22725. Local Innova on

Turning Low-Value Fish into Local Specialty Kamaboko

Seiichi Hiratsuka
Tokai University

Ito Port, Izu Peninsular, Shizuoka, Shizuoka Pref. Set-Net Fisheries Association,
2020

228

25. LOCAL INNOVATION

A key feature of local kamaboko is that it uses fish caught by local coastal
fishers without using frozen Surimi. “Jakoten” is a specialty type ofkamaboko of Ehime Prefecture made from small fish that are caught
by fishing boats operating locally. Small fish usually have fewer edible
parts than larger ones, so it is difficult to use them as food. In Iyo City,
the women’s section of Uenada Fisheries Cooperative also manufactures
Jakoten, and this manufacturing business has contributed significantly
to stabilizing the price of small fish and popularizing fish-based foods inthe region. In the Ito FCA in Shizuoka Prefecture, Surimi is manufacturedby the fishers’ cooperative using mackerel and other fish that are locallysourced. Small fish are inexpensive and have been used as feed for farmed
fish until now, but they can also be used as consumer food by processing
them into Surimi. The raw materials used for kamaboko in these two
fishing towns are caught by coastal fishers, implying that only coastal
fishers can deliver authentic local fish to consumers.

Local specialty kamaboko
Different varieties of processed fishery products are available in various partsof Japan. Do you know that Kamaboko is an overwhelmingly popular variety
among them? Kamaboko is a processed marine product that is obtained byextracting the meat from the fish, seasoning it with salt, kneading it, and thenheating it. There are various methods used to heat the product, such as frying,steaming, baking or boiling. The fact that there are many kinds of ingredients,
such as vegetables, that are kneaded into the Surimi is probably one of thereasons for the large variety in types of kamaboko. Many types of kamaboko
are usually made from frozen Surimi that is imported from the United Statesand elsewhere. Recent years have seen increasing popularity of frozen Surimi
produced from walleye pollock, etc., resulting in kamaboko being produced
easily and in large quantities in various parts of Japan. Frozen Surimi has a229

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

long shelf life and can be manufactured throughout the year, enabling efficient
production planning. However, since all manufacturers use the same frozen
Surimi as raw material, the uniqueness in features of the product is usuallydiminished.
In contrast, there are many types of local kamaboko made using locallycaught fish in various parts of Japan. One of the special features of such
kamaboko is that it uses only the fish that is caught by local coastal fishers
on the foreshore without using frozen Surimi as a raw material. Therefore,
coastal fishers are important for supplying local kamaboko to the market.
Since their fishing grounds are close to the landing fishing ports, they canalways supply fresh fish to the market and to the manufacturers. Even though
it is not fishers who produce kamaboko usually but rather specialized fishprocessing companies, there are areas in Japan where fishery cooperatives
are working on the production of Surimi and kamaboko; such an example ofvertical integration is often referred to as the sixth industrialization. This
chapter discusses the importance of local specialty marine products andthe significance of the techniques used by coastal fishers for catches, using
examples from the Ehime, Wakayama and Shizuoka prefectures.

Local specialty kamaboko “Jakoten” in Ehime Prefecture“Jakoten” is a type of kamaboko that is made by removing the head and internalorgans of the fish and then mincing the meat of the fish with the bone andskin and frying it in oil (Fukuda, 2005). Jakoten is a specialty product of Ehime
Prefecture and is made from small fish such as lanternbelly, called Hotarujako in Japanese, which is a small fish about 10 cm long and is caught by small
local fishing boats. Although Hotaru-jako is abundant in the East China Sea
and elsewhere, it is estimated that the Hotaru-jako in Japan is caught forfood use only off Ehime Prefecture, such as the Uwa Sea and the Iyo Nada. In
addition to Hotaru-jako, various other fish such as horse mackerel, hairtail(Tachi-Uo), and lizardfish (Eso) are also used as raw materials for Jakoten.
Small fish such as Hotaru-jako have few edible parts that make it difficult to
use them as food; thus, they end up being traded at low prices in the market.
23025. LOCAL INNOVATION

However, in Ehime Prefecture, Jakoten has been manufactured since the Edo
period and has been a local dish for a long time. There are many places where
one can eat Jakoten here, including in Matsuyama City, where the prefectural
capital is located.
Uwajima City, located in the southwestern part of Ehime Prefecture, has been
attracting attention because Jakoten is actively used for regional development.
The Jakoten manufactured in Uwajima City is registered as a regional collective
trademark called “Uwajima Jakoten.” In Uwajima City, there are many shops
where one can eat Jakoten both in the city and in the suburbs, and it is popularwith tourists as well.
In Iyo City, which is about 25 km west of Matsuyama City, a group of womenfrom Uenada Fisheries Cooperative manufactures Jakoten. In this process,six types of small fish, such as lizardfish (Eso) and croaker (Guchi) that arelanded at local markets, are used as raw materials for the Jakoten. Growthin sales since 1995 has increased steadily, and this variety is now considereda local specialty. The Jakoten manufacturing business by Uenada Fisheries
Cooperative has contributed significantly to stabilizing the price of small
fish in the market. It is also used as a menu in local school lunches and has
contributed greatly to the spread of fish cuisine in the region (Matsumoto,2009).

Local specialty kamaboko “Honeku” in Wakayama
Prefecture
In Wakayama Prefecture, there is local specialty kamaboko named “Honeku,”
which is as famous as “Jakoten.” In Arita City (northwest of Wakayama
Prefecture), the hairtail catch is one of the highest in Japan. Hairtails aremainly caught by small trawl, single-line and coastal fixed net fishing. Hairtailis a high-quality fish that is cooked for sashimi, grilled with salt, and boiled.
Conversely, small whole fish are mashed (including the bones and skin) in
the same way as “Jakoten” and then fried in oil. This deep-fried kamaboko iscalled “Honeku,” “Honekuten,” or “Konekuri Tempura” and has been eaten
locally for a long time. It has a unique texture and flavor because it contains the231IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

bones and skin of hairtail, making it an indispensable local product. Recently,
local restaurants have developed “Honeku Bowl” using “Honeku” and havewon prizes at bowl competitions nationwide. Arita City is an example of thesuccessful development of local specialty kamaboko based on cooperation
between fishers and a hairtail processor. The fish processing company in Arita
City wanted to use local fish in their kamaboko, even if it was difficult andcostly. This is because using frozen Surimi as a raw material for kamaboko
will result in price competition with major companies. Coastal fishers areproud of their hairtail fishing and can always supply fresh raw materials.
The cooperation between the coastal fishers and processors in Arita City has
created local specialty kamaboko “Honeku.”

Produc on of “Surimi” by Ito FCA in Shizuoka Prefecture
Now let’s turn our attention towards the Izu Peninsula in Shizuoka Prefecture,
where Ito Fishing Cooperative is located in the northeast region. There aredifferent types of members belonging to the Ito FCA, such as coastal fixed
net fishing, pole seine fishing, purse seine fishing, and line fishing. Here,
fishery cooperatives manufacture Surimi using mackerel, three-line grunt(Isaki), dolphinfish (Shiira), and squid, all of which are locally landed. Ito FCA
has also introduced a Surimi production system that enables more efficient
production (Photo 1). The marketing concept of Ito FCA is to convey to theconsumers the fresh and delicious taste of fish that has been caught in themorning. Processing the fish into a Surimi immediately after it is caught makes
it possible to provide consumers with fresh, boneless fish meat portions. Thisis especially the case in small fish that are inexpensive and have been usedas feed for farmed fish until recently; they can now also be used as food byprocessing them into Surimi.

23225. LOCAL INNOVATION

Photo 1. Processing of mackerel Surimi. Ito Fisheries Cooperative Association, 2014

Ito FCA production of Surimi using locally caught fish has greatly contributed
to the revitalization of the Ito region. This is because the production of various
paste products using Surimi has accelerated in this region. Chinchin-age,
a local dish of Ito City that is made by mixing vegetables with Surimi madefrom mackerel, has also become popular, notably being used for lunch at
local elementary and junior high schools. Ito Fisheries Cooperative has also
developed various menus using Surimi and exhibited these at various eventsand contests. As a result, unique products such as the mackerel sandwich“Sabao Sand” and pasta sauce have been developed. Such ongoing efforts by
Ito Fisheries cooperatives will surely influence the sales of fish-based food in
the future.
In addition to the Ito FCA, there are some towns in Japan that produce and sell
Surimi using local fish as raw material. The Kumano Fisheries Cooperative in
Kumano City in the southern part of Mie Prefecture manufactures Surimi using
various migratory fish caught by coastal fixed net fishing. Fish used as raw
materials for Surimi include horse mackerel, mackerel, sardine, amberjack,233

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

and dolphinfish. The brand name is “Surimin,” which is characterized by raw
Surimi without additives. A collection of recipes such as pizza and dumplings
using Surimi has also been published. Kumano City is working to spread thisSurimi throughout the region.

Regional revitaliza on and small-scale fisheries
The regions in Japan introduced above are characterized by the fact thatcoastal fishers take the initiative to manufacture and sell processed fisheryproducts using fresh seafood caught locally, contributing significantly toregional revitalization. In many Japanese fishing towns, fishery cooperatives
process dried fish to increase the value of the landed fish, especially since it
is usually difficult for fishers to process marine products themselves. The
kamaboko manufactured in the regions introduced in this chapter are productswith a high degree of processing within the fishery segment. Unlike otherprocessed fishery products such as dried fish, it is extremely difficult to
produce kamaboko by hand because of the extremely poor workability ofthe product. Therefore, in order to produce a certain amount of Surimi, it
is necessary to utilize a production machine and process. In these regions,considerable investment has been made to produce Surimi and kamaboko,
and it is conceivable that there have been various difficulties encountered in
the production processes. In such situations, the producers have been able toovercome the difficulties and work hard to produce local specialties because
the raw materials used in these regions were caught by coastal fishers. These
fishers may prove to be indispensable in such areas because only coastal fishers
can deliver local fish to consumers that are both authentic in taste and freshlycaught.
In recent years the consumption of marine products has been declining inJapan, and officials from fisheries are concerned that this trend may continue.
There are various reasons for this decline in consumption, with one of the
key reasons being changes in the living environment. Consumers, especiallychildren, like fish-based cuisine, and this is evident by witnessing the conveyor
belt sushi chain that is often being crowded with children. Increasing the234

25. LOCAL INNOVATION

consumer awareness of the freshness and delicious taste of seafood from thecoastal fishers may be one of the solutions to arrest this declining consumption
trend. The power of coastal fishers is very important to protect the fish cultureof the Japanese people and stop the decline of fish consumption.
For many people, the time spent preparing meals has also decreased over
the years. For this reason, fish-based dishes are often shunned because people
don’t have the time and skill to prepare such dishes any more. In order tochange this situation, it is imperative that fishers, distributors, processors
and sellers work together to provide consumers with fresh, delicious andquick-to-eat fish-based dishes. For consumers looking for food that can becooked in a short time, processing fish into Surimi is a good idea. Teachingconsumers how to eat unfamiliar fish is also an important step in promoting
fish-based food. With concerns about the decline of fisheries resources, it
is very important for stakeholders living in fishing towns to cooperate andmaximize the use of locally caught fish. The lead role in this is that of thecoastal fisher. And, as I too am a part of the fisheries stakeholders, I would
like to work with everyone in contributing to the spread of fish-based foods.

235

V
JSSF from a Compara ve Perspec ve

26. Thailand & Japan

Differences and Similarities in Fisheries Resource Management

Akito Sato
SEAFDEC

Small-scale fishing vessels in Pattani Province, Thailand, Sato A. 2019239

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Fisheries have always been an important source of animal protein for
most of Thailand’s population. The fishery production in Thailand
had demonstrated remarkable growth during the last 40 years of the20th century, but during this century, the country’s fisheries production
has decreased, mainly due to decreases in marine fisheries production.
Thailand has faced various kinds of problems with regard to the management of marine fisheries brought about by over-exploitation, and a
combination of factors; e.g., increasing human population and demand
for fish and seafood products, increased pressure from Thai trawlers,difficulties in enforcing effective management system in small-scale
fisheries, and difficult livelihood situations of small-scale fishers. This
chapter provides a brief overview of the marine small-scale fisheries inThailand, including the background of marine fisheries, development
policies, marine fisheries management, and experiences in communitybased fisheries management. Finally, the different features in marine
small-scale fisheries management between Thailand and Japan are
described.

Introduc on
Fish is the primary source of animal protein for most of the people of Thailand.
Thailand has a coastline of about 2,600 km and various kinds of fisheries
have been developed with blessed natural resources. In 2017, the country’s
total fisheries production of 2.4million tonnes, with productions from marine
fisheries, inland fisheries, and aquaculture contributing 1.3million tonnes,
0.2 million tonnes, and 0.9 million tonnes, respectively. The 1995 Census ofMarine Fishery showed that the total number of fishers of marine capture
fisheries during peak season was 161,667, and many fishers are engaged inmarine small-scale fisheries.

240

26. THAILAND & JAPANBackground of Thailand’s marine fisheries
Prior to 1925, fishing activities in Thailand were mainly by pole-and-line
and bamboo stake traps operated along coastlines with the use of small nonmotorized vessels. Then purse seine was favored by Thai fishers, and thenumber of purse seiners increased rapidly. In 1960, trawler brought into thecountry from Germany was widely used because of its efficiency to fish atdaytime and nighttime, leading to drastic increases in the amount of catch.
Later, when fishers developed bigger vessels, these big trawlers fished in theseas near Cambodia and Viet Nam. While the neighboring countries started
claiming their respective EEZs, Thailand established its EEZ in 1981, during
which time Thai fishers were allowed to fish from 770,000 km2 to 245,271
km2 bringing back the small commercial vessels to Thai waters. On the other
hand, large vessels could go further outside of the Thai waters in search of new
fishing resources, e.g., Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei Darussalam increasing
Thailand’s capture fisheries production from outside Thai waters. In 2008
however, when Indonesia and Malaysia, which used to be the main fishinggrounds of Thai fishers, no longer allow foreign fishing vessels in their waters,
this resulted in a rapid decline of Thailand’s capture fisheries production
outside of the Thai waters.

Status of the fishery resources and habitats
Thailand has been undertaking regular surveys of its resources since the early
1960s, and the results have shown that in the Gulf of Thailand, the catch perunit effort (CPUE) of trawlers declined steadily, for example from about 300
kg/hr in 1961 to about 30 kg/hr in 1990, and in 2014, the CPUE was 9% of theoriginal CPUE. In the Andaman Sea, the CPUE also declined steadily from the
1960s, and in 2014 the CPUE was about 100 kg/hr (25% of the 1966 CPUE).
Moreover, results from stock assessments using catch data in 2014, indicatedthat the estimated effort for demersal fish in the Gulf of Thailand exceeded the
MSY effort by 32.8%, and 5.3% for the Andaman Sea. For pelagic fish (except
anchovies), the fishing effort in the Gulf of Thailand exceeded the maximum241

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

sustainable yield (MSY) effort by 27.0%, and 16.5% for the Andaman Sea.
In addition, results from research studies conducted by the Departmentof Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR) in 2015, suggested that Thailand
has 2,455.34 km2 of mangroves, 238.33 km2 of coral reefs and 255.73 km2 ofseagrass beds. Recently, these important habitats have been either lost or arein the worse conditions because of various threats, so Marine Protected Areas(MPAs) has expanded, in which total areas in Thailand are about 80 thousand
km2 , composing of about 25% of the total area of Thai waters.

Overviews of small-scale fisheries of Thailand
Fishing vessels in Thailand are categorized into: 1) artisanal fishing vessels,with small being less than five gross tonnage (GRT), and a large vessel,
between 5 – less than 10 GRT; and 2) commercial fishing vessels (small: 10-20
GRT; medium: 20-60 GRT; large: over 60 GRT). Most of the fishing vessels
are artisanal and support a large number of fishers and fishing communities.
According to the survey conducted by the Department of Fisheries (DOF), thetotal number of marine active fishing vessels in 2015 was 42,512 (78% artisanal,
22% commercial), and within the 33,205 artisanal fishing vessels, 91% catchdemersal fish, 1% anchovies, and 8% other pelagic fishes, with 14,937 of thevessels registered but unlicensed, and 4,297 were unregistered and unlicensed.
The total estimated catch in 2014 was 1,557,860 tonnes, of which the estimatedcatch by artisanal fishing vessels was only 185,151 tonnes, notwithstanding
the artisanal vessels’ 78% share of the total number of fishing vessels. The
majority of the fishers are artisanal, and their catch supports an importantfood supply chain that involves a large number of women in buying/sellingand in processing, with fish comprising an important part of the livelihoodsof fishing communities, including consumption at home.

242

26. THAILAND & JAPAN

Past fisheries policies of Thailand
The Fisheries Policies of Thailand are included in the National Economic andSocial Development Plan (five-year plan). During the First and Second Plans(1962-1971), fisheries policies focused on the development policies to support
the need to increase marine fisheries production. Issues on fishery resources
such as reduction of fishing efforts were included from the Fourth Plan
(1977-1981), and the establishment of fishery cooperatives and cooperation
with them on fishery management were included from the Seventh Plan
(1992-1996). In the Eighth Plan (1997-2001), the establishment of fisherycooperatives for the improvement of financial management, promotion ofcommunity-based resources management with concept of fishing rights
by local communities and fishers’ participation in resources management,enhancement of marine protected areas, improvement of livelihoods offishers as means of enhancing educational opportunities, health care, andbetter employment opportunities, etc. were included in the coastal fisheries
management policies.

Fishery coopera ves
Based on the country’s “Cooperatives Act 1999”, many agricultural cooperatives, non-agricultural cooperatives, and farmers’ groups had been organized,
including the fishery cooperatives. The main purpose of the cooperatives has
something to do with addressing the concerns in production and marketing,which could be addressed through joint purchasing, access to loans andcredits, increased knowledge of the fishing industry, and promotion of natural
resources conversation. As of 2016, the number of fishery cooperatives was
81, which had increased year by year, but still relatively low compared withthe total number of cooperatives; about 11,300 cooperatives in 2016 based on
the “Cooperatives Act 1999”.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Figure 1. Annual number of fishery cooperatives based on the Cooperatives Act.
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand.

Nonetheless, many fishers’ groups had been formed, which are not based on
the Cooperatives Act. These include the women’s groups that exist in many
local communities, although their numbers remain unknown, consideringthat their sustainability is on a case by case basis.

Fishing ports“Fishing Port” means any place used for berthing by fishing vessels or for thetransshipment or landing of aquatic animals or aquatic animal products fromfishing vessels. Any person wishing to use his or her own port as a fishingport shall register such port as a fishing port with the DOF, except where such
port is already part of a fish market enterprise (Royal Ordinance on Fisheries2015). Owners of fishing ports shall record data on every fishing vessel berthedat their ports. There are several types of registered marine fishing ports in
Thailand. These include 599 commercial fishing ports; 10 Port State Measureports; 34 water and ice service ports; 62 small-scale fisheries fishing ports;
800 docking ports; and 15 fish meal fishing ports within a total of 1,520 fishingports. After 2015, the number of marine fishing vessels, including small-scale
fisheries, can be recorded periodically.
244

26. THAILAND & JAPANFisheries legisla on
The main types of fisheries legislation used as a basis for managing the marine
fisheries resources of Thailand include the “Act Governing the Rights to Fishin Thai Waters”, the “Thai Vessel Act” and the “Fisheries Act.” The Thai
Government issued the legislation on the “Act Governing the Rights to Fish inThai Waters” in 1939. Under the Act, the Thai fishing waters are defined asThai territorial waters, and all fisheries resources in the Thai territorial waters
belong to the nation. The country has the right over those resources, and only
Thai nationals are allowed to own the fishing rights. The “Thai Vessel Act”
was established in 1938, and under the Act, the owner of a fishing vessel withan engine or a fishing vessel of 6 GRT and above is required to register theirrights with the Harbor Department.
The “Fisheries Act” was enacted in 1947, which is directly concerned withthe conservation of fisheries. Generally, three different types of licenses areissued to fishermen: fishing license, fishing gear license, and leasing-area
license. To conserve the marine fisheries resources, the DOF has implemented
various management measures through the “Fisheries Act” and regulations
aiming to determine the sizes and kinds of fishing operations, prohibit the useof certain types of fishing practices in some areas, and establish spawning andnursing seasons and protected areas. It also prohibits the use of certain typesof fishing gear during the said seasons and areas, regulates mesh-size forpurse seining, gill netting, and squid lift netting, limits the new entry of trawl
fisheries, and ceases to grant new trawl licenses. The “Fisheries Act” of 1947
was replaced with the Fisheries Act 2015, and the Royal Ordinance on Fisheries
2015 was put into force in 2015 as a result of the changes in the fisheries
situation and emerging international standards, rules and regulations.

Experience in community-based fisheries management
Although various management measures have been implemented, including
coastal small-scale fisheries development projects mainly by DOF for several
decades, the fisheries resources have not recovered up to the satisfactory245

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

level. Considering these situations, community-based resources management(CBRM) has been implemented in many different areas in Thailand. The
concept of CBRM, which is aimed at achieving the participation of fishingcommunities in self-resources management and self-enforcement, had been
included as a national policy in the Eighth National Economic and Social
Development Plan (1997-2001). CBRM in Thailand is mainly carried out withthe support not only of DOF but also of the NGOs, International Donors, DMCR,
etc. These attempts might have been implemented in Thailand, sometimes
under different concepts, e.g., the so-called co-management and recently, theEcosystem Approach to Fisheries Management (EAFM), but the contents ofthese activities are not as diverse as the characteristics of the regions and theregional resources.
An example of this type of projects is the one carried out in Nainang
Village in Krabi Province, southern Thailand, which is supported mainly
by DOF and the provincial government. Small-scale fisheries are major
fishing activities in Krabi Province. Destructive and illegal, unreported andunregulated (IUU) fishing activities used to be practiced in the province had
resulted in the decline of the fishery resources, and incidences of severe
conflicts and disputes between local fishers and fishery officers in terms ofenforcing the fishing regulations, leading to the removal of bamboo stake
traps. Under such circumstances, co-management supporting activities havebeen promoted in the area, and the EAFM concept has been introduced laterat the pilot site to promote sustainable fisheries management. In 2018, thefisheries management plan of Nainang Village was discussed to encourage
the community to participate in managing their own resources, responding to
the EAFM principles of ecological well-being, human well-being, and good
governance. Through such initiative, the community and local fishers had
opportunities to participate in the decision-making process, understood theimportance of sustainability, and developed their sense of ownership of thefisheries resources. Thus, the stakeholders’ positive attitude for resourcesmanagement has been growing, leading to the resolution of conflicts between
local fishers and fishery officers, and among the fishers themselves. At
present, destructive and IUU fishing has been drastically reduced, and the246

26. THAILAND & JAPAN

number of community-based activities has increased, including the creationof alternative livelihoods by the local products processing group, bee farmers
group, farming group, souvenirs group, and related activities such as afish bank, garbage bank, treebank, and environmental conservative tourist
program. The case at Nainang Village presents a good example of obtaining
the support by not only the concerned fishers but also the communities forthe management of small-scale fisheries.

Marine small-scale fisheries management in Thailand andJapan
So far, certain aspects related to marine small-scale fisheries management inThailand are described in order to clarify the differences between the situationsin Thailand and Japan. As it is well known, local fishery cooperatives or fisher’sgroups in Thailand had not established enough measures to facilitate the participation of fishers and fishing communities in self-resources management
and self-enforcement compared with the fishery rights system and coastal
fishery cooperatives in Japan. The Thai Government has put a lot of effort into
CBRM or co-management to achieve better fishery management of the smallscale fisheries, but the success in the communities is limited by weaknesses
and difficulty in enforcement to control the outsiders or illegal fishers to fish infishing grounds managed by coastal communities. In addition, everyone canunderstand that community-based fisheries management activities requirecontinuous negotiations and budgetary support. Until now, considerable
numbers of projects are being supported by NGOs and international donors, so
there would be problems with sustainability in many cases, which is different
from the situation in Japan. Therefore, a lot of small-scale fisheries andfishing communities are faced with more difficult situations in Thailand. It
is said that in Japan, fisheries are not attractive, and local young residents infishing communities do not wish to be fishers, and the number of fishers may
drastically reduce in the future, and these situations are the same or worse in
Thailand.
Recently, DOF has made hard efforts to combat IUU fishing, mainly targeting247

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

commercial fisheries to cope with international standards and regulations
by enforcement of the new Fisheries Act in 2015, etc. However, the new
Fisheries Act that focuses on combating IUU fishing and resource management is concerned with not only commercial fisheries but also small-scale
fisheries through, e.g., fishing vessel registration, and the establishment ofProvincial Fishery Committees, which may be able to understand that fisheries
management entity change from central to local. In addition, considering thatthe DOF and DMCR have a good relationship and follow relatively the same
policy direction, there is the possibility that the good sustainable practicesof co-management or EAFM would be continued and expanded to support
the small-scale fisheries with strong cooperation among DOF, DMCR andprovincial government, even if they follow different approaches and types,
compared with the Japanese fisheries management system for small-scale
fisheries.

248

27. Malaysia & Japan

Challenging Tasks in Southeast Asia for Researchers

Masaya Katoh
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Local market, Terengganu, Malaysia, M. Katoh, 2020

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Small-scale fishers are categorized as traditional in Malaysia basedon fishing gear and size of the vessels. Most traditional fishers canfish the nearest fishing zone. In marine capture fisheries, commercial
fishers, which are only 25% of the total number, catch about 70% offish and shellfish. Because of the low income of traditional fishers,
improvement of the socio-economic status of the traditional fishers
is very important for sustainable livelihoods and fisheries. Departmentof Fisheries Malaysia undertakes law enforcement of licensing and thezoning system. Although Zone A near the coastline is for traditional
fishers, a limited number of licensed shrimp trawlers can fish in Zone
A during the monsoon season. To maintain a healthy ecosystem, weneed to understand the ecology of fish and shellfish and biotic andabiotic components of the surrounding environment. Understanding the
traditional fisheries in the tropics is a challenging field to be studied.

What are small-scale fisheries in Malaysia and Japan?
The definition of small-scale fisheries may vary among countries. People’s
general impression of small-scale fisheries may be that a small numberof fishers catch finfish, shellfish and seaweed using small fishing vessels
in the coastal area. In Malaysia, commercial fisheries and traditional (orsmall-scale) fisheries are distinguished by fishing gear and size of fishingvessels. Purse seine, trawl and longline fisheries are commercial, and theother fisheries using drift net, hook and lines, bag net, portable traps and lift
net are traditional. In the Fisheries Act 1985, a Malaysian federal act relating to
the administration and management of fisheries, traditional fishing practices
means any fishing operated with the use of a non-motorized fishing vessel ora motorized fishing vessel of less than forty gross registered tonnages (GRT),
using the following gears: (a) trap; (b) hook-and-line; (c) drift net or gill net;(d) seine net; (e) hand lift net; (f) bagnet or stow net; and (g) barrier net.
250

27. MALAYSIA & JAPANIn Okinawa, Japan, a small fishing vessel of about 7.9 GRT with two fishers
can chase bluefin and yellowfin tuna. Their trip length may be about one week
depending on the catch, but they can bring back a couple of non-frozen or
iced bluefin tunas. One large tuna (not too big because of air shipment) canbe sold for more than USD 10,000 at Toyosu, a new fish market in Tokyo. The
chosen fish will be shipped by air from Ishigaki or Okinawa islands. Basedon the size of the vessel and the number of fishers, they can be small-scale
fishers. However, their fish may be very expensive. Another exception ofhigh price in Japan is abalone; traditional coastal female divers catch abalone.
Some small-scale fishers occasionally have high income in Japan. Because of
the lower prices of ordinary fish around the coastal area, some local fishers
started online shopping sites with pictures of their harvest for customers in
big cities. This eliminates middlemen. Therefore, fishers can get a higher
income, and consumers are happy to buy the fish that have known origins.

Tradi onal fishers and marine capture fisheries in
Malaysia
Malaysia has coastlines longer than 4,000 km, according to CIA World
Factbook (2020).

Fishing grounds are off the West and East coasts ofPeninsular Malaysia, the South China Sea and Sulu and Celebes Seas in Borneo.
The total landing of marine capture fisheries in Malaysia was 1.57 million tons
in 2016 (Ahmad Faizal 2018), and more than 70% of the total was commercial(e.g., 46% from trawlers and 24% from purse seiners). Therefore, small-scale
fisheries are only responsible for less than 30% of the total catch. However,there are more traditional or small-scale fishers than commercial fishers
in Malaysia. Fisheries Development Authority of Malaysia (LKIM in Malay)
published detailed socio-economic data in 2007 about traditional fisheries(LKIM 2008). The total number of fishers censused was 21,020, and about 75%of them were traditional, which means commercial fishers comprising only
25% of the total but catching about 70% of fish and shellfish. We can imagine
traditional fishers are not very wealthy. The average income of traditional
fishers is 1,400RM per month (1USD = 3.44RM in 2007) and that of commercial
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

fishers 4,409RM. Although the poverty level for fishers is largely reduced
compared to 1970, their income is still low, and only 15% of the total traditional
fishers own real estates (other than a house) such as housing property or
agriculture land. In addition, most traditional fishers are not very young.
Sixty-nine percent of traditional fishers are between 35-59 years old. In
Terengganu, seventy-one percent of traditional fishers are between 40-64
years old. Therefore, the improvement of the socio-economic status of the
traditional fishers is very important for sustainable livelihoods and fisheries.
At the end of 2019, 86 Area Fishermen’s Associations were registered with
Fisheries Development Authority of Malaysia (31 in West Peninsular Malaysia,
22 East Peninsular Malaysia, 18 Sarawak, 14 Sabah and 1 Labuan). About 10
Area Associations have been newly established since 2003. This is a good signand potential for local governance and co-management. The total number offishers was 132,305 in 2017, and 72% of fishers were members of Fisheries
Associations in 2007. There were about 36 thousand foreign fishers in Malaysia
in 2011. They are from Thailand, Indonesia, Viet Nam, the Philippines, andothers. They belong to commercial fisheries, but their income was about 1,000
RM on average (ILO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific 2014). They have
similar livelihoods to traditional fishers.
In local restaurants and bazaars in Terengganu, we see many pelagic fish
such as mackerels, scads and neritic tuna. Groupers are available in restaurants
but are more expensive. We see emperors (Lethrinus spp.), snappers andthreadfin breams also. Rays such as dwarf whip ray are popular items for
Ikan bakar in Malay (barbecued fish). All fishes are fully utilized in Malaysia,
but consumers cannot tell whether one fish is from traditional or commercial
fishers in restaurants and stores.

Zoning system and monsoon season
The zoning system started in 1982 in Malaysia controls fishing activities.
The current zoning system has five zones: A zone (0-5 nautical miles [nm];traditional, monsoon trawlers and anchovy purse seiners; vessel size < 40
GRT), B zone (5-12 nm; trawlers and purse seiners [owner-operators]; < 40
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27. MALAYSIA & JAPAN

GRT), C zone (12-30 nm; commercial; trawlers and purse seiners [owneroperators or non-owner-operators]; 40 GRT ≤ vessel size < 70 GRT), C2
zone (30 nm – EEZ border; commercial; trawlers and purse seiners [owneroperators or non-owner-operators]; 70 GRT and above) and C3 zone (HighSeas and the Indian Ocean; commercial; tuna long liners and tuna purse seiners[owner-operators or non-owner-operators]; 70 GRT and above). In 2014, a
new zoning system (Department of Fisheries Malaysia 2018) was introduced
to reduce the number of trawlers and their encroachment activities in the
traditional fishing areas for four states (Kedah, Perak, Selangor and Penang).
A conservation zone (0-1 nm) was introduced in Kedah, Perak and Selangor toenhance the protection of coastal areas. In this conservation zone, no fishingis allowed. However, fishers can engage in aquaculture activities near the
shore. In the new system, Zone A is wider (1-8 nm). This zone is mainly fortraditional fishers, but anchovy purse seiners can operate between 6:00 am
and 7:00 pm. Locally important anchovies (i.e., Ikan bilis in Malay) can becaught near the coast during the day.
Small fishes are used for traditional Malaysian rice breakfast. Traditional
fishers and anchovy fishers need to use the same zone. There are anchovy
purse seiners with lights in Zone B. Zone B was expanded and split into
two based on vessel sizes B (5-15 nm; 100% local fishers; compulsory with
Automatic Identification System (AIS) and Malaysian Acetes Efficiency Device(MAED) or Juvenile and Trash Excluder Device (JTED); < 25 GRT) and B1 (8-15nm; compulsory with Automatic Identification System (AIS); 25 GRT ≤ vessel
size < 40 GRT). MAED lets juvenile fish escape and reduces the catch of trashfish. Zones C and C2 were combined (15 nm – EEZ border, compulsory with
AIS or Vessel Monitoring System (VMS); 40 GRT and above). Zone C3 is thesame (High Seas; compulsory with VMS; 70 GRT and above). Department of
Fisheries Malaysia (DOF) undertakes law enforcement of the zoning system
and licensing. DOF uses information from fishing-vessel tracking tools suchas Mobile Transceiver Units (MTUs) and AIS onboard. MTUs are used in Zones
C and C2, including foreign vessels, and AISs for trawlers are in Zone B1.
Monitoring by DOF prevents illegal trawling in Zone A and protects resources
and traditional fishers.
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The east coast of Peninsular Malaysia has an additional complication. During
the monsoon season, many fishers in the east coast cannot fish much. A
limited number of licensed shrimp trawlers can fish in Zone A from November
to March. To avoid accidental catch of sea turtles, the shrimp trawlers mustequip their nets with turtle excluder devices (TEDs). This exception creates
additional interaction between traditional and commercial fishers. Enoughscientific information is not available about the consequences of monsoon
fisheries on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia.

Ecosystem approach to fisheries management
The Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) is an intergovernmental organization established in December 1967 for the purposeof promoting sustainable fisheries development in the region. SEAFDEC,DOF and other organizations promote an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries
Management (EAFM), which is designed to plan, develop and manage fisheries
in a manner that addresses the multiple needs and desires of societies, without
jeopardizing the options for the future generations to benefit from the fullrange of goods and services provided by marine ecosystems. To raise awareness of the EAFM concept to the fisheries sector, including traditional fishers,
the Marine Fishery Resources Development and Management Department(MFRDMD) of SEAFDEC organized several meetings. Fishers recognize thatfish and fisheries are part of a whole ecosystem, and fish, habitats, fishers
and other users are all connected and can impact each other. EAFM considerssocial and economic dimensions also.
To maintain a healthy ecosystem, we need to understand the ecology offish and shellfish and biotic and abiotic components of the surrounding
environment. Because of the high biodiversity in the Southeast Asian region,
the ecosystem itself may be sophisticated. A single species stock assessment
is unrealistic in the region because landing data are not available for a target
species. Even targeted fisheries catch contains multiple species. Multispecies data in purse seine fisheries in Malaysia provide reasonable feedback
control (Harlyan 2019). We must try multi-species analyses using limited data.
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27. MALAYSIA & JAPAN

Scientifically understanding the ecosystem in the tropics is challenging. We
must continue to study a diverse number of species. Global warming is anotherissue. Although we know the consequences of El Niño events in tropical waters,
we do not know the long-term effects in tropical oceans from global warming
because tropical waters are the warmest among the oceans. Prolonged periodsof water temperature higher than 32 °C caused devastating effects (e.g., mass
bleaching of reef-building corals) in coral reefs.

Future direc on
To improve the livelihood of small-scale fishers, many activities have been
conducted in Malaysia (Mazalina et al. 2018). For example, motivational
programs for the coastal community highlighted awareness on the sustainability of fishery resources and strengthening cooperation among community
members. Through an EAFM program, the participants were made awareof the importance of sustainable fisheries. Moreover, through a technicalskills program, the fishers learned Global Positioning System (GPS), echosounder and AIS to reduce operational costs by trip-time saving, which brings
increased income. The food processing program for fish attracted female
participants to study food safety standards and value-added products forhigher income. Another training program was repair and maintenance offiberglass boats. Fishers learned how to repair fishing boats by themselves,and some of them can build new boats and fiberglass products as additionalsources of income. Maritime training and scuba diving programs were offered
for alternative livelihoods for coastal communities. Those activities andprograms will surely improve the well-being of fishers.
In Terengganu, fishers cannot go to fish often during the monsoon season.
Therefore, some new economic activities besides fisheries will help them.
Tourism is one of the options and local commodities, and special food mayentertain tourists. However, tourists are low during the monsoon season. We
need to create new economic activities during the monsoon season. Local andnon-local people can list the values of the state, and those may be coarse ideas
for new industry and/or ecosystem services. Because temperate studies are255IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

not usually applicable to the tropics, understanding the traditional fisheries
in the tropics is a challenging field to be studied. Traditional fishers often use
private jetties. Therefore, some of their landings are not recorded in national
statistics. For better fisheries management, we need to have good statistics
and need to include unreported catches. This is one of the challenges for theregion, but there are many challenges. We need to overcome those issues
based on their priority and importance in the ecosystem.

Acknowledgment
This chapter has been improved with the comments of Mohammad Faisal Md
Saleh, Adam Luke Pugas, and Siri Hakala.

25628. Cambodia & Japan

Suggestions for Cambodian Community Fisheries from the Japanese
SystemMina Hori
Kochi University

Small-scale fisher on Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, M. Hori, 2007

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Over the last two decades, Cambodia has experienced two fisheriesreforms. The fishing grounds granted for large-scale fisheries in Tonle
Sap Lake were abolished and transferred to the small-scale subsistence
fishers (free fishing without any licenses). Community-based resource
management by community fisheries (CFi) was introduced to manage
the fishing grounds. Fishers are responsible for patrolling the fishinggrounds, however, the fishing grounds are open access. Thus, there islittle incentive for the fishers to manage the fishing grounds. The CFi also
lacks the budget to support patrols; instead, they rely on external funding.
With reference to the Japanese system of promoting fishery activities, thisessay highlights the benefits of networking CFis to share techniques, andto redefine the small-scale fisheries as an income-generating system.
Doing so will encourage a stable food supply for the nation and generate
income to support CFi activities.

Cambodian small-scale fisheries
The unique water systems of Cambodia, such as the Mekong River and pulsing
Tonle Sap Lake, support rich biodiversity and produce high inland-capture
fisheries. Cambodia produces approximately 500 000 tons of freshwater fish
annually. Cambodian fishery law classifies fisheries by fishing gear type small-scale, middle-scale, or large-scale (industrial) fisheries (FiA 2007).
Small-scale fisheries made up 97% of the total freshwater fish production
in 2018 (FiA 2018). The fishing grounds and fishing seasons are defined forlarge- and middle-scale fisheries, but small-scale fisheries are family-based,subsistence systems, without a defined season. Small-scale fishers can fish
anywhere or anytime, except in the large-scale fishing grounds during theopen season or conservation areas. The major fishing grounds for smallscale fisheries include the Tonle Sap Lake, small rivers, streams, ponds, andrice fields. There are over 650 000 fishers, and most are small-scale fishers258

28. CAMBODIA & JAPAN(Kurien 2017). Economic value of Cambodian fisheries is USD200-300 million
per year at the point of landing, and fisheries harvesting, processing and tradecontributes 8-12% of GDP (MAFF 2010). Major fishing gears are; gill nets, castnets, hooks and lines, and variety of traps (FiA 2018) to target Channidae(snakeheads), Clariidae, Bagridae (Mystus sp.), Anabantidae, Cyprinidae,
Pangasius sp., Siluridae, and Notopteridae, which are commercially important
species (Baran 2005).
The importance of small-scale fisheries in Cambodia has traditionally been
overlooked because the fisheries statistics included only large- and middlescale operations. However, in 1999, small-scale fishery catchment was
included in the national annual production report, and small-scale fisheries
supplied over half of the total production until 2012 (Hori et al. 2011). The
average annual supply of fish per capita is 41.4 kg (Kurien 2017). The major
fishing grounds in and around Tonle Sap Lake were demarcated and auctioned
to large-scale fishers as “fishing lots”. This system was introduced during the
French colonial period. Fishing lot owners were responsible for fishing groundmanagement and had to report their catches to the Fisheries Administration(FiA). Cambodia has experienced two fishery reforms in the last two decades.
In 2000, the government released 56% (536 000 ha) of the fishing lots tosmall-scale fishers to ease the conflicts between small-scale and large-scale
fisheries. Then, in 2012, the “deep reform” abolished the Tonle Sap Lakefishing lots and reallocated the areas as conservation (93 245 ha) or fishingareas (177 881 ha) for the small-scale fishers (Hori 2015).

Community-based resource management in Cambodian
fisheries
Following the two reforms, fishing ground management was transferred tothe small-scale fishers. To aid this, the government introduced a communitybased resource management system. The Community Fisheries Development
Office (currently the Community Fisheries Development Department) wasestablished in 2001, under the Department of Fisheries (currently FiA), tofacilitate community fisheries (CFi) nationwide. The operational unit of the259

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

CFi is the local village, with approximately 100 - 1000 members per CFi. Each
CFi is responsible for approximately 300 ha to 10 000 ha. In July 2019, there
were 516 CFis in Cambodia (FiA 2019). Fishery law Chapter 11 states that “All
Cambodian citizens have the rights to form Community Fisheries in theirown areas on a voluntary basis to take part in the sustainable management,
conservation, development, and use of fisheries resources” (FiA 2008).
The CFi has 5 objectives: (1) manage the inland fisheries and related
ecosystems where fishing lots have been canceled, (2) manage fisheries
resources sustainably and equitably, (3) increase the understanding and recognition of fisheries resource benefits through the participation in protection
and management, (4) provide the legal framework to establish community
fisheries, and (5) improve the standards of living and reduce poverty (Kurien2017). For each CFi, an elected fishery committee is charged with designing
the area management plans, managing the finances, and reporting fisheries
violations to the FiA (FiA 2008). However, each CFi fishing area is open access,so the neighboring villagers or outsiders can access the fishing grounds, andmembers can visit other fishing areas. The rules and regulations set by theCFi apply to all users, but the unrestricted access can diminish the incentive
to conserve the fishery’s resources.

Community fisheries ac vi es on the ground
The major CFi activity is patrolling, which requires boats, fuel, cell phones,
cameras, and human resources. Patrolling takes extra time because the CFi
area and actual fishing grounds of the individual fishers do not always match.
It is also difficult, if not impossible, to patrol entire large areas (e.g., over 10000 ha). Furthermore, the budget for CFi activity is not guaranteed, and each
CFi must seek assistance from non-governmental (NGOs) or internationalorganizations. Therefore, the patrolling frequency is affected by budgetary
constraints and often results in insufficient CFi rule enforcement. In mostcases, external support lasts only a few years, making CFi activities difficult
to sustain. The CFi can set a conservation area within the designated CFi area.
Often, ponds are dug for fish refuge during the dry season, which is typically260

28. CAMBODIA & JAPANsupported by external organizations. Other activities, such as aquaculture,
replanting of the flooding forest, micro-finances, and animal husbandry, arealso supported by external organizations. Kurien (2017) suggested that theCFi should function as a multipurpose organization, catering to the needs of
its entire membership, particularly for agriculture and other related interests.
In contrast, there is limited support for fishing activities (e.g., technicalsupport for processing, marketing, or fishing gear improvements), except for
micro-finances that allow people to buy fishing gear. The lack of support
for fishing activities may stem from the fact that small-scale fisheries
are considered subsistence activities. Also, the groups that are interested
in supporting CFi activities are often environmental NGOs that prioritize
conservation-related activities. External support is often project-based for a
few years without extension, and each CFi must continuously seek support.
There are limited opportunities for self-support because commercial fishingor the use of larger fishing gear is not allowed by the CFi. Some CFis finish aproject but are forced to suspend their patrolling activities due to the lack ofadditional organizational support. Following the two fisheries reforms, only
small-scale fisheries exist as subsistence fishing in Tonle Sap Lake. However,
the reform has increased the role of small-scale fishing in supplying fisheries
products. The fisheries products are sold in markets, which is criticallyimportant to fishers with no other income sources. Nonetheless, small-scale
fishing is officially a subsistence activity (non-commercial). Thus, there
is a gap between policy and social necessity. What are the options for the
Cambodian small-scale fisheries?

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Op ons for the future and experience from Japanese
small-scale fisheries
Cambodian small-scale fisheries are defined as subsistence activities, but
in Japan, all fisheries (regardless of scale) are tasked with supplying marine
products to the citizens (Fisheries Basic Act, 2001). This act requires sounddevelopment through the management of fisheries production, processing,
distribution, and marketing, and the development of fishing ports and fishinggrounds (Article 3(1)). To support the development of fisheries, fishing villages
and fishery operators should be promoted (Article 3 (2)). Consumers should
also be encouraged to have a better understanding of fisheries activities(Article 8). To achieve these goals, fishers and the fishing villages are
involved in a variety of activities, such as value-adding (e.g., processing,branding, and direct sales to consumers/restaurants) and education andcultural preservation activities (e.g., fishery experiences, homestays, andcooking classes). Even for the Japanese fishers who have long history ofworking together in local fishery groups, these activities were challenging to
introduce.
However, Japanese fisheries research and extension systems helped toincorporate the activities. Extension officers play an important role, connecting fishers and prefectural authorities to transfer fisheries technology
and guidance for management. The extension officers also communicate
the needs and problems of the local fishers, while the prefectural fisheries
research stations work to monitor the resources and develop new technologies
for the local conditions (Makino 2011). These networks allow the fishers
to share their experiences and understand the latest scientific informationand policies. Value-adding and education/cultural preservation activities,
as used in Japan, may help to raise the income of Cambodian community
fishers. However, Cambodian community-based resource management was
only introduced in 2000, and fishers may have less experience in fisher group
activities. The fisheries administration system also differs between Japan andCambodia. Therefore, this approach cannot be directly transferred from Japan
to Cambodia, but instead may be used as an example that can be modified for262

28. CAMBODIA & JAPANCambodian fisheries.
The Japanese government conducted the Freshwater Aquaculture Improvement and Extension Project (FAIEX) from 2005 - 2010 (phase 1) and 2011 2015 (phase 2) (JICA 2015). This project aimed to improve the seed production
and fish culture, build local administrations for fish culture extension, andexpand farmer networks for fish seed production in the provinces. The target
area was distant from Tonle Sap Lake to improve protein intake and generatecash income. However, the local people had no experience with aquaculture.
The “Farmer to Farmer”’ approach was introduced, where the seed producers
instruct the aquaculture techniques to small-scale farmers. This framework
started with the training of provincial officers (extension staff), who trained
selected seed producers (core seed farmers), then disseminated information
to other seed producers and small-scale farmers. Information from the farmer
administrations and problems encountered by the small-scale farmers wereaccumulated at the core seed farmers. This approach allowed adjustments toadapt to local situations, such as facilities or water availability. Furthermore,
networking among the core seed farmers allowed information sharing about
the techniques and business, which incentivized the network even after the
project was finished. Phase 2 of the project was also successful; over 3000
farmers participated in the farmer to farmer training, and over 80% of the
farmers experienced increased savings and profits. The farmer to farmer
approach has also been applied in other countries.
As this example demonstrates, local households lacking experience in agiven activity can work together and remain engaged in the network if they
achieve economic and social incentives. Therefore, value-adding and/or
income-generating CFi activities may promote small-scale fishers to join
farmer to farmer systems, which will subsequently generate income for theCFi activities, such as patrolling. Without the CFis, the management systemsof the Tonle Sap Lake fisheries may be lost, increasing the risk of ecosystem
collapse. The role of small-scale fisheries in Cambodia needs to be reframed asa production and supply fishery, as in Japan. Clarifying this role will promote
policies to improve the fishing and value-adding activities, which will also
increase fishers’ income. Moreover, the activities for resource management263

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

and conservation can be sustainable. Promoting the social role of small-scale
fishing will contribute to stable food supplies and sustain the nation.

26429. The Philippines & Japan

Some Thoughts for Japanese Marine Product Distribution through thePhilippines Case Study

Tsutom Miyata
Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency

Fish market at Kalibo, Aklan state, Philippines, T. Miyata, 2015

265

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Japan is experiencing a significant decline in seafood consumption due
to the relatively high price of seafood compared to chicken and pork.
In contrast, the consumption of marine products per capita is high andstable in the Philippines owing to relatively low prices of seafood andsupply chains. Japan’s intermediate costs are about five times higher
than in the Philippines, and this high cost is attributed to a decline inseafood consumption. In addition, Japanese small-scale fisheries catch awide variety of marine products, but there are also underused or unused
products. The Philippines, on the other hand, faces a serious decline inmarine resources due to overfishing. To improve seafood consumption in
Japan, intermediate costs have to be reduced. Moreover, the promotionof local production for local consumption, which is important not only
to reduce supply chain costs but also to maintain the traditional foodculture, and underused and unused marine products, should be achieved.

Introduc onJapan and the Philippines have many commonalities. For instance, theirstaple food is rice, and they eat simmered food, including fish or meat withvegetables, grilled dried fish, raw seafood in vinegar such as Shimesaba inJapan and Kinilaw in the Philippines. There are so many fish species andsmall-fishing boats in these countries. Moreover, both are island countries
with long coastal lines. Small-scale fishing is facing problems in Japan;
fishing households are rapidly decreasing, and so is the consumption ofseafood. In the Philippines, overfishing in small-scale fisheries is on therise (Muallil et al., 2014), but the consumption of seafood per capita is steady.
In this chapter, I consider Japan’s issues concerning seafood consumption
and marine product distribution in the Philippines, especially ways to improveseafood consumption by reducing supply chain costs, wastes, and promoting
local production for local consumption.
266

29. THE PHILIPPINES & JAPANPrices and demand for marine products
Recently, the prices of marine products in Japan are increasing based on thehousehold consumption expenditure per capita (National Statistics, 2017).
Furthermore, the average price of marine products in households has been
increasing since 2009 (Figure 1). However, the consumption of marine
products per capita has been decreasing since 2004 in Japan. Ariji (2012)
stated a decline in marine product consumption is attributed to a suppressionof household income, and the demand shift from not only marine products
but also beef to affordable pork and chicken. Therefore, the demand issue ofmarine products is household income; households cannot keep up with highprices of marine products.

Figure 1. The average price of marine products in Japanese households. Note: Thedata is deflated by consumer price index (2015)
The average price of marine products in a local market, common fish species,in the Philippines is cheap, which these are cheaper compared to regularmeats like beef, pork, and chicken (Amparo et al. 2017). This affordability
is prompted by (1) low rental cost of selling space, as displayed in the above
picture of a Fish Market at Kalibo, (2) low transportation cost from a fishingport to a market due to a short distance and cheap fee of transportation by267

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

a Jeepney, and (3) low commission of middle person, such as a wife of local
fisher (vendor) (Nakahara et al. 2017a). In the Philippines, they have one wet
market/fresh market within a town where all marine products are sold at alow price; this style is native to the Philippines, and it leads to a low-cost
distribution system. The total intermediate cost from buyer to the household
is low, approximately 13% based on the selling price (the case of shrimp)(Nakahara et al. 2017b). In Japan, the total costs from the production area
(auction market) to households in Japan are very high, an average of 67%
of 10 common species (National Statistics 2017). Today, almost all Japanese
consumers buy marine products from a supermarket as opposed to buying
them at a fish shop in a public market or shopping avenue approximately 60
years ago. The prices were lower back then, owing to the low rental costs ofselling space and low transportation costs due to a large proportion of local
production for local consumption (LPLC).

Differences in the market’s needs between Japan and
the Philippines
Japanese consumers have varying food cultures; for instance, they eat various
marine products in each region: Washoku (local cuisines based on their intangible cultural heritage) (Ehara 2015). However, the number of supermarkets
has increased since the 1950s, and the stores sell selected marine products suchas large-catch-quantity species and some imported species. The marketingstrategy has led to a decline in an assortment of marine products; as a result,and local seafood cuisines have been gradually declining. The selected species
have been high pressure by the fisheries, and the fishery resources have led to a
low-level of major species stocks (35% in 84 stocks) (White Paper on Fisheries2017). On the contrary, various small-catch species remain underused orunused (Suzuki 2012).
In the Philippines, fresh local markets in each town/village have a larger
assortment of marine products than in Japan; therefore, many local people
access the markets with ease. The same with Japan cannot be said; the sceneryof the fresh market is only visible at a harvest festival. The fresh local markets
268

29. THE PHILIPPINES & JAPANin the Philippines sell various marine products in various sizes. The foodculture in the country exposes the locals to a variety of seafood, including insmall sizes (Photo 1). Marine products are an important protein source for theFilipinos. There are also fishers to catch marine products for self-sufficiency
to gain the protein. Local fishers catch more fish using many fishing gears
such as trammel net and drive-in net, which they set anywhere in the sea(Miyata et al. 2017). This overfishing is the biggest issue in the Philippines’
fisheries (Altamirano and Kurokura 2010).

Photo 1. Small shrimps on the left and regular-sized shrimps on the right, at
Kalibo fresh market (Photo by T. Miyata, 2015)

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Japanese tradi onal food culture by small-scale fisheries:
LPLC
Supermarkets sell selected marine products, and some marine resources
are underused or unused in Japan. However, consumers buy less marine
products due to rising prices. The Philippines has a big issue as overfishing,but marine products are cheaper than in Japan, and consumption is steady. To
solve seafood consumption problems in Japan, and also inherit their regional
food cultures for Japanese food culture, the country should provide cheaper
marine products to consumers. Marine product prices can be minimized by
reducing wastes in the supply chain in Japan. Consumers prefer raw seafood
to processed marine products due to a superior taste, and it costs a lot toprocess these products. However, commercial fisheries excessively catch
more fish demand using large-scale purse seine and trolling fisheries; thus,
they need to process the catch such as can and feed for aquaculture in thiscase. Conversely, a small-scale fishery can provide a moderate catch for the
local demand because they can catch various species at once. The amount ofcatch by boats is not much. Fishers aim to meet their local demand; they use
local market information before fishing (Ohtani 2012).
There are many underused and unused marine resources in Japan (Suzuki2012); this could be due to consumers not knowing names and tastes of themarine products, not knowing how to cook the marine products, and too small
a catch for distribution. A specialized company for selling underused andunused marine products provides repeated brief announcements and also
point of purchase (POP) to customers at a selling space. The announcements
include cooking tips, health-enhancing ingredients, and information regarding fisheries. These efforts can help raise awareness about the marine products
and reduce the number of underused or unused resources.
Fishers’ wives at an area sell the unsold marine products at a fish auction
in a local producer’s market where they are popular (Ohtani 2012). Owing toreasons stated in the previous paragraph, these marine products are rarely
distributed and shipped to big cities. The wives prepare the fish for easy-tocook by consumers; they also give them tips on how to cook. This is their270

29. THE PHILIPPINES & JAPAN

strategy to sell underused and unused marine products.
Furthermore, metropolitan central wholesale markets gather marine products from all over Japan. This improves the revenue of fishers due to ahigh price; however, the quantity of gathered marine products and totaltransportation cost is huge. For instance, it had been difficult to eat local
oysters for local people within a prefecture because all products had been
shipped to big cities such as Tokyo.

