Preface
The 15th International Conference of Asian Association for Lexicography (ASIALEX
2022, June 18-19, Nanning, China) is organized by School of Foreign Studies, Guangxi
Minzu University, which is a great honour to us. This is the third time for a university inmainland China to host the Conference of ASIALEX. ASIALEX 2022 has been
postponed, just like ASIALEX 2021. It was scheduled to be held in 2021. However,
because of the pandemic, it was put off until this year. It is held virtually rather than inperson, also owing to similar situations.
Four distinguished keynote speakers from Australia, Europe and Asia have been
invited, including
Dr. Adam Smith, Macquarie University, ex-President of AUSTRALEX,
Dr. Ana Frankenberg-Garcia, Surrey University,
Prof. Shigeru Yamada, Wasada University, andProf. Xiangqing Wei, Nanjing University, Vice President of CHINALEX.
The theme of the ASIALEX 2022 is “Asian Lexicography in the Digital Age:
Challenges and Solutions”, which is timely for this age, since we have to respond to thevarious challenges brought by it. It is hoped that through this conference, lexicographers,
researchers and other professionals can work together to find some solutions to theshared problems faced by Asian lexicography in the digital age.
Since the conference was announced, there have been 40 abstracts submitted, out of
which 34 were accepted. However, only 11 full papers were included in the proceedings.
Therefore, the papers were not divided into various sections, but arranged according to
the alphabetical order of the surname of the authors except the keynote speech by Prof.
Shigeru Yamada. The abstracts of three other keynote speeches came right after his. The
papers were followed by another 7 abstracts.
I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to the Board members of ASIALEX
who have helped me generously to organize this conference. I am also indebted to those
who have assisted in editing the proceedings, including my colleagues and my students,
who have helped format it and proofread part of the text.

Dr. Anmin Wang
Convener of the 15th International Conference of the Asian Association for
Lexicographyi(ASIALEX 2022)
June, 2022

ii

CONTENTS
PREFACEi

I KEYNOTE SPEECHES
Making the Most of EFL Dictionaries: Teaching Dictionary Use and Dictionary
Usage Guides
Shigeru Yamada
1
Lexical Tools to Support International Scholarly Publication
Ana Frankenberg-Garcia

23

Preservation or Reinvigoration? A Corpus Study of Lexical Retentions in World
Englishes
Adam Smith
24
Defragmenting the Information Presented in Cultural Knowledge Intensive
Entries in Online Dictionaries: A Case Study
Xiangqing Wei
26
II PAPERSThe Treatment of the Way-Construction in English-Chinese Learners’ Dictionaries:
A Construction Grammar Approach
Gong Cheng Hai Xu
27
Application and Effectiveness of Propositional Frames in Explaining Linking
Adverbials
Lingzhen Dai
56
Comparative Study on Loanwords in Korean and Chinese Neologisms: Focusing
on the Neologisms from 2010 to 2020
Liang Fu Kilim Nam
80
Medical Eponyms Deserve to be Saved: Inclusion in English-Chinese Medicaliii

Dictionaries and Necessity
Peng Fu

95

Phraseological Cleansing: Creating a Dictionary for Japanese English Learners
Ai Inoue
108
Effects of Dictionary Consultation During L2 Writing on Error Correction with
Corpus Consultation
Yoshiho Satake
123
Issues in Creation of Electronic Dictionary for Meeteilon
Leihaorambam Sarbajit SinghOn CEDU’s Treatment of
Beyond-Equivalence Principle
Jiangbo Wan

Culture-Bound

Lexical

133
Items

Under

the
139

Some Preliminary Thoughts on the Deficiencies in A New Comprehensive
Chinese-English Dictionary
Anmin Wang154
The Collostruction-Based Definition Model in Language-Specific Chinese-English
Learner’s Dictionaries: The Case of Chinese Collective Classifier ‘Bǎ’
Li Zeng
161
III ABSTRACTS
Let’s Teach (LexTeach) Lexicography to the Public: A Mission Possible
Amy Chi176

On Designing Media-Converged Entries of Chinese Twenty-Four Solar Terms
Yundong Geng Chenchen Zhang Jingyi Feng Yiping Tan
178
The Effects of Different Modifications in Illustrative Examples on L2 Learners’
Encoding Behaviour
Naho Kawamoto Yukio Tono
180
iv

Reviving Pocket Electronic Dictionaries for Schools
Lorna Morris

181

Artificial Numerals in Bésɨro and Their Use in Bolivia
Noa Nishimoto

183

From Flat Lists to Hierarchical Domain Labels in General Language Dictionaries
Ana Salgado Toma Tasovac Rute Costa
184
A Review of Bilingual and Specialized Lexicography Research in Malaysia
Intan Safinaz Zainudinv

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Making the Most of EFL Dictionaries: Teaching Dictionary Use andDictionary Usage Guides1
Shigeru Yamada
Waseda University, Japan
shyamada@waseda.jp
Abstract: Users need help to make better use of EFL dictionaries, through direct andindirect instruction. Direct instruction refers to in-person teaching, particularly in theclassroom. Not only teacher instruction but also pair/group work is useful to improvestudent dictionary awareness and reference skills by having them reflect on their own
dictionary use and revealing overlooked linguistic and reference points. Indirect
instruction includes printed and online dictionary usage guide materials, in generaland specific genres, works, and user groups. Also included are suggestions forexercises, activities, and quizzes to familiarize students with dictionary structure andcontent. In this paper, I point out some peculiarities of dictionary use, and greater
access to information enabled by recent EFL dictionaries with their user-friendly
features and electronic media. I also make practical suggestions for teaching
dictionary use, based on my classroom practice and dictionary usage guides, both ofwhich are structured around Hartmann’s (2001) seven-step consultation process.
Keywords: Consultation process, dictionary usage guide, EFL dictionary, teaching
dictionary use.

1. Introduction
Dictionary use matters!
User studies matter!
– Hilary Nesi
To the points Nesi emphasized in her plenary lecture at the 2015 Asialex conference, I
would like to add: “Teaching dictionary use also matters, especially for EFL
dictionaries!” EFL dictionaries are good and recommendable to foreign students toimprove their English. Unlike a bilingual dictionary, however, an all-L2 dictionary is
difficult to use. Students are often not confident about how they use their dictionaries.
“Dictionary consultation is highly personal. For example, using EFL dictionaries,
students are left alone and in the dark about: Whether they have consulted the words
they should consult; whether they chose the appropriate sense; and whether they have
I would like to express my gratitude for Professor Jeffrey Miller for his help and valuablecomments on the final draft.
1

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interpreted the definition correctly. They want to find a model and the answer”(Yamada 2013). I think that the teaching of dictionary use and dictionary usage guides
can make significant contributions here and I would like to see them figure in a more
prominent way.
In this paper, I will report on some aspects of what I have done in the way ofteaching dictionary use in the classroom and in usage guides, sharing/suggesting someconcrete teaching examples. Before that, I would first like to provide somebackground to my teaching of dictionary use and dictionary usage guides, point out
some peculiarities of dictionary use, and review the dictionary consultation processwith reference to the Hartmann model (2001).
2. Background to My Teaching of Dictionary Use
It all started from my love of English dictionaries. I have been studying English since
I was 13. I started with English-Japanese dictionaries and moved on to monolingualEnglish learners’ dictionaries when I majored in English at university. At first, I felt
they were difficult to use, but as I got used to them, the experience gave me not only
challenges but also enjoyment and the conviction that these dictionaries would
improve my English dramatically. Putting much faith in those wonderful books, I
made it a rule to use all four of the following EFL dictionaries to solve as many
lexical problems as possible:-Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (COBUILD1, 1/e, 1987)-Camber’s Universal Learner’s Dictionary (1980)-Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE2, 2/e, 1987)-Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (OALD4, 4/e, 1989)
In 1991, when I was a graduate student, I had an opportunity to teach English
part-time at senior high school. Of course, I used all those dictionaries to prepare formy reading class. I copied into my teacher’s notebook the most appropriate(combinations of) information (definitions, examples and notes) from the four
different dictionaries to help my students understand the textbook. In class, I sharedwith my students the dictionary materials by writing them on the blackboard or
reading them aloud with Japanese translations. It took me a few hours to prepare forone period of class but I thought it was worthwhile. Wondering how best I could use
all precious information I collected from the EFL dictionaries, I decided to share mypreparations with my students and have them also read the dictionary information in
the following year. I made an A4-size handout for each class (Appendix B) for thereading material (Appendix A). I gave the handouts to my students one lesson inadvance and had them submit the Japanese translations of the assigned definitions andexamples at the beginning of the next class. In class, I checked their translations togauge their understanding, and offered necessary corrections, explanations andfeedback. I thought the class went fairly well, at least for the development andstrengthening of my students’ lexical knowledge. This teaching experience left me
2

PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022with an important realization. I thought EFL dictionaries were too difficult for mystudents but the senior high 16-17 year olds were able to understand the definitions,examples, and notes I had prepared for them from the monolingual English
dictionaries. This means that the students were able to manage parts of steps 6(extracting relevant data) and 7 (integrating information) of the Hartman model ofdictionary consultation (Hartmann 2001: 91, see 4.1), even though it would have beendifficult for them to go through all seven consultation steps on their own. This
eye-opening experience provided me with confidence and laid the foundation fordevising my teaching of dictionary use and dictionary usage guides.
3. Peculiarities of Dictionary Use
Dictionary use is a commonly practiced activity. However, it is distinct from othercommonly practiced linguistic activities. To highlight the peculiarities of dictionaryuse, I would like to compare it with tennis, strange though it may seem. We practicetennis to improve our game and win matches. We have a professional coach to help us.
Practice sessions are carefully planned according to their purpose, where we
repeatedly work on our fitness, footwork, strokes, practice sequences (e.g., serve andvolley), and also have practice matches. We try to further improve our specialty
strokes and at the same time overcome our various weaknesses in tennis. We can evenvideotape our performances to examine them in detail and fine-tune our ability. We
watch other players and learn techniques from them. We devise new strategies toimprove our game, getting better and better with each match. There are of course
singles, doubles, and team competitions. After each match, we will have a meeting toreview our performance. We will receive feedback from our coach and teammates.
Making use of this, we start practice again to make our tennis better.
How does this compare to dictionary use? It is different from tennis in several
important ways. We have a teacher (coach) but he or she does not usually offer much
help. We have few chances to practice – often in a casual or haphazard way, if at all.
Its importance is not widely recognized. There is no hitting of a ball against a wall.
There are only non-competitive singles. We do not review our dictionary use, orobserve others’ use to compare it with ours. There is no feedback on our dictionaryuse, leading to better dictionary use. All this seems to come from the peculiarities ofdictionary use – it being an individual and quite private activity. Dictionary use itself
is not an end but only means to achieve an end, contingent on various factors, internaland external. Complex, invisible, of secondary importance, few users take dictionary
use seriously enough. Most important, the actual mechanism of dictionary use is notadequately understood by users, teachers and the general public. For the teaching ofdictionary use, self-reflection or evaluation and the development of strategies andadequate review to happen, this knowledge must be disseminated first.
Dictionary Consultation Process
In this section, we would like to examine the dictionary consultation process and how
the process has been simplified and affected by user-friendly features in recent
3PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

dictionaries and electronic media. Let us first review the seven steps of dictionary
consultation, as proposed by Hartmann (2001).
4.1 Seven Steps of Dictionary Consultation by Hartmann (2001)
Nothing is particularly hard if you divide it into small jobs.
– Henry Ford
This dictum also applies to the use of an EFL dictionary. It looks intimidating and theactual consultation may feel daunting to many students. This may be true, but, just as
beginners can learn to play tennis step by step through proper lessons, students canbecome competent dictionary users through progressive practical training. It istherefore useful to break down the dictionary consultation process into manageable
steps and to receive focused training and practice.
Hartmann (2001) analyzed the dictionary consultation process into the following
seven steps. I have inserted several notes in square brackets to make the steps easier tounderstand and put them in the context of EFL dictionary use:
1 Activity problem [the realization of a problem]
2 Determining the problem word
3 Selecting a dictionary
4 External search [the location of the headword]
5 Internal search [the location of the sense]
6 Extracting relevant data [incl. interpreting the L2 definition and examples]
7 Integrating information [into the original text]“Components of the consultation process” (Hartmann 2001: 91)
Hartmann aptly and reasonably abstracted the complex activity of dictionary use
into seven basic components. His analysis is based on the consultation with a print
dictionary and is applicable to both receptive and productive consultations. I find theHartmann model very useful and appropriate when applied to training in dictionary
use. I have frequently used the model in my teaching and dictionary usage guides.
Ordinary people consult a dictionary without being aware of these steps. If they aresuccessful, they pass through each of these subconscious steps. If they are not, they
stumble or get stuck in one of the stages.
The knowledge of this consultation process will empower users to upgrade theirdictionary use – especially where they have failed or made a mistake – and this will
help them to modify their approach and start over. This knowledge will show themwhere their weaknesses lie and make them take extra caution when they are dealing
with that step. Then we teachers are enabled to design training programs with
exercises devised to specifically address our students’ problem areas, just like a tennis
player’s coach who works specifically on one component of the serve (e.g., the toss).
4.2 The Influence of User-friendly Features and Electronic MediaEFL dictionaries have been made easier to use by user-friendly features, introduced
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especially after the mid-1990s. Hartmann’s step 5 Internal search, the location of an
appropriate sense in a polysemous entry, has been made easier and much quicker bysignposts and menus. The effective use of bold type for grammatical patterns and set
phrases also facilitates success on this step. The introduction of full-sentence
definitions has contributed much to the understanding of the definition, which is
conducive to Hartmann’s step 6 Extracting relevant data.
Electronic media has greatly simplified the consultation process. Let us take aquick look at online EFL dictionaries for example. Step 4 has been simplified by theincremental search, which is time-saving and instructive. In response to the input of
the first few letters, candidate words and phrases are shown. The user can consult aword without the knowledge of the spelling of a word in full. Step 4 has been further
simplified in the way we search for an idiom’s meaning. Since most online EFL
dictionaries accept multiple search words, the user does not have to be bothered about
which headword an idiom is entered under. The electronic menu has an added valueof facilitating step 5. For example, in the Macmillan Dictionary Online, a click on an
item on the menu takes you directly to the subentry. In most online EFL dictionaries,
if you double-click on an unknown word in a definition or example, you can consult
the entry of that word. This useful function helps us not only with the input of a word
but also with step 6 (understanding of definitions and examples).
EFL dictionaries are also available as applications. It is useful to be able to accessthem by smartphone, though you first have to pay for them. For example, thepurchase of a print copy of OALD10 comes with an access code which entitles you to
use the premium online service and its app for four years. The premium online service
offers such special features as the Oxford iWriter and iSpeaker. The app accepts voice
input as well as keyboard input. The “History” function registers 40 past look-ups,
from which you can start a re-search. There are two search modes: Simple search andFull text search. On the basis of entered keywords, the Simple search will run a searchon the headword list starting from the entered keyword(s), and the Full text search
will do so on relevant headwords, phrases, idioms, and examples. The latter isparticularly useful for exhaustive searches of multi-word items with the Extra
examples sections also being combed.
5. Dictionary Usage Guides
I have written the following dictionary usage guides:-Wordpower Usage Guide. 2013. Tokyo: Obunsha. 20pp. [Japanese]-OALD9 Usage Guide. 2015. Tokyo: Obunsha. 24pp. [Japanese]-OALD10 Usage Guide. 2020. Tokyo: Obunsha. 26pp. [Japanese]
https://dic.obunsha.co.jp/oald10/dl_guide_book/OALD10_dic.pdf-Guide to the practical usage of English monolingual learners’ dictionaries: Effective
ways of teaching dictionary use in the English class. 2014. Tokyo: OUP. [English,
17pp.; Japanese, 13pp.]
https://www.oupjapan.co.jp/sites/default/files/contents/catalogue/oald/media/oup_gui
5PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

de_to_dictionary_use_2014_e.pdf
https://www.oupjapan.co.jp/sites/default/files/contents/catalogue/oald/media/oup_gui
de_to_dictionary_use_2014_j.pdf
Commissioned by Obunsha, a publisher which distributes learners’ dictionaries
by OUP in Japan, I wrote the first three to introduce users to a specific dictionary andits use. OUP approached me with the intention of promoting EFL dictionaries (notonly theirs but other publishers’) among students of English. I wholeheartedly agreed
with them and wrote material dealing with all Big Six dictionaries. The guide isintended primarily for English teachers to promote the use of EFL dictionaries in theclassroom. All were published online and available for free, only the Japanese versionof the last being in print as well. They each include some background/introductory
information (the significance of EFL dictionary use, the difference between
monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, etc.), dictionary conventions, characteristicfeatures, and clues for better dictionary use. Each guide relies on the Hartmann model(2001) for dividing the consultation process into seven steps, and explore each withpractical exercises.
I personally think that for successful use of an EFL dictionary, Hartman’s (2001)
step 6 Extracting relevant data, especially the correct interpretation the definition isvery important. I would like to examine a relevant exercise from my OALD10 Usage
Guide (Yamada 2020) and also suggest expansion activities. The exercise requires thestudent to translate the definition and examples of sense 1 of encroach into Japanese:

encroachverb
1 [intransitive] encroach (on/upon something) (disapproving) to
begin to affect or use up too much of somebody’s time, rights,
personal life, etc.


