IAFOR Journal of Psychology & the Behavioral Sciences

Volume 8 – Issue 2 – Autumn 2022

Cross-Cultural Social Skills Instruction and Indirect Expressions:
Psychoeducation in Japan’s High-Context Culture
Sachiko Nakano
Yamaguchi University, Japan
Tomoko Tanaka
Okayama University, Japan
Koji Mikushi
Hyogo Prefectural Kobe Takatsuka High School, Japan

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Abstract
In recent years, the number of international students in Japan has been increasing. They sufferfrom understanding indirect expressions in communication with Japanese people. In this study,
we implemented and assessed the impacts of a novel instructional program aimed at teachingsocial skills in a high-context culture characterized by the frequent use of indirect expressions.
We conducted two experiments with students in Japan. Experiment 1 included semi-structured
interviews with international students in Japan. Interview analysis revealed that it is difficult
to learn to use and understand the intent behind indirect expressions without having first-handexperience communicating with Japanese people who use indirect language, particularly
regarding “sassuru” – expressions that allow for multiple interpretations. Experiment 1
highlights the presence of problems that cannot be solved simply by learning Japanese and thechallenges of adapting to communication styles characterized by the frequent use of indirect
expressions in high-context cultures. Based on Experiment 1, we provided social skills
instruction to an experimental group of international students as a teaching intervention. Next,
participants in the experimental group and control group (who had not received the social skills
instruction) completed questionnaires before and after the experiment. Data analysis verified
that the intervention participants (1) developed more awareness of, and interest in, the Japaneseculture; (2) became more confident in their interpretation of expressions with multiple
meanings and of silence; and (3) became more accepting of ambiguous expressions because
they had developed greater understanding. Conversely, the control group participants did notexperience similar notable changes.
Keywords: cross-cultural comparison, indirect expressions, social skills, international students,
Japan

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Recent years have seen an increase in the number of international students, and this trend has
attracted considerable attention. However, this upsurge makes it difficult for educators toaddress their problems individually; thus, a broader approach to international education isneeded. Additionally, recent research has highlighted inadequacies in international education,and several studies have examined the problems encountered by students pursuing education
in foreign countries (Tanaka, 2000). For example, international students living in Japan may
have difficulty adapting to many cultural differences, especially regarding various aspects ofcommunication, such as the use of “indirect expressions.” In Japanese culture, peoplecommonly use – and prefer to use – indirect expressions in conversations to avoid conflict(Takeuchi, Imahori, & Matsumoto, 2001).
International students in Japan often find it difficult to understand these indirect expressions,and this situation can lead to additional misunderstandings and further hinder communication.
In 1987, Moyer identified “ambiguity” related to some types of expressions as a factor that
contributes to stress in the daily lives of many international students (Moyer, 1987). Tanaka
and Fujihara (1992) also pointed to difficulty understanding the meaning of certain expressions
as a source of confusion for international students in Japan. Hofstede (1996) identified thedifference in “direct” and “indirect” communication between the cultures of the United States
and Japan as a contributing factor to culture shock for those adapting to life. Takahashi (1991)
also argued that one of the factors in cross-cultural maladjustment is the difference incommunication style, namely, “indirect expressions.” Notably, for many sojourners, thesedifferences in communication can be a greater source of difficulty than differences in values(Shimoda & Tanaka, 2005). For example, foreigners in Japan have reported that, in theircommunication with locals, even determining whether their responses mean “yes’ or “no” is amajor source of frustration (Nakano, Okunishi, & Tanaka, 2015). Researchers have actively
accumulated knowledge about the experiences of international students in Japan since thenumber of international students there increased in the 1990s. According to the “Intercultural
Education Scheme” (Shiratsuchi & Tanaka, 2016), the difficulties and dissatisfactions related
to communication have not changed over the past 20 years. A relatively new study (Nakano,S., Tanaka, T., & Simic-Yamashita, M. (2017)) that examined intercultural difficulties amonginternational students in Japan also noted difficulties in understanding indirect expressions.
Kleinberg and Hall (1979) classified culture into two parts: high-context and low-context, andthere have been many related studies, such as those examining indirect expressions. “Highcontext culture” means people communicate based on inherent understanding. In contrast in“low context cultures,” communication is expected to be direct, precise, and explicit.
According to Hall (1976) and Gudykunst and Ting-Toomy (1988), communication in the
United States is primarily “low-context,” whereas communication in Asia, including China,
Japan, and Korea, is primarily “high-context.” Relatedly, Hasegawa and Gudykunst (1998)
compared silence in Japan and America and identified the differences between clear and tacitcommunications.
However, even among Asian countries, which are considered a high-context culture compared
to America, Japanese culture is unique in its indirect expressions. For example, Ko, Chao, andDong (2000) conducted a study contrasting verbal communication in Japan and China. They
examined indirect expressions and the related strategy points used to avoid direct statements
and questions in conversation, such as euphemisms, rhetorical questions, and omissions, usedin conversation. Although the results showed that the two cultures share some common
strategies and frequency of use of indirect expressions, especially in the context of requests,
invitations, and rejection, Chinese involves lower-context communication than Japanese and21