However, oyster barbecue shackschanged the situation after the 2000s, which an oyster farmer or fisherrelated runs a popular simplified restaurant (Miyata 2011). The oysters areshipped by the local Fisheries Cooperative Association (FCA); the organization
decides channels to which they distribute. The FCA has not researched local
consumption for oysters and had taken the best channel to ship the oysters toTokyo for granted. Had they did, they would know there is potential demandin the local market. Today, oyster barbecue shacks are spreading to almost alloyster production areas in Japan.
As elaborated in the Introduction, there is a significant shrinkage of thesmall-scale fisheries in Japan, particularly in local areas. The decline of labors
including fishers in local areas has to do with social trends such as overconcentration in metropolitan areas and dearth of job opportunities in local
areas. The Japanese government acknowledges that forging a relationshipbetween local and urban people is important to overcome the decline (Basic
policy of overcoming population decline and the vitalizing local economy inJapan 2016). The small businesses such as fresh fish shop run by fisher’s wifeand oyster farmer’s restaurant will play a key role in the decline of small-scale
fisheries. Their businesses will increase a fishing household’s income, giving
local people job opportunities and increasing intercommunion between local
and urban people.
Finally, I posited that the decline of seafood consumption in Japan iscaused by the abundance of wastes in the supply chain of marine products
and suppression of household income. Therefore, the establishment of
movements to sell the underused, unused, and unsold marine productscaught by small-scale fisheries could help resolve the dire situation in Japan.
This includes the movement, such as the simplified restaurants run by a271

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

fisher, which are for LPLC and the Sixth Industrialization (Integration ofprimary industry with secondary and/or tertiary industry) (Miyata 2018).
Moreover, the movements will change the overconcentration to metropolitan
supermarkets.

It is increasingly important that the government, local

governments, and stakeholders related to small-scale fisheries support thedevelopment of LPLC and the Sixth Industrialization.

272

30. Vietnam & Japan

Introducing Japanese Community-based Resource Management in
Vietnamese Fisheries

Hidenao Watanab
Marino-Forum 21

Cobia aquaculture, Halong Bay, Vietnam, Watanabe, H. 2017273

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The production of both fishery and aquaculture in Vietnam has continued
to grow. The production of marine fisheries is increasing year by
year. Vietnam’s government tries to increase aquaculture production
furthermore. On the other hand, the number of fishing boats and thetotal engine power are also increasing. The catch amount per-vessel andby unit engine output has been declining since 2007. It is worrying thatover-fishing effort has happened. At the Mekong Delta region, whichis the biggest aquaculture production area, the problem of invasion ofseawater has been happening by the decreased flow of Mekong Riverand other reasons. Such a problem also causes environmental damage
to aquaculture farms and paddy fields. In addition, in the inland waterarea and the coastal area, water quality is deteriorating, or harmful
algal bloom has occurred by increasing wastewater from home andindustry due to rapid economic development and rapidly increasing
human population. Such things bring an adverse effect on aquaculture
and coastal fishery. Vietnam is trying to introduce community-based
resource co-management using coastal fisher groups for the promotionof sustainable fishing, as the coastal and inland fisher group is doing
resource management by themselves, similar to the fishery rights system
in Japan.

Introduction
Vietnam is making efforts for the promotion of sustainable fisheries. Vietnam Government invited me to improve the fisheries resource management
system in Vietnam from March 2016 to March 2019 through JICA technicalsupport scheme. Vietnam is trying to introduce autonomous communitybased resource management by coastal fisher group, similar to the Japanese
way that coastal and inland fisher group is doing resource management bythemselves through fishery rights system. During my stay in Vietnam, I
shared the information and knowledge of the fishery rights system, resource27430. VIETNAM & JAPANmanagement, and Fisheries Support Officer System[1] in Japan to promote
community-based resource management to the fisheries in Vietnam. In thischapter, I focused on the current situation and issues in the fisheries sector in
Vietnam.
Fisheries production
The production of both fishery and aquaculture has continued to grow(Figure 1). At first, the production of fisheries exceeded that of aquaculture,but it was reversed in 2007, and this trend is continuing. There are no catch
statistics by target species or by fishing method. Almost all fishing boats arewooden, and the boats with an output of less than 20 hp (mainly engaged incoastal fishing) are the most common. The production of marine fisheries isincreasing year by year, but the number of fishing boats and the total engine
power are also increasing. Per-vessel and unit engine output catches havebeen declining since 2007, and there is concern that overfishing is occurring.

Figure 1. The fisheries production in Vietnam. Source: Vietnam General Statistic
Office.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Resource management
The fisheries law was amended in November 2017, and the fishery rights
system similar to the Japanese system was introduced with reference to Japan’s
experience and others. This will enable fishers who use the same fisheryresource in the coastal area to autonomously manage their target resources
jointly. Enforcement of the revised fisheries law began in 2019, catch reportby the fishing method was prepared, each fishing vessel has been required tosubmit at the time of port entry, and the report has also been verified by a local
government officer. It is expected that resource evaluation of catch target
species will be done properly by implementing these measures and accurately
accumulating this information.
However, there are no catch statistics by target species or by fishing method
required to evaluate stocks of target species until 2019. Therefore, appropriate
resource assessment has not been done. As a result, resource management
for sustainable resource utilization has not been implemented. In this background, there are not sufficient human resources with knowledge of fisheries
resource management because the government did not acknowledge theimportance of resource management and how to implement it appropriately.
Under these circumstances, the importance of catch statistics is not recognizedin the central and local governments, so it is not possible to evaluate thestocks of target species. As it is not possible to do a stock assessment, fishingand fishing efforts management and resource protection are not sufficiently
done. Also, fishers do not have the ability to properly implement resource
management.
Unfortunately, the Fisheries Support Officer system like Japan has not been
established yet. Such a system is necessary to promote community-based
resource management. I suggested that the government establishes such a
community fisher support system and follows the actual procedure to work
it effectively. The first step is to educate the expected support officer of thestaff of local governments about resource management and how to promote
it to the community fisher group by the central government. Then, such an
educated staff of the local government organizes the group of coastal fishers276

30. VIETNAM & JAPANwho use the same resources and also educates them to be able to do appropriate
management of their target resources. And they will continue to support such
fisher groups to manage resources for sustainable fishing. It is sincerely
expected for the Vietnam government to establish such a support system assoon as possible to promote its community-based resource management.
Furthermore, concerning the resource management of eels, countries suchas the EU have been asking CITES to advance resource management in eel
resource utilizing countries, including Vietnam. For this reason, in orderto maintain the continued sustainable use of eels in Vietnam, the urgent
introduction of the following resource management measures is necessary
such as the introduction of permission system or registration system forpickers and farmer of glass eel, and obligation to report aquaculture volume
and catch amount of glass eel.

Fishing and fishing effort control
The division of fishing operation area is distinguished three areas as offshore,inshore, and coastal, and the engine output of the fishing vessel to be usedis also specified as follows: (1) vessel installed with the main engine capacityof 90 HP or more fishing in offshore water; (2) vessel installed with central
engine capacity from 20 to under 90 HP in inshore water; and (3) powered
vessels with main engine capacity of under 20 HP or non-powered vessels
fishing in coastal waters.
The fishing permission to the fishing vessel is carried out by the provincial
government, which is the mother port of the fishing vessel, and classification
by fishing method in the fishing license is not established. A fishing license
is issued at any time, not updated all at once every fixed year as in Japan.
Therefore fishing effort control has not been properly done. For this reason,
the total number of fishing vessels and used engine output continues toincrease. In addition, since resource evaluation of target species and resource
management has not been properly done, it is worried about fishing in
Vietnam has been falling into excessive fishing capacity since 2007. Fishingmanagement to species that are migrating across wide offshore areas such
277

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

as skipjack, tuna, horse mackerel, mackerel, sardine, and squid is required
throughout the operating area. It is impossible to do by excising the provincial
fishing license system. Fishing management to such species should be doneby the national level.
After the revised fisheries law enforcement, on the management of tuna fishery, the cooperative management system was established with the main tuna
fisheries provinces and the central government, but such a system has not been
applied to other fish species. The offshore quota system was also established.
Due to the vulnerability of the fishing operation monitoring and surveillancesystem, budget and manpower, illegal fishing operations in coastal areas,
inshore areas by large fishing vessels which are not permitted fishing in sucharea, and illegal and unreported operations outside EEZ (Exclusive EconomicZone) are rampant. Because of this situation, in October 2017, the European
Commission (EC) issued a warning to the Vietnamese government, stating thatthe activities to prevent “illegal, unreported, unregulated (IUU) fishery” wereinsufficient. EC requests Vietnam to improve its countermeasure to IUU fisheryin half a year, and if it is deemed inadequate, there is a concern that triggering
embargo on marine products to the EU may be invoked. The EC continues to ask
for the implementation of corrective measures and regularly dispatches a teamto check the status of its response. Vietnam has been revising the Fishery Law
to improve fisheries’ operational management, in response to the points for
improvement from the EU, as follows: (1) mandating fishing vessel operation
monitoring system (VMS) to offshore vessels; (2) strengthening submissionof catch report at the time of landing and strengthening of confirmation
work; (3) strengthening of fishing vessel delivery and entry control; and (4)strengthening provisions for violating operation penalties.
The enforcement activities by the new fisheries law began in 2019, and it isexpected that offshore fishery management will improve rapidly in the future.
And also, I hope Vietnam will address the following issues in the near future.
A) Revise the fishing license system and the fishing vessel construction
permission system to manage the fishing capacity for sustainable use ofresources with proper stock assessment of the target species appropriately.
For instance, introduce fishing license system that permits all licenses at one
278

30. VIETNAM & JAPANtime each fixed years to avoid increasing fishing efforts. Central government
should also take the responsibility of resources management to target spices
which are migrating widely at the offshore area.
B) Strengthen monitoring and surveillance on the operation of large fishingvessels at offshore areas and operations outside the EEZ by introducing VMS.
Strengthen inspections at the fish landing site to check the catch report,organize offshore fisherman’s group, and introduce co-resource management
in offshore area.
C) Implement adequate resource management on eel fisheries by introducing a licensing system to glass eel fishing. In addition, mandate reporting on
the amount of glass eel purchase and product shipment to eel farmers.
D) Introduce a catch certification system in the tuna fishery.
E) Expenditure on the fishing vessel side has increased due to the strengthening of fishery management by introducing VMS and increasing its communication cost. It is necessary to analyze the effect of such an introductionof strengthening of fishery management and also consider the policies for
mitigating such economic impact.

Fishing economic situa on and fishing industry support
policyThe policy, plan, or strategy for support to increase the profit from fishing andprogress of fisheries industry have not been made, so the statistic on fishingincome and expenditure has not been done, and analysis of fishery economic
situation has not also been conducted. For this reason, despite the continuous
excessive fishing effort by increasing the number of fishing vessels, engine
output, and the declining target resource, the government tries to increase
further fishing efficiency and fishing efforts, such as increasing vessel size,
promoting conversion from wooden vessels to steel and fiber reinforced plastic(FRP) ones. In addition, these policies are proceeding without joint use, suchas declining measures not to increase the overall fishing effort. By the above
situation, it is worried that the profit per fishing vessel is getting worse year
by year.
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

There is another concern that an increase in expenditure due to the strengthening of operation regulations accompanying the enforcement of the revised
fisheries law will have a negative impact on the fishing economic situation.
I hope Vietnam will address the following issues in the near future forsustainable progress in the fishing industry. The issues to be addressed are as
follows.
A) Collect information on income, expenditure, and profit of fishery andanalyze the economic situation of fisheries. In addition, take measures such as
limiting fishing capacity, fishing effort to create sustainable profit by fishing,based on the result of target species stock assessment.
B) When promoting policy on developing fishing efficiency and fishingeffort, such as increasing the size of fishing vessels or output of the engine, andpromoting conversion from wooden vessels to steel and FRP fishing vessels,
should take jointly decreasing fishing efforts measures together to avoid anincrease in total fishing effort like as decreasing same effort from existingwooden vessels.
C) It is also necessary to analyze the negative impact of the revised fisheries
law on fishery economic management and to consider policies to mitigate thenegative impact if necessary.

Aquaculture and coastal farms, fishing groundenvironmental problems
As a national goal of aquaculture production, it is set at 4.5 million tons by
2020 and 6.3 million tons by 2030, nearly twice the production volume in 2016.
70% of aquaculture production is from the Mekong Delta area, and the main
cultured species are shrimps and Pangasius. At the Mekong Delta region, theproblem of invasion of seawater has been happening by the decreased flow of
Mekong River and other reasons. Such a problem also causes environmental
damage to aquaculture farms and paddy fields. In addition, in the inland
water area and the coastal area, water quality is deteriorating, or harmful algal
bloom has occurred by increasing wastewater from home and industry due torapid economic development and rapidly increasing human population. Such280

30. VIETNAM & JAPANthings bring an adverse effect on aquaculture and coastal fishery. Under suchcircumstances, excessive use of antibiotics, chemical material, and other badpractices are occurring in aquaculture. Such practice leads to the situationof being forbidden to export aquaculture products. Also, every time when afish dies due to harmful algal bloom or when water pollution happens in the
coastal area, consumers tend to stop purchase fish from such areas.
Concerning the export of shrimp, in the middle of 2018, the export price ofwhite leg shrimp, the main Vietnam export product, dropped sharply due tothe excess supply in overseas export markets, causing a situation in which
farmers’ economic management was hindered. Regarding the production
plan of export products such as shrimp and Pangasius, it is necessary not
only to increase production but also to proceed with an analysis of trends
such as international market demand and production prospects in production
competing countries. The issues to be addressed are as follows.
A) Maintain a healthy environment in coastal areas and aquaculture areas
by regularly conducting water quality monitoring.
B) Develop appropriate environmental standards at aquaculture farms andthoroughly treat wastewater from aquaculture farms.
C) Encourage related ministries and agencies to promote national actionplans concerning the proper treatment of domestic and industrial wastewater.
D) Periodic analysis of international demand trends of major export goods
such as shrimp and Pangasius; and the implementation of production plan
based on analysis results.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Development of fresh fishery domes c market anddistribu on network for supply fresh fishery product andalso decreasing post-harvest loss
In Vietnam, mainly in large cities, the demand for highly fresh seafood suchas sushi and sashimi are increasing year by year. This is based on the factthat the increase in personal income is accompanying remarkable economic
growth. However, product freshness is not well reflected in selling price. Thisis because there is no auction system in domestic fishery product trading, andmany fishers borrow from middleman before going to fishing operation, so
their catch cannot be freely sold and must be handed over to middleman. Fish isalso sold by weight regardless of quality. For this reason, the selling prices are
not made depending on the degree of freshness. Fishers and trading persons
have not made efforts to preserve the freshness of the products during thecatch stage and the subsequent distribution stage. For these reasons, many
post-harvest losses have happened, and the supply of high-fresh fisheryproducts is covered mainly by imported goods from Japan and other countries.
The issues to be addressed are as follows.
A) Introduction of freshness preservation technology at fishing stage; andtechnology for the improvement of the cold storage capacity of the fish tankof the fishing vessel.
B) Improvement of the distribution network to reduce transportation anddistribution time.
C) Open the fresh fishery market for high-quality trading products andinnovate distribution network to keep freshness of products..
D) Establish a dialog scheme or a cooperative relationship between the fishing side, distributer, market side ( retail shops, restaurants) and consumers
for development the distribution network and market for high-fresh marine
products.

282

30. VIETNAM & JAPAN

Figure 2. Workshop on Fisheries Co-resource Management, Binh Tuan Province,
Vietnam, 2017, Watanabe, H.

Endnotes[1] A system introduced in Japan, where the government officers have close
contact with fishing communities and fishers to support fisheries. It hasreached the present through several system revisions since its first introduction in 1959 (Murakami, K. 2014. Potential of Fisheries Support Systemtowards the improvement of problem-solving ability in fisheries and fishingcommunities. Suisan Shinko. Vol 48 No 8. 1-85. In Japanese).

283

31. China & Japan

Focusing on the Present Situation and Its GovernanceFang Chen
Dalian Ocean University
Chen-xing Yang
Shanghai Ocean University

A typical small-scale fishing boat, Mayi Island, Dalian, Liaoning Prov. China, J.
Sun 2016.
284

31. CHINA & JAPANFor a long time, people have paid more attention to large and mediumscale fisheries, and almost no research has been done on small-scale
fisheries. In recent years, FAO has been emphasizing the importanceof small-scale fisheries to the world. According to statistics, 50% of
the directly consumed fish by human beings comes from small-scale
fisheries. With rising global concerns over small-scale fisheries, Chinaneeds to focus more on this critical issue. In this chapter, we mainly
introduce the development of Chinese small-scale fisheries from the
aspects of the concept, scale and management, and make a comparison
with Japanese coastal fishery (small-scale fishery) from the aspects
above to discuss the problems that Chinese small-scale fisheries still
face at present.

Small-scale fisheries in China
At present, there is no unified definition of small-scale fishery in the world,
because its size is largely related to the specific situation of each country or
region. Chinese small-scale fishery has existed since ancient times, but there
is no specific definition of the concept. According to the FAO report (2008),
the definition standards of small-scale fishery in developing countries are
given through case studies, covering the following aspects: (1) gross tonnage,engine power, and type of fishing boat; (2) workplace and local management
factors; and (3) difference of concepts and contexts. According to these criteria,
Chinese researchers, taking into account the specific situation in China, define
small-scale fisheries as “fisheries that do not use fishing boats, use nonmotorized fishing boats instead of motorized fishing boats, or use motorizedfishing boats with main engine power less than 44.1kW to engage in fishing
operations on or off the inland coast.” This definition is based mainly on thestudies in the marine fishing industry; inland fishing is not included in thestudies for the time being (Yang and Zhu and Wan 2011). In the actual marine
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

fishing production, there are very few cases where fishing vessels are not usedor where non-motorized fishing vessels are used. Therefore, the small-scale
fishers in China are mainly using motorized fishing vessels of 44.1kW or lessto fish off the coast and offshore China.
Chinese small-scale fisheries are important but disadvantageous in thefishing industry. The main reason lies in the monopoly of large vessels in
Chinese fisheries, which means that large fishing vessels have relatively strong
viability and relative advantage over small fishing vessels in terms of fishingtechnology and capital sources. Under the environment of rising operating
costs and heavy pressure of fishery policies, some small fishing vessels haveto withdraw from the fishery because they cannot afford to operate; that is tosay, large fishing vessels monopolize marine living resources to some extent.
Although small horsepower fishing boats account for the majority of the total
number of fishing boats in China, they are still less than 20% of the total
power, and cannot compete with large and medium-sized fishing boats when
operating. However, wide Chinese sea areas make it unrealistic to rely on large
fishing boats for fishing operations. Therefore, coastal and offshore fisheries
mainly rely on small-scale fisheries.
Chinese marine motorized fishing vessels and small-scale marine motorizedfishing vessels are decreasing year by year. From this perspective, thedevelopment of small-scale fishery is very limited. But among the 166,300
marine fishing vessels in China, the engine power of about 65.8% is less than
44.1 kW, and 4,604 are non-motorized. This does not include unlicensed or
poorly documented small fishing vessels. Therefore, although the number offishing vessels is declining, small-scale fisheries have an important placein the fishery and provide more livelihood support to fishers engaged insubsistence fishery in coastal areas. At present, the number of fishers in
China is about 18.78 million, of which the number of traditional fishers isabout 6.18 million, almost one-third of the total population of fishers. These
traditional fishers usually take individuals or families as production units,
and in some areas, basic cooperative production in the form of communities
is carried out. However, in the peak season of fishing, extra labors are hired(Su 2016). These small-scale fisheries are largely concentrated in the coastal
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areas of China and mainly fish by using drift nets, open nets, small trawl nets
and other fishing equipment.
Here, we talk about the management of the small-scale fisheries from thetwo aspects of government and civil society organizations. At present, Chinese
fisheries basically follow the principle of “centralized, unified leadership andhierarchical management”, and adopt the same fishery management policy(Chen and Tang 2014). Starting from the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1991-1995),
China implemented a “dual control” system for fishing vessels, that is,
total control over the number and power of fishing vessels operating in thesea. The primary purpose was to protect marine resources by controllingfishing intensity. However, due to the livelihood problems of fishers, theimplementation of the “dual control” system did not achieve the expected
goals. In order to change the negative situation at that time, the Ministryof Agriculture, on the premise of realizing the sustainable developmentof fisheries, introduced new measures in 2003 to implement the policies
of scrapping fishing boats and transferring fishers to other industries as
management measures to control the number of fishing boats in real-time. In
September 2003, the Chinese government set up a special subsidy fund by thecentral financial department to ensure the smooth transition of careers for thefishers. However, there are different subsidy standards in different provincesof China. For example, the amount of subsidy in Shandong Province is higher
than the standard issued by the country. Besides, many small horsepower
fishing boats are limited by the scrapping standard and their owners cannot
get the full subsidy.
In addition, the Chinese implementation of a moratorium on fishing has
also played a role in the management of small-scale fisheries in coastal areas.
Chinese fishing moratorium system was first implemented in the east Yellow
Sea area from 1995 and then extended to the South China Sea, which also
effectively improved the local fishery resources and reduced the cost for
fishers and fishing boats during the marine production. Chinese fishing license
system was first introduced into China in 1979, and at the same time, relevant
management and measures were promulgated. From December 1, 2002, theregulations on the management of fishing licenses began to be implemented.
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However, because the system only limits relatively single elements such as
the number of fishing boats, types of fishing gear, operation mode, permitted
fishing season and fishing boats, it almost equals the standard of free access. In
response to such problems, China has also come up with some new measures,such as collecting fees for the proliferation and protection of fishery resources.
At present, China has also established small-scale fishery organizations,but the number is less than 20,000, accounting for only 2% of the number ofagricultural cooperatives. The establishment of fishermen’s organizations in
China can be divided into two types: one is based on the law of agricultural
cooperatives and regulations on the management of social organizations;the other is organized by fishers spontaneously (Ma 2019). Of course, thepurposes are to protect the rights and interests of fishers and also to protect
the development of fisheries. Such organizations are basically in the form offishermen’s professional cooperatives.
No matter how organized, these small-scale fishery organizations are decentralized in management, and the government directly supervises and manages
the fishers. In terms of operation and management, these organizations havedifferent forms according to different situations of different provinces andcities. For example, the small-scale fishery organizations in Dongying City,
Shandong Province, are relatively standardized. They operate independently
and take responsibility for their own profits and losses. Some small-scale
fishery organizations in Zhejiang Province are organized on a village-byvillage basis and specialize in fishery service stations or fishery offices for
management and operation. From a functional perspective, small-scale
fishery organizations can independently operate projects, mainly as a bridge
between the government and fishers in management and communication,
and assist the government in the agency business, such as ship inspection,
license issuance; in addition, help the government to undertake management
functions, solve disputes, etc. (Yang 2011). But no matter what kind of function,these small-scale fishery organizations do not have the real power of fishery
management.

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Small-scale fisheries in Japan
Japan is a developed country.

Although the small-scale fishery is at a

disadvantage in its own fishery, compared with small-scale fisheries indeveloping countries, the living of fishers is still much easier. Japanese
small-scale fisheries are also not specifically defined. From the previous
research, we can regard Japan small-scale fisheries as coastal fisheries, whichmainly refers to the operation of small-scale motorized fishing boats withcustomized fishing gear or less than ten gross tons within 12 nautical miles ofJapanese territorial sea, including small trawls, gill nets, pole fishing, fixed
nets and other equipment. Coastal fisheries in Japan are also facing a decline inproduction and output value, but the proportion of Japanese coastal fisheries
in total production and output value has been relatively stable or even rising. Of
course, it is also because the economic value of the catches of coastal fisheries
is relatively high. The number of fishers working in Japanese coastal fisheries
is far higher than that in offshore and pelagic fisheries, among which thenumber of self-employed fishers is higher than the employed fishers (Yang2011).
As an island country surrounded by sea, the Japanese government attaches
great importance to the coastal fisheries, the livelihood of fishers who engage
in coastal fisheries, and the protection of fishery resources in coastal areas.
The Japanese government has formulated a series of legal provisions tofacilitate the management of coastal fisheries, such as the Fisheries Law andthe law of coastal fisheries revitalization, which can regulate and guarantee
the use of fishing grounds and the rights that fishers can exercise from thelaw. The fishery rights guarantee the fishers to manage the coastal fisheries,
especially the common fishery rights mainly refer to the specific fishery rights
such as the fishery with seaweed and shellfish as the object, as well as theoperation of the small fixed net, ground hauling net, ship hauling net of
the non-motorized ship, etc. for ten years and are granted to local fisheries
cooperatives. Customized fishery rights refer to the right to use large-scale
fixed fishing gear to carry out fishing production and operation in a certain
area, with a term of 5 years. This authority will give priority to local fisheries289

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

associations, then to individual fishers or other groups. The coastal licensebelongs to a fishery license, which is managed by the governor of prefecturesin Japan, thus it is also called “governor licensed fishery”, with a term of
3 years. For other technical management, such as fishing gear size, meshsize, operation time and area, as well as the relevant rules and regulations forutilization and management, they are formulated by the fishery coordinationgroup.

Differences
Compared with Japanese small-scale fishery organizations, Chinese smallscale fishery organizations are still developing. Japanese fishermen’s cooperative association was established in 1901, which has a history of morethan 100 years. It does not only actively promote fishery production andprotect the interests of fishers, but also significantly promote the sustainable
development of coastal fisheries in Japan. Japanese fishery cooperatives
are authorized to distribute the fishery management rights among themembers. We can say that the fishery cooperative plays an important rolein the marketing of the aquatic product in Japan. Moreover, the Law ofJapanese Fishery Cooperative also provides a solid and powerful legal support
for Japanese fishery cooperatives in the management of small-scale fisheries
and of fishers. In terms of management of small-scale fisheries in China, firstof all, there is no detailed and reliable law to support the establishment of theorganizations. Although the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Farmers’Professional Cooperatives provides certain rules and regulations for theoperation of the organization, there are still substantial differences between
fisheries and agriculture. The law can meet the needs of non-governmental
agricultural organizations, but it cannot meet the needs of small-scale
fisheries organizations. In addition, Chinese small-scale fishery management
right is in the hand of the government, and non-governmental small-scale
fishery organizations are unable to allocate fishery rights independently,
which makes it impossible for Chinese small-scale fishery organizations tocompete in management with Japanese fishery cooperative organizations.
290

31. CHINA & JAPANBesides stabilizing the fishery resources, legal provisions suitable for more
professional management of small-scale fisheries are also essential to Chinese
small-scale fisheries.

291

32. South Korea & Japan

Fishery Rights Structures and Their Influence on Coastal GovernanceYinji Li
Tokai University

Small-scale fishing vessels in Minrak fishing port, Busan, South Korea, M. Joo,
2020

292

32. SOUTH KOREA & JAPANAs neighboring countries, Japan and South Korea have many things incommon. Similarities also exist in their fisheries, which are analyzed
in this chapter. After highlighting the history and structure of fisheryrights in both countries, this text will present a discussion on how
these rights frequently interfere with the activities of other coastal area
users. With current examples, this chapter[1] will explain how therights systems, which grant high use priority and resource management
responsibilities, have a significant influence on coastal governance.
Their impact will be explored through a comparative lens, outlining
the respective characteristics of Japanese and Korean fisheries. Lastly, inlight of these, challenges facing effective and efficient coastal governanceare considered.

Introduc on
It is hard to think of any two countries that are as culturally close to one
another as Japan and Korea. As a Korean who was born and raised in China
but is now based in Japan, I can speak from personal experience about this
topic. For instance, because the Japanese and Korean languages are so closely
related, translation and interpretation between the two have always comemore naturally to me than any other combination of languages. Similarities in
the nations’ fisheries can easily be observed as well. This chapter will analyze
those similarities, first focusing on the countries’ respective fishery rights
systems, and then identifying the current challenges facing their coastal andsmall-scale fisheries.
The structures of fishery rights have contributed largely to ensuring thesustainability of fishery and fishing communities in Japan. However, therole and significance of fishery rights are being questioned, as the nation’s
fisheries undergo downsizing and restructuring (Li 2008). In particular, as
multilateral use of coastal areas becomes further diverse, critics are calling293

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

for more limits on fishery rights, which are considered to be hampering thedevelopment of marine industries. As such, flexibility and cooperation fromstakeholders will be required in responding to new demands and challenges
relating to coastal use. These include harmonizing the interests of coastal
area users and finding ways to improve the economy of local communities.
Whether positive or negative, it is a fact that the existence of fishery rights
has a significant influence on the development of coastal governance. With
all this in mind, how is South Korea handling coastal governance issues, with
their similarly structured fishery rights? Furthermore, what kinds of issues
and challenges do they face?

How have fishery rights been formed?
The fishery rights system in Japan has its roots in the Edo period (1603–1867).
During this time, conventional relations concerning coastal use were formed
based on each territory of the domain head. As a general principle, “coastal
communities [were] granted the rights to have exclusive access to theirbordering waters, and the outer offing of rocky shores [were] opened to fishers
in nearby communities” (Tanaka 2003). In 1875, a new system was put inplace, where fishery operators were required to submit an application andpay fees for the use of a marine area. These sudden institutional changes
resulted in chaos, forcing a legislative revision made principally to returnto previous customs. Since then, the existing structure of fishery rights has
been perpetuated without change, upheld by the first Fisheries Act of 1901, its
subsequent revisions, and the current Fisheries Act of 1949 (Aotsuka 2000).
The development of fishery rights in Korea can be divided into the time
before and during the Joseon period (1392-1897), the Korean Empire period(1897-1910) when the nation’s Fisheries Act was first enacted, and the periodof the Korean Fishery Ordinance during the annexation of Korea (1910-1945)(Kim 1992). Before and during the Joseon period, fishing is said to havebeen an extralegal, unregulated, and uncontrolled activity, although it wasconsidered to be under state ownership as an extension of the concept that allland belonged to the emperor. During the Korean Empire, the Fisheries Act of294

32. SOUTH KOREA & JAPAN1908 was established, recognizing fishery as an industry under the national
system for the first time (Kim 1992). Finally, during the annexation of Korea,
the Fishery Ordinance was promulgated by the Japanese government, which
abolished the existing Fisheries Act while introducing the current fisheryrights system, upheld through the establishment of fishers’ associations andrules on how rights would be enforced. The Korean Fishery Ordinance of1929 then designated tendered fishing rights to be property and prohibited
its transfer. This system of rights was acknowledged by the post-liberation
Fisheries Act of 1953, and despite subsequent revisions, the structure of fisheryrights has not changed since the time of the Korean Fishery Ordinance (Lee andShin 2000). In summary, it can be confirmed from the historical developmentof the fisheries system that Japan and South Korea have similar fishery rights
structures.

How do fishery rights compare?
As can be expected, Japan and Korea define and classify fishery rights in many
similar ways. Fishery rights are: (1) exclusive rights to operate fishery in acertain period and certain area, (2) granted by the head of the local government,(3) designed to be managed by fishery cooperatives, (4) deemed to be real
rights which cannot be transferred or loaned, and (5) classified by technicalstandards or forms of management. The latter is classified based on whether
they are given to fishery cooperatives or fisheries managed by individuals(Makino 2011; Kim 1992).
However, there are a number of differences in how the two countries
structure the rights. Notable differences are as follows:
A) Japan divides common fishery rights into five types by fishing method,whereas Korea unifies them as community fishery rights.
B) Japan categorizes aquaculture rights into four different types: from class 1
to class 3 demarcated fisheries, and a specific demarcated fishery determinedby aquaculture method. On the other hand, Korea categorizes rights into
five types: collective aquaculture rights for aquaculture conducted withincommunal fishing areas, compound aquaculture rights where aquaculture295

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

involves two or more species, and separate types for algae, shellfish, and fish
aquaculture.
C) In Japan, set-net and demarcated fishery rights are granted for five-year
periods, while common fishery rights are granted for ten-year periods. In
Korea, rights are always granted for a ten-year period, without exceptions.
D) The Fisheries Cooperative Associations in Japan carry out economic
activities in addition to the responsibilities in fishery management, such as
the maintenance of fishing grounds, rules, and resource management, etc. In
Korea, Regional Fisheries Cooperative Associations are mainly responsible formanaging economic activities, leaving fishery management responsibilities
in the care of Fishing Village Cooperatives.
E) With regard to the nature and scale of the fishery organizations. The
Fisheries Cooperative Associations in Japan are corporate bodies with anaverage of 150 members. In Korea, the Regional Fisheries Cooperative
Associations are corporate bodies, while the Fishing Village Cooperatives,
which generally consist of 70 members, is not.
F) Finally, when joining an association, fishers in Japan join the Fisheries
Cooperative Associations, whereas fishers in Korea often join both the Regional Fisheries Cooperative Associations and Fishing Village Cooperatives,because joining the former is a common precondition for joining the latter.
To summarize, although both countries have adopted a similar system offishery rights, differences can be observed in how they are structured.

How do fishery rights impact coastal governance?
This chapter focuses on the impact of fishery rights on coastal governanceby influencing resource management and conflicts over coastal use. Before
going into detail, it is first necessary to look into how the two countries
define coastal fisheries, which are considered to be small-scale fisheries inthis chapter. According to the National Federation of Fisheries Cooperative
Associations (NFFCA 2005), coastal fisheries in Japan are considered to befisheries that employ fishing vessels under 10 mt, and that conduct operations
lasting less than a day. These also include aquaculture and set-net fisheries.
296

32. SOUTH KOREA & JAPANThis is in contrast to offshore fisheries, which are fisheries using fishingvessels between 10 to 200 mt. These vessels usually operate trips lastingfrom a few days to one month, navigating multiple areas. In Korea, coastal
fisheries are defined by the Fisheries Act. Article 41 describes them as fisheries
that use fishing vessels under 10 mt. These differ from offshore fisheries,
which include fisheries that use vessels larger than 10 mt, along with selectfisheries that use fishing vessels under 10 mt in special need, based on the
Presidential Executive Order. Coastal fisheries in the two countries involve
fishery rights-based fisheries and governor-licensed fisheries, both of whichhave significant working relationships with fishery cooperatives, as well as
officially recognized rule-making rights granted to fishery operators.
With this in mind, the impact of fishery rights on resource management
may now be examined. Dividing the dynamically changing production offisheries by the fishing sector allows for the observation of a distinctive
phenomenon. That is, despite volatility in the total output of Japanesefisheries, trends show that the production of the coastal fishery, in particular,
has remained a certain size (Figure 1a). In other words, the Japanese coastal
fishery sector maintains relatively stable production, while the total outputof the fishing industry expands and contracts. Apart from the changes in
the international circumstance and resource fluctuations, the presence of thefisheries governance system typified by the fishery rights system is included as
the cause of such a phenomenon (Lou 2014). We can find similarities in Korea
when comparing coastal and offshore fisheries with distant-water fisheries(Figure 1b). However, statistics available to the public do not differentiate
coastal fisheries from offshore ones. Therefore, the trends of the coastal
fisheries are needed for further examination.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Figure 1. (a) Fishery output in Japan. Annual Statistics of Fishery and Fish Culture(Fisheries Agency website). (b) Fishery output in S. Korea. Korean Statistical
Information Service (KOSIS).
Fishery rights also play a role in developing conflicts over the use of coastal
areas, which has become increasingly diverse and sophisticated over time. In
Japan, adjustments to fishery rights have been made in order to accommodate
industrial projects such as land reclamation, as well as to make room for otherfisheries that are not fishery-rights-based. More recently, fishery rights298

32. SOUTH KOREA & JAPAN

have also been adjusted to allow for recreational fishing, commercial diving
operations, pleasure boat leisure, the development of offshore wind power
generation, and more use of the coast by the public. Between all of theseinterests, competition for fishery resources, amenities, and spaces has formed.
In particular, there has been growing interest in using coastal areas to develop
natural energy projects as a result of the fallout from the Great East Japan
Earthquake of 2011 (Tobata 2005). Therefore, further adjustments between
coastal fisheries and the renewable energy industries are being sought. Korean
fisheries are also in a situation similar to Japanese in those adjustments tofishery rights that are being made to make way for an increasing number ofcoastal area users. That is, apart from the existing adjustment issues within
fisheries as well as between fisheries and reclamation development, Korea isalso confronted with the challenges of adjustments over fisheries with marine
recreational activities (Park et al. 2014), and renewable energy development asnews articles claim for a just development can be often seen today (e.g., “MustStop, Reckless Development of Offshore Wind Farm”, Busan Ilbo, October 15,2018).
Through formal laws and regulations such as the Fisheries Act and the
Public Waters Reclamation Law, both Japan and Korea have established acompensation system for fisheries in order to help reconcile conflicts overcoastal use. However, the system falls short of responding effectively to issues
today in coastal governance, with its increasing wickedness and complexity(Jentoft and Chuenpagdee 2009). In an effort to improve the situation, coastal
communities are working to lead new initiatives with an emphasis on sharedpartnerships in both countries. One example of this in Japan is a concept
known as the Umigyo initiative, which promotes a suite of activities led byfishers and fishers’ organizations, such as recreational fishing, scuba diving
services, and seafood restaurant, direct sale stores, etc. (Lou 2013). Anothernotable case of collaboration between fisheries and other stakeholders can befound in the Setana community of Hokkaido, where wind power generationequipment and kombu seaweed aquaculture coexist (Tobata 2005). Examples
in Korea include the Fishery Experience Village Program, which promotes theengagement of fishing communities in ecotourism (Yang and Moon 2009).
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Conclusion
As discussed above, fishery cooperatives and fishery rights are similarly
positioned in Japan and Korea. They play central roles in supporting local
communities, cultures, and economies in both countries. On top of being vitally important for other purposes, fishery rights, in particular, are essential inprotecting the standard of living of fishers, providing organizational structure
to fisheries, and helping to conserve marine resources and the environment(Li et al. 2014; Choe 1998). However, the adjustment cost is massive, with therising number of other coastal users. Various solutions are being explored to
improve their outlook in addition to the conventional adjustment measuresin both countries. On the other hand, Japanese and Korean fisheries differ
in a few ways. For example, Fishing Village Cooperatives in Korea are smallin scale and do not have as much economic influence as compared to thosein Japan. As a result, they play a minor role in coastal governance but arecomplemented by a great variety of other structural organizations. Efforts toresolve disputes surrounding coastal use in Korea are often led or supportedby the government, with fishing Village Cooperatives serving as steering andmanaging bodies (Kim 2017).
In order to work towards the harmonious use of coastal areas while taking
into account the diversifying needs of its users, it will be necessary to promoteand structure organizations with specific responsibilities such as resource
management, environmental conservation, and the revitalization of profitable
activities such as recreational fishing, dining, and the merchandising of
local products. The creation of such a coordinated system will not only
depend upon strong government support but will also require innovation andcollaboration among stakeholders. Looking to the future health of smallscale communities, it would be wise to enlist the longstanding expertiseof existing organizations like Fisheries Cooperative Associations in Japanand Fishing Village Cooperatives in Korea. Their attachment, pride, andcommitment to the prosperity of their local environments will be invaluable
to the development of healthy working relationships in coastal areas.

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Acknowledgments
This work was partially supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
JP17K12861.

Endnotes[1] This chapter was rewritten based on the Conference Proceedings (2018) of
the Japanese Association for Coastal Zone Studies. The Japanese fishery rights
structure in this chapter refers to that before the fishery system reforms madein 2018.

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33. Taiwan & Japan

Small-Scale Fisheries Characteristics, Issues and Policy Comparison

Ching-Chun Chen
National Taiwan Ocean University

A small fishing port with traditional temples. Pingtung, Taiwan. Chen C., 2018302

33. TAIWAN & JAPANThe purpose of this paper is to describe the characteristics, status,difficulties and policy measures of small-scale fisheries in Taiwan andto compare them with those in Japan. The main content of this article issummarized as follows. Small-scale fisheries in Taiwan mainly include
small fishing boats operating in the coastal waters, basically familyowned operations with low fishing efficiency and low proportion of
production. However, the number of fishing boats and fishers employedis high, resulting in over-utilization of fish resources, low incomeof fishers, and other social economic and environmental problems.
Therefore, over the past years, the government has been adopting
several measures to regulate fisheries, limit fishing efforts, protect andrehabilitate resources, to pursue sustainable use of fish resources. Also,
this paper illustrates the similarities and differences of SSF between
Taiwan and Japan.

Introduc on
According to the type and size of operation units, fisheries in Taiwan can beroughly divided into three types, one is far-sea fisheries, which is capitalized
large-scale enterprise, engaged in international business and fishery management, mainly including longline tuna, purse seine for tuna, torchlight net forsaury, squid jigging. The value of this type of fishery accounts for more than
50%. The second type is intensive capitalized aquaculture fisheries, based onhigh biotechnology, mainly including high-priced fishes such as eel, grouper
and abalone. Its production account for about 30% of total fisheries production.
The largest category of fisheries in Taiwan is the third type - traditional smallscale fisheries. Based on Taiwan’s fishery statistics, it includes coastal andoffshore fisheries, the former refers to unpowered fisheries, the latter for
fisheries below 50 tons of fishing boats, with traditional and family style ofsmall-scale fisheries, and operating in the coastal and offshore waters. These303

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

are the definition and scope of the so-called small-scale fisheries (SSF) in
Taiwan.
There were many types of SSF in the early years in Taiwan. Among them,
Taiwan-purse-seine has the highest (58%) production, followed by small
and medium trawls (20%), tuna longline and pole and lines boats (15%), gillnets and set net fisheries have the least production. Taiwan’s small-scale
fishing industry is characterized by the largest number of fishery operatorsand employees, accounting for more than 60% of the total over the past years.
The fishing boats are small but numerous, and they account for more than
80% of the total. However, due to the lack of fish resources in coastal waters
and the low efficiency of fishing gear, their production is quite low, less than
20% now, down from 40% in the 1970s. In addition, the fisher’s income is also
low, so they need to have side-jobs to support their families. The percentage
of fishery production, number of fishing boats, and employed persons in past
years are shown in Table 1.

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Table 1. Role of SSF in Taiwan’s fisheries. Data source: Calculation based on datafrom Taiwan Fisheries Yearbook

In summary, Taiwan SSF has the following characteristics: Small size offishing vessels and fishing gear: usually less than 50 tons, or no power offishing vessels, fishing efficiency is low. Most SSF are family or partnership
operations, and fishing labor mainly comes from family members of theoperator; there is a labor shortage problem in recent years. Operating inadjacent waters, mainly within 20 nautical miles, not exceeding the domestic
economic waters. Except for a few self-selling channels, the fishery product ismainly sold through wholesale markets or traffickers, resulting in low industry
profits and low fishers’ income.

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Comparison of small-scale fisheries between Taiwan andJapan
According to the relevant information and data, the differences and similarities of SSF between the two countries are as follows. In terms of similarities,
the SSF in both countries are family-run, and the labor force mainly comesfrom members of the fishing families. The fishing areas are mainly located on
the coast and near-by waters, not far from the fishing port base. The fishingboats are mainly small and medium-sized, together with lots of non-poweredfishing boats and rafts. In recent years, both countries face with the problem ofshortage of fishery labor. Both countries are making great efforts to promoteautonomous fisheries management with a responsible fisheries system tostrictly manage catch efforts. They attach importance to the conservation offishery resources and promote the release of artificial reefs and fry. Both arepromoting recreational fisheries and transforming SSF, focusing on the qualityof the product, protection of fish resources, and improvement of seafoodmarketing. Finally, Japan and Taiwan have good fishermen’s organizations,such as fishing associations in Taiwan and cooperative fisheries associationsin Japan, to assist the operation of SSF.
There are also many differences between the two countries. Geographically,
Japan is an archipelago country with many islands and fjords. The coastal
waters are wide, and the surrounding sea area is much larger than Taiwan.
With abundant and diversified fish resources in the coastal water, Japan
has a large number of small-scale fishing vessels and a high proportion of
production. Overall, Japan’s small-scale fishing, production, and proportion
are much larger than that of Taiwan. Japan’s fishing technology and gear are
generally better than Taiwan’s. The price of fish is higher too, so the family
economy of its small-scale fishers also seems to be much better.

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Problems existed and measures implemented in Taiwan
Many difficulty problems exist in Taiwan’s SSF in recent years, mainly
including over-utilization of fishery resources, the pollution of marine
ecological environment, the destruction of important habitat ecologicalenvironment, and illegal fishing operations. These problems attribute to
the following key factors. First is the insufficient fishery resources. Although
Taiwan is surrounded by all sides of the sea, there is a deep and long Taiwan
Strait on the west side, while the east coast faces the Pacific Ocean with wideand deep water, lack of gulf, fjords and continental shelf. This situation results
in a limited sea-shed and shortage of good fishing grounds for the SSF. Second,in order to increase their income, fishers raise their fishing effort using theadvanced fishing method and fishing gear in the limited resource, which leads
to the vicious cycle of poor resource and difficulty of production. So, the key
factors to solve the problems are effective management on the fish resource,
e.g. over-utilization of resources should be strictly prohibited, and improving
ocean ecological environment to increase fish stocks. In addition, some goodmarketing channels also need to be designed to raise product value and the
producer’s income. In recent years, a series of measures have been carryingout by the Taiwanese government to deal with the difficulties of the SSF, andthey are classified into the following four types.
1. Measures of fishing effort reduction, which include: (1) Restrictionsof fishing boat building: Since 1967, a decommissioning system has been
implemented for trawlers below 300 tons, stipulating that if a new fishingvessel is built, an equal size of fishing vessels must be eliminated first. Since
1989, such a decommissioning system has been adopted on all offshore fishingvessels; (2) Acquisition of fishing vessels: The first phase of the fishing vesselacquisition plan implemented in 1991-1995, during that time, 2,337 fishingvessels of 120 million tons were acquired and eliminated. The second phaseof the acquisition plan has been carried out since 2000, 921 fishing vessels,
165,000 tonnage, and 1,646 fishing rafts were acquired between 2000 and2011; and (3) The reward for voluntary no-fishing: Reward the fishing boats
for parking in port and not fishing.
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2. Promote responsible fisheries and adopt conservation measures for some
important fisheries. For some essential capture fisheries, set up rules of nofishing areas and no-fishing season, restrictions of dangerous fishing gearand methods, stipulate minimum fish length and species, and measures tocheck catch status. Such restricted fisheries include: (1) Regulatory measures
for trawl fishing: Trawler fishing vessels are prohibited to operate within 3
miles from the shore. The fishing vessels below 50 tons are not permitted
to operate in the 3-12 miles water zone; (2) Regulatory measures for gill net
fishing: Gill net fishing within 200 nautical miles of Taiwan shall be approvedby the competent authority, their fishing vessels shall not exceed 100 tons, andthe net length should be less than 2.5 kilometers. All types of fishing vessels
are not allowed to convert into gill net vessels or equipped or carry with therelated equipment without the approval of the government. The gill-netting
prohibition zone and season are also defined, and the use of multi-layer gillnetting is also restricted; (3) Regulatory measures for anchovy touch light net
fishing: Set total allowable catch and county/city quotas for anchovy touch
light net fishing, and do annual review. There are three months of no-fishing
start from the beginning of May. It is also stipulated that fishing vessels shallfill in fishing logs and organize self-regulatory management organizations;(4) Regulatory measures of flying fish roe fishery: The permitted harvest
period is 2 to 3 months a year, and the total allowable catch and quotas for eachcounty and city are set, which are reviewed regularly every year: the designatedunloading fishing ports and berths, and the inspection of catches and fishinglogs. They also have to accept boarding inspection by officers of marine patroland fishery administration, and accept observation and inspection by assigned
observers; and (5) Regulatory measures of mackerel fishery: It is stipulated
that the mackerel fishing boats are prohibited from fishing within six miles,
also prohibited fishing within 12 miles for the boats of more than 100 tons. Allfishing boats operating in the Northeast Sea at 24 degrees north latitude mustobtain the operation permit, and comply with relevant regulations such as theannual fishing ban in June each year, reporting of ship positions, restrictions
on entering and exiting fishing ports, filling in the fishing log, and open
trading of catches.
308

33. TAIWAN & JAPAN3. Promotion of resource cultivation and marine environmental protection
to increase fish stocks. Important measures include: (1) Seedling release: Bymeans of artificial breeding technology, healthy and high-quality fish andshellfish seedlings are incubated and released in large quantities to effectively
increase the abundance of fishery resources. At present, about 10 million fish
are released every year, mainly important fish species; (2) Launch artificial fish
reefs and promote habitat conservation: So far, Taiwan has set up a total of 88
artificial reef areas with a total area of 237 square kilometers. The reefs include
cement reefs, electric pole reefs, steel reefs, ship reefs, and warship reefs,
mainly steel reefs and ship reefs. The purpose of habitat conservation is topreserve biodiversity and protect the ecological environment of coastal waters.
Since 1978, important ecological areas or species have been designated as
fishery resource conservation areas. So far, a total of 28 fisheries conservation
areas have been set up, covering a total area of 5,362 hectares. The major
protected aquatic animals and plants are: abalones, lobster, some species ofclams, sea urchin, laver, coral reef fish, and sea snail, etc.; and (3) Eliminate
coastal pollution sources: Under the guidance of environmental protection
units, deal with pollution at the fastest speed, trace the source of pollution,and reduce the damage to the marine environment and marine life.
4. Assist SSF to transform from traditional fisheries to recreational fisheries.
Transformation of SSF from traditional to recreational fisheries can reduce
fishing catch and resource destruction, and increase fishers’ income. The
following types of recreational fisheries can be used as the direction of SSF’s
transformation in Taiwan: (1) The fishermen’s organization jointly operates
the experiential leisure fishery, including fishing village life experience andvisit, fishing village homestay, visit set nets and cage net farms(2) Guide
fishing boats to transform into ecological tours, whale watching, boats
cruising and other tourism and leisure activities(3) Help fishers’ families
to run direct sale business in the tourist seafood market or fishing village
snacks; and (4) The government conducts various cultural and educational
activities to promote the traditional cultural characteristics of SSF, including
fry releasing activities, fishery heritage museums, marine life aquariums,
309

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

painted fishing villages, temple fairs and festivals in fishing villages, etc.

Main findings and conclusion
1. The government is concerned about SSF, listing it as an important target
for counseling. Although SSF are of little importance in production, thegovernment still pay attention to its operation status and various difficult
issues, mainly for the following reasons. It provides fresh aquatic productsthat are most preferred by local people and serve as the most important sourceof animal protein. The number of small-scale fishers in Taiwan accounts
for a high proportion of over 70% of the total. So, from the perspectiveof election politics, it always is given high value by political parties, andthe government. The average income of small-scale fishers is generally
low. In order to improve the income of fishers, the government must pay
much attention to SSF and help to improve their operating environment. SSF,
which cover many traditional forms, have many cultural characteristics inthe lifestyle of fishers and the use of fishing gear and methods, and deserve
to be preserved and promoted as part of national culture. The coastal waters
and fish resource operated by SSF are the major part of natural resources of
the country, but currently, fish stocks have been overfished. In order to avoid
continuous damage to state-owned natural resources, the government mustwatch on these SSF and give appropriate guidance and management. Overall,
the government’s emphasis on SSF is mainly based on these socio-economic,
cultural and resource protection considerations.
2. Review of the effectiveness of policy measures on SSF. To measure
the various important policies and measures undertaking in Taiwan which
mentioned above, they mainly include: (1) reduction of fishing effort; (2)promotion of responsible fisheries; (3) strengthening fishery management
system for important fisheries; (4) conservation of fishery environment;and (5) assisting SSF to transform into recreational fisheries. The results ofreviewing the implementation of these measures are as follows. With regard
to the measures reducing fishing effort, including restricted construction offishing vessels, acquisition of fishing vessels, and reward for stopping fishing,31033. TAIWAN & JAPANthese measures are clear in content and easy to implement. Therefore, they
have an almost good immediate effect, except for large budget expenditureby the government. With regard to the measures of promoting responsible
fisheries and strengthening fishing control on the special fisheries, such as
trawl fisheries, shark fishing, anchovy fishing, fly fish roe fishing, Sakura
Shrimp fishing, etc., the performance of all those measures, only a few, mainly
the Sakura shrimp fishing achieved the best results, through a complicate
cooperative marketing system. The performance of the implementation of
the rest measures has not been significant. Among various measures forthe promotion of resource cultivation and marine environmental protection,and it seems that the release of seedlings can most directly increase thenumber of fish resources. However, because the season, both the east andwest sides of Taiwan, have strong large currents passing through, it is difficult
to scientifically determine the effectiveness. With respect to the measuresof artificial fish reefs and habitat environment settings, this has provento be effective in the restoration of resources. In addition, in expanding
education and advocacy, it can strengthen the public’s awareness of marine
environmental protection. I believe that it should have good long-term effects
on the maintenance of the marine environment and fishery resources.
3.

Prospects of SSF in Taiwan.

Due to the limitation of the marine

environmental space and natural fish resources, it is difficult to have moreroom for development. Looking ahead, its fish production ratio will continue
to decline year by year, but it will continue to play an important role in the
supply of the domestic fish market to maintain the necessary self-sufficiency
rate of aquatic products in Taiwan and to meet the Taiwan people’s preferences
for fresh seafood products. In addition, with the importance of protecting
marine resources and fishing village environmental, and the government’s
efforts in recent years to assist SSF in transforming and operating recreational
fisheries, SSF in Taiwan will play an important role in the leisure industry in the
future. The development of SSF should be combined with the reconstruction offishing village communities and develop into an important peripheral industry
for national leisure tourism.

311

34. The Marshall Islands & Japan

A View of the Small-Scale Fisheries from a Small Island in the Pacific

Manabu Echigo
INTEM Consulting, INC

View of a typical remote island, Wotje Atoll, Marshall Islands, Echigo, 2011312

34. THE MARSHALL ISLANDS & JAPANThe Marshall Islands is a tiny island nation in the middle of the Pacific
Ocean. The scale of the coastal fisheries is very small, and they use fishinggear such as spearfishing, bottom-line with canoes and traditional drivefishing referred to as “Jolok.” The country has traditionally relied heavily
on fishery resources, while on remote islands, subsistence fishery is still
an important means of the food supply. The fishery activities of the
Marshall Islands are also key elements of the tradition and culture; hence
the Chiefs have been managing resources for important fish species.
In other words, in the Marshall Islands, especially in remote islands,
subsistence fisheries have a very important role in terms of food security,
human health, and cultural inheritance, which cannot be replaced bymoney. There is much to be learned in Japan and Western countries fromthe cases of subsistence fisheries in the Marshall Islands.

What is the Marshall Islands?
Blue sea, blue sky. Coconut trees grow behind the white sands, and white terns
fly in the sunny skies. A beautiful coral reef spreads out in the transparent
sea that you can see in which you have an unimpeded view no matter how
deeply you dive, and you can swim with damselfish, parrotfish and many othercolorful fishes. Close your eyes and imagine. The country in which you canimagine the beautiful tropical coral reef seas, all with their sights, is the starof this section. Do you know a tiny island nation called the Marshall Islands?
It is an island nation consisting of 29 atolls scattered almost in the centerof the Pacific Ocean, near the intersection of the equator and the dateline.
It is an extremely small country with a total land area of only 180 m2 and a
population of only 50,000. The Marshall Islands had been influenced by Japanas it was Japan’s trust territory of the League of Nations approximately 25 years
from 1919 to the defeat of WWII. Japan was involved heavily in the economic
development of the country before the war, and at that time, Katsuobushi
313

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE(dried bonito) was produced and actively exported to Japan.
There are no mountains on the atoll. When viewed from an airplane, the low
land terrain that is almost at sea level seems like a rubber band that is floatingon the ocean. There are no rivers because there are no mountains. Since there
is no influx of nutrients and sediment from the land, the coastal seawater isextremely transparent, beautiful and suitable for growing coral reefs. The
Marshall Islands, as the name implies, is a country of “islands.” Fishes andother marine products are very important resources for people due to the small
land area and its low productivity. Everyone loves fish and eating raw fish is
as popular as it is in Japan. In particular, forktail rabbitfish (Siganus argenteus)
and skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) are favorites of Marshallese. Many people
understand the deliciousness of fresh rabbitfish or skipjack. “Sashimi” was a
Marshallese language long before it became common in the Western countries.
In recent years, cheap imported chicken has become the mainstream of animal
protein consumption in the town area, but Marshallese’s DNA still strongly
remembers that they are fish lovers. I went to the Marshall Islands for the
first time in October 2002, and I didn’t expect to be involved in the country fornearly a decade. This article is based on my experience in a series of fisheries
management and development projects by the Overseas Fishery Cooperation
Foundation of Japan and the Marshall Islands Marine Resources Authority.