I won't encroach on your time any longer.
He never allows work to encroach upon his family life.

https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/encroach?q=encroach
I proposed the approach of analyzing the complex definition into semantic patterns.
As is graphically shown below, the definition can be broken down into the following
eight semantic patters (Yamada 2020: 19):

The next step is to match each of the examples with the appropriate pattern.
“Encroach” in example 1 corresponds to the semantic pattern “to use up too much of
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somebody’s time” and in example 2, it refers to the pattern “to begin to affectsomebody’s personal time.” This method allows users to sort out a complex definition
into meaningful units and apply a relevant one for interpretation. This analysis of adefinition into semantic patterns is also useful for lexicographers to identify
unillustrated patterns and provide necessary examples (Yamada 2011), as well as
providing L1 glosses for semi-bilingualization. As extension activities, I suggest
students find missing examples from other dictionaries or corpora, or compose theirown. (They could also report the information deficiency to the publisher.)
6. Suggestions for Practical Teaching Methods
I would like to recommend two teaching methods of dictionary use: making
dictionary handouts and the demonstration of actual dictionary consultation. I have
tried both and found them to be useful. I begin with the dictionary handout method,
first describing the structure of the class, leading up to using the method itself.
6.1 Dictionary Handout Making
In the 2021 fall semester, I taught two university English reading classes. We used the
textbook BBC World Profile on DVD (Morita et al. 2014), watched the following fivevideos, and read each of the following scripts:
Unit 5 Silver and Platinum
Unit 9 Shinjuku Station
Unit 11 Car Recycling
Unit 12 High-Tech Farming
Extra Unit Latte Macchiato
I incorporated dictionary activities using OALD Online. First, I had the students
read my OALD10 Usage Guide on their own. For each video script (see Appendix C:
Extra Unit Latte Macchiato), I prepared a handout (see Appendix D). I collected
information from OALD Online on words and phrases which I judged deserved thestudents’ attention, to familiarize them with the lexical items and dictionary use. For
unit 5, we concentrated on how to interpret the dictionary definitions and examples,while looking at my handout. For units 9, 11, and 12, I gave students sense location
exercises using OALD Online. For each unit, I chose five lexical items from the script
and provided them with their respective content background. I carefully chose theitems intending to challenge students to master special lexicographic, grammatical
and/or lexical points. For example, the first problem in unit 9 asked students to
identify the appropriate sense of “panic” in OALD Online of Preventing panic andchaos is a top priority. They were confronted with the choice between the “feeling”
sense or the “situation” sense of panic. For each item, the students were also required
to write: the part of speech, sense number, a justification for the sense choice, theJapanese translations of the underlined word, the definition, and some examples.
Students compared notes with their neighbors before we checked the answers in class.
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For Extra Unit, I had each of my students make a handout in class, following myexample. I instructed them to collect the best materials from OALD Online to help
them to understand the script. They had to select the best context-fit sense of thepolysemous entry. This handout-making exercise is believed to have such benefits asfollows:-Involves students in dictionary use, making them pay close attention to both reading
and dictionary materials,-Helps them to look back on their dictionary use while in the process, and-Has them record their search results in a handout to be reviewed/evaluated bythemselves and others (instructors, classmates, etc.).
In the following class, I divided my students into pairs, had them look at eachother’s handouts and make comments. Various insights into dictionary use andrealizations were given. There were 38 participants in total. The number in brackets
indicates the number of the students who made the comment:-My partner and I checked (totally) different words (6).
-The number of references varied from person to person (2).
-This pair work made me realize people have different perspectives on dictionary use(1) and it drew my attention to points I hadn’t been aware of on my own (2).
-My partner’s handout made me realize there were words I should have checked (2),and I looked them up (1).
-We checked many words in common, but sometimes located a different sense (2),which made me realize my mistakes (1).
-We made similar mistakes (1).
-I overlooked set phrases (3).
-It was interesting to know which words my partner had difficulty with and looked up(1).
This pair work seems to have provided students with a valuable opportunity andto have expanded their knowledge. They had a glimpse into their partner’s dictionaryuse, which made them review their dictionary consultation in comparison with that ofanother person. The students also realized that there were various approaches todictionary use.
I also had my students compare their handout with mine (see Appendix D). My
handout was just one example which offered the appropriate senses. General andspecific observations like those below were made:-Basic words, polysemous verbs, and set phrases were included (5).
-Familiar English loanwords are included (4).
-The handout included familiar words used in unfamiliar senses (2).
-I skipped over “nice” but there was an unknown sense (2).
-It is necessary to look up basic words to understand their usages better (1).
8PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

-I sometimes couldn’t find the appropriate senses (1).
-I missed looking up “a bit of,” which made me aware of my carelessness (1).
--ed and -ing participial forms (not the canonical forms) were consulted (3).
-I’m not sure if I understand the descriptions of entries correctly (1).
-There were many overlaps, which confirmed my dictionary use was appropriate (1).
-I confirmed my choice of senses was correct (1).
Two of the purposes of my handout were to draw the students’ attention to lessfrequent senses of basic words and set phrases. Since there were several mentions ofthese, I consider my handout was successful, to some extent in these efforts. Two
students mentioned that they used my handout as a model against which they checked
their dictionary use.
I also asked my students to write other comments. The following findings andopinions were shared:-I’ve found I have difficulty identifying the appropriate sense of polysemous words(5). To overcome this, a closer examination of examples is necessary (1).
-If you look up familiar words, you can sometimes find unexpected meanings (4).
-My own dictionary use, and looking at my partner’s search results were both very
useful (1).
-We were not sure about the meaning of “indeed” (As you can see, succeeding inmaking the perfect latte Macchiato is indeed a bit of a science.). So, we consulted
OALD again and found the appropriate sense! (2).
-Dictionaries are not perfect (1).
-OALD taught me that there are various shades of meanings and nuances (1).
-English-English dictionaries are more useful to understand nuances thanEnglish-Japanese ones (1).
-After making the handout, I realized the importance of using English-English
dictionaries to grasp multiple facets of meaning, without being satisfied withEnglish-to-Japanese translations (1).
-It was challenging to make a handout, deciding on what words to include according
to some criteria (1).
-OALD was less difficult to use than I had expected (1).
-I would like to make better use of OALD through regular use (1).
My students’ difficulty with sense location was confirmed. It was encouraging tofind positive responses to the use of EFL dictionaries (OALD), the activities ofmaking a dictionary handout, and looking at each other’s handouts. It is noteworthy
that this pair work stimulated a few students to make voluntary dictionary look-ups.
The general atmosphere in the classroom was lively. The students seemed to beenjoying talking about dictionary use and materials, comparing their search resultswith their partners’. The pair discussion seemed to have turned the usually boring,
solitary work of dictionary consultation into an enjoyable, collaborative activity. If thehandout making is too difficult, it is possible to control the difficulty by adjusting the9

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length of reading material, the number of dictionaries to use and their level, and thenumber of entries to include (the length of a handout), etc.
6.2 Incorporation of Live Consultations into Classes
In a Business English Conversation class, a student asked me the meaning of “but”(see below), pointing out that the conjunction does not indicate contrast:
Umemura: It’s very kind of you to say that. Working here in the U.S. has certainly
helped me improve my communication skills. But getting back to the changing job
market, I can understand why companies want to hire stable candidates who arevalued by their current employers. (Sugita 2016: 238, emphasis added)
It prompted me to consult an online dictionary in class. My computer was connectedto the Internet with the PC screen projected on the large classroom screen. I
instinctively turned to LDOCE Online for its strength in the description of spoken
English. The dictionary lived up to my expectations2:

but /bət; strong bʌt/ ●●● S1 W1 conjunction
1

11 spoken used to change the subject of a conversation
But now to the main question.
But tell me, are you really planning to retire?

https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/but
With this successful consultation, I was able to show my students that I was aknowledgeable and competent dictionary user. I think that I also made themexperience the speed and thrill of a live dictionary consultation. Even if I had
struggled or failed, I would have been successful in teaching the reality of dictionary
use: which may not always be a smooth operation. We may go back and forth, stop to
think or revise our strategy, or even start anew to solve the problem. Dictionaries are
not almighty. There are cases when they do not answer your questions because of theirlimitations.
7. Conclusion
There are two types of knowledge.
One is knowing a thing.
The other is knowing where to find it.
– Samuel Johnson
EFL dictionaries have become better, with more accurate and reliable information to2

Among the Big Six EFL dictionaries, COBUILD also offers this usage of but.
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be accessed more easily with user-friendly features. Teaching dictionary use anddictionary usage guides can play significant roles to improve the reference skills of
EFL dictionary users. Teachers can customize their training to the level and needs oftheir students. They can make the training fun and exciting by incorporating timely
demonstrations of dictionary use, focused exercises, and pair/group work. It is
important to make dictionary use visible, give feedback, and make students review
their dictionary use by themselves and with others. The availability of dictionary
usage guides on the Internet can open up new possibilities of international
collaboration for discussion, research, and adaptation for specific needs. In our digitalera, dictionaries have become variegated, as have people’s attitudes towards them.
Dictionaries may become not only a source for knowledge. They could be used lessfor reference and more for vocabulary learning. Teaching dictionary use in its forms
will contribute to both and Johnson’s second type of knowledge.

References
Hartmann, R. R. K. 2001. Teaching and researching lexicography. Harlow: Pearson
Education.
Nesi, H. 2015. Thirty Years of User Studies—And What We Still Need to Find Out.
The 9th Asialex Biennial Conference at Hong Kong Polytech University, June
25-27.
Sugita, S. 2016. Jissen Bijinesu Eigo [Practical Business English]. Tokyo: NHK(Japan Broadcasting Corporation) Publishing.
Morita, A. et al. 2014. World profile on DVD. Tokyo: Nan’undo.
Tsumori, K. ed. 1989. Chobun Tokkai no Dankai Enshu [Graded Reading Exercises].
Tokyo: Chuotosho.
Yamada, S. 2010. EFL dictionary evolution: Innovations and drawbacks. English
Learners’ Dictionaries at the DSNA, eds. Kernerman, Ilan J. and Paul Bogaards,
147-168. Tel Aviv: K Dictionaries.
Yamada, S. 2011. Layout Matters. DSNA (Dictionary Society of North America) XVIII
Biennial Meeting. McGill University, Montreal. June 8-11.
Yamada, S. 2013. Students’ perception of web-based EFL dictionaries. DSNA
(Dictionary Society of North America) 19th Biennial Conference. University ofGeorgia, Athens, GA, May 22-25.
Yamada, S. 2015. The L1 Guide to the Usage of an EFL Dictionary: The Case of theJapanese Guide to the Usage of Oxford Wordpower Dictionary (4/e, 2012). The
9th Asialex Biennial Conference at Hong Kong Polytech University, June 25-27.

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Appendix A:

Appendix B: Senior high handout

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Appendix C (Morita, et al. 2014)
Extra Unit Latte Macchiato script
00:10 Hmm…how delicious a good latte Macchiato is. Nowadays, it’s not just Italians
who like to enjoy a strong espresso mixed with lots of milk.
00:31 With a latte Macchiato, people enjoy spooning out the last bits of froth with along spoon. It’s just fun to drink.
00:44 In other words, latte Macchiato is a combination of froth, espresso and milk.
When prepared correctly, a latte Macchiato actually has three layers, but that’s notvery easy at all.
00:55 There’re quite a few factors that play a role in making this Italian coffee drink.
There’s the milk. It has to be steamed just right. Good quality espresso is also anotherkey ingredient. You should always start filling the glass with only warm milk until it’s
about three-quarters full. Then, you top it off with froth and then pour the espresso in.
01:20 How come the different layers don’t mix before you stir it?
01:25 This drink is layered because the layers have different densities. A certain
volume of one material weighs more or less than that same volume of anothermaterial. The densest material always ends up at the bottom. That’s the relatively coolmilk, which is at 40 or 50 degrees Celsius. The steaming hot espresso comes next. It’s
less dense, so it floats on top of the milk. However, as the espresso cools, it becomes
denser and mixes with the milk. Also, the milk froth at the top has a very low density,
so it stays on top for a long time.
01:58 Here’s an experiment to demonstrate why the different layers don’t mix. Take
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equal parts of water, honey and olive oil. The liquids are not equally heavy. They havedifferent densities and this is how they’re layered.
02:16 Apart from the layers, there’s one more typical characteristic of a latte
Macchiato – the perfect milk froth. It should be nice and airy, yet firm at the sametime, which is not an easy order to fill. The key to this is the perfect milk.
02:31 You’ve really got to have at least 3.5% fat. It has to be the perfect temperature.
02:38 The foam has another practical function. It insulates the drink, keeping thecoffee warm longer. As you can see, succeeding in making the perfect latte Macchiato
is indeed a bit of a science.
*An underline is provided for the items included in my dictionary handout (seeAppendix D).
Appendix D: University handout
Extra Unit Latte Macchiato
https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/

latte
noun
/ˈlɑːteɪ/,/ˈlæteɪ//ˈlɑːteɪ/(also caffè latte /ˌkæfeɪ ˈlɑːteɪ/, /ˌkæfeɪ ˈlæteɪ//ˌkæfeɪ ˈlɑːteɪ/)(from Italian)a drink made by adding a small amount of strong coffee to a glass or cup of
hot frothy milkmacchiatonoun/ˌmækiˈɑːtəʊ//ˌmɑːkiˈɑːtəʊ/

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(from Italian)a drink made with espresso coffee and a small amount of hot milk

espressonoun/eˈspresəʊ//eˈspresəʊ/(plural espressos)

1 [uncountable] strong black coffee made by forcing steam or boiling water
through ground coffeeoan espresso machine

spoon
verb
/spuːn//spuːn/spoon something + adv./prep. to lift and move food with a spoonShe spooned the sauce over the chicken pieces.

froth
noun
/frɒθ//frɔːθ/1enlar ge image

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[uncountable] a mass of small bubbles, especially on the surface of a liquid
SYNONYM foamoooa glass of beer with thick froth on top
The horse’s bit was covered with white froth.
The barmen around here always top up your beer with too muchfroth.

top something up (especially British English)
1 to fill a container that already has some liquid in it with more liquidooooTop the car up with oil before you set off.
Top the oil up before you set off.
Can I top your glass up (= give you some more to drink)?
Fill the glass half full with beer and top it up with lemonade.

how come (…)? (informal)
used to say you do not understand how something can happen and would like an
explanationoo‘I think you owe me some money.’ ‘How come?’
If she spent five years in Paris, how come her French is so bad?

mix
verb
OPAL W/mɪks//mɪks/

1.1. combine
1 [intransitive, transitive] if two or more substances or things mix oryou mix them, they combine, usually in a way that means they cannot easily beseparatedoo

Oil and water do not mix.
mix with something Oil does not mix with water.

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o
o
o
o
o

Grief mixed with fear and rage as the people surveyed the ruins of
their homes.
mix A and B (together) Mix all the ingredients together in a bowl.
If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.
mix A with B I don't like to mix business with pleasure (=combine social events with doing business).
mix A into B Smith often mixed sand into her paint to create atextured surface.

layer
verb
/ˈleɪə(r)/,/leə(r)//ˈleɪər/[often passive]
1 layer something to arrange something in layersooLayer the potatoes and onions in a dish.
The meat and potatoes are layered in a shallow dish.

densitynoun/ˈdensəti//ˈdensəti/(plural densities)
2 [countable, uncountable] (physics) how thick a solid, liquid or gas
is, measured by its mass per unit of volume
the density of a gas

SEE ALSO relative density

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end upphrasal verb
end upto find yourself in a place or situation at the end of a process or period of timeoooo

end up doing something I ended up doing all the work myself.
+ adv./prep. If you go on like this you'll end up in prison.
We moved around a lot when I was young but we ended up in
London.
+ adj. If he carries on driving like that, he'll end up dead.

Celsiusadjective/ˈselsiəs//ˈselsiəs/(also centigrade)(abbreviation C)

of or using a scale of temperature in which water freezes at 0°and boils at 100°oo

It will be a mild night, around nine degrees Celsius.
the Celsius Scalesteaming
adjective/ˈstiːmɪŋ//ˈstiːmɪŋ/

2 (also steaming hot) very hot
on top of something/somebody
1 on, over or covering something/somebodyooBooks were piled on top of one another.
There was a vase on top of the bookcase.

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PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022oMany people were crushed when the building collapsed on top ofthem.

apart from
preposition/əˈpɑːt frəm//əˈpɑːrt frəm/(also aside from especially in North American English)
2 in addition to; as well asoooApart from their house in London, they also have a villa in Spain.
It was a difficult time. Apart from everything else, we had financial
problems.
You've got to help. Apart from anything else you're my brother.

niceadjective/naɪs//naɪs/(comparative nicer, superlative nicest)
2 used before adjectives or adverbs to emphasize how pleasant something is
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

a nice hot batha nice long walkIt's a nice little place you have here.
nice and… He seemed nice and friendly.
It was nice and warm yesterday.
Everyone arrived nice and early.
I felt nice and cosy.

Nice and with another adjective cannot be used before a noun: a nice andquiet place .

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firm
adjective/fɜːm//fɜːrm/(comparative firmer, superlative firmest)

1 fairly hard; not easy to press into a different shapeooooa firm bed/mattress
These peaches are still firm.
It was good to feel the firm ground underfoot after hours of trudging
through flooded fields.
Bake the cakes until they are firm to the touch.

order
noun
OPAL WOPAL S/ˈɔːdə(r)//ˈɔːrdər/

1.2. instructions
8 [countable] something that somebody is told to do by somebody in authority
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Dogs can be trained to obey orders.
Their defence was that they were only following orders.
to disobey/defy orders
order from somebody She takes orders only from the president.
order to do something The general gave the order to advance.
order for somebody/something to do something He issuedorders for the work to begin.
under orders (to do something) I'm under orders not to letanyone in.
by (the) order of somebody/something Interest rates can becontrolled by order of the central bank.
(informal) No sugar for me—doctor's orders.

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SEE ALSO community order, court order, exclusion order, executive
order, gagging order, preservation order, protection
order, restraining order, supervision order

fill
verb
/fɪl/
/fɪl/

1.3. an order
12 [transitive] fill something if somebody fills an order or a prescription, theygive the customer what they have asked foro

We need to reduce the time taken to fill orders.

SEE ALSO unfilled

foam
noun
/fəʊm//fəʊm/
3enlar ge image[uncountable, countable] a chemical substance that forms or produces asoft mass of very small bubbles, used for washing, shaving (= cutting hairfrom the skin), or putting out fires, for exampleooa bottle of bath foam
The fire extinguisher directs foam onto the fire.
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SEE ALSO shaving foam

insulateverb/ˈɪnsjuleɪt//ˈɪnsəleɪt/
1 insulate something (from/against something) to protect somethingwith a material that prevents heat, sound, electricity, etc.
from passing throughHome owners are being encouraged to insulate their homes to save energy.

a bit of a…
(informal, especially British English) used when talking about unpleasant or
negative things or ideas, to mean ‘rather a…’oo

We may have a bit of a problem on our hands.
The rail strike is a bit of a pain.

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Lexical Tools to Support International Scholarly Publication
Ana Frankenberg-Garcia
University of Surrey, UKa.frankenberg-garcia@surrey.ac.uk

Abstract: It is widely known that English is becoming increasingly dominant inscience communication, and that publishing in English can help researchers
disseminate their work across borders. Yet researchers around the world struggle toget their papers accepted in high-impact English-medium journals and international
conferences. For researchers whose career has developed outside Anglophone
institutions, the problem can be compounded by the fact that they will normally have
had less exposure to, and hence fewer opportunities to learn incidentally, both general
English and English for Academic Purposes (EAP).
Although researchers using English as an Additional Language (EAL) could havetheir texts translated into English, high-quality translation is expensive, and not many
professional translators are likely to possess the specialized language knowledge
required for the task, or familiarity with high-level scholarly writing. Machinetranslation is not a solution either, as its quality is dependent on the unlikely
availability of large amounts of suitable training data for the type of text to betranslated. Moreover, translation is not ideal because scholarly publication is not a
one-step submission procedure. A manuscript usually requires successive iterations
between authors, editors, reviewers and copy editors before it is finally out, andauthors need to be able to communicate effectively during all steps of the process.
Another strategy would be for EAL researchers to get extra help from EAP teachers.
However, as with translators, the majority of English tutors around the globe areunlikely to have had much experience of the requirements of writing for scholarly
publication, let alone of the highly specialized languages of scientific papers.
In this talk, I will discuss how lexical tools can support (1) EAL researchers writing
for scholarly publication, (2) English teachers delivering advanced EAP writing
courses, and (3) translators employed to assist EAL researchers with manuscript
submission.
Keywords: lexicography, EAP, academic writing, translation, scholarly publication

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Preservation or Reinvigoration? A Corpus Study of Lexical
Retentions in World Englishes
Adam Smith
Macquarie University, Australia
adam.smith@mq.edu.au

Abstract: Lexical research on non-native Englishes focuses on innovative usages ofexisting vocabulary, the introduction of indigenous terms/concepts into the English
vocabulary, and the invention of hybrid forms. Non-native Englishes are also a
repository for words/phrases that are becoming obsolete in their variety of origin, butmaintain – and even expand – their usage. In Philippine English, Borlongan (2007)
observes the “preservation of archaic or receding elements”. And Görlach (1995)
notes word choices and the use of phrases/idioms in Indian English that “appear
particularly archaic and ornate to other native speakers of English”. In an earlier
paper, Görlach (1987) expressed the need for a “retentions as a special category” in
dictionaries of regional varieties as a means to track “lag features” across different
varieties. Such a label does not exist in most dictionaries, but examination ofcontemporary corpora provides evidence of continued, and sometimes innovative, useof these retentions.
This study will use the NOW (News on the Web) Corpus—a 14 billion word,
multi-variety corpus covering the period 2010 to the present—to compare frequencies
of a range of lexical items across genetically-native varieties such as the US, UK andAustralia with their occurrence in non-native varieties including Indian, Philippines
and Singapore English. Items investigated include historical terms (e.g. malverse,
mulct); formal/archaic adverbials (e.g. therefrom, wherein), and legal terms (e.g.
forfeiture, issuance). It will argue for a more systemic use of corpora both to identify
terms that are obsolete or obsolescent in native-speaker dictionaries, as well as toprovide evidence to enable the labelling of retentions in non-native varieties.
Keywords: archaisms, colonial lag, corpora, lexical retentions, World Englishes

References
Borlongan, A. M. 2007. Innovations in standard Philippine English. Current research
on English and applied linguistics: A De La Salle University special issue, ed. In
Mann, 1–36.
Davies, M. 2021. News on the Web (NOW) corpus. https://www.english-corpora.org/now/
Görlach, M. 1995. Text types and Indian English. More Englishes: New studies invarieties of English 1988–1994, ed. In Görlach, 192–219. Amsterdam: John
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Benjamins.
Görlach, M. 1987. Colonial lag? The alleged conservative character of American
English and other ‘colonial’ varieties, African Studies 46(2): 179-197.