IAFOR Journal of Psychology & the Behavioral Sciences

Volume 8 – Issue 2 – Autumn 2022

emphasizes the rightful persuasiveness of assertion. While Japanese speakers convey thesurrounding information but not conclusions. In other words, in Japanese, speakers expect
conversation partners to deduce the speaker’s implied conclusions; thus, they do not have tostate them overtly.
These differences in communication styles can hinder cross-cultural adaptation. In other words,
learning processes, such as acquiring new skills and understanding cultural standards andproper behaviors, are essential for cross-cultural adaptation. Some methods have beendeveloped to approach this topic from different points of view, including “cognition,”“emotion,” and “behavior.” For instance, some of these methods include (1) role-plays toimprove students’ awareness of their own and other cultures, (2) culture assimilators to help
students understand the differences in causal attributions of various incidents, and (3)simulations to provide students with experiences of different-culture situations (Yaping, 2003).
If behavioral instruction using the role-plays is carried out after cognitive instruction, students
can grasp the meaning or function of behavior and thus improve their cognitive understanding(Tanaka, 2000). Furnham (1983) and Furnham and Bochner (1982) mentioned that thedifficulties foreigners experience are related to a lack of social skills, and the more they develop
social skills in the host country, the less hardship they experience. Social skills education uses
role-play to promote cultural understanding in terms of both knowledge and behavior; because
psychological knowledge and skill are used, it is one of the methods used in psychoeducation.
Teaching in Japanese education is mostly centered on knowledge. Therefore, receiving
behavioral instruction after cognitive instruction might help students better understandJapanese expressions. Regarding psychoeducation, a cross-cultural psycho-educational
program for international students in Japan was conducted with the goal of enhancing crosscultural contact, which supports psychological, sociocultural, and cross-cultural adjustment forinternational students (Tanaka, 2012). The process by which behavioral instruction is carriedout after cognitive instruction is an important educational feature.
International students who cannot understand indirect expressions must master the conventions
related to the use of indirect expressions in conversations in Japanese. Regarding how skills
are learned, there are many studies on role-play scenarios such as “asking directions,” “visitinga professor,” and so on (e.g., Tanaka & Nakashima, 2006), but indirect expressions are often
treated as only one part of this instruction. In comparison, there is only limited research on
Japanese indirect expressions that are not well understood by international students.
The available research on how skills are learned includes several different skill-learning
scenarios. Although some literature addresses indirect expressions, skills-learning research
focusing on indirect expression is limited. Neither skills instruction nor indirect expression has
been studied adequately. Thus, the aim of this study was to create and assess a training programthat can be further developed to improve cross-cultural adaptation among future international
students in Japan. We expect that, after participating in the skills training developed in thisstudy, students will demonstrate a greater understanding of Japanese culture and more
confidence and motivation to interact with Japanese hosts after participating in the social skill
training. Although this is a very small study, it is intended to provide content and suggestions,so the program can be further developed and evaluated for use on a bigger scale in a broader
context.