Is there no fishing village in the Marshall Islands?
That was early 2003. As part of the baseline study for the project, I wastraveling with my counterpart, Mr. Beyong, to villages on the project siteof Arno Atoll (OFCF 2006). I still clearly remember walking for miles on astony tidal flat under the strong tropical sunshine since the boat went agrounddue to low tide. I was welcomed by a host of mosquitoes in the villages inwhich I arrived after a long and tiring drive in a rusty pickup truck. Visiting
the three isolated villages by two hours of boat traveling and a long drive bytruck was quite taxing. It was night when I returned, but the surface of thecalm lagoon lit by the moonlight was so wonderful.
Each village has a small population and a similar fisheries condition.
314

34. THE MARSHALL ISLANDS & JAPANInterviews with village representatives almost included the response that“one in every household has a fisherman,” and together with copra (ripened
coconut) production, there is no doubt that fishing is one of the village’s key
industries. However, on most remote islands, the sale of catches is limited to
the village, and is basically subsistence fishery. The main fishing methods on
the islands are spearfishing, bottom handline fishing, skipjack trolling, andtraditional drive fishing, called “Jorok or Alele.” The spearfishing is basicallyoperated with underwater lights at night. Often, fishers enter the sea with agroup from the beach in front of the village and operate for several hours whilepulling a floating basket to hold their catches. Most catches are consumed bythemselves and their families, along with bottom fishing by canoes. Fishing
operations by boat are basically for the purpose of selling because it requires
fuel costs for the engine.
“Jolok” is an interesting fishing method and element of Marshallese culture.
At first, search for a target fish school of forktail rabbitfish, “Mole,” and/or
parrotfish in the shallow sandy area, and install a gillnet or small scoop net.
Then, a long rope in which coconut leaves are bound every few meters is set
up to enclose the fish school. Divers squeeze the rope that surrounds the fish
school and drives them into the gillnet. During this time, the rope floats on
the surface of the water, and only a few coconut leaves drive the fish until
they are easily caught by the net. As you may know, there is a similar fishingmethod in Okinawa.
During this survey, I had strange feelings regarding two findings. First,
almost no fishing boats or gear were seen in any village. Some of Yamaha’s
18-feet fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) boats and small size outboard engines or
traditional canoes were found, but the number was too small compared with
the number of fishers in the village. Moreover, there were only a few sets offishing gear, even in fisher’s houses. Few fishing boats were operating along
the coast, which deviated from the information obtained in the interview. But
the reason was apparent soon afterward. They use fishing boats and gear
together with others in rotation. Namely, fishers who want to go fishing on agiven day start work by looking for the fishing gear they will use or rent a boat
from a boat owner and call others to go fishing together.
315

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Another thing I found strange was that people of the Marshall Islands did nothave specific words for the fisheries industry, professional fishers or fishingvillages. When listening to the translation by my counterpart in the interview
survey, I could not find the words that describe the concept of the fishery as
an industry or a person dedicated to fishing as an occupation. Fisheries area vital part of Marshallese’s lives. It is strange that there are no words for it.
While staying at the project accommodation in Arno Atoll, I suddenly found theanswer when looking at the starry sky. The hint is a certain old fisher’s words.
“All Marshallese men naturally are fishers. A man should be a fisherman”.
From birth, Marshallese men have been fishers traditionally. That must havebeen going on since the first people arrived on these islands long ago. If a malehas the same meaning as fisher, then life and “engaging in the fishery” aresynonymous, and if fishery activity is conducted in all villages throughout thecountry, there is no need specific words to compare fisheries to other things.
In the Marshall Islands, agriculture and the division of industry have not beendeveloped due to the small land area, and fisheries and marine products were
integrated with people’s lives. The country does not have the fisheries, fishers,
and fishing villages defined by the Asian and European cultural spheres.

Culture of the subsistence fishery and its people’s lives
In the Marshall Islands, most of the catch from artisanal fisheries is for selfconsumption. In recent years, fisheries producing products for sale havebecome mainstream around the area where two populations, Majuro andEbeye, are concentrated, and the government has led the purchase of fish
catches from remote islands and sale to Majuro and Ebeye for the economic
development of the islands (Echigo and Lou 2006). The accuracy is not clear
because the fisheries statistics have not yet been prepared, however, morethan half of the nation’s catch is likely from subsistence fishery since mostof the animal protein sources on remote islands are marine products. In fact,
remote islanders, who have little cash income, are living healthier than town
people because of eating the traditional diet of coconut, breadfruit and fish.
In terms of food security, health and traditional culture, subsistence fishing316

34. THE MARSHALL ISLANDS & JAPANon remote islands plays an important role.
Mole is the most preferred fish in the Marshall Islands. It is the mostimportant fish, not only in taste but also in traditional culture. The best
way to eat this fish is sashimi or deep-fried with just salt as seasoning. The
white meat and elegant taste will be loved by anyone who can understand fish
taste. However, you should be careful to remove the guts immediately after
catching, as the smell will be transferred to the meat. This fish is mainly caught
in spearfishing, gillnets, or Jolok. In the past, Mole was fished only whenthe village chief allowed it by the whole villager participation, and catches
were distributed fairly among the people. The mole was a valuable fish toeat only during important events in the village and religious events such as
Christmas. In addition, Jolok catches a whole school of fish, so it will be
overfishing if anyone operates freely. Since it is a symbolic fish of traditional
culture, it is considered that the resource management, mainly by the chief
was devised (Echigo 2007). However, the spread of underwater lights andgillnets is increasing the crisis of the traditional resource management system.
Mole has a non-fish-like habit of sleeping while lying down on the seabed atnight, making Toshiba’s underwater lights and the Hawaiian trident-spear
threatening weapons for them. The traditional rules of resource management
do not require such modern fishing gear to be regulated, so a new fisheries
management framework is needed.
On the other hand, dolphin drive fishing has been practiced until recently
in Likiep Atoll. According to interviews, dolphin schools could enter lagoons
once a year or somewhat less frequently. When fishers find a dolphin school,
they have discussions with the chief and plan a dolphin drive, and then amessage is sent to other villages on the atoll to inform them of the plan. At
the date and time of the plan, the fishers from each village, who have set
their positions in the vast lagoon, will enter the sea all at once. The menbeat together the stones in their hands and encircle the dolphin school in anarrowing circle. They are swimming with large stones in both hands, so
you can imagine how good the physical skills of the fishers in Likiep Atoll are.
Dolphins frightened by the sound of stones will flee and are finally strandedon the beach. They are captured by villagers and mostly processed into dried317

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

meat for preservation. Sometimes hundreds of dolphins are stranded, but
based on the people’s rule, they should be returned to the sea without being
killed if there is capacity exceeding the local residents’ possible consumption.
Dolphin meat is distributed in proportion to the population of each village.
The distribution of households in each village is fair, and it is said that thedolphin meat is also properly distributed to women and children who could
not participate in fishing. The rules of distribution in the community also
apply to meat from whales that have naturally stranded. The dolphin andwhale meat is a gift from their God that people have obtained unexpectedly.
There is a culture and lifestyle that everyone fairly divides food according to
the rules of the village and gives thanks for having the food.

Subsistence fishery on the Marshall Islands and Japan
In present Japan, fisheries are understood as an occupation producing an
income source, even at a small scale. Of course, fishers often consume someof their catches at home, but generally, fisheries can be a source of income. It
is the same in many other Asian or Western countries. It also shows that many
Japanese fishers refer to the fishing operation or method as “business.” On
the other hand, traditional self-sufficient fishing continues in the MarshallIslands. Many remote island residents have lived rich and healthy lives, eventhough they have scarce cash. In addition, fishing is conducted based on
ritual rules during important events and religious events in the village, and
it is customary for villagers to share and eat catches. The dolphin and whale
meats as a gift by God, sent once or somewhat less often a year, has been an
opportunity to unite the villagers scattered around the atoll. Subsistence
fisheries maintain these traditions and people’s lives. This can never be
replaced by cash. In other words, the subsistence fisheries in the MarshallIslands are very important from the aspects of food security, human health,and cultural inheritance. Nevertheless, it is also true that modern society
requires some cash income. This is probably the issue that leads to overfishingof coastal fisheries resources, which in turn affects the continuance of thesubsistence fishing. It can be said that the challenge of coastal fisheries31834. THE MARSHALL ISLANDS & JAPANin the Marshall Islands in modern times is to manage fisheries resources
with appropriate management mechanisms that are compatible with modern
fishing methods in addition to traditional ones and ensure the sustainabilityof food production, cash income, and traditional culture.
Japan is a country with one of the most developed small coastal fisheries
in the world, and this is proved by many of the examples in this book. The
Marshall Islands, on the other hand, is probably one of the world’s mostfisheries-dependent and small-scale fisheries nation. The world is now
experiencing rapid changing global trends, such as increased productionand enclosure of resources by emerging countries as populations and living
standards rise. In that context, The Marshall Islands subsistence fishery is ofnegligible size, but still maintains many practices and social systems which
Japan and Western countries have lost and should relearn. A tiny country in the
middle of the Pacific Ocean still has a primitive community amidst the wave
of modernization. This is just a small case, but I still believe it is an important
aspect of the small-scale fisheries study that should not be forgotten. I hopethat the publication of this book will lead to further research on subsistencesmall-scale fisheries.

319

35. Malawi & Japan

Community-based Innovations Driven by Small-scale Fishers in a Least
Developed Country

Tetsu Sato
Ehime University

Small-scale Fishers using chilimila net (open water seine) to catch Utaka (openwater planktivorous cichlids) in Lake Malawi, T. Sato, 2019320

35. MALAWI & JAPAN

Republic of Malawi is a landlocked least developed country in Southeast
Africa, where Lake Malawi supports life of many small-scale fishers andfisheries industries, providing indispensable animal protein for people inthe country. In riparian communities of Lake Malawi, various innovative
actions to manage fisheries resources and supporting ecosystems havebeen mobilized by autonomous actions of small-scale fishers.

In

Chembe village inside Lake Malawi National Park, unforced controlof fishing activities by fishers themselves contribute to reduced fishingpressures upon important resources. In Salima district, a traditional
authority and small-scale fishers have continued seasonal closure ofimportant fishing ground since 1950s with sophisticated enforcement
mechanisms. Recently, Satoumi-type creation of an artificial habitat
and fishing ground has been conducted successfully in Chembe throughtransdisciplinary collaboration among small-scale fishers and scientists.
These examples indicate importance of community-driven actions led
by small-scale fishers, which is common to the cases of Japanese smallscale fisheries.

Lake Malawi fisheries
Republic of Malawi, a small landlocked country in Southeast Africa, has Lake
Malawi, one of the Great Rift Lakes of Africa bordering with Tanzania andMozambique with an estimated age of 4.5 million years (Sturmbauer et al.
2001). The lake is famous in its extreme diversity of endemic cichlid fishes
consisted of more than 700 species evolved in a relatively short geologicaltime (Turner et al. 2001). This is the most remarkable example of explosive
radiation among vertebrates, attracting intensive researches by international
scientists. A southern part of the lake at the tip of Nankumba Peninsular was
designated as Lake Malawi National Park in 1980 and inscribed as a World
Natural Heritage site in 1984, because of this scientific value.
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Cichlids and other fishes of the lake are vital resources for fishing and relatedindustries in Malawi, which accounted for 4% of the gross national productionof the country, and directly employs nearly 60,000 fishers, with over 500,000
people indirectly involved in fish processing, marketing, and other related
activities (Government of Malawi 2016). Participation in fisheries and related
activities is easy, providing important employment opportunities. Annual
catches of fisheries in Malawi have been estimated to be about 90,000 tons.
Fisheries in Malawi provided 70% of dietary intake of animal protein (40% of
overall protein intake) in 1970s, which has declined as a result of the decreasein catches and rapid population growth. About 85 to 90% of catches areproduced by literally small-scale and artisanal fishers, sometimes operated by
two fishers with a small dugout canoe and simple gillnets or bottom longlines.
Chilimila net (open water seine, see above photo) is another small-scale
fishing characteristic to Lake Malawi. It is used for both daytime fishingtargeting Utaka (small-sized open-water cichlids of a species complex ofmultiple zooplanktivorous species of the genera Copadichromis, Nyassachromis
and Mchenga) and night fishing using lamps to catch Usipa (an anchovy-likeplanktivorous Cyprinid Engraulicypris sardella). Chilimila typically involves
about four to six or more fishers with a plank boat and a few dugout canoes,
which are used to spread and pull net and/or carrying lumps in the night(Nakayama 2008). These small-scale fishers account for almost 99% of fishers
operating in the lake. Utaka and Usipa are caught all year round, sundried or
smoked, and distributed throughout the country by small-scale traders. In
Malawi, 39% of the population were living below the poverty line in 2010 and
15% fell below minimum level of dietary energy requirement (Government ofMalawi 2012). Fisheries products in Lake Malawi, especially Utaka, Usipa anda few other small species, provide affordable animal protein to the vulnerable
people living in extreme poverty.

322

35. MALAWI & JAPANInnova ve resource management ac ons driven bysmall-scale fishers
As Lake Malawi fisheries by small-scale fishers have experienced significant
decrease of catches since 1980s, Fisheries Conservation and Management
Act was enacted in 1997 with regulations of fishing gears and mesh sizes,
restrictions of fishing seasons, and establishment of Beach Village Committees(BVC) as a community-based management institutions of fishing activities.
However, these top-down regulations have not functioned very well, partly
due to lack of incentives for fishers and BVCs, and inappropriate enforcement mechanisms. But there are significant exceptions of creative resource
management actions driven by small-scale fishers. In the two research
projects in which I play a role of the principal investigator: “Transdisciplinary
Study of Natural Resource Management under Poverty Conditions Collaborating with Vulnerable Sectors (TD-VULS project)” supported by JST-RISTEX(2017-2020), and “Establishment of a Sustainable Community Development
Model based on Integrated Natural Resource Management Systems in Lake
Malawi National Park (IntNRMS project)” in the SATREPS program supported
by JICA and JST (2020-2025), I am collaborating with diverse scientists andstakeholders in Malawi and Japan to identify such innovative actions driven
by small-scale fishers in Malawi (Sato et al. 2018).
In Chembe village located inside Lake Malawi National Park, government
regulations of fisheries have been combined with underwater protected areas(UPA) designated by the national park to protect rock-dwelling cichlid fishes inshallow water collectively known as Mbuna, which represents the Outstanding
Universal Value (OVA) of the World Natural Heritage (International Union forConservation of Nature and UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring
Centre 2017). Narrow strips of water 100m from land protected areas of thepark are designated as UPA to prevent fishing, while wide areas outside UPA
are allowed for fishing observing government fishing regulations. The UPA
is not designed for fisheries resource management, but it is expected to havepositive influences upon important fisheries resources including Utaka andcatfishes by protecting their habitats and breeding grounds. Fishers in the323IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

village are engaging in various fishing activities including gill nets, longlines
and chilimila. Gill nets are commonest in the village mainly targeting large
catfishes with commercial values. In the year 2000 and 2001, UPA enforcement
had not been effective with virtually no patrols by the national park authorities.
However, we found that fishers tended to avoid setting gill nets near boardersof UPA in the areas directly visible from the village. The areas behind an
island, which was not visible from the village, were heavily exploited, but
the fishers tended to use small cryptic buoys when they set gill nets near orinside the UPA, even though the possibility of enforcements was small (Satoet al. 2008). This unforced control of fishing activities had emerged probably
based on acceptance of the national park and UPA regulations among villagers
due to peaceful coexistence with the park, transformation of perceptionsand values of villagers about lake fishes promoted by the inscription to
the world heritage, and leadership of traditional authority of the village
harmonized with the regulation of the national park and UPA. As a resultof unforced control of fishing by fishers themselves, fishing pressures ata large portion of coastal areas were reduced, probably maintaining goodstock status of commercially valuable catfishes (Sato et al. 2008). This casesuggests important roles of small-scale fishers in the least developed country
to manage fisheries resources by creating informal and implicit mechanisms
to control fishing pressures which are acceptable to themselves, harmonizedwith both traditional decision-making systems and top-down regulations,and effective in maintaining stock status in certain conditions.

Long-las ng seasonal ban of fishing led by tradi onal
authority
In a riparian village in Salima District, local fishers and other stakeholders havebeen implementing a system of autonomous fishery resource management
under the leadership of a traditional authority, chief Makanjira, extending
over three generations starting from the period of his grandfather in 1950s.
They have been enforcing a ban of fishing during rainy season to protect
spawning stocks of Utaka in a fishing ground around uninhabited islands324

35. MALAWI & JAPAN(Mbenji islands) about 10km offshore from the village, a site for fishing camps
by fishers coming from entire lake regions. In addition to closure of fishingin rainy season which corresponds to the spawning season of Utaka, otherlocal customary laws have been introduced including a positive list systemof mesh-size regulations, enforcement mechanisms operated by BVC andits subcommittees in the village, and traditional ceremonies of opening andclosure of fishing season deeply rooted to their culture and beliefs. This caseis a remarkable example of successful and long-lasting fisheries resource
management by a community in the least developing country, which wasshared by nationwide fishing villages to promote similar attempts (Scholz andChimatiro 2004). We also found delicate and highly sophisticated mechanisms
implemented by the chief and his committee to convince fishers and othervillagers about the values of these resource management measures, such as
opening of the shallower areas for subsistence fishing by vulnerable poor
people in the village during the closure season.
However, I was truly astonished when chief Makanjira mentioned that thissystem was originally designed not targeting resource management. The
original intention was to secure safety of fishers in rainy season when risks offishing around the islands are especially high due to frequent thunderstorms(Sato and Pemba 2018). He said it was even unlikely that people in 1950s clearlyrecognized that rainy season was the spawning period of Utaka. This story
by chief Makanjira gave me an impression that this innovative management
system was developed as by-products of measures to secure life of fishers,
which were more direct and imminent needs of the community. The perceptionof the chief and fishers in the village seemed to be transformed dynamicallywhen they experienced interactions with external actors, including Malawi
Department of Fisheries and international scientists in 1990s, who broughtscientific discourses about the importance of villagers’ actions upon fisheries
resources (Sato and Pemba 2018). Chief Makanjira and his committees seemed
to translate and absorb these external discourses and co-created resource
management systems incorporating BVCs. Government fisheries policies has
also been influenced by the sophisticated management systems of this village
to emphasize importance of co-management driven by local communities and325

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

BVCs. Interactions with external actors and transformations of the meaning ofactions driven by small-scale fishers had probably promoted mutual learning
process among local and external actors, influencing broader communities
and government policies.

Co-crea on of Satoumi-type fishing ground by villagers
and scien sts
In Utaka fishing with chilimila nets in Lake Malawi, fishers are using a bottom
structure called chirundu (pl. virundu) as efficient fishing grounds. Chirundu
is a rocky outcrop from lake bottoms which create upwelling current to attract
Utaka shoaling above it in a large number to feed on plankton attracted to thecurrent (ICLARM and GTZ. 1991, Nakayama 2008). Another type of chilundu
has also been recognized among fishers in certain areas of Lake Malawi, which
is an artificial structure of submerged tree brunches (mainly Mango trees) toattract small fishes by providing hiding places in shallow waters (FISH 2017).
A BVC in the western part of Chembe village with a woman leader and membersof small-scale fishers has been collaborating with scientists including myself
and other actors in the village in above mentioned research projects to develop
the idea of combining two types of virundu to co-create Satoumi-type fishingground.
We made a series of iterated dialogues about this idea, which was a remarkably fruitful mutual learning experience for scientists and BVC members. We
eventually came up with a unique design of an artificial chirundu combining
two types. It should be effective because the pile of stones mimicking rockoutcrops attract Utaka shoals near the surface and tree branches on the bottom
provide hiding spaces for fishes when they are disturbed. We also decided
to provide other bottom structures including submerged old dugout canoes
to provide breeding substrates of bottom dwelling catfishes, and bags filledwith maize bran to promote quick settlements of bottom fishes. The idea of
constructing a chirundu in front of the beach was also very new to us scientists,
as we thought such a shallow and flat sand/mud bottom was not a good fishingground. However, the intention of the BVC leader and fishers were totally326

35. MALAWI & JAPANdifferent. They felt it very important to have a chirundu at very near place infront of the village for its easy monitoring and management. Also, chilimila
fishing is affected by fluctuations of surface currents and the catches are
unstable. If small-scale fishers travel a long distance to reach virundu, thecosts become very high especially if the catches are not enough. Virundu
nearby the village can greatly reduce these risks. Furthermore, a chirundu
near the village can provide opportunities of subsistence fisheries for the mostvulnerable poor people in the village. It was a truly eye-opening experience
for me to learn these ideas by the collaboration with the BVC leader and smallscale fishers.
The artificial chirundu was constructed in April 2019 near the village at
a depth of 13m, and experimental chilimila fishing on the chirundu in Julyand September were great success with markedly more catches compared tocontrol sites 200m away. This success attracted attention of the entire village,
and other BVCs and small-scale fishers are now planning to develop similar
structures along the coast of the village to enhance ecosystem functions andproduce better catches by providing new habitats on the shallow flat sand/mud
bottoms. The innovative grass-roots actions by the small-scale fishers are
an important enabler of transdisciplinary processes involving scientists toco-create Satoumi in Lake Malawi.

Conclusion
Through these collaborations with literally small-scale fishers in Malawi,
I have recognized a striking similarity between small-scale fisheries inMalawi and in Japan regarding impacts of community-based actions led
by small-scale fishers for sustainable fisheries resource management. In
Japan as well as in Malawi, a least developed country, small-scale fishers
are the most important caretakers of fisheries resources and supporting
ecosystems. Scientists and government agencies can play effective roles
by supporting autonomous actions by the fishers themselves. I believe thatsuch transdisciplinary processes by collaboration among small-scale fishers,scientists, governments and other actors are effective both in developed and327

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

developing countries to mobilize community-based actions for sustainable
management of fisheries resources and supporting ecosystems.

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36. Denmark & Japan

Comparative Stories of Transitions and Challenges

Alyne Delaney
Tohoku University

Iconic, “blue boats” upon the beach. Thorupstrand, Denmark. A. Delaney, 2014.

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This essay compares and contrasts on-going transitions in Japaneseand Danish small-scale, coastal fisheries. Japan and Denmark are both
northern-hemisphere developed-nations whose peripheral rural areas
are experiencing a decline in residents with an aging population. In
both countries, members of small-scale fisheries and their families
often serve as the nucleus of port and community activities. This
stemmed, in no small part, from the societies, which these fisheries bothdeveloped within, and themselves developed. The rise of neoliberalism
and fundamental shifts in understandings of what it means to be modern, developed, economically-efficient, and practice “good” fisheries
management has impacted small-scale fishers and communities. On topof this, the current “knock on” impacts EU politics will have on Danish
small-scale fisheries and the impacts of the New Fisheries law (Japan)
will have on Japanese small-scale fisheries adds uncertainty, anxiety
and innumerable unknowns.

Introduc on
Small-scale fisheries (SSF) members and their families often serve as theheart around which port and community activities take place, e.g. serving on
the neighbourhood volunteer fire departments, providing locally caught fish,
and organizing community festivals and events. In these communities, SSF
are both a way of life, and an economic activity (Jentoft 2019). It is easy toromanticize coastal SSF and communities by focusing on the positives andminimizing the negatives of their work, way of life, and place in society andpolitics. A natural resource extraction-based work life is full of insecurity and,as often described in Japan, the “three K’s”: kitsui (hard), kitanai (dirty), andkusai (smelly). Nevertheless, the positive role SSF play in healthy communities
and societies cannot be overstated.
As Jentoft (1999; 2019) has pointed out, healthy fisheries mean healthy330

36. DENMARK & JAPAN

communities and vice versa. Small-scale fishers and their households serveas active members of communities, building strong social networks with
their interactions, increasing trust in one another, strengthening social
capital and practicing reciprocity. Their way of life also provides a highlevel of personal autonomy (Delaney 2003) and a great deal of time spent
outdoors, both of which contribute to personal satisfaction and positive mental
health. Despite numbers of small-scale fishers falling throughout the world,
especially in the Global North, there are also many instances of sons returning
to the family occupation, giving up on regimented and unfulfilling office andfactory work precisely because of the personal autonomy (and sometimes
better income!) SSF work provides. Japan and Denmark are in many ways,
very different countries and societies. This makes comparisons challenging:
Japan has a system which protected SSF through real co-management and acooperative system, Denmark uses a top-down approach with a western fish
quota-focused fisheries management system; Japan also uses an enterprisehousehold system whereby rights are usually inherited through family heads
and catch regulations are set locally.
And yet, despite their differences, in broad-stroke terms, small-scale
fishers and their communities share many of the same challenges, driven
by environmental, economic, social, political, and even cultural forces. These
influences can come in the shape of sudden events (e.g., tsunami), or slow
creeps (e.g., neoliberalism). SSF in both countries find themselves within aworld in which neoliberalism has risen, economic-efficiency is the standard
by which fisheries management and businesses should operate, and westernideas of what “good” fisheries management is impacts small-scale fishers
and communities. On top of this, the current “knock on” impacts EU politics(e.g., BREXIT; pulse trawl bans) will have on Danish SSF and the impacts of the
New Fisheries law (Japan) will have on Japanese SSF (JSSF) adds uncertainty,
anxiety and innumerable unknowns.
This chapter focuses the discussion around a comparison between Denmark
and Japan through one theme: transitions related to challenges faced by
SSF. Transitions can be viewed as both a state of being and a process inwhich SSF adapt and transform. The transitions in Japanese and Danish331

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

SSFs described here can, as Ounanian describes for Danish and American
coastal communities, be “understood as the phase in which the processes ofadaptation and transformation are revealed en route to an outcome” (2016:1). We do not know the results of these transitions, but we can document thestate and processes of transition today.

The View from JapanThe view of JSSF presented here is from Miyagi Prefecture in the Tohoku(Northeast) region. In the more than 25 years since I began fieldwork in thisarea, I have seen a lot of transitions and transformations take place. In thisarea, just as seen in the rest of Japan and the world, SSF and communities
face challenges in the form of environmental, economic, social, and politicalforces. The coastal areas have higher than average “greying” populations
with the port areas tending to be in peripheral regions. In this area, one neverknows when disaster will strike, whether that be from poor environmental
conditions, a typhoon, a tsunami, an oil spill, or even from new governanceregulations. I have known families who have gone from their worst harvest
in a generation, to the best, all in back-to-back seasons. Another family had
two sons return home to join the father on the boat, only to have an oil spill
hit their fishing grounds two months later.
This uncertainty is faced on top of the already everyday uncertainty,
economically-speaking, of fishing. Social changes are seen in the form ofchildren receiving higher education becoming an expectation, elder children
moving away from the family home becoming the norm, and the loss of
population means no one is available to carry portable shrines or weave straw
for Shinto shrine and festivals. Political forces have seen a new Fisheries
Law passed, opening up the possibility for companies having fishing rights,
and Disaster Recovery Laws have seen entire swaths of coastal areas labelledhazards zones with families unable to return home to areas where seawalls andconcrete now cover the landscape. The changes cemented a loss of tangible
cultural heritage and in some cases, hasten the loss of intangible cultural
heritage.
332

36. DENMARK & JAPANIn my main community of study, the number of fishing and cultivating
families has declined significantly (40% remain), neighbourhood shops haveclosed, port festivals have gotten smaller, the number of town-wide fish
festivals and events have increased, the majority of wives have stopped
going out on the boats (nori cultivator subgroup), fishing cooperatives haveconsolidated, twice, and access to fishing grounds has been altered. Fishers
seem unsure as to how they will be impacted by the new Fisheries Law. Afterthe Miyagi Prefecture Governor’s failed attempt to change fishing rights
in the name of “recovery” in 2011, many fishers spoke to me about the
problems of a business approach (short term profits) versus a family enterpriseapproach (ups and down, levelling out over the long term) and about the shortsightedness of such a move. With the new Fisheries Law, some seem to feelthere would be no change, others are a bit uncertain, while some feel it could
lead to positive changes. As a researcher who has also worked throughout
Europe, home to 30 years of neoliberalism in fisheries management, I can’t
help but feel a bit of trepidation as I follow the process of this current transitionin Japan.

The View from Denmark
Denmark has a long history of maritime activities with strong coastal cultural
heritage. It is a small country (population 5.8 million) surrounded by theNorth and Baltic Seas with its only land border being with Germany. The
country has a long and varied coastline (8750km tidal; 1701km general) withboth rocky and sandy shores, though sand predominates. Denmark has thesecond largest SSF fleet in the EU’s North Sea basin. The coastal SSF fleet
currently numbers around 975 vessels with the main catch including flatfish(e.g. plaice) and cod, herring, mackerel, and salmon. The fleet annually lands
approximately 4,000 tonnes with a value of €12 million (STECF 2017). Danish
coastal communities, like many others around the world, have historically
been reliant on fisheries, yet are currently faced with changing circumstancesin terms of their identities, livelihoods, and even viabilities (Hamilton andButler 2001, Nadel-Klein 2000). These communities also tend to be located in333IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

peripheral, rural regions, which are also sometimes described pejoratively as
the “outskirts” (“udkantsdanmark” in Danish; “inaka” in Japanese).
Such rural and peripheral regions face social sustainability and development
challenges stemming from the increasing urbanization of the Danish population and the subsequent closing of schools and local institutions and shops insmall communities. Almost 88% of the Danish population live in urban areas.
The population is also “greying” with 20% aged 65 and over; it is expected
to be 25% within 20 years (Ministry of Health 2017). In Denmark, however, a
new national ministry to address rural development was formed due to theconcern about population loss in these regions. There are also Danish tax
breaks for rural residents and EU support programmes (Local Action Groups;
Fisheries Local Action Groups), which provide co-financing for projects inrural and fisheries-dependent areas (Baker et al. 2007). Despite the efforts tomaintain population, the loss of employment opportunities in these regions(e.g., factory closures in the early 2000s) continues to impact the ability offamilies to remain in many small coastal communities.
In addition to national, societal factors, outside circumstances also impact
locals’ ability to stay in these areas, especially in regards to the fisheries. The
trend in Danish SSFs is one of contraction, though the decline has slowed
in recent years. Much of the decline in SSF and SSF communities could be
described as being a part of the larger trend in the West of the enclosure of thefisheries (Murray et al. 2010, Ounanian 2016). In this case, a broad definitionof enclosure is used whereby enclosure is a “means to reorder social wealthgenerating opportunities” (Foley, Mather, and Neis 2015: 395). Studying
the “process of creeping enclosure” is useful when looking at the evolutionof fisheries management and the cumulative impacts on fishers (Murray
et al. 2010). In three Danish coastal communities, Ounanian (2016) foundthat enclosure included policies of limited entry, the use of market-based
approaches to manage fisheries, and disputes among fleets which impacted
access of local fishermen to particular fishing grounds.
Over the past thirty years, Western fisheries management has gravitatedtowards market-based approaches to manage fisheries, especially throughcatch share programs in the form of individual transferable quota (ITQ).
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36. DENMARK & JAPAN

These quota systems have been shown to consolidate fleets and diminish
opportunities in a fishery once introduced. This was seen in Denmark in 2007
when the government made new fisheries regulations, which greatly hastened
the decline of their SSF. The government acted surprised when this occurred,
yet any review of the literature from the previous twenty years would haveshown the possibility for such as result was almost guaranteed. A decade later,
the Danish government has acknowledged the importance of SSF and SSF
communities for the country, advocating for aid in development.

“… Coastal fishing contributes to growth and jobs throughout Denmark
and is an important component of Danish culture. Additionally, the blue
vessels fishing from the local port contribute to life and tourism especiallyin rural areas. Therefore, the coastal fishing and coastal communities
should be strengthened and developed” (Environment and Food Ministry
2017:1-2) (translated by the author).
One Danish SSF community in particular is well known for efforts in stopping
its own decline is Thorupstrand. Thorupstrand is famous in Denmark forcommunity members’ actions in pooling quota into a community share system,
thereby keeping more boats active. They have also tapped into funds to build aspace for community meetings, as well as where tourists can view fish sorting,
and which also houses a local fishmonger and café. The beach fronting thisbuilding is idyllic as Danish “blue” boats are pulled onto shore, speciallymade to withstand the dragging up upon the beach. Local children also workat processing fish to earn money, making the small-scale fisheries a truly
community-focused activity. Their active fishery with picturesque boats—a form of tangible cultural heritage— is also a large draw for tourists to thearea. Thorupstrand is a good example of what a community can accomplish
when they work together and are willing to try a new system. Yet the SSF still
faces external threats, including the wider EU fisheries management system.
In 2019 the EU shut down the Dutch Pulse Trawl programme, which in turncaused skippers to return to using their old beam trawl gear and they moved
into Danish coastal waters, including areas offshore from the community.
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Commonali es
When comparing the Japanese and Danish cases there are two main commonalities which come to the surface: transitions in fisheries management/governance and the rise of the importance of coastal cultural heritage
in communities during such transitions. Today sustainability is a key concept
in fisheries management but there is a surprising lack of attention paid towhat fishers will do when participation in the fishery moves from open or
limited access to a catch share/ITQ system, especially in coastal communities
where there are few employment alternatives (Charles 1998). When looking
at communities and quota systems, one should consider that to many people,“place matters.” Meaning, labour is not as mobile as economists may assume
when people are tied to their local areas and communities. Communities, after
all, provide a sense of connection and place, identity, and serve as a focal point
for shared cultural heritage.
Unique communities (e.g., Denmark’s Thorupstrand) attract new businesssectors such as tourism and at the same time cultivate place identities(Urquhart and Acott 2013). These coastal communities use their tangible maritime heritage in order to make themselves distinct from other ports. Japan’scommunities also use their own shared cultural heritage (environmental andintangible) to draw visitors and tourists—such as through fish festivals—
thereby expanding and strengthening their economies and even strengthening
their own identities. When looking at the challenges faced by Japanese andDanish SSF and the current state of transition they find themselves within,a great deal of uncertainty and innumerable unknowns rise to the surface:
what will be the impact of a new fisheries system on local communities? Can
communities whose members have lost their local residences re-gain place
attachment and shared heritage? Though the impacts of various challenges
are yet to be known, this is a first step in documenting the state and processesof these transitions.

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37. U.S. & Japan

Shrinking Portfolios, Coastal Development and Climate Resilience

Kanae Tokunaga
Gulf of Maine Research InstituteLobster boats and gears docked at Portland waterfront, Portland, Maine, the US, K.
Tokunaga, 2019337

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Small-scale fisheries in developed economies, such as the ones in the
US and Japan, face challenges that are unique to developed economies
and common around the globe. In this chapter, I highlight the issues surrounding shrinking fishing portfolios and coastal development,
drawing extensively from the American lobster fishery in the state ofMaine (US) and the spiny lobster fishery in Mie prefecture (Japan).
Both lobster fisheries are managed as territorial use rights fisheries andhave implemented voluntary measures initiated by fishers. The chapter
concludes by discussing climate change resilience, which has become themajor topic of discussion in the Gulf of Maine, one of the fastest-warming
waters in the world.

Economics and small-scale fisheries
Why do people fish? What are their objectives? If you are an economist, you will
most likely answer that fishers harvest fish to maximize their profit. Indeed,most economists are trained to think this way. Almost all formal training that I
received in economics was directed to come up with ways to correct a situation
described as the tragedy of the commons. Economists strive to answer thequestion: what are the best ways to control the number of fishers or fishingefforts to make sure that the fishery, as a whole, can maximize gains fromavailable resources? In theory, if fishers could coordinate and limit harvesting
efforts to the level that maximizes the fishery’s total profit, the fisheryconserves more resources than if it seeks to achieve maximum sustainable
yield. The conventional economics view is that harvesting efforts exceed
the optimal level if the fishery is left unmanaged and operates as an openaccess fishery (Gordon 1954). Open access fishing results in too many fishers
with too big of a vessel with gears destructive to the ecosystem. Economists,
thus, work with fisheries scientists and managers to curb fishing efforts
through various management measures. Rights-based management, such as338

37. U.S. & JAPAN

individual transferable quota (ITQ) management, is one of the management
approaches developed by economists following this frame of thinking.
Working with small-scale fisheries in developed countries– Japan and the
US – I am constantly challenged to re-evaluate the assumptions economists
make.

I often hear the argument that fisheries should retain as much

employment in coastal communities as possible. My training in economics
would tell me more employment = more harvest efforts = suboptimal outcome.
I also hear an argument against rights-based management, which states ITQ= fisheries consolidation = destruction of coastal communities. While thestandard assumption of a fishery’s objective is profit maximization, in reality,
there are multiple objectives. For instance, in rural coastal communities where
employment opportunities are limited, securing fishing jobs may be valued
more highly than a small number of highly productive fishers earning larger
profits. Economists are not ignorant of such social objectives; more economic
studies now argue for achieving social, economic, and biological objectives –a triple bottom line — in fisheries.

Two lobster fisheries
The American lobster (Homarus americanus) fishery in the state of Maine
and the spiny lobster (Panulirus japonicus) fishery in Mie prefecture are bothmanaged by a form of space-based management referred to as Territorial
Use Rights Fisheries (TURF). Both fisheries have implemented voluntary
management measures initiated by the fishers and delegated a portion of
the management decisions to the fishers. The lobster fishery in the Stateof Maine lands approximately $500 million worth of catch annually, which
employs over 4,000 fishers (Maine DMR 2020). This fishery is managed by theState primarily by limiting the number of fishers and traps used in the fishery.
The state’s waters are divided into seven zones, and a council establishedfor each zone offers a forum and voting mechanism for fishers to discuss
management and other fishery-related topics as well as to represent fishers
in advising the state’s management. The fishery is known for its voluntary
management measures initiated by the fishers. The most famous example
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

is v-notching. When a fisher harvests an egg-bearing female lobster, they
make a v-shaped cut in its tail before releasing it back to the ocean. No one isallowed to harvest v-notched lobsters, and thus, this voluntary management
measure helps protect egg-bearing lobsters.
Management of the spiny lobster fishery in Mie consists of a combinationof seasonal closures and size limits imposed by the prefectural government aswell as varying degrees of voluntary management measures implemented
at the fishing community (gyogyou-chiku) level. Self-imposed measures
include seasonal no-take zones, limits on the number of nets used, rotational
harvesting schedules (rinban-sei), and effort and revenue pooling (puru-sei).
In Wagu, one of the largest producing spiny lobster fishing communities inJapan, fishers operate under highly coordinated effort and revenue poolingmanagement for the first half of the season. Under this arrangement, fishers
form five groups, with each represented by 4 – 6 fishers. In each group,
fishers operate together on the same boat. The revenues are pooled from allgroups and then shared across all the lobster fishers in the community. In
the latter half of the season, however, they switch to a competitive limitedentry open access regime, operating individually, using their own boats. From
anecdotal evidence and landings data provided by the local fishery cooperative
association, my colleagues and I learned that their use of this complex andsomewhat puzzling management system is achieving to stabilize income,provide fair fishing opportunities to all fishers, and satisfy heterogeneous
individual fishing objectives – some needing to fish more aggressively andearn more income to support growing families, while others are wanting totake it easy and maintain a stable income. Each Wagu fisher who participatesin the spiny lobster fishery has a different fishing portfolio – many participate
in a fishery or combination of fisheries using gears such as pole-and-line,
gillnet, dive, aquaculture, etc. A few participate in no other fishery.
Wagu’s current management style came about in the early 2000s. Until
the late 1980s to early 1990s, the fishers participating in the spiny lobster
fishery relied for most of their fishing income on a pole-and-line fisherytargeting species such as skipjack tuna and squid. As catches from pole-andline fishing declined, their focus shifted more to the spiny lobster fishery.
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While many are still engaged in fisheries that use other gears, the majority of
their income now comes from the spiny lobster fishery. Maine’s fishery sharesa similar trajectory. Historically, Maine had a more diverse portfolio of fishingactivities, including a groundfish trawl fishery and a shrimp fishery. Now, thelobster fishery makes up close to 80% of the state’s fishery income (Steneck
et al. 2011). Both Maine and Mie fisheries are now dependent on lobsters morethan ever. It seems like their portfolio is less diverse than before, though this
could be a phase. Historically speaking, compared to farmers, fishers havebeen more adaptable to environmental changes by dynamically adjusting theirfishing portfolio. Yet, we should not take their ability to adapt for granted,
considering the economic burden they must bear to learn new skills, switch
gears, target new species, and in some cases, acquire new licenses.

The cultural value of the small-scale fishery and thechallenges posed by coastal development
With the many ecosystem services they provide, small-scale fisheries enable
us to benefit from our oceans in multiple ways. The most obvious one isnutrition. In developed economies like Japan and the US, people source
food from the market system rather than subsistence. Fish vendors andfishmongers have largely been replaced by supermarket chains. Yet, we canstill find people engaged in the custom of local seafood, giving among families
and friends within and across coastal communities. In a sense, seafood
gifting not only serves to provide nutrition but also serves to benefit humanrelationships. Small-scale fisheries also serve to shape regional heritageand cultural identity, which are also recognized as essential aspects of value
inherent in small-scale fisheries (Tengberg et al. 2012).
When we think about small-scale fisheries, we tend to picture rural coastal
communities. While many small-scale fisheries are found in rural parts ofthe country, there are vibrant small-scale fishing communities that sit besideand inside cities as well. Small-scale fisheries in or near cities face different
types of challenges, such as coastal development and gentrification (Colburn
and Jepson 2012). The City of Portland, Maine, whose downtown sits next to341

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

the fishing port that serves the local groundfish fishery and lobster fishery,faces the challenge of balancing economic development while preserving
the cultural values inherent in small-scale fisheries. Since the first western
settlement in the 17th century, the city’s economy has mostly been supportedby the fishing industry (NOAA GARFO 2019).
In part, there is a general recognition among local residents that fisheries
serve to provide not only tangible benefits to local economies but also
intangible benefits through the provision of cultural services. Yet, a declining
catch in the groundfish fishery and predicted climate change-induced stock
decline in the lobster fishery poses economic challenges to coastal landowners
and marine businesses that support the fisheries. While Japanese fishing ports
are managed and maintained by the public authorities (Miura 2015 p. 122),
US fishing ports are often privately owned and co-exist with other users. The
reduced economic importance of the fishing industry in the local community
is met with pressure to convert coastal land use to accommodate the booming
tourism industry. As more condos and hotels crowd downtown Portland, andas cruise ships add thousands of tourists to the city’s population, a waterfront
access challenge has emerged. Fishers, fish dealers, and processors now
face the urban problem of traffic congestion to get to and from the boat andlandings.
Portland’s heritage and identity as a fishing town attract people to live
in and visit the city; people value the cultural significance of the fishery.
The city recognized this and established policies and zoning rules to protect
access to the waterfront by marine industries, including fisheries, fromcoastal gentrification and development. The preservation of small-scale
fisheries has value beyond what can be captured by money earned and nutrition
consumed. Local restaurants celebrating locally harvested seafood, souvenir
stores selling lobster keychains, boat tours offering a scenic view of Casco bay
filled with lobster traps all benefit from the diverse values created by fisheries.
A symbiotic relationship between fisheries and other sectors in the economy
that enables multi-use coastal development is worth striving for.

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Resilience and adapta on
Examples described in this chapter highlight the dynamic nature of smallscale fisheries as a coupled social-ecological system; specifically, this chapter
discussed changes in fishing portfolios and pressures from coastal development. The system faces multiple challenges, demographic change and climatechange being two of the more severe and imminent. As described earlier,Maine’s fishing portfolio has shrunk over the years. What is more, a study
argues that fisheries management that requires a license to operate is limiting
fishers from diversifying their portfolio (Stoll et al. 2016). Economic theory
suggests specialization leads to increased productivity; economic theory alsosuggests a less-diverse portfolio leads to higher risk. The lobster fleet in Maine
is attracting young fishers to enter the fishery. On the contrary, the groundfish
fishery in the New England region, where Maine is located, is suffering from agraying fleet. This contrasting difference can at least partly be explained by
the differences in stock conditions and fishing profitability in the past several
decades. Young fishers are entering a lobster fishery backed by abundant
stock; now, there is a shortage of lobster licenses available for young fishers.
The study predicts, however, that this condition will not hold in the future.
As the study finds, the Gulf of Maine is one of the fastest-warming oceans withan expected sea surface temperature increase of 1 – 2.4 degrees Celsius by theyear 2050 compared to the 1976 - 2006 average (Pershing et al. 2015, Pershingand Stephenson 2019). Scientists predict that the oceanic condition is now
at a sweet spot for lobsters in Maine, but it will not last for long. Compared
to 2014, a 40 - 62% reduction in lobster abundance by 2050 is predicted (LeBris et al. 2018). Indeed, the lobster biomass has declined in southern New
England states such as Rhode Island and Massachusetts, leading to a collapseof the lobster fishery in these states. Studies also suggest Maine lobster fishers
are already experiencing some of the climate change impacts. For instance,
marine heatwave events in recent years have impacted the lobster fishery andthe market (Mills et al. 2013).
It is too risky to put all our eggs in one basket. A group of scientists, myself
included, are now investigating ways to make fisheries more resilient and343

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

adaptive to climate-induced changes in a social-ecological system. As studies
suggest, autonomous adaptation is not enough; there is a role for management
actions to make the system more resilient and adaptive (Fankhauser 2017).
This is particularly true for small-scale fisheries, where financial and evenhuman resources, especially in the case of developed economies, are lacking.
Meanwhile, studies also suggest that well-managed fisheries fare well underclimate change (Gaines et al. 2018). Management approaches could and should
vary from fishery to fishery, depending on specific social-ecological contexts.
No matter what approach may be used, I argue that it is worth investing effort
in building capacity for governance, resilience and adaptation in small-scale
fishing communities — for harvesters, managers, and scientists – to fostersocial-ecological sustainability now rather than waiting until we start seeing
greater impacts from climate change.

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38. Canada & Japan

Characteristics, Policies and Governance: Different but Similar

Yinji Li
Tokai University
Jack Daly
TBTI Global
Ratana Chuenpagdee
Memorial University of Newfoundland

Petty Harbour fishing community, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, Y. Li,
2019

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This chapter discusses required governance transformation in Japan andCanada in moving towards the holistic health of small-scale fisheries
and communities. After highlighting the definitions and numbers of thesmall-scale fisheries in both countries, we will present the governancestructures from the national level and a prefecture (provincial) level,
Shizuoka Prefecture of Japan, Newfoundland and Labrador of Canada.
Lastly, a comparative lens will be applied to explore the respective
characteristics of Japan and Canada’s small-scale fisheries, comparing
and contrasting the situations in both places, especially about how
fisheries are governed.

Introduc on
The majority of small-scale fisheries and fishing communities are at risk ofsurvival due to the lack of appropriate policies and political wills regarding
them, which arise from the insufficient recognition of their meaning andsignificance. It is even more the case considering the accelerating globalchange in marine systems (Bundy et al. 2016). Looking to both Japan andCanada, a typical example of Japan is the record-breaking poor catch of
the Sakura shrimp in Suruga Bay, which has been ongoing since 2018, as
outlined in several chapters in this book. The society is not able to respondeffectively to the drastic marine system changes and resource fluctuation, andis thus heavily impacted. On the other side of the ocean, the cod fishery ofCanada, went through a fishery moratorium, creating economic hardship andvulnerability to numerous fishers and coastal (Schrank and Roy 2013, Daly and
Chuenpagdee 2020). We argue in this chapter that dealing with the changing
fisheries in both case requires a serious look at how fisheries are governedand how it may need to be transformed.

346

38. CANADA & JAPANDefini ons and numbers
Japan
What most Japanese people think of when hearing “small-scale fisheries” willbe “coastal fisheries”. The words “small-scale fisheries” are somehow newin Japan as there is no clear definition of it and not often used either unlike
the “coastal fisheries”. According to the National Federation of Fisheries
Cooperative Associations (JF Zengoren 2005), coastal fisheries in Japan are
considered to be fisheries that employ fishing vessels under 10 mt, which
conduct operations lasting less than a day. This chapter considers the coastal
fisheries in Japan as small-scale fisheries, which also include aquaculture andset-net fisheries.
According to the Digest of the 2018 Fishery Census, the amount of productionin the marine fishery was 4,332,000t, about 23% of which are from coastal
fisheries. In terms of fishery management entities, i.e. a household or businessbody that, to earn a living or for profit, engages in acquiring fish and aquaticplants from the sea or conducting marine aquaculture to be sold in a given
year (MAFF 2013), the coastal fishing class constituted 74,210 (or about 94%
of the total units). Among them, 81% are in capture fisheries while therest are marine aquaculture. As just described, the amount of production
in marine fisheries or the number of fishery management entities reveals thatthe proportion of small-scale fisheries is considerably large. The common
small-scale fisheries include different types of angling fisheries, seaweed andshellfish collecting, trawl fishery, gill-net fishery, longline fishery, set-net
fishery, and aquaculture.

CanadaFisheries in Canada are regionally diverse with different user groups, (i.e.,
aboriginal fishing groups, inshore harvesters) and there is difficulty indefining what is ‘small-scale’ nationwide. The initial distinction is mostly
between ‘inshore’ and ‘offshore’ fleets (Charles 1991), with Fisheries and347

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Oceans Canada (DFO) defining inshore as “the fishing sector where fish
harvesters are restricted to using vessels less than 19.8m (65’) Length Over All(LOA). There are smaller boats, however, like in the lobster fishery in Atlantic
Canada and the ‘small boat’ fisheries in Newfoundland and Labrador. The
regional difference is indeed noteworthy in terms of governance. For instance,a recent report to the Senate pointing to the differences in policy for inshore
harvesters in British Columbia compared to Atlantic Canada (McDonald 2019).
In place of a lack of coherent national data, one of the most valuable inshore
fisheries in Canada will be examined. The inshore lobster fishery, which inpart takes place off the coast of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, is comprisedof almost 3,000 inshore licenses and directly employs over 7,000 people (DFO
2011). The lobster fishery in Atlantic Canada is valued at over $814 million
CAD (landed values – 2018). This fishery is widely distributed and supports
rural communities throughout the region, providing economic benefits. Thisfishery is just one example of a ‘small-scale fishery’ in Canada, a fishery inwhich the majority of vessels are less than 13.7 meters (45 feet) LOA (DFO 2011).
Small-scale fisheries though are also present in Newfoundland and Labrador(e.g., inshore shellfish and groundfish fisheries) (Khan and Chuenpagdee2014), the arctic (e.g., arctic char small-scale fishery) (Roux et al. 2019) and in
British Columbia on the west coast fisheries where the majority of commercial
fisheries are composed of vessels less than 45 feet LOA (McDonald 2019). The‘small boat’ category in Newfoundland and Labrador sometimes refers tovessel less than 12m (40’) LOA, constituting about 87% of the total fleet in theprovince (DFO 2017). The diversity of Canada’s fisheries makes identifying
small-scale fisheries challenging, but they are a potent force for the livelihoodof coastal communities from coast to coast.

Fisheries governance systems

348

38. CANADA & JAPANJapan and Shizuoka Prefecture
Looking into the system of laws related to fisheries, the Fishery Act plays themost crucial role as the law for the governance of the basic fishery regime inJapan (FLSG 2005). In addition, Japan has the “Act on the Protection of FisheryResources”, “Ordinance of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries”,“Fisheries Cooperatives Act”, “Act on Preservation and Control of Living
Marine Resources”, “Fisheries Basic Act”, among others. The Japanese fishingindustry can be divided into four main classes of a licensed fishery, fisheries
based on fishery rights, free fishery, and other fisheries by the “Fishery Act”.
Licensed fishery falls into the two classes of fisheries permitted by the ministerand fisheries permitted by the governor, and fisheries based on fishery rights
is further separated into the three classes of the fishery by a set-net fisheryright, fishery by a demarcated fishery right, and fishery by common fisheryright (Makino 2011). Among these, fisheries based on fishery rights andfisheries permitted by the governor are relevant to small-scale fisheries. The
Fisheries Agency is a national level management institution. For the fishers
level, fishers organizations centering on fisheries cooperative associations
fulfill an essential and autonomous management role, fishers supporting role,and other functions. As of 2019, there are about 300,000 fishers (members ofa fisheries cooperative association) nationwide and 943 coastal area fisheries
cooperatives associations.
Prefectures follow basic management policies of the national level andmanaged by prefecture-level fishery-related departments under the prefectural fisheries adjustment regulations and resource management policies.
Take Shizuoka Prefecture as an example. The central systems of the regime
are “Shizuoka Prefecture Fisheries Adjustment Regulations” and “Shizuoka
Prefecture Resource Management Policy” and the Fisheries and Marine Office,Economy and Industry Department of Shizuoka Prefecture is the management
institution. Furthermore, when the prefectural government makes decisions
on the fishery license, fishery rights, resource management policies, and otheritems, consultation is made to the “Shizuoka Sea-Area Fisheries Adjustment
Commission”. The Sea-Area Fisheries Adjustment Commission is established349

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

in sea areas as an administrative commission defined by the Fisheries Act.
It is a system to respect the wishes of local fishers, including choosing half,
or more of the number of members must be from among the fishers of thesea area (Article 85) (Abe and Inoue 2012). The operation of this Fisheries
Adjustment Commission was introduced to democratize the fishing industry
in a series of postwar reforms and is a feature of the Japanese fishery regime(Kaneda 2001). Shizuoka Prefecture, where Sakura shrimp fishery, whitebait
fishery, set-net fishery, and other fisheries are operated, has 17 coastal area
fisheries cooperatives associations under the Shizuoka Prefecture Federationof Fisheries Cooperatives. These fisheries cooperatives associations support
2,200 fishery management entities and 4,814 fishery workers (The 2018
Fishery Census: Shizuoka).