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Defragmenting the Information Presented in Cultural Knowledge
Intensive Entries in Online Dictionaries: A Case Study
Xiangqing Wei
Nanjing University, China
Weixq@nju.edu.cn

Abstract: In the lexicographic tradition worldwide, the presentation of lexical
knowledge has long been, by and large, fragmentary, at either the formal or content
level. The arrangement of dictionary entries is mainly limited by the textual space, inwhich the balance between the findability and usability always comes to the fore. In
many cases, dictionary users fail to get a comprehensive picture of the headwords,
particularly those of complex nature. They often need to get access to other resources
for further information and the presentation of each entry is less satisfactory in termsof its learnability. Cultural knowledge intensive entries are significant and worth
more attention and lexicographic efforts. In the digital age, online dictionaries domake up for the space limitation of the paper dictionaries. However, unfortunately,
more than a few online dictionaries still follow the tradition of fragmenting the lexical
knowledge, which weakens the learnability of dictionaries to a great extent. How to
defragment the information presented and enhance its cognitive efficacy remains achallenge for lexicographers. Exemplified by the innovative design of a cultural
knowledge intensive entry, this paper attempts to offer some tentative solutions.
Keywords: defragmenting; information; cultural knowledge intensive entries, online
dictionaries

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The Treatment of the Way-Construction in English-Chinese Learners’
Dictionaries: A Construction Grammar Approach1
Gong Cheng
Hai XuGuangdong University of Foreign Studies, China
chenggong0128.love@163.com
xuhai1101@gdufs.edu.cn
Abstract: This article focuses on the treatment of the way-construction (work one’s
way through, find one’s way to, etc.) in English-Chinese learners’ dictionaries(ECLDs). Despite its complexity in structure and meaning, little research has been
conducted into the systematic organization of the way-construction in learners’
dictionaries. Adopting a construction grammar approach, we subdivide theway-construction into three interpretations. We suggest that the ‘path-creation’interpretation is the basis, while the ‘manner’ and ‘accompaniment’ interpretations are
its subtypes, and provide evidence for these claims. We then identify the deficiencies
in addressing the way-construction in current ECLDs. In addition, we conduct anacceptability judgement test and a translation test to pinpoint the difficulties that
Chinese EFL learners might encounter in acquiring the way-construction. Finally, we
propose a refined version for ECLDs concerning the treatment of the
way-construction. This study is not only intended to optimize the entry of the
way-construction for ECLDs, but also to offer a possible solution through whichconstructions can be systematically organized in learners’ dictionaries.
Keywords: construction grammar, way-construction, treatment, English-Chinese
learners’ dictionaries

1. Introduction
This article explores the treatment of the way-construction (work one’s way through,find one’s way to, etc.) in English-Chinese learners’ dictionaries (ECLDs). The
way-construction’s complexity manifests itself in both syntax and semantics, andposes a great challenge for EFL learners. On the one hand, it has a unique syntactic
feature which can be sketched as [SUBJi [V [POSSi way] OBL]] (see Section 2 fordetails). On the other hand, it has a general constructional meaning referring to‘creating a path and overcoming difficulty’ (Goldberg 1995: 205). However, different
interpretations will emerge with different verbs to be selected in this construction.
Despite the theoretical discussions of the way-construction by several linguists
1This article has been published in International Journal of Lexicography, 2022, 35(1), 107-128.
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(Goldberg 1995; Israel 1996; Jackendoff 1990; Levin and Rappaport 1988; Marantz
1992; Salkoff 1988), little empirical research has explored how second language
learners acquire this construction, and in what way lexicographers can systematicallycompile it in learners’ dictionaries. A recent diachronic corpus-based study (Perek
2018) demonstrates the way-construction’s productivity: the number of verbs attested
in this construction has enjoyed a substantial increase over the years. Anotherempirical study (Hanks and Može 2019), based on Corpus Pattern Analysis, identifies
a lexical set consisting of various semantic verbs that are treated as the canonicalmembers used in the way-construction. Therefore, the way-construction is no longer
confined to concrete motion verbs. Instead, it becomes more open to abstract verbs
that imply metaphorical movement. In this regard, the acquisition of the
way-construction becomes much more complex than ever before.
As an important reference tool, ECLDs have been gaining popularity among
Chinese EFL learners. However, some deficiencies in ECLDs have been detected withrespect to Chinese EFL learners’ needs in second language acquisition. One problem
is that they are inadequate at describing chunks or constructions for Chinese EFL
learners. More often than not, these constructions are not treated as a whole, but as an
instance of the word attested in them. When it comes to the treatment of the
way-construction, it is usually compiled as a sub-sense of the verb attested in it. The
following entries are taken from the four major ECLDs: Oxford Advanced Learner’s
English-Chinese Dictionary, 9th edition (OALECD9), Longman Dictionary ofContemporary English, 6th edition (LDOCE6), Collins COBUILD Advanced
Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary, 8th edition (CCALECD8), and Macmillan
English-Chinese Dictionary, 2nd edition (MECD2).
(1) work• MOVE GRADUALLY 逐渐移动 14 [I, T] to move or pass to a particularplace orstate, usually gradually (逐渐地) 移动 (到某位置); (逐步) 变成 (某状态):♢ ~ your way + adv./prep. (figurative) He worked his way to the top of his
profession. 他一步一步努力，终于成为行业内的翘楚。
-OALECD9
12 work your way to/through etc sth a) to move somewhere slowly andwith difficulty 缓慢而费力地移到/穿过某处: From here, we worked ourway carefully across the rock base. 我们从这里小心翼翼地穿过岩基。b) toachieve something gradually by working [通过努力] 逐步达到: He had
worked his way up to head of department. 他一步一个脚印不懈努力，终于
做到部门主管。
-LDOCE6
38 PHRASE If you work your way somewhere, you move or progress there
slowly, and with a lot of effort or work. 艰难地移动；缓慢地取得进展 □Rescuers were still working their way towards the trapped men. 营救人员仍在艰难地向被困者靠拢。Many personnel managers started as secretaries
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or personnel assistants and worked their way up. 很多人事经理最初是从
秘书或人事助理做起，然后慢慢升上去的。
-CCALECD8work your way if you work your way somewhere, you travel there slowly
and with difficulty 缓慢而费力地行进：Mitch was working his way up thehill with a heavy pack on his back. 米奇背着沉重的包裹缓慢而费力地爬着山。
-MECD2

As illustrated above, the constructional meaning of the way-construction has been
isolated as one sense of the verb work. In this way, the construction is compressed as aphrase in the form of ‘verb + one’s way’. This is inadequate and will not help learners
recognize the complete structure. In addition, there are no explanations or reasonablelinks provided regarding its literal or metaphorical meanings. Because of this messy
and ungrounded arrangement, Chinese EFL learners have to first familiarize
themselves with the verbs that can be used in the way-construction before they canlocate the corresponding information in ECLDs.
Researchers have proposed a new approach called the cognitive semantic
approach to dictionary making (Kövecses and Csábi 2014; Ostermann 2015).
According to Ostermann (2015: 2), the employment of cognitive semantic theories in
the field of lexicographic practice will not only improve dictionary structure, but also
promote the accessibility of the information presented. In line with this proposal,
researchers have attempted to establish a new cognitive model for optimizing thetreatment of prepositions, verbs or nouns in English learners’ dictionaries(Dalpanagioti 2019; Lu et al. 2020; Xu and Lou 2015). However, they all focus on
single words, while overlooking lexical units larger than words. In the view of Hanks
and Wu (2020), phraseological combinations should form the basis for bilingual
dictionaries. To address the aforementioned problems, this study adopts a construction
grammar approach to a systematic compilation of constructions, the way-construction
in particular.
2. Construction Grammar and Interpretations of the Way-construction
Goldberg (2006, 2019) defined the notion of ‘construction’ as ‘a pairing of form andmeaning’, and pointed out that any linguistic pattern can be treated as a construction
as long as it is not predicted from its components or existing constructions. Moreover,
the aggregation of constructions is not an unstructured set. Instead, there aresystematic generalizations across constructions. It is believed that constructions forma network which is linked by inheritance relations.
Goldberg (1995: 199) offered a clear definition for the way-construction: theway-construction can be sketched as ‘[SUBJi [V [POSSi way] OBL]] (where V is a
nonstative verb and OBL encodes a direction)’. This construction reveals the featureof form-meaning correspondence that exists independently of a particular verb which
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instantiates it.
Based on previous studies, the constructional meaning of the way-construction
can be generalized as ‘creating a path and overcoming difficulty’ together with threeinterpretations: 1) the ‘path-creation’ interpretation in which the verb depicts themeans of motion or the means of achieving a goal; 2) the ‘manner’ interpretation inwhich the verb describes the manner of the motion; and 3) the ‘accompaniment’interpretation in which the verb contains other simultaneous actions, particularly thesound emission. In the following sections, eleven examples, selected from the British
National Corpus (BNC), illustrate the three interpretations of the way-construction.
We have modified them for simplicity.
2.1 The Path-creation Interpretation
Previous researchers have reached a consensus that the ‘path-creation’ interpretationis the basic meaning of the way-construction (Goldberg 1995; Jackendoff 1990; Levinand Rappaport 1988; Perek 2018). This entails that the subject moves despite externaldifficulty, or indirectly. It should be noted that the path is not previously established.
Rather, it is the subject who creates a path for himself or herself in the process ofovercoming external obstacles. In fact, the ‘path-creation’ interpretation is the closest
one to the constructional meaning, that is, ‘creating a path and overcoming difficulty’.
There are two cases: First, the verb gives an account of the means of motion increating a physical path; Second, the verb illustrates the means of achieving a goal
which is regarded as a metaphorical path. The following instances of the
way-construction reflect the first case of the ‘path-creation’ interpretation:(2) He made his way slowly along the dust track as rickets had disabled his knees.
(3) Ella forced her way into the building to collect some of Dimity’s treasures.
(2) can be paraphrased as ‘He went along the track with great difficulty’. During
the process of moving along the dust track, he has to create a path for himself byovercoming some difficulties arising from both the muddy road and his disability. It
cannot be understood as ‘He just went along the track without overcoming any
difficulties’.
(3) can be interpreted as ‘Ella moved into the building to collect Dimity’streasures through a path created by herself all the way’. In other words, ‘Ella moved
into the building through a path created by force from outside to the inside’. The
action which is designated by the verb ‘force’ serves as the means through which the
motion can transpire. Only when Ella created a path by force for herself could sheenter the building. Thus, it corresponds to the constructional meaning: creating a pathand overcoming difficulty.
As mentioned above, in the second case of the ‘path-creation’ interpretation, theverb designates the means of achieving a goal. This goal refers to a metaphorical pathcreated by the subject by surmounting obstacles, usually the social impediments. For
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(4) He had lied his way out of an embarrassing situation.
(5) Murry escaped and he must have bribed his way to a low security
categorization.
According to the ‘path-creation’ interpretation, (4) is synonymous with ‘Hemanaged to get himself out of the embarrassing situation by telling a lie to someone
else’. It implies that he took some risk in order to find a way out of the embarrassing
situation. This ‘embarrassing situation’ can be regarded as an obstacle. The goal, ‘outof the embarrassing situation’, is a metaphorical path which he created by telling a lie.
(5) is semantically related to ‘Murry managed to escape by bribing someone else’. It
implies that he had removed the social obstacles which had prevented him fromescaping by resorting to dirty tricks, and thus creating a path for himself. The path in
this sentence is also metaphorical. It corresponds to the constructional meaning of‘creating a path and overcoming difficulty’.
The way can be analyzed as either a literal or a metaphorical path the subject
creates within the ‘path-creation’ interpretation. Despite the fact that there is either aphysical or a social hindrance, the subject can still move towards his or her
destination by overcoming the difficulties or obstacles standing in the way.
2.2 The Manner Interpretation
The ‘manner’ interpretation of the way-construction requires that the motion along thepath be winding and indirect. In other words, the subject moves along the path in acertain manner. Manner verbs which encode a difficult or laborious motion such as
churn, flounder, fumble, grind, grope, plod, sap, scramble, shamble and totter andthose which encode a winding or tortuous path such as corkscrew, insinuate,serpentine, thread, wend, wind and worm can occur in the way-construction. All theseverbs will be used when the manner in this construction is foregrounded. Unlike the‘path-creation’ interpretation, the ‘manner’ interpretation does not always correspondto the constructional meaning of ‘creating a path and overcoming difficulty’ (cf. Perek,2018). According to Goldberg (1995: 209), the ‘manner’ interpretation only suggeststhat the subject moves along a (possibly pre-established) path. The following
examples of the way-construction instantiate the ‘manner’ interpretation:(6) We groped our way up the Pan-Am Highway in darkness.
(7) Each man wormed his way over the ladder-bridge to the bank.
In accordance with the ‘manner’ interpretation, (6) is equal to ‘We moved up the
Pan-Am Highway by groping’. The verb ‘grope’ encodes laborious motion and gives
prominence to the ‘manner’ interpretation. It carries the meaning of laborious
movement along the path’. At the same time, it also implies ‘overcoming difficulty’.
In order to move up the highway, the subject must make great efforts because of thedarkness.
(7) can be comprehended as ‘-Each man moved over the ladder-bridge in a
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certain manner, i.e., worming’. The motion specified by the verb ‘worm’ emphasizes
the ‘manner’ interpretation. However, the path ‘ladder-bridge’ in (7) was not createdby the subject ‘each man’, as it had existed before the movement began. In this regard,‘creating a path’ is not contained in this sentence. Furthermore, the verb ‘worm’ not
only specifies that the subject moved in a winding way, but also suggests that the
subject exerted strenuous effort while moving over the ladder-bridge. Thus,‘overcoming difficulty’ is implied in this sentence.
Like the second case of the ‘path’ creation, a metaphorical path could also be
encoded in the ‘manner’ interpretation, as illustrated in the following examples:(8) The tour was to weave its way through nineteen dates before finishingtriumphantly.
(9) He had sunk in, wormed his way into her mind with his disturbing home
truths.
(8) expresses that ‘The tour would last 19 dates before finishing successfully’. In
this case, ‘laborious motion’ is implied by the verb ‘weave’ because the tour had beentime-consuming. In addition, ‘through nineteen dates’, which refers to time period, isa metaphorical path. (9) conveys the meaning that ‘He disturbed her with his views’.
The verb ‘worm’ encompasses the meaning of ‘winding path’ which means ‘He let her
know of his disturbing home truths little by little or indirectly’. Similarly, ‘into hermind’ can also be interpreted as a metaphorical path.
As to the semantic constraints of this interpretation, Goldberg (1995: 209) argued
that ‘external difficulty or obstacles’ are not a general semantic constraint on the‘manner’ interpretation. In a similar vein, Luzondo-Oyón (2013) pointed out thatobstacles are not necessary for the felicitousness of this construction after making adetailed analysis of corpus concordances. In fact, ‘overcoming difficulty’ is not anecessary, but a sufficient, condition for the ‘manner’ interpretation of the
way-construction. Although the verb ‘worm’ does not necessarily encode difficult orlaborious motion like the verb ‘grope’, it does suggest that the motion is propelled in awinding or indirect way.
2.3 The Accompaniment Interpretation
Some researchers have acknowledged the existence of the way-construction’s‘accompaniment’ interpretation, and referred to it as ‘incidental activity’ (Israel 1996;
Kuno and Takami 2004; Perek 2018). Others have proposed that this interpretation is
the result of semantic coercion between the construction and the verb (Hanks andMože 2019) or the evocation of an unexpected semantic frame by a lexical item
(Fillmore et al. 2012). The main semantic features for this interpretation are: 1) The
verb indicates an incidental activity which happens to accompany the motion which isoften coerced by the construction. 2) The subject just moves along a path without
creating a path or overcoming difficulty. For example:(10) The tram cars roared and clanged their way along Norfolk Street.
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PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022(11) There were lots of people in plastic rain hoods puffing their way up a hugestairway.
In line with the ‘accompaniment’ interpretation, (10) can be understood as, ‘The
tram cars drove along Norfolk Street while emitting sound’. The verb ‘clang’ does not
encode the means or the manner of the motion, and is different from the verbs attested
in the ‘path-creation’ and ‘manner’ interpretations. Rather, it portrays anaccompanying activity of ‘sound emission’ that happened repeatedly as the subject
drove along Norfolk Street. By the same token, (11) can be construed as ‘Lots ofpeople climb a huge stairway while puffing all the way in plastic rain hoods’. The
verb ‘puff’ also conveys the meaning of an incidental activity — ‘taking a heavy
breath’.
Similar to the ‘path-creation’ and ‘manner’ interpretations, the path in the‘accompaniment’ interpretation could also be metaphorical. For instance:(12) This is a lady who giggled her way through Nightmare on Elm Street.
(12) indicates that ‘The lady watched a horror film while giggling all the time’.
This path is metaphorical, that is, ‘throughout the whole film’. Actually, it is a goal ortarget, rather than a path.
2.4 Establishing Connections Between the Three Interpretations
It is generally acknowledged that constructions are connected by inheritance relations
within a network. Some constructions are central, and others are extended throughthem.
Goldberg (1995: 203) offered evidence to demonstrate that the ‘path-creation’ isthe prototypical interpretation of the way-construction. First, instances of the ‘manner’interpretation of the way-construction in corpora are fewer than those of the‘path-creation’ interpretation. Second, native speakers’ judgments on the‘path-creation’ cases receive more acceptability than those of the ‘manner’ cases.
Third, the ‘path-creation’ interpretation takes precedence over the ‘manner’interpretation in history. In addition, Jespersen (1949) stated that the direct object,‘POSS way’, is a result object. This statement can be understood as ‘the path does notexist until the subject creates it with a certain action’. Therefore, we can conclude thatthe syntactic form can be motivated by the ‘path-creation’ interpretation, rather thanby the ‘manner’ interpretation.
The above analysis has confirmed that the ‘path-creation’ interpretation is thebasis of the three interpretations of the way-construction. Apart from this prototypicalmeaning, there are other subtypes of the way-construction depending on which
semantic component is foregrounded. If the manner of the motion event is profiled,then the way-construction obtains the ‘manner’ interpretation. On the other hand, if
the incidental activity or the co-event is featured in an event whose motion is often
coerced by the construction, then the way-construction gains the ‘accompaniment’interpretation. In fact, the analyzability or compositionality of idiomatic expressions
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Semantic status from low to highcan be regarded as a cline (Gibbs 1990). Therefore, it is reasonable to rank the
analyzability of the three interpretations of the way-construction as a continuum: the‘path-creation’ interpretation is the strongest, the ‘manner’ interpretation is weaker
than the ‘path-creation’ interpretation, and the ‘accompaniment’ interpretation is theweakest. Figure 1 depicts their interrelations:

PATH-CREATION
subtypesubtype

MANNERACCOMPANIMENT
Frequency from low to highFigure 1 The
way-construction

connections

betweendifferentinterpretations

of

the

2.5 Treatment of the Way-construction in Current ECLDs
As a significant reference tool, English learners’ dictionaries are supposed to facilitate
learners in decoding and encoding the way-construction. Therefore, we investigatedtheir treatment of the way-construction from three perspectives: the general features,the arrangement, and the links between interpretations of the way-construction. We
investigated four bilingualized versions of English learners’ dictionaries (viz.,
ECLDs): OALECD9, LDOCE6, CCALECD8, and MECD2. Additionally, we
checked the noun ‘way’ and the typical verbs apposite to the way-construction
identified by Hanks and Može (2019) as well as Perek (2018), one-by-one. We referto these two empirical studies because they are both based on large corpora ofevidence. The results are as follows:
Table 1 Inclusions of the way-construction under the headword ‘way’ in major
ECLDs
Dictionaries
Path-creation
Manner
Accompaniment
OALECD9200
LDOCE62
3
0
CCALECD8
5
0
1
MECD2
1
0
0

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Table 2 Inclusions of the way-construction under the verbs in major ECLDs
Dictionaries
Path-creation
Manner
Accompaniment
OALECD95111
LDOCE65
80
CCALECD8
7
10
0
MECD2
6
9
0
As Tables 1 and 2 show, the total number of interpretations of the
way-construction included in ECLDs is small, and the ‘accompaniment’ interpretation
is rare. In terms of the treatment of the way-construction, the four major ECLDs sharesome common features. First, there is inconsistency between the four dictionaries as
to how to present the way-construction. While some dictionaries regard theway-construction as a phrase or an idiom, other dictionaries just place it under asubsense of the verb, and some even illustrate it in the example sentence without
presenting the construction’s syntactic form or meaning. Additionally, somedictionaries include both the literal and the metaphorical usages (i.e., the physical pathand the metaphorical path) of the way-constructions, while others contain only one
case. Second, no connections have been established between the three interpretationsof the way-construction included in these four major ECLDs. Third, cross-references
are missing. Some instances of the way-construction can be found under the entry
word ‘way’, whereas these instances are absent under the entry words of the verbs
attested in the way-construction. For example, in CCALECD8, ‘buy one’s way’ is
exemplified under the entry word ‘way’. However, this usage is missing under theentry word ‘buy’. Finally, no usage notes for the way-construction have been provided
for Chinese EFL learners.
2.6 Treatment of the Path-creation Interpretation in ECLDs
The ‘path-creation’ interpretation of the way-construction is regarded as the core
meaning, and involves two cases (the physical path and the metaphorical path).
However, in most ECLDs, this constructional meaning is not included in thedefinition. In addition, most dictionaries list only one case, usually the physical path.
Though some dictionaries account for both cases, they still fail to establish theirconnections between cases. The entry word ‘find’ is exemplary:(13) find
IDM find your way (to… ) to discover the right route (to a place) 找到正确的路 (去某处): I hope you can find your way home. 希望你能找到回家的路。
-OALECD911 find your way (somewhere) to reach a place by discovering the right way
to get there 找到 (去某处的) 路: Will you be able to find your way back?
你找得到回去的路吗？
-LDOCE6
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13 PHRASE If you find your way somewhere, you successfully get here bychoosing the right way to go. 找到路（去某处）；成功到达 □ After a while
I pulled myself to my feet and found my way to the street. 过了一会儿我费
力地站起身来，找到了那条大街。
-CCALECD8find your way if you find your way somewhere, you manage to get to thatplace 设法到达：She managed to find her way home. 她设法回到了家。
-MECD2As the above instances show, the four ECLDs do not indicate the prepositional
phrase ‘find your way’ (i.e., the syntactic form ‘OBL’ is overlooked), an essential partof the way-construction. Even though the preposition to is indicated in OALECD9, itis presented within the parentheses. This misleads learners into believing that the
preposition is not a necessary component of the way-construction. In fact, theway-construction is ‘form-and-meaning’ correspondence which demands integrity
from both the syntactic and the semantic perspectives. Meanwhile, the semantic
constraints on the way-construction require that the path be directional, and notaimless (Goldberg 1995: 214). Therefore, the four dictionaries provide insufficient
explanation of the syntactic feature, as well as semantic constraints, of the
way-construction.
Among the four dictionaries, three offer the constructional meaning of‘overcoming difficulty’ with reference to ‘work your way’ (see (1)): the definition of‘with difficulty’ in LDOCE6, ‘with a lot of effort or work’ in CCALECD8 and ‘withdifficulty’ in MECD2. However, for the definition of ‘find your way’ (see (13)), none
include the meaning of ‘overcoming difficulty’. In fact, ‘overcoming difficulty’
generally co-occurs with ‘path creation’, and they are the prototypical semantic
components of the ‘path-creation’ interpretation. Moreover, there are problems with
the English definitions and their Chinese equivalents. In LDOCE6, the English
definition of ‘work your way’ embodies the semantic component of ‘overcoming
difficulty’ while its Chinese rendering of the example sentence does not.
Inconsistency like this confuses Chinese EFL learners in their acquisition of the
way-construction.
The illustrative examples in some of the ECLDs also need improvement. Under‘work your way’ (see (1)), MECD2 exemplifies the first case of the ‘path-creation’interpretation, that is, the subject moves along a physical path created by himself or
herself despite external difficulties or with great effort. However, OALECD9 selects
the second case, viz., the subject moves along a metaphorical path created by himself
or herself despite external obstacles, or with great effort. In order to help Chinese EFL
learners acquire the usages of the ‘path-creation’ interpretation, lexicographers should
build connections between the two cases.
2.7 Treatment of the Manner Interpretation in ECLDs
The ‘manner’ interpretation of the way-construction highlights the manner of the verb
entering the way-construction, in which ‘the subject moves along a path (which
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sometimes preexists) in a winding or in some indirect way’. Consider the following
entries as examples:(14) grope
2 [T, I] to try and reach a place by feeling with your hands because you
cannot see clearly (用手) 摸索着往前走: ~ your way + adv./prep. He
groped his way up the staircase in the dark. 他摸黑走上楼梯。
-OALECD9
2 [I, T] to go somewhere by feeling the way with your hands because you
cannot see [因看不见而用手]摸索着走: grope your way along/across etc I
was groping my way blindly through the trees. 我像瞎子似的在树丛中摸索
着往前走。
-LDOCE6
2 VERB If you grope your way to a place, you move there, holding yourhands in front of you and feeling the way because you cannot see anything.
摸索着走 □ [v n pere/adv] I didn’t turn on the light, but groped my way
across the room. 我没有开灯，而是一路摸黑走过房间。
-CCALECD81a. [T] to try to get to a place by feeling the way with your hands 摸索 (路等)：I groped my way to the door. 我摸索着找到了门。
MECD2(15) worm
verb 1 ~ your way + adv./prep. to use a twisting and turning movement,
especially to move through a narrow or crowded place 蠕动, 曲折行进 (尤指通过狭窄或拥挤的地方): She wormed her way through the crowd to thereception desk. 她在人群中左拐右绕走到服务台。
-OALECD9v [T] 1 worm (your way) into/through etc sth to move through a small
place or a crowd slowly, carefully, or with difficulty 缓慢[小心, 艰难]地进入/穿过等[狭小的地方或人群]: He wormed his way under the fence. 他吃
力 地 从 栅 栏 下 钻 过 。 2 worm your way into sb’s
affections/heart/confidence etc to gradually make someone love or trustyou, especially by being dishonest [尤指通过欺诈手段]逐渐获得某人的喜爱/欢心/信任等-LDOCE6
4. VERB If you say that someone is worming their way to success, or is
worming their way into someone else’s affection, you disapprove of the waythat they are gradually making someone trust them or like them, often inorder to deceive them or gain some advantage. (通常为欺骗别人或得到好37

PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022处) 逐渐取得 (成功或好感)【DISAPPROVAL 贬】□ [v n prep/adv] Shenever misses a chance to worm her way into the public’s heart. 她从不放过
任何博取公众欢心的机会。
-CCALECD8worm your way into/through/past etc sth to move slowly and withdifficulty in a crowded area 费力而慢慢地进入/通过/经过等某地：She
wormed her way through the crowd to the reception desk. 她好不容易才挤过人群，来到接待前台。
-MECD2OALECD9 and LDOCE6 pay more attention to the systematic presentation of
the syntactic feature of the way-construction with the ‘manner’ interpretation. The
prepositional phrases which respectively follow the verbs ‘grope’ and ‘worm’ areclarified in these two dictionaries. MECD2 only underscores the prepositional
phrases of the verb ‘worm’.
In terms of meaning, OALECD9 and CCALECD8 provide a more detailed
explanation than LDOCE6 and MECD2. In the definition of ‘grope your way’, all
ECLDs consider the constructional meaning of ‘movement in a profiled manner’: theexpression of ‘feeling with your hands’ in OALECD9, ‘feeling the way with yourhands’ in LDOCE6 and in MECD2, and ‘feeling the way’ in CCALECD8.
Nevertheless, when explaining ‘worm your way’, only OALECD9 accentuates themanner: ‘a twisting and turning movement’. LDOCE6 and MECD2 underline themeaning of ‘overcoming difficulty’: the indication of ‘with difficulty’ in LDOCE6
and ‘with difficulty in a crowded area’ in MECD2. Yet, ‘overcoming difficulty’ is not
an indispensable condition for the way-construction with the ‘manner’ interpretation.
Finally, only LDOCE6 and CCALECD8 account for the metaphorical usage of the
way-construction with the verb ‘worm’: ‘worm your way into sb’s
affection/heart/confidence’ in LDOCE and ‘worming their way to success or worming
their way into someone else’s affection’ in CCALECD8.
2.8 Treatment of the Accompaniment Interpretation in ECLDs
The ‘accompaniment’ interpretation is a subtype of the prototypical constructional
meaning (i.e., the ‘path-creation’ interpretation) with the incidental activity profiled ina movement which is often coerced by the way-construction. For example,(16) clang
verb [I, T] to make a loud ringing sound like that of metal being hit; to cause sth
to make this sound (使) 叮当作响, 铿锵作响 ♢ ~ sth + adv./perp. The trams
clanged their way along the street. 有轨电车哐啷哐啷沿街驶过。
-OALECD9
Of the four major ECLDs, only OALECD9 presents the ‘accompaniment’interpretation of the way-construction. However, the treatment is messy, in terms ofboth syntax and semantics. The syntactic form ‘POSSi way’ is mistaken as ‘sth’.
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Though both ‘POSSi way’ and ‘sth’ refer to the direct object of the verb, the former ismore specific and exclusive to the way-construction. Moreover, the constructional
meaning has not been provided. The verb ‘clang’ denotes ‘sound emission’. However,it acquires the meaning of ‘motion event with sound emission’ only when it is used in
the way-construction.
2.9 The Absence of Connections Between Interpretations in ECLDs
Though the three interpretations of the way-construction form a network, thetreatment of the connections between interpretations leaves much to be desired. For
example, the ECLDs have not provided relevant information on the discrepancies
between the ‘path-creation’ and ‘manner’ interpretations. Furthermore, only one
ECLD has included the ‘accompaniment’ interpretation of the way-construction with
only one verb. In fact, the inclusion of the ‘accompaniment’ interpretation in ECLDs
is essential for Chinese EFL learners to realize systematic and comprehensive
acquisition of the way-construction.
To recapitulate, the treatment of the way-construction in current ECLDs is
unsystematic, and sometimes even misleading. Necessary information, such as thesemantic links and semantic constraints on the interpretations, is not elucidated.
Furthermore, the medio-structure that connects variant instances of the
way-construction is yet to be built. Without this, the way-construction cannot besystematically displayed.
2.10 Chinese EFL Learners’ Difficulties in Acquiring the Way-construction
To examine Chinese EFL learners’ understanding of the way-construction, we
designed two tests. We used an acceptability judgement test (see Appendix 1) toinvestigate the extent to which Chinese EFL learners with varying English
proficiencies represent the way-construction in their mental lexicon. The aim of thetranslation test (see Appendix 2) was to identify the problems Chinese EFL learners
encounter in acquiring the way-construction.
2.11 The Acceptability Judgement Test
2.11.1 Participants
We randomly selected forty lower-intermediate and forty advanced Chinese EFL
learners from a university in Southern China. The lower-intermediate learners weresecond-year undergraduates, who were taking an English course twice a week and had
passed the College English Test-Band 4 (CET-4). The advanced learners were
postgraduate students from the English Department, and they had passed the Test for
English Majors-Band 8 (TEM-8). All were native speakers of Chinese and werelearning English as a second language in a formal classroom setting. The average
years of English learning were 9.8 for the lower-intermediate learners and 14.5 for theadvanced learners.
2.11.2 Instrument
We chose fifteen instances of the way-construction with the verbs battle, bribe, clang,
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dig, force, giggle, grope, joke, noise, stagger, trick, weave, whistle, worm and wriggle
from the BNC, making modifications as necessary. They constituted the acceptability
judgement test items with five verbs for each interpretation. We instantiated the‘path-creation’ interpretation with the verbs battle, bribe, dig, force and trick; we
exemplified the ‘manner’ interpretation with the verbs grope, stagger, weave, worm
and wriggle; and we illustrated the ‘accompaniment’ interpretation with the verbs
clang, giggle, joke, noise and whistle. In this test, we selected five more expressions
which included the word ‘way’ as fillers.
Before the test, we checked all of the words in these fifteen sentences to ensurethat they were familiar to the subjects. We conducted an investigation of familiarity
with the words in the acceptability judgement test with another two groups of students(20 second-year undergraduate students and 20 postgraduate students at the same
university). In the final version of the test, we provided the lower-intermediate
learners with the Chinese equivalents of three verbs — clang, giggle and wriggle.
2.11.3 Procedure
We conducted the acceptability judgement test online, and asked the participants todetermine to what degree the sentences in the task were acceptable, based on a 5-point
Likert scale (‘1’ = totally unacceptable; ‘5’ = totally acceptable). In addition, they
were prohibited from referring to any resources, or revising their answers once they
had made a choice.
2.11.4 Results
This acceptability judgment test’s reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.973) reached a highly
acceptable level (Dörnyei and Taguchi 2010). The analysis of the GLM repeatedmeasures showed a significant main effect of interpretation type (F(2,796) = 101.808,
p < .001). The ‘manner’ interpretation received more acceptability than the‘path-creation’ and ‘accompaniment’ interpretations. Additionally, the interaction
between the interpretation type and the proficiency level was statistically significant(F(2,796) = 37.969, p < .001). Overall, the advanced learners were more prone toaccept the three interpretations of the way-construction than were thelower-intermediate learners. A pairwise comparison shows that there was astatistically significant difference across the three interpretations (all ps < .001).
Table 3 Mean and standard deviation scores for the three interpretations’
acceptability judgments
Proficiency
Path-creation
Manner
Accompaniment
Advanced
4.43 (.78)
Lower-intermediate 2.53 (.66)

4.64 (.63)
3.42 (.66)

4.54 (.63)
2.99 (.70)

Table 3 shows that over 80% of the advanced learners regarded the threeinterpretations of the way-construction as acceptable. In contrast, less than 60% of thelower-intermediate learners accepted the three interpretations of the way-construction.
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Surprisingly, Table 3 shows that the mean score of the ‘manner’ interpretation waseven higher than that of the ‘path-creation’ interpretation. Though the ‘path-creation’interpretation is the central meaning of the way-construction in English, Chinese EFL
learners had more difficulty in understanding it than the ‘manner’ interpretation.
These results can be accounted for by the fact that manner verbs are semanticallyconnected to the notion of ‘motion’ that is central to the word ‘way’. In Chinese,
similar motion event expressions have been identified with verbs depicting manner(e.g., in Chinese ‘蹒跚’ and in English ‘stagger’) and with ‘path’ expressions (e.g., in
Chinese ‘一路’ and in English ‘along the way’) whose semantic components arelinked to ‘motion’ (see Section 4.3 for details).
2.12 The Translation Test
To triangulate the acceptability judgement test’s results, we performed a translation
test.
2.12.1 Participants
The same participants took part in the translation test two weeks later.
2.12.2 Instrument
The translation test consisted of thirty sentences with the way-construction. Fifteen
test items were adapted from the first test. The other fifteen sentences wereconstructed with the verbs blast, burn, cheat, cut and push for the ‘path-creation’interpretation, the verbs bump, edge, elbow, plod and sail for the ‘manner’interpretation, and the verbs cough, dance, drink, weep and whisper for the‘accompaniment’ interpretation. All of these selected verbs are apposite to theway-construction (Perek 2018). Therefore, there were ten sentences for eachinterpretation of the way-construction. In order to remove any unnecessary obstaclesfrom the translation test, we annotated some of the words in the decontextualized
sentences with Chinese equivalents. To mitigate the testing effect (i.e., participants'
awareness of each interpretation based on the order of the sentences), we randomized
the sentences’ presentation.
2.12.3 Procedure
We conducted the translation test in written form in class and requested that theparticipants translate the sentences into Chinese based on their own understandings.
During the test, they were not allowed to refer to any resources. If they had any
difficulty understanding the sentences, they could write down their problems. The
translations’ correctness was evaluated on the basis of the way-construction per se,that is, the three interpretations, without considering other translation errors
concerning individual words. Each correct translation was awarded 1 point, with aperfect score being 30 points.
2.12.4 Results
Analysis of the GLM repeated measures revealed a statistically significant main effect
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PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022of the interpretation type (F(2,156) = 453.484, p < .001). Chinese EFL learners
performed better in the translation of the ‘manner’ interpretation, while they
committed more errors on the ‘path-creation’ and ‘accompaniment’ interpretations.
There was also a statistically significant interaction effect between the interpretation
type and the proficiency level (F(2,156) = 33.792, p < .001). Overall, the advanced
learners made fewer mistakes on the translation test than the lower-intermediate
learners. A pairwise comparison showed a statistically significant difference with the‘path-creation’ vs. ‘manner’ interpretations, and the ‘manner’ vs. ‘accompaniment’interpretations (both ps < .001). However, there was no statistically significant
difference between the ‘path-creation’ interpretation and the ‘accompaniment’interpretation.
Table 4 Mean and standard deviation scores for translations of the threeinterpretations
Proficiency
Path-creation
Manner
Accompaniment
Advanced
Lower-intermediate

5.75 (.67)
3.30 (.91)

7.78 (.57)
6.93 (.57)

5.93 (.69)
3.70 (.65)