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Methodology
Participants were collected using the snowball technique. They are international students at thesame university. they were asked to participate in this study after being informed that theywould be invited to attend a session to learn about communication specific to Japanese culture.
They were also promised that the results of the experiment would not be used for any purpose
other than the research and that anonymity and privacy would be ensured. After carefully
explaining these points in writing and orally, I obtained written consent to cooperate in the
research. This research plan was approved by the Ethics Committee of the second author's
university. All collaborators cooperated with me until the end of the experiment. First, we
conducted a group interview in a 60-minute session at the classroom on the university on
campus in Japan to survey international students about problems encountered incommunicating in a high-context culture. Social skills training is one aspect of
psychoeducation that comprises psychological knowledge and technological skills (Takana,2000). Interviews were recorded with a voice recorder, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed
using the KJ method-Type (Kawakita, 1996). The KJ method was invented by Jiro Kawakita,a cultural anthropologist, to summarize data, and KJ is named after the inventor's initials.
Based on the results of that survey, we tested a social skills training focused on behavioral
culture-related instruction using an experimental group that received the training and a control
group that did not (Experiment 2). Participants in Experiment 1 were asked to participate as anexperimental group in Experiment 2. The training focused on indirect expression to help
students studying in high-context cultures improve their understanding and use of thecommunication style therein. In high-context cultures, people use vague expressions fromwhich some of the meaning be inferred because it is not entirely expressed in words.
Conversely, when a person wants to assert something in a conversation, they must do so without
hurting or insulting others by avoiding words that may reflect a rude attitude. The educational
method of this research will be the key to creating good relationships with people in both lowcontext and high-context cultures without misunderstandings.
In cross-cultural adaptation research, there is a hypothesis that increasing social skills promotes
cross-cultural adaptation (Okunishi & Tanaka, 2011). According to this hypothesis, acquiringsocial skills achieve the formation of interpersonal relationships with host people andcontributes to the promotion of cross-cultural adaptation. This study is based on this hypothesis.
In other words, we conducted social skills training and examined its effects.
Experiment 1 – Interview
Purpose
We conducted a survey via interviews with international students in Japan to examine
expressions they found difficult to understand when communicating with people in Japanese.
Methodology
Participants and Study Period
Seven foreign students in Japan were recruited using the snowball technique. Data for thisexperiment were collected in January 2011 and January 2012. The entire study (including both23

IAFOR Journal of Psychology & the Behavioral Sciences

Volume 8 – Issue 2 – Autumn 2022

experiments) was supported by KAKENHI (Grant-in-Aid for Challenging Exploratory
Research NO. 15H0345617, representative Tomoko TANAKA).
Procedure
We conducted a semi-structured interview using the following questions: (1) Have you
experienced the use of indirect expressions in Japan? (2) Are there any unique expressions inyour country? (3) Are there any Japanese expressions that you have questions about? (4) Are
there any Japanese expressions that you want to learn? The interview was conducted inJapanese (although some English words were also used) because all participants speak andunderstand Japanese fluently.
Analysis
We analyzed informants’ comments according to the KJ method (Kawakita, 1996). Their
responses and comments were sorted by their units of meaning. First, we extracted segmentsof the transcribed narratives corresponding to points in the interviews. Then, all information
was written on individual cards. The cards were carefully read. Cards containing similar
content were grouped together. The contents are summarized in Table 1 for each question.
Results and Discussion
Seven international students participated in this 60-minute session. The participants included
two male and five female international students aged between 21 and 26 (M = 23.5. SD = 2.2).
They were from East Asia, and their level of Japanese language was advanced.
The average time of their stay in Japan was 3.0 years (SD = 2.0). The largest number is students
from China, the second is Korean, and the third is Taiwanese (JASSO, 2018). International
students from East Asia account for over 50% of the total. In this study, we decided toinvestigate East Asian students because of the largest number in Japan. However, because
indirect representation is difficult, not only for students from East Asia but also for students
from other countries, we believe the results of this research could also be utilized with students
from other regions.
Table 1 shows the interview questions and responses (Table 1). All participants reported thatthey had experienced indirect expressions in Japan. As typical examples of indirect
expressions, they identified “next time” [indirect refusal with vague promising about the nexttime], “indirect refusal,” and “ambiguous message.” In the list of questionable expressions, theparticipants included examples of indirect refusal and cases of receiving an apology fromsomeone who had apparently done no harm.
Another example in the same category is difficulty in the interpretation of “kekko-desu.” Theparticipants often did not know how they should interpret and respond to such ambiguous
expressions.
In the list of Japanese expressions that they wanted to learn more about, the participants
included some examples of indirect expressions and some examples of expressions allowing
multiple interpretations, such as “sumimasen” and “kekko-desu” mentioned in Item (3). These
responses from the participants indicate the presence of problems that cannot be solved simply
by learning the Japanese language. Underlying these problems was difficulty with “sassuru,”