Canada and Newfoundland and Labrador
Fisheries in Canada are principally governed by the Federal government
through DFO. The Canadian Constitution Act of 1867 outlines the federal
government’s control over fisheries management (i.e., quota and accessdecisions), and subsequent acts layout DFO’s jurisdiction in greater detail.
The Fisheries Act, passed in 1985 but amended as recently as 2019, provides
a framework for: (1) “the proper management and control of fisheries” and(2) “the conservation and protection of fish and fish habitat, including by
preventing pollution” (Fisheries Act 1985, Section 2.1). This Act gives the
Minister of Fisheries and Oceans broad discretion in fisheries management
and for the first time in 2019, allows the minister to take into account“social, cultural, and economic” considerations as well as “the preservationor promotion of the independence of license holders in commercial inshore
fisheries” in decisions making (Fisheries Act 1985, Section 2.5 (g) and (h)).
Although the most recent amendment to the Act elevates Indigenous rights andformalizes the considerations of inshore harvesters in Canada, there continues
to be limited capacity within the federal government to incorporate social
science and governance considerations (Silver and Bennett 2018). DFO’s role infisheries is to “protect and manage Canada’s fisheries, including aquaculture,350

38. CANADA & JAPANand support Indigenous participation in fisheries. We also ensure our national
network of harbours is open and in good repair” (DFO 2020)—a mission thatbalances both economic and social considerations, although recent analysis of
Canadian policy has found it weighted towards conservation goals over social,economic and institutional considerations (Paul and Stephenson 2020). At
the regulatory agency level, DFO has numerous policies that aid in governing
fisheries management and conservation, some of which are agency-wide (i.e.,
Sustainable Fisheries Framework), and some that are regionally specific (i.e.,
Atlantic Fisheries Regulations and Policies). DFO, which is centrally located in
Ottawa, Canada, is divided into six regions for Canadian fisheries and oceansgovernance.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada’s eastern-most, DFO is headquartered in the provincial capital of St. John’s. Although the federal government
has jurisdiction over fisheries management decisions, the province, throughthe Department of Fisheries and Land Resources, is the lead authority infisheries and aquaculture development, licensing for fish processing operations, and inspection/ compliance ad regulatory enforcement for fisheries andaquaculture industries. While fisheries in Newfoundland and Labrador cannot
be easily explained due to their rich history and many periods of social andeconomic reorganization (Bavington 2010), there are other multiple actors andinstitutions that comprise the web of fisheries in this region. These include theNorthwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) and the Marine StewardshipCouncil at the international levels, and the Fish, Food and Allied Workers Union(FFAW-Unifor) and local fisheries organizations at the provincial and regional
levels. Like fisheries that face wicked problems globally, the fisheries of thisprovince are hierarchically governed by agencies and policies that “are notoften in synergy with the reality on the ground” (Khan and Chuenpagdee 2014,
p.609)

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Seemingly different, shockingly similar
In this last section, we will peek at small-scale fisheries in both countries
through a comparative lens. In one sentence, it feels “seemingly different(but) shockingly similar.” Of course, because they are on different continents
and different countries, it is apparent that they exhibit many differences.
Examples of the differences in governance structure are as follows. Firstly,
Japan has adopted a co-management method combining management by
the government and voluntary management by fishers, whereas Canada iscentered on management by the government, an administrative-oriented
mode. Secondly, Japan has fisheries based on fishery rights, granted as
quasi-real rights to fishers and fishers organizations, whereas Canada has
mostly licensed fishery. Moreover, there is no substantial difference inmanagement systems at both the administrative level and fishers level byregion in Japan, whereas there is quite a large difference by province, including
the presence or absence of a fisheries administrative department in provincial
governments and fishers organizations in Canada. Finally, there are portlevel fisheries cooperatives that manage resources, maintain fisheries rules,
and support fishers in Japan, whereas there are fishers organizations in someprovinces but not in others in Canada, and in the provinces that have fishersorganizations such as in Newfoundland and Labrador, still, no port-levelfishers organizations.
Reading up to here, one may wonder, “which governance structure is moredesirable?” We do need to take some time to look at the following similar
points before responding to that question. First is the vulnerability of fishingcommunities in both countries. Fishing communities in Canada or Japan are
facing major changes that they are not able to sufficiently respond to, suchas environmental change, resource decline, and other adverse circumstances.
Then there are the problems of depopulation, aging population, replacement
shortage, marginal village, etc. Japan has pointed out these problems for years
and years (Asakawa et al. 2008) and tested various initiatives to avoid them.
On the other hand, Newfoundland and Labrador, as the province with the mostthriving fisheries, is reporting disappearing fishing villages and replacement352

38. CANADA & JAPAN

shortage in existing fishing communities (Higgins 2008).
Furthermore, inequality and injustice are also cited as problems. It has
become apparent in Japan about the disparity in adjustments among thefishing industry, marine leisure industry including pleasure boats, andoffshore wind power generation, and others. Also, there are growing concerns
about the competition between small-scale fisheries and private capitalconcerning the revision of the Fisheries Act, which was enacted in Decemberof 2018 and will take effect within two years after the promulgation in
Japan. On the Canadian side, inequality in catch allocation and resource
access between small-scale fisheries and large-scale fisheries (Barnett et al.
2017), incompatibility between domestic fisheries policies and international
trade policy (Daly and Chuenpagdee 2020), conflicts between Indigenous
fisheries and federal government science policy (Pinkerton et al. 2019), arevisible. As described, Canada and Japan have seemingly different concepts andforms of small-scale fishing industries and governance structure. However,they face shockingly similar challenges today, and needless to say, bothcountries are expected to seek a better way of transforming the governance ofsmall-scale fisheries (Chuenpagdee and Jentoft 2018). While there is no easysolution or one size fits all for such a transformation, both Japan and Canada
can learn from each other, and from elsewhere, to find the most desirable
governance structure and to design appropriate fisheries policies that take
into consideration the characteristics and conditions of small-scale fisheries.

353

VI
JSSF from a Global Lens

39. Ocean Warming

The Impacts on Marine Ecosystems and Human Societies in Japanese
CoastsMasahiko Fujii
Hokkaido University

Schematic photographs showing the possibility of a reduction in sushi species in
the future caused by various factors

357

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Coastal ecosystems exhibit high biodiversity and biological productivity,
encompass various ecosystem services, and afford many benefits tocoastal societies, especially via local fishery and tourism industries.
The global-scale rise in water temperature caused by global warming
has significantly affected coastal ecosystems, and several quantitative
assessments or projections of such changes in the Japanese coasts havebeen made recently. These include the finding that long-term, highfrequency, exquisitely sensitive monitoring data, along with climate
models affording high-level spatiotemporal resolution, are required tominimize uncertainty when projecting the future distributions, biodiversity, and functionalities of coastal ecosystems. Second, the quantitative
distributions of coastal ecosystems have changed dramatically, and suchchanges are projected to continue, triggered by ocean warming. Third, it
is a royal road to globally reduce CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions,but practical adaptive actions are also essential. Especially, aquaculture
regions should be moved appropriately to minimize the influence of
ocean warming on coastal societies, based on scientific insights andguidelines.

Introduc on
Global warming and the subsequent rise in water temperature impact marine
ecosystem distribution, biodiversity, and function. For example, the habitatof tropical corals around Japan is expanding poleward by 14 km/year (Yamano
et al. 2011), which may have affected coastal biodiversity (Yamano et al. 2012).
The impacts of ocean warming on species living in coastal regions are ofparticular concern because the habitat ranges of such species are narrow.
These impacts directly affect human societies, especially local industries
that are heavily dependent on marine ecosystems, including fisheries andmarine tourism. The principal actions that might counter ocean warming are358

39. OCEAN WARMING

mitigation, adaptation, protection, and repair (Gattuso et al. 2015). Of these,most previous studies have focused on mitigation and adaptation, but very few
have sought to quantify the impacts of ocean warming on coastal ecosystems.
Japan offers a unique opportunity to study the effects of ocean warming
on coastal ecosystems, because the archipelago covers a wide latitudinalrange, stretching from subtropical to temperate areas. Further, because ofJapan’s relatively small landmass in comparison with other temperate settings(e.g., the United States, Africa and Australia), distribution is likely to be lessdisturbed by terrestrial influence, which means our Japanese case studies
could provide baselines to detect and project changes due to ocean warming.

Impacts of ocean warming on coastal ecosystems andhuman socie es
Coastal regions foster various marine species and provide high marine
biodiversity and ecosystem services. The coastal regions are also of great
importance for the Japanese society because Japanese people enjoy various
economic values, especially through fisheries and marine tourism, from thecoasts.

Coral reefs
Yamano et al. (2011, 2014) constructed a dataset on coral reefs around
Japan. The data include information on coral coverage and the number of
species recorded since the 1930s. The timeline is sufficiently long to filter out
interannual-to-decadal fluctuations and to extract long-term ocean warming
trends. The long-term dataset on coral reef habitats clearly reveals declines
in coral cover in subtropical regions and poleward expansion of subtropicalcorals into temperate regions, in response to rises in water temperatures(Yamano et al., 2011, 2014).
Yara et al. (2012, 2016) studied the ambient water temperatures of known
coral habitats and identified biological indicators of the northern limits oftropical/subtropical and temperate corals; these were the isothermals of359

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

annual water temperature minima of 18° C and 10° C, respectively. Theseauthors also developed a biological indicator of induction of severe coralbreaching, which may trigger massive coral death, due to anomalously highwater temperatures; this was the isotherm of an annual water temperature
maximum of 30°C (e.g., Kayanne et al. 1999). The biological indicators werecombined with climatically modeled water temperatures for future projection.
The simulated results were averaged over ten years and used to filter out the
influences of inter-annual variations, such as the Kuroshio meander and the El
Niño and Southern Oscillation events (Yara et al. 2011, 2012, 2014). The results
show that the habitat suitable for tropical/subtropical corals around Japan
may be reduced by half by the 2020s to 2030s, and is projected to disappear
by the 2030s to 2040s, primarily because of severe coral bleaching and ocean
acidification (Yara et al. 2012, 2016).
In-situ monitoring revealed that corals growing close to the northern limitsof their habitats are at risk of cold-water bleaching and death if the watertemperature falls dramatically in winter (Nomura 2009; Yamano and Namizaki2009). Such sporadic events were not considered in the previous studies
employing 10-year average outputs. Using newly-developed, empirical,
lowest-water temperature thresholds for coral survival derived from in-situ
monitoring data, together with water temperature outputs of a climate model,
Takao et al. (2015b) evaluated coral death caused by the sudden development of
extremely low water temperatures. When the inter-annual variations in watertemperature were included, the model yielded realistic poleward expansionsof coral habitat. This implies that, apart from inter-annual variations in watertemperature, inter-annual variations in other environmental factors mustalso be considered to realistically assess, and reliably project, the impacts ofocean warming on coastal ecosystems.

Seaweed beds
Although seaweed beds are extremely important in terms of supporting coastal
ecosystems and providing benefits to human societies, the spatial extents ofsuch beds around Japan have fallen because of coastal reclamation, changes
36039. OCEAN WARMING

in water quality, rising water temperatures, and heavy grazing by herbivores.
Kumagai et al. (2016) described the flora of habitat-forming seaweeds (fucoids
and temperate kelps) along the Japanese coasts. Data on 86 species werecollected from 355 literature sources. The dataset contains information onseaweed species with survey years, geographical locations, and their scientificdescriptors. The dataset can be used to study the biogeography of, and longterm changes in, particular species, and the diversity of habitat-forming
seaweeds along the Japanese coasts.
Takao et al. (2015a) identified biological indicators distinguishing watertemperatures suitable or not for the growth of Ecklonia cava, a major kelp
species found predominantly along the southern coast of Japan, and theimpact of grazing on E. cava by Siganus fuscescens, a herbivorous – in fact
an omnivorous, but seaweed-preferring – fish species. Then, by combining
the biological indicators with water temperature results from climate models
for the coming decades, they quantitatively projected the effects of warming
seawater on the spatial extents of suitable (versus unsuitable) habitats for thetemperate seaweed E. cava, and on grazing of E. cava by the herbivorous fish S.
fuscescens. The presently available habitat for E. cava is projected to disappear
around Japan in the 2090s under the highest-level greenhouse gas (GHG)
emission scenario. Under the lowest GHG emission scenario, the projected
poleward expansion and decrease in seaweed bed area are not significant,and grazing of E. cava by S. fuscescens will become common all year-round.
Recent studies have predicted seaweed distribution and community shifts inmore precise ways by combining climate model outputs with such as climatevelocity trajectories and species distribution models (e.g., Kumagai et al. 2018;
Sudo et al. 2020).
These previous studies suggest that it is essential to: (1) further elucidate
the impacts of ocean warming on food webs, between-species interactions,and individual species; (2) minimize anthropogenic GHG emissions including
CO2 ; and (3) institute adaptations preventing herbivore grazing of seaweed
beds, especially on the Pacific coast of Japan.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Aquaculture
Despite the worldwide high demand for living aquatic resources, the potential
amount supplied has been decreasing as a result of the lower abundance caused
by various factors such as overfishing and ocean warming. Accordingly, theimportance of aquaculture has been relatively magnified. Aquaculture is also
considered to be affected by ocean warming and also needs to be modified toadapt to further ocean warming in the future. Aquafarms of target species
in the temperate coasts of Japan is projected to shift northward in responseto ocean warming (Figure 1). Balloon fish is mostly eaten in Osaka and theother western regions of Japan. In addition, the species is poisonous and anational license is needed to cook the species. Therefore, the projected shift ofaquafarms of balloon fish implies that Japanese society may need to consider
the shift of food culture as well as the location of aquafarms if the Japanese
would very much like to continue to eat the species in the future. The Japanesescallop Mizuhopecten yessoensis inhabits coasts of northern Japan and is one of
the most important fishery resources of that country. Previous studies foundthat Japanese scallop habitats were generally cooler than 23° C (e.g., Kuwahara
et al. 2006, Shibano et al. 2014). Higher-temperature water has recently
appeared off the south-western coast of Hokkaido; this will become moreprevalent in the future due to ocean warming.

362

39. OCEAN WARMING

363

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Figure 1. A projected shift of aquafarms of (a) sea bream, (b) balloon fish,(c) flatfish, and (d) amberjack from the 2000s (left) to the 2090s (right) in
response to ocean warming. Each target fish has a suitable water temperature
range. For example, the location of balloon fish aquafarms was defined as thedomains between isothermal lines of annual minimum and maximum watertemperature (4 and 28 , respectively; Fujii 2020). Multiple isothermal lines
show the uncertainty of projection by different climate models.
Shibano et al. (2014) collected data on Japanese scallop catches and watertemperatures off the coasts of Hokkaido from 1980 to 2009. Then, bydeveloping and using a simplified water temperature index to define suitable
habitats for Japanese scallops, and combining the index with future watertemperature results from climate models, the authors projected that Japanesescallops and relevant local industries including aquaculture off the coasts of
Hokkaido would be at risk from future water temperature rises, but that theextent of the risk varied greatly among the GHG emission scenarios. All current
Hokkaido aquafarms producing Japanese scallops are likely to experience
suboptimal-to-excessive summer water temperatures under the highestlevel GHG emission scenario, but only the coastline of the Sea of Japan isaffected under the lowest-level GHG emission scenario. This implies that,again, mitigation of anthropogenic GHG emissions is essential; laboratory
adaptation of the Japanese scallop in terms of temperature-tolerance is also
necessary. It is also important to collect data from all coastal regions, toimprove both assessment and projection.

Conclusion
Because Japan is one of the most suitable regions to detect and project changes
due to ocean warming, previous studies focusing on Japan could have strong
implications to examine the world’s coastal ecosystems. The previous studies
showed that coastal ecosystems are changing rapidly in response to ocean
warming and that such change is projected to continue into the future. They
have also suggested that reductions in GHG emissions, including CO2 , would364

39. OCEAN WARMING

still usefully mitigate the effects of ocean warming on coastal ecosystems. Also,
individualized adaptation strategies are urgently required in coastal regions.
Such strategies might include modification of local industries (fisheries andtourism) to reflect changes in coastal habitats and the areas suitable foraquaculture. Many Japanese marine parks prioritize scenery. In the future,
however, marine parks and protected areas must prioritize the conservationof biodiversity and ecosystems. Previous studies have quantitatively assessedand projected changes in coastal ecosystems triggered by ocean warming, andhave developed objective guidelines that could be used to establish new marineparks and protected areas and to modify aquaculture areas. As emphasized in
the previous studies, further in-depth development of biological indicators isessential to improve the accuracy of current assessments, and the projectionof future changes, in coastal ecosystems affected by ocean warming. To thisend, climatic models of high spatiotemporal resolution, and the availabilityof long-term, high-frequency, in-situ biogeochemical data, would facilitate
more accurate simulations.

365

40. Ocean Renewable Energy

Towards the Sustainable Ocean Development

Hiromichi Tanaka
Renewable Energy Japan Co., Ltd.; Tokai University

External view of overtopping wave power generation and offshore wind power
utilization at fishing ports. Tanaka, H. 2020366

40. OCEAN RENEWABLE ENERGY

Because of global warming due to the increase in CO2 concentration in
the atmosphere, abnormal weather arises and influences ecosystems
everywhere in the world. In the future, it will be necessary to research anddevelop renewable energies, not fossil fuels. Among renewable energies,
solar power, wind power, biomass, and geothermal are technically put topractical use and become commercial power sources. Still, ocean energies
other than tidal power generation and offshore wind power generation
are currently in the research and development stage. Here, we describe
wave power generation and offshore wind power generation, which arerenewable energies that can be utilized at fishing ports. In particular,
the overtopping wave power generation developed by the author will be
described in detail. It also describes the legislation that was amended or
newly enacted to realize them.

Ocean renewable energy
Among the power generators utilizing ocean energy, those that have been
put to practical use and have been developed are tidal power generation,
ocean current and tidal current power generation, wave power generation,
ocean temperature difference power generation, and salinity difference power
generation. In addition, offshore wind power generation using sea wind has
been constructed in various countries around the world for a long time. Tidal
power generation is a device consisting of a floodgate and a dam installed at
an inlet or river mouth where the tidal range is large. The ocean current is a
global circulation of seawater caused by friction due to wind or the difference indensity due to temperature difference and salinity difference, and tidal current
is a periodic seawater flow caused by the tidal phenomenon. Power generation
using the flow energy of ocean current and tidal current is called ocean
current power generation and tidal current power generation, respectively.
Sea waves are caused by winds over the sea. Wave power generation is367

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

the conversion of wave energy into electrical energy. Ocean temperature
difference power generation uses the difference in water temperature between
warm seawater at the surface of the ocean and cold seawater at the deep
layer. Salinity difference power generation uses osmotic pressure due to thedifference in concentration between freshwater and seawater. Offshore wind
power generation is the generation of power by installing a windmill on thesea. Practical applications of ocean energy are tidal power generation andoffshore wind power generation, and others are at the stage of research anddevelopment. Renewable energies available at fishing ports are wave andoffshore wind. Therefore, wave power generation and offshore wind power
generation are described here.

Offshore wind power
The sea wind has a higher wind speed than the land wind, is stable with lesswind turbulence, and has a uniform wind speed distribution in the height
direction, which is a favorable condition for wind power generation. Offshore
wind power generation has a different structure depending on the location of
installation in the sea area. Pile type offshore wind power generation will be
used in coastal areas where the water depth is shallow, and floating wave power
generation will be used in sea areas where the water depth is 100 m or more.
In the case of floating wave power generation, mooring and transmission
line construction costs are incurred. The introduction of offshore wind power
generation is increasing year by year in Britain, Denmark, and the Netherlands,
where the conditions of sea wind are good, and about 8,000 MW is currently
being generated. A wind farm is an array of many wind turbines offshore.
The world’s largest wind farm with 175 units (output 3,600kW per unit) wascompleted off the southeastern United Kingdom. It has a total output of
630,000 kW and supplies power to 500,000 households. In Japan, the capacity
of offshore wind power generation at wind speeds of 7 m/s or more, a shore
separation distance of 30 km, and the water depth of 200 m is calculated to beapproximately 1.2 billion kW. In Japan, offshore wind power generation has
been constructed in recent years led by New Energy and Industrial Technology
36840. OCEAN RENEWABLE ENERGY

Development Organization (NEDO) (NEDO 2014). Due to the effect of fishingreefs on the sea bottom of the offshore wind tower, the EU’s offshore wind
power generation is cooperating with fisheries. In Japan, where coastal waters
have long been licensed to the coastal fisheries, it is important to coordinate
fisheries when constructing offshore wind power generation. Amendments
to legislation on fishing rights and new legislation on the use of waters havebeen enacted to build offshore wind power and other uses of marine energy incoastal areas. This will be described at the end.

Wave power genera on
Wave power generation is roughly classified into eight types (EMEC 2020)
from the method of converting wave energy into electric energy. Thesemethods are determined by wave conditions and installation conditions.
Attenuation type and point absorption-type are used in large offshore waves,and oscillating water column type, pendulum type, wave force conversion
type and overtopping type are used near breakwaters and coasts. Overtopping
wave power generation is suitable in the sea area around the fishing port, andthis type should be installed outside the fishing port breakwater. The author
is currently conducting comprehensive research on the practical applicationof the overtopping wave power generator (Tanaka et al. 2015, Tanaka et al.
2016).
In the overtopping type wave power generation shown in Fig. 1, wave
energy is converted into potential energy as the wave travels up the slope,and flow energy is generated due to the water level difference between thewater tank and the surrounding sea area. The principle of overtopping typewave power generation is generating power by utilizing the torque received by
the propeller to convert the energy using a power generator. It is assumed that
this overtopping-type wave-power generator is not to be installed offshore
but installed in front of offshore breakwaters and around offshore structures,
which receive incident waves directly. This wave overtopping type wave power
generation is composed of a slope, a water tank, a water pipe and a generator,and has a simple structure. The simple structure reduces the construction369

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

cost. In addition, since many marine organisms, such as pearl oysters andbarnacles adhere to marine structures, it is important that the structure issimple.

Figure 1. Imaged figure of wave overtopping type wave power generationequipment

Since the actual wave height and period of each wave differ from wave towave, they are treated statistically as irregular waves. Since ocean waves are
irregular waves, the average value of 1/3 of the observed wave height andperiod, whichever is larger, is defined as the significant wave height and isused for the design. The period uses the significant wave period defined by
the average value of 1/3. The significant wave height and the significant wave
period are represented by H1/3 and T1/3 , respectively. Since the significant wave
height and the significant wave period are almost the same as the visuallyobserved wave height and period, it was decided to treat them as the averagevalue of the irregular wave height and period. In order to calculate the wave370

40. OCEAN RENEWABLE ENERGY

energy, the Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu type spectrum of ocean waves shown in
Eq. (1) was used.

The wave power (Ew ) calculated from the Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu spectrum,and group velocity is expressed as Eq. (3). The coefficient is a value obtained
from the density of seawater ( = 1030 kg / m3 ).

Now, D is related to the group velocity defined by Eq. (3). h is the depth ofwater, L is the wavelength, and k is the number of waves. Since the locationof the overtopping wave power generation is in the shallow sea wave region(0.04h/L<0.5), the coefficient D was introduced.
As shown in the equation (2), since the wave energy is related to the productof the square of the wave height and the period, it is naturally preferable thatthe wave power generation output under good wave conditions. Therefore, itis necessary to calculate the amount of wave energy on the coast of Japan anddetermine the suitable site for installing wave power generation. The wave
energy of the whole country was calculated for 61 places with few missing
data among the 2008 observation data of the National Port Wave Information
Network (NOWPHAS), which has 63 wave observation stations nationwide.
The appearance frequency statistics by wave height and period published by
NOWPHAS are observation data every two hours. Wave power per unit width(Ew ) from the Eq. (2), which is the wave energy equation obtained from theBretschneider-Mitsuyasu spectrum using the significant wave height (H1/3 )and the significant wave period (T1/3 ) every 2 hours Was calculated.
Regarding the calculated annual wave energy, the characteristics of eachregion are described (Tanaka et al. 2016). The yearly wave energy is over
20,000kWh/m at all stations in Hokkaido. Above all, the Setana Observatory371

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

facing the Sea of Japan exceeded 60,000kWh/m. In the Tohoku region, theannual wave energy of almost all stations exceeds 30,000kWh / m, and there
are many stations over 40,000kWh/m on the Sea of Japan side. Above all, theFukaura and Sakata observatories exceed 80,000kWh/m. Since the Aomori
Observatory is an inner bay, it is as small as 1500kWh/m. In the Kanto region,
the annual wave energy at Hitachi Naka Observatory and Habu Observatory
exceeds 70,000kWh/m. The values at the Ashika Island Observatory andthe Second Kaiho Observatory were less than 10,000 kWh/m. On the Sea ofJapan side of the Chubu region, there are many stations where the annual
wave energy exceeds 50,000kWh/m. However, the Fushiki Toyama andTsuruga Observatory in the inner bay were less than 10,000 kWh/m. On
the Pacific side, Shimoda and Omaezaki Observatory exceed 18,000kWh /m. The Shimizu Observatory was 10,000kWh / m or less. The annual wave
energy at Shibayama Observatory on the Sea of Japan side of the Kinki region
exceeds 60,000kWh/m, but at Shibayama Port Observatory installed in theport was less than 10,000kWh/m. The Shiono Misaki Observatory on the Pacific
Ocean side exceeds 30,000kWh/m. The Isewan and Kobe Observatory in the
inner bay were less than 10,000kWh/m. In the Chugoku region, the annual
wave energy at Tottori and Hamada Observatory exceeds 5.000kWh/m. The
Sakaiminato Observatory was 10,000kWh/m or less. The annual wave energyof many stations in the Shikoku region was over 15,000kWh/m, but that of
Komatsushima Observatory was under 10,000kWh/m. The annual wave energy
at the Genkai Sea Observatory on the Sea of Japan side in the Kyushu region
exceeds 30,000kWh/m, but at the Aijima and Iojima Observatory, it was lessthan 15,000kWh/m. On the Pacific side, only Hososhima Observatory exceeds
35,000kWh/m. Other stations were less than 10,000kWh/m. In the Amami
region of Okinawa, the annual wave energy at the Ishigaki-Oki Observatory
was less than 10,000kWh/m, but at other stations, it was over 20,000kWh/m.
In general, there are many sites with large wave energy at the stations on the
Sea of Japan side. In the Tohoku region, there are many wave energy reserveson the Sea of Japan side and the Pacific side, and the average annual wave
energy on the Sea of Japan side was 71,240kWh/m, and on the Pacific side
was 37,321kWh/m. Therefore, it can be said that the Sea of Japan side and the372

40. OCEAN RENEWABLE ENERGY

Pacific side of the Tohoku region and the fishing ports of the Izu Islands are
suitable sites for wave power generation.
To develop the overtopping type wave power generator, the most importantfactor is to determine the volume of overtopping waves. Partially reflected bythem, and the residue is transmitted. In the case of overtopping-type wavepower generation, transmission energy becomes dissipated energy on theslope and overtopping energy. In the past, overtopping volume related tooffshore structures was summarized by wave height, foot-of-slope to depthof-water ratio, wave steepness, and overtopping head. However, natural
motional phenomena can be argued based on the energy theory. The author
conducted a detailed experiment on the relationship between wave energy andovertopping volume with the overtopping head as a parameter. As a result,
the wave energy and the amount of overtopping (q) were proportional to each
overtopping head, as shown in Eq. (4).
q=E (4)
When the overtopping head (R) is 0.8 m, 1.0 m, 1.5 m, and 2.0 m, thevalues of are 0.02312, 0.02234, 0.01390, and 0.00840, respectively. Since thetechnology of converting wave energy into larger potential energy is importantfor overtopping wave power generation, we created four-stage water tanks
and measured the amount of overtopping waves flowing into each water tank.
The total volume of overtopping waves in each tank is related by Eq. (4). If
the overtopping volume for each R-value can be calculated from the relation
between R and wave energy, it will become possible to estimate the capacityof wave power generation based on the NOWPHAS data of each area. The
amount of power output can be obtained by observing the waves in the sea
area where wave power generation is installed, such as fishing ports, for one
year, calculating the wave energy from the observed values, and multiplying
the overall efficiency of wave power generation. The electric power obtainedby wave power generation in the sea area around the fishing port can be used
as electric power for refrigerators, ice makers, and offices.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

New legisla on promo ng the use of ocean energy
In order to promote the use of the sea area related to the developmentof marine renewable energy power generation facilities, measures such as
the establishment of an underlying policy, the designation of a promotion
area, and the establishment of a certification system for plans related to theoccupancy of the sea area within the area will be taken. In Japan, the Law
Concerning Promotion of Utilization of Marine Areas Related to Developmentof Marine Renewable Energy Power Generation Equipment was enacted on
November 30, 2018, and was promulgated on December 7, the same year. The
law was enacted to facilitate the construction of offshore wind power, but it
also applies to other ocean energy.
However, to utilize the sea area, it is crucial to have the correct recognition
that the sea is a shared capital, with active fisheries to increase the foodself-sufficiency rate, and that it is the marine environment that requires
protection. In particular, it is essential to recognize the multi-functionalities
and significances of small-scale fisheries that take place in every nook andcorner of the coastal areas. It is no exaggeration to say that without theserecognitions, there is no real ocean energy development. It is expectedthat further research will proceed in the future regarding the ideal way ofcooperation between renewable ocean power generation and the small-scale
fisheries.

374

41. Forest-River-Ocean Nexus

Enhancing Seafood Intrinsic Value by Environmental Education

Tsuyoshi Sasaki, Shimon Mizutani, Liao Kai
Graduate School of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology

Hei River Cherry Salmon MANABI Project (Salmon Project), Iwate Prefecture,
Japan, Fig.1 [3], A. Ito, 2019375

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Japan is an island country and has a privileged natural environment
with bountiful forest, river and ocean. Traditionally, people living in
the islands have taken care of nature , such as forest-river-ocean nexus(FRON) over generations. Traditional communities have maintained
biodiversity through a sustainable way of conservation and utilization of
biological resources, which also benefited the Japanese society and culture. One of these traditions is small-scale fisheries, and it is a resourceefficient, low-carbon industry that can promote sustainable livelihoodin small villages where FRON has existed. This chapter introduces themethodology, concept and practice of Aquatic Marine Environmental
Education that can help people/learners realize the importance of smallscale fisheries, and the definition of FRON consciousness and foodintrinsic value (FIV) will also be introduced.

Introduc onOver 6800 islands including 418 inhabited islands exist in Japan archipelago.
It has a privileged natural environment with bountiful forest-river-ocean
nexus (hereinafter FRON). Traditionally, people living in the islands havetaken care of these conditions over generations (Wakana 2001). Therefore,
biodiversity has been maintained by traditional communities through asustainable way of conservation and utilization of biological resources. This
tradition has also benefited the Japanese society. People could live a stable
life without worrying about resource depletion, which laid the foundation
for Japanese subsequent cultural development (Ministry of the Environment
2016). One of these traditions is small-scale fisheries (SSF), such as sea
urchin and abalone fisheries, kelp and wakame farming, and inland freshwater
fisheries. SSF is a resource-efficient, low-carbon industry that can promotesustainable livelihood in small villages where FRON exists (FFPJ 2020). In
terms of sustainability, SSF is consistent with the direction of Aquatic Marine376

41. FOREST-RIVER-OCEAN NEXUS

Environmental Education (AMEE), which aims to create an endogenous
community-based on the FRON. This chapter presents the methodology,
concept and practice of AMEE that can help people realize the importanceof SSF.

Aqua c Marine Environmental Educa on and learning
cycle theory
AMEE was defined in 2007 and has been implemented to date (Sasaki 2012).
The direction of AMEE is consistent with international initiatives such as
the United Nations’ Belgrade Declaration in 1975, the Tbilisi Declarationin 1977, the ESD in 2002, the SDGs in 2015, the Ocean Decade in 2017 andnational initiatives such as new national curriculum and environmental
education (Sasaki 2018a). The principle of AMEE aims to lead learners to
become autonomous, increase their intrinsic motivation (Deci, Ryan 1985),
and develop the necessary skills to identify and solve environmental problems.
As defined in the AMEE, an aquatic environmentally literate person can:[1] observe the surrounding aquatic marine environment in a scientific way;
[2] inquire questions related environmental problems and the well-beingof human communities; [3] obtain the required comprehensive knowledge
such as aquatic marine environmental literacy (AMEL); [4] make responsible
decisions and take responsible actions based on outdoor learning experienceswith the comprehensive knowledge such as AMELl; and [5] have the ability
to convey effectively what is learned (Sasaki 2011). It was confirmed thatthe implementation of the AMEE program not only prompts learners’ active
learning but also inspires participants’ ownership and creativity (Waki et al.
2015).
The learning cycle theory is designed to promote learning corresponding
to the learning processes of learners. According to the learning cycle theory,
the recognition and understanding phase of the learner is divided into five
steps: Invitation, Exploration, Concept Invention, Application, and Reflection.
Learners can enrich understanding and knowledge depending on their own
understanding while progressing through these five steps. The details are377

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

as follows: [1] Invitation - ascertain the interests of the learner, focusing
on observations and detailed statements, and combining past experience
with learning objectives. [2] Exploration - remind the learner to research
new educational materials. [3] Concept invention - guide the learner to newunderstanding. [4] Application - remind the learner to deliberate and analyze
the problem independently, as well as produce a new idea or conclusion, place
oneself in real problem solving and critical thinking situations. [5] Reflection- steps from Invitation to Application are reviewed to renew the learning cycle
for later learning (Lawrence Hall of Science 2009).
Next, the principle of AMEE is explained in accordance with the learning
cycle theory and knowledge creation model (Nonaka, 2017). [1] Invitation,with it focus on improving the independence of the participants, whenapplied to AMEE, instructors should stimulate the curiosity and interest ofparticipants and guide them to observe the familiar aquatic environment
independently. This is the first stage in willingly finding issues and tacklingthem. At this stage, the participants are confronted with the aquatic marine
environment using their tacit knowledge related to past experience andknowledge. [2] Exploration - this stage gives participants the opportunityof considering the issues found in the stage [1].

Participants mutually

discourse and respect each other’s hypotheses and ideas, deepen their inquiry
and consideration. Through these deliberations, their tacit knowledge iscommunicated, generating new ideas and discoveries. [3] Concept Invention- this stage makes participants compare and combine new ideas/discoveries
with AMEL (this is externalized as common, explicit knowledge), thus creating
new explicit knowledge. [4] Application - in this stage, participants willtransform the explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge to solve the problems
in another situation. [5] Reflection - in educational psychology, introspection
is essential to the establishment of learning goals; therefore, it is necessary tolook back on the process of developing knowledge and establishing learning
goals. By repeating these steps, participants can deepen their understanding
and generate more ideas and lead to more innovations.

378

41. FOREST-RIVER-OCEAN NEXUS

FRON consciousness and food intrinsic value (FIV)The natural experience in the watershed environment can help the participantsrealize that the food that sustains their life is closely related to the healthy
FRON. Kiso (2014) listed four conditions of healthy FRON. Firstly, there exists
a forest that can absorb and retain water, maintain high levels of organic
matter like minerals and nutrients in the soil, and improve the water quality.
Secondly, this area should have enough spawning habitat like sand, shallows
and ridges for fish or other aquatic animals. Third, the aquatic and marine
environment should be rich for organisms that build up the bottom of thefood web, such as aquatic insects, algae, zooplankton, small fish, etc. The
fourth is that there are few obstacles, such as dams that hinder the return of
migratory fish. In other words, the healthy FRON refers to the good connection
between forest, river, and ocean, which allows the creature to maintain theirsustainable life.
The creatures living alongside the river are affected by human activities andthey also have an impact on human health and well-being. If the river area
has healthy FRON condition, it is not only suitable for the aquatic animals
to spawn, for the fry fish to hide from predators and find food, but also anappropriate environment for wild vegetables to grow. Such a condition makes
the biodiversity. The creatures can also be used as food and the source ofnutrition for humans. This means spatial connections between humans and
FRON has existed, and a relationship between living creatures and people
alongside the river has been connected since the past to present and to
the future. Even today, the healthy FRON allows the people to be able tocapture food such as ancestor’s “hunting and gathering”. They have taken
the responsibility to stay in a healthy FRON in order to sustain the abundantfood resources not only for contemporary circumstances but also for future
generations. These imply that a temporal connection between humans and
FRON has existed.
As mentioned above, in order to obtain food, we have lived and maintained ahealthy FRON while maintaining harmony between humans and nature from aspatial and temporal angle for generations. In other words, the food produced379

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

by nature requires the existence of healthy FRON through the efforts of people
living in the watershed. That is the real value of food, i.e. food intrinsic value(FIV). Such awareness of the importance of healthy FRON is defined as FRON
consciousness. It is a part of AMEL, which consists of scientific knowledge
and traditional knowledge (Mizutani, Sasaki 2018, Mizutani et al. 2019).

The Hei River Cherry Salmon MANABI Project
The FRON-based AMEE program for solving problem endogenously at the
local site, “the Hei River Cherry Salmon MANABI Project” (hereafter Salmon
Project) has been conducted at the Hei River (Length: 75.7km) since 2013. The
Hei River runs from west to east in Miyako city, Iwate prefecture locatedat the easternmost point in Honshu. Miyako City along with its efforts
for tsunami reconstruction has stated in the Citizen’s Charter: “A townof peace where people coexist with forest, river, and ocean” to promote
town development utilizing rich natural resources of forest, river, and ocean
conducting environmental conservation (Miyako City, 2018).
In this Salmon Project, stakeholders such as residents, researchers, administrators and companies in the watershed collaborated and started to
conduct the development, practice of the AMEE program. This program is awhole year program to learn the life history of cherry salmon, intended for
K-12, their parents and university students not only in Miyako City, but alsoTokyo, Kanagawa, and Saitama in Kanto area, and oversea participants suchas Taiwan, China, Indonesia, Philippine, etc. Annual activities include “TheWorld Cherry Salmon Summit” in IWATE at headstream of Hei River in May;
River Drifting Experience (Field experience in Hei River) at Middle of Hei Riverin August; Experiencing artificial fertilization of cherry salmon and observing
the hatched salmon fry at Oshikado Salmon Farming Center in October;
Tracing the Marked Cherry Salmon at Oshikado Salmon Farming Center in
December; Releasing Event of the Marked Cherry Salmon at the middle ofHei River in April. Events taking place the whole year include Observation of
Natural Cherry Salmon Spawning and Hatching Juvenile and Ocean Camp at
Jodoga-Hama Beach. These series of programs are implemented continuously
38041. FOREST-RIVER-OCEAN NEXUS

every year. In the past four years, the number of participants, including project
staff, were over 1,000.
This project is effective for participants to enhance FRON consciousness,
which is recognition of the nexus of the healthy natural environment fromthe headwaters to estuaries. It is impossible to enhance FRON consciousness
through experience activities in urban area like the center of a big city (Suga,
Sasaki 2018). With more than half of Japan’s population living in cities today,
it is difficult for urban residents to understand the importance of such richnatural environment “FRON” to maintain food culture and sustainable society.

Figure 1. The Hei River Cherry Salmon MANABI Project (Salmon Project) was
conducted at the Hei River (Length: 75.7km) with 240 branches, which runs fromwest to east in Miyako city, Iwate prefecture located at the easternmost point in
Honshu. [1]-[7] show activity site. Activities of the First day to the Third day arepresented in the next section.

381

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Transforma on of FRON consciousness a er theexperience
This section describes the transformation of FRON consciousness before andafter the exploration in headwater [First day] and the river experience [Secondday] and ocean camp in Jodogahama Beach [Three day]. These activities havebeed conducted countinuously since 2013 targetting for children and theirparents not only local but also other area such as Tokyo, and overseas.

First dayOn the first day, participants spent an hour and a half climbing the stream tothe headwaters of the Hei River (see Fig.1 [1]). Before that, they were asked on
a 6-point scale (6 - very high to 1 - very low), as to how they felt about FRON.
We found that before the exploration, they did not feel much about FRON
Consciousness (3 points or fewer) “, but after they felt strongly connected (5points or more). The following are some of the participant’s impressions after
the experience.

Through climbing the stream to the headwaters, I realized the existenceof FRON and learned that humans have a strong influence on nature,and I found that FRON is very important in our lives.
From the headwaters to the ocean, we can learn how nature benefits
humanity and how human beings affect nature.
I thought that FRON and human beings were connected with eatingfish and shrimp. I also noticed that I was eating a lot of natural food.
Cherry Salmon is a very amazing fish. If you cut trees, cherry salmon
will decrease.
These can be interpreted as words to show what extent they understand FRON.
Not only they understood the role of fish as food but the importance of FRON
to maintain the life cycle of cherry salmon.

382

41. FOREST-RIVER-OCEAN NEXUS

Morning of the second day
On the second day morning, in the Hakoishi area in the middle the watershed(see Fig.1 [2]), about 30km downstream from the headwater, a river drifting
experience and aquatic organism collection and observation were conducted
for children. Local residents were interviewed for their past memories related
to FRON. One of their impressive memories of childhood was playing in theriver. In this area, until the 1960s, schools had no swimming pool, so theriver was a natural swimming area (Mukaeguchi 2017). The venue is held in
the watershed area where abundant water flows from the mainstream andtributaries. It is the best place for swimming and water flow training. However,after the 1970s, pools were built in elementary schools around the country,
even if the river and ocean still exist, they no longer swim there. This area
is also the same, classes in the river were no longer held, and the voices ofchildren from the river decreased.
On that day, local people concerned about safety at first, but they feelreassured by wetsuits, life jackets and professional backup. What’s more, they
praised the safety education, including how to use rescue ropes and how to doriver drifting in a proper way. The locals were reenergized by noticing that thechildren were drifting and swimming well in the river. Under the guidance ofspecialists, the children learned the river drifting method and enjoyed working
independently and actively. After the river drifting experience, it seemed thatthey worked on observation and collection of aquatic organisms, and everyone
was immersed in observation and collection. The children were able to see theprecious salmon swimming and caught sculpins, dace and aquatic insects.
Here are some of the impressions of the children.

Small fish lives in places where water flows slowly, while bigger fish isstaying in places where the flow is fast.
I found that the river is home to not only people but a wide variety
of flora and fauna, and these organisms maintained a balanced river
ecosystem through the food chain.

383

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

These comments suggested that children who played did not only observe thewater well and understand the nature of aquatic organisms but also deeply
understood that humans are also a part of the ecosystem.

Lunch me at the second day
At lunchtime, freshly-baked landlocked cherry salmon was provided by Hei
River Fisheries Cooperative Association. The fish was grilled in a unique way
by AMEL leaders, who were taught by the head of the fisheries cooperative andpracticed this skill for three days. The taste was quite good. Some children
even ate four plates of fish.
Here are the impressions of the children.

Because I learned that salmon at any stage need cold, clean, oxygenatedwater to survive. I understood the reason for good food was good water
quality.
Maintaining clean water quality is important for fish as well as
humans.
This feedback suggested that children understood the importance of the environment and keeping the environment in good condition are the prerequisites
for having delicious food.

A ernoon of the second day
In the afternoon of the second day, they learned about the morphologicalobservation of salmon, especially otoliths. Children who had experienced
mountain climbing, river drifting, gathering creatures, eating salmon, weredeeply interested in the life history of salmon.

I’m glad I learned a lot about otoliths in the afternoon. I really enjoyed
the process of removing otoliths.
I was surprised that otoliths were smaller than I thought.
384

41. FOREST-RIVER-OCEAN NEXUS

The otolith line showed how many days the fish lived, and the typeand size of the otoliths differed depending on the type of fish. The fish
also had ears.
Some students understood that otoliths analysis could be used for studying
various fish and is an indispensable technique for understanding fish ecology
and FRON, presented these experiences at the school festival about the
research results that otolith analysis revealed a new life history (Sasaki 2018b).

Third day
The third day’s activities were conducted in the Jodogahama Beach includingcollecting marine organisms such as fish (sculpin), echinoderms (sea urchin,starfish), seaweed (ulva, laminaria), and crustaceans (hermit club, barnacle).
After the field study, AMEE promoting Leaders gave a lecture on marineorganisms. Next, Children visited the largest fishing port in Iwate Pref.
and observed the following marine creatures: fish (cod, salmon, yellowtail,mackerel), echinoderms (sea urchin, sea cucumber), bivalves (oyster, scallop,
abalone), crustaceans (horsehair club), mollusks (squid, octopus). After that,they enjoyed dinner that consisted of local ingredients, including the abovementioned seafood. Children realized maintaining a suitable river condition
from upstream to downstream not only leads to keeping a wealthy marine
environment, but also fosters abundant marine organisms and creates anopportunity for humans to enjoy delicious seafood.

Summary
The Salmon Project will contribute to the increase in the consciousness ofpeople in terms of FRON. By conducting activities in each watershed of the Hei
River, participants can have a deeper understanding of FRON by integrating
the explicit knowledge obtained from experience at the headwater and thenew one obtained at next places. Without FRON, food that can sustain ourlife will no longer exist. In addition, in order to keep enjoying delicious food,385

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

it is necessary to maintain the natural environment in a sustainable state.
Lastly, a growing desire to convey what they learned from the Salmon Projectto others is also important. Improvement of FRON consciousness in the Hei
River watershed leads to understanding the relationship between creaturesand humans that exist in the same ecosystem.
Mr. Olivier Roellinger, vice president of the International Association of
Relais & Chateaux, said, “Food is life, and life does not exist apart from nature.
Iwate Prefecture is blessed with rich ingredients. The reason is that there are
grandiose forest and ocean, that is to say, “sauvages” where people and nature
are in harmony. They have been cultivated for a long time by local people. It
cannot be created from large-scale industries” (Roellinger 2019). People whohave lived in the FRON across several generations have secured food while
preserving the ecosystem. One such balanced relationship between creaturesand humans is SSF. Essentially, SSF is a sustainable industry that has continued
to be this day with maintaining such the ecosystem. FRON consciousness willlead to a deepening understanding of SSF and creating additional value interms of sustainability of SSF. But we could not clarify how the improving of
FRON consciousness contributes to the creation and sustainable developmentof watershed societies and sustainable SSF progress. In the future, further
education practices and research will be required.

Acknowledgement
I gratefully acknowledge to all the people involved in this project, especially
SANRIKU ESD Hei River Academy, Hei River Fishery Cooperative Association,
Miyako Fishery Commercial Cooperative Association. This research was
funded by RIHN( No. 14200084) and KAKENHI (No. 15K11951).

386

42. Marine Protected Areas

Can Japanese Small-Scale Fisheries Coexist with Conservation?

Joji Morishita
Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology

Togura fishing community, Shizugawa Bay, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. Y. Li, 2018

387

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The Aichi Target, adopted at the 10th Conference of Parties to theConvention for the Conservation of Biodiversity (CBD) in 2010, set thegoal of protecting 10% of coastal and marine areas by 2020. However,fishing interests often oppose the establishment of marine protectedareas (MPAs). This article explores the following issues in relation to
MPAs and Japanese Small-Scale fisheries (JSSF). First, according to the
Ministry of Environment, 8.3% of Japan’s 200 mile waters are coveredby MPAs. However, most of them are area-based fisheries management
measures. Can they be counted in the 10% goal? Are fisheries including
JSSF and MPAs mutually exclusive? Second, the wide-spread perception
is that MPAs should be for high seas, big and permanent, and no-takezones. However, if the purpose of MPAs is the conservation of biodiversity,
they should mainly cover waters within EEZs through bottom-up andadaptive approaches. Third, JSSF has long been conducted in the
coastal waters while protecting the marine environment and conserving
biodiversity through co-management. Rich marine biodiversity is aprerequisite for coastal fisheries to be feasible and prosperous. JSSF
and MPAs are thus not conflicting concepts. Establishment of MPAs
with bottom-up, local knowledge-based, stakeholder inclusive comanagement concept would contribute to the MPA goal.

Aichi Target - 10% MPA goal
The establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is attracting strong
interests both domestically and internationally as an effective tool for theconservation of marine biodiversity and protection of the marine environment.
Numerous declarations, statements, and reports support and promote theestablishment of MPAs. Particularly the Aichi Target, adopted at the 10th
Conference of Parties of the Convention for the Conservation of Biodiversity(CBD) held in 2010 in Nagoya, JAPAN, set forth the goal of covering 10% of388

42. MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

coastal and marine areas by protected areas by 2020. This numerical goal
was endorsed by the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development(Rio+20) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 2012 through its outcome
document “The Future We Want (A/RES/66/288)”. Therefore, the 10%
goal is regarded as an international commitment.
stmeet the goal, as seen in the 1

Japan is striving to

Basic Plan on Ocean Policy (March 2008;https://www8.cao.go.jp/ocean/english/plan/pdf/plan01_e.pdf).

“As one of the means to ensure the biodiversity and realize sustainable
use of fishery resources, the government should, in accordance with
the Convention on Biological Diversity and other international agreements, clarify how to establish marine protected areas in Japan undercoordination between related ministries and appropriately promote theestablishment thereof.”

Percep on of MPAs
One of the issues of this 10% MPA goal is what kind of MPAs are eligible forinclusion in the 10% count. There is a widespread perception that an MPAis, or should be, a no-take zone, e.g., the total prohibition of fisheries. The
perception is present in both those promoting the establishment of MPA andthose opposing MPA (Caveen 2015). For example, the author received many
emails as Japan’s representative to the Commission for the Conservationof Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) when the organization wasconsidering the establishment of MPAs in the Antarctic Ocean, and theyencouraged us to establish large no-take zones.
“Please create a legacy for humanity by agreeing at CCAMLR in 20[xx]to large scale, permanent, marine protected areas and no-take marine
reserves in Antarctica’s Ross Sea region and East Antarctica. Antarctica’s
waters are a remarkable home for wildlife and include some of the least
impacted parts of the world’s oceans. We’re relying on our leaders toshow leadership to protect our oceans for future generations.”389

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

On the other hand, the fishing industry often opposes MPAs as they also
have a perception that MPAs would destroy their fisheries. In my view, bothproponents and opponents are making MPA issues too simplistic. Here weneed to confirm the language of the Aichi Target (https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/); Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding
ecosystems, species and genetic diversity

Target 11
By 2020, at least 17 percent of terrestrial and inland water, and10 percent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particularimportance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved
through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative
and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective areabased conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapesand seascapes.
The general understanding is that both “protected areas” and “other effectivearea-based conservation measures (OECM)” are to be counted in the 10% goal.

Japan’s MPA and OECM
According to the Ministry of Environment (https://www.env.go.jp/council/12nature/y120-35/mat02_4.pdf), Japan’s MPAs cover approximately 8.3%of the 200-mile zones, i.e., territorial waters and exclusive economic zones(EEZs), as of the writing of this article (March 2020). Out of the 8.3%, 8.1% isfisheries-related conservation and management measures, e.g., “Protected
Water Surface” and areas governed by the fishing rights system, based on
the Act on the Protection of Fishery Resources (Act No. 313 of December
17, 1951) and the Fishery Act (Act No. 267 of December 15, 1949). In otherwords, they are management measures for Japan’s coastal fisheries thatare generally small-scale fisheries (JSSF). There are differences of views as
to the eligibility of those fishery conservation and management measures
to be counted in the 10% MPA goal. CBD also recognizes this issue and390

42. MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

therefore had carried out a series of meetings to discuss, including an expert
workshop on OECM (February 2018, Montreal, Canada) and the 22nd meetingof the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice(SBSTTA, July 2018 Montreal, Canada). Eventually, the 14th meeting of theConference of the Parties (COP14) to the CBD (November 2019, Sharm ElSheikh, Egypt) adopted decision 14/8 (Protected areas and other effectivearea-based conservation measures) (CBD/COP/DEC/14/8) on 30 November
2018. This decision is accompanied by guidance and scientific and technicaladvice regarding OECM. While these documents provide extensive provisions,fisheries-related measures can be included as an OECM and therefore counted
in the 10% goal only when the measures contribute to the conservation ofmarine biodiversity. In other words, fisheries conservation and management
measures aimed at specific target species are not regarded in general as OECMs.

JSSF and MPAs
Why is there a view that fisheries measures such as Japan’s “Protected Water
Surface” areas should not be counted in the 10% goal? It is regarded thatmany of the fisheries measures are introduced for the recovery or sustainable
use of specific fishery target species, not for the conservation of the marine
environment and marine biodiversity. The concept of OECM, on the other
hand, allows measures and systems that are not necessarily established forthe conservation of environment or biodiversity to be regarded as OECM ifthey consequently conserve a high degree of biodiversity in the subject areas.
Therefore, they can be counted in the 10% goal. Examples of this type ofmeasure and systems are protected areas for their historical and culturalvalues and religiously sacred areas (e.g., a grove of a shrine, ancient Emperor’stomb) that keep a high degree of biodiversity as a result of restrictions on
land/sea use.
Then what kind of relation exists between JSSF and MPAs? In other words,
does JSSF damage the marine environment and biodiversity to be protected by
MPAs? Do MPAs harm JSSF? Answers to those questions could vary depending
on a definition of MPA and OECM, scale, target species and fishing gears of391

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

the JSSF concerned, and other conditions. However, one thing is certain. JSSF
will not be able to exist and continue unless the marine environment andbiodiversity are well conserved. Many JSSF have been conducted for hundredsof years in Japan’s coastal waters, and for many small coastal communities,
JSSF is their way of life. Does this mean that they are guardians as well as usersof the marine environment and biodiversity?
There are several definitions of an MPA. One example is the definition
adopted by COP 7 of the CBD;

“Any confined area within or adjacent to the marine environment,
together with its overlying waters and associated flora, fauna, andhistorical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation orother effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine
and/or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its
surroundings.” (CBD COP7 Decision VII/5
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) also has its
definition of an MPA ;“Any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying
water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which
has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or allof the enclosed environment.”(Resolution 17.38 of the IUCN General Assembly, 1988, reaffirmed in
Resolution 19.46 (1994))
They have many common features. Both definitions require MPAs to protect
the environment and biodiversity but do not specify how. The CBD definition
asks for “a higher level of protection than its surroundings,” while the
IUCN definition uses the word “reserved”. According to the definitions,
MPAs could be no-take zones but could also be other levels of protection.
IUCN, as a matter of fact, has the Protected Areas Categories System thatallows various levels and types of protection for Protected Areas (IUCN
392

42. MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

2019) (https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas/about/protected-areacategories).
When we follow the CBD definition, the purpose of the establishment of
an MPA seems to be the protection of marine biodiversity. Then it would be
logical to target marine areas with high biodiversity or with rare and valuablebiodiversity for conservation. What kind of marine areas are candidates for
the MPA conservation? CBD designates areas called EBSA (Ecologically or
Biologically Significant Marine Areas, https://www.cbd.int/ebsa/about), andthey are logically priority areas for establishing MPAs. While areas meetingthe EBSA criteria include high seas, many of them are in coastal waters. Thisis especially evident in waters around Japan (Figure 1).

Figure 1. EBSA areas around Japan (https://www.cbd.int/ebsa/)
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) often argue, and the media promotes, that big and permanent no-take MPAs should be established in thehigh seas (sea areas beyond national jurisdiction) that occupy approximately
50% of Earth surface areas (Southampton Oceanography Centre, International
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 2001), thereby
protecting untouched nature. Is this logical and scientific? If the real purposeof an MPA is the conservation of marine biodiversity, conservation measures393

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

should be introduced in areas with a high degree of biodiversity, mainly
in coastal waters, and they should be tailored to specific characters of an
ecosystem and specific threats to the ecosystem. The conservation measures
should also be flexible, adaptive, and specific to the local situations, as themarine environment and ecosystem will change and dynamic rather thanstatic. Keywords and concepts for MPAs should be coastal, adaptive, andbottom-up.
There is an argument that MPAs are necessary in order to regulate, or
prohibit, high seas fisheries because they damage abundant and pristine
biodiversity in the high-seas areas. However, as a general trend, biodiversity
decreases from coastal areas to offshore and high seas areas. Furthermore,high seas fisheries are at most 10% of the total fisheries catch from the seas,probably much less than 10%. Most of the fisheries are conducted within EEZs
and territorial seas of coastal countries. Of course, this does not mean we
don’t need to regulate high seas fisheries, or high seas biodiversity is lessimportant. It is very important to regulate fisheries in the high seas areas andconserve the biodiversity of the high seas. However, if the biodiversity as awhole should be conserved and protected, it would be logical and essential toemphasize the consideration of appropriate conservation and management
measures within EEZs and territorial seas.

Contribu on of JSSF to MPAs
Then what can we, and should we, do to conserve marine biodiversity
within the areas under national jurisdictions of coastal countries? Should
we restrict coastal fisheries such as JSSF? Are coastal fisheries damaging
marine biodiversity? Rich marine ecosystems and biodiversity in the coastal
waters are prerequisites for coastal fisheries to be feasible and prosperous,aren’t they? The main threats to the coastal ecosystem and biodiversity havebeen marine pollution, including land-based one, the disappearance of tidal
flats and shallow seagrass areas by reclamation, loss of coastal ecosystems
such as coral reefs, climate change, to name a few. In order to protect themarine ecosystem and conserve biodiversity from those threats, we need good394

42. MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

scientific information and local knowledge regarding the target sea areas
and ecosystems, the participation of local stakeholders in decision making,effective implementation of conservation and management measures, andmonitoring of the effectiveness of the measures. They require comprehensive,
adaptive, and bottom-up governance systems.
JSSF has long been conducted in the coastal waters while protecting the marine environment and conserving biodiversity through co-management. JSSF
is also based on a traditional system of adaptive, stakeholder participation,bottom-up, and local knowledge-based measures through co-management(Makino 2011). JSSF and MPAs are not in conflict, or they should not be
understood as conflicting concepts. There can be scenarios where JSSF
contributes to the protection of the marine environment and conservationof biodiversity, thereby achieving both promotions of coastal fisheries suchas JSSF and conservation of marine environment and biodiversity. This isan antithesis against the widespread MPA perception; high seas, big, andpermanent.
It is already suggested that a post-Aichi Target for MPAs should be 30%
coverage, substantially expanded from the current 10% goal. This argument
follows the high seas, big, and permanent MPA perception. Again, if thegenuine purpose of establishing MPAs is the protection of the marine environment and conservation of biodiversity, they should be mainly cover waters
within EEZ and territorial waters to be practically effective. Also,they should
be based on the co-management concept of JSSF, not the top-down restrictionof fisheries and other human activities but bottom-up establishment/management/monitoring of MPAs. Establishment of Japanese style MPAs, withbottom-up, local knowledge-based, stakeholder inclusive co-management
concept, like the JSSF system, would contribute to the MPA goal.