The mean scores illustrated in Table 4 show that both advanced andlower-intermediate learners outperformed the other two interpretations in translating
the ‘manner’ interpretation. Therefore, the results of the translation test wereconsistent with the acceptability judgment test. In other words, the Chinese EFL
learners’ problems in understanding the way-construction correspond with theirmental representation of this construction.
Further analysis of their answers and feedback revealed that Chinese EFL
learners tended to mistake the ‘path-creation’ interpretation for the ‘manner’interpretation. They also thought that some verbs in the ‘path-creation’ interpretation
were different from work and find, the most frequent verbs attested in the
way-construction. In fact, Perek (2018) pointed out that there is more variation in the
distribution of the ‘path-creation’ interpretation than there is in that of the ‘manner’interpretation. In addition, the semantic domain of the ‘accompaniment’ interpretation
has expanded in recent years. Therefore, verbs with various semantic features attested
in the ‘path-creation’ and ‘accompaniment’ interpretations likely trouble Chinese EFL
learners.
2.13 Discussion
The data analyses shed light on possible sources of difficulty that Chinese EFL
learners may encounter in their acquisition of the way-construction. We haveidentified the three main factors, and provide a detailed account of each in thefollowing sub-sections.
2.13.1 Insufficient second language input
An expression’s token frequency affects its degree of entrenchment (Tomasello 2003:
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106-107). Thus, the more frequently a construction is used, the deeper it will become
entrenched. However, Chinese EFL learners’ exposure to the way-construction is
insufficient. They have been frequently exposed to the expression on one’s way, which
does not fall into the way-construction. Although some admitted that they had learnt
make one’s way or work one’s way, their input on the way-construction was still far
from sufficient. Goldberg (2006: 105-106) claimed that sometimes constructions are
better predictors of overall meaning than many verbs. Since Chinese EFL learners
have not received sufficient input on the way-construction, they cannot accurately
predict the overall meaning of its interpretations. Additionally, as a frequently-usedreference tool, English learners’ dictionaries, and ECLDs in particular, have notoffered a thorough and accurate description of the way-construction. Therefore, when
Chinese EFL learners encounter the way-construction, they will take it as several
constituent parts, and derive its meaning by computing each constituent instead of
considering the overall meaning of the construction.
2.13.2 Negative transfer of Chinese
When the structures of the two languages are similar, the transfer may prove to bejustified, and positive transfer or facilitation occurs; when the structures of the two
languages are different and the transfer is unjustified, negative transfer or interference
occurs (Wilkins 1972: 199). In the above tests, the positive transfer from Chinese did
facilitate the learners’ judgement and translation of the way-construction. For example,
the Chinese counterpart ‘一路’ (‘all the way’) is similar to the way-construction, andhelps learners notice its features: ‘the subject moves along a path’. On the other hand,
Chinese EFL learners did commit some errors due to negative L1 transfer. For
instance, they confused the ‘manner’ interpretation with the ‘path-creation’interpretation, because in Chinese both the ‘path-creation’ and the ‘manner’interpretations carry the meaning of ‘通过’ (‘through’) or ‘凭借’ (‘by means of’).
Robinson and Ellis (2008) claimed that even when L1 constructions serve as thebasis for an L2 construction due to their similarities, L2 pattern acquisition may behindered by the L1 pattern because similar constructions across languages are likely
to differ in detail. For example, giggle one’s way is often rendered into ‘一路’ (‘all theway’) or ‘一直’ (‘all the time’) in Chinese, while at the same time, it conveys the‘accompaniment’ meaning. However, because the usage of ‘accompaniment’ is absent
from their L1 system, Chinese EFL learners might avoid this construction.
2.13.3 Differences in encoding motion events
Different languages select different lexical patterns when expressing the main parts ofa motion event. According to Talmy (1991: 486; 2000: 221), languages can beclassified into two lexicalization patterns. The first is satellite-framed language. Its
lexicalization pattern of motion verbs is a combination of ‘movement’ with ‘manner’or ‘cause’. A verb in this lexicalization pattern can not only convey the meaning of‘movement’, but can reflect the ‘manner’ or ‘cause’ connected with the ‘movement’.
These verbs are also called ‘manner’ motion verbs, such as run and float in English
and ‘跑’ (‘run’) and ‘蹿’ (‘leap, bounce’) in Chinese. Languages in this pattern are
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often referred to as ‘manner’ languages. English is the most typical example.
Therefore, many manner verbs in English can enter into the way-construction with the‘manner’ interpretation. However, it is difficult to find counterparts in Chinese
because Chinese is not a clear satellite-framed language like English (Ji et al. 2011).
The second kind is the verb-framed language. This lexicalization pattern, the patternof motion verbs, is a conflation of ‘motion’ with ‘path’. These verbs are marked as‘path’ verbs, such as enter and exit in English, and ‘来’ (‘come’) and ‘进’ (‘enter’) in
Chinese. Languages in this pattern are often classified as ‘path’ languages, andinclude French, Italian and Spanish. Though Chinese is not a clear verb-framed
language, some motion event expressions in Chinese also co-occur with expressions
denoting ‘path’. In this regard, it is not surprising to find that the Chinese expression‘一路’ (‘all the way’) enjoys immense popularity in the translation test. There is alarge gap between English and Chinese in encoding the way-construction. The datafrom the translation test showed some discrepancies between English and Chinese in
the lexicalization of the way-construction. For the ‘path-creation’ interpretation,
adverbial phrases, such as ‘设法’ (‘manage to’), ‘通过’ (‘through’) and ‘凭借’ (‘bymeans of’), would be used in Chinese to modify the verb; for the ‘manner’interpretation, adverbial phrases, such as ‘一路’ (‘all the way’), would be employed tomodify the verb; for the ‘accompaniment’ interpretation, the Chinese language would
turn to adverbial phrases, such as ‘一直’ (‘all the time’) and ‘一边……一边……’(‘while, at the same time’), to modify the verb. All these discrepancies result in
Chinese EFL learners’ errors in applying the way-construction in their L2 production.
3. Optimizing the Treatment of the Way-construction in ECLDs
Investigating the deficiencies in current ECLDs and identifying Chinese EFL learners’
difficulties in acquisition provides guidance on systematic and coherent treatment of
the way-construction in ECLDs. According to construction grammar, all the aspects ofa construction, including its syntactic form, semantic feature and pragmatic function,must be treated as a whole, rather than modules (Croft and Cruse 2004; Goldberg
2003; Kay and Fillmore 1999; Langacker 1987). Hence, usage information on the
way-construction should be integrated into any ECLD. To explicate the improvementsthat have been made, treatment of the way-construction under the entry word ‘way’ inthe four major ECLDs should be illustrated first. This should be followed by the
optimized representations (sample entries (18)-(21)), both under the entry word ‘way’
and the canonical verbs attested in this construction.
(17) way
IDM make your way (to/towards sth) to move or get somewhere; to makeprogress 去; 前往; 到…地方去; 前进: Will you be able to make your own way
to the airport (= get there without help, a ride, etc.)? 你能自己去机场吗？
work your way through sth to do sth from beginning to end, especially when it
takes a lot of time or effort 自始至终做 (尤指耗费时间或力量的事): She
worked her way through the pile of documents. 她从头至尾处理了那一堆文件。
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OALECD911 make your way a) to go towards something, especially when this is difficult
or takes a long time 行进 [尤指路途艰难或漫长]: [+to/through/towards etc]
The team slowly made their way back to base. 球队慢慢地返回基地。12
push/grope/inch etc your way somewhere to get somewhere by using force ormoving carefully 硬挤向/摸索着走向/缓慢地挪向某处: She elbowed her way
to the front of the queue. 她挤到了队伍的前面。| He drank some water, thengroped his way back to the bedroom. 他喝了些水，又摸索着走回卧室。
LDOCE6
11 N-SING You use way in expressions such as push your way, work your way, or
eat your way, followed by a prepositional phrase or adverb, in order to indicate
movement, progress, or force as well as the action described by the verb. 行进；前进；进程 □ [+into] She thrust her way into the crowd. 她一头扎进人群。□[+into] He thought we were trying to buy our way into his company. 他以为我们
是想通过贿赂进入他的公司。54 PHRASE When you make your way somewhere,
you walk or travel there. 去；前往 □ He made his way home at last. 他终于到家了。
CCALECD8
make your way 1 to go slowly or steadily to a place (缓慢或持续地) 去，前往：+ to/across/through etc Thousands of refugees are making their way across theborder. 成千上万的难民正在越过边境。2 to make progress, for example in yourlife or career (在生活或事业等方面) 取得进步：At the end of the book, Betsy
sets off to make her way in the world. 在书的结尾，贝特西开始获得成功。
MECD2
As discussed in Section 3, the drawbacks of the treatment of the way-construction
under the entry word ‘way’ in the four ECLDs lie in their inconsistent dealing withthe pattern (i.e. idiom or phrase), incomplete inclusion of the three interpretations,
inadequate connection between the three interpretations, as well as insufficient
cross-reference between the noun ‘way’ and the verbs apposite to this construction.
By comparison, (18) is a modified entry of the way-construction under the entry word
‘way’:(18) way-construction [verb + one’s way + through/into/along etc.:
creating a path and overcoming difficulty]
1. [path-creation] 1a. sb or sth moves along a certain path created bythemselves through overcoming external difficulties or obstacles 某人或某物通过克服外在困难或障碍开辟一条通行的路径: They had to fight their
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way to a few rickety seats. 他们奋力挤出一条路为了那几个摇摇晃晃的座位。1b. (figurative) sb achieves a goal with great efforts or by violating social
rules (比喻)某人通过努力或违反社会规则从而实现某种目标或达到某种
目的: She was alleged of conning her way into the job by using falsereferences. 她因使用假的推荐信骗取这份工作而受到控诉。2. [manner]
2a. sb or sth moves along a path in a winding or torturous way 某人或某物
迂回地或困难地通过某一路径: The drunk staggered his way through the
hallway. 那个醉汉蹒跚着走过门廊。The car bumped its way up thehighway. 那 辆 小 气 车 颠 簸 着 上 了 高 速 。 2b. (figurative) sb graduallyachieves success or wins over other’s trust in a dishonest way (比喻)某人以某种非正当的方式逐渐取得成功或赢得他人的信任: He wormed his way
into her heart. 他逐渐赢得了她的信任。 3. [accompaniment] 3a. sb or sth
moves along a certain path with incidental activities or co-events 某人或某物通过某一路径时伴随某些同时发生的动作或行为: He joked his way
into the meeting room. 他一路笑着走进会议厅。The truck clanged its way
along the narrow streets. 那辆卡车一路哐啷着穿过狭窄的街道。3b.
(figurative) sb does something with some incidental activities or co-events(比喻)某人做某事时伴随某些同时发生的动作或行为: The lady sobbed
her way through a sad novel. 这个女士一边抽泣着，一边看着一本悲伤的
小说。
Usage Note: ① Canonical verbs used in ‘path-creation’ (1a) include: make,find, work, force, fight, push, cut, blast, thrust, dig, shoot, bomb andstruggle; Canonical verbs used in metaphorical ‘path-creation’ (often
referring to ‘goal achieving’) (1b) include: buy, trick, con, bribe, cheat, andlie, often with derogatory sense; Canonical verbs used in ‘manner’ (2a)include: pick, wind, thread, weave, wend, grope, elbow, shoulder, worm,
wriggle, bump, nose, plod, crawl, stumble, scramble and zigzag; Canonicalverbs used in metaphorical ‘manner’ (2b) include: worm, weave, wriggle
often with derogatory sense; Canonical verbs used in ‘accompaniment’ (3a)include: puff, clatter, clang, growl, joke, thunder, sob, whisper and whistle;
Canonical verbs used in metaphorical ‘accompaniment’ (3b) include: eat,chew, drink, giggle, puff, roar, thunder and weep. 用于“路径创造”义的典
型动词有: make, find, work, force, fight, push, cut, blast, thrust, dig, shoot,bomb, struggle; 用于 “路径创造”义隐喻用法(常指“目标实现”)的典型动
词有: buy, trick, con, bribe, cheat, lie (常指贬义)用于“方式”义的典型动
词有: pick, wind, thread, weave, wend, grope, elbow, shoulder, worm,
wriggle, bump, nose, plod, crawl, stumble, scramble, zigzag; 用于“方式”义
隐喻用法的典型动词有: worm, weave, wriggle (常指贬义)用于“伴随”义
的典型动词有: puff, clatter, clang, growl, joke, thunder, sob, whisper,whistle; 用于“伴随”义隐喻用法的典型动词有: eat, chew, drink, giggle,
puff, roar, thunder, weep。② A verb which enters into the way-construction
should be non-stative 该构式不可用于静态动词: ✗ He knows his way
around the town. ③ The path must be directed and it cannot be aimless 该构式中的路径必须表示“有方向”或“有目标”: ✗ Mike shoved his way among
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the crowd. ✗ She wandered her way through the field.
As illustrated in the previous section, the way-construction represents aform-meaning mapping. Therefore, it is necessary to present its syntactic form andprototypical meaning at the outset. We then profile three interpretations of theconstruction, and provide illustrative examples. Also a usage note lists the typicalverbs attested in this construction under different situations, thus presenting thecross-references of the way-construction between the noun ‘way’ and the verbs within
the dictionary text. Moreover, it reveals the semantic constraints of the
way-construction and warns users against common usage errors. All of thisinformation facilitates learners’ comprehension and production of the
way-construction.
To help Chinese EFL learners systematically acquire this construction and toachieve coherence within a dictionary text, its instances of the three interpretations
should be included separately in ECLDs. The following are sample entries, each witha typical verb attested in this construction.
(19) is an instance of the way-construction with the verb ‘make’, which waschosen to demonstrate the ‘path-creation’ interpretation.
(19) PATH-CREATION
make one’s way through/into/toward 1. sb or sth makes their way through,into or toward somewhere; they move into that place by creating a path forthemselves while overcoming external difficulties 某人或某物 (通过克服外在困难或障碍) 艰难地进入某个地方: I made my way through the crowd.
我奋力地挤过人群。The motorcycle made its way into the traffic. 那辆摩托车艰难地驶人流中。2. (figurative) sb makes his or her way to or toward
something; they exert great effort to obtain that thing (比喻)某人通过努力获
得某事: She made her way to the upper class. 她努力进入上流社会。
Usage Note: ① The subject should be the creator of the path in the
PATH-CREATION interpretation. 作“路径创造”义解读时，主语是构式中路 径 的 创 造 者 : ✗ The wood burns its way to the ground. ② The
PATH-CREATION interpretation generally entails the meaning of ‘creating apath and overcoming difficulty’. 作“路径创造”义解读时，构式通常蕴含“路径创造和克服困难”之义。③ Verbs such as make, find, work, force, fight,
push, cut, blast, thrust, dig, shoot, bomb and struggle can be used in the firstcase; verbs such as buy, trick, con, bribe, cheat, and lie can be used in thesecond case, often pejoratively. 例如 make, find, work, force, fight, push,cut, blast, thrust, dig, shoot, bomb, struggle 等动词可以用于第一种情况，即运动路径为实体路径；例如 buy, trick, con, bribe, cheat, and lie 等动词
可以用于 第二种 情况 ，即运动 路径为 隐喻 用法 (常 表 示 贬 义 ) ④☞
way-construction 1.
(20) is an instance of the way-construction with the verb ‘worm’, which waschosen to instantiate the ‘manner’ interpretation.
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(20) MANNER
worm one’s way through/into/toward 1. sb or sth worms their way through,into or toward somewhere, they go through that place with a turning or
twisting movement 某 人 或 某 物 蠕 动 或 曲 折 地 穿 过 某 个 地 方 : They
wormed their way through the narrow channel. 他们爬着穿过那条狭窄的通道。2. (figurative) sb gradually achieves success or wins over other’s trust
in a dishonest way (比喻)某人以某种非正当的方式逐渐取得成功或赢得
他人的信任: He worms his way into her heart. 他逐渐赢得了她的信任。
Usage Note: ① The manner verb should entail that the movement happens
in a winding or in some indirect way. 方式动词应该蕴含“动作是曲折的或者以某种间接方式发生”之义: ✗ She walked her way to New York. ② If themanner verb does not encode the above meaning, then the path should bewith difficulty. 如果方式动词不蕴含上述意义，构式中的路径则必须充满困难：✓ The novice skier walked her way down the ski slope. 那位滑雪新手
在滑雪坡上缓慢前行。③ Manner verbs which encode difficult or laborious
motion can be used in this construction, such as pick, elbow, shoulder,
scramble and stumble; Manner verbs which encode winding or tortuous path
can also be used in this construction, such as wind, thread, weave, wend,
grope, worm, wriggle, bump, nose, plod, crawl and zigzag; Manner verbs
such as weave, worm, wriggle can be used in the second case, often
pejoratively. 蕴含“艰难或费力”的方式动词可用于该构式，例如 pick,elbow, shoulder, scramble, stumble 等。此外，表示“运动路径是蜿蜒或屈折”的方式动词也可用于该构式，例如 wind, thread, weave, wend, grope,
worm, wriggle, bump, nose, plod, crawl, zigzag 等。方式动词 worm, weave,
wriggle 可用于第二种情况，即运动路径为隐喻用法 (常表示贬义) ④ ☞way-construction 2.
(21) is an instance of the way-construction with the verb ‘whistle’, which waschosen to demonstrate the ‘accompaniment’ interpretation.
(21) ACCOMPANIMENT
whistle one’s way into/out of sb whistles his or her way into or out ofsomewhere, they enter or exit that place while blowing whistles 某人吹着口
哨进入或者离开地方：We whistled our way out of the pub. 我们吹着口哨离开了酒吧。
Usage Note: ① In the ACCOMPANIMENT interpretation, the verb should
encode a repeated action. 在作“伴随动作或行为”解读时，动词必须蕴含“重复”之义。② Verbs such as puff, clatter, clang, growl, joke, thunder, sob,whisper and whistle can be used in this construction. 例如 puff, clatter,clang, growl, joke, thunder, sob, whisper, whistle 等动词可用于该构式。③☞ way-construction 3.

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The optimized entries have several advantages. First, they each display complete
information on the way-construction, and arouse learners’ attention to theconstructional meaning. Second, the sense divisions as shown in (19) will facilitate
learners’ understanding of the semantic relationship between the literal andmetaphorical use of the construction. Third, equivalents in Chinese, as well as
illustrative examples, will serve to compare and contrast expressions of the
way-construction in English and Chinese. Fourth, the usage notes underscore theconstraints on the usage of the way-construction, and will facilitate Chinese EFL
learners’ production of it. Fifth, the verbs included in the optimized version are
selected from the list of canonical verbs identified by Hanks and Može (2019) and
Perek (2018). These are common verbs which will increase the chance of EFL
learners’ exposure to the way-construction. Moreover, the selected verbs are organized
in order of frequency concerning the way-construction in the BNC, and are presented
in bold if their frequency exceeds 5 (see Appendix 3 for more details). Finally, thecross-references help to establish a link between the way-construction and its threeinterpretations instantiated by different verbs.
4. Conclusion
This study demonstrates how construction grammar can be applied to the practice ofcompiling a learners’ dictionary. We have explicated how to systematically address
the way-construction in ECLDs under the guidance of construction grammar.
The intricacies and extensions of the way-construction should be clarified to EFL
learners. This construction is complex, in both syntax and semantics. Moreover,within the three interpretations of this construction, evidence shows that‘path-creation’ is the basis, and ‘manner’ and ‘accompaniment’ are its subtypes witheither the ‘manner’ or the ‘incidental activity’ profiled. However, a survey of relevant
entries in four leading ECLDs reveals that the way-construction receives different
treatment by the four dictionaries. Furthermore, the interconnections between thethree interpretations of the way-construction are unclear, and the syntactic features, aswell as the semantic constraints imposed on this construction, are often neglected.
Meanwhile, the acceptability judgement test and the translation test demonstratethat due to insufficient input, negative transfer of Chinese, as well as differences in
encoding motion expressions, Chinese EFL learners often encounter difficulty in theiracquisition of the way-construction. As such, they are in need of systematic treatmentof it in a learners’ dictionary. Thus, adopting a construction grammar approach, we
propose a refined version of several entries concerning the way-construction. This
study casts light on an effective treatment for similar constructions in English
learners’ dictionaries.