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IAFOR Journal of Psychology & the Behavioral Sciences

Volume 8 – Issue 2 – Autumn 2022

the meaning from the situational context. For example, Participant B remarked, “It is notdifficult to learn the language, but it is to learn indirect expressions.” Similarly, Participant E
remarked, “Iidesu” is an ambiguous expression because it can be interpreted either as yes orno.” These are typical characteristics of communication in a high-context culture. It seems thatinternational students in Japan experience difficulties in adapting to communication styles
typical of a high-context culture characterized by the frequent use of indirect expressions. The
results of this study were used to identify essential skills, and this information was used to
inform the skills instruction presented in Experiment 2.
Table 1
Answers Given in the Interview Survey
Q1
Did you experience the use ofindirect expressions in Japan?
Q2
Are there any unique expressions
in your country?
Q3
Do you have questions about any
Japanese expressions?
Q4
Are there any Japanese
expressions that you want to learn?

・I experienced “indirect refusal.” (A) (D) (E) (F)・Japanese used “Tatemae.” (B)・ “Kangaesasetekudasai.” (C)・Nothing. (G)・Japanese language is not very difficult (D)・Studying indirect expressions is difficult. (E)・ “Kekkoudesu” … is it “Yes” or“No”? (A)・ “Keigo” (B)・ “Iidesu” (E)・I think “Sumimasen” is very useful. (B)・ “Gomennnasai.” (C)・I want to use Japanese expressions properly. (F)Note: A–G means participants
Experiment 2 – Social Skills Instruction
PurposeIn this study, based on the results of Experiment 1, social skills instruction aimed atinternational students was carried out, with a focus on indirect expressions, and theeffectiveness of this instruction was investigated. The control group was not given social skills
instruction. Pre- and post-intervention ratings were obtained to assess change in culturaladjustment.
Methodology
Participants and Study Period
The control group was given questionnaires assessing changes in their cultural adjustment
experiences. One month after the first session, they completed the questionnaire again.
Experimental group data were collected from November 2012 through January 2013; control
group data were collected from November through December 2012.

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Volume 8 – Issue 2 – Autumn 2022

Procedures
Each participant completed a 60 min session. Before the session, we described cultural
assimilator and indirect expressions issues to the participants, provided explanations, andconducted a skills-learning session focused on indirect expressions following Tanaka andNakashima's method (2006). There were three topics of skills instruction: “indirect refusal(Session 1),” “interpretation of an ambiguous word (Session 2),” and “silence (Session 3).”The sessions consisted of the following eight parts: (1) explanation of topics, (2) interpretation,(3) checking answers, (4) explanation of Japanese behavior, (5) model play by native Japanesepeople, (6) role-play, (7) feedback, and (8) summary. We used video cameras to record andgive feedback. In each session, participants evaluated their own use of indirect expressions. All
participants took part in and completed all eight sessions. In addition, the control group did notparticipate in any language sessions.
The content of the sessions consisted of (1) cultural assimilation, (2) pre-session ratings (5point scale from 1= disagree to 5 = strongly agree), (3) skills training, and (4) post-session
ratings (with the same 5-point scale). The data were collected after each session.
Participant Characteristics
We asked all the participants (in both groups) to provide information about their personal
experiences. Specifically, they provided details about their age, home country, Japanese
language level, years of stay in Japan, Japanese language use frequency, and interactions withJapanese people.
Ratings of Learning in the Session
After each skills-learning session, we asked participants to evaluate themselves on whether
they could use the skills well in the session and to rate their awareness of indirect expressions,as well as other questions, using a 5-point scale (1 disagree =, 5 = strongly agree), based on
the methods of Shimoda and Tanaka (2007). The skills-learning questionnaire was conductedin Japanese.
Ratings of Attitudes Toward Japanese Culture
Before and after each session, we asked participants to evaluate themselves on their awarenessof Japanese culture and interaction with Japanese people with the scale of Nakashima andTanaka (2008). Nine evaluation items were answered using a 5-point scale (1 = disagree, 5 =strongly agree). The questionnaire regarding attitudes toward Japanese culture was conductedin Japanese. Data were analyzed using t-tests.
Results
In the experimental group, 8 participants included one male and seven female international
students aged between mid-20 and over 30 (M = 23.5; SD = 2.2) (see Table 2). In the control
group, 8 international students participated in this survey, aged between their early 20s to 30
or older (M = 24.3; SD = 2.0; Table 3). No confounding factors could interfere with the study
results, as all participants (from both groups) were enrolled in the same Japanese language
class, and none were participating in any club or organized activity that included Japanesepeople.