395

43. SSF Guidelines

Challenges of Japanese Small-Scale Fisheries to Work as a Role Model

Haruko Yamashita
Daito Bunka University

JF Itoshima in Fukuoka prefecture operates retail store and invites member fishers
to bring their products packed, processed and even priced by themselves.
Yamashita H. 2019396

43. SSF GUIDELINES

Since SSF Guidelines (SSFG) focus on fisheries in developing countries, many of the recommendations many be considered irrelevant
for Japanese small-scale fisheries (JSSF). Nevertheless, JSSF should bereassessed in light of the SSFG. Since Japan has a large small-scale
fishery sector, it is worth identifying and improving issues even if they
are not serious, and Japanese performance can be used as a benchmark
for SSF in developing countries that pursue economic development while
preserving their SSF sector. The reason for JSSF to fulfill most of the
SSFG recommendations stems from its nature, such as well-organizedfisheries cooperative associations (FCAs), de facto entry barriers, fishers’
collective power through FCAs, and availability of jobs in and outside thesector. On the other hand, there is room for improvement in such areas
as value-adding process, status of women, status of foreign trainees, andrisks that threaten JSSF.

Introduc on
Since the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries(FAO 2015: hereafter called SSFG) focuses on fisheries in developing countries,
many of the recommendations may be considered irrelevant to Japanese smallscale fisheries (JSSF). Nevertheless, JSSF should be reassessed in light of
SSFG. One reason is that Japan has a large SSF sector, normally categorized ascoastal fishery, and JSSF plays a significant role both in terms of volume of
production—0.97 million tons, or 22% of total production (MAFF 2020)—andnumber of self-operated coastal fishers—89 thousand, or 97% of total fishers(MAFF 2018). This is unique for a developed country, since the fishery sectors
in developed countries are typically operated off-shore and deep-sea, andcoastal lines are dedicated to large-scale aquaculture. Therefore, Japan’s
performance with respect to SSFG will serve as a benchmark for SSF indeveloping countries that pursue economic development while preserving
397

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

their SSF sector. Another reason for reassessment is that an opportunity canbe taken to reflect on the fishery sector and take action to improve JSSF if JSSF
does not fulfill the recommendations. When difficulties are overcome, JSSF
will work as a perfect role model of the SSFG. It should be noted that JSSF in
this chapter only refers to marine fishery, as inland fishery production is too
small (27 thousand tons) to be significant for this discussion. In this chapter I
first briefly introduce the SSFG. Then, I explain the structure of JSSF, whichenables it to be in accordance with SSFG. Lastly, I indicate four points where
JSSF does not fulfill SSFG.

Outline of SSFG
SSFG is a compact, 44-page document consisting of a Forward and a Preface,followed by three parts. In the Preface, it states that “the document is developed
as a complement to the 1995 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (italics
indicate direct quotes from the SSFG). The SSFG support the visibility, recognitionand enhancement of the already important role of small-scale fisheries and tocontribute to global and national efforts towards the eradication of hunger andpoverty (FAO, 2015). In addition, the Preface states that SSFG are “voluntary,
global in scope and with a focus on the needs of developing countries”.
The main texts in the SSFG are organized as follows. “Part 1: Introduction”
briefly illustrates the objective, nature and scope, guiding principles andrelationship with other international instruments. “Part 2: Responsible
Fisheries and Sustainable Development” is the main part of the report,
dealing with five subjects that are shown in the following table. “Part
3: Ensuring and Enabling Environment and Supporting Implementation”
provides recommendations on the following four points: “policy coherence,
institutional coordination, and collaboration; information, research, andcommunication; capacity development; and implementation support andmonitoring.”

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43. SSF GUIDELINES

Characteris cs of JSSF
In my view, one reason for JSSF to fulfill most of the SSFG recommendations
stems from the four structural characteristics of JSSF. First, JSSF is organized
into fisheries cooperative associations (FCAs), and all coastal fisher families
are members of one FCA or another. Second, conditions to be a member ofan FCA are strict, as a fisher should live in the local coastal area and operate
their fishery more than 90 days per year. Since a new entrant from outside
the region cannot fulfill these conditions, the rule works as a de facto entry
barrier. Third, because of these structures, FCAs hold collective power over
government and other marine-related industries. Therefore, coastal fishers
are not vulnerable or marginalized, unlike the SSF characterized in the SSFG.
Fourth, many job opportunities are available in and outside the fishery sector,
and all workers possess freedom of movement and choice of work. Based onthese characteristics, I will examine the applicability of JSSF to SSFG according
to the five SSFG recommendations listed in Part 2, the main section of SSFG.
Table 1 below gives a comprehensive display of how JSSF does and does notmeet SSFG requirements.

Well-organized FCAs
JSSF has 943 coastal FCAs that are unified into prefectural units of FCAs
under a centralized national FCA organization called JF (JF 2020). Therefore,
SSFG recommendation 5.17 (see Table) is fulfilled. TURFs or fishing rights inthe coastal area are managed by the local FCA, entrusted by the prefectural
government (5.1). Local and prefectural FCAs negotiate with marine-relatedindustries on behalf of their members in advance of large projects (5.10), andthey can refuse or agree to coastal area use depending on the degree of negative
impact on fishing activities and the amount of monetary compensation.

399

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Table 1. Correspondence of JSSF to SSFG. Note: Section numbers and selectedclauses are quoted from FAO SSFG (2015). The status of JSSF is judged by theauthor.

Social security policies, such as medical insurance and retiree pensions, are applied to fishers as well as all citizens (6.3), although many fishers are reluctant
to pay pension fees (Otani 2015). JF operates its own financial institution called
Shingyoren, where individual fishers’ sales at an FCA’s auction market are
deposited. Shingyoren also provides loans with low-interest rates for fisheryrelated investments and livelihood-related expenditures. A governmentsubsidized income insurance policy called Tsumitate-Plus mitigates income
fluctuation by refunding income deficit (6.4).

400

43. SSF GUIDELINES

De facto entry barriers
Although it is typically not good to limit entry into any industry, in thecase of the coastal fishery, such barriers to entry are accepted in order toprotect local marine resources at a sustainable level. As a result, fishers in thecommon fishing grounds are limited and known to each other. JSSF practices
autonomous fishery management, currently known as Community-Based
Fishery Management, or CBFM (5.5). Fishers are incentivized to pursue longterm utilization of the common resources (5.13) by making and agreeing on
their own rules in terms of fishing methods and off seasons, and monitoring
if the rules are followed (5.16). It should be noted that the amount of catchhas been decreasing for decades, despite fishers’ effort through CBFM. Selfimposed input controls may not be enough to sustain the resources. Therefore,
output control like TAC (total allowable catch) was introduced in 1997 for eighttypes of fish, and an IQ (individual quota) system will be implemented to cover
80% of commercial fishing, according to the amended fishery law that will go
into effect in 2020.

Collec ve power over the industry and the government
Because of the aforementioned structural characteristics, JSSF possesses acertain collective power over marine-related industries to withdraw theirdevelopment plans (5.10) and over the government to subsidize income
insurance (6.3 & 6.4). Additionally, in the case of natural disasters, central
and local governments make restoration plans and subsidize most of thereconstruction cost of damaged facilities (9.7). However, increasing disasters
such as typhoons, heavy rains, and high tides attack facilities that were
newly rebuilt after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami in 2011,
and restoration seems to be an endless effort.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Job opportuni es within and outside the industry
It seems that abundant job opportunities, or shortage of labor, is one of theunique characteristics of Japan. Despite the fact that the Japanese GDP growthrate has been at most 2% per year for the last two decades, the unemployment
rate has remained lower than 5%, except in a few severe years before andafter 2000. The minimum wage applies to all workers. Sons and daughtersof fisher families take advantage of the freedom of choice of work, and theyoften opt out of the fishery sector (6.14). As a result, only 17% of fisheryhouseholds have a successor (Fishery Agency 2020), and many invite foreign
trainees to compensate for the lack of labor force. The average income of a
JSSF household is low, at about 2.2 million yen per year (Fishery Agency 2020),
or 40% of the average household income of employed workers. This can givethe impression that JSSF is driven to a vulnerable, marginal position. However,this average is somewhat tricky, as 38% of JSSF fishers are over age 65 (MAFF2018); elderly fishers work at their own pace while receiving pensions, so theirincome is low. This brings down the average to a lower figure than what istruly representative of income in the industry.

JSSF challenges under SSFG
The rest of this chapter is devoted to the negative aspects of JSSF, which canalso be seen in the Table. Though none of these issues are very serious, there
is certainly room for improvement in order for JSSF to become a perfect rolemodel of the SSFG. The issues can be categorized into four topics: processing
and value chain, the role of women, the status of foreign trainees, and risks
that threaten JSSF. It is worth mentioning that the fisher’s revenue, as a shareof the retail price of fish, is 32% (Fishery Agency 2020); in other words, 63%
is taken by the wholesale and retail sectors. Fishers always complain that theycannot decide the selling price of fish and that middlemen depress fish prices
when they purchase through auction (7.1). In order to overcome this inequality,
the Fishery Agency suggests that fishers add value by undertaking processing
and sales themselves. The photo shown in this chapter is a successful example.
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43. SSF GUIDELINES

Such an extension of fishers’ activities can be recognized as alternative income
generation (6.8); however, fishers always struggle due to shortage of labor,
unstable fish supplies, and little monetary compensation compared to theeffort spent.
JSSF falls behind some developing countries in terms of verifying the
responsibility, either by obtaining a Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)
certificate or by obtaining the MSC-equivalent Japanese certificate MEL-J.
Obtaining a Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) certificate
is the same (7.3). Research results show that it is too costly, while the pricepremium is too low (Wakamatsu 2017), because the scale of JSSF is too small
to achieve an economy of scale. Two different issues affect the role of womenin JSSF. One is the issue of FCA membership status and the associated positionin the community. In many cases, FCA membership is given to one member
per household. The male fisher is primarily registered as a member (5.3),
although their wives normally take on pre- and post-harvest tasks, including
processing and sales, and some go fishing to assist their husbands. Otherwise,
the wives work part-time in local processing firms. The work of fishers’
wives should be reassessed and properly appreciated for being essential andprofessional tasks (8.1).
Another issue is the status of women who are not wives of fishers. Even
though the fishing sector is seeking labor, women have not been regarded as
candidates except as Ama, shellfish-picking divers (8.1). However, progresshas been made. In the annual events to recruit unexperienced young people tobecome a fisher—called the Gyogyo Shugyo Shien Fairs—the question “Can
women apply?” was the first to appear in the questionnaire for employer
recruiting conditions in 2019. In terms of foreigners, the fishing sector has
accepted foreign trainees, and a new law allows foreign workers starting in
2019. As far as wages, the Japanese minimum wage applies to foreign trainees,
and it fulfills human rights standards (6.7). However, some issues persist.
For instance, trainees cannot be accompanied by their families, they cannot
work more than three years, they cannot change jobs, and they must take out
expensive loans for language lessons, visa documentations, and flights before
work even start (Hurights Osaka 2020). JSSF may need to pay more attention403

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

to women and foreign workers.
Lastly, I would like to mention that certain risks threaten JSSF. One is safety
at sea (6.16): the Japanese sea faces risks like potential unnoticed missile
attacks from a neighboring country. Another issue is climate change (9.1). Oneof the reasons for the rapid decrease of fish resources like squid and saury is theincrease in ocean temperatures (Fishery Agency 2020). Global warming andthe associated rise in temperature threatens fish and other marine resourcesin the middle to high latitudes. JSSF does not have any tools to mitigate or
combat this kind of threat, in addition to the increasing natural disasters.

404

44. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development

Interlinkages between the Sustainable Development Goals and Japanese
Small-Scale Fisheries

Irianna Vlachopoulou
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs

Ousatsu fishing port, Mie Prefecture, Japan, I. Vlachopoulou, 2015
405

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The modus operandi of Japanese small-scale fisheries (JSSF) and thementality behind it, particularly in the case of satoumi, provide numerous benefits not only for the users of the fisheries, but also for the
local communities, the environment, as well as other stakeholder groups.
JSSF offer sustenance, employment opportunities, ecosystem services,
and importantly, educational opportunities on resource management,
among other advantages. These benefits, when examined through thelens of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, indicate thesignificant contributions of JSSF to sustainable development, throughengagement towards a wide range of societal goals, reaching almost
all 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda. Nevertheless,existing, as well as additional utilization of new technologies canincrease significantly the capacity of JSSF to contribute further to theachievement of the 2030 Agenda.

Introduc onJapanese Small-Scale Fisheries (JSSF) constitute a distinctive case in global
fisheries management due to the uniqueness of the way they formed andhave been evolving to modern times. For centuries, the formulation of local
fisheries associations (Fisheries Cooperative Associations – FCAs) into formal
entities happened organically, in response to local institutional requirements,
namely the traditional rights of common use (iriai), and has been greatly
encouraged and is supported to this day by governmental entities, like theJapan Fisheries and Research Agency through the provision of technicalassistance, information and formal consultations, among others (Makino
2011, 2017, Lim et al. 1995). This is not to say that the governing regimes
have remained unaltered all this time. On the contrary, along with the FCAs
(and their preceding structures), the governance has shifted significantly,
taking even a very centralized form during the Meiji Restoration period406

44. THE 2030 AGENDA FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT(1868-1953). Nevertheless, a centrally-supported local self-organization
scheme seems to be the most relevant to the reality of JSSF, as it has been themost prevalent regime throughout Japanese history, including the present.
Self-organization and local management are the most essential aspects inthe ways FCAs operate and organize themselves; the concept of “resource
management by the resource users themselves” (Makino 2017: p. 22), namely
the fishers being the main actors and the main decision-makers in a fishery,is the cornerstone of the structure of JSSF (Makino 2010).
A very common similarity observed among the various JSSF is the adoptionof a holistic approach to management based on the idea of satoumi, whichare “coastal landscapes that have been formed and maintained by prolonged
interaction between humans and ecosystems” (Matsuda 2010). The key concept in the satoumi framework is the interaction between human activity andecosystem management (UNU-IAS 2011); prolonged human activity within
the coastal ecosystems often results in higher biodiversity and productivity. In
this narrative, the notion that if the relationship between human activity andecosystems is properly managed, then the relationship is mutually beneficial,is the most essential aspect and affects national policy-making significantly(Japan Satoyama Satoumi Assessment, 2010).

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its
17 Sustainable Development Goals
In late 2015, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030 Agenda)
was unanimously adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations withthe objective to act as a roadmap and a destination for the future humankind
wants for its planet: a more equal, sustainable and prosperous Earth to be
inherited by future generations. The 17 goals included in the 2030 Agenda
targeted the most pressing issues of today’s global society, from eliminationof poverty and promotion of global health to prosperous natural environment
to achievement of world peace, equality, and cooperation (United Nations2015).
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have become a universally407

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

recognizable brand and the ideas behind them are widely adopted acrossthe globe. Yet, the SDGs constitute a very high-level set of global values
and by themselves cannot be implemented through concrete actions andinitiatives. For that reason, 169 targets have been identified and adopted
by the 2030 Agenda. These targets indicate the specific aspects of therespective SDG that should make up the objectives of policymaking aiming
towards the achievement of the SDG. Each of these targets comes with a setof indicators (one or more), which constitute the means of monitoring the
progress made towards the achievement of the targets, and, consequently,
the SDGs. Currently 232 indicators are recognized under the SDG frameworkand they are re-evaluated at regular intervals to ensure their relevance.
Even though the 193 Member States that make up the UN General Assembly
decided that the 17 SDGs are the ultimate objectives that every nation should
be striving towards, the actual implementation plans were subdelegated to
the national level (United Nations 2019). Ever since, each Member State hasdeveloped their own strategy to translate the high-level SDG framework into a
day-to-day, reportable reality for national policymaking and consequently, its
citizens. Nevertheless, in many cases, human activity preceding the adoptionof the SDG framework and the relevant implementation strategies, was alreadycontributing to the goals and continues to do so, quite often without theexistence of a clear feedback circle between the actors and the policymakers
in charge of the national SDG implementation strategy.

SDGs and JSSF
This pre-existing linkage between the SDGs and human activity is evident
in the case of the JSSF. Apart from the obvious contribution of JSSF to theeradication of hunger and poverty as a significant source of income for local
communities, as well as food at the local, regional and occasionally eventhe international level, JSSF contribute to a range of other SDGs and theirtargets. For example, as Mizuta and Vlachopoulou (2017) note, the central
ideas of satoumi can be identified within at least three different SDGs, alllinking back to and impacting upon the main pillar of Life Below Water
408

44. THE 2030 AGENDA FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT(SDG14) where satoumi as a whole would intuitively fall under, considering
its main scope of sustainable use of marine resources. The focal point of theframework, namely the community of users, adopts under the satoumi lens asustainability-oriented approach to local development (SDG11: Sustainable
Cities and Communities), through inclusive employment opportunities for
its members (SDG8: Decent Work and Economic Growth) and the promotionof sustainable production methods, as well as consumption of local produce(SDG12: Responsible Consumption and Production).
It is important to note, however, that in order to understand better theactual contributions of JSSF to the 2030 Agenda, the examination and interpretation of the various contributions cannot be limited to the SDG level.
Local policymaking exhibits many more specific interlinkages with the SDG
framework if examined at the SDG target level. The targets have, after all,been designed to guide policymaking and trigger case-specific initiatives andactions. Nevertheless, having to explore policies that predate the frameworkmeans that we need to run a matching exercise between the objectives of thetargets and the various JSSF activities that have been initiated independently of
the SDG framework. Running such an exercise showcases that JSSF contributeto many targets seemingly unrelated to the obviously relevant SDGs – namely
SDG2: Zero Hunger and SDG14: Life Below Water.
Taking the earlier example of satoumi as a whole, research has shown thatsatoumi arrangements contribute to SDGs 8, 11, and 12. If we examine specific
JSSF examples operating within the satoumi framework and compare themwith the targets, we can explore the range of direct contributions; we can takefor example, activities that address targets under SDG4 (Quality Education).
Target 4.4 requires “[b]y 2030, [to] substantially increase the number of youth
and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills,
for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship” (United Nations, 2015).
The Rausu FCA, operating in Hokkaido prefecture, has been passing down fromgeneration to generation the traditional fishing skills and gear, particularly
local knowledge of the fishery and the territory. Operating on this base, they
have been developing adaptive management strategies (gear rotation; target
species reallocation) to cope with perceived changes in the system. They have409

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

been supporting the adoption of such measures by the members of the FCA
through the provision of vocational training and transitional assistance tomake the adoption of new gear and activities as widespread as possible, while
fulfilling the original objective of resource conservation (Vlachopoulou andMakino 2017).
In similar fashion, target 6.6 calls for “protect[ion] and restor[ation of]water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers,
aquifers and lakes” and members of JSSF like Omura Bay, in Nagasaki
Prefecture, and Kesennuma, Miyagi Prefecture, partake in traditional conservation and restoration activities, including replanting seagrass beds (Hidaka
2018) or even initiating reforestation activities, as local knowledge indicatesan intricate relation between healthy terrestrial and marine ecosystems
within the same geographical location (Vlachopoulou and Mizuta 2018).
Multiple other targets receive contributions from the various JSSF, either
individually or in general. Another illustrative example would be target 17.16,
which calls for “[e]nhance[ment of] the global partnership for sustainable
development, complemented by multi-stakeholder partnerships that mobilize
and share knowledge, expertise, technology and financial resources, tosupport the achievement of the sustainable development goals in all countries,
in particular developing countries”. Knowledge relevant to the implementation of adaptive management under the satoumi framework accumulated in
JSSF constitutes an invaluable source of know-how that can be adopted bydeveloping countries, adjusted to their respective circumstances. Toolboxes
created for JSSF have already been tested in South-East Asian countries,
allowing them access to benefits from tailormade adaptive management(Makino and Perry 2017). This exchange of experience and expertise aligns
perfectly with the need for flow of knowledge and information from developed
to developing countries.

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44. THE 2030 AGENDA FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

New technologies
An important aspect of the process towards the achievement of the SDGs is the
adoption of new technologies. Many of the targets mention some explicitly,
not only in terms of monitoring the progress towards sustainable development,
but also their direct contributions to the achievement of the goals (e.g. SDG14).
In order to highlight the importance of new technologies for sustainable
development, the Secretary General of the United Nations issued, in 2018,
the Strategy on New Technologies to foster the adoption of new technologies
also through initiatives originating from the UN system itself.
Following the example of the Shiretoko JSSF, where extensive data collection
takes place through the fishery itself, with data flowing from the fishers to
the research community and vice versa (Makino 2017), we can safely conclude
that JSSF could benefit significantly from enhanced processes for extensive
data collection not only for the management of each individual fishery, butalso for monitoring JSSF contributions to the SDGs overall. Data scarcity is
a common problem in small-scale fisheries globally (Gill et al. 2019), withmany fisheries having too fragmented, quite often temporally, datasets andsuffering from non-inclusive data collection processes. The adoption of newtechnologies, especially space-based ones, can provide solutions complementary to traditional approaches to this problem. Space technologies can offer
significant management tools, particularly for monitoring of fish stock status
and environmental conditions, but also to provide insight on the use of thefishery through mapping of local knowledge of the resource and individual
fishing routes and activities for example (Sakita 2016). Furthermore, spacetechnologies can be used to enable data collection at the fishery level; the data
could then be fed back to research and from there to the relevant statisticalauthorities responsible for national reporting on the progress towards theachievement of the SDGs.
Such an approach would enhance the existing adaptive capacity of JSSF for
adaptive management, while fostering legitimacy of community-based management with vigorous monitoring of the resources and the environmental
conditions of the fishery. At the same time, the data collected can be used for411

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

research, as well as reporting on the progress made towards the achievementof the SDGs.

Conclusions
The extensive contributions of JSSF across the SDG framework reinforce not
only the understanding of the 2030 Agenda as a collection of interlinked global
priorities, but also the interpretation of JSSF as a holistic approach to fisheries
management with significant spill-over effects in multiple pivotal aspectsof society. The various impacts of JSSF appear to positively affect all threepillars of sustainability, namely society, the environment and the economy,
making their contribution to the achievement of sustainable development
an inherent characteristic of their functionality. With less than ten years
left to achieve the SDGs, the need for innovative and inclusive action is moreurgent than ever. In light of this, the Secretary-General of the United Nations
declared the Decade for Actions, calling for the mobilization of all levels ofsociety, encouraging particularly local action and people action. The current
contributions of JSSF towards the achievement of the SDGs, coupled with theirpotential for innovative approaches to management, especially through the
adoption of new technologies, highlight the relevance of JSSF as strong actors
in the context of the Decade of Action. With strong local initiatives and heavily
involved stakeholder groups, JSSF constitute a global best practice case of
local resource management for sustainable development.

Disclaimer
The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarilyreflect the views of the United Nations and of its Office for Outer Space Affairs.

412

45. Transdisciplinarity approach

A Co-Design, Co-Production and Co-Delivery Process Driven by
Small-Scale Fishers

Tetsu Sato
Ehime University

Coral restoration by Onna Village Fishery Cooperative in Okinawa promoting
collaboration of various scientists and stakeholders, T Sato, 2013

413

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Transdisciplinary approach is consisted of three elements: co-designof research agenda to visualize societal and academic challenges, coproduction of integrated knowledge to provide visions and way forwards
for solutions, and co-delivery of actions and applications to tackle
with these challenges. Throughout this process, diverse stakeholders(including scientists/experts) experience collective thinking and actions
to stimulate mutual learning and adaptive improvement of knowledge
and actions to cope with uncertainty and unpredictability of complex
social-ecological systems. Two case examples of transdisciplinary
processes led by small-scale fishers in Okinawa and Hokkaido, Japan,
revealed that these processes were effectively initiated and promoted by
the small-scale fishers themselves, while scientists, government agencies
and other actors were playing supportive roles. Functions of leading rolesof small-scale fishers in the transdisciplinary processes are discussed in
the light of importance of their livelihood-based knowledge and skills to
support establishment of networks and collective actions among diverse
actors.

Transdisciplinary approach
Small-scale fishers and other stakeholders associated in fishing industries
in Japan, as well as in the world, are facing various challenges in sustainable
management of fisheries resources and ecosystems supporting them, withcomplex interlinkages to management of fishing efforts and pressures on thesea, and effective processing, profitable marketing and fair and equitablesupply chain of the products on land (Makino and Tajima 2018). These
challenges are extremely complex in structure, with diverse trade-offs andsynergies associated with interventions by various relevant actors in thesociety. Such complex social-ecological systems are difficult to understandand manage based on conventional science driven by curiosity of discipline414

45. TRANSDISCIPLINARITY APPROACH

based scientists/expert, nor solely through experience-based measures ofindividual actors, such as fishers themselves. Issue-driven and solutionoriented integration of diverse knowledge sets of different stakeholders(including scientists) are required to tackle with these complex and ‘wicked’
challenges associated with small-scale fisheries. As the future of the resources,well-being of fishers and the trends of related industries are extremely
difficult to predict due to scientific uncertainties associated with complex
social-ecological systems, adaptive management/governance and collective
learning processes with full participation of diverse stakeholders are essential
to mobilize dynamic actions toward more sustainable and equitable futures(Sato et al. 2018). Therefore, I have been strongly advocating importance oftransdisciplinary approaches based on partnership among diverse stakeholders in the consecutive two research projects in which I took a responsibility
as the principal investigator: “Creation and Sustainable Governance of New
Commons through Formation of Integrated Local Environmental Knowledge(ILEK project)” supported by RIHN, Kyoto, Japan (2012-2017), and “Transdisciplinary Study of Natural Resource Management under Poverty Conditions
Collaborating with Vulnerable Sectors (TD-VULS project)” supported by JSTRISTEX (2017-2020). In these two research projects, I endeavored to establish
equal partnership in terms of knowledge production processes with extremely
diverse stakeholders/actors including small-scale fishers and traders.
Transdisciplinary approach is composed of the following three elements:
co-design of research agenda, co-production of knowledge, and co-delivery ofcollective actions and applications (Mauser et al. 2013). All these elements aresupported by collective thinking and actions by a wide range of stakeholders
including scientists. Co-design plays major roles in visualizing societal aswell as academic challenges and collaborative design of transdisciplinary andsolution-oriented research and actions. In the process of co-production ofknowledge, all participating stakeholders/actors are expected to experiencemutual interaction and learning in the process of exploring visions andapproaches toward potential solutions, resulting in adaptive integration ofdiverse knowledge sets to co-produce and share the integrated knowledge
sets which we termed Integrated Local Environmental Knowledge (ILEK, Sato415

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

et al. 2018). Such integrated knowledge sets provide diverse stakeholders withlegitimate bases for collective actions toward solutions. Note, however, that
this is not a linear and stepwise process starting from co-design to proceed
to collective actions. We can begin with any of these three elements andgoing through the learning processes driven by the feedbacks from otherelements. For example, we may begin with designing and implementing
collective actions for sustainable management of fisheries resources using
existing knowledge bases, and we move into co-design of the research agenda
toward solutions of challenges visualized or broadened through the initialactions. Then we may try to co-produce integrated knowledge to design a
new resource management measure or improve existing ones. The range
and diversity of participating scientists and stakeholders may also change
dynamically throughout the process. We may begin with participation of asmall range of scientists from a few disciplines, say, fisheries scientists andmarine ecologists, and limited number of stakeholders outside academia,
for examples a few fisheries cooperatives. The numbers and diversities ofparticipants may also increase, or sometimes fluctuate in the subsequent
processes. We may try to incorporate more (or less) research disciplines suchas sociology, economy and cultural studies, and types of stakeholders/actors
including actors in supply chains and consumers. Such a dynamic and flexible
feature is the most important aspect of the transdisciplinary approach tomobilize adaptive processes and mutual learning to cope with uncertainty
and unpredictability associated with complex social-ecological systems. With
these dynamic interactions among diverse scientists and other stakeholders totackle with complex real-world challenges, the transdisciplinary approaches
create ample opportunities of interactions between academic and societal
processes moving on in parallel, resulting in producing academic and societal
impacts simultaneously (Lang et al. 2012).

416

45. TRANSDISCIPLINARITY APPROACH

Small-scale fishers as the key actors
Together with dedicated members of the two previous research projects
including scientists from diverse research domains and creative practitioners
from various societal sectors outside academia, we have been successfulin accumulating case examples of transdisciplinary processes emerging invarious communities in Japan and in the world. Taking a close look at theprocesses and mechanisms behind these examples made me convince that themost significant actors to mobilize the transdisciplinary processes were thesmall-scale fishers, farmers and foresters utilizing natural resources. They are
not simply dependent on indispensable natural resources, but at the same time
important care takers of the resources and supporting ecosystems. I was truly
astonished by recognizing many creative and innovative collective actions
initiated by small-scale fishers and other grass-roots actors in coastal communities to manage, improve or restore fisheries resources and supporting
ecosystems through the transdisciplinary approach inviting collaborationsof diverse stakeholders/actors. In many examples, professional scientists
and government agencies were not leading actors of the transdisciplinary
processes, but rather attracted by creative and innovative features of theactions initiated by small-scale fishers, which stimulated their scientificor political curiosities to participate and collaborate. Therefore, it seemedobvious for me that small-scale fishers should be regarded as the major
actor to lead transdisciplinary processes and collective actions to achievesustainability of resources and to improve well-being of people. Here, I try
to convince the readers that my initial impressions were right, based on twocase examples of transdisciplinary processes promoted by small-scale fishers
in Japan.

Coral restora on of Onna Village Fishery Coopera ve
Onna Village Fishery Cooperative in the west coast of Okinawa Island has about
290 members of small-scale fishers mainly engaging in Mozuku seaweed(Nemacystus decipiens) aquaculture in shallow waters. They were the first417

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

developer of aquaculture techniques of the species in 1970s. In this sense,
they have been the producers of knowledge and skills regarding importantfisheries resources supporting their livelihood. The cooperative and fishers
have long been aware of importance of coral reefs offshore of the Mozuku
farming grounds as a source of nutrients for the seaweed. However, thecorals along the coast had been deteriorated by outbreaks of a coral predator
and massive breaching in 1998 and 2001. The cooperative made extensive
efforts to mitigate the damages in collaboration with local governments
and tourism industries, and successfully established stakeholder networks
for ecosystem management, which stimulated sociological analyses of theimportance of initiatives driven by fishers themselves (Yanaka 2018). The
cooperative dynamically moved forward to launch the program to develop
their original aquaculture technologies of reef-building corals in 1999, applying accumulation of aquaculture experiences of important fishery species
including Mozuku, and this effort eventually attracted attentions of coralscientists (Higa and Omori 2014). The coral aquaculture attempts have madea significant success, with the world largest scale of coral reef restorations
and mass-spawning of artificially planted corals in natural waters (Zayasu
and Shinzato 2016). Molecular biologists are actively engaged in evaluating
impacts of coral restoration by the cooperative from the viewpoint of genetic
diversities (Zayasu et al. 2018). The coral planting activities using cultured
corals have engaged tourists, consumer cooperatives, diving industries,
Mozuku processing/marketing companies and other business sectors inJapan to provide diverse stakeholders with opportunities of participation
to revitalize local social-ecological systems through various channels. The
coral restoration led by small-scale fishers of the fisheries cooperative areplaying catalytic roles to mobilize broader scale transdisciplinary processes
incorporating scientists from various research disciplines and broader scale
stakeholders across the nation.

418

45. TRANSDISCIPLINARITY APPROACH

Watershed Restora on by Nijibetsu Kor Kamuy Society
In the Nishibetsu River Watershed in the eastern part of Hokkaido, a local
voluntary organization called Nijibetsu Kor Kamuy Society has been mobilizing various community actions to restore natural environment along the
Nishibetsu River Watershed covering three towns (Teshikaga, Shibecha and
Betsukai) to sustain dairy industries in the upper and middle reaches andcoastal fisheries along the river mouth. Their goals are to secure a longterm sustainability of these key industries through restoration of habitats
of Blakiston’s fish owl, an endangered owl species endemic to Hokkaido
and adjacent areas, as an environmental icon of riverine and terrestrial
environment. The Society has been led by two leaders: the director who are
now retired, with a long carrier of municipal government officer in chargeof river management, and the secretary general who is a small-scale salmon
setnet fisher in Betsukai Town near the river mouth and the owner of a small
aquaculture facility of Donaldson Trout at the headwater of a tributary of
Nishibetsu River. Blakiston’s fish owl requires healthy riparian forest as
nesting sites and fishes in the river as food resources. Therefore, the society
made a series of efforts for the past 25 years to plant trees along the river torestore forests as the nesting sites of the owl, to install hand-made nest boxes
for the owl using recycle materials from dairy industries, and to improve fish
habitats in the river by protecting water crowfoot colonies in the water. These
efforts have resulted in a total of ca. 80,000 tree seedlings planted along theriver and about 30 chicks of the owl fledged from their nesting boxes (Kitamura
et al. 2018). Their recent dynamic development of restoration activities ofwater crowfoot, an aquatic plant symbolizing clear water and providing salmon
juveniles with suitable habitats, has started because the plant was decreasing
due to feeding pressure by Sika deer in winter. A scientist of plant ecology
has been collaborating with the Society to support the restoration activities.
The Society has been successful in engaging diverse stakeholders including
municipal governments from three towns, dairy farmers, coastal fishers andscientists/experts from various disciplines including myself, to contribute totheir actions from different angles. These people are probably attracted to the419IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Society because of the two leaders’ clear and consistent visions of future of thewatershed addressing importance of sustainable dairy and fishery industries
supported by watershed environment which is essential for survival of the owl
and well-being of the people (Kitamura et al. 2018). The secretary general,
the salmon fisher, has been providing various livelihood-rooted knowledge
and skills, which have played critical roles in establishing intellectual basesof restoration activities at watershed scale and providing practical skills todiverse collective actions (Kitamura and Ohashi 2018). He had a long-term
experience on planting trees from his childhood guided by the vision of his
father, who was also a fisher, that riparian forests are critically important tomaintain healthy coastal environment and fisheries resources. He has a wide
range of knowledge about freshwater ecosystems and aquaculture of salmonid
fishes. His farm is located at the headwater of the river in the feeding area ofthe owl parents reproducing in the nest boxes installed by the Society. The
farm has functioned as feeding ground for the owl parents as he opens a partof the ponds free for feeding by the owls. His techniques of managing set
nets in the sea have been used to develop protective nets for water crowfootfrom feeding by the deer. He has been working hard with the director who
has strong ties with the municipal governments to mobilize collective actions
involving all towns in the watershed across jurisdictions. The knowledge andskills deeply rooted to livelihoods and experiences of these leaders have played
significant roles in mobilizing transdisciplinary processes at the watershedscale toward sustainable environments and industries.

Conclusion
Based on these stories of two case examples, I think it is reasonable toconclude that small-scale fishers have a huge potential to initiate and leadthe transdisciplinary approaches by promoting collaborative interactions andcollective actions among diverse stakeholders including scientists. Integrated
knowledge sets are produced in this process, which include understanding
the challenges (systems knowledge), future visions of the environment andhuman life of the region (target knowledge) and indispensable skills and420

45. TRANSDISCIPLINARITY APPROACH

institutions to move toward the vision (transformation knowledge, Wiek andLang 2016). I feel happy and deeply honored that I have been a part of suchtransdisciplinary processes with these innovative practitioners and have learnt
a lot from them to fuel my research. Basic principles of transdisciplinary
approach partnering with small-scale fishers and other stakeholders willcertainly be maintained in the forth-coming 5 years research and development
project in Malawi starting 2020: “Establishment of a Sustainable Community
Development Model based on Integrated Natural Resource Management
Systems in Lake Malawi National Park” by the SATREPS program supported
by JICA and JST.

421

46. The Role of NGOs

Catalyzing Innovation and Partnership for Forging Sustainable
Small-Scale Fisheries

Masanori Kobayashi
Ocean Policy Research Institute of the Sasakawa Peace Foundation

Men walking in the sea water trying to catch fish with a throwing fishing net in
Pohnpei, Federal State of Micronesia. Kobayashi, M. 2018422

46. THE ROLE OF NGOS

Sustainable small-scale fisheries (SSF) are an important component of
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 that addresses life under water.
To achieve sustainable SSF, it requires an interdisciplinary approach andcross-sectoral partnership. As an independent non-profit policy research
institute, OPRI-SPF actively participates in policy dialogues, science
research and field actions. The high-level policy discourse at the global
level provides an important policy framework. It needs to be translated
into concrete policies and measures at the national and local level.
Countries and communities have common challenges while the solutions
need to be tailored to meet the local socio-economic and topographic
conditions. It is also deemed useful to pursue co-benefits and innovationin promoting sustainable small-scale fisheries. The enhanced science,
policy and field action nexus supported by international partnershipappears to be important in effectively achieving SDGs. Actions driven
through these approaches will help creating policy and institutionalframework conducive to achieving sustainable SSF.

Mul faceted ac ons for fostering a sustainable blue
economyDoes the old man catch the fish for food, money or the proof of his worth? A
boy in The Old Man and the Sea by Earnest Hemingway wanted to know it. To
explore policies for promoting sustainable small-scale fisheries (SSF), it isimportant to know the reason why fishers catch fish in their way. We need toknow their mind-set, behaviors, surrounding conditions, the impacts of theirwork, and their views thereon. Technology, governance and people’s mindset
all need to amalgamate to achieve sustainability (Crocker and Lehmann 2013
and Wamsler and Brink 2018). World leaders have recognized sustainablefisheries as a pivotal pillar of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) byunderling it in SDG14 that addresses “Life under water” (UN 2015a). SDG14.b,423

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

for instance, calls for actions to provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers
to marine resources and markets. Sustainable SSF continue to remain asa priority policy agenda item. Sustainable SSF is designated as one of theeight themes for the interactive dialogues at the Second United Nations Ocean
Conference scheduled to take place in Lisbon, Portugal in June 2020 (UN 2020).
The importance of SSF to local economy, food security and nutrient provision
is also emphasized in the report of the High Level Panel for a Sustainable
Ocean Economy (HLP-SOE 2019).
Yet, SSF face various mounting challenges posed by fish stock depletion,
coastal and marine ecosystem degradation, sea water warming, acidification,
deoxygenation, and increasing heavy storms. Fishers alone cannot resolve
such challenges. Multi-stakeholder collaboration and an interdisciplinary
approach are indispensable in order to catalyze innovation and partnershiptowards achieving sustainable SSF. The Ocean Policy Research Institute of the
Sasakawa Peace Foundation (OPRI-SPF) based in Tokyo, Japan, an independent non-governmental and non-profit ocean policy research institute, facilitates policy research, multi-stakeholder policy dialogues and field actions
towards achieving sustainable development through the conservation andsustainable use of marine and coastal resources. OPRI-SPF is actively engaged
in various global, regional and national policy dialogue on ocean governanceand marine resource management as a member of various prominent bodies
including the Advisory Network of the High Level Panel for a Sustainable
Ocean Economy launched as an initiative by the Government of Norway. Prime
Minister Erna Solberg of Norway and President Tommy Remengesau Jr. ofPalau act as co-chairs of the High Level Panel and Prime Minister Shinzo
Abe of Japan acts as its member (HLP-SOE n/d). OPRI-SPF strives to work in
the various domains from high level and multi-stakeholder policy dialogues,
interdisciplinary science research and field actions with the view to promoting
a sustainable ocean economy or blue economy where sustainable SSF is a vital
component.

424

46. THE ROLE OF NGOS

Taking a lead in mul -stakeholder ocean policy dialogues
One of the challenges in advancing effective policy dialogues is how to go
beyond conventional silos and compartmentalization and facilitate interdisciplinary multi-stakeholder dialogues. As Albert Einstein said, we cannot solve
our problems with the same thinking we used when we created them. If wehave undermined SSF and need to revive it, we have to change the way withwhich we addressed SSF. The importance of having technical discussions on
SSF among fishery experts is not deniable. However, such an approach is now
considered as insufficient and limited in resolving challenges faced by SSF ina broader scale particularly when SSF is challenged by multiple factors that go
beyond the boundary of their local communities.
Ocean was brought up and appeared in the document in the climate change
negotiations at the 21st Session of the Conference of the Parties to the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC/COP21) in Paris in
December 2015. OPRI-SPF attended COP21 and advocated the importanceof integrating ocean in the climate change discussions. The Paris Agreement
adopted there refers to, in its Preambular Paragraph 13, the importanceof ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems including oceans (UN 2015b).
This has paved a way to address the nexus of climate change and ocean inpolicy discussions with an extended stakeholder constituency. The nexusof climate change and ocean was reinforced as a centerpiece at the Climate
Change Action Summit held in San Francisco in September 2018. Ocean
advocators called for more aggressive actions to promote renewable energy
and reduce the use of fossil fuels as a way to save ocean, coral, fish andshellfish from ocean acidification. At the Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations (FAO) headquarters in Rome in November 2019, OPRISPF supported the International Symposium on Fisheries Sustainability.
Many speakers asserted repeatedly that fish stock depletes and migrates indifferent patterns in many parts of the worlds due to overfishing and ocean
warming (FAO 2019 and FAO 2019). In the light of the contributions madeby SSF to food security and resource stewardship, they called for support to
SSF organizations in pursuance with the Voluntary Guidelines on Securing
425IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Sustainable Small-scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty
Eradiation (SSF Guidelines, FAO 2015). It is vital to carry out interdisciplinary
multi-stakeholder policy dialogues from holistic viewpoints, demonstrate andshare scientific findings, embody key principles in policy tools and advancetheir implementation at the field level (Kobayashi 2017).

Advancing transforma on and forging confidence in thepolicy dynamism
Policies discussed at the global level mean nothing unless they are implemented at the national and local levels. World leaders called for collective
actions at the 2017 UN Ocean Conference to make a meaningful difference
to our people, our planet and our prosperity. In this context, OPRI-SPF
contemplates to address sustainability in Ocean policy at the national andregional level as well as at the global level. With Palau, for instance, OPRI-SPF
has facilitated information exchange on marine resources and ecosystems
within and beyond national boundaries. In August 2019, OPRI-SPF, thegovernment of the Republic of Palau, and the Palau International Coral Reef
Center (PICRC) convened a multi-stakeholder policy dialogue on marine
resources at PICRC. It was considered important to assess the achievements
and challenges in implementing the Palau National Marine Sanctuary (PNMS)
Act adopted in October 2015 and revised in June 2019. PNMS is considered as aprogressive policy as it prohibits commercial fishing in the 80 per cent of the
Palau’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and allows commercial fishing onlyin the fishing zone equivalent to the 20% of EEZ. With the 2019 amendment,
the fishing zone was relocated from the surrounding of the main island to
the west of the Palau’s EEZ thereby securing the connectivity of the fishingzone with the adjacent high sea and placing the southern border of the fishingzone at latitude 7°N for ensuring more effective compliance and enforcement.
Research on deep sea ecosystems, plankton dynamics and marine plastics
in the Pacific were discussed. A part of the outcome was presented at theside event of the third session of the Intergovernmental Conference on aninternational legally binding instrument under the United Nations Convention426

46. THE ROLE OF NGOS

on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of marine
biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction held in New York in
August 2019 (IISD 2019). OPRI-SPF, the government of Palau, the governmentof Norway and the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research convened a side
event on 23 October 2019 during the 6th Our Ocean Conference held in Oslo to
explore a framework to review the implementation of policies and activities
aimed at a sustainable ocean. President Remengesau Jr. of Palau delivereda keynote address on ocean policies and international partnership at theInternational Symposium Commemorating the 25th Anniversary of Japan –Palau Diplomatic Relations held at the Sasakawa Peace Foundation in Tokyo
on 11 November 2019. The activities mentioned above are just a part ofthe process where OPRI-SPF work with overseas partners in advancing theimplementation of policies and activities aimed at achieving a sustainableocean at the national and regional level and forging policy and institutionalframework conducive to sustainable SSF. It is vital to build upon sequential
enabling programs in international partnership to address common interests
in ocean governance and marine resource management.

Connec ng macro policies and local ac ons
Like other countries, how to draw a line between conservation and sustainable
use of marine resources is a critical policy challenge for the Republic of
Marshall Islands (RMI). The Protected Area Network (PAN) Act was adopted in
September 2015. Even a year after the PAN Act legislation, the Act was not wellknown to the local stakeholders. The Environment Protection Authority of
the Republic of Marshall Islands conducted a pilot study with the supportof SPF and released a report pointing out the discrepancy between local
communities regarding the awareness on the PAN Act and the difference
in response to the possible conservation measures (Kobayashi 2017). In theFederated States of Micronesia, OPRI-SPF conducted a research on the impactsof pollutants and erosion from the land on marine ecosystems. Pollutant anderosion control measures were promoted by the Department of Resources
and Development and the Department of Environment, Climate Change,427

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

and Emergency Management. Support was provided under the Ridge-toReef project that was executed by the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional
Environment Programme (SPREP) and funded by the Global Environmental
Facility. It was revealed that increasing pig farming in the backyard of houses
on hilly areas was a source of livestock manure that cause adverse impacts on
the coastal marine environment. In Guam, the local poachers who hunts deerillegally set bush fire that causes soil erosion and sedimentation and damage
coral reefs and reef fish habitats. OPRI-SPF intends to share Pacific island
stakeholders the good practice in Okinawa and Kagoshima where measures
are implemented to arrest soil erosion with increased vegetation cover during
the fallow period and the installation of tillage, ponds and stone walls to trap
soil. Sustainable SSF require sustainable coastal and land management as well.
Stakeholders from the Pacific islands reviewed the common challenges andexchanges ideas for solutions, for instance, at the International Workshop- Fostering Innovation and Developing Partnership for Blue Economy that
OPRI-SPF and the University of Hawaii Center for Pacific Island Studies coorganized at the East West Center in Honolulu in February 2019.

Co-benefits and innova on for implemen ng SDGs
Doing one thing and achieving more than one goals. This is a thinking of
co-benefits and synergies that are also emphasized by the declaration of 2017
UN Ocean Conference (UN 2017). At the meetings of the Friends of Ocean
Actions held in Davos in January 2020 in conjunction with the World Economic
Forum Annual Meeting, OPRI-SPF shared the highlight of its policy researchon the co-benefits from renewable energy and sustainable aquaculture. In
Kumejima, Okinawa-prefecture, renewable energy is generated by the systemcalled Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC). It turns the turbine by
HFC (Hydrofluorocarbon) that is evaporated by warm sea surface waterand liquefied by cold deep-sea water. The interesting part of OTEC is themultiple use of deep-sea water. After generating renewable energy, deep sea
water is used for shrimp and sea grape aquaculture, cosmetic production andthalassotherapy at a spa facility. OTEC supports local economy of Kumejima428

46. THE ROLE OF NGOS

in an estimated value of 23 million US dollars and the employment of 140
persons. OTEC is not always a viable option as it is possible only under certain
conditions such as the presence of warm sea water and a steep underwater
cliff. However, the case of OTEC in Kumejima demonstrates the importanceof a co-benefit approach and cross-sectoral partnership in multiplying thesocio-economic benefits of sustainably utilizing marine resources.
In Minamisanriku, Miyagi-prefecture after the 2011 tsunami, oyster farmers
decided not to restore the oyster farming gears at the pre-disaster level but torestore only up to one third of the pre-disaster level. Such an approach reduced
the density of oyster farming and allowed oyster to grow bigger and faster.
In 2018, with the assistance of WWF Japan, farmers succeeded in acquiring
the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) certificate. Shizugawa Bay, theiroyster farming area, was also designated in 2018 as a site to be protectedunder the Ramsar Convention in the light of the importance recognized in kelp
and seaweed biodiversity and migratory bird habitats. In Hinase, Okayamaprefecture, the seagrass that used to covere the sea area of 590ha in 1940’s
plunged to 82ha in 1961. Local fishermen and local junior high schools
collaborated in restoring seagrass to 250ha in 2016. Local fishermen reportan increase in the stock of fish species that habituate on seagrass beds such as
crab, squid and bream. On the other hand, in Rikuzentakata, Iwate-prefectureand Hayama, Kanagawa-prefecture, local fishermen and divers expressed
concerns over the disappearance of seaweed and seagrass and the spreadof sea urchins presumably because of the sea water warming. Sea urchins,that can be delicacy, do not contain much eggs (more precisely gonads) due
to the nutrient deficiency. Fishers thus have no incentives to harvest sea
urchins and the sea urchins continue to spread as a vicious cycle. Divers
volunteer to exterminate sea urchins and experiment their use as fertilizer inthe vegetable farm on the land. By conducting case studies on fisheries andaquaculture, OPRI-SPF intends to distill the success factors in the methods
and approaches used for designing and managing fisheries and aquaculture
production systems, seafood marketing and value creation. Innovation andpartnership are key success factors and likely to remain important in the midstof growing changes and uncertainty in the ocean that sustains the livelihood429

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

of so many small-scale fishers around the world.

Role and challenges of grant making founda ons inpromo ng sustainable SSF
There are a number of private foundations that make grants to support sustainable marine resource and fishery management. SPF in recent years gives apriority to self-operating programs rather than grant making programs. OPRISPF promotes collaborations with partners to advance the implementationof the programs that OPRI-SPF develop and manage autonomously. OPRISPF can collaborate with its partners to apply for grants from other grant
making organizations. However, a formula is not common in the current
portfolio of OPRI-SPF. OPRI-SPF strives to address the common challengesof ocean policies building upon the its institutional strength in the areasof interdisciplinary ocean policy research, facilitating multi-stakeholder
dialogues and forging collaboration with its partners that have their own
thematic, geographic and operational focuses. The ocean, that Rachel Carson
considered as an eternal safe haven 70 years ago, has turned to be increasingly
vulnerable and we were warned to stop going down on the path to the end of lifein the ocean (Carson 1951, US Congress 1970 and Robert 2012). It must be a toppriority to maintain sustainable life in our ocean and buttress the livelihoodof the people who depend on the ocean and marine resources. Policies for
ensuring a sustainable ocean and marine resource management must be
pursued persistently as our priority policy goal (US Congress 1974). OPRISPF continues a voyage with its partners to pursue policy and institutionalframeworks conducive to achieving sustainable small-scale fisheries.

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47. Blue Jus ce“A Just Space” for Small-Scale Fisheries in “Seichosangyoka”

Yinji Li
Tokai University
Jack Daly
TBTI Global
Ratana Chuenpagdee
Memorial University of Newfoundland

A Kinme (Splendid Alfonsino) fisher with a peace sign, Inatori, Izu Peninsular,
Shizuoka Prefecture. Japan. Inatori Branch of Izu FCA. 2018

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Blue Justice is a concept that calls for a critical examination of how smallscale fisheries (SSF) and their communities may be affected by ocean
development initiatives such as those promoted under Blue Economy andBlue Growth agenda. The relationship between the “seichosangyoka”(growth industrialization), which is the main aim of the fisheries policy
reform, and SSF in Japan is an example of tension between development
and SSF livelihoods, which may lead to social injustice. Because of
the lack of sufficient discussion and communication between fishers
and government authority, it is unknown how many and what types ofjustice issues will SSF face under the new Fishery Act. From the justiceperspective, there are many aspects about SSF that need to be considered
before realizing “seichosangyoka.”

A new concept but not new to Japan?
The Blue Justice concept calls for careful consideration about ocean development to avoid marginalizing SSF, which seem to be happening under the Blue
Economy and Blue Growth agenda. Several observations and evidences havebeen made about how SSF are disadvantaged in policies that exclude SSF fromaccess to resources and work space. Concerns were raised at the 3rd World
Small-Scale Fisheries Congress hosted by Too Big To Ignore (TBTI) in Chiang
Mai, in Thailand 2018, that things could be a lot worse as countries and aid
agencies are promoting new ocean development initiatives under the Blue
Economy and Blue Growth agenda. Our argument is that while Blue Economy
and Blue Growth can be desirable for ocean sustainability, it needs to be donein a way that does not negatively impact SSF. Talking about “Blue Justice” inJapan could bring up unexpected connections. For people who enjoy sports,
especially wrestling, they may think of “Yuji Nagata”, the New Japan ProWrestling, who gets a reputation as a blue ring costume-clad wrestler, andthus his ring name: Blue Justice. There is another interesting connection that432

47. BLUE JUSTICE

can work in our favour. While not all concepts put forward by internationalsociety can be written in Kanji at the time they infiltrate Japan, the word Blue
Justice can in fact be described by Kanji. These connections may signal thatthe time has come for the discussion about Japanese SSF through a Blue Justicelens.

Why blue jus ce now?
As part of the ambitious Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), SDG14: Life
Below Water emphasizes the importance of ocean and the need to provide
balances between conservation and sustainable development. Blue Economy
and Blue Growth agenda have been proposed as a way to achieve sustainableocean development. Similar to other development agenda, however, not all
stakeholders benefit equally from it. Given that SSF are often marginalized
and have less political connection and power, they are often left out of the
discussion about Blue Economy/Blue Growth. Quite a contrary, they arefurther excluded and made vulnerable by many ocean development initiatives,with their rights and access to resources being violated and with social
injustice as a result. By calling for a critical examination of how SSF and theircommunities may be affected by ocean development initiatives, Blue Justiceacknowledges the historical rights of SSF communities to marine and inland
resources, and coastal space, as traditional users for thousands of years insome cases. Thus, as a concept, it seeks to investigate pressures on SSF, fromother ocean uses, including industrial fisheries and coastal/marine tourism,
aquaculture or energy production, promoted in the blue economy and blue
growth development agenda. Issacs (2019) defines the Blue Justice approachas one that “critically examine[s] the political, economic and ecologicalprocesses of blue economy development initiatives.” Jentoft (2019) builds
on this call by highlighting the inclusion of SSF and coastal community
members as stakeholders with an eye towards power imbalances and equity.
Further, some have called for SSF to secure their space, a “just” space, in theincreasingly crowded ocean environment populated by powerful users (Cohenet al. 2019).
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At the foundation of a Blue Justice approach are social justice and humanrights principles.

Blue Justice builds off of environmental and climate

justice, which have focused on the unequal distribution of harm exerted on
marginalized communities. Social justice has, at its core, a concept of fairand just relations between individuals and society (Rawls 1999). Blue Justiceparallels these movements because of its focus on the injustices faced by smallscale fishers, and to the disproportionate impacts they may feel from new
global policy discourses (i.e., blue economy and blue growth initiatives). The
injustices faced by small-scale fishers and the communities they support havebeen extensively documented in the past few decades (Chuenpagdee & Jentoft
2019, Bavinck et al. 2018, Bennett 2018, Jentoft & Eide 2011, Kooiman et al.
2005, Perry et al. 2011, Macinko & Schumann 2007). In the blue economy
context, they have faced particular pressures such as the implementation ofrights-based fisheries, forms of ocean enclosure such as marine protectedareas (MPAs) (Said et al. 2017) and marine spatial planning (MSP), which leadfisheries to run the risk of being both forced in and out (Jentoft 2019).
To address these long-standing issues, international instruments that
explicitly reference human rights principles have been adopted. The Voluntary
Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries andForests in the context of National Food Security (FAO 2012) and the Voluntary
Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the context
of Food Security and Poverty Eradication (SSF Guidelines; FAO 2015) are
instruments that have social justice backings with language that calls for“responsible governance of tenure because land, fisheries and forests arecentral for the realization of human rights…” (FAO 2012; p. 6), and that
“States should ensure that effective fisheries management systems are inplace to prevent overexploitation driven by market demand that can threaten
the sustainability of fisheries resources, food security and nutrition.” (FAO
2015; p. 11). These instruments are necessary to secure the historical use rights
and customary use rights (FAO 2004) of SSF while centering the importanceof human rights, dignity, and gender equality in their governance.