References
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A. Dictionaries
CCALECD8 = Sinclair, J. (ed.). 2017. Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner's
English-Chinese Dictionary (8th edition). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching
and Research Press.
LDOCE6 = Fox, C. and R. Combley (eds.). 2020. Longman Dictionary ofContemporary English (6th edition). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching andResearch Press.
MECD2 = Rundell, M. (ed.). 2018. Macmillan English-Chinese Dictionary for
Advanced Learners (2nd edition). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching andResearch Press.
OALECD9 = Deuter, M., J. Bradbery and J. Turnbull (eds.). 2018. Oxford Advanced
Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary (9th edition). Beijing: The Commercial
Press.
B. Other literature
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Dalpanagioti, T. 2019. From corpus usages to cognitively informed dictionary senses:
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Dörnyei, Z. and T. Taguchi. 2010. Questionnaires in second language research:
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Fillmore, C. J., Lee-Goldman, R. R., and R. Rhodes. 2012. The FrameNet
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Appendix 1: Acceptability judgment test
1. The movie is more interesting than drama in some way.

2. John dug his way out of prison.

3. We joked our way into the meeting.

4. The trucks clanged (哐当) their way up and down the narrow streets.

5. Mary is on her way home.

6. The young man bribed his way into the club.

7. The snake wriggled (蠕动) its way into the hole.

8. The fallen tree is in our way.

9. They groped their way across the brushwood.

10. The taxi noised its way back into the traffic.

11. The old man weaved his way through the crowd.

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12. The thief forced his way into the elderly people’s house.

13. She wormed her way through a narrow channel.

14. The boy whistled his way out of the restaurant.

15. Brown tricked his way into the lady’s room.

16. The company is seeking ways of safeguarding jobs.

17. The little girl giggled (咯咯笑) her way through an interesting novel.

18. The drunk staggered his way down the hallway.

19. The players battled their way into a precarious success.

20. I was just hoping things went my way.

Appendix 2: Translation test
1. She wormed her way through a narrow channel.
2. John dug his way out of prison.
3. The boat sailed its way into the harbor.
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4. Brown tricked his way into the lady’s room.
5. The thief forced his way into the elderly people’s house.
6. The players battled their way into a precarious success.
7. The snake wriggled (蠕动) its way into the hole.
8. He could drink his way down to the last penny.
9. Mike cut his way through the jungle for a day and a half.
10. The little girl giggled (咯咯笑) her way through an interesting novel.
11. They groped their way across the brushwood.
12. The sappers (工程兵) blasted their way through critical roadblocks.
13. They coughed their way through the song of All Things Bright and Beautiful.
14. The drunk staggered his way down the hallway.
15. A blind man pushed his way to the middle of the audience.
16. The trucks clanged (哐当) their way up and down the street.
17. She decided to edge (徐徐移动) her way tactfully around the issue
18. The taxi noised its way back into the traffic.
19. The poor uneducated girl cheated her way into marriage with a young engineer.
20. The old man weaved his way through the crowd.
21. The boy whistled his way out of the restaurant.
22. She heard his shoes whisper their way down to Room C.
23. We joked our way into the meeting.
24. The police car bumped (颠簸) its way up the track.
25. My veins seemed full of a fiery substance that burned its way round my body.
26. The inquiry plodded (步履艰难) its way through an incredible number of excuses.
27. The young woman claimed to have wept her way into a degree.
28. Rex put on his sunglasses and elbowed his way into the crowd
29. She spends about two months a year dancing her way around the world.
30. The young man bribed his way into the club.

Appendix 3: Frequency of typical verbs used in the way-construction in the
BNCInterpretations
Path-Creation (1a)Path-Creation (1a)Path-Creation (1a)Path-Creation (1a)Path-Creation (1a)Path-Creation (1a)Path-Creation (1a)Path-Creation (1a)Path-Creation (1a)Path-Creation (1a)Path-Creation (1a)

Verbs
make
find
work
force
fight
push
cut
blast
thrustdig
shootFrequency
1559
899
421
202
194
184
22
19
16
14
10
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PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

Path-Creation (1b)Path-Creation (1b)Path-Creation (1b)Path-Creation (1b)Path-Creation (1b)Path-Creation (1b)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2a)Manner (2b)Manner (2b)Accompaniment (3a)Accompaniment (3b)Accompaniment (3b)Accompaniment (3b)

buy
trick
con
bribe
cheat
lie
pick
wind
thread
weave
wend
grope
elbow
shoulderworm
wriggle
bump
nose
plod
worm
weave
puff
eat
chew
drink

28
15
12
9
8
8
181
83
57
52
43
42
35
31
16
16
9
8
6
17
9
6
31
14
12

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Application and Effectiveness of Propositional Frames in Explaining
Linking Adverbials
Lingzhen Dai
Minnan Normal University, China
Vivian0915@163.com
Abstract: Within the coherence theory framework, linking adverbials are understoodas explicit markers of the coherence relations between one proposition and another.
Thus, individual linking adverbials can be explained by describing the propositional
content of the conjoined segments. This paper proposes a propositional frame which
is a particular configuration of propositional variables can serve as explanations oflinking adverbials. Two studies are reported. The first exemplifies how linking
adverbials can be explained in the form of propositional frames, and the second
concerns the users’ perception of the effectiveness of this new definition style inlanguage production. To elicit the propositional frames of individual linking
adverbials, an examination of BNC concordance lines and dictionary examples wereconducted. The second study is empirical and consists of a pretest and a test of
students’ use of some synonymous linking adverbials and some follow-up questions.
It was found that the new type of definition had the same effect on students’productive use of this group of words as the synonym-type explanation and theusage-based explanation. Although the participants encountered some difficulties withthis new type of explanation, it gained acceptance. The study also reinforced thenecessity of dictionary education.
Keywords: coherence theory, linking adverbials, propositional frames, meaning
explanation, effectiveness1. Introduction
Linking adverbials are important devices for creating textual cohesion. They are
elements of clauses serving a connective function without adding additional
information to a clause (Biber et al. 1999: 765). They are mainly used to state thespeaker’s or writer’s view on the relationship between two discourse units (ibid: 875),
which can be of varying length: sentences, larger than sentences like paragraphs, or
smaller than sentences like clauses (ibid: 558). Linking adverbials are realized byadverbs, adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, or clauses. Thus, they can bemono-morphemic (e.g. thus, then), polymorphemic (e.g. moreover, furthermore), a
phrase (e.g. after all, at the same time), or even a clause (e.g. what is more). Since thepublication of Halliday and Hasan’s (1976) influential Cohesion in English,
considerable attention has been devoted to the research of linking adverbials (Halliday
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1985; Mann and Thompson 1986; Martin 1992; Blackmore 1987; Rouchota 1996).
Linking adverbials are explicit markers of the relations between text segments,
and they can contribute to discourse coherence. Proper use of linking adverbials canresult in a coherent and logically related passage which can be understood by native
readers without difficulty. However, the misuse of linking adverbials is an almost‘universal feature of ESL students’ writing’ (Crewe 1990: 317), which has been
proved by a number of corpus studies (Field and Yip 1992; Milton and Tsang 1993;
Granger and Tyson 1996; Altenberg and Tapper 1998; Lorenz 1999; Bolton, Nelsonand Hung 2002; Pan and Feng 2004; Wu 2012; Leedham and Cai 2013). Report on
College Students’ English Writing Competence in China (2020) also revealed that
Chinese college students had difficulties with this group of words. In terms oflanguage accuracy, errors concerning linking adverbials accounted for about 8% of
the total (run-on sentence 6.86%, redundancy or absence of conjunctions 1.19%).
Considering the importance of linking adverbials in EFL/ESL learning andlearners’ inability in using them, it is natural to expect that learner’s dictionaries
should provide sufficient information and proper guidance for the correct use of thisgroup of words. However, they have been and are being neglected by lexicographers.
linking adverbials belong to the category of ‘grammatical words’ or ‘function words’.
Among the abundant works on meta-lexicography or practical lexicography, only a
few words have been devoted to the treatment of function words, much fewer tolinking adverbials. It is agreed that function words are the most frequent, but
lexicographers were perplexed by function words (Kirkpatrick 1985: 11). Though
they have realized that these words could not be defined strictly lexically, they don’tknow exactly how to handle them (Landau 2001: 118). Since it is generally
acknowledged that words like these do not really ‘mean’ anything, and thus the job oflexicographers is ‘to explain their function in the sentence and the contribution they
make to the overall meaning of the sentence’ (Atkins and Rundell 2008: 447-448),
there is no set entry structure due to the diversity of functions they perform andlearner’s dictionaries often adopt usage notes to describe the function of this group of
words. In these circumstances, this paper aims to answer the following questions:
1) How can the definition of an individual linking adverbial be presented explicitly?
2) How effective is the new explanation technique for linking adverbials comparedwith the previous ones?
To answer the first question, an examination of BNC concordance lines anddictionary examples will be conducted, through which explanations of linking
adverbials in the form of propositional frames will be provided. The second study isempirical and consists of a pretest and a test of students’ use of some synonymous
linking adverbials and some follow-up questions. The paper will first survey the
explanation techniques adopted in learner’s dictionaries for explaining linking
adverbials. Then a propositional-frame-type explanation will be proposed andexemplified based on a coherence approach to the understanding of linking adverbials.
The fourth section will be devoted to testing the effectiveness of the new explanation
technique. Section Five concludes the whole paper.

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2. Explaining Linking Adverbials in Learner’s Dictionaries
Moon (2016: 128-132) summarizes the explanatory techniques used in current
learner’s dictionaries as follows: paraphrase, synonym-type explanation, usage-based
explanation, and full-sentence explanation. An examination proves that current
learner’s dictionaries also adopt these lexicographic techniques to explaining linking
adverbials, and it is usually a mixed approach.
Paraphrase
The use of paraphrase for linking adverbials is not so frequent as other techniques.
The wording tends to be loose, informal and descriptive as shown by the following
examples.
(1) thus
adverb formal
as a result of the fact that you have just mentioned (MEDAL)(2) therefore
adverb formal
as a result of something that has just been mentioned (LDOCE 6th)
Synonym-type explanation
Synonym-type explanations are ready to be found in the definitions of linking
adverbials. Most frequently the definiens are equivalents of the definiendum inanother variety and can act as substitutes conditionally. Though it is preferable topoint out the differences or the conditions for the substitution, it is always missing in
the definitions, as shown by the following examples.
(3) consequently
adverbas a result; therefore (OALD 9th)(4) hence
adverbfor this reason (CALD 4th)(5) besides
adv, preposition
B1 in addition to; also (CALD 4th)
Usage-based explanation
Usage-based explanation is the most frequently adopted technique for the explanationof this group of words. It usually takes the form of ‘used to ...’, ‘used as a way of ...’,‘used when ...’, ‘used for...’, ‘you use ... to ...’, and so on. Some examples from thedictionaries are as follows:(6) besides
adverb
B1 used to give another reason for something (CALD 4th)(7) besides
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adverbused for making an extra comment that adds to what you have just said (OALD
9th)(8) thus
adverb
You use thus to show that what you are about to mention is the result orconsequence of something else that you have just mentioned. (COBUILD)
Full-sentence explanation
Full-sentence explanation explains the words or phrases in context. It can ‘not only
disambiguate polysemous words, or foreground semi-lexicalized usages, but point up
lexico-grammatical constraints on word choice over and above syntactic structure or
selection restrictions’ (Moon 2016: 131). Full-sentence explanations are speciallyassociated with COBUILD dictionaries, in which all explanations are achieved by full
sentences regardless of what kind of information it is to be incorporated into the
explanation. For linking adverbials, most frequently the information to beincorporated is pragmatic usage. Following examples are drawn from COBUILD
New 8th edition.
(9) hence
adverb
You use hence to indicate that the statement you are about to make is aconsequence of what you have just said.
(10) besides
adverb
Besides is used to emphasize an additional point that you are making, especially
one that you consider to be important.
(11) in consequence/as a consequencephraseIf one thing happens and then another thing happens in consequence or as aconsequence, the second thing happens as a result of the first.
Evaluation
In learner’s dictionaries, linking adverbials are usually explained in the form ofsynonyms, usage-based explanation and full-sentence explanation. The information
most frequently incorporated in the full-sentence explanation is the usage.
Phraseology, examples, synonyms or thesaurus bank, usage notes, etc. aresupplemented to provide more information about meaning. However, there still exist
some problems. For one thing, the explanation is not satisfying. Synonym-type
explanation is not suitable for the explanation of this group of words, unless thedifferences or the conditions for the substitution is pointed out. However, suchinformation is always absent. Following are some examples:(12) moreover adv. also (CALD 4)(13) consequently adverb as a result; therefore (OALD 9th)
This will bring the misconception that they are interchangeable unconditionally.
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The most frequently adopted usage-based explanation sometimes is not sostraightforward and simple enough to understand. For example,(14) on the other hand (also on the one hand ... on the other hand) used to give
another opinion or fact that should be considered as well as the one you have justgiven. (LDOCE 6)
It is not easy to figure out that the phrase indicates some contrastive relation.
3. Explaining linking adverbials with Propositional Frames
Linking adverbials are understood as explicit markers of the coherence relations
between one proposition and another (Halliday and Hasan 1976; Hobbs 1978; Mann
and Thompson 1986). Thus, individual linking adverbials can be explained bydescribing the propositional content of the conjoined segments, that is, descriptions of
the propositional frames can serve as explanations of linking adverbials. Similar
practice has been taken by Williams (1996). In his dissertation, he argued that most of
the conjunct adverbials (CAs) were associated with particular propositional frames
which were either explicitly or implicitly realized in the text. CAs can be defined interms of propositional frames. According to him:
what the majority of CAs signal is indeed conventionalized according to thespecific lexeme but that what is frequently implied is the existence of specific,
abstract propositional structures which may or may not be realized in thesurface syntax; the existence of a particular configuration of propositionalvariables is essential (but not necessarily sufficient) to render the use of a CA
as proper. (Williams 1996: 21)
Using four million words of natural written texts as the corpus and polling
native-speaker introspective judgements, he proposed propositional frames for groupsof CAs. For example, when analyzing the definition of ‘accordingly’, Williams (1996:230) proposed the relevant frame as follows:"X; accordingly, Y" is appropriate if X, Y are propositions, Y is a contextual
implication of X, and X, Y contain at least one identical term in identical places in the
proposition.
This description shows clearly the use of ‘accordingly’, in which some kind ofparallelism is contained in both propositions. Defining linking adverbials in terms ofpropositional frames can also account for the property of non-interchangeability
between synonymous linking adverbials (Williams 1996: 21). An example of thesynonymous ‘therefore’ and ‘thus’ will be shown for the illustrative purpose.
"X; therefore, Y" is appropriate iff Y is a proposition recognizable as a contextual
effect of X, where X is a complex of at least two premises which jointly andnon-trivially imply Y, and if X is intended as justification for Y.
"X; thus, Y" is appropriate iff Y is a proposition recognizable as a contextual
effect of X, where X is a complex of at least two premises which jointly andnon-trivially imply Y.
As can be seen from the two propositional frames, ‘therefore’ differs from ‘thus’in that it intends to ‘persuade the readers of the truth of a particular proposition’60

PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

(Williams 1996: 227). While ‘thus’ is used generally without such intention. The two
propositional frames reveal directly the subtle nuance. However, since Williams
adopted a relevance approach to the understanding of linking adverbials, which seeksa unitary description of the meanings of this group of words, it makes the explanation
beyond the scope of average learners. A definition succeeds only when it provides theinformation required in a form readily digested by its users (Atkins and Rundell 2008:
450-451). In this sense, a coherence approach is more practical and feasible. In a
coherence framework, linking adverbials are taken as explicit representations of thecoherence relations between clauses, thus it’s natural to come to the conclusion thatthe meanings of linking adverbials are representational. They can be explained bydescribing the content of the conjoined clauses.
To make the definition intelligible to the users, some amendments are made,during which some guiding principles are followed. In content, the information
provided in the explanation should not only enable the Chinese EFL learners tounderstand the meaning and function of linking adverbials, but also allow them tochoose among synonymous ones and use them productively. The discrimination
between synonymous ones should be easily recognizable. In form, the explanation
should be intelligible to the intended users (Atkins and Rundells 2008; Moon 2016:125). Specifically, the wording including the words and grammatical structures should
be simple and clear enough and are ready to be digested by the users. The defining
vocabulary will be restricted to the 3,000 high frequency words provided in LDOCE 6.
If there are cases of additional words which cannot be easily avoided, it will be solved
by cross-references in lexicographic practice. Moreover, only the common senses ofthe defining vocabulary will be used. For example, the propositional frame ofaccordingly can be revised as:[X (a); accordingly, Y (a).] is used when Y is the result of X. X and Y have thesame quality a in the same place.
The formula is simplified as ‘X (a); accordingly, Y (a).’ for the sake ofintelligibility, in which ‘a’ indicates the identical term contained in the two
propositions. It shows that the two propositions have the same quality and there exists
some causal relation between the two propositions. The formula, together with someexamples, will suffice to show the meaning and use of the word. Common
lexicographic techniques for writing meaning by offering paraphrase, synonym-type
explanation, or usage-based explanation, ignoring descriptions of the propositions,cannot demonstrate clearly the use of these words and distinguish between thesynonymous ones. In this study, it will be demonstrated that descriptions of the
propositional frames can be supplemented to offer adequate definitions to these words.
More examples of defining linking adverbials in terms of propositional frames areprovided in the Appendix Ⅰ, which are obtained by analyzing corpus concordancefrom BNC and dictionary examples. It is unmanageable to analyze all the lines withsuch a large concordance. In order to keep the number of concordance lines to a
manageable number while maintaining the representativeness of the sample, the ‘get arandom sample’ function of Sketch Engine is utilized, by which the user can define
the number of lines to be analyzed and the lines will be randomly selected from all
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parts of the corpus. In this study, the sample number is set as 100 for each linking
adverbials. Example sentences from six advanced learner’s dictionaries, CALD 4,COBUILD, LDOCE 6, MEDAL, OALD 9, as well as OLDAE, are also studied
considering that lexicographic examples illustrate the most typical proprieties andcontexts of a word.
4. Effectiveness of Propositional Frames in Explaining Linking Adverbials
4.1 Aims and Materials
The study aims to determine the usefulness of propositional frames in explaining
linking adverbials. In the experiment, three versions of explanation to six groups ofsynonymous linking adverbials, 13 in number, were compared, namely,
propositional-frame-type explanation, usage-based explanation and synonym-type
explanation. As found out in Section 2, usage-based explanation and synonym-type
explanation are the most frequently adopted techniques to explain this group of words.
The propositional frame type explanation is written by the author based on the studyof corpus concordance from BNC and dictionary examples. The usage-based
explanation is taken directly from COBUILD, since as mentioned for linking
adverbials most frequently the information to be incorporated in its full-sentence
explanation is pragmatic usage. In this sense, the explanation technique adopted by
COBUILD for linking adverbials can be regarded as both full-sentence type andusage-based type. Another reason for taking the COBUILD-style explanation is thatthe propositional-frame-type explanations are also presented in full sentences. Thus, if
there are any differences in effectiveness, it can be attributed to the difference
between usage-based explanation and propositional-frame-type explanation. The
synonym-type explanation is taken from other learner’s dictionaries, namely, LDOCE
6th, CALD 4th, MEDAL, and OALD 9th. To simulate a real dictionary context, one
example is supplied for each linking adverbial. The examples are taken from theaforementioned dictionaries if they can fully demonstrate the usage as pointed out inthe explanation. In case that the examples offered in the dictionaries cannot show the
relation indicated by the linking adverbial, examples will be taken from BNC. As
shown in the following examples, in the aforementioned dictionaries it is usual thatthe examples contain only one sentence without presenting the sentence proceeding
the linking adverbial, which also plays an indispensable role in demonstrating therelation.
(15) Furthermore, they claim that any such interference is completely ineffective.
(COBUILD)(16) In sum, alternative policies were not considered. (MEDAL)
In this study, examples for ‘in sum’ and ‘furthermore’ are taken from BNC andthe others are from the aforementioned dictionaries. In sum, each linking adverbial
contains an explanation and an example. The three versions differ only in the
explanation type. Three versions of the 13 entries are shown in Appendix Ⅰ.
Two test papers were used in the experiment, including a pretest paper and a test
paper. Considering that linking adverbials are frequent words which impose less62