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Table 2
Characteristics of Experimental Group ParticipantsAGroups A–D
BCD

Early 20s

Early 20s

Late 20s

Over 30

Home country

China

China

TaiwanTaiwanGenderMale

FemaleFemaleFemaleJapanese level

Upper

Upper

Upper

Upper

Years of stay inJapan

2 months

2 months

32 months

8 months

Number of hours
per day you
converse inJapanese

2 hr

3–4 hr1 hr

4 hr

Number ofJapanese friends

7 friends

10 friends

10 friendsE

6 friends
Groups E–H
F

G

H

Age

Early 20s

Early 20s

Late 20s

Mid 10sHome country

Taiwan

China

China

Korea

GenderFemaleFemaleFemaleFemaleJapanese level

Upper Level

Upper
Level

Upper Level

Upper Level

Years of stay inJapan

9 months

2 months

3 months

18 months

Hours per day you
converse inJapanese

1 hr

4 hr

3 hr

All day

Number ofJapanese friends

30 friends

2 friends

30 friends> 10 friends

Age

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IAFOR Journal of Psychology & the Behavioral Sciences

Volume 8 – Issue 2 – Autumn 2022

Table 3Characteristics of Control Group ParticipantsGroups A–D
A

B

C

D

Age

Late 20s

Late 20s

Over 30Late 20s

Home country

Korea

Taiwan

China

China

GenderMale

FemaleFemaleFemaleJapanese level

Beginner

Beginner

Beginner

Beginner

Stay length in Japan

1 month

25 months

24 months

1 monthHours per day
conversing inJapanese

0 hr

0.5 hr≤ 3 hr4 hr

Number ofJapanese friends

5 friends

Many

Few

5 friends

Groups E–H
F

G

H

E
Age

Late 20s

Early 20s

Late 20s

Mid-20sHome country

Taiwan

China

China

Korea

GenderFemaleFemaleFemaleFemaleJapanese level

Beginner

Upper Level

Upper Level

Upper Level

Stay length in Japan

2 months

2 months

3 months

18 months

Hours per day
conversing inJapanese

1 hr

4 hr

3 hr

All day

Number ofJapanese friends

5 friends

2 friends

30 friends> 10 friends

Participants’ Ratings of Learning in the Sessions
After each skill-learning session, ratings were obtained on how well students thought they had
mastered the skills covered in sessions 1 through 3 (“indirect refusal,” “interpretation of an
ambiguous word,” and “silence”). We used ANOVA to test the ratings on skills-learning from
Session 1 through Session 3 in the experimental group and examine the changes across thethree sessions. However, no significant differences were found in any of the items; F(2, 21) =3.47, p = .90 (p > 0.05).
Attitudes Toward Japanese Culture
In the experimental group, before and after the sessions, I asked the participants to evaluate
themselves on their awareness of Japanese culture and their interaction with Japanese people