434

47. BLUE JUSTICEJSSF from the Blue Jus ce lens
The types of justice that SSF face includes distributive justice, social justice,economic justice, market justice, infrastructure/wellbeing justice, procedural
justice, environmental justice (TBTI 2019). Looking at JSSF through this lens
can reveal many things. The revised Fishery Act is a good starting point
for the analysis. As mentioned throughout a number of chapters in thisbook, the Fishery Act was revised in December 2018 for the first time in 70
years, with heated discussion about the pros and the cons. With the goals of“balancing the proper management of fishery resources and industrializationof fisheries into a growth sector (“seichosangyoka”) and establishing the risein incomes of fisher and a well-balanced fishery employment structure ofdifferent ages,” the reform included a new resource management system,
an improved distribution structure resulting in fishers’ income growth, areconsideration of the fishing permit issuance system to increase productivity,and formal revision of the coastal area utilization system contributing to thedevelopment of aquaculture and coastal fisheries (MAFF 2018).
Among them is the revision of the coastal area utilization system, which puts
an end to the current priorities when granting fishery rights (Table 1). Fisheryrights in Japan include common fishery rights, demarcated fishery rights,
and set-net fishery rights, with different priority orders as follows (Tanaka
2003, Lou 2014, Makino 2011). The common fishery rights fisheries are mainly
aimed at shellfishes and algae. The eligibility of the rights is granted only tofisheries cooperatives where a vast majority of local fishers are the members.
Such fisheries are generally run by individual fishers and require coordination
among fishers regarding fishing grounds. Aquacultures by specific demarcatedfishery rights (e.g., oyster, seaweed) are operated in the same way. Because of
the ease of entry in terms of technology and necessary capital, the coordination
between fishers becomes very important; therefore, the fishery cooperative isfirst in line. Comparatively speaking, for demarcated fishery rights and setnet fishery rights, because there is a need for high technology and significant
capital, the rights can be granted to individuals. For the former, those withexperience in fisheries, including local fishers, have the priority; while for435

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

the latter, fisheries cooperatives and the juridical persons with more local
fishers are given the priority. Such order of priority has been abolished by therevised Fishery Act (gray part in Table 1). This implies that fishers who are
not operating the “most effective and appropriate” fisheries will not be able
to obtain the fishery rights (MAFF 2018). Yet, there are no clear evaluation
criteria for the judgment of what “most effective and appropriate” fisheries
mean.
The discussion about the pros and cons came out at a symposium “Theuse of coastal fishing grounds by corporations and fishery rights system”
hosted by the Japanese Society of Fisheries Economics (JSFE) in June 2018.
This symposium critically examined opening up fishery rights with a focus on
the aquaculture industry to the private sector, which triggered the following
statements: “Fishery is preceded by the site (fishing communities and fishers)
to be followed by the system. It is unusual for it to be preceded by the system
to transform the site so it certainly will lead to failure.” and “Without a future
vision of aquaculture in the proposed reform, it is not a reformed system
to bring it to reality.” Immediately following the symposium, a statement
condemning fishery reform of the government was issued by 50 concerned
individuals in the society (JSFE 2018, Suisan Hokkaido Blog 2018).
Another symposium was held on the theme of “Can the new Fisheries Act
start? - Problems and challenges involved in the enforcement of the new
Fisheries Act -” by The North Japan Fisheries Economics Society (NJFES),
again with critical deliberation of the new Fisheries Act. It raised serious
questions about “a new Fisheries Act that slights the production site, which
has been handed down for generations” and that “despite the reality of most of
the heads of the cooperatives on site not knowing the contents of the revision,
the drawing up of cabinet orders and ministerial orders is moving on” (NJFES
2019, Choshu Newspaper 2019). Despite many objections (Shinbun Akahata
2018(a), Shinbun Akahata 2018(b), Asahi News 2018, CDP 2018), the new
Fisheries Act was passed and will become effective within two years after the
promulgation. Under the new Fishery Act, and without sufficient discussion
and communication with the fishers, it is unknown how many and what typesof justice issues will JSSF face from here on.
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47. BLUE JUSTICE

Table 1. Priority orders regarding fishery rights.[1]What is revealed through the lens of Blue Justice is more than the fishery policy
reform. Others include the adjustment issue between the fisheries and leisurefishing boat /pleasure boat users. This is an issue of the fish species, hauled byleisure fishing boats/pleasure boats, but are managed by professional fishers.
What is much-about-talked these days is the fishing of bluefin tuna by leisurefishing boats in Aomori Prefecture. Though the resource management of
bluefin tuna has become stricter internationally and fishers have “settled” toset a limit to the amount of fish catch, fishing by leisure fishing boats can still
be seen, and it is claimed to go as far as to sale (The Asahi Shimbun 2020). The
Kinme (Splendid Alfonsino) fishery in the Inatori area of Shizuoka Prefecture
is another case.Since there have been increasing numbers of pleasure boat
users fishing the Kinme in recent years, a strong sense of unfairness andinjustice has been growing among fishers, notably since the fish stock has
437

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

declined and is still not in a stable condition (Li 2019).
The coordination issue between SSF and offshore wind power generationis also a hot topic in recent times. In Japan, where energy resources are
scarce, offshore wind power generation is underway because the introductionof renewable energy is not only necessary for the environment but also for
the improvement of energy self-sufficiency rate. However, in most cases,
it requires space where SSF take place, and there could be direct effects,
including restrictions and obstacles in fishery operations and indirect effects
on aquatic life and the fishing ground environment (JASTA 2019). Meanwhile,
the way to coordinate between SSF and offshore wind power generation is
being discussed; and it is necessary to prevent SSF from being marginalized
and displaced in such ocean development. Fishers and fishers organizations
should also fully recognize this point and not to give up their rights and seas
to private companies just because of some promised profits.
And then the COVID-19 related justice. SSF across the globe receive a heavy
blow from COVID-19, and it’s been already observed that the support that
small-scale fishers have been receiving so far is minimal or inadequate (TBTI2020). What about Japan? A detailed investigation is underway; but we alreadyhear the voices of a plaint and regret from small-scale fishers through social
media. These include statements such as: “the amount of support is lower
compared to agriculture”; “some support measures set unified application
requirements to all business operators, but because of fisheries are influenced
by various factors like the weather and stock status, in many cases, fisheries
don’t qualify for the support”; “supports are not with a good understandingof the nature of fisheries,” and so on.

“A just space” for JSSF in “Seichosangyoka”
Cohen et al. (2019) argue “the need to recognize SSF in the outset of thesolution design of the Blue Economy, if the Blue Economy is to be a legitimate
vision for governing the oceans.” We feel that the relationship between the“seichosangyoka” (growth industrialization) policy and SSF in Japan is aminiature version of the problem over the Blue Economy or Blue Growth43847. BLUE JUSTICE

policy and SSF in international society. “Of the 755 fisheries cooperatives
nationwide, only 77 fisheries cooperatives have properly heard about why andhow the policy reform (Choshu Newspaper 2019).” This concern is related
to the procedure justice, e.g., restricted access to decision-making due, forinstance, to the process of policy designs without due consideration to the
SSF context. It is one thing to hope for improving fisheries efficiency andfisher’s income through growth industrialization. But we argue that if the“seichosangyoka” is to be a reasonable vision for the sustainability of thefishing industry, the importance of JSSF must be fully recognized from theonset.
While many countries are moving forward for the implementation of the SSF
Guidelines, we hope that Japan is not going backward. Moving forward will
require careful considerations about mechanisms, processes, initiatives, andinnovative approaches that will move Blue Justice from principles to actions.
And in that context, the Transdisciplinarity and the Interactive Governance
perspectives will be useful, as the former “integrates knowledge of multiple
academic disciplines and the contextual and ethically founded phronetic
knowledge of stakeholders (Jentoft and Chuenpagdee 2019, p.5)”; and thelatter suggests “relating governability to qualities of the object of governance(the system-to-be-governed), its subject (the governing system) and therelation between the two (Kooiman et al. 2008, p3).”
It seems the photo of the fisher with a peace sign matches perfectly withthis chapter. No justice, no peace. No Blue Justice, no “seichosangyoka”.

Acknowledgement
This work was partially supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
JP17K12861.

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Endnotes[1] Source: Referenced from the Mainichi News Paper, August 26, 2018.
In Japanese. https://mainichi.jp/articles/20180826/ddm/008/070/113000c.
Accessed May 2020.

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48. TBTI Japan

Steering the Ship of Too Big To Ignore Japan Research Network

Tamano Namikawa
The Japanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities
Yinji Li
Tokai University

Fishing boat launch, Suzaki Port, Shimoda, Shizuoka Pref. Japan. T. Sato. 2019441

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The problems facing Japanese small-scale fisheries (JSSF), which areexposed to both societal and institutional changes, in addition to global
environmental changes and recurrent disasters, are “too big to ignore”.
Amidst such circumstances, the ship of Too Big To Ignore (TBTI) Japan
research network is out into the ocean and expected to play a significant
role in JSSF research towards solving these problems. This chapter firstly
introduces the TBTI project, which is a global partnership on small-scale
fisheries research, and the World Small Scale Fisheries Congress beingorganized by TBTI every four years. Then it takes a look at JSSF throughthe TBTI lens and lastly describes the vision of the TBTI Japan research
network.

Inspiring experience with Too Big To Ignore community
It was our inspiring and fascinating experience attending the 3rd World SmallScale Fisheries Congress (WSFC) organized by Too Big To Ignore (TBTI)
two years ago (2018) in Thailand. The conference participants seemed tobe coming from all countries and regions in the world. Their occupation
was also wide-ranging, and it was an extremely transdisciplinary space,including government officials, fishers, NGOs, and researchers. Not only
regular sessions but also interactive sessions, including a science cafe andfishers talk circle, were provided and the free exchange of ideas by those whohave a deep relationship with the fisheries, including experienced specialists,
young researchers, and fishers and their supporters was impressive. Theinteractive sessions were carried out in the process of the presentation ofchallenges and problems and discussion toward understanding and solutions.
Given that the regions of origin are very different, when considering solutions,the system of each country and its issues are raised, allowing awareness of
the response in various countries and relative positioning of the problems.
It was an extremely fruitful meeting allowing us to fully enjoy it; however,442

48. TBTI JAPANone thing is a little shame to us was the low participation from the Northeast
Asian region including Japan. There are more than 6,000 fishery settlements
in Japan, where most of them are small-scale fisheries, there should havebeen a lot of topics to be presented and discussed. Furthermore, through theconference, we deeply felt the meaning of existence and importance of fisheryrights enjoyed by small-scale fishers in Japan, and in that light, we had aburning desire to stimulate participation from Japan. In such a situation, weare truly pleased that the TBTI Japan Research Network is established, andthis book is being published.

A large-scale research network for small-scale fisheries
TBTI is a global research network and knowledge mobilization partnershipthat focuses on addressing issues relating to small-scale fisheries, opposing
the marginalization of small-scale fisheries in national and international
policies, and developing research and governance capacity to tackle global
fishing challenges (TBTI website: http://toobigtoignore.net/about-tbti).
Based on the realization that small-scale fisheries were too important tobe continually treated marginally at the World Fisheries Congress held every
four years, fisheries academics convened the first World Congress on SmallScale Fisheries in 2010. It was then that the global small-scale fisheries
research network was formed, which has since been known as TBTI (Jentoft
and Chuenpagdee 2015).
TBTI comprises of close to 500 members in 80+ countries, with research,knowledge mobilization and training activities evolving around 14 researchclusters. These include: Global synthesis, SSF Guidelines, Diverse SSF values,
Market opportunities, Economic viability, Fish as food, Transdisciplinary
fisheries, SSF stewardship, Inland fisheries, Indigenous marine fisheries,
Transboundary interactions, Global change responses, Small-Scale Fisheries
Rights, and Women and Gender. The goals of TBTI are to identify key
concerns affecting small-scale fisheries, stimulate a concerted research effort
to address them, and direct policy attention to this vital sector in order to raise
its profile.
443

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGETBTI lists the following six objectives for its activities (TBTI website:
http://toobigtoignore.net/about-tbti): (1) Understanding the importance ofsmall-scale fisheries with respect to livelihoods, poverty alleviation, and foodsecurity; (2) Exploring the contribution of small-scale fisheries to economic
development, sustainability, and community viability; (3) Assessing the vulnerability of small-scale fisheries to global change processes; (4) Improving
policy discussions and decision-making regarding small-scale fisheries; (5)Enhancing knowledge with regards to small-scale fisheries and the built
capacity in research governance; and (6) Advancing the implementation of
the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in
the Context of Food Security and Poverty Alleviation (SSF Guidelines). TBTI
facilitates networking opportunities, organizes meetings, workshops, andwebinars, develops capacity in transdisciplinary research, connects science topolicy and society, produces books, papers, reports, and briefs, and hosts theWorld Small-Scale Fisheries Congress.

A large-scale transdisciplinary forum for small-scale
fisheries research
The World Small-Scale Fisheries Congress (WSFC) is a large-scale transdisciplinary forum organized by TBTI every four years, which enables thoseinterested in small-scale fisheries to participate in interactive discussions
regarding the future of the world’s small-scale fisheries. The overall goal of
the WFSC is to facilitate opportunities for researchers, students, young professionals, practitioners, fishers and fishers’ organizations, environmentalgroups, and policy-makers to share information on all aspects of small-scale
fisheries and to formulate action plans and capacity development programs
to support the implementation of the SSF Guidelines. The WSFC congressconsists of panel presentations, speed and poster presentations, and field
excursions. The first WSFC, held in Bangkok, Thailand, from October 18 to 22,
2010, focused on “Issues and Solutions (TBTI 2011),” and the second WSFC,
held in Merida, Mexico, from September 21 to 26, 2014, focused on “Options
and Opportunities for Small-Scale Fisheries (TBTI 2014).”444

48. TBTI JAPANThe 3rd Congress was held in Chiang-Mai, Thailand, from October 22 to
26, 2018, the theme of which was “Transdisciplinarity and Transformation
for the Future of Small-Scale Fisheries (Photo 1).” On each day of the
five-day Congress, the schedule was divided into “science,” “community,”“policy,” “field excursions,” and “action plan” sessions, and the following
five questions were set as common issues to address (TBTI 2019): (1) Whatis the major knowledge gap in small-scale fisheries? (2) What are the major
challenges facing small-scale fisheries? (3) What type of changes in science,
community, markets, and policy are required to improve the viability ofsmall-scale fishing communities, reduce their vulnerability, and promotesmall-scale fishery sustainability? (4) What actions are required from civilsociety organizations, the research community, and policy-makers in order toimplement small-scale fishery guidelines? (5) What measures are needed tostrengthen the policy–science interface? A point worthy of a special mention
is that at the 3rd Congress, the concept of “Blue Justice” was presented anddiscussed. All involved personnel was urged to critically examine what “Blue
Economy” and “Blue Growth” initiatives meant to small-scale fisheries andtheir communities in terms of distributive justice, community empowerment,
human rights, food and nutritional security, gender equity, and sustainability(TBTI 2019).

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

The opening address by TBTI director, Prof. Ratana Chunpadee. The 3rd WSFC.
Thailand, Y. Li. 2018

Japanese small-scale fisheries from the TBTI lensJapan’s fisheries governance is based on the fishery rights and fisheries
cooperative systems, which in turn are based on the existence of small-scale
fisheries. Therefore, the presence of small-scale fisheries cannot be ignoredin Japan’s fisheries policy. However, only a few projects are devoted explicitly
to small-scale fisheries and attract little interest from Japanese society as awhole. Nonetheless, fishery reforms are currently underway with the aim oftransforming the fishery industry into a growth sector (Headquarters for the
Revitalization of Food, Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries 2015), which is why
it is deemed necessary to secure a new perspective on small-scale fisheries.
Small-scale fisheries are essential for achieving SDG14 (Life Below Water)
but are at risk on several fronts. These fisheries contribute approximately
half of the global fish catches, and the majority of fish caught by small-scale
fisheries are destined for human consumption (FAO 2015). These fisheries, the446

48. TBTI JAPAN

majority (approximately 95%) of which can be found in developing countries,
employ more than 90% of the world’s capture fishers and fish workers, and inturn support another 84 million people in jobs associated with fish processing,
distribution, and marketing (FAO 2015).
Accordingly, small-scale fisheries are considered to make a substantial
contribution to the economy of people living on the waterfront and also shape
the social and cultural values of these communities. However, despite theirimportance and potential, these small-scale fisheries communities are often
vulnerable and marginalized, and Life Above Water written by Prof. Jentoft
has rightly highlighted the importance and endangered status of small-scale
fisheries, fishing villages, and societies (Jentoft 2019). As evidenced by its firstsuper-large grant in the field of social sciences related to fisheries, TBTI’s
work to protect small-scale fisheries is of global importance. In Japan, which
has an advanced fishery industry and has designed fishery systems based on
the existence of small-scale fisheries, there is a need to refocus on smallscale fisheries, clarify the situation pertaining to small-scale fisheries, andpromote measures that will contribute to diversifying and sustaining theactivities of these fisheries. The revised Fishery Act was promulgated, andJSSF are in a great change, including reform in fishery rights. To enable thesound continuance of JSSF into the future, it is important that more people
examine its issues and challenges. At the same time, we give importance tothe dispatch of knowledge and experiences cultivated by JSSF to the world.
The problems facing Japan’s small-scale fisheries, which are exposed toboth societal and institutional changes, in addition to global environmental
changes and recurrent disasters, are “too big to ignore. “The vision of Too Big To Ignore Japan research network
Like the launch of the new fishing boat, the ship of the “TBTI Japan research
network” is now out into the ocean. To keep things in the right direction, we
need to steer the ship with the right vision. Here, while also referring to theopinions received from commentators, we would like to confirm the vision of
the TBTI Japan research network.
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First, as the primary goal of this book is to ensure the widespread of theimportance of the existence and roles of JSSF within Japan and overseas,
TBTI Japan research network needs to dispatch the information actively alongwith systematical research on the various functions, importance, and latent
strength of JSSF, including the contribution to the implementation of its
sustainability. There is one (comment No. 3, Ch. 51) that refers to the coastal
fishing ports and fishing villages throughout Japan as the outline of the landand symbolic of the identity of Japan, which we are much in agreement.
Next is to adopt transdisciplinary perspectives in JSSF governance. With all
the “triple pains and triple changes,” we argue that the governance of JSSF
are “confronted with problems that are inherently wicked and therefore its
governance must rely on the collective judgment of stakeholders involvedin a process that is experiential, interactive and deliberative (Jentoft andChuenpagdee 2009).” We can see this point also from the comments, including
the comment No.3 (Ch. 50) and No.2 (Ch. 51).
Then it is about the improvement of gender equality and equity. The news
that Japan was 121st in the world ranking of gender equality at the end of lastyear and passed to the lowest level on record was shocking. It was pointed outthat “Japan’s standing in the international community will keep plummeting
due to its failure to empower women” (The Asahi Shimbun 2019). As comment
No. 4 (Ch. 50) illustrates, we see various initiatives and activities of rural
women that can change even a small part of the inequalities like these, and ascomment No. 1 (Ch. 51) indicates they are much anticipated in the future. TBTIJapan research network should continue research and dispatch of information
to enable the improvement of gender issues in Japan by the initiative of the
JSSF.
Also, securing fishers’ income and the successors are urgent issues for
JSSF, and we have to push hard for new initiatives and concepts such as the
Sixth Industrialization (Chapter 19), Nagisahaku (Chapter 22), Fish branding(Chapter 20), Urban-Village Exchange (Chapter 21), Hamakatsu (Chapter24), Umigyo (Li and Lou 2018) and so on. To do that, the power of womenand young people, the power of cooperation and collaboration, the power oforganizations, the power of technology and science, etc. are needed, and the448

48. TBTI JAPANTBTI Japan research network must establish a research base to forge ahead
with these.
Furthermore, amid the “Seichosangyoka” circumstances, we need to approach JSSFs from the standpoint of Blue Justice. Among the comments, there
are voices concerned about social justice, procedural justice quoted as sayingthat “the Japanese fishery management system centered on communitybased management and co-management has moved toward administrativeoriented management and coastal waters could be used by companies for
extortion (comment No. 6, Ch. 51).” The concerns about environmental
justice are also heard. These include the issue regarding the relationshipbetween the poor catch of Sakura shrimp and “turbidity” produced by thequarrying industry in Shizuoka Prefecture, and the issue between the sandfish
fisheries and large-scale wind farm in Akita Prefecture (comment No. 5, Ch.
51). TBTI Japan research network must continue with theoretical discussions
on Blue Justice and advance research to relay it to practice.
Lastly, we would like to emphasize that the TBTI Japan research network
should help Japan to recognize the SSF Guidelines and promote its implementation fully. Though the provisions of SSF Guidelines are partially clearedby the Japanese fisheries governance system, it is no exaggeration to saythat awareness of the guidelines is extremely low. The SSF Guidelines are
only featured in the press and bulletin of some institutions, including theJapanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities (Namikawa
2019) and the Nippon Japan Foundation Nereus Program (Rivas 2018). If the
SSF Guidelines were well recognized, maybe there were no worrisome fisheries
policy reform in place. In the future, it is essential to make a conscious effort
on its implementation in Japan.

Apart but together
Viewed in this light, the vision of the TBTI Japan research network does notdiffer much from the framework of the stated vision of TBTI project. As such,small-scale fisheries in the world at a glance are divided into each continentand country where the history, culture, tradition, and governance system
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

are different; however, they actually share many common issues. “Apart but
together” may have been the most powerful message transmitted in the time of
the COVID 19 pandemic, and this is probably an important indication for smallscale fisheries around the world. No matter how separated by physical distance,
the power born as a result of cooperation, coordination, collaboration, andpartnership is infinite. In the 4th WSFC to be held in 2022, along with a numberof stories of “infinite power” like these to be reported from across the globe,
we should expect the possibilities and contributions of the TBTI Japan research
network.

450

VII
Short Communica on

49. Suisan Jyoshi Project and Small-Scale
Fisheries

Shiho Tateoka
Ezo Shinsen Gumi Association

Community tourism, Otoshibe fishing port, Hokkaido, Japan, Tateoka S., 2019.

453

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE“Umi no Takara! Suisan Jyoshi no Genki Project (The Treasure of Ocean!
Women in Fisheries Project)” was started by Fisheries Agency in November
2018. The number of members, which was 16 at the time of its launch,increased to 60 as of January 2019. It consists of multi industries related tofisheries, such as fishers, processing industry, brokerage, fish food promotion,and singer-songwriter community. Very few women are working in this field,
and we share various issues in fisheries, we work to promote more people toeat fish and protect the sea, individually or sometimes as a team.
Although there are many issues in coastal fisheries in Japan, the decline offisheries industry due to the aging of fishers, shortage of workers, sluggish
fish price, poor resource, and marine environmental problems has become
more serious. Aging and lack of successors are not limited to fisheries, butthere is still a strong tendency. For instance, it’s more difficult for female
workers to engage in fisheries than in other industries. The number of fishers
is decreasing year by year. As the workplace of women’s employment in society
expands, the number of women who choose to marry fishers is decreasing,and the succession problem is becoming serious. The sluggish fish price isrelated to the balance between supply and demand that has collapsed due tothe decrease in distribution by consumers’ separation from fish. Also, thelack of resources has been brought by changes in the environmental conditionand overfishing. In the marine environment, the plastic problem is becoming
more serious, and in the context of the situation where society as a wholeneeds to tackle, a few fishers still dump the garbage.
How do we solve these problems in coastal fisheries? As a woman involved
in fisheries, I feel that women’s perspectives, thoughts, networks, and actions
will be essential for this. From my experience, I’m sure that there is apossibility of establishing a new fishery by bringing a good change to thefishery caught in the existing fixed concept by the fineness, the viewpoint,
the idea unique to woman, and to expand the range of the “fishery” by otherindustry connections and suppleness. I grew up in Tokyo and was a nurse, andI was interested in the fishery and moved to Hokkaido. I have been involved in
the fishery for five years already, but it is still only five years. Currently, I’mworking as a consultant for planning a new event, fishery tourism, marketing,454

49. SUISAN JYOSHI PROJECT AND SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES

product development, the Six-Industrialization support, and more. Of course,
I am just an advisor, and it is each fisher who will do the work. My job is toarrange schedule for them as not to interfere with fishing while drawing out
potential ideas from them.
Using the examples of “Women” and “Fisherman’s Wife” will be weapons
for marketing. Since it is not popular that women talk about the fishery, almost
all people will have an interest. Also, in terms of product development, women
can think of new package designs, ways of cooking, and consumers’ needs
because their viewpoint is the gift for somebody. In addition, women can think
and act to solve environmental issues because they take future generations
into consideration. By communicating with the surroundings rather thanletting people “bring the garbage” and assume “the sea will not be polluted,”
it can be addressed as a problem for the whole region, which can also lead tobeach cleanup activities.
This way, as women, even if you are not a fisher, you can be involved infishing. In the future, it is expected that the number of women fishers will
increase because of the weight reduction of information and communication
technology (ICT) and materials by advances in science and technology, andthe improvement of the functionality of machines will make fishing easier
for women and the elderly. Since population decline is still ongoing, howwomen can be incorporated into the fishing industry will influence the futureof coastal fisheries. That is why it is expected that the members of the Fisheries
Women’s Project will be active in the future, and each person must be awareof the activities and spread it so that the promotion of women’s participationin the fishery will proceed quickly in order to play a part in contributing tosustainable fisheries that support each other throughout society.

455

50. Fishers’ Perspec ves on JSSF

The characteristics of the JSSF, along with the issues, concerns and opportunities for this sector, have been well captured in the preceding chapters, intheir own contexts, when comparing with other countries, and as part of the
global discourse. Yet, there are many voices from the ground, from people
with first-hand experiences in the fisheries, which we have not heard. Using
the opportunity of the launch of the TBTI Japan Research Network, we areasking leaders of fisheries and fisher’s organizations in various regions tocomment on the current situation in JSSF and their vision for the future, by
asking them to provide short answers to the following questions: (1) What are
the most pressing problems currently affecting JSSF? (2) What are the mostsignificant factors for their sustainability? And (3) What are their thoughts on
the vision of the TBTI Japan Research Network and its priorities? Below arewhat they have to say on these topics.

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50. FISHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

1. Fujio Abe

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
As a resident living in one of the areas that have severely suffered from the East
Japan Earthquake disaster (2011), I would like to comment on the post-disasterreconstruction issues. In post-disaster reconstruction, the restoration of theoriginal (the way it was) is often the case; however, if the thing affected by thedisaster is old, it is often that it does not match with the present state. I cannot
help but feel that it also needs to be fixed for the future to put it in place.

Most significant factor for sustainability
The high-density culture was a serious problem before the 2011 disaster in
Shizugawa Bay, Miyagi prefecture. Before the disaster, with virtually noenvironmentally conscious aquaculture, a large burden was placed on theenvironment. After the disaster, reducing the number of facilities of oyster
culture to one-third and sped the harvest period resulting in the harvest in 1
year. The amount of production per management body resulted in double thenumber in pre-disaster amount and an increase by half of the production inmoney terms, hours of labor significantly improved, and young successors
increased. We obtained Japan’s first international Aquaculture StewardshipCouncil (ASC) certification, and I think that undertaking the task of the fisherythat takes into account a sustainable environment for years to come is themost important factor.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Commentator bio
Fujio Abe was born in March 1963. He graduated from the Japan Fisheries
Cooperative School in March 1982 and joined the Togura Fisheries Cooperativein Shizugawacho in the same year. Mr. Abe became the head of the Tokura
field office of the Miyagi Prefecture Fisheries Cooperatives in April 2007. He
has committed to obtaining the international ASC certification for oysters andachieved the Excellence Award of the 5th Biodiversity Japan Award of the AEON
Environmental Foundation in September 2017. In April 2018, he became thehead of the Shizugawa Branch of the Miyagi Prefecture Fisheries Cooperatives.
Mr. Abe also achieved the Emperor’s Cup in the Fisheries Division of the 58th
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Festival in November 2019.

2. Kaneo Ishikawa

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
Coastal fishery, in particular, is heavily impacted by worldwide environmental
concerns, and not thinking of mountains, rivers, and oceans in a comprehensive way will make coastal fishery impossible.

Most significant factor for sustainability
Because Mikawa Bay is low on fish catch, we have a severe shortage ofsuccessors. To ensure sustainability, we have to let people know the problems
confronting coastal fisheries around the country and seek strategies not to458

50. FISHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

make them worse.

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
I sat on the board of a fishery cooperative in 1979, and the ocean thattime was healthy.

There were also many fishers, and the market was

bustling. Nevertheless, fishes are decreasing across the ages, and this year, theenvironment has dramatically changed more than ever before, and the impact
on fishers was shocking. At present, the leaders of the fisheries cooperatives
work toward a bountiful ocean, and I, as a member, am committed toenvironmental concerns as well. I desire to let people from other industries
and children to know the present situation that fishers are in and state of thecoastal environment to increase environmental awareness.

Commentator bio
Kaneo Ishikawa has been the head of the Higasihazu Fisheries Cooperative
Association since 2003 up to the present date. Since assuming office, he
has been addressing various environment conservation and environmental
education activities as a member of the Higasihazu District Association Promotion Council, Association for Intertidal Flat and Seagrass Bed Conservation in
Higasihazu District, Fisheries Revitalization Group of the Rural Area Council in
Higasihazu District, Association to Make Yahagi River Beautiful, and Mikawa
Bay Environmental Reclamation Project.

3. Masanori Jitsuishi459

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
With environmental changes, the volume of landings is decreasing and as suchimport goods are increasing. Furthermore, because of the rise of aquafarming
technology, it is difficult to reflect local produce thought of as scarce, seashore
products, and natural products with fish prices. For the decrease of fishery
workers, we have revenue instability, mechanization to save labor, etc. The
handling of resource conservation and management differs in neighboring
prefectures, and a cooperative and broad-based response should be taken. If
any of the resource management, the lives of fishers, and the marine productprocessing industry falls into bankruptcy at all, I think that there is no futurein Japanese fisheries.

Most significant factor for sustainability
Without resource management, we fail to secure sustainability. Various
resources need to be computed based on scientific grounds, and I think TAC
management works depending on the fish species; however, the understanding of fishers is essential to implement that. Not response by prefectures
but by broad-based response, one needs to dispel a feeling of restraint all by
oneself.

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
It is needed to present scientific evidence; however, it is also necessary to
deepen further the understanding of people depending on the fishery for aliving. I hope the research network will stress dialogue with fishers and build
an organization that can make broad-based initiatives.

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50. FISHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

Commentator bio
Masanori Jitsuishi is the president of the Shizuoka Prefecture Sakura Shrimp
Fisheries Association and member of the board of directors of the Yui Fisheries
Cooperative Association.

4. Megumi Kodera

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
For Japanese coastal fisheries, in combination with official regulations basedon the Fishery Act, local fishers have entered into a voluntary pact, toprotect common resources across the entire fishing village, and to conduct
responsible fisheries. This points to the need for long-term, stable, highmixing, low-volume production in coastal areas. By the easing of regulations
in fishery rights and structural reform of small-scale fishery cooperatives,
new participation in firms and widespread merger were promoted, and the
management system of fishing grounds was altered. However, insufficient
illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fisheries countermeasures are a
problem. The reef fishing that I operate is able to fish at ease and a high pricemarket rate is a severe example.

461

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Most significant factor for sustainability
The composite fish price is flagging in markets in production regions andmarkets in consuming areas, including the aging of fishing villages, shortageof successors (leaders), decreased numbers of fish hauls (amount of money),
increased imported marine products, and mismanagement of resources.
Without fishers and the realization of income maintenance and improvement
for us, we will fail in securing the sustainability of Japanese coastal fisheries.
We consider it essential to strengthen price formation in the consignment/purchase/sales business of fishery cooperatives and raise awareness of fishers as
producers.

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
Japanese fisheries returned to coastal fisheries of “growing fishing industrialization (with proper management of fishery resources)” from distantseas “from the coast to the offshore, from the offshore to distant seas”.
Management of fishers is important more than the fish amid competitionand sharing so as not to cause tragedy again from over-exploitation and overcrowded operation for biological resources, which repeat natural fluctuations.
Furthermore, we see the offshore but fail to see the rocky shore, and we see
the tree but fail to see the forest. Initiatives in the linkage of mountains, rivers,
and seas and the water cycle are a significant priority. As a fishery manager, I
would like to build a future where I could bequeath to subsequent generations
a smile on their faces saying “Itadaki-Masu” (thank you for the meal) at atable loaded with fresh seafood in season from the ocean in front of them.

Commentator bio
I returned to Sugashima, Toba City, Mie Prefecture, on the occasion of
the business succession of my husband. I am operating as an “ama”, afemale diver. I feel that being an ama (female diver culture) is a way of
being independent and coexistent within nature and society as part of life462

50. FISHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

at home and at work. Other than a mother, wife, and daughter-in-law, what
I can do as a woman of a fishing village is to manage the local fisheries
sustainable through a trial and error process, and hold a cooking class for the
popularization of fish, take part in the fish branding and 6th industrialization
initiatives. I am a member of the “Fresh Ms. Group” in the National
Association of Fisheries Cooperative Women’s Groups and “Suisan Joshi(fishery women)” project run by Fisheries Agency. I am a mother of boy andgirl twins.

5. Junichi Miyahara

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
Seawater temperature is high, fluctuations in fish species are wide, andJapanese coastal fishery is hard-hit. Coastal seagrass beds are in a devastating
condition, and by the improvement of the hygienic environment in which welive, the nutritive environment of the sea continues to worsen. Currently, theplastic problem is covered globally; however, the environment of mountains,which are the upper river basins, is worsening. The sea, which is down-river,is polluted, and because coastal and fishing ports must be cleaned days on end,
representing a decrease in fishery income. It is needed to build a mechanism
to solve various problems with people’s efforts.

463

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Most significant factor for sustainability
Without knowing the cause of the decrease in Sakura shrimp resources, fishers
are suspending fishing and designating major spawning grounds as no-fishingareas, but we must make efforts even without knowing how many years it
will take. However, separately from resource measures, we need to discuss
economic policies of how to secure the endurance of related industries. Toward
the revitalization of Suruga Bay, experts from outside of and within theprefecture converged and built a research group, and by aiming to propose theneed for scientific investigation, a cooperative system will come along fromall quarters. We would like to strive together as fishers.

Commentator bio
Junichi Miyahara became the representative director and president of the Yui
Fisheries Cooperative Association in April 2002. He also assumed the positionof Chair of the Shizuoka Prefecture Trust Federation of Fisheries Cooperative
Association in June 2007. Mr. Miyahara also has been the Chair of the Sea-area
Fisheries Adjustment Commission in Shizuoka Prefecture since August 2012
and assumed the position of Chair of the National Federation of Fisheries
Cooperative Association in June 2019.

464

50. FISHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

6. Keisuke Mori

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
One is a personnel shortage of fishers and the staff of the fisheries cooperative.
The former incurs decline of not only the fishery productivity but also
motivation in the fishing village. To most fishers in Japan, the role of thefisheries cooperative is critical in steering fisher’s operation and living in
the right direction. Second, the dwindling of fisheries resource is due tothe malfunction of the resource management system and the environmental
change in the sea. Though fishers are called for some control such as limitingof the catch, when a number of concerned groups intervene, deciding themeasure to be taken is so difficult.

Most significant factor for sustainability
In rural coastal areas in Japan, the fisheries cooperative is a core hub of thecommunity, and the fishers are core subjects of governance. Hence, when we
think of securing the sustainability of Japanese coastal fisheries, it is necessary
to have the perspective that it is a problem of the community itself. Both local
and national governments should have a view that the problem of such anarea is the problem of the fishing community itself and also the people in thefishing village.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
The excellence of Japanese coastal fisheries is unprecedented such as thespirit of mutual aid and common ownership of resources, the decision making
as a community based on maximum profit, and the governance systemenabling sustainable production. In the situation where concerns about thesustainability of fisheries resources grow globally, it is extremely meaningful
to introduce Japanese fisheries. We expect TBTI Japan to diffuse these points
and boost the worthiness of Japanese fisheries.

Commentator bio
Keisuke Mori was born in 1957. He held an administrative post and a researchpost at the Tokushima Prefectural Government Office and on loan to theTokushima Prefectural Federation of Fisheries Cooperative Association in2013 up to the present date.

7. Harue Oyama

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
The particularly large problem in small-scale fisheries is the difficulty withthe maintenance of fishery management. The contributing factors are theunstable income in fishery due to the decline of fish price and decrease of fish
catch, irregular hours of labor, and professionally risky, making it difficult
for successors and young crew members to gain a foothold. In particular,466

50. FISHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

for small-scale fishery managers, the fish price and fish catch easily become
unstable, and without an unstable income, providing employee benefits isdifficult, so this problem is of particular note.

Most significant factor for sustainability
To secure the sustainability of fisheries, the stability of fishery income isessential, and the improvement of fish price and management of resources are
particularly important elements. To improve fish prices, we need to raise thedemand for fish by transmitting information on ocean-fresh fishery productsof coastal areas and each geographical area and informing a lot of people ofthe local characteristics and deliciousness of the fish. On the other hand, toprevent the exhaustion of resources and continue stable fish haul in the future,
fishery operators themselves must appropriately manage resources.

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
Because this project aims to inform the public of coastal fisheries and its
importance, we hope the TBTI project can transmit information on the size ofthe role played by fisheries in the area. Coastal fisheries are tied intimately
with the area and may remain as the center of the local industries. I think ifmany people know about coastal fisheries, they may also discover the charmof the area and find the importance of fisheries.

Commentator bio
Harue Oyama was born in 1937. She has been working at Senaka Net Fisheries
since 1961 and became the president of the company in 1992 up to the present
date. She became the representative director and association president of
the Shinminato Fisheries Cooperative Association in 2008 up to the present
date. She is also acting as an executive officer of a fisheries-related group in
Toyama prefecture, including the Toyama Prefectural Federation of Fisheries
Cooperative Associations from the same year. She became the representative467

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

director and association president of the Toyama Prefectural Federation ofFisheries Cooperative Associations in 2016 up to the present date. In addition,
she has been serving as the chair of the Toyama Prefectural Federation ofFisheries Cooperative’s Women’s Groups since 1990 up to the present date.

8. Masakazu Saito

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
Elderly people without successors have decided to quit fishery in theirgeneration, and not promoting the future of the fishery and local successors(continuation of technology) presents a major difficulty. The inability to seethat we have lived until now in terms of the fishery, the local area, association,and the importance of fishery as the local industry is problematic.

Most significant factor for sustainability
To contain costs by partnerships and pooling methods, the existing fisherybusiness policy needs to be changed. We would like to take cost-cutting
measures including human costs, fuel costs, etc. and link them to fish pricestability, development of the market for fish.

468

50. FISHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
Understanding the state and concept of fisheries and for the old fishers tohave a heart-to-heart talk with young people is important.

Commentator bio
Masakazu Saito was born in 1955. He graduated from Shizuoka Prefectural
Yaizu Fisheries High School in March 1974. He boarded the Saimasamaru(whitebait barge hauler fishery) the same year, and later in 1989; he became theowner of the Saimasamaru. Mr. Saito assumed the positions of the presidentof the Shizuoka Prefecture Whitebait Barge Hauler Fisheries Association in2002 and left office in 2019. He became the president of the Shizuoka Fisheries
Cooperative Association in 2007 (Changed to Mochimune Branch of Shimizu
FCA from 2009), and up to current. Mr. Saito also assumed the positions of
Shizuoka Prefecture Hometown Tourism Ambassador and Chairman in July
2019.

9. Taiichi Sato

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
The main problem is that the resources, including the Kinme (Splendid
alfonsino), squid, and abalone caught on the coast of the Izu Peninsula, aredecreasing in the medium and long term. Because the fish price of the Kinme
remains on the upward trend, expense increase such as fuel price hikes has
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

been absorbed thus far, maintaining the business of fishing households. The
sustainable use of resources is a basic premise to keep fishing households inbusiness, and there is an increased need for fishers who use the same resources
to consider what to do to relieve the pressure to reduce catch together andpromote the resource management-oriented fishery with practice.

Most significant factor for sustainability
We need a plan for substitute fishery to relieve the pressure to catch Kinme
resources, but the price of mid- and high-price fish, including the Japanesebutterfish and red sea bream, continue to decline, and the choice of substitutefish species is difficult. It is important to strengthen efforts to promote,popularize fish-eating to increase demand. On the other hand, because
the Izu area is a tourist destination to the immediate vicinity of the areas
around Tokyo, the strengthening of a system for fishery cooperatives to
produce manageable primary processed products is also anticipated. Izu
has productive power, and small amounts of supply in different varieties are
possible; however, fish price consistent with the expenses from the perspectiveof fishers is required.

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
We have genuine problems, including fishery resources and successor shortagein the fishery. Because without a good prospect for a high salary, there areno successors to the fishery, so what needs to be done is to provide a steadysupply of marine products and stable income to fishers. I believe that doing
those things will create revitalization of fishing villages and the developmentof fishing village economy. The fundamentals of the fishery are to catch fish,
and we would like to protect the bountiful ocean by introducing a new resource
management system. There are also many problems facing this; however, by
being a little bit patient with the quantity of catch, we would like to be in a
virtuous cycle where resources increase, and income goes up further down the
road.
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50. FISHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

Commentator bio
Taiichi Sato was born in 1949 to a family of fishers (father and grandfather).
He was retired from the hotel business in 2000 and became a fisherman
who catches Kinme, Japanese butterfish, marbled rockfish, etc. He became
the representative director and president of the Izu Fisheries Cooperative
Association in 2011 and currently in his 10th year.

10. Kuwashi Suzuki

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
It is problematic whether fishers engaged in the coastal fishery will be able
to earn a living. Some ports are simply a coastal levee stretching along thecoast, and with limited available boats, the fishery to be operated is confinedto certain types. It is not possible to expand and consolidate town-managed
fishing ports, and eight areas that can only manage traditional fishery remain
in existence in the Inatori area. The fisheries cooperative is essential to support
and lead various small-scale fisheries. I also believe that to fathom the causeof a good catch and a bad catch by combining on-site and research institutedata and get this across on-site fishers is necessary.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Most significant factor for sustainability
As two heads are better than one and 100 heads are better than ten, organizing
community exchanges to stimulate unity among peers with the same sense of
purpose is necessary. For coastal fishery, there are a lot of one-man boats andmany fishers who have strong individuality. Fostering leaders who will sortthese out, I believe, will make a powerful organization, which will significantly
contribute to activating all community activities.

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
The priority is for on-site fishers and TBTI network members to trust in eachother. I consider that sharing a common aim by working alongside on-siteand discussions between researchers from research institutes and fishers isthe most important.

Commentator bio
Kuwashi Suzuki is the president of the Inatori Branch, Izu Fisheries Cooperative Association, Shizuoka. He is also the co-chair of the Shizuoka Sea-Area
Fisheries Adjustment Commission and the committee member of the Pacific
Ocean Wide Sea-area Fisheries Adjustment Commission. He was awarded theDistinguished Persons in the Field of Fisheries in 2020.

472

51. Organiza ons’ Perspec ves on JSSF

In addition to fishers and their organizations, TBTI Japan Research Networkis planning to engage with other fisheries actors and stakeholders who play
important role in research, governance and capacity development in JSSF, as
it moves forward. Thus, we asked the same questions to civil service workers,
members of public interest organizations, members of the mass media, andresearchers from key fisheries-related institutions, about the problems facing
JSSF, factors affecting their sustainability and the vision for the network. The
following presents the thoughts and viewpoints of these commentators.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

1. Osamu Hashimoto

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
1. Senior high schools, universities, etc. are unevenly distributed in urban
areas, and a large percentage of children in fishing villages can’t choose but
to leave the villages for education. Furthermore, after the end of higher
education, we see a gap between the demand for their desired profession
and fishery-related vocation in the fishing village community, and a lot of
people cannot return.
2. Coastal fishery and local food culture are deeply connected, however,with global warming in recent times, fishing grounds and fish catch period
are greatly changing, and the fish and seafood caught and season are not intune with consumer tastes.

Most significant factor for sustainability
1. To aim for recovery of all fishery resources that habitat in coastal areas in
the course of their lifetime by collecting information on all aquatic life, tracing
their life history, and having environmental conditions necessary for theirsurvival in place.
2. Because of fewer children, fishery employment is certain to decrease in thecurrent system. We need to elicit opinions from women and young people andbuild an organization where fisheries cooperatives and related organizations
will further participate in the planning of the distribution, processing, etc. offisheries products. I believe that we also need enhancements such as training,
concessions and others to employ workers from outside the community.
474

51. ORGANIZATIONS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
1. The coastal fishery is a unique form of industry that has emerged anddeveloped for people to survive in coastal areas, and there are not only thefull time but also various types of additional operations, including part-time
farming and part-time fishing, seasonal migration, fishers-running guest
houses. After an inventory and analysis of the past, seeking the future ofcoastal fishery based on future needs is one idea.
2. Proposing a living and working environment that is different frombig cities by revamping fishing villages to a safe, convenient, eco-friendly,
compact city with nature remains will lead to the increase of young people
and tourist satisfaction.

Commentator Bio
Osamu Hashimoto is the president of the National Association of Fisheries
Infrastructure and Association for Innovative Technology on Fishing Portsand Grounds. During his tenure with the Fisheries Infrastructure Departmentof the Fisheries Agency, he took a lead role in the realization of measures andpolicies in coastal fishery revitalization including sea desert measures, forest
development for fisheries conservation, the realization of multiple functionsof the fisheries industry and fishing villages, and fishery environmental
improvement.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

2. Satoshi Ishikawa

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
The most important thing is that fishers themselves understand the environmental cause affecting the high variability and reproduction of natural
resources. At the same time, other than fishers, developers and administrative
officials, in particular, should understand that the environmental changes
have the most potent impact on fluctuations in fishery resources. These are
not recognized by fishers, governmental officials, and developers, and one
could argue that points not reflected in management policies and development
plans are the problems.

Most significant factor for sustainability
It is essential to create better environmental conditions to smooth out the
reproduction of the biological resources, which are the target species of smallscale fisheries. The environmental conservation of spawning grounds is mostimportant, including the close season and no-fishing area, and it is also criticalfor stakeholders engaged in coastal areas to understand that.

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
To create a network of researchers, developers, fishers, consumers anddecision-makers, in order to share information relating to fluctuation andreproduction of fisheries resources. Then, to involve those with importantscientific findings of smooth reproduction to developmental planning.
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51. ORGANIZATIONS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

Commentator Bio
Satoshi Ishikawa is a professor at the School of Marine Science and Technology,
Tokai University. Dr. Ishikawa conducted academic practices on resource
management and rural development, particularly in Southeast Asian countries.
His current interest is to create a new method and concept to solve global
environmental problems, especially biodiversity losses, correlating withquality of life improvement in rural areas through the “area-capability
approach.”

3. Akira Nagano

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
The rights originally granted to Japanese fishers have been lost without
considering future possibilities. The fishery is one unit of industries, but one
unit alone cannot support itself. The fishery is established with consumption
distribution. However, in Japan, fishers are not able to play a role in theindustry of the consumer and distribution sector.

Most significant factor for sustainability
Existing coastal fisheries with a two-dimensional extent are inherently
sustainable. Fisheries with short-term efficiency and efficient capture by a few
actors impede sustainability. The following are two examples of elements: (1)to recognize that the seafood, which is the target of the fishery, is cultivated by477

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

the environment in a place that has a two-dimensional spread, and to protect
them; and (2) to establish a mechanism that allows fisheries to, directly andindirectly, control the distribution consumption that the fishery industry
depends on.

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
The Japanese coastal fishery is an industry that spreads flat along the coastof Japan. This widespread industry spreads in harmony with the changing
environment. Moreover, its harmonization guarantees future sustainability,
including inland Japan. For that purpose, the fishing ports, which are theproduction base, should be spread out in a horizontal plane and should
be distributed and arranged with the function of controlling distribution
processing.
Furthermore, Japanese fishing port fishing villages are distributed throughout the country to form the outline of the country, that is, to represent Japan’s
identity. In order to maintain the contours of Japan, fishing grounds, fishingports and fishing villages must be arranged as a network with a flat and wide
area along the coast of Japan.

Commentator Bio
Akira Nagano graduated from Hokkaido University in 1969 and had worked
in the Fisheries Agency until 2003. During that time, he obtained a Ph.D. inengineering for research on the development of fishing port fishing villages.
Dr. Nagano was a professor at Future University Hakodate from 2003 to 2011,
and the director of the All Japan Fishing Port Construction Association from2011 to 2020. At present, he is the representative of Nagano Fishing Port
engineer firm Co., Ltd. and is an emeritus professor at Future University
Hakodate. For 50 years, he has been conducting administration, research, andconstruction on fishing port fishing villages with the following ideas.

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51. ORGANIZATIONS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

4. Hikaru Oikawa

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
The problem is that fishers cannot respond quickly to global-scale climatechange. It means changes in fishing grounds, fishing seasons, fish species, etc.,
and it is not easy for fishers to deal with it. Furthermore, not only fishers but
also processors and distributors are adversely affected regarding the reductionof the economic vitality of the whole region.

Most significant factor for sustainability
I think that “constructing new mechanisms” is very important, e.g., mechanisms for improving the added-value of marine products or for fostering
cooperation/collaboration with others. By constructing such mechanisms,
it is expected that fishers will be able to diversify risks for various problems,and as a result, management will be stabilized, and a sustainable supplyof marine products can be expected. And the most important thing is thatadministrative organizations and researchers will support the construction ofthese mechanisms.

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
As for my own vision, I would like to learn about the various mechanisms thatfishery is working on to achieve sustainability through participation in the
TBTI Japan research network and provide feedback to the field. As a matterof priority, I hope that workshops for students in addition to the existing479

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

activities, will be enhanced. If the students not only can get to deepen theirunderstanding of the fishing field but also be given a job in the fishing field, theexistence of the TBTI Japan research network may become more meaningful.

Commentator Bio
Hikaru Oikawa was born in Iwate, Japan, in 1992. He received a master’s
degree in marine science from the Graduate School of Marine Science andTechnology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology in 2018, andis presently a government officer in Iwate prefecture. He has worked on fisheryadministration and researching fishery management.

5. Masanobu Sakamoto

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
The Shizuoka newspaper company has unfolded a long campaign titled“Changes in Sakura Shrimp” from December 2018. It covered a story about
environmental concerns, culture, forms of fish catch, etc. surrounding the
Sakura shrimp, which is managed by specialized fishing only in Suruga Bay inJapan. Through working on the topic, I realized that we are utterly blind to
the Maehama, the foreshore ocean in front of us. This is the insufficiency offundamental inquiry into the marine environment by the government, local
towns, and research institutes.

48051. ORGANIZATIONS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

Most significant factor for sustainability
Not only fish catch surveys but also environmental surveys should be vigorously conducted accountably for a prolonged period with a budget. Furthermore, I feel that the media should understand and report the meaning. Local
newspapers nationwide only take up coastal fisheries as a “special feature”
and are not delivered as serious economic news. I think there is a trend oftaking primary industries lightly in Japan.

Vision and priori es for TBTI Japan research network
For the poor catch of Sakura shrimp, some fishers acknowledge that the“turbidity” produced by dams or the quarrying industry churning sediment
upstream of the Fuji River emptying inner part of Suruga Bay, which is aspawning ground, is a problem. Furthermore, a large-scale wind farm project
was raised near the spawning ground of the sandfish, which is known as theprefectural fish of Akita prefecture, fanning the fear of fishers. I am also
hoping for discussions inclusive of how a country (Japan) should be in the
TBTI research network.

Commentator Bio
Masanobu Sakamoto was born in 1978. He joined the Mainichi newspaper company in 2002. After working at the business news department, Mr.Sakamot
started his career at the Shizuoka newspaper company in 2010. After being
the head of the legal department in the Shimoda branch office, he became thehead of the group of reporters of “Sakuraebi Yihen (changes in the Sakura
Shrimp)” from December 2018.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

6. Katsunori Tanaka

Most serious problems affec ng JSSF
Small-scale fisheries on the local community have been self-managed inJapan over 10,000 years and yielded sustainably by entry management. Its
system was installed in the “Meiji Fishery Act” approximately 100 years ago as
the fishery rights system. However, by the revision of the Fishery Act in 2018,the self-management of the Japanese coastal fishing community changed toadministrative-management and has been exploited by corporate control.

Most significant factor for sustainability
Nobel laureate, Professor Ostrom said that the management of shared resources is a more workable system by self-management of the local community than the public or market-management. Before the policy reform,
the fishery rights system of Japan was based on the self-management of
the local community. Unlike public-management, the established rule of thesystem was well obeyed. “The Decade of Family Farming” and “United Nations
Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural
Areas” have advocated the importance of small-scale fisheries. Hereafter,
there is a need to recognize the importance of “community self-managementof the local community” in coastal fishery management.

482

51. ORGANIZATIONS’ PERSPECTIVES ON JSSF

Commentator Bio
Katsunori Tanaka was born in 1955. After retirement from the Fisheries
Agency, he has been a lecturer in the School of National Federation of Fisheries
Cooperative Associations and an academic expert member of the Sea Area
Fisheries Adjustment Commission of Shizuoka Prefecture. Also, he is working
as a consultant in the fishery industry and making efforts to restore the naturalenvironment of Tokyo Bay.

483

Japanese Abstracts
1.大変化時代を生きる日本の小規模漁業
日本小規模漁業の概念、ガバナンス、課題と役割
李銀姫（東海大学海洋学部）
浪川珠乃（一財 漁港漁場漁村総合研究所）
本書の企画を進められている真っただ中，思いのよらぬ COVID-19 パンデミックに陥った.日本小規模漁業はこれまで以上に，厳しい状況に晒されているのである.その中でも，この難を乗り越えようと，すでに多くの努力が全国各地でみられている.今がまさに，日本の小規模漁業が持つ意義とその役割について再認識が必要な時期である.本書はその意味でも時宜的なものである.本チャプターでは，まず，本書を読んでいくのに必要な概念，すなわち，小規模漁業なのか沿岸漁業なのかについて解説・整理を行った.次に，日本の小規模漁業が抱える今日の大きな課題について，「三重苦」と「三重変化」に分けて解明した.第 3 に，日本の小規模漁業が持つ大きな意味について，ガバナンスシステムの特徴，水面上の生命を守る役割，水面下の生命を守る役割，地球規模の小規模漁業の持続可能性の実現における役割等について解説・議論した.最後に，本書の構成の説明とともに，本書のねらいは日本の小規模漁業の存在と役割をアピールすること，そして，日本の小規模漁業・漁村において，厳しい環境の中でも様々なイニシアチブが見られているように，今日の小さな
努力は明日の大きい変化をもたらすこと，変えようとする意志さえあれば道は必ず開くというメッセージを伝えることにあると述べた.