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serious problem for language learners to understand the meanings in particular
contexts and that Chinese users tend to misuse this group of words in writing, an
encoding test is more suitable for this purpose. In the pretest, students were provided
with 11 gapped sentences, for which they were asked to choose from two or threesynonymous linking adverbials a correct one to complete a sentence. The pretest aims
to test students’ knowledge of the target words. In the test, students were given a test
paper with 20 gapped sentences, for which they were asked to choose from two or
three synonymous linking adverbials a correct one to complete a sentence. All thesentences in the pretest and the test were taken from the illustrative examples in the
aforementioned dictionaries or BNC. To reduce the possibility that students chose theright words by chance, they were asked to choose from two synonymous words tocomplete three sentences or three words to complete five sentences. An example ofthe instruction and a sample group for the test paper are given below.
In this exercise, you should choose the right word for each sentence based on the
dictionary information.
in other words
that is
1. Some wines have ‘proprietary’(所有人) names –, their names werecreated by the producers.
2. They asked him to leave—, he was fired.
3. Languages are taught by the direct method,, without using thestudent’s own language.
The two test papers are shown in Appendix Ⅱ.
The third material used in the experiment was a questionnaire. The questionnaire
aimed to ask the students about their perception of the usefulness of different type of
explanation. It consisted of 3 forced-choice questions and an open-ended question,requiring the participants to evaluate the intelligibility of the dictionary entries, tospecify the difficulties they encountered in the task, and to comment on theeffectiveness and usefulness of the dictionary explanation. The questions in thequestionnaire were in Chinese. The English translation of the questions are as follows:
1. Can you understand the dictionary entry in your version?
2. What kind of difficulty did you have in understanding the explanation in yourversion? (e.g. intelligibility of the explanation, enough information for theunderstanding of the word in context, enough information for the use of the word in a
new context)
3. Do you have any other difficulties in finishing the task? If any, please specify!
4. Now you are provided with three types of explanation, which one do you thinkis the most effective?
The questionnaire is shown in Appendix Ⅲ.
4.2 Participants
The experiment was conducted in a medical college. 155 second-year undergraduate
students took part in the experiment online. They were informed of the experiment inadvance, and each was given a small amount of cash afterwards. All the students havestudied English for at least 8 years and have passed CET-4. They can be regarded as
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advanced learners of English. They were divided into three groups.
Before the experiment, 3 advanced learners of English had been asked to finish
the test paper and recorded the task time. It took them about 10 minutes to finish thetask. In view of this, those whose time intervals between the two tests were less than
10 minutes were excluded from the statistics. 155 and 146 students took part in thepretest and the test respectively, and 141 students finished the questionnaire. However,an examination of the log files revealed that many of the papers were invalid. Somestudents didn’t take part in both of the pretest and the test. Some students finished the
20 gapped sentences within 60 seconds, and the time intervals between the pretest andthe test were also less than 60 seconds. It was likely that they didn’t consult thedictionary entries, but just relied on their existing knowledge or even made a random
choice. Finally, the number of participants put into data analysis was 77, including 22
students for the synonym-type group (SG), 27 students for the
propositional-frame-type group (PG), and 28 students for the usage-based group(UG).
4.3 Procedures
The study consisted of a pretest, a test and a questionnaire, all of which wereconducted online. Before the experiment, all the materials were uploaded online. The
pretest, the test and the questionnaire could be accessed on the following website:
https://www.wjx.cn/newwjx/manage/myquestionnaires.aspx?randomt=1591855569.
In the experiment, firstly students were asked to finish the pretest paper online tocheck their knowledge about this group of words. They were asked to complete thetask independently. No dictionary or other auxiliary equipment was used in the test.
There was no time limit for the test. However, they were told they could summit the
paper once they completed the task. Most of the students finished the task in 10
minutes. When the students finished the pretest, they were asked to finish the test
paper online, in which they would choose from two or three synonymous linking
adverbials a correct one to complete a sentence. They were asked to rely on theversion of 13 dictionary entries they were given to do the task. The instruction wasgiven by the teacher and also in written form on the top of the test paper. There wasno time limit for the task. Most of the students finished the test in 20 minutes. Afterthey completed the test, students in all the three groups were asked to finish thequestionnaire.
4.4 Scoring
The sheets were scored automatically, and 1 point was given for each correct answer
with the highest possible score being 11 for the pretest and 20 for the test paper. A
score of 1 was assigned only when the exact answer was provided. When the author
was setting the answers, a classmate was invited to check them to reduce thepossibility of careless mistake.

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4.5 Results
The data obtained from the pretest were nonnormal, and I converted the data to ranks
and used the Kruskal-Wallis test. The calculations are shown in Table 7.1. The study
did not demonstrate any difference between the three groups [H= .915, p= .633]. In
other words, the results indicated that the three groups differed little in theirknowledge of the words in the pretest.
Table 7. 1 Kruskal-Willis test result of the pretest
Class

N

SG
PG
UG

22
27
28

25th
percentile
3
4
3

50th
percentile
5
5
4

75th
percentile
5.25
6
5

H

P

.915

.633

The results of the test are given in Table 7.2. As can be seen, the mean score of
the PG ranked the highest, with the SG the second and the UG the third. A one-way
ANOVA was conducted to compare the participants’ test scores and it showed nosignificant differences between the three groups [F (2, 74) = .886, p= .417]. The
results suggested that explaining linking adverbials in the form of propositionalframes almost had the same effect on students’ productive use of this group of words
as the usage-based explanation and the synonym-type explanation.
Table 7. 2 Descriptive statistics of the test scores (Max=20)

SG
PG
UG

N
22
27
28

Mean
10.4091
11.0741
10.1786SD
2.737032.644672.35786

Std. Error Minimum Maximum.58354 6.00
16.00
.50897 6.00
16.00
.44559 6.00
15.00

At the end of the test, students were asked about their understanding of thedictionary entries, the difficulties they encountered in the task and the usefulness ofdictionary explanation. In total, 141 complete answers were gathered. Figure 7.1
shows students’ understanding of dictionary entries. As can be seen, most students
could understand at least half of the dictionary entries. But some students from the PG
and the UG almost could not understand the dictionary entries, which did not occur to
the SG. It means that full sentence definition posed a challenge to some students.

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Figure 7. 1 Students’ understanding of dictionary entries
Figure 7.2 shows the difficulties students encountered with the explanation in thetask. The majority (73.33% of the SG, 69.09% of the PG, and 76.79% of the UG)
could understand the wording but could not rely on the information to finish theencoding task. In other words, most of the students could rely on the information forcomprehension but not for productive use. Intelligibility was sometimes problematic
for full sentence definitions (16.36% of the PG, and 8.93% of the UG). A relativeminority were satisfied with the information for encoding purpose (26.67% of the SG,
14.55% of the PG, and 14.28% of the UG).

Figure 7. 2 Students’ difficulties with the explanation
Figure 7.3 shows students’ perception of the usefulness of different types of
explanations. It reveals that the propositional-frame type ranked the first, with theusage-based type the second and the synonym type the third. It means that acceptanceinto the new definition style was favourable.

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Figure 7. 3 Preference of different explanations
4.6 Discussion and Conclusion
The study found that explaining linking adverbials in the form of propositional frames
contributed little to improving students’ productive use of this group of words [F (2,74) = .886, p= .417]. It seems that the new type of definition did not serve the learners
better. However, in my opinion, the results also indicated that the new type ofdefinition had the same effect on students’ productive use of this group of words as
the usage-based explanation and the synonym-type explanation. Considering that it
was a new definition style and students could be less familiar with it, the insignificant
result was to be expected.
To get an insight into possible reasons for the obtained results, students’
perception of the dictionary entries will be taken into consideration. Firstly, full
sentence definition requires more on the part of the students. Intelligibility is taken as
a given in writing definition (Atkins and Rundell 2008: 413). In this sense, thesynonym-type explanation can easily outperform the full-sentence type, since theformer can always convey the meaning with one or more synonyms while the later
requires a full sentence thus increasing the processing load for the users especially theunskilled ones (ibid: 443). 16.36% students of the PG and 8.93% of the UG chose‘totally unintelligible’ for their perception of the wording of the definition, which
didn’t occur to the SG. It indicated that it was difficult for these users to understandthe full sentence definition. However, it does not mean that synonym-type explanationis the most suitable one. It may be enough for decoding but not for encoding, because‘absolute synonyms are vanishingly rare, and do not form a significant feature ofnatural vocabularies’ (Cruse 2004: 155). The comments by students from SG were
illustrative.
‘The explanation is ambiguous.’ [SG]‘The explanation cannot show the usage and the differences between synonymous
ones.’ [SG]By contrast, full sentence definition, despite its shortcomings, has been
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selectively adopted by most learner’s dictionaries (Rundell 2008: 197-209). Whatreally matters is to present the definition in a way understandable to the users. There
must be a balance between the form and the content.
The second point is about the content of the definition and the example. In
considering what should come into a definition, the type of dictionary and the needs
and expectations of its user are the deciding factors (Atkins and Rundell 2008: 414). A
learner’s dictionary commits to meet the encoding needs of the users (Rundell 2008:
223). Thus, the dictionary entries should contain enough information for an encoding
task. In this experiment, when the students were asked to rely on the dictionary entries
to finish the task, they would expect the dictionary entries to provide discrimination
between synonymous ones. However, students’ responses to the open-ended question
revealed that the usage-based explanation and the synonym-type explanation couldn’t
meet their needs. Some students from the SG and the UG reported not being able todiscriminate between synonymous linking adverbials.
‘I can know the meaning of the word, but do not know the differences between
the two synonymous words.’ [SG]‘The definitions of moreover and furthermore are much the same, I don’t know
their difference.’ [UG]
‘I don’t know the usage of two words in a group.’ [UG]‘The definition cannot discriminate the two synonymous words.’[UG]
Complaints of this kind by the students in the PG were not found. However, it
didn’t mean that they could finish the task better. Possible reasons could be illustrated
by students’ responses. In addition to the problem of intelligibility as mentioned
above, some of them reported not having enough examples.
‘I can understand the meaning, but I am not sure if I have made the right choice,maybe I need more examples.’ [PG]
‘I hope there are more examples to discriminate between the synonyms.’ [PG]
There are two possible readings to the responses. It is possible that the students
could not completely understand the definition to fulfill the encoding task and theyneeded more examples to confirm their suspicion. If they were provided with more
examples, it was likely that they could figure out the meaning. It is also reflective of
the importance of examples to the students in the task. However, studies on theimportance of examples in production task have yielded inconsistent findings. Somehave shown that examples are more helpful than definition in encoding tasks(Bogaards and Van der Kloot 2002; Dziemianko 2006; Frankenberg-Garcia 2012).
Others haven’t yielded positive results (Summers 1991; Laufer 1993; Nesi 1996).
Considering that the studies differed in the task type, the word groups, and the sourceof examples, it needs to be verified in the future study. In a real dictionary, it isusually that more than one example is provided for an entry. While in this experiment,
only one example was provided for an entry. It was possible that the information
provided was not enough for the productive use. The present study can be improvedby providing more examples for an entry to simulate a real dictionary.
On the part of the users, it is also necessary to enhance their dictionary reference
skills. It is important that a dictionary provides specific information for the specific68

PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

needs of specific users. But if a new feature of a dictionary is not known by the users,
they may not be able to extract the information they need unless they are equippedwith adequate reference skills. A propositional-frame explanation shows theunderlying propositional component explicitly in the definition, which may escape theusers at first glance. It is interesting to see whether students’ score improve after some
explicit instruction of dictionary skills.
The experiment was conducted online, which would have some limitations.
Though the participants were informed of the experiment in advance, it was difficult
to make sure that they followed the instruction in the task. To elicit an in-depth
information concerning the participants’ consultation, a post-task interview isdesirable. In future, it is necessary to conduct an experiment in a traditional model tosee whether they produce systematic results.
Students encountered some difficulties in understanding the new type ofdefinition, but it was gaining acceptance, as proved in Figure 7.3. The present study
was only a small scale one. Though the result was not statistically significant, it was
encouraging. It should be reminded that it was only an isolated and one-off study. To
verify the effectiveness of the new type of definition, more studies are required.
Future studies should be improved to simulate a real dictionary and conducted withdifferent population under different conditions.
5. Conclusion
The present study sets out to find out an explanation technique to demonstrate clearly
the use of linking adverbials and distinguish between the synonymous ones. It is
proposed that functions of linking adverbials can be exhibited in the form ofpropositional frames. The effectiveness of the new explanation technique was also
tested. As revealed in the empirical study, the propositional-frame-type explanation
had the same effect on students’ productive use of this group of words as theusage-based explanation and the synonym-type explanation. Though users
encountered some difficulties with this new type of definition, it gained acceptance. It
is suggested dictionary reference skills should be taught to the students and futurestudies may be conducted with different population under different conditions. The
findings of this dissertation are expected to inspire lexicographical studies and second
language teaching.

References
A. Dictionaries
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Press. (CALD 4)
Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner’s Dictionary New 8th edition. 2014. Harper
Collins. (COBUILD)
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 6th edition. 2017. Pearson. (LDOCE 6)
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Macmillan English Dictionary for Advance Learners 2nd edition. 2007. Macmillan.
(MEDAL)
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 8th edition. 2010. Oxford University Press.
(OALD 8)Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 9th edition. 2015. Oxford University Press.
(OALD 9)Oxford Learner’s Dictionary of Academic English (Chief editor, D. Lea). 2014.
Oxford University Press. (OLDAE)
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Altenberg, B. and M. Tapper. 1998. The use of adverbial connectors in advanced
Swedish learners’ written English. Learner English on computer, ed. In S.
Granger, 80–93. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman.
Atkins, B. T. S. and M. Rundell. 2008. The Oxford guide to practical lexicography.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., and E. Finegan. 1999. Longman
grammar of spoken and written English. London: Longman.
Blakemore, D. 1987. Semantic constraints on relevance. Blackwell: Oxford.
Bogaards, P. and W. A. V. D. Kloot. 2002. Verb constructions in learners’ dictionaries.
Proceedings of the tenth Euralex international congress, Euralex 2002, eds. In A.
Braasch and C. Povlsen, 747–757. Copenhagen: Center for Sprogteknologi
Copenhagen University.
Bolton, K., Nelson, G., and J. Hung. 2002. A corpus-based study of connectors instudent writing: Research from the international corpus of English in Hong Kong
(ICE-HK). International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 7 (2): 165–182.
Crewe, W. 1990. The illogic of logical connectives. ELT Journal 44 (4): 316–325.
Cruse, D. A. 2004. Meaning in Language: An introduction to semantics andPragmatics. Second edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dziemianko, A. 2006. User-friendliness of verb syntax in pedagogical dictionaries ofEnglish. Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.
Field, Y. and L. M. O. Yip. 1992. A comparison of internal conjunctive cohesion in the
English essay writing of Cantonese speakers and native speakers of English.
RELC Journal 23 (1): 15–28.
Frankenberg-Garcia, A. 2012. Learners’ use of corpus examples. International
Journal of Lexicography 25 (3): 273–296.
Granger, S. and S. Tyson. 1996. Connector usage in the English essay writing of
native and nonnative ESL speakers of English. World Englishes (15): 17–27.
Halliday, M. A. K. and R. Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. Harlow, England:
Longman.
Halliday, M. A. K. 1985. An introduction to functional grammar (1st ed.). London:
Edward Arnold.
Hobbs, J. R. 1978. Why is discourse coherent?. SRI Technical Note 176, SRI
International, Menlo Park, California.
Kirkpatrick, B. 1985. A lexicographical dilemma: Monolingual dictionaries for the70

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native speaker and for the learner. Dictionaries, lexicography and language
learning, ed. In R. F. Ilson, 7-13. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Landau, S. 2001. Dictionaries: The art and craft of lexicography. Cambridge
University Press.
Laufer, B. 1993. The effects of dictionary definitions and examples on thecomprehension of new L2 words. Cahiers de Lexocologie (63): 131-142.
Leedham, M. and G. Cai. 2013. Besides…on the other hand: Using a corpus approach
to explore the influence of teaching materials on Chinese students' use of linking
adverbials. Journal of Second Language Writing (22): 374-389.
Lorenz, G. 1999. Learning to cohere: casual links in native vs. non-nativeargumentative writing. Coherence in spoken and written discourse: How tocreate it and how to describe it, eds. In W. Bublitz, U. Lenk, and E. Ventola,
55–75. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Mann, W. and S. Thompson. 1986. Relational propositions in discourse. Discourse
Processes (9): 57-90.
Martin, J. R. 1992. English text: System and structure. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Publishing.
Milton, J. and E. S. C. Tsang. 1993. A corpus-based study of logical connectors in
EFL students’ writing: Directions for future research. Lexis in studies, eds. In R.
Perbertom and E. S. C. Tsang, 215–246. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University.
Moon, R. 2016. Explaining meaning in learners’ dictionaries. The Oxford handbook of
lexicography, ed. In P. Durkin, 123-143. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nesi, H. 1996. The role of illustrative examples in productive dictionary use.
Dictionaries (17): 198-206.
Pang, P. 2009. A study on the use of four-word lexical bundles in argumentative
essays by Chinese English-majors: A comparative study based on WECCL and
LOCNESS. Teaching English in China (32): 25-45.
Rouchota, V. 1996. Discourse connectives: what do they link?. UCL Working Papers
in Linguistics 8.
Rundell, M. 2008. Recent trends in English pedagogical lexicography. Practicallexicography: A reader, ed. In T. Fontenelle, 221-243. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Summers, D. 1991. The role of dictionaries in language learning. Vocabulary andlanguage teaching, eds. In R. Carter, and M. McCarthy, 111-125. London:
Longman.
Williams, H. A. 1996. An analysis of English conjunctive adverbial expressions. Phd
thesis. University of California, Los Angeles.
潘璠, 冯跃进. 2004. 非英语专业研究生写作中连接词用法的语料库调查. 现代
外语(02): 157-162+217-218.
外研在线. 中国电化教育. 2020. 中国大学生英语写作能力报告（2020）.
吴晓春. 2012. 基于语料库的中国外语学习者议论文写作中逻辑连接词的使用研究. 长春: 东北师范大学.

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Appendices
ⅠThree versions of 13 dictionary entries
Usage-based explanationin other words(释义) You say in other words in order to introduce a different, and usually simpler,
explanation or interpretation of something that has just been said.
(例句) e.g. The tax only affects people on incomes of over $200,000 – in other words, the veryrich.
that isYou use that is to indicate that you are about to express the same idea more clearly or
precisely.
e.g. One solution would be to change the shape of the screen, that is, to make it wider.

on the other hand
You use on the other hand to introduce the second of two contrasting points, facts, or ways oflooking at something.
e.g. On the one hand they'd love to have kids, but on the other hand, they don't want to give up
their freedom.
by contrast
You say by contrast to show that you are mentioning a very different situation from the one
you have just mentioned.
e.g. The technology sector is doing badly. Old economy stocks(老经济股票), by contrast, areperforming well again.

moreoverYou use moreover to introduce a piece of information that adds to or supports the previous
statement.
e.g. The rent is reasonable and, moreover, the location is perfect.
furthermore
Furthermore is used to introduce a piece of information or opinion that adds to or supports
the previous one.
e.g. He is old and unpopular. Furthermore, he has at best only two years of political life ahead ofhim.

accordingly
You use accordingly to introduce a fact or situation which is a result or consequence ofsomething that you have just referred to.
e.g. We have a different background. Accordingly, we have the right to different futures.
consequently
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Consequently means as a result.
e.g. She failed her exams and was consequently unable to start her studies at college.
in conclusion
You say 'in conclusion' to indicate that what you are about to say is the last thing that you
want to say.
e.g. Although there were various epidemics(流行病) ahead, of various kinds, these no longer
prevented the population from entering on a period of sustained(持续的) growth between 1,525
and 1,550. In conclusion, the population of England remained fairly stable for much of the
fifteenth century, at a far lower level than in the first half of the fourteenth.
in sum
You use in sum to introduce a statement that briefly describes a situation.
Moreover, we believe that the knowledge worker in its broadest sense is any member of the labor
force who adds value to a data or information product whether or not that added value is primarily
in terms of packaging and delivering the message, or in terms of enhancing the meaning andusability of the message.... In sum, our definition of a knowledge worker is anyone, in any work
context who adds value either to a message or to the message's package.

equally
Equally is used to introduce another comment on the same topic, which balances or contrasts
with the previous comment.
e.g. They needed his help, but equally they did not trust him.
by the same token
You use by the same token to introduce a statement that you think is true for the same
reasons that were given for a previous statement.
e.g. If you give up exercise, your fat increases. By the same token, if you expend more energy you
will lose fat.
similarly
You use similarly when mentioning a fact or situation that is similar to the one you have justmentioned.
e.g. The cost of food and clothing has come down in recent years. Similarly, fuel prices havefallen quite considerably.

Synonym-type explanationin other words(释义) put differently; otherwise stated(例句) e.g. The tax only affects people on incomes of over $200,000 – in other words, the veryrich.
that isor more exactly
e.g. One solution would be to change the shape of the screen, that is, to make it wider.

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on the other handin a way that is different from the first thing you mentioned
e.g. On the one hand they'd love to have kids, but on the other hand, they don't want to give up
their freedom.
by contrast
very different frome.g. The technology sector is doing badly. Old economy stocks(老经济股票), by contrast, areperforming well again.

moreoverin addition
e.g. The rent is reasonable and, moreover, the location is perfect.
furthermore
in addition to what has already been saide.g. He is old and unpopular. Furthermore, he has at best only two years of political life ahead ofhim.

accordingly
as a result of somethinge.g. We have a different background. Accordingly, we have the right to different futures.
consequently
as a result
e.g. She failed her exams and was consequently unable to start her studies at college.

in conclusion
finallye.g. Although there were various epidemics(流行病) ahead, of various kinds, these no longer
prevented the population from entering on a period of sustained(持续的) growth between 1525
and 1550. In conclusion, the population of England remained fairly stable for much of the
fifteenth century, at a far lower level than in the first half of the fourteenth.
in sumin short; in briefe.g. Moreover, we believe that the knowledge worker in its broadest sense is any member of thelabor force who adds value to a data or information product whether or not that added value isprimarily in terms of packaging and delivering the message, or in terms of enhancing the meaning
and usability of the message.... In sum, our definition of a knowledge worker is anyone, in any
work context who adds value either to a message or to the message's package.

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equally
as important ase.g. They needed his help, but equally they did not trust him.
by the same token
in a similar way; for the same reasonse.g. If you give up exercise, your fat increases. By the same token, if you expend more energy you
will lose fat.
similarly
in a similar way
e.g. The cost of food and clothing has come down in recent years. Similarly, fuel prices havefallen quite considerably.

Propositional-frame-type explanationin other words(释义) [X; in other words, Y.] is used when Y restates(重新表述) what has been presented in X
in a clearer and simpler way.
(例句) e.g. The tax only affects people on incomes of over $200,000 － in other words, the veryrich.
that is[X; that is, Y.] is used when Y offers more detailed explanation to X, or when Y offers clearer
information which has been stated in X.
e.g. One solution would be to change the shape of the screen, that is, to make it wider.

on the other hand[X(a); on the other hand X(b).] is used to compare a and b, and a and b are two different
opinions or facts about X.
e.g. On the one hand they'd love to have kids, but on the other hand, they don't want to give up
their freedom.
by contrast[X(a); by contrast, Y(b).] is used to emphasize that Y is quite different from X. a and b are
opposite characteristics belonging to X and Y respectively(分别).
e.g. The technology sector is doing badly. Old economy stocks(老经济股票), by contrast, areperforming well again.

moreover[X; moreover, Y.] can be used to support a statement S. X and Y are parallel clauses(平行句子).
S will either come before or after X and Y.
e.g. The rent is reasonable and, moreover, the location is perfect.
furthermore[X; Y; furthermore, Z.] can be used to support a statement S. X, Y and Z are parallel clauses. S

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will either come before or after X, Y and Z.
e.g. He is old and unpopular. Furthermore, he has at best only two years of political life ahead ofhim.

accordingly[X (a); accordingly, Y (a).] is used when Y is the result of X. X and Y have the same quality a inthe same place.
e.g. We have a different background. Accordingly, we have the right to different futures.
consequently[X; consequently, Y.] is used when Y is the result of X, and X is the cause for Y.
e.g. She failed her exams and was consequently unable to start her studies at college.

in conclusion[X, Y...; in conclusion, Z.] is used when Z is the last thing you want to say. Z is the opinion
reached based on X, Y...
e.g. Although there were various epidemics(流行病) ahead, of various kinds, these no longer
prevented the population from entering on a period of sustained(持续的) growth between 1525
and 1550. In conclusion, the population of England remained fairly stable for much of the
fifteenth century, at a far lower level than in the first half of the fourteenth.
in sum
[X, Y...; in sum, Z.] is used when Z gives the main information about X, Y... in a simpler way.
e.g. Moreover, we believe that the knowledge worker in its broadest sense is any member of thelabor force who adds value to a data or information product whether or not that added value isprimarily in terms of packaging and delivering the message, or in terms of enhancing the meaning
and usability of the message.... In sum, our definition of a knowledge worker is anyone, in any
work context who adds value either to a message or to the message's package.

equally[X(a); equally, X(b).] is used to introduce another important idea b. a and b are about the same
topic X, but contrasts with each other.
e.g. They needed his help, but equally they did not trust him.
by the same token[X; by the same token, Y.] is used when X is true for some reason, and Y is also true for thesame reason.
e.g. If you give up exercise, your fat increases. By the same token, if you expend more energy you
will lose fat.
similarly[X; similarly, Y.] is used when X and Y are like each other.
e.g. The cost of food and clothing has come down in recent years. Similarly, fuel prices havefallen quite considerably.

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Ⅱ Test papers
Pretest paper
In this exercise, you should choose the right word for each sentence.
in other words
that is
1. All the B Vitamins work synergistically(协同地). ___________, they are more potent whentaken together than when used separately.
2. I am a disappointing, though generally dutiful, student. _________, I do as I'm told.
3. He prides himself on his powers of persuasion -- ________, his salesmanship.
accordinglyconsequently
4. No formal complaint was made; ________, the police took no action.
5. They’ve increased the number of staff and _________ the service is better.
6. You are less capable of solving the problem and ________ you feel less and less competentand more and more under pressure to perform well.
by the same token equallysimilarly
7. I don't think that prices will go up but, _______, I don't see them going down either.
8. Not all businesses are legitimate(合法的). ________, not all customers are honest.
9. You want to store things, but ___________, you want to be able to find them again.
10. The views of parents are important, but _______ we must listen to teachers.
11. Cars must stop at red traffic lights. _________, bicycles have to stop too.

Test paper
In this exercise, you should choose the right word for each sentence based on the dictionary
information.
in other words
that is
1. Some wines have ‘proprietary’(所有人) names – __________, their names were created by
the producers.
2. They asked him to leave—______________, he was fired.
3. Languages are taught by the direct method, __________, without using the student’s own
language.
on the other handby contrast
4. Well, all right, hospitals lose money. But, _____________, if people are healthy, think of it assaving lives.
5. Many of these garden pests cause little real damage. ____________, aphids(蚜虫) can
infect(传染) raspberries(山莓) with incurable diseases.
6. Newspapers were visibly different in tone, style, and partisan bias(党派偏见), even though
media analysts know that this apparent variety is controlled and constrained(限制) by a handful of
publishers. ____________, television news is produced by only two networks which are
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constrained by law to offer remarkably similar products.
furthermore
moreover7. There was a man immediately behind her. ________, he was observing her strangely.
8. More and more people are opposed to the idea of increasing university fees. __________,
there is now evidence that it discourages many students from coming to the UK.
9. As many parents have discovered, the problem with disposable nappies(一次性尿裤) has
been with that word 'disposable'. Yes, you can put them in bags and carry them out to the bin. But
this is an old fashioned and potentially unhygienic(不卫生的) method. ___________, mixing up
used disposables with the rest of the household rubbish makes it difficult to recycle themafterwards.
accordinglyconsequently
10. The cost of materials rose sharply last year. ___________, we were forced to increase our
prices.
11. Most computer users have never received any formal keyboard training. ____________, their
keyboard skills are inefficient(不熟练).
12. The workforce wants working hours to be reduced. Many companies have ____________
switched(转换成) to a five-day week.
in conclusion
in sum
13. In turn, clients' expectations are growing; they are more informed, more knowledgeable
about(更了解) the process, much more likely to adopt an open style, and want to know the key
facts, expecting a high level of overall professionalism(专业水平). Very few of them believe there
is any magic in the business and almost all of them want to understand the process and expect
executive search consultants(猎头顾问) to provide that knowledge. There is now no room for theamateur(业余) in the business. __________, it is clear that the market in the UK is maturing(成熟)and the executive search product is starting to come to age.
14. Demand for health care is clearly not' infinite'(无限的), but it is difficult to meet rapidly
rising demand in an affluent(富裕的) society. This problem is not helped by the provision ofhealth care free at the point of use, which prevents the patient from knowing the cost of thetreatment. ____________, the demand for health care differs from the demand for other services
and its responsiveness(灵敏度) to market forces is open to question.
15. Apart from helping to improve actual work performance, the main benefits of adopting aformal appraisal system(评估系统) are that it: (1)encourages a more systematic approach to
managing subordinates(下属) (2) provides information about a person's potential for promotion ortransfer (3) improves motivation by giving feedback on personal progress. ____________,
appraisal systems should promote a healthier attitude towards work by employees andconsequently many large employers have become deeply committed to such schemes(体系).
by the same token equally similarly
16. You have to show respect for your colleagues, and __________ they have to respect you.
17. I'm trying to do what is best, but ___________ I've got to consider the cost.
18. We want the economy to grow, but ___________ we want low inflation(通货膨胀).
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19. The United States won most of the track and field events(田径项目). ___________, inswimming, the top three places went to Americans.
20. The penalty(惩罚) for failure will be high. But, ____________, the rewards for success will
be great.

Ⅲ Questionnaire
一、你能理解刚才的词典词条内容吗,以下哪个选项最能表达你的理解程度？
1. 完全不能理解 2.大部分不能理解 3.一半不能一半能理解
4. 大部分能理解 5. 完全能理解
二、在刚才理解词典释义的过程中，有没有存在以下问题：1. 释义措词难以理解；2. 释义措词可以理解，但是不能依靠释义完成练习。
3. 可以理解，并依靠释义完成练习。
如有，请指出。你还有碰到其他问题吗？______________
三、结合你刚才做的练习，下列三个版本的释义，你觉得哪个版本最有助于你对单词的理解
和使用？
(1)on the other hand
You use on the other hand to introduce the second of two contrasting points, facts, or ways oflooking at something.
e.g. On the one hand they'd love to have kids, but on the other hand, they don't want to give up
their freedom.
(2)[X(a); on the other hand X(b).] is used to compare a and b, and a and b are two different
opinions or facts about X.
e.g. On the one hand they'd love to have kids, but on the other hand, they don't want to give up
their freedom.
(3)on the other handin a way that is different from the first thing you mentioned
e.g. On the one hand they'd love to have kids, but on the other hand, they don't want to give up
their freedom.

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Comparative Study on Loanwords in Korean and Chinese
Neologisms: Focusing on the Neologisms from 2010 to 2020
Liang Fu
Kilim Nam
Kyungpook National University, Republic of Korea
fuliang211@163.com
nki@knu.ac.kr
Abstract: This study examined the acceptance of loanwords in Korean and Chinese
neologisms in the past decade, which belong to the same Chinese character culture. In
modern society, with the acceleration of globalization, international exchanges are
deepening day by day. It is conceivable that there will be more and more loanwords
in the neologisms. The borrowing of loanwords is not limited to direct borrowing ofEnglish and other foreign languages. It can also be realized by combining with thenative language or by certain morphological changes. There are also uniqueborrowing methods such as Konglish. Considering this, it is necessary to closely
examine the phenomenon of borrowing loanwords in Korean and Chinese neologisms.
By investigating the annual number and proportion of neologisms containing
loanwords, this study analyzed the trend of loanword borrowing in Korean-Chinese
neologisms in the past decade. In addition, from the morphological perspective, thisstudy systematically classified the ways of borrowing loanwords, and investigated theannual distribution trend of Korean-Chinese neologisms according to theclassification. The results of this study on the phenomenon of loanwords borrowing in
Korean-Chinese neologisms in the past 10 years can provide some references forlanguage policy making in Korea and China.
Keywords: loanwords, neologisms, short-term diachronic approach, morphologicalperspective, Korean and Chinese, language policy

1. Introduction
The study aims to examine the borrowing of loanwords in Korean and Chinese
neologisms over the past decade. That is to investigate the distribution and variation
trend of loanwords in Korean and Chinese neologisms and compare themorphological characteristics of loanwords borrowing.
Korean and Chinese have a lot in common. Korean and Chinese belong to thesame cultural circle of Chinese characters historically. And both countries have astrong attitude of linguocentrism in the implementation of language policies. In
addition, from the perspective of neologisms, the collection of neologisms in Korea
and China over the past few decades has been led by the state. With the increase in thecommunication between countries and the deepening of globalization, the formationof neologisms in both countries has been influenced more by loanwords. In this regard,
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it is meaningful to compare the phenomenon of loanwords borrowing in the
Korean-Chinese neologisms from a short-term diachronic perspective.
Neologisms are usually formed from existing words in the national language, butthey can also be borrowed from other languages (Nam and Lee 2016). In modern
society, with the acceleration of globalization, international exchanges are deepening
day by day. It is conceivable that there will be more and more loanwords in the
neologisms. The borrowing of loanwords is not limited to direct borrowing fromEnglish and other foreign languages. It can also be realized by combining with thenative language or by certain morphological changes. There are also uniqueborrowing methods such as Konglish. Considering this, it is necessary to closely
examine the phenomenon of borrowing loanwords in Korean and Chinese neologisms.
This study divides the borrowing of loanwords into direct borrowing, indirect
borrowing and unique borrowing and makes a comparative analysis of the borrowingof loanwords in Korean-Chinese neologisms.
Korea and China have government-level institutions that formulate andimplement language policies, and have relatively strong authority over the collectionof neologisms, the compiling of dictionaries, and language purification policies.
Although the borrowing of loanwords is increasing, both Korea and China are trying
to purify loanwords with their own languages. However, the results of this effort are
not very effective and are often unsuccessful. The results of this study on thephenomenon of loanwords borrowing in Korean-Chinese neologisms in the past 10
years can provide some references for language policy making in Korea and China.
Most of the preceding researches on the borrowing of loanwords in
Korean-Chinese neologisms are about the types of loanwords, the proportion of
loanwords and the ways of borrowing loanwords from the synchronic perspective.
There are some studies, such as Gui (2016), Liu (2017), Xu (2009), Li (2016), Li(2021), Li (2019), Zhao (2016), Chen (2017), Zhao (2011), Lu (2017), and Han(2020). The results of these studies are mostly similar. That is, the loanwords in
Korean and Chinese neologisms are mainly based on English, and the proportion of
loanwords in Korean neologisms is higher than that in Chinese neologisms, and thetypes of loanwords in Korean neologisms are more diverse than that in Chinese
neologisms. In addition, Meng (2021) investigated the distribution of etymologicalcategories of Korean-Chinese neologisms from 2009 to 2019. In the study, it was
confirmed that the proportion of loanwords in Korean-Chinese neologisms is on theincrease. However, it does not carry out a rigorous analysis of the complexity ofloanwords borrowing from the perspective of morphological perspective.
The existing discussions showed the overall proportion of loanwords in theformation of Korean and Chinese neologisms, and revealed the differences inborrowing methods based on the linguistic characteristics of Korean and Chinese. In
this respect, preceding researches are of great significance. However, a static analysis
from a synchronic perspective would be difficult to answer how the borrowing ofloanwords among Korean and Chinese neologisms has changed in the global era.
Moreover, it is difficult to explain the phenomenon of loanword borrowing from themorphological perspective because the morphological diversity of loanwords
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borrowing in neologisms is not fully investigated. Hacken and Panocova (2020)
discussed that research on loanwords borrowing mainly focuses on lexicography andetymology, while morphological approach is still insufficient. The morphologicalconsideration of loanwords is not only a necessary point of view in the study of
Korean-Chinese neologisms, but also a necessary point of view in the study of all theloanwords in neologisms.
This paper analyzes the trend of loanwords borrowing in Korean-Chinese
neologisms in the past decade by investigating the annual number and proportion of
loanwords in neologisms. From the morphological perspective, this study
systematically classifies the ways of borrowing loanwords, and investigates theannual distribution trend of Korean-Chinese neologisms according to theclassification. This study is distinct from existing studies in that it aims to examine the
distribution and morphological character of loanwords in Korean and Chinese
neologisms by analyzing the characteristics and trends of borrowing methods from ashort-term diachronic perspective.
2. Preliminary Discussion
2.1 Loanwords Category of Korean and Chinese
Korean and Chinese are different in the category setting of loanwords. Korean
vocabulary can be generally divided into native Korean words, Sino-Korean ones, andloanwords depending on the vocabulary type. Among them, Sino-Korean words are
generally not regarded as loanwords because they have been introduced to Korea for along time and have already been assimilated into the Korean vocabulary system. In
the Korean vocabulary system, it is common to consider foreign languages other than
Sino-Korean words as loanwords. So far, words that transliterate foreign languages
such as “플루닛(ploonet)”, “스스디(SSD)”, “뮤캉스(musical vacance)”, “위드코로나(with corona)” are recognized as loanwords, and those that are purified fromforeign languages, such as “똑똑전화(smart phone)”, “각자내기(Dutch pay)”,“모둠꽂이(multi-tap)”, “손뼉맞장구(high five)” have been treated as purifying
words. However, despite being the same purifying words, “smart phone” is different
from other purifying ones. “똑똑전화” is the literal translation of “smart phone”.
From the point of view that free translation is the basic way of borrowing from aforeign language, just like transliteration, “똑똑전화” can be treated as a loanword.
All in all, in this study, transliteration or free translation of foreign words other than
Sino-Korean words are regarded as loanwords in Korean.
China is a multi-ethnic country. There are minority languages in addition to theofficial Chinese. All the minority languages have independent language and writing
systems. For example, Mongolian, Tibetan, and Uighur. Therefore, in the vocabularysystem of Chinese, not only the languages of other countries, but also other ethnic
languages of China are regarded as loanwords. One thing to be careful about is not to
confuse ethnic languages of China with the local dialects of China. The local dialects
of China do not have an independent language system, but form the Chinese language
system as non-standard Chinese together with standard Chinese. In this paper,
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minority languages in China and languages borrowed from other languages bytransliteration or free translation are regarded as loanwords.
2.2 Research Object and Method
Korea and China have led the annual collection of neologisms by the National
Institute