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(Table 4). The result of the t-test indicated significant increases in the following five question
items (significance set at p < .05).
Q7 “I have enough self-confidence to communicate with Japanese people”: t(14) =2.36, p = 0.03.
Q10 “When I communicate with other people, I talk ambiguously”: t(14) = 3.30, p = 0.01.
Q16 “I can understand what other people want to say, even if they don’t give a clear
answer to me”: t(14) = 2.15, p = 0.04.
Q18 “I understand why silence is used in conversations”: t(14) = 3.13, p = 0.01.
Q11 It was a reverse item, “When I communicate with other people, I don’t like thesilence,” and was significantly decreased: t(14) = 2.25, p = 0.04).
Because the sample for the t-test was small, Table 5 summarizes how ratings increased,
decreased, or did not change by group (experimental and control) and among individual
participants. Table 5 represents the number of informants. Items Q2, Q7, Q10, Q11, Q16, andQ18 received increased ratings from at least four out of eight participants. These items are
confidence in communicating with Japanese people and understanding ambiguity/silence inhigh-context cultures.
While there was no clear perception of improvement in the acquisition of the skills themselves,
the results indicate an increase in confidence in communicating with the Japanese andunderstanding the use of ambiguity and silence in high-context cultures. Although three items(Q11, Q17, and Q19) were given higher ratings by four of the eight participants, no items wererated more highly by five or more participants. Moreover, the t-test results did not reveal
statistically significant pre-post differences for any items.
We also used t-tests to examine differences between the experimental and control groups
before and after the session. The results showed that the control group scored the following
five items significantly higher than the experimental group in the pre-session evaluation(significance set at p < .05).
Q7 “I have enough self-confidence to communicate with Japanese people”: t(14) =2.36 p = 0.03
Q10 “When I communicate with other people, I talk ambiguously”: t(14) = 3.30, p = 0.01
Q11 “When I communicate with other people, I don’t like the silence”: t(14) = 2.25, p= 0.04)Q16 “I can understand what other people want to say, even if they don’t give a clear
answer to me”: t(14) = 2.15, p = 0.04)
Q18 “I understand why silence is used in conversations”: t(14) = 3.13, p = 0.01.
However, post-session evaluations showed no significant differences between the experimental
and control groups. This result may be due to the experimental group’s increased understanding

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and confidence in Japanese cultural communication. It also reflects the fact that the control
group’s evaluations did not change.
Table 4
Results of Pre-Post Ratings of Attitude Toward Japanese Culture (Experimental Group)
QuestionsA(1) I understand realistic ways for one to cope pre 2with Japanese cultural features.
post 2(2) I understand the ways of the Japanese
pre 3culture and can apply parts of it properly.
post 2(3) I have mastered ways to cope with Japanese pre 2
cultural features.
post 2(4) I understand the Japanese cultural way of pre 2
proper thinking and cope without confusion.
post 2(5) I would like to communicate with Japanese pre 1
citizens on campus and locally.
post 16) I have friends who can communicate using pre 2
the Japanese language.
post 3(7) I have enough self-confidence topre 2communicate with Japanese people.
post 3(8) Communication with Japanese people ispre 3
difficult for me*.
post 2(9) I would like to share a close relationshippre 1with Japanese persons.
post 1(10) When I communicate with other people, I pre 2talk ambiguously.
post 4(11) When I communicate with other people, I pre 2
don’t like silence*.
post 1(12) When I communicate with other people, I pre 3
am modest.
post 3(13) I’m good at expressing my thoughts using pre 1
non-verbal expressions.
post 1(14) I say directly “I can’t agree with you” if I pre 4
cannot agree*.
post 4(15) I can understand what other people want to pre 2
say even if they use indirect expression.
post 2(16) I can understand what other people want to pre 1say, even if they don’t say it clearly.
post 1pre 2(17) I can understand ambiguous or indirect
expressions.
post 2
pre 1(18) I understand why silence is used inconversations.
post 1pre 1(19) I know that there are many means ofexpression around the world.
post 1(20) I change how I express things based on the pre 1
culture to which the other person belongs.
post 1
A
B
C
pre
1.9
2.5
2.2
M
post
2.2
2.9
2.5
pre
0.8
1.0
0.7
SD
post
0.9
0.6
0.9

*Reverse items

30

B C
2 2
3 3
1 2
3 3
2 2
3 3
2 3
3 3
2 1
4 1
3 2
4 2
3 2
3 3
4 3
2 3
1 1
2 1
2 3
3 4
5 3
2 2
4 2
3 2
2 4
2 3
4 2
4 3
2 3
2 2
2 2
2 3
2 2
3 3
2 2
2 4
3 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
D
2.3
2.8
1.1
1.2