2.鳥の目で見る小規模漁業
多様な沿岸漁業と漁村のこれから
原田幸子（東京海洋大学）
四方を海に囲まれ豊かな漁場を持つ日本では,人々は古くから水産資源を利用してきた.日本の沿岸漁業は,その自然条件から多様な漁業が展開されていることと,大半が484

JAPANESE ABSTRACTS
家族経営を基本とする小規模漁業であることが特徴として挙げられる.日本の水産業
は,遠洋漁業,沖合漁業が著しく縮小するなかで,海面養殖を含めた沿岸漁業の重要性が高まっているが,沿岸漁業をめぐっては漁業就業者数の減少や高齢化などの課題も山積みとなっており,漁業者,地域,地方自治体,国など,さまざまなレベルで対策が講じられている.課題解決のために多くの努力が払われているものの,沿岸漁業を取り巻く現状は依然として厳しい.そこで,近年では漁業の強化とともに,いわゆる「海業」と呼ばれるような地域資源を活用したビジネスも展開されるようになってきた.漁村
は,水産物を国民に安定的に供給するという役割だけでなく,自然環境の保全や国境監視,海難救助,伝統文化の継承といった多面的な機能も併せ持つ.こうした機能を維持してためにも,沿岸漁業と漁村の持続的な発展が不可欠であることは言うまでもな
い.日本沿岸は豊かな海洋環境に恵まれているが,水産資源の悪化や地球規模の気候変動など置かれていている状況は厳しく,地域資源を活用した新たな取り組みなどによる漁村ビジネスの実現が求められている.

3.漁業者組織と小規模漁業
漁業協同組合の役割と課題
望月政志（一橋大学）
この章では, 日本の漁業協同組合（以下、漁協と略す）を取り上げ, 漁業権の管理や共同販売, 漁協と地域コミュニティのかかわりに焦点を当て, 小規模漁業に果たす漁協の役割や漁村が直面している今日的な問題について解説する. 漁協は, 日本の漁業者が加入している全国的な組織であり, 水産業協同組合法に基づき設立された. そして, 組合員である漁業者の経営安定化や経済的・社会的地位の向上, および水産資源の管理を目的に組織され, 様々な経済事業や漁業権の管理に取り組んでいます. また, 漁村の伝統的な祭りやゴミの清掃活動などにも積極的に参加し, 漁村地
域の社会活動を支える中核的な組織としての役割も担っている. なかでも日本の漁協が農業協同組合などの他の漁協と大きく異なる点は, 漁業権の管理主体であることです. 漁協が管理する共同漁業権漁場は, 漁村コミュニティをベースとする管理であり, コミュニティ・ベースド・マネジメントとして世界的に有名で, 慣習的管理と法的管理が組み合わさった成功事例であるといえます. また, 漁協が販売事業の一環で行っている共同販売は, 生産量の少ない小規模漁業者から水産物を集荷・販売し, 一定水準の品質に均一化し, 規模の経済を働かせるといった役割を担っています. さらに漁協は産地市場を開設・運営し, 産地市場を通じて組合員である漁業者の漁獲物を消費地市場へ供給するといった社会的な役割も担っています. しかし, 近年, 若者の流失により漁村そのものが過疎化し, 漁村の伝統的な祭りが消え去
ったり、漁村単位での漁協の維持が困難になったりといった問題も現れている.

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

4.漁業関連女性組織と小規模漁業
漁協女性部の意義と課題及び新たな女性ネットワークの構築による女性活動の展開
関 いずみ（東海大学）
本稿は,初めに,漁業関連女性組織の最も基本的な組織として漁協女性部を取り上げ,その設立の経緯や活動内容,女性部が抱える問題点について整理した.漁協女性部
は,1950 年代に生活改善運動をきっかけに組織化された.その後,女性部の活動は,時代とともに変化する社会問題に対応するように行われてきた.公害問題が深刻化した
70 年代からは合成洗剤追放運動や,植樹運動など環境保全に関する活動が行われるようになった.また,水産物の消費の減退を背景に,魚食普及活動が活発化する.近年は,地域の高齢者支援に関する活動も行われている.一方で,女性部数及び部員数の減少
や,部員の高齢化という課題にも直面している.次に,近年活発化している漁村女性による起業活動について概観した.これまで無償のボランティアとして地域活動を行ってきた女性部だが,起業活動をきっかけに,女性の経済的自立や,生きがいの創出というような新たな活動の意義が見出されるようになっている.また,起業活動は,漁村における任意のグループの創立も促している.女性たちによる起業活動は,経済的効果だけでなく,水産資源の有効活用,水産物の消費拡大といった役割も担っている.最後に,漁村の新たな女性ネットワークについて述べた.現在,若手漁村女性のネットワー
クを目的とするフレッシュミズ会議や,漁業や水産業に関わる女性たちを広域につなげる水産庁によるプロジェクト,起業に関わる漁村女性のネットワークを図るうみ・ひと・くらしフォーラムなど様々な試みが行われている.今後,漁村女性の組織は,地域内外の様々な分野の人々との連携を広げていくことが期待される.

5.水産政策の改革と小規模漁業
水産政策の改革による効率性の向上とそれを補完するコミュニケーション
日高健（近畿大学）
現在，日本において漁業法改正を中心とした水産政策の改革が進められている．漁業法は日本における漁業制度の基本的な枠組みを形成するもので，沿岸の小型漁業に関しては共同漁業権，養殖漁業権，定置網漁業権といった漁業権制度の枠組みを提供する．改正漁業法では，これまで目的であった漁業の民主化が削除され，漁業の効率化による漁業生産性の向上が目的とされている．漁業生産性を上げるには効率性を追求するのが適している．しかし，沿岸の環境管理や資源管理を長期的に効率的に遂行するには，関係者の合意と参加が必要である．そもそも漁業法は漁業生産性の向上と漁業の民主化という相反する概念を内包していたが，資源管理型漁業

486

JAPANESE ABSTRACTSのような形でそれを解決してきた．今回の改正でもこれまでの知恵を生かすべきである．我々は，改正漁業法によって削除されたコミュニケーションを補完するものとして里海の概念を提案している．

6.里海概念と小規模漁業
沿岸域管理の新しい概念としての里海と小規模漁業者の役割
日高健（近畿大学）
現在，沿岸域管理の新たな手法として，里海が注目されている．里海の概念は柳（1998）によって提案されたものであり，現在では日本国内だけでなく海外にも広まりつつある．日本では，漁村による地先管理の伝統的慣習が漁業法によって制度化され，共同漁業権として現在に至っている．しかし，近年の沿岸域を巡る社会環
境の変化によって，漁村が地先を管理するのが難しくなっている．そこで，登場したのが里海である．里海は，自然的，社会的要因が似ている狭い地域において形成される．新しい里海の特徴は，漁業以外の活動も対象となること，様々な人たちが参加すること，科学的な根拠や客観的な観察が重要になることである．さらに，里海は環境や経済だけでなく教育にも効果がある．そのような里海に対して，小規模漁業者は公共用水面における管理活動の正当性，海や水産資源に関する知識や海上での活動手段の保有，地域の居住者として様々な人たちの窓口になることといった役割がある．

7.沿岸域管理と小規模漁業
沿岸レジャー利用管理における地域漁業者の役割
浪川珠乃（一般財団法人 漁港漁場漁村総合研究所）
沿岸域は環境的に高い価値を有するとともに,社会経済的にも価値の高い地理的空間である.経済成長や科学技術の進展に伴い沿岸域の利用ニーズが多様化する中で,沿岸域の適正な利用をいかにルール化し,利用者に浸透させるか,いわゆる沿岸域における利用管理体制の確立が重要になっている.本稿では日本の沿岸域管理の変遷を漁業の管理,空間の管理,レクリエーションの管理の面から概観し,長らく水産資源を得る場として管理されてきた日本の沿岸域が,開発空間や海洋性レクリエーションの場
等利用の範囲が拡大し,ローカルコモンズからオープンなコモンズに変化している状
況を示した.そのような状況の中,首都圏から最も近い離島である静岡県の初島を事

487

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE
例に,沿岸域の利用管理において,地域の漁業者が重要な役割を果たしている状況を示し,日本の沿岸域管理における漁業者の果たす役割について考察した.

8.日本のジェンダー政策と小規模漁業“気づき”から行動へ
副島 久実 (摂南大学)
カティア・フラングドゥス(西ブリュターニュ大学 AMURE センター)
ジェンダー平等は，国際条約の批准に対する公約を果たすために国が取り組まなけ
ればならない項目であるが，日本ではジェンダー平等を目指す「ジェンダー平等政策」ではなく，経済への女性の参加を強化することを目的とした「女性活躍推進政策」を展開している．農業や漁業などの産業分野においても同様である．持続可能な農漁業と地域を目指すためには，農業や漁業の分野における女性の労働の社会的・経済的評価と意思決定過程への参加を促進する必要がある．しかし，それらを実現させるには，いまだ根強く残るジェンダー不平等により難しい状況にある．また，漁業や漁村では漁協の存在が大きいが，そこには男性優位の考え方が強く残っているため，女性が漁協における意思決定過程に参画していくことはまだまだ難し
い．このチャプターでは，ジェンダーの平等に関連する農業および漁業のいくつかの政策を検討し，理論的な目標と実施の効果との間のギャップについて焦点をあてる。そしてジェンダー平等に関する漁村女性たちのいくつかの意見を紹介する。

9.政府サポートと小規模漁業
静岡県における沿岸漁業支援の現状と課題
中平 英典（静岡県経済産業部水産・海洋局）
日本における沿岸漁業に対する行政のサポートにおいては,都道府県が果たしている
役割が大きい.このため,本稿においては,沿岸漁業に対する行政のサポートの意義や現状,課題について,遠洋・沖合漁業と比較した沿岸漁業の実情において日本全体の縮図ともなっている静岡県が実施している沿岸漁業サポートの現状や課題を事例として論じる.静岡県において,沿岸漁業は,地域の雇用の創出や,日本の多様な食文化の形成,さらには,地域の特色ある文化の発展に重要な役割を果たしている.このため,
このような沿岸漁業を持続可能なものにしていくため,静岡県では,資源管理の徹底,
魚価の向上,適切な流通,消費対策を実施している.特にこれまであまり行われてこな

488

JAPANESE ABSTRACTS
かった流通,消費対策においては,観光業との連携,ICT ツールを積極的に活用した地
場流通の拡大,地域内の物流システムの構築が重要となっており,それらの取組を今後更に拡大することにより,地域の特色にあふれる沿岸漁業の可能性をもっと伸ばせるものと考えている.

10.沿岸漁業の伝統と文化
若手シラス漁民のライフスタイルを事例に
小林孝広（東海大学海洋学部）
本稿は,地域の過疎高齢化が進む中で,なぜ若者が用宗のシラス漁に集まるのかについて,若者個々人のライフスタイルに着目しながらその理由の一端に迫ることを目的とした.ライフスタイルに着目するのは個人の動機に着目し,一般に語られやすい収入の多寡にだけに着目するのではなく,彼らを取り巻く他の社会的要因にも目配りするためである.この調査は大学の実習授業の中で共同で行われた.特に今回調査対象となったのは若手シラス漁師５名である.彼らの職業と余暇活動についての語りを収集し考察した.若手漁師たちはそれぞれに漁に対する職業としての誇りを持っている.
また,用宗のシラス漁は,年間操業が 130 日と短く,また午前中に漁を終えることができる.午後の時間は季節的には由比の桜エビ漁のほか様々な副業にも充てられる.またそれだけでなく様々な世代を超えた共通の余暇活動に充てることができる.このよ
うに,職業に対する誇りにあわせて自由になる余暇の時間が豊富であること,またそこで展開される豊かな人間関係が,若者をシラス漁に向かわせることが明らかになった.

11.海女と小規模漁業
日本の漁村における海女漁の特性と社会的地位
吉村真衣（三重大学）
本章では, 日本の沿岸漁業の一形態である海女漁について, 三重県鳥羽志摩地域を事例に紹介する. 海女漁は 2000 年以上続く伝統的な素潜り漁で, 近年では持続可能な漁業のロールモデルとして評価され, 文化遺産, 観光資源としても注目が集まっている. 海女漁の特性は、厳しい資源管理と高い共同性である. 主要な漁獲物であるアワビは漁の期間や時間, 捕獲できるサイズに制限がかけられており, 海女は自主的な管理と相互監視のもと資源管理を図っている. また海女は「かまど」という

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小集団で出漁し, 互いの安全を常に確認している. 「かまど」をもとにした共同性
は, 海女漁という枠を越え, 日常生活の相互扶助の基盤にもなっている. これらの特性は, 漁村の地理的・自然的条件や漁獲物の性質, 漁にともなう生命の危険性を背景に形成され, 海女によって長い間維持されてきた. 近年海女漁は, 後継者不足という問題を抱えている. その解決のため, 行政の介入のもと海女漁に関心のある都市部の女性を移住者として受け入れる漁村が現れた. この取り組みは, 社会的背景や職業観の異なる移住者をいかに受け入れ, ローカルな共同性を再構築するかという新たな課題を漁村にもたらしている. 海女漁の存続のためには, 海女漁と漁村をとりまく構造的な問題を十分に理解し適切な施策を講じることが重要である. また何よりも, 海女や漁師の声を丁寧に聞き取り, 漁村の歴史, 社会文化と沿岸漁業との結びつきをとらえることが欠かせないだろう.

12.小型捕鯨漁業
現状と将来の課題
瀬木志央（甲南女子大学）
日本の沿岸村落においては縄文時代から何らかの小型捕鯨がおこなわれていたと考えられている. 小型捕鯨漁業が急速に発展した明治以降, 小型捕鯨漁業は, 捕鯨地域に留まらず,遠く離れた地域の人々の生活に, 食料供給, 雇用,そしてエンターテイ
メントを通して密接に関わりを持ってきた.本章は小型捕鯨漁業,すなわち農林水産
大臣の許可による小型捕鯨業,そして都道府県知事の許可による追い込み漁と突きん
棒漁に焦点を当て, それぞれの発展過程と現状について概観する. 小型捕鯨漁業は,
戦後の食糧難, 母船捕鯨等の大型捕鯨業との競合, 国際捕鯨委員会による商業漁業
モラトリアム, 調査捕鯨との競合, そして国際捕鯨委員会脱退と商業捕鯨再開といった, 捕鯨者の力の及ばない外部要因により大きく翻弄されてきた. 加えて,反捕鯨グループによる捕鯨に対する批判や抗議活動の拡大, 捕獲量を割り当てられている鯨類の捕獲量は, いずれの捕鯨タイプでも近年大幅に落ち込んでいることも懸念される. 持続可能な小型捕鯨業の実現のためには,商業捕鯨再開を契機とした調査捕鯨に依存した経営からの脱却, 後継者の確保, 捕鯨技術・地域環境地の継承が欠かせ
ない.

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13.漁業安全システムと小規模漁業
漁業安全と漁村社会
三木奈都子（国立研究開発法人水産研究・教育機構中央水産研究所）
日本における漁業安全システムに関する研究は，主に漁業の労働科学研究のなかで行われてきた．その研究を中心的に担ってきたのは，労働科学研究所と海上労働科学研究所であった．これらの研究所で行われた漁業に関する研究の主な対象は，沿岸漁業よりは遠洋．沖合漁業であったが，労働科学研究所の設立に関わった暉峻義
等氏は，もともと漁業，特に海女漁業など沿岸漁業を労働科学研究の主な研究対象にとらえ，そこに漁業安全についての観点も含めていた．労働科学研究の初期に関心を集めていた海女漁業も含め，従来，沿岸の小規模漁業の漁業安全システムは，漁村の社会慣行のなかに含まれていた．海難発生時の相互扶助的な対応や漁業者集団による出漁の可否や出港時間，操業時間などの取り決め，水揚げ作業や漁獲後の加工処理作業など主に漁業陸上作業を対象とした労働交換や共同作業，海上での船団操業による情報交換などである．技術的な面からの漁業安全の向上がめざましい近年であるが，関係者の間でコミュニケーションをとり，漁業者が技術を使いこなせるソフトを共有し，また，これまでの社会慣行とすり合わせていくことが重要であると考えられる．

14.漁港整備と小規模漁業
水産業・漁村が果たす多面的な機能を支える漁港整備髙吉晋吾（一般財団法人 漁港漁場漁村総合研究所）
周囲を海に囲まれた日本にとって，水産業や漁村は多様な水産物を国民に供給するだけでなく，沿岸環境の保全，国境監視，海にまつわる文化の維持継承など多面的な役割を有している．このような役割を将来にわたり発揮し続けられるよう，産業
政策と地域政策の両面から漁港整備をはじめとする水産政策が進められている．日
本の漁村は良好な漁場に近い場所に生まれ，山が海に迫る平地の少ない場所に立地することが多い．そのような漁村にとって漁港は重要なインフラである．防波堤や岸壁，漁業活動に必要な用地などを整備することにより安全・安心で快適に漁業活動を実施できる．また，漁港の用地は災害時の救援活動や憩いの空間などを提供しており，漁村の生活環境の向上にも貢献している．近年は漁業就業者や漁船が減少しており，漁港の整備については，規模の拡大といった量的整備から，多目的な利用や衛生・品質管理など質的な整備に重点が移っている．また，老朽化した漁港施設の長寿命化対策も大きな課題となっている．

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15.産地市場と小規模漁業
様々な水産物の流通の出発点
林浩志（一般財団法人 漁港漁場漁村総合研究所）
我が国には，800 近くの産地市場がある．一方，漁港は約 3,000 あり，約 4 つの漁港のうち 1 つには産地市場がある．この中には，取引規模の小さい産地市場もあり，価格形成力が弱いことなどが課題となっているところもあるが，沿岸漁業を中心として多様な魚種が各地で水揚げされる我が国において，産地市場は，水産物を効率的に流通させるために重要な役割を担っている．つまり，水産物は，野菜・果物・肉などと異なり，産地市場と消費地市場の二つの卸売市場を経由して消費者に届けられる．これは，魚や貝類などは傷みやすく，その一方で，刺身や寿司，酢の物といった非加熱食品を好む日本の食文化から，より新鮮な商品を消費者に届けるためである．そして，これら多くの産地市場は沿岸漁業による水揚げによって成り立っており，そして，沿岸漁業は産地市場を介して地域産業の中心的な存在となっている．しかし，近年は，取扱量の減少，魚価単価の低迷，買受人の減少などから産地
市場における価格形成力が低下してきている．今後は，これらに対して，産地市場が有する情報の活用や品質管理のより一層の向上が求められる．

16.漁場整備と小規模漁業
遊漁における人工魚礁の間接的効果
伊藤靖（一般財団法人 漁港漁場漁村総合研究所）
人工漁礁とは水産生物の蝟集や保護培養を目的に,人工的に造成した魚礁構造物の総称である．投石による築磯等が 17 世紀頃から行われてきたが,国の施策として体系化したのは第二次世界大戦以降である．主に漁業の利用を主たる目的としているが，遊漁にも利用されていると考えられる．遊漁案内業は沿岸漁業者が兼業で営むことが多く，漁業者の収入増にも寄与している．しかし，人工魚礁の遊漁による利用実態は必ずしも明らかではなく，具体的に遊漁の利用による便益を計測した事例はほ
とんどない．ここでは，遊漁を営む代表的な漁業地域として，神奈川県大磯町，静岡県御前崎町，京都府丹後半島，和歌山県印南町，香川県高松市・庵治町，福岡市
長崎県野母崎町を選出し，これらの地域の遊漁案内業者および遊漁者等へのアンケ
ート調査により，人工魚礁の遊漁による利用実態を明らかにし，事例的に便益を試算することで，沿岸漁業における人工魚礁の間接的な効果を明らかにした．

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17.自然災害と小規模漁業
災害予防と漁業地域の業務継続計画
影山智将（全国漁港漁場協会）
日本の周辺海域には世界有数の好漁場が形成されており,古くから漁業が盛んで魚食文化が育まれてきたが,一方,日本は自然災害の多い国である.環太平洋造山帯に位置
し,火山活動,地震活動が活発である.また,毎年台風が上陸し暴風雨や高潮による被害をもたらしている.近年は地球温暖化の影響によると思われる台風の巨大化,梅雨や秋雨の集中豪雨化が著しく,被害を拡大している.日本の漁業は常に災害と隣り合わせであり,災害のリスクを常に意識し,予め備えておくことが重要な課題となっている.災害への対処は,自助を基本として,共助,公助を災害の時間的経過にあわせた
各段階,すなわち,災害予防，災害応急対策，災害復旧・復興の各段階ごとにうまく連携させていくことが重要である.日本では,東日本大震災以降,漁業地域において漁業,水産加工業,輸送業,行政等の関係者による協議会をつくり,防災・減災対策や災害発生時の役割分担と協力体制を決めておく業務継続計画づくりが行われている.世界の他の地域の沿岸漁業について考える際,参考になれば幸いだと思う.

18.漁業就業と小規模漁業
人材育成システムの拡充とマッチングこそが漁業者を増やす近道
竹ノ内徳人 （愛媛大学 南予水産研究センター）
この小論文・コラムは，日本の小規模漁業における漁業就業者について現状と展望を述べることである．漁業就業というテーマは，日本の沿岸漁業を守っていくためにとても重要な論点である．日本の沿岸漁業は，きわめて小規模であり，ほぼ 9 割
以上が家族経営である．そして日本の小規模沿岸漁業が，これまで漁業就業の中心的役割を果たしてきたことも事実である．しかしながら，就業機会の多様化や漁業自体に魅力が乏しくなってきたために，漁業の後継者不足の問題が顕在化してきた．
日本の漁業が強かった 1960 年代から，近年の極めて危機的な現状までに関して，漁業就業に関する制度的な取組，就業状況について分析する．まず，日本の小規模漁業の制度的な側面から構造や構成，ならびにその特徴を明らかにする．また，小規模漁業の就業に関する後継者問題も外せない議論である．そのうえで日本の小規模漁業がかかえる制度的ならびに構造的な問題を指摘する．このような問題を改善するために，近年は，全国各地で人材育成システムが活発化している事実についても紹介する．最後に日本の小規模漁業と漁業就業に関する対策と展望を述べる．

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19.六次産業化と小規模漁業
変動する漁業所得を補完するしなやかな就業所得機会と地域の魅力の創出
富田 宏（株式会社漁村計画)
日本の沿岸漁業や小規模漁村は,日本列島の隅々に立地することで,安全,新鮮で多様な水産物を国民に提供すると同時に,自然環境の保全や沿岸域管理,伝統文化や景観の維持など多面的機能を発揮している. 一方,このような沿岸漁業や漁村成立の前提となる多くの個人経営漁家の所得水準は,一般的世帯所得の半分程度である.このことが,漁業の担い手の減少と後継者不足の大きな要因になっており,今や,漁村地域の存続さえ危ぶまれる状況を招いている.６次産業化は,沿岸漁業や小規模漁村の持つ多種多様な資源を活用した持続的なコミュニティビジネスを創出することで,これらの問題を解決しようとする取組である.つまり,小規模で不安定な漁家所得を補完す
る所得機会を創出すると共に,持続可能な沿岸漁業と小規模漁村の振興を目的としたものである.６次産業化の取組内容は,地域の実態により多種多様であってよく,必要なことは,漁業者を始めとした地域住民が将来のビジョンを共有しつつ,目的や取組
内容,担い手や運営体制を確立し,自立的に継続させていくシステムを地域に定着させていくことである.そのためには,自立と継続,モノではなく地域のブランド化,持続可能なコミュニティビジネスの視点が重要である.

20.水産物のブランディングと小規模漁業～水産物ブランドの新たな展開～関さば・あじの事例から
波積 真理(熊本学園大学)

関さば・あじが水産物の商標登録を取得した 90 年代後半以降，水産物のブランド化は活発化してい． 水産物のブランド化の歩みとしては，およそ 30 年が経過したことになる．水産物を取り巻く厳しい状況に対してブランド化への取組がはじまり，その結果ブランド化に成功した水産物における魚価の向上,認知の高まりなど一定の成果をあげた．しかし，リーマンショック以降経済状況の悪化により市場環境が大きく変わり，その後景気は持ち直してきたが，魚価上昇にはつながってはいない.水産物を取り巻く厳しい状況において，水産物のブランドのあり方も変化を迫られている．本稿ではブランド・ポジションでも最上位に位置する「セレブレティ・ブラン
ド」の代表である「関さば・あじ」を事例として，ブランドを確立するための品質管理や新しいビジネスモデルの必要性を考察する．さらに資源減少の問題について
資源管理や消費者の意識変化が必要であることを述べていきたい．

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21.都市漁村交流と小規模漁業
小規模漁村における都市漁村交流の意義
浪川珠乃（一般財団法人 漁港漁場漁村総合研究所）“都市漁村交流”とは,都市住民が漁村地域を訪れ,漁村の自然や水産物を楽しむとともに,漁村地域に活力を与えることを指し,漁村地域活性化のための施策の一つとして位置づけられている.漁村は,新鮮な水産物を安定して供給する機能を有するとともに,海洋性レクリエーションの場の提供や地域色豊かな食文化・伝統行事の継承などを通じて都市部の人々にゆとりある生活,癒しやうるおいを提供している.一方,漁村にとっては,漁村に人を呼び賑わいをもたらすことによって地域の活性化に大きく貢献するものとして機能するのである.本稿では都市漁村交流活動の変遷を整理しつつ,特に直販および体験漁業に着目し,交流人口の増加（都市部の人々への漁村の価値の提供）や地域活性化（漁家の副収入の確保）という点で,沿岸漁業地域に一定の貢献をしている状況を示した.

22.渚泊と小規模漁業
小規模漁村における渚泊実践に向けての一考察
後藤卓治（一般財団法人 漁港漁場漁村総合研究所）
小規模漁業に営む漁業者の多くは，都市部から離れた小規模な漁村で暮らしている．
近年の漁業生産量の減少からこのような小規模な漁村で生活していくには，漁業だけの収入では所得が不足してしまうため，生活するための所得を確保すべく漁村から若者が流出しており，このままでは漁村の存続が危ぶまれる状況となっている．
今後も漁村が存続するためには，地域での雇用を創出し所得向上を図ることが必要
で，その解決策の一つとして，漁村が持つ地域資源を活かした漁村への滞在型旅行である渚泊の取組（泊まる，遊ぶ，食べる，体験する，見る）を実践することが考えられる．渚泊の取組は様々だが，観光客が旅行するのは，都会では味わえない非日常に触れることを求めており，小規模な漁村ほど都会とは違う非日常を得られるとも言えることから，観光資源としての潜在能力は高いと考えられる．しかし，小規模漁村では漁業者や住民の高齢化や減少や家屋や施設の老朽化等，観光客を受け入れる体制を構築出来ず，渚泊の取組を実践している地域が限られている．ここでは，漁村への滞在型旅行である渚泊の内容を紹介し，小規模漁村で渚泊を実践する
ための工夫や様々な連携により小規模な漁村での体制の構築方法について考察した．

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

23.漁業管理ツールボックス「浜の道具箱」と小規模漁業
漁業関係者による沿岸漁業管理の自己評価・改善の仕組み
竹村紫苑（水産研究・教育機構）
牧野光琢（東京大学）
但馬英知（水産研究・教育機構）
日本の漁業管理制度は歴史的に共同管理に基づいておこなわれてきた．また，2017
年 4 月に閣議決定された新たな水産基本計画では，共同管理が沿岸漁業政策の中軸に位置付けられている．したがって，漁業者は，持続的な資源管理と地域振興に向けて，資源・漁業管理の着実な実施と改善が求められる．そこで本章では，漁業関係者が沿岸漁業管理を自己評価・改善するための仕組み「漁業管理ツールボックス（浜の道具箱）」をについて紹介する．そして，ツールボックスを日本の沿岸漁業管理の改善に適用し，その試行結果を通じて学んだ教訓について述べる．日本の沿岸 4地域における試行結果から，ツールボックスは地域の漁業関係者（漁業者，行政，研究者など）が地域の資源・漁業管理の取り組みを評価することを通じて，優先的に改善すべき項目の同定に有効であった．さらに，山口県下関外海地域における試行結果から，ツールボックスは同地域の漁業管理改善計画である「浜の活力再生プラン」の改善にも有用であった．以上の結果から，ツールボックスは漁業関係者による対話と相互学習を促進させることを通じて，日本の共同管理に基づく沿岸漁業
管理の高度化に貢献することが期待される．

24.Hama-katsu プランと小規模漁業
沿岸漁業を基幹産業とする漁村地域の活力再生に向けて麓 貴光（株式会社 水土舎）
日本の漁業生産構造は，少数精鋭による沖合・遠洋漁業が漁業生産量の大半を支える一方，経営体数の 94％を占める小規模な沿岸漁業層が，日本の沿岸一帯に居住して漁村地域を形成し，多様で高品質な水産物を供給するとともに多面的な機能を発揮している．現在，沿岸漁業層の減少が顕著で漁村地域の活力低下に直結している．
これに歯止めをかけるべく，様々な施策が講じられてきたが，地域が抱える課題の多様化，複雑化に伴い，十分な成果を得ることが難しくなってきた．地域の多様で複雑な課題に対し，実状に応じた課題解決に取り組むことを基本的な考え方とした施策が”Hama-katsu Plan”である．Hama-katsu Plan は，漁業者及び関係する地域の住民自らが策定する計画である．個々の地域の実状に合わせ，計画期間 5 年間で地域の漁業所得を 10％以上向上させることを目標とし，「収入向上」及び「コスト削496

JAPANESE ABSTRACTS
減」の両面から方策を取りまとめ，これを着実に実施する．補助事業の活用で優遇措置も講じられる．現在，Hama-katsu プランは 640 地区で承認されている．第 1 期の各地の取組は一定の成果を上げていると評価しうる．地域の関係者自らが策定した計画の下で，取組を実践し，一定の成果が見られたことは評価に値する．一方，地域の力の差といった課題も顕在化した．計画策定の企画力，取組の実践力が不足する地域が見られた．これに対し，より効果的で円滑な外部支援の活用も必要になるだろう．変容する漁村地域や政策の転換期にある漁業の下で，今後の Hama-katsu
プランも地域の漁業や関連産業のあり方を具体的にデザインすることが求められるだろう．地域が主役となり，自らの力が試される時代の到来，その端緒を Hamakatsu プランが開いたといえよう．

25.水産加工技術と小規模漁業
低利用魚から地域特産かまぼこへの転換
平塚聖一（東海大学海洋学部）
地域商品となっているかまぼこの特長は，原料に冷凍すり身は使わず，前浜で地元の沿岸漁業者が漁獲した魚のみを使うことである．「じゃこ天」は愛媛県の名産品で，地元の小型底曳網漁船が漁獲した小型魚が原料になっている．通常，小型魚は可食部が少ないため，食用としての利用が難しく，市場では値がつきにくい．宇和島市
で製造された「じゃこ天」は「宇和島じゃこ天」として地域団体商標登録されている．伊予市でも，上灘漁協の女性部が「じゃこ天」を製造している．上灘漁協の「じゃこ天」製造事業は雑魚の価格を安定化させることと魚食の普及に大きく貢献
した.静岡県のいとう漁協では地元に水揚げされるサバなどを用いて漁協によるすり身の製造が行われている．特に，小型の魚は価格が安く，これまでは養殖魚の餌になっていたが，このような魚もすり身に加工することで食用として利用できるようになった．漁協ではすり身を使った数々のメニューを開発し，サバのサンドイッチ
やパスタソースなどユニークな商品が誕生している．この 2 つの地域でかまぼこ製造に使っている原料は沿岸漁業者が漁獲した水産物である．沿岸漁業者のみが正真
正銘の地元の魚を消費者に届けることができるのである．したがって，日本国民の魚食文化を守り，魚食の減少を止めるためには沿岸漁業者の力は重要である．また，
最近では人々が食事の準備にかける時間が減少し，その結果として魚の料理は敬遠されがちになっている．魚をすり身に加工することはその打開策になるだろう．

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26.タイと日本における小規模漁業：
タイの小規模海面漁業管理を中心に
佐藤昭人（SEAFDEC）
タイの多くの人々にとって,漁業は動物性タンパク質の重要な供給源となっている.
タイの漁業生産は 20 世紀の終わりまでの 40 年の間に著しい成長を示したが,今世紀中に漁業生産は減少してきている.これは主に海面漁業生産の減少によるものである
が,タイでは海面漁業管理と海面漁業の乱獲において様々な問題に直面している.これらの問題は,例えば,人口の増加と伴に魚介類や水産物に対する需要の増加,タイのトロール漁業による漁獲圧の増加,効果的な小規模漁業管理システムの構築の難しさ,
小規模漁業者の厳しい生計状況等の様々な要因が重なり合って起こっているので直ぐに解決できるものではない.本報告では,タイと日本の小規模海面漁業の異なった特徴やその背景について概観するために,タイの海面漁業の経緯や海面漁業を取り巻く現状,海面漁業の政策や海面漁業管理制度の経緯を紹介するとともに,これまでの集落共同体による漁業管理の取り組みの経験を分析した上で,日本とタイでの小規模
海面漁業の違いとして,タイでは日本の沿海漁協のような組織化や日本の地先共同漁業権のような地域による自主管理が進んでいない状況の中ではあるが,これまでの取組みの経験も踏まえつつ,厳しい漁業調整のみならず行政からの財政支援や漁業者のみならず地域住民の参加も含めた息の長い地域主体の共同管理の取り組みへの継続的な支援が重要であるとの考えを示した．

27.マレーシアと日本における小規模漁業研究者にとって東南アジアに残る大きな課題
加藤雅也（東南アジア漁業開発センター 海洋資源開発管理部局）
小規模漁業の定義は国によって異なる. マレーシアでは, 小規模漁師を, 漁具と船のサイズに基づいて, 伝統的な漁師として分類する. ほとんどの伝統的な漁師は, 最も岸から近い漁場で漁をすることができる. 海洋の漁獲漁業では, 総数でわずか 25％
である商業的漁師が魚介類の約 70％を漁獲している. 船のサイズや人数の少なさでは, 船員が 2 名で高価なクロマグロなどを捕っている沖縄の小型マグロ漁船や高価なアワビを捕る海女などは, 小規模漁業ではあるが高い収入を得る事もある. 低所得のため, 伝統的な漁師の社会経済的地位の改善は, 持続可能な生活と漁業にとって非常に重要である. マレーシア水産局は, 漁業免許とゾーニングシステムの法執行を管轄している. 海岸線近くのゾーン A は伝統的な漁師向けだが, モンスーンの季節にはゾーン A で許可された限られた数のえびトロール漁船が漁をすることができる.

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JAPANESE ABSTRACTS
健康な生態系を維持するためには, 魚介類の生態と周辺環境の生物的および非生物的要素を理解する必要がある．温帯地域での研究を熱帯には通常応用できないので,熱帯の伝統的漁業を研究することは困難な分野だが, それにチャレンジして行く必要がある. トレンガヌ州では, モンスーンの影響により漁業ができない日が多い時期があるため, 漁業以外の収入源も含めて, 州の特徴を再検討する必要がある.

28.カンボジアと日本における小規模漁業
日本の水産政策からみたカンボジアの漁業コミュニティ制度への提案
堀美菜（高知大学）
カンボジアでは過去 20 年間に 2 回の漁業制度改革が実施された.この改革により,トンレサープ湖における商業的な大規模漁業の漁業区画はすべて撤廃され,保護区又は小規模漁業の漁業区へと転換された.小規模漁業は自家消費目的の自由漁業と定められており,漁業許可は不要である.新たに小規模漁業の漁業区へと転換された.漁業区の管理には,漁業コミュニティによる住民参加型の資源管理が導入された.漁業者には漁業区監視の義務があるが,担当する漁業区を占有し使用することは認められておらず,管理のインセンティブが働きにくい.更に,漁業コミュニティには管理活動のための十分な予算がなく,活動予算を国際機関や NGO などの外部支援に頼っている. 本
稿では,日本における水産基本法に基づいた漁業振興策と,都道府県水産試験研究機
関や水産業普及指導員による研究開発,技術普及の仕組みを概説した上で,カンボジ
アで実施された農民間普及を用いた養殖改善普及プロジェクトの事例を紹介し,日本の制度のカンボジアでの適用可能性を示した.最後に,カンボジアの漁業コミュニテ
ィ活動を円滑に実施するためには,漁業コミュニティ間のネットワーク化による成功
例の共有,経済活動としての小規模漁業の再定義,小規模漁業の国民への食糧供給源としての役割の再認識に基づいた漁業コミュニティの支援が必要であることを指摘する.

29.フィリピンと日本における小規模漁業
フィリピンの実態を勘案した日本水産物流通の一考
宮田勉（水産研究・教育機構）
日本の水産物消費量の著しい低下は, 水産物価格が鶏肉や豚肉と比較して相対的に高いことが主要因である. また, 日本の小型漁船漁業によって多種多様な水産物が499

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE
水揚げされるが, 低利用の魚種も多く, 加えて未利用資源も多く存在する. フィリピ
ンでは過剰漁獲による水産資源の悪化が深刻であるが, １人あたりの水産物消費量
は高位で安定しており, これは低コストなサプライチェーンによって魚介類の販売価格が低く抑えられていることが要因の１つである. 日本の中間コストはフィリピ
ンの約 5 倍高く, このサプライチェーンが日本の水産物消費量低迷に大きく影響している. 中間コスト圧縮の観点から, 地産地消の推進, 未利用・低利用水産物の活用が日本の状況改善に向けてのキーワードになろう. 地産地消は,物流コストを削減するだけでなく, 伝統的な日本の食文化“Washoku”を維持する観点からも重要である.
さらに, スーパーマーケットに依存した消費者の購買行動に, 購入場所の選択および購入する魚介類の種類を増加させることができる.

30.ベトナムと日本における小規模漁業
日本型自主的資源管理の導入を目指し、持続的漁業の促進を図るベトナム
渡邉英直 (一般社団法人マリノフォーラム 21)
ベトナムの漁業生産量は成長を続けており,漁獲量,養殖生産量とも増加してきており,2018 年には約 780 万トンとなっている.養殖生産量の伸びは漁獲漁業より伸びが大きく 2007 年から養殖生産量が上回る状況となっている.政府は更なる養殖業の振興を図り 2030 年には生産量 630 万トンの目標を掲げている. この一方で,漁船数及び漁船の総エンジン出力も毎年増加してきている.一隻当たりの漁獲量及び単位エンジ
ン出力当たりの漁獲量は 2007 頃から減少してきており,過剰漁獲努力量の状況になっていると懸念される. 養殖生産の 70％はメコンデルタ域で行われているが,近年メコン川の流量が減少しており,このため河口域付近での海水流入が発生し養殖場や稲作に悪影響を与えている. また,急速な経済の発展と人口の増加に伴い生活排水や産業排水が増加してきているが,排水処理能力増強が追い付けない状況で内水面,沿岸部で水質が悪化してきており,赤潮のが頻繁に発せして来ている.このため,沿岸部での漁獲や養殖業に悪影響を及ぼしている. ベトナムでは資源管理を適切に実施できる体制がまだ十分ではなく,EU から IUU 漁業撲滅に向けた取り組みを強化するように勧告を受けている.このような中で政府は,持続的な水産資源利用を目指すために,日本で漁業権の下で実施されてきている漁業者グループによる自主的資源管理や共同資源管理を取り入るべく取り組みを開始してきている.

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31.中国と日本における小規模漁業
小規模漁業の現状と管理を中心に陳放（大連海洋大学）
楊晨星（上海海洋大学）
長い間,研究者達は大・中型漁業に注目することが多く,小規模漁業はほとんど研究されていなかった.漁業統計や漁業管理措置においても,大・中型漁業に関しては詳
しく明記されているが,小規模漁業については簡単な一言しか記載されていない.特に,既存の漁業管理措置は小規模漁業にはほぼ適用されていない.ところが,統計によると,直接消費された魚類の 50%は小規模漁業によるものである.また,特に沿岸域における小規模漁業は,漁船や漁民の数が多く,漁業だけでなく漁業資源の保護にも重要な役割を果たしている.近年,FAO は世界へ小規模漁業の重要性を強調してきた.小規模漁業に対する各国の重視度が高くなるにつれて,中国も小規模漁業に注目をし始めた.小規模漁業の重要性と現在のギャップを鑑みて,小規模漁業とその管理に関する研究が特に重要である.本文はまず小規模漁業の概念,規模,管理等面から中国の小規模漁業の発展を紹介し,上記の観点から日本の沿岸漁業（小規模漁業）と比較をした上,現在日中の小規模漁業の現状について論じる.

32.韓国と日本における小規模漁業
漁業権利構造の実態とそれが沿岸域管理に及ぼす影響を中心に
李銀姫（東海大学海洋学部）
隣同士の国として， 日本と韓国は極めて多い共通点を持ち合わせている． それは、漁業から探してみることも難しくない． 本チャプターでは， 漁業資源管理に大きな役割を果たしてきている一方， 高い利用プライオリティを有することにより， しばしばスムーズな沿岸域利用を妨げる存在とも認識されている漁業権の権利構造に分析の焦点を当て， 日本と韓国の両国におけるその実態を把握するとともに，それが沿岸域管理に及ぼす影響について見てきた． 特に， 似通う権利構造を有しながらも各自の特性をもつ日本と韓国両国の比較分析を通じて課題にアプローチした．
具体的に， まずは日韓両国における漁業制度の展開を概観するとともに， 日韓における漁業権利構造の実態について把握した． 次に， 漁業権利構造が沿岸域管理に及ぼす影響について， 資源管理の側面や海面利用調整の側面から分析した． 最後に， それらを踏まえて， 効果的・効率的沿岸域管理に向けての今後の課題について考察した． すなわち， 資源管理や環境保全， 遊漁・漁業体験・ダイビング・
魚食・地域資源の価値創造に関する事業などを担う組織づくりの推進が必要である

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こと， 組織づくりのための積極的な行政支援が必要であること，その際， 地元の海域・沿岸域に愛着・プライド・責任感等を持つ漁村契・漁協のような組織の生かし方を工夫することが必要であること等を主張した．

33.台湾と日本における小規模漁業
台湾における小規模漁業・沿岸漁業を中心に
陳清春（台湾海洋大学）
本稿では,台湾における小規模漁業の定義,特性,重要性,産業上の困難さ,およびその対策について説明し,日本における小規模漁業の概要と比較する.その概要は以下の通りである.台湾の小規模漁業は主に近隣海域で操業する小型漁船を含むが,基本的には家族経営であり,漁獲効率は低く,生産量の比重は低いが,漁船数と操業する漁民の数の比率が高いため,魚資源の過剰使用,漁民の所得の低下など海洋環境,社会経済的な問題がある.このため,政府はこれまで,漁業を規範化し,漁獲量を制限し,資源を保護,復元し,魚類資源の永続的利用を追求し,漁業のモデル転換経営を指導するための多くの措置方法を講じてきた.また台湾と日本の小規模営業との相違点についても解説した.類似点として,両国は小規模家族経営の漁業を主体とし,政策措置において資源の管理を重視し,漁業責任制を推進し,観光レジャー漁業への転換経営を指導している.異なる点としては,日本は地形的には群島に属し,多くの内海とフィヨルドがあり,さらに大きな漁場があり,魚類資源が豊富であることから,日本の小規模漁業の全体的な重要性は台湾をはるかに上回る.

34.マーシャル諸島と日本における小規模漁業
太平洋の小さな島からの小規模零細漁業への視点
越後 学（インテムコンサルティング株式会社）マーシャル諸島は太平洋の真ん中にある小さな島国である. 全ての陸地は環礁で構成されているため, 海は素晴らしく美しいが土地が極端に狭いことから農業は発達せず, 自給漁業を中心とした社会や文化が形成されてきた. 漁業は極めて小規模で,素潜りでの潜水突き漁やカヌーでの底釣り, 引き縄, そして伝統的な追い込み漁な
どで, 漁船は 18 フィート程度の FRP 船に船外機が中心である. 追い込み漁は多くの場合コミュニティのチーフのもとで管理され, 大事な行事に併せて解禁, 漁獲物は公平に分配する等の伝統ルールに基づいて実施されてきた. マーシャル諸島では伝502

JAPANESE ABSTRACTS
統的に海と水産資源に強く依存した生活が営まれており、男は生まれつきの漁師であると考えられるなど漁業と人々の生活は不可分であった. 離島部では未だに重要な食料調達手段として自給漁業が続けられている. また, 追い込み漁に見られるように漁業は伝統や文化そのものでもあり, 重要な魚種に対してはチーフを中心とした資源管理も行われてきた. すなわち, マーシャル諸島のとりわけ離島部において自給漁業は, 食糧の安全保障, 人々の健康, 文化継承などの側面から極めて重要な役割を持ち, 金銭では代替できないものである. 日本をはじめとする多くの国で漁業は, 小規模であっても現金収入源として捉えることが多いが, マーシャル諸島における自給漁業の事例から日本や欧米が学ぶべきことも多いと考えられる.

35.マラウイと日本における小規模漁業
後発開発途上国の小規模漁業者が駆動するコミュニティ主導のイノベーション
佐藤 哲（愛媛大学）
アフリカ大陸東南部の後発開発途上国である内陸国マラウイでは，マラウイ湖において多数の小規模漁業者が漁業を営んでいる．小規模漁業者が中心の水産業は，国民に不可欠な動物タンパク資源を供給する重要産業である．マラウイ湖沿岸の漁村
では，小規模漁業者自身によって，水産資源とそれを支える生態系の持続可能な管理のための，さまざまな内発的かつイノベーティブな活動が創発されている．マラ
ウイ湖国立公園内に位置するチェンベ村では，漁業者自身による内発的な漁業活動の制限によって，重要な水産魚種に対する漁獲圧の低減が実現している．サリマ県の沿岸漁村では，伝統的首長を中心とした小規模漁業者による管理委員会によって，1950 年代から重要な漁場の季節禁漁が継続されて顕著な成果を挙げており，そのためのコミュニティ独自のルールについて，高度に洗練されたエンフォースメントの仕組みが機能している．最近では，科学者と小規模漁業者の密な協働を通じたトラ
ンスディシプリナリー（超学際的）な取り組みによって，チェンベ村において重要な水産魚種の生息場所・漁場を人工的に構築するという里海的な活動が行われ，成功を収めている．これらの事例は，マラウイにおいても，JSSF と同様に，小規模漁業者が駆動するコミュニティ主体の活動が，持続可能な水産資源管理に重要な役割を果たすことを示している．

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36.デンマークと日本における小規模漁業
転換期における小規模漁業の実態と課題
デレーニ・アリーン（東北大学）
本チャプターでは,現在,大きな転換期を迎えている日本とデンマークにおける小規
模漁業について比較分析を行うことを目的としている.両国ともに北半球に位置し先進国である日本とデンマークにおいては,農山漁村における高齢化や過疎化が大きな課題となっている.日本とデンマークにおいては,小規模漁業者や小規模漁業者の家族が,しばしば港やコミュニティ活動の中核を担っている.これは,少なからず,これらの漁業がその内部で発展するとともに、彼ら自身が発展させたことでもある社会から起因するのである.新自由主義の勃興や,現代的・発展的・経済効率的であることの意味に関する考えや理解の根本的な変化,及び「よい」漁業管理の実行などは,
小規模漁業者と小規模漁業地域に影響を与えてきた.さらに,現在の EU 政治がデンマークの小規模漁業に与える連鎖的な影響,及び日本の改正漁業法が日本の小規模漁業に与える影響は,不確実性や不安,そして数えきれない未知数を抱えているのである.

37.アメリカと日本における小規模漁業
漁業種ポートフォリオの縮小, 沿岸開発, 気候変動レジリエンス
徳永佳奈恵（Gulf of Maine Research Institute）
米国や日本などの先進国の小規模漁業は,他の小規模漁業と共通の課題を抱える一方で,先進国ながらの特別な課題も抱えている.本章では,米国メイン州のロブスター漁業と三重県のイセエビ漁業を取り上げながら,これらの小規模漁業が直面している課題である漁業種ポートフォリオの縮小について議論する.さらに,都市部の小規模漁業において,沿岸開発と漁業活動が共存する上での課題について,小規模漁業の文化的価値の観点から議論する.本章で紹介する日米のロブスター・イセエビ漁業は,共に区画利用権漁業（T U R F）であり,漁業者による自主的な管理手段がその管理に用いられている.また,メイン湾は,世界の海域の中でも温暖化が最も早く進んでいる海域の一つであり,当該海域にあるメイン州のロブスター漁業においては,今後,海洋温暖化を原因とする資源量の大幅な減少が予測されている.漁業種ポートフォリオの減少により,ロブスター漁業への依存が高まっている中で,どのようにしてレジリエンスを高めるべきか.まとめとして,気候変動に対するレジリエンスについて考察する.

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38.カナダと日本における小規模漁業
特徴、政策、ガバナンス体系：異なるが類似する
李銀姫 (東海大学海洋学部)
ジャック・デイリー (Too Big To Ignore プロジェクト)
ラタナ・チュンペッディ (ニューファンドランドメモリアル大学)
気候変動や政策変化等大変化時代における小規模漁業や漁村は,様々な存続の危機にされされており,それらが持つ諸意義への正しい認識とともに,適切な政策やガバナンス策が問われている.本チャプターでは,日本とカナダにおける小規模漁業のより望ましいガバナンス策のための基礎的な情報共有を図ることを目的としている.具体的には,まず小規模漁業への概念・定義とともに,小規模漁業にかかわる様々な「数字」についいて概観した.それから,漁業に関するガバナンス体系について,国レベル
及び県（州）レベルにおいて解説した.県（州）レベルについて,日本では,サクラエ
ビ漁業で名を知られている静岡県を,カナダにおいては大西洋タラ漁業で知られるニューファンドランド＆ラブラドール州を取り上げた.最後に,比較的視点から,両国における小規模漁業のガバナンス体系や課題について分析した.それを通して,両国は一見異なる政策・ガバナンス体系でありながら,驚くほど似通う今日的な課題を抱えていること,よって小規模漁業・漁村の総合的な「健康」に向けて適切なガバナンス
体系への転換が必要であること,簡単な解決策や「ワンフォオール」の対応策がない
現状では,両国は相互及び他国から学ぶことにより,望ましいガバナンス体系の模索
や小規模漁業の特徴と条件をきちっと考慮した適切な漁業政策をデザインすることができること等について指摘した.

39.海の温暖化と日本の小規模漁業
日本沿岸の海洋生態系や人間社会に及ぼす影響藤井 賢彦（北海道大学大学院地球環境科学研究院）
高い生物多様性・生産性を有する沿岸生態系は様々な生態系サービスを提供し，とりわけ地域の漁業や観光業を通じて沿岸社会に多大な便益をもたらしている．地球温暖化によって生じる全球規模の海水温上昇は沿岸生態系に顕著な影響を及ぼしており，日本沿岸に対してもその影響の定量的な評価・予測が近年行われるようになった．これらの研究結果は以下の事柄を示唆している．まず，将来の沿岸生態系の分布・生物多様性・機能を予測する際に生じる不確実性を最小化するためには，長期間・高頻度・高精度の観測と高時空間解像度を有する気候モデルが必要である．
また，沿岸生態系の定量的な分布域は地球温暖化によって劇的に変化しており，そ505

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGEの変化は今後も続くと予測される．そして，地球温暖化対策としては CO2 や他の温室効果ガスの排出を削減することが王道だが，並行して実践的な適応策を講じていく
ことも大切である．特に，沿岸社会の地球温暖化影響を最小限に食い止めるためには，科学的知見・指針に基づき，養殖場所を適切に移行していく必要がある．

40.海洋再生可能エネルギーと小規模漁業
持続可能な海洋発展を目指して
田中 博通 (REJ, 東海大学名誉教授)
大気中の CO2 濃度の増加による地球温暖化により，世界各地で異常気象と生態系への影響が生じている．再生可能エネルギーである海洋エネルギーは，潮汐発電，海流及び潮流発電，波力発電，海洋温度差発電，塩分濃度差発電，洋上風力発電がある．
ここでは，漁港周辺海域で導入可能な洋上風力発電と波力発電について詳述する．
波力発電は，様々なタイプがあるが，漁港の防波堤に設置できる越波式波力発電について述べる．海上風は陸上風と比べ風速が大きく，風の乱れが少なく安定しており，高さ方向にほぼ一様な風速分布であることから風力発電にとっては好条件である．設置水深によって杭式洋上風力発電と浮体式波力発電になる．海上風の条件の良い EU 諸国は，洋上風力発電の導入が年々増加し，約 8,000MW が現在稼働している．
日本の洋上風力発電賦存量は，約 12 億 kW と言われている．著者らが開発している越波式波力発電は，波が斜面を遡上することにより波エネルギーが位置エネルギーに変換され，貯水槽と周囲海域の水位差によって生じる流れのエネルギーが生じる.その流水エネルギーをプロペラが受けるトルクにより発電機で発電する方式である．
この越波式波力発電は，シンプルな構造であり，防波堤の前面と海洋構造物の周辺に設置することを想定している．海洋再生可能エネルギー発電設備の整備に係る海域の利用を促進するため，「海洋再生可能エネルギー発電設備の整備に係る海域の利用の促進に関する法律」が 2018 年 11 月 30 日に成立した．海域を利用するためには，
海は社会共通資本である正しい認識を持つこと，食料自給率を高めるために漁業を活性化すること，海環境を守ることを成立させることが重要である．

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41.環境教育と小規規模漁業
環境教育による水産物の価値向上を目指して
佐々木剛，水谷史門，廖凱（東京海洋大学大学院）
日本は島国であり，豊かな森，川，海を有する自然環境に恵まれ，人びとは何世代にもわたり森川海のつながり(FRON)を大切に維持し続けてきた. その結果, 資源の枯渇を招くことなく，持続可能な生活を送ることができた. このような伝統的な習慣は，持続可能な生物資源の利用・管理の手法を生み出し，それによって生物多様性が維持され，人びとが自然環境から多くの恩恵を受けることにつながった．生産
地のみならず消費地の人びとが FRON を理解し，健全な状態を保持しようとすることは，今日だけでなく、将来世代のための豊富な食料資源の維持に貢献する。FRON を重視した取り組みの一例として，小規模漁業がある．小規模漁業は，経済性，効率性を優先する大規模経済活動の対極にあり，省資源，循環型で持続可能な生産性を維持してきた。本章では，小規模漁業の理解促進をはかる水圏環境教育の方法論,
概念, 実際の教育実践について解説するとともに，水圏環境教育によって育まれる
森川海のつながり意識ならびに食の本有的価値（food intrinsic value: FIV）について紹介する.

42.海洋保護区と日本の小規模漁業
日本小規模漁業は海洋保護区と共存できるのか
森下丈二（東京海洋大学）
2010 年に名古屋において開催された第 10 回生物多様性条約（CBD）締約国会議は，
愛知目標を採択し，その目標 11 において，2020 年までに海洋の 10%を海洋保護区（MPA）とすることを打ち出した.他方，MPA とは漁業など人間活動を禁止するものであるというイメージも強く，MPA の設置には漁業関係者からの反対を招く場合も多い.本稿では日本の沿岸小規模漁業（JSSF）と MPA との関連について，下記のような考察を行った. (1)日本は愛知目標の実現を目指しているが，環境省によれば現時点での MPA カバー率は約 8.3％であり，その大部分は漁業関係法令に基づく保護水面や漁業権が設定された海面である.その漁業の保存管理のための保護水面などの措置をMPA と呼ぶことはできるのかについては，議論もある.それでは，漁業と MPA は相互に対立するものであるのか. (2) MPA とは広大な海域，特に公海水域を永久に漁業禁止とするものなのか.生物多様性の保全が MPA の目的であるとするならば，むしろ高い生物多様性が存在する沿岸域の特定海域を，地域知に基づき，ボトムアップ，順
応的に保全していくべきではないのか. (3)JSSF は長い歴史の中で地先の海洋環境を

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守りながら，ボトムアップ，地域知，ステークホルダー参加などのキーワードで表現される共同管理による漁業を営んできた.また，JSSF の存続と振興のためには，海洋環境の保護と生物多様性の保全が必要である.したがって，JSSF と MPA は対立概念ではなく，むしろ JSSF の共同管理の方法を取り入れた日本型 MPA のコンセプトを確立し推進していくことが，真に海洋の生物多様性を保全し，漁業と MPA の共存を実現し，愛知目標を含む国際的なコミットメントに貢献することにつながるのではな
いか.