Participants
MSD
D E F G H
12 2 2 2 1.9 0.3
4
2 4 2 2 2.8 0.81
2 2 2 2 1.9 0.62
3 4 2 2 2.6 0.7
2
2 2 2 2 2.0 0.02
2 4 2 2 2.5 0.7
3
3 3 2 2 2.5 0.5
4
2 4 3 2 2.9 0.8
1
1 1 2 1 1.3 0.4
1
1 1 2 1 1.5 1.0
4
1 3 3 1 2.4 1.0
2
2 3 4 1 2.6 1.03
1 2 3 1 2.1 0.8
3
1 3 3 2 2.6 0.7
2
2 4 3 3 3.0 0.7
3
2 3 2 2 2.4 0.5
3
1 1 2 1 1.4 0.72
2 1 2 1 1.5 0.54
2 3 4 1 2.6 1.0
4
3 4 5 4 3.9 0.6
1
2 2 2 3 2.5 1.1
1
2 1 2 2 1.6 0.5
3
2 3 2 3 2.8 0.7
5
2 4 1 3 2.9 1.22
1 1 2 1 1.8 1.0
4
1 5 2 2 2.9 1.44
2 5 2 4 3.4 1.1
4
2 4 2 3 3.3 0.9
1
2 2 2 2 2.0 0.52
2 2 2 3 2.1 0.3
2
3 1 1 2 1.8 0.7
4
3 2 2 2 2.6 0.72
3 1 2 2 2.0 0.52
3 2 2 2 2.4 0.5
1
2 1 1 2 1.5 0.52
3 2 3 3 2.7 0.71
2 1 2 2 1.6 0.7
1
2 1 1 2 1.3 0.5
4
2 2 3 2 2.3 0.8
2
2 3 4 2 2.4 0.7
E
F
G
H
1.9
2.1
2.2
2.0
2.0
3.0
2.5
2.0
0.6
1.1
0.7
0.8
0.6
1.2
1.0
0.8

IAFOR Journal of Psychology & the Behavioral Sciences

Volume 8 – Issue 2 – Autumn 2022

Table 5
Increased, Decreased, and Unchanged Ratings
Experimental group(n = 8)
Questionnaire
items
(1)
(2)
(3) .
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)

Control group(n = 8)

↑

→

↓

↑

→

↓

3
5
3
4
1
4
4
1
2

5
2
5
3
7
3
4
2
4

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
5
1

0
1
2
2
2
2
3
1
2

5
3
3
2
3
5
1
6
4

3
4
3
4
3
1
4
1
2

7
1
0
3
0
3
5
4
3
3
2
2
3
4
0
2
(14)
1
5
2
1
(15)
2
5
1
1
(16)
4
4
0
3
(17)
3
5
0
4
(18)
6
2
0
0
(19)
0
6
2
4
(20)
2
5
1
2
Note: Questionnaire items are identical to those in Table 4.
↑: increased; →: unchanged; ↓: decreased;*reversed items

4
2
4
3
4
5
4
0
1
3
5

1
2
2
3
3
2
3
3
6
1
1

(10)
(11)*
(12)
(13)

Discussion
The results show that those who participated in the social skills instruction developed moreinterest in Japanese culture, and their confidence in interpreting ambiguous words or silence
increased. As a result, they displayed a positive attitude toward ambiguous expressions, which
may reflect an increase in their awareness of the cultural differences resulting fromparticipating in the session. They were able to address their questions about indirect
expressions, which led to higher confidence in communication in a high-context culture.
Through cognitive instruction, they were able to identify what they did not understand, andwith behavioral instruction, they could then apply that learning. Thus, they developed greater
understanding of, and satisfaction with, high-context expressions. Charles (2006) explainedthat there are five meanings of silence: (a) truthfulness, (b) social discretion, (c)embarrassment, (d) defiance, and (e) anger, and these include (a) positive and (b) negative31

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Volume 8 – Issue 2 – Autumn 2022

meanings. However, there are various meanings at the communication level (this research
focused on “adjustment”), as Bruneau (1973) pointed out. Cross-cultural research must not
only recognize silence but also investigate how to interpret silence in the context ofcommunication.
As for the control group, those who did not participate in the social skills instruction did not
develop a greater interest in Japanese culture, and their understanding of ambiguous
expressions did not deepen. They tended to use some skills without showing a clear
understanding. These results could be because they had not had the same opportunity to notice
the differences in culture. Furnham et al., 1986 suggested that it is difficult to solve problems
in communication without an opportunity to experience behavioral instruction, which suggeststhat opportunities that help learners notice cultural differences relate to cross-cultural
adaptation. Tanaka (2012) pointed out that cultural instruction at the behavioral level, which
supports smooth relationships with people in the host country, is useful for solving problems.
Several cross-cultural psychology studies have pointed out differences between cultures (e.g.,
Matsumoto & Juang, 2004). However, regarding cross-cultural adaptation, given the necessityof examining behavior with an eye toward coping, one can argue that it is important to provide
cross-cultural education that includes cultural instruction.
General Discussion
This study involved the implementation of an instructional program aimed at teaching social
skills in a high-context culture characterized by the frequent use of indirect expressions. These
characteristics were investigated from the viewpoint of cross-cultural adaptation.
The interviews performed in Experiment 1 showed that international students in Japan
experience the need to use indirect expressions as well as situations where Japanese people use
indirect expressions. The students indicated that they experience difficulties with “sassuru”—
the meaning of an expression that allows multiple interpretations—or with understanding thetrue intent of the speaker. The interviews suggested the presence of problems that cannot be
solved simply by learning the Japanese language and revealed the difficulty of adapting tocommunication styles typical of a high-context culture characterized by the frequent use ofindirect expressions.
Experiment 2 verified that the participants had developed more awareness of, and interest in,
the Japanese culture, had become more confident in the interpretation of expressions withmultiple meanings and of silence and had become readier to accept ambiguous expressions
because of having developed understanding. However, the members of the control group
showed little change in their awareness of and interest in the Japanese culture, and they
demonstrated hardly any deepening of understanding of ambiguous expressions. Even though
they also used certain social skills, they often did so without a clear understanding of thethreads.
Amir (1969), Kleinborg and Hull (1979), and Selltz and Cook (1962) pointed out theeffectiveness of having many social interactions in the host country or contact with the hostlanguage. Learning the language alone cannot prepare one for smooth communications basedon a real understanding of the culture and the history behind various behaviors. Cross-cultural
adaptation requires a specific understanding of the host culture (Searle & Ward, 1990). Thus,
a two-step cultural instruction program that incorporates elements of psychoeducation andarouses more interest, such as by addressing specific cases and demonstrating practical32

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solutions in the process of behavioral instruction, may contribute effectively to resolving thisproblem.
Limitations and Implications for Further Research
The current research addressed issues that were unresolved in earlier research: the assessmentof others of the effectiveness of the skills instructions and a comparison with a control groupto provide greater objectivity. Nevertheless, future research with larger participant samples isneeded to validate our results. Additionally, in a larger study, participants can be further
divided into groups according to their level of fluency in Japanese to allow for comparisons of
the program’s effectiveness between groups. Research including more scenarios and discussing
them from the viewpoint of cultural distance would also be valuable. The inclusion of sessions
conducted with international students before they arrive in Japan would also benefit further
investigations of the effectiveness and implications of the instructional program. Finally, alimitation of this study may have been that number of friends per participant might influence
their skills-learning and attitude toward Japanese culture. For example, participant F, who had
only two Japanese friends, reported having a lower level of motivation for learning to use social
skills (e.g., “my interest in indirect expressions increased” and “I want to know otherexpressions peculiar to Japan”) than participants E and G, whom each had more than 30
Japanese friends (Table 6).
Although participants who have more friends may be more highly motivated to use the skills
they have learned, we were unable to verify a correlation between the number of friends andthe differences in scores in this study. Further research is needed to investigate that relationshipin detail.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the international students in Japan for their invaluable contributions tothese insightful interviews.

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Corresponding author: Sachiko Nakano
Email: s-nakano@yamaguchi-u.ac.jp35