43.FAO 小規模漁業ガイドラインと日本の小規模漁業
小規模漁業ガイドラインの良き見本となるための日本の挑戦
山下東子（大東文化大学）
SSF ガイドライン（SSFG と呼ぶ）は途上国の小規模漁業向けに作成されているため,先進国である日本の沿岸漁業（JSSF と呼ぶ）にとってはすでに到達済みであったり,適用することが適当でない項目も多い.それでも JSSF を SSFG に照らして再評価する
意義はある.それは日本が大きな JSSF 部門を有しているために,マイナーな問題であっても気づき,改善に取り組むことで JSSF をより良くするきっかけになるという点と,途上国が今後経済発展をしつつ大きな SSF 部門を維持していくうえで,JSSF の到達点とその前提条件をベンチマークとして提供できる点である.日本の場合,全員加入の漁業者団体が存在し,それが事実上の参入障壁を作っていること,団体としての交渉力を有していること,および漁業内外において失業問題がほとんど存在しないことが SSFG を達成できる前提条件となっている.一方で,JSSF の抱える問題として,小売価格に占める漁業者の取り分が少なく,より付加価値を創造する余地があること,
エコラベル等の認証取得が進んでいないこと,女性と外国人研修生の立場が SSFG の要求レベルに達していないこと,自然災害のみならず,ミサイルや海水温上昇の脅威にさらされていることが挙げられる.これらの課題を克服して SSFG の良き見本となることが,今後の課題である.

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44.持続可能な開発のための 2030 アジェンダ
SDGs と JSSF との相互関連性について
ヴラホプル・イリアナ（国際連合宇宙局）
日本における沿岸漁業(JSSF)の運用とその背景にあるメンタリティは, 漁業従事者
だけでなく, 海洋環境や各ステークホルダーに多くの利益をもたらしている. 中でも沿岸漁業によってもたらされる食物,雇用機会の創出,生態系サービス, 資源管理に関する教育については, 特筆すべき利点といえる. さらに｢持続可能な開発のための 2030 アジェンダ｣の視点から上記利点を検証すると,それらは 17 の｢持続可能な開発目標｣(SDGs)全てに関連していることが伺え, SDGs 達成に向けて沿岸漁業が大きく貢献できる可能性が見えてくる. 現在使用している新技術に加え,さらに新技術を将来的に取り入れることで, 沿岸漁業の能力を大幅に向上できる可能性も秘めている.
一般的に漁業管理は社会における複数の側面に大きな波及効果を与えうる.つまり,SDGs の枠組みにおける沿岸漁業の広範囲な貢献により, 結果として世界的な優先事
項への我々の理解を深め, 持続可能性の 3 つの柱である社会, 環境, 経済に前向きな影響を与えられるようにも見受けられる. 2020 年から SDGs の達成目標である 2030
年までは｢行動の 10 年｣とされ,国際社会ではこれまで以上に革新的で包括的な行動が求められている. こうした観点から国連事務総長も社会のあらゆる分野での行動を呼びかけており, 特に地域的な行動や各階層の人々による行動を推奨している. 日
本の沿岸漁業はさらなる漁業管理のアプローチやさらなる新技術の活用によって,
この｢行動の 10 年｣に大きく貢献できるだろう.

45.超学際的アプローチと日本の小規模漁業
小規模漁業者が駆動する多様なアクターによる超学際的アプローチ佐藤 哲（愛媛大学）
超学際的アプローチ（トランスディシプリナリー・アプローチ）には，社会的・学
術的な課題を可視化することを通じた「研究の協働企画」，課題解決のビジョンとそのための手法を明らかにする「統合知の協働生産」，および統合知を活用した課題解決のための「集合的実践」の 3 要素が含まれる．多様なステークホルダー（科学者・専門家を含む）が参加するこのプロセスでは，集合的思考を通じてすべての参加者の相互学習が促され，その知識と実践が順応的に改善される．この順応的なプロセスによって，社会生態系システムの複雑性がもたらす不確実性に対応することが可能になる．沖縄および北海道における，小規模漁業者が主導してきたトランスディ
シプリナリー・プロセスの事例から，小規模漁業者自身がこのような超学際的アプ

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE
ローチを主導し，効果的に促進していることが明らかになった．その際に，科学者・専門家や行政機関などのアクターは，主導的役割を果たすのではなく，むしろ
小規模漁業者が主導する動きを支援する立場に立ってきた．このような小規模漁業者が主導するトランスディシプリナリー・プロセスが持つ意義を考えるために，漁業者の生業に起源をもつ多様な知識・技術が果たしてきた役割に着目する．特にこのような知識・技術に基づく多様なステークホルダーの協働のためのネットワーク
構築と集合的実践の創発という視点から，超学際的アプローチを小規模漁業者が主体となって実践することの重要性を議論する．

46.公益助成財団と日本の小規模漁業
持続可能な小規模漁業を支える革新的取り組みと連携構築を目指して
小林正典（笹川平和財団海洋政策研究所）
持続可能な小規模漁業（SSF）は海洋を扱う持続可能な開発目標 14 の重要な要素である.持続可能な SSF を実現するためには, 学際的な手法および分野横断的な連携が求められる.独立した非営利の政策研究機関として, 笹川平和財団海洋政策研究所（OPRI-SPF）は政策対話, 科学的研究や現場での取り組みに積極的に関与している.
国際的なハイレベルな政策対話は重要な政策枠組みを提供する. そうした政策対話
は, 国内および地域社会レベルで具体的な政策や取り組みとして実践されなければならない. 各国や各地域社会は共通の課題に直面しているが, 解決策はそれぞれの地域の社会経済的および地勢的条件を踏まえたものでなければならない. 持続可能な SFF を目指すにあたっては, 相乗効果や革新的取り組みを模索していくことは有効である. 科学, 政策そして現場での実践を繋ぎ, 国際的な連携を進めていくことは
SDGs の効果的な実現を図る上で重要である. こうした取り組みを通じて活動を進めていく, 持続可能な SSF の実現に求められる法制度の構築に寄与するものと考えられる.

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JAPANESE ABSTRACTS

47.ブルージャスティスと日本の小規模漁業「成長産業化」における小規模漁業の「ジャストスペース」の確保
李銀姫 (東海大学海洋学部)
ジャック・デイリー (Too Big To Ignore プロジェクト)
ラタナ・チュンペッディ(ニューファンドランドメモリアル大学)
ブルージャスティス概念は，一言でいうと，この頃盛んに耳にするようになったブ
ルーエコノミーの関連政策において，小規模漁業が埋もれてしまわないように，適切な海洋開発政策及び小規模漁業のガバナンスを主張するものである．配分的ジャスティス，社会的ジャスティス，経済的ジャスティス，マーケット関連ジャスティス，インフラ・福祉関連ジャスティス，手続き的ジャスティス，環境的ジャスティ
ス等々がある．日本の小規模漁業をブルージャスティスの視点から覗いてみると，ひとまず，今般賛否両論が激しい中で改正された新漁業法関連の懸念である．日本の成長産業化政策と小規模漁業の関係は，国際社会におけるブルエコノミー政策と
小規模漁業をめぐる問題の縮図のように感じる．十分な議論，現場との十分なコミュニケーションがないまま強行されたという印象が払拭され難い新漁業の下で，今後小規模漁業が幾種類のジャスティス問題に直面するかは未知数であると言えよう．
他にも，漁業と遊漁船・プレジャーボートとの調整や，洋上風力発電との調整，加えて COVID-19 対応策関連等，多くのジャスティス問題が発生または懸念されている．
「ブルーエコノミーが海洋ガバナンスにおける正当性のあるビジョンなのであれば，そのソリューションデザインの当初から小規模漁業を認識することが必要である」と叫ばれているように，日本の成長産業化政策が持続可能な水産業に向けた合理的なビジョンなのであれば，そのソリューションデザインに，津々浦々で展開されている小規模漁業の存在意義を十分に認識することが必要不可欠であり，そのためのガバナンス体系の構築が必要である．

48.TBTI と日本の小規模漁業
TBTI ジャパン研究ネットワークの船出
浪川珠乃（一財 漁港漁場漁村総合研究所）
李銀姫（東海大学海洋学部）
Too Big To Ignore プロジェクト主催の第 3 回世界小規模漁業会議への参加は，私たちの刺激的で魅力的な経験だった．世界のあらゆる国，地域から参加者が集まり，行政関係者，漁業者，NPO 等の支援者，研究者等，きわめて学際的な空間であった．
唯一残念なことは，日本を含む北東アジアからの参加が少なかったところである．

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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE
そのような中，TBTI ジャパン研究ネットワークが設立され，本書が出版できたのは，
本当にうれしく思う．本チャプターでは，まず TBTI プロジェクト及び TBTI プロジェ
クト主催で定期的に開催される世界小規模漁業会議について紹介した後，日本の小規模漁業(JSSF)を TBTI の視点から覗くとともに、TBTI ジャパン研究ネットワークのビジョンについて、コメンテータの皆さんからの意見も交えながら述べた．そのビジョンには、(1)JSSF の多様な機能と重要性及びその潜在力について，体系的な研究とともに積極的に発信すること；(2)日本のジェンダー問題を JSSF から率先して改善できるように推進すること；(3)漁業者の所得向上と後継者の確保のための様々な取組を推し進めるための研究基盤となること；(4)「成長産業化」政策の中で JSSF が埋もれることがないように，ブルー・ジャスティスの理論的検討を重ねるとともに，実践へつなげるための研究を進めること；(5)日本において「持続可能な小規模漁業を持続するための FAO の自主的ガイドライン」を十分認識するとともに，意識して履行していくことを推進すること等が含まれる．最後に，日本を含む世界の小規模
漁業は一見するとそれぞれ異なるが，その実は多くの共通課題を抱えており，連携・協働・共同・パートナーシップ等により生まれる無限大の力を生かし，革新的な変化を生み出すべきことについて触れた．

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Ono S. Li Y. Harada S. 2009. Judicious Use of Coastal Zones and Rulemaking: Current Status
and Issues. Journal of the Japanese Association for Coastal Zone Studies. Vol. 22. No. 3.
pp. 26-37

Chapter 8
Cabinet Office. (2001) The nation’s 2001 white paper on gender equality.
http://www.gender.go.jp/about_danjo/whitepaper/h13/zentai/2001-honbun00.pdf.
Accessed 3rd April 2020.
Cabinet Office. (2015) The 4th Basic Plan for Gender Equality. http://
www.gender.go.jp/about_danjo/basic_plans/4th/index.html. Accessed 2 November
2019.
Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office. (2016) Expansion of women’s participation in policy
and decision-making process in all fields in society. Accessed 2 November 2019.
http://www.gender.go.jp/english_contents/mge/process/ index.html.
Kumi Soejima & Katia Frangoudes. (2019) Fisheries women groups in Japan: a shift from wellbeing to entrepreneurship. Maritime Studies. DOI 10.1007/s40152-019-00160-3
Miki Natsuko. (2010) JF Zengyoren ni tsudou Gyokyo Josei no 50 nen shi (Fifty years’ history ofFishery Cooperative Associations’ women of national association of fisheries
cooperative’s women’s groups). In Gyokyo Joseiren no Ayumi [ Step up of national
association of fishery cooperative’s women’s groups] (in Japanese), ed. National
Association of Fishery Cooperative’s women’s groups, 159-253. Tokyo: National
association of fishery cooperative’s women’s groups.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan.
https://www.maff.go.jp/j/keiei/jyosei/kyoutei.html. Accessed 3rd March 2020.
National Association of Fisheries Cooperative’s Women’s Groups. 1989. Reading book for
women of Fisheries Cooperative Association. p92 (in Japanese)
National association of fishery cooperative’s women’s groups. (1994) Reading book for fisherycooperative’s women’s groups II (in Japanese). Tokyo: National association of fisherycooperative’s women’s groups.

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Rural Women Empowerment and Life Improvement Association. (2006) 2005 Report ofresearch moving ahead on gender equity in fishery and fishing communities (inJapanese): Tokyo: Rural Women Empowerment and Life Improvement Association
Yamaguchi prefecture. https://www.pref.yamaguchi.lg.jp/cms/a17100/lifevision/shihyo.html
Accessed 6th April 2020.

Chapter 9
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF). 2020a. Census of Fisheries 2018 fiscal
year (In Japanese). Tokyo: Census Statistics Office of MAFF.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF). 2020b. Statistical Survey on Fisheryand Aquaculture business Production 2018 fiscal year (In Japanese). Tokyo: Production,
Marketing and Consumption Statistics Division of MAFF.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF). 2020c. Statistical Survey on Fishery
Production Value 2018 fiscal year (In Japanese). Tokyo: Management and Structure
Statistics Division of MAFF.
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science (NRIFS). 2019. Resource assessment of Pacific
red bream 2019 fiscal year (In Japanese). Yokohama: NRIFS.
Nihon Yosyoku Shinbun. 15 June 2019. Applied catches amount of glass eel by a prefecture forfour years (In Japanese).
Shizuoka Prefecture Fisheries Research Institute (SPFRI). 2019a. Landing statistics at major
ports (from 2014 to 2018) (In Japanese). https://fish-exp.pref.shizuoka.jp/04library/46-5.html. Accessed 16 April 2020.
Shizuoka Prefecture Fisheries Research Institute (SPFRI). 2019b. Trends in major fish species
in the prefecture (Sakura shrimp) (In Japanese). https://fishexp.pref.shizuoka.jp/02fishery/2-5/12_sakuraebi.pdf. Accessed 6 April 2020.
Shizuoka Prefectural Government .2019a. Tourism Exchange Trend in Shizuoka Prefecture2018 fiscal year (In Japanese). Shizuoka: Tourism Promotion Division of Shizuoka
Prefectural Government.
Shizuoka Prefectural Government .2019b. Wholesale Market Materials in Shizuoka Prefecture(Fisheries edition 2018 fiscal year) (In Japanese). Shizuoka: Fishery Development
Division of Shizuoka Prefectural Government.
Shizuoka Prefectural Government .2019c. The Basic Plan for Fishery Promotion in Shizuoka
Prefecture (In Japanese). Shizuoka: Fishery Bureau of Shizuoka Prefectural Government.

Chapter 10
Amano Koji (2014): Fishery in Mochimune, Fieldwork report in Mochimune area, Shizuoka
City, Shizuoka University, 6-19 (In Japanese)
Ichikawa Seiyuu (2017): A study on social factors that retain young people in whitebait fishing,Department of Environmental and societal Affairs, Faculty of Marine Science andTechnology, Tokai University, 2015 Fall Semester Graduation Thesis, 1-40. (In Japanese)
Kobayashi Ttakahiro (2017): A fieldwork report Mochimune Suruga-ku, Shizuoka City: Life
stories of young whitebait fishers, Department of Environmental and societal Affairs,
Faculty of Marine Science and Technology, Tokai University (In Japanese)
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2014): Revitalization of agricultural,
mountainous and fishing villages in population decreasing societies, H26.6.27 Materials
submitted by the Planning Committee of the Council of Food, Agriculture and Rural Area
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Mochimune Town Magazine Editorial Committee (1971): Mochimune Town Magazine,
Mochimune Town (Shizuoka City), 344pp, 10 illustrations. (In Japanese)
Mochimune Neighborhood Association, Mochimune, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka Prefecture“Introduction of Mochimune” http://www4.tokai.or.jp/mochimune/index.html, acquiredon January 21, 2020 (In Japanese)
Nagashima, Hirona (2014): Fishery in Yui seen from live sakura shrimp, Yui, Shizuoka City Fieldwork report; 2015, Shizuoka University, 48-62. (In Japanese)
Nakayama Chinami (1998): Metrical analysis of the movement to local areas and the residenceoriented life consciousness of young people, Kyoto Sociology Annual Report No. 6, 81112. (In Japanese)
Nakayama Chinami (1997): Sociological framework of life studies - Life structure theory andconcept of life - , Kyoto Sociology Annual Report No.5, 171-194 (In Japanese)
Omori Makoto and Shida Kiyoe (1995): Sakura shrimp Centennial history of fishery, Executive
Committee for Shizuoka Prefecture sakura shrimp fishing centennial commemorative
project, 305pp. (In Japanese)
Shizuoka City (2004): Symphony of people, nature and the sea at Mochimune Fishing Port,
Economic Affairs Bureau, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Department, Fisheries &Fishing Port Division, Shizuoka City,1-16pp. (In Japanese)
Shizuoka City (2006): 50 Years of Mochimune Fishing Port, Economic Affairs Bureau,
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Department, Fisheries & Fishing Port Division, in
Shizuoka City Hall 4pp. (In Japanese)

Chapter 11
Toba Sea-Folk Museum (Ed.) 2019. Witness with Your Own Eyes: Ama of Toba-Shima 5th
Edition.
Toba Sea-Folk Museum. 2017. Number of Ama Divers in Toba-Shima(http://www.umihaku.com/tenji/jyousetu/images/ama_women2017.pdf)
Toba Sea-Folk Museum. 2010. Number of Ama Divers in Japan(http://www.umihaku.com/tenji/jyousetu/images/zenkoku-ama1.pdf)
Tsukamoto, A. 2019. Ama of Toba-Shima. Tokyo: Yoshikawakobunkan (in Japanese)
Yoshimura, M. (2019a) The Heritagization of Traditional Subsistence Activities: A Case Studyon Ama Fishing in Toba City, Japan. Journal of Environmental Sociology vol.25: 186201. (in Japanese)
Yoshimura, M. (2019b) Heritage, Ama Fishing and Local Community: Focus on Ama HutExperience in Toba City. Bulletin of the Institute for the Culture of Travel No. 29: 59-74.
(in Japanese)
Makino, Y. (Ed.) 1994. Fishing Villages of Shima. Tokyo: Meichoshuppan (in Japanese)

Chapter 12
Akimichi, T., Asquith, P. J., Befu, H., Bestor, T. C., Braund, S. R., Freeman, M. M. R., Hardacre,
H., Iwasaki, M., Kalland, A., Manderson, L., Moeran, B.D. Takahashi, J.. 1988. SmallType Coastal Whaling in Japan. Occasional Publication, No. 27. Edmonton: Boreal
Institute for Northern Studies, University of Alberta.
Asahi Shimbun. 2020. “Troubling operation of dolphin hunting in Futo, no pods were found”(In Japanese). Feb 17, 2020.
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Environmental Conservation, Matsumoto H. (Ed.), pp. 237-267. Osaka: National
Museum of Ethnology.
Hamanaka, E.. (Ed.) 1979. Taiji Town History (In Japanese). Wakayama: Taiji Town.
Hiraguchi, T. (1993). Dolphin fishing in the inshore of the Noto Peninsula and the TsushimaIslands (In Japanese). Nihonkai cetology, 3, 37-41.
Ishikawa, H.. 2019. Japanese Small-Type Whaling: History and Current Status (In Japanese). In
Whaling Cultures in the World: Current Status, History and Locality, Kishigami N.
(Ed.), pp. 129-152. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.
Japan Fisheries Agency. (2019a). Quotas for Whaling Industry in 2020 (In Japanese). JFA
website. https://www.jfa.maff.go.jp/j/whale/attach/pdf/index-40.pdf Accessed 25 June
2020.
Japan Fisheries Agency. (2019b). Recommencement of Commercial Whaling (In Japanese). JFA
website. https://www.jfa.maff.go.jp/j/press/kokusai/190701.html Accessed 25 June
2020.
Japan Fisheries Agency & Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency. (2016). Current
Situation of Global Fisheries Resources, FY2020 (In Japanese). Tokyo.
----- (2017). Current Situation of Global Fisheries Resources, FY2017 (In Japanese). Tokyo.
----- (2018). Current Situation of Global Fisheries Resources, FY2018 (In Japanese). Tokyo.
----- (2019). Current Situation of Global Fisheries Resources, FY2019 (In Japanese). Tokyo.
----- (2020). Current Situation of Global Fisheries Resources, FY2020 (In Japanese). Tokyo.
Kalland, A., & Moeran, B. (1992). Japanese whaling: end of an era? London: Curzon Press.
Morita, K. 1994. Cultural History of Whales and Whaling (In Japanese). Nagoya: The Nagoya
University Press.
Nakamura, Y. 2017. Dolphin and Japanese: the History and ethnology of Drive hunting (InJapanese). Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan.
Segi, S. (2003). The coexistence of whaling and whale watching in a traditional whaling region:
The case of Taiji, Wakayama Prefecture, Japan. SPC Traditional Marine Resource
Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin, 15, 21-25.
The Institute of Cetacean Research. (n.d.). Outline of the New Scientific Whale Research
Program in the western North Pacific (NEWREP-NP).
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Iwasaki S, 1967. Fisheries Studies and Teraoka Gitou; Teraoka Gitou and the Science of Labor,
Science of Labor. (In Japanese)
Iwasaki S, 1971. The Ecology of Japan’s Ama, Science of Labor, 47–4, pp198–212. (In Japanese)
Iwasaki S, 1974.The Ecology of Japan’s Ama, Science of Labor, 50–10, pp. 715-725 (InJapanese).
Iwasaki S, 1968. The Present Status of Lifestyles and Living Conditions for Fishing Families,
Suisan Keizai Kenkyu (Aquaculture Economic Research), 11, Japan Fisheries Agency, (InJapanese).
Iwasaki S, 1970. The Present Status of Lifestyles and Living Conditions for Fishing Families (2),Suisan Keizai Kenkyu, 14, Japan Fisheries Agency. (In Japanese).
Iwasaki S, 1972. The Present Status of Lifestyles and Living Conditions for Fishing Families(Collected Edition), Suisan Keizai Kenkyu, 17, Japan Fisheries Agency (In Japanese).
Japan Fisheries Agency, 1972. Fisheries White Paper. p. 117 (In Japanese).
JF Zengyoren Women’s Group Liaison Committee, 1999. Fishing Cooperative Women’s Group
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Kase Kazutoshi, 1998. Coastal Fisheries: The Doers and Successors. Seizando Publishing, (In520

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Japanese).
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Miki N, 2001. Employment and Living Conditions for Bereaved Families of Those Lost at Sea,
1998 Report of the Fact-finding Study on Lives of Bereaved Families of Fishermen Lost
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Miki N, 1991. Female Employment among Ama. Japanese Journal of Fisheries Economy, 38–3,
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Japanese Journal of Fisheries Economy, 32–4, 1998 (In Japanese).
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Teraoka G. et al., 1950B. Report on Fixed-net Fishing Labor in Ajiro, Shizuoka Prefecture,
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Teraoka G. et al., 1950C. Report on Fixed-net Fishing Labor in ToyAma Bay, Japan Fisheries
Agency (In Japanese)

Chapter 14
None

Chapter 15
Demura M. 2007. Current status and issues affecting fishery markets. Norin Kinyu 60: pp. 1526. In JapaneseJapan Fisheries Agency Department of Fishing Port and Fishery Development. 2020. 2017
Summary of Fishing Port Populations, In JapaneseJapan Fisheries Agency. 2019. FY2018 White Paper on Fisheries. 122p. In Japanese
National Association of Fisheries Infrastructure. 2018. 2018 Pocketbook on Fishing Ports,
Grounds, and Villages pp. 19-21. In Japanese
The Ministry of Agriculture, Forest and Fisheries (MAFF). 2019. 2018 Fisheries andAquaculture Production Statistics. In Japanese
The Ministry of Agriculture, Forest and Fisheries (MAFF). 2020. 2018 Fishery Census, Volume
8 Statistics on Distribution Processing Industry. (Nationwide /Prefectures/
Municipalities). In Japanese

Chapter 16
Ogawa Y. 1968. Impact of artificial reefs and fish breeding reefs. Aquaculture Science, extra
edition no. 7: 1−21.
Goto G. 1935. Hinata Zatsuwa (3) Artificial Fish Shelter. Journal of fishery science, no. 30 (3):21−31.

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Chapter 17
Central Disaster Prevention Council. 2019. Basic Disaster Prevention Plan (in Japanese)
Fisheries Infrastructure Department (Fisheries Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Forest andFisheries). 2019. The BCP guideline on production and distribution of aquatic productsin the fisheries area (revised edition) (in Japanese)
Hamada, Takeshi. 2013. Fisheries and Earthquake Disaster. pp1-320. Misuzu Shobou (inJapanese)

Chapter 18
Fisheries Agency. 2018. FY2018 Trends in Fisheries, FY2019 Fisheries Policy, White Paper on
Fisheries: https://www.jfa.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/wpaper/pdf/2018_jfa_wp.pdf (Accessed
February 2020)
Ministry of Justice website. Japanese Law Foreign Language Translation Database System,
Fishery Act, and Fisheries Basic Act. http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/?re=01(Accessed February 2020)
Miki, N. 2008. Fishery Labor/Fishery Employment. Fisheries Economy Learned by Point
Arrangement (in Japanese) Hiroyoshi, K and Sano, M (Ed.), pp.89-100. Tokyo. Hokuto
Syobo.

Chapter 19
Destination Management Organization (DMO) website. What is DMO?
http://www.mlit.go.jp/kankocho/page04_000048.html (Accessed March 2020) (inJapanese)
Fisheries Agency website. Multiple functionalities of fisheries operations in fishing villages.
https://www.jfa.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/tamenteki/ (Accessed March 2020) (in Japanese)
Imamura, Naromi. 2017. JA Com News article. Emeritus Professor in Japanese AgroEconomics, University of Tokyo (1934~2020) (in Japanese)
Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW). 2019. National population survey. (inJapanese)
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF). 2019. (5-year average: 2015-2018)
Fishery management survey. (in Japanese)

Chapter 20
None

Chapter 21
Imai T: “Iheyajima’s “School of the Sea” Project and the Uminshu (Fishermen)” “Regional
Fisheries Research” 39-3,1999

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state” “Regional Fisheries Research” 37-1, 1996.

Chapter 22
None

Chapter 23
Charles, A. 2001. Sustainable fishery systems. Blackwell Science.
Charles, A. 2007. Adaptive co-management for resilient resource systems: Some ingredients andthe implications of their absence. In Adaptive co-management. Collaboration, learning,and multi-level governance, Derek Armitage, Fikret Berkes and Nancy Doubleday (Eds).
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to revitalize fisheries and fishing areas (In Japanese)

Chapter 25
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Association Federation Materials, Tokyo, pp214-218. (in Japanese).

Chapter 26
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Cooperative Auditing Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand. 2017.
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List of Authors
Ching-Chun Chen
Ching-Chun Chen is an agricultural economist with a Ph.D.
in fisheries economics. In the early years, Dr. Chen had
served in the Council of Agricultural, Executive Yuan of
Taiwan, in charge of agricultural and fishery economic
research and policy evaluation for 20 years. Then he taught
at National Taiwan Ocean University (NTOU) for 15 years.
After he retires from NTOU, he continues to serve as an emeritus and adjunctprofessor up to now. In the past, he had studied at the University of Florida
and researched at Oregon State University. He served as a visiting professorat Hokkaido University and Tokyo University of Marine Science andTechnology in 2002.

Fang Chen
Fang Chen is a marine social scientist with a Ph.D. in Marine
Science from the Tokyo University of Marine Science andTechnology, Japan. Her research expertise lies in fisherymutual insurance between China and Japan. Now she isworking at Dalian Ocean University and researching theleisure fishery based on marine ranching and marineranching management.

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Ratana Chuenpagdee
Ratana Chuenpagdee is a university researcher professor at
Memorial University in St. John’s. She leads the global
partnership for small-scale fisheries, Too Big To Ignore(TBTI), which aims at elevating the profile of small-scale
fisheries and rectifying their marginalization in national andinternational policies. Some of the current activities are‘Blue Justice’ for small-scale fisheries, transdisciplinary capacity training tosupport the implementation of the SSF Guidelines, and innovative fisheries
governance. Ratana also co-leads a research module on informing governanceresponses in a changing ocean for the Ocean Frontier Institute, another majorcollaborative research between universities, governments, private sectors andcommunities.

Jack Daly
Jack Daly is a marine social and policy scientist with an M.A.
in Geography from Memorial University, Canada. Daly’s
Master’s degree research analyzed global trade in thecontext of inshore fisheries and coastal communities inNorthwest Newfoundland. Daly’s other research interests
include ecosystem-based fisheries management and examining linkages between international instruments that promote sustainable
development and social equity. He is a member of Too Big To Ignore – Global
Partnership for Small-Scale Fisheries Research (TBTI), and a communications officer for the U.K. based Marine Social Sciences Network (MSSN).

Alyne Delaney
Alyne Delaney is based at the Center for Northeast AsianStudies (CNEAS) at Tohoku University in Sendai, Japan. Asan environmental anthropologist, Dr. Delaney investigateshuman-environmental interactions in coastal zones. Her
expertise lies in social science research methods andanalyses of marine governance, social organization, resourcerights, and fisheries management. She is particularly interested in social
sustainability, innovation and adaptation, and risk and resilience. Additional543

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

current interests include disaster and revitalisation, and visual researchmethodologies, such as ethnographic film. With a primary, long-term field sitein Japan, she has also worked in Greenland, various EU countries, South
Africa, Botswana and Cambodia.

Manabu Echigo
Manabu Echigo is a technical consultant for theinternational development of the fisheries sector, which is
employed by INTEM Consulting Inc., Japan. Dr. Echigo has
a Ph.D. in Marine Science from the Tokyo University ofMarine Science and Technology. His achievements indevelopment consulting include coastal fisheries management in the Marshall Islands, integrated aquaculture development in Kiribati,
coastal pelagic fisheries development in Seychelles, planning of national
fisheries development plan of the Maldives, coastal fisheries resource
management in Vanuatu, etc., as technical assistance by the Overseas Fishery
Cooperation Foundation of Japan (OFCF) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). He also has experience working as a Japan Overseas
Cooperation Volunteer in Malaysia 1989-1991.

Katia Frangoudes
Katia Frangoudes is a senior researcher at the UMR 6308
AMURE of the Université de Bretagne Occidentale, France.
Her research fields are gender equality, social dimensions
in fisheries and aquaculture in the EU. She is leading the
Women-Gender Cluster of Too Big to Ignore network. She
publishes with Siri Gerrard of the Nordic University of
Norway and Danika Kleiber of ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies
and WorldFish, two issues on gender in coastal communities in Maritimes
Studies journal. She collaborated with Kumi Soejima during a research stay at
the National Fisheries University of Japan as a JSPS fellow in 2017.

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LIST OF AUTHORS

Masahiko Fujii
Masahiko Fujii is an Associate Professor of the Faculty ofEnvironmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, with aPh.D. in Environmental Science. Dr. Fujii’s researchinterests and expertise lie in future projection and mitigation/adaptation of the effects of ocean warming andacidification on coastal ecosystems and human societies. As
one of the mitigation strategies, he has also been interested in education andresearch for developing renewable energy locally.

Takamitsu Fumoto
I was born in 1973 in Otobe town, Hokkaido, where fishing isthriving. I entered Hokkaido University's Faculty of Fisheries
in 1991. After that, I went to Hokkaido University, Graduate
School of Fisheries, and completed my course in 1997. I wentaround fishing villages while I was at university and received
various teachings from the fishing industry. After graduation,
I joined SUIDOSHA Co., Ltd. For more than 20 years since joining thecompany, I have visited fishing villages throughout Japan, and I have been
consulting on the theme of promoting the fishing industry, revitalizing theregion, and preserving the water environment. I want to continue to work hard.

Takuji Goto
Takuji Goto was born in Zushi, Kanagawa Prefecture. Aftercompleting graduate studies at Nihon University, he engaged
in construction consulting services and fishing port design
and planning. Since 2007, he has been working with theJapanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities, focusing mainly on operations related to the planningof fishing ports and villages. Recently, he has also been
involved in disaster prevention and mitigation planning with respect to fishingports and villages, BCP surveys, and research concerning efforts to restructure
the capabilities of fishing ports, revitalization planning for beaches, andinitiatives, such as Nagisahaku, to revitalize fishing regions.
545

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Sachiko Harada
Sachiko Harada obtained her Ph.D. in marine science from
Tokyo University of Marine Science Technology, Japan, in
2009. Dr. Harada is an associate professor at the Tokyo
University of Marine Science and Technology. Her researchinterests include the use and management of local resourcesin fishing villages. Recently, she has also been working on a
study of international trade in seafood.

Hiroshi Hayashi
Hiroshi Hayashi is the director at the Office of Investigative
Research of The Japanese Institute of Fisheries,
Infrastructure and Communities. He was born in 1963.
After graduating from university, Mr. Hayashi worked for a
private construction consulting firm; from July 2001, he has
worked for the Japanese Institute of Fisheries, Infrastructure and Communities (JIFIC). At the JIFIC, Mr. Hayashi primarily directs
facility planning for local landing markets, sanitation and quality control
measures, and promotional planning for fishing regions. Mr. Hayashi iscurrently engaged in research on the digitization and networking of various
types of information relevant to market operations.

Mari Hazumi
Mari Hazumi is Professor, Kumamoto Gakuen University.
She is a Marketing Researcher with a Doctor of Economics,
Kyoto University, October 2002, Kyoto, Japan. Dr.Hazumi isaiming to build brand theory from empirical research on
marine products. Therefore, marine products need to be a
power brand. The current direction requires cooperation
with the region. To do so, it is necessary to increase brand loyalty to consumers.
She is a member of The Japan Regional Fisheries Society (JRFS), The
Japanese Society of Fisheries Economics (JSFE).

546

LIST OF AUTHORS

Takeshi Hidaka
Dr. Hidaka received a Ph.D. in Fisheries from Tokyo
University of Fisheries and an MBA from Kobe University. In
1980 he became a fisheries engineer at the Fukuoka
Prefectural Office, and in 1998 he moved to Kindai University
as a lecturer at the Faculty of Agriculture. In 2007, he became
an associate professor at Kindai University's Faculty of
Humanity-oriented Technology and Science, and has been aprofessor since 2010. He has been studying fisheries management and coastalzone management. Most recently, in 2016, he published “Satoumi and Coastal
Zone Management: Managing Satoumi” from the Agriculture and Forestry
Statistics Association.

Seiichi Hiratsuka
Seiichi Hiratsuka is a Ph.D. scientist researching seafood
processing and chemistry. Dr. Hiratsuka conducts researchusing scientific approaches to help increase the added valueof local marine products. His main research subjects areprocessing technology for marine products, technology for
maintaining freshness and nutritional components, etc.
Some of his main books are on Product development and hygiene
management using local marine products, dried fish science, national fisheryproducts overview and features of deep-sea fish.

Mina Hori
Mina Hori is an associate professor at Graduate School ofKuroshio Science, Kochi University, Japan. She received her
Ph.D. in Agricultural Science at the University of Tokyo(2008). She has been researching on socioeconomic issues
and resource management systems on small-scale fishing in
Tonle Sap Lake, Kingdom of Cambodia. Recently, she has
been working on fish trading systems and eco tourisms in coastal area ofJapan, Thailand and the Philippines. Currently, she is a member of thecommittee on fisheries policy of the Japanese Society of Fisheries Science.

547

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Yasushi Ito
Yasushi Ito was born in Iwate Prefecture. He worked for theJapan Coastal Fisheries Promotion Association and theJapanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities (JIFIC), became a general manager of the Second
Division in 2011, after working as a director of the Fishinggrounds and Umigyo research department in JIFIC. He is
focusing mainly on research, development, and dissemination of achievements related to fishing ground development. In 2014, he obtained a Ph.D.
from Hokkaido University Graduate School. Major research themes include
the behavioral ecology of fish on artificial reefs, the effect of food culture on
breeding grounds, and cost-effectiveness verification of fishery development.

Tomomasa Kageyama
Tomomasa Kageyama is an adviser of the National
Association of Fisheries Infrastructure and is also a visiting
professor of Tokyo University of Marine Science andTechnology in Japan. He was an official of Fisheries Agency,
the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan,
and has been working on fishing port planning and fishingcommunity development for more than forty years. In recent years after theearthquake in the Indian Ocean off Sumatra in 2004, he has been interested
in disaster prevention and post-disaster restoration in the fisheries area. He isa member of the Japanese Association for Coastal Zone Studies (JACZS).

Liao Kai
Liao Kai is a Ph.D. student of Tokyo University of Marine
Science and Technology. She studies the mariculture
agglomeration and its externalities in China from theperspective of environmental economics, and will try toapply the results to environmental education. She is amember of Asia Marine Educators Association.

548

LIST OF AUTHORS

Masaya Katoh
Masaya Katoh has studied the molecular ecology of aquatic
species for three decades. Dr. Katoh obtained his BS and MS
from the University of the Ryukyus and his Ph.D. fromLouisiana State University. He studied the population
genetics of freshwater species at the University of Zürich as
a postdoctoral researcher. His last post at Japan Fisheries
Research and Education Agency was Director of Research Center for Bioinformatics and Biosciences, NRIFS. He started the DNA bar-coding projectof shark and ray species at Marine Fishery Resources Development andManagement Department (MFRDMD), SEAFDEC in Malaysia. He works forfishery management as Deputy Chief of SEAFDEC/MFRDMD.

Masanori Kobayashi
Mr. Masanori Kobayashi is Senior Research Fellow, Ocean
Policy Research Institute (OPRI) of the Sasakawa Peace
Foundation (SPF) in Tokyo, Japan undertaking research
work on ocean and sustainability policy including marine
and coastal resource management, ocean governance, blue
economy, and fishery policies. He worked on sustainability
issues throughout his past career working in Japan, Europe and USA. He
holds LL.M, M.A. and LL.B. and completed the doctoral course on natural
resource management without degree. He has written articles on the topics
including Sustainable Development Goal 14 for Pacific small island developing
states, sustainability science and leadership development.

Takahiro Kobayashi
Takahiro Kobayashi is a social anthropologist with a Ph.D.
in Human Sciences from Waseda University, Japan. His
research interest is the methodology of life story studies andthe moral economy. Till today, he has conducted surveys on
the daily life strategy of the residents in fishing villages
along the coast of Panay Island, the Philippines, with afocus on the use of local markets and fishing grounds. His academic interestis also extended to petty trade practices, which is demonstrated in his study549

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

on Philippine sari-sari stores and businesses run by Filipinos in Japan. In
Japan, he is conducting an interview survey about the life in Mochimune(Shizuoka City), the site of this study, and is helping community vitalization
activities together with students.

Yinji Li
Yinji Li is a marine social scientist with a Ph.D. in Marine
Science from the Tokyo University of Marine Science andTechnology, Japan. Dr. Li’s research interests and expertiselie in coastal governance, coastal fisheries governance, andcoastal community revitalization issues in the Northeast
Asian countries such as Japan, Mainland China, Taiwan, andSouth Korea. She is a member of Too Big to Ignore – Global Partnership for
Small-Scale Fisheries Research Project (TBTI), and the Human Dimensions
Working Group as part of the Integrated Marine Biosphere Research (IMBeR)
project.

Mitsutaku Makino
Mitsutaku Makino is a graduate of the Department of
Fisheries, Kyoto University, and a master's degree from
Cambridge University, and a Ph.D. from Kyoto University.
After working as a postdoctoral researcher at Yokohama
National University and a group head at Japan Fisheries
Research and Education Agency, he is now a professor in
the Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, at University of Tokyo.

Natsuko Miki
Natsuko Miki is a researcher of fisheries economy with a Ph.D.
in Marine Science from the Hokkaido University, Japan. Dr.
Miki’s research interests and expertise lie in women in fishery,
fishery workers, fishing community revitalization issues,marine product distribution. She is a member of Umi (Sea)Hito (Human)-Kurashi (Life) Forum-Partnership for women
who started a new business in the marine field, for example, processing andsale of marine products fished locally.
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LIST OF AUTHORS

Tsutom Miyata
Tsutom Miyata is a Ph.D. in the field of Fisheries Resource
Management from Tokyo University of Fisheries and chief
researcher at the National Research Institute of Fisheries
Science, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency.
His specialty is fisheries socioeconomics with quantitative
analysis and qualitative analysis. The main research field isJapan, and the sub-field is southeast Asia, especially the Philippines andThailand. He focuses on marine products marketing, fishing village
improvement, and fishing/aquaculture household analysis. He has a parttime lecturer at Kitasato University and lectures regarding small-scale fishingcommissioned by JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency) and
SEAFDEC (Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center).

Shimon Mizutani
Shimon Mizutani is a Ph.D. student of the Tokyo Universityof Marine Science and Technology, Japan. He studies
aquatic marine environmental education, food intrinsic
value (FIV). He is a member of Japanese Society ofEnvironmental Education, Japanese Aquatic Marine
Environmental Educators Association and Asia Marine
Educators Association.

Masashi Mochizuki
Masashi Mochizuki has a degree in Doctor of Agriculture,
Kyoto University. After working as a part-time lecturer at
Kindai University, Kyoto Prefectural University, andFukuoka Women’s University, and as a researcher at the
Fisheries Technology Department, Kyoto Prefectural
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Technology Center, he is
now an assistant professor at the Institute of Economic Research,
Hitotsubashi University. He specializes in management analysis of farmers’
and fishers’ households using quantitative methods, analysis of seafoodmarketing, and economic analysis of local markets.

551

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Joji Morishita
Joji Morishita is a Professor in Tokyo University of Marine
Science and Technology. He served as Director-General of
National Research Institute of Far Seas Fisheries from 2013
to 2016. He was involved in international fisheries/ocean
issues since 1982 in the Fisheries Agency of the Japanese
Government and served as Fisheries Attaché at the Japanese
Embassy in the United States from 1993 to 1996. He represented Japan at theInternational Whaling Commission (IWC), the North Pacific FisheriesCommission (NPFC), the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic
Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), the Convention on Biological Diversity,
CITES, and UN meetings. PhD, Kyoto University, Master of Public Policy(MPP), Harvard University.

Hidenori Nakahira
Hidenori Nakahira is a Bureau & Department Director of the
Economy and Industry Department and Fishery and Marine
Bureau of Shizuoka Prefectural Government. He received his
B.A. degree in Economics from Hosei University, Japan, in
1999. He entered the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries in 2003. After that, he has held various posts in thefields of legal affairs or policy planning in Internal Bureaus and AffiliatedAgencies of the Ministry, including a loan to the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport. In 2016, he was sent on loan to Shizuoka
Prefectural Government and appointed Bureau Director of Fishery Bureau.

Tamano Namikawa
Tamano Namikawa was born in Kanagawa Prefecture. After
graduating from the Department of Construction, Faculty ofEngineering, Yokohama National University, she engaged in
port planning and coastal planning at a construction
consulting company. After leaving the company, she received
a Ph.D. in Marine Science from the Tokyo University ofMarine Science and Technology. She started her current career with theJapanese Institute of Fisheries Infrastructure and Communities in 2011.
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LIST OF AUTHORS

Tsuyoshi Sasaki
Tsuyoshi Sasaki is a marine social scientist with a Ph.D. in
Marine Science from the Tokyo University of Marine
Science and Technology, Japan. Dr. Sasaki’s researchinterests are aquatic marine environmental education,
UNESCO ocean literacy education and nature’s contribution
to people of IPBES. He is a chair of Asia Marine Educators
Association, and Japanese Aquatic Marine Environmental Educators
Association and a member of Japanese Society of Environ-mental Education
and National Marine Educators Association.

Akito Sato
Akito Sato is the Deputy Secretary-General of SEAFDEC based
at SEAFDEC Secretariat in Bangkok, Thailand. Before his tourof duty at SEAFDEC, he was engaged in several works andprojects as a technical officer at Fisheries Agency, Cabinet
Office, etc. in Japan related to rural development, planningand design of fishing port and fishery infrastructure,
improvement of fishing communities, disaster recovery from the Great East
Japan Earthquake and coastal habitat management such as the isoyake
recovery project and coral reef recovery project. He has a master’s degree inengineering from the Graduate School of Tokyo Institute of Technology.

Tetsu Sato
Tetsu Sato studied ecology of cichlid fishes of African lakes
for 20 years, and then expanded his research into adaptive
governance of complex social-ecological systems. Throughout his career as Conservation Director of WWF Japan andprofessor of Research Institute for Humanity and Nature,
Kyoto, and Ehime University, Ehime, Japan, he focused ontransdisciplinary co-creation of knowledge supporting stakeholder-driven
management of natural resources. As the project leader of the ILEK and TDVULS projects, he has been exploring transdisciplinary approach to coproduce integrated knowledge bases for decision making and collective553

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

actions of diverse stakeholders for societal transformations toward sustainable futures.

Shio Segi
Shio Segi is an anthropologist by discipline and holds a Ph.D.
from the Australian National University. His researchinterests include the socio-politics and socioeconomics ofcoastal resource use and management in the Asia-Pacificregion, especially concerning community representation andparticipation of small-scale fishers in establishing andimplementing marine protected areas and regulating commercial/industrial
fishing. While his geographic interests are extensive, his work has been done
mainly in the Philippines and Japan, and most recently, Vanuatu.

Izumi Seki
Izumi Seki is a sociologist, specializing in fishing villagesociology with Ph.D. from Hokkaido University, Japan. Dr.
Seki is currently a professor in the School of Marine Scienceand Technology at Tokai University, Japan. Her researchinterests focus on life, culture, and people's activities infishing communities, and conducts research in fishingcommunities throughout Japan. She has been focusing on the possibility ofregional tourism as a new industry in the region, and entrepreneurial activities
that have been carried out mainly by women in fishing communities.

Kumi Soejima
Kumi Soejima is an associate professor at Setsunan
University of Japan. She received her Ph.D. from
Hiroshima University, Japan. Her work has focused on
women’s roles and issues in small-scale fisheries. She
obtained a fellowship from the Co-operative Research
Programme: Biological Resource Management for Sustainable Agricultural Systems of OECD from May 2018 to September 2018. The
subject title of her research fellowship was Using Gender Perspectives in
Small-Scale Fisheries Research to Improve Policy and she collaborated with
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LIST OF AUTHORS

Alyne Delaney as a guest researcher at Innovative Fisheries Management(IFM), Aalborg University, Denmark.

Hidetomo Tajima
Hidetomo Tajima received his B.S. degree from Hokkaido
University, Japan, in 2004 and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
from Hokkaido University, Japan, in 2006 and 2010 respectively. From 2011 to 2018, he was a researcher at Tajima
Laboratory Co., Ltd., Japan. After the Great East Japan
Earthquake, he has worked with various stakeholders for
proposing promotion plans and measures in fishing villages across Japan.
Since 2019, he is a researcher at Japan Fisheries Research and Education
Agency. His research interests include the promotion of sustainable fisheries
and fishing villages.

Shingo Takayoshi
Shingo Takayoshi is a civil engineer specialized in fisheries
infrastructure. He has been involved in the management offishing ports and grounds planning, maintenance, andpromotion of fishing villages at the Fisheries Agency for many
years. He has also worked for the Ministry of Transport, theNational Land Agency, the Embassy of Japan in Peru, and theNagasaki Prefectural Government, where he was engaged in technicalresearch on ports, national land planning, overseas technical cooperation, andlocal fisheries administration. As President of the Japanese Institute ofFisheries Infrastructure and Communities, he is currently supporting surveys
on the promotion of measures related to national fisheries infrastructure, as
well as fishing ports and ground development throughout Japan.

555

IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

Shion Takemura
Shion Takemura is researcher at Japan Fisheries Researchand Education Agency. He is interested in theory andmethods to understand and enhance the linkages between
science and policy for the sustainable resource management
and community development. Currently, he conducts inresearch on developing a fishers' self-assessment scheme
toward sustainable fisheries and utilizes it to cooperatively define challenge
and implement solutions with local stakeholders (fishers) in Japan.

Naruhito Takenouchi
Naruhito Takenouchi is a fisheries social scientist with a Ph.D.
in fisheries science from the Kagoshima University, Japan. He
is currently an associate professor at South Ehime Fisheries
Research Center at Ehime University. Dr. Takenouchi's
research interests and expertise are in exploring the
production, distribution, processing, and sales of marine
products in Japan to stimulate stakeholders in local fisheries. He has, in recent
years, also conducted a survey research about marketing strategy and logistics
strategy for the marine products export of Japan.

Hiromichi Tanaka
Hiromichi Tanaka received Dr. Eng from Tohoku University.
My specialty is river engineering and coastal engineering incivil engineering. I retired from Tokai University in March2018 and am now Professor Emeritus at Tokai University.
During my tenure, I continued to ask what the essence oflearning was and was researching themes to create asustainable natural environment and society. After retirement, I established
Renewable Energy Japan Co., Ltd. (REJ), a venture company that researches
and develops renewable energy and is currently the representative director. I
am the chairman of the committees of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism, Shizuoka Pref., and the city.

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LIST OF AUTHORS

Shiho Tateoka
Shiho Tateoka grew up in Tokyo and worked as a nurse backthen. In 2014, she moved to Hakodate city, Hokkaido, andopened up a direct wholesale fish market in Funka Bay,
"Goryuujin-maru," concert with fishers. She married afisherman in 2016, then moved to Yakumo town near
Hakodate city, and started a new business, Navire noir, afishery consultant. She also became a board member of fishers’ organization,
Ezo Shinsengumi, a product manager of Otoshibe Blue Tourism, and amember of the Suisan Joshi (Fisherwoman) Project run by Fisheries Agency.
Her activities cover a wide range of areas in fisheries, including the promotion
for women joining the fisheries.

Kanae Tokunaga
Kanae Tokunaga is Associate Research Scientist in Coastal& Marine Economics at the Gulf of Maine Research Institute(GMRI). Her research focuses on fisheries co-management,
climate change, and coastal ecosystem valuation. Prior tojoining GMRI, she worked as a research scientist at the
University of Tokyo's Ocean Alliance, where she researchedmarine spatial planning and coastal fisheries management. She received her
Ph.D. in Economics and Graduate Ocean Policy Certificate from the Universityof Hawaii. She values and enjoys collaborative research with researchers fromdiverse disciplines as well as working closely with coastal communities,
policymakers, and industries. She continues her love of economics outside ofwork, where you can find her visiting fish markets around the globe.

Hiroshi Tomita
Hiroshi Tomita, the President of Fishery Communities
Planning Co., Ltd., was born in Kumamoto Prefecture in
1955. He studied architecture and regional planning inuniversity, going on to work on projects to revitalize
communities and protect coastal environments in fishingregions. He takes a very hands-on approach and has
explored the narrow roads of fishing villages across Japan for many years,
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IN THE ERA OF BIG CHANGE

eating the freshest seafood while drinking and arguing with local fishermen
and residents. His current focus and passion are implementing communityrun businesses in small and mid-sized fishing villages, often working together
with local fishing associations, as an effective method of local revitalization.

Irianna Vlachopoulou
Irianna Vlachopoulou is a social scientist specializing inmarine sociology and natural resource management, withfocus on capacity-building. Before joining the United
Nations, she conducted research on governance of smallscale agriculture (Scotland) and fisheries co-management(Japan). She received her PhD in Sociology with focus on
marine issues from the University of the Aegean, Greece, preceded by an MSc
in Environmental Sustainability (University of Edinburgh, Scotland) and a BA
(Hons) in International and European Economic Studies (Athens Universityof Economics and Business, Greece). Currently, she is working on space-based
capacity-building at the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs.

Hidenao Watanabe
Hidenao Watanabe is the President, Marino-Forum 21,
which is the officially incorporated association to develop
and disseminate new technologies for sustainable fisheries
and also to contribute to the development of the fisheries indeveloping countries through the oversea fisheries cooperation. He belonged Fisheries Agency of Japan (FAJ) from1987 to 2016, and he had also been seconded to Japan External Trade
Organization (JETRO), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), and South East Asia Fisheries Development Center(SEAFDEC). He was a Fisheries Management Policy adviser to Vietnam (JICA
expert) from 2016 to 2019.

558

LIST OF AUTHORSHaruko Yamashita
Haruko Yamashita, Ph.D., is a professor of Economics at
Daito Bunka University in Saitama, Japan. Her interest is infishery policies that achieve sustainable fishery. She has
written several books and articles in Japanese, including:Research on the change of consumer preference of salmon,
Journal of Regional Fishery 59-2, 2019; Swimming road ofskipjack: SDGs for Pacific countries, Keizai Seminar 711, 2019; Aging Fishers
and Fishing Villages in Ten Years (edited), Hokuto Shobo, 2015; and Essays
on Fishery, Nihon Hyoronsha, 2012. She is a chairperson of the Fisherysubcommittee on the Fishery Policy Council and was awarded the Fishery
Contributor’s Prize in 2019.

Chenxing Yang
Dr. Chenxing Yang is working as a lecturer in the College of
Economics and Management, Shanghai Ocean University,
China. She obtained her PhD in Tokyo University of Marine
Science and Technology, Japan (2016). Chenxing has worked
in Chinese small-scale fisheries. Her previous research fieldalso includes an evaluation of Japanese Pacific saury fisheryproduction efficiency. Most recently, she has been devoting to the economic
analysis of Chinese s pelagic fisheries, especially the squid fishery and Pacificsaury fishery, and is interested in the international distribution channel of theaquatic products caught by Chinese pelagic fishing fleet.

Mai Yoshimura
Mai Yoshimura is an assistant professor at Mie University
with a master’ s degree in sociology. Her current researchinterest is the heritagization of traditional subsistence
activities and its various influences on local communities,
with a focus on Ama fishing and fishing villages in Japan, andwhat impact the recognition of cultural heritage and tourism
resources has on the lives of Ama divers and the sociocultural structure offishing villages.

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A erword

In Northeast Asian culture, there is a word that is understood as “goen”
in Japanese, “inyon” in Korean, and “yuanfen” in Chinese. It is oftenloosely translated into English as “meeting,” “encounter,” “chance,” or“relationship,” but I feel that these expressions do not adequately encapsulate
the word’s meaning. This is because goen’s meaning not only has to do withencounters and opportunities in and of themselves, but also the mysterious
circumstances which lead to their occurrence. In recognizing this, the meaningof goen also conveys a sense of gratitude for the situations we find ourselves
in. When I think of the Too Big To Ignore (TBTI) project, the concept of goencomes to mind. Until a little while ago, I felt that it presented itself when I
started working as a member of the Human Dimensions Working Group of theIntegrated Marine Biosphere Research (IMBeR) project back in 2014. Throughthat project, I met Professor Ratana Chuenpagdee, TBTI’s director, who wasalso a working member of the group at the time. I remember being deeply
intrigued by TBTI’s name upon hearing it for the first time.
However, due to a small event that occurred while writing and editing thisbook at home, I now realize that goen may have been at work longer than I had
previously thought. The event was set in motion when I decided to straighten
the bookshelf in my office, causing some documents from previously attended
seminars to spill to the floor. As I gathered them together, I realized that these
papers were from the time I was conducting my postgraduate studies andattending seminars that I organized together with friends. Looking over thepages with nostalgia, a paper titled “Step zero for fisheries co-management:
What precedes implementation” (Marine Policy 31(6):657-668, 2007) caught
my eye. As it turns out, the paper was written by Professor Chuenpagdee andProfessor Svein Jentoft, who I know now as one of the founding members of
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AFTERWORD

TBTI. Taking in this paper, I distinctly recalled the struggle of having to use a
dictionary in order to read and understand the text, as a student who had notlearned English in school. Still, I realized in that moment that this researchand numerous TBTI-related books have undoubtedly inspired and led me towhere I am now. Thinking back to my days as a student, that paper may very
well have been goen’s “step zero” for me and TBTI.
With the help of Prof. Chuenpagdee, who is also the TBTI Global Book Series
editor, and my co-editor, Dr. Tamano Namikawa, as well as every contributor,
we are now able to move on from “step zero” to “step one” in publishing
this TBTI Japan e-book. Although there are many fisheries social scientists inJapan who play active roles in academic societies such as the Japanese Societyof Fisheries Economics, the Japan Regional Fisheries Society, and the Japan
International Fisheries Research Society, I am extremely happy to present
this work in my position as a very ordinary and “small-scale” researcher.
I have always thought that there is a certain role I should play in this lineof work, and promoting the TBTI Japan Research Network may very well bepart of it. With an immense sense of gratitude, I bring this e-book to a close,
while reaffirming the critical mission and significance of small-scale fisheries
research.
Yinji Li
Shizuoka, Japan
June 18th, 2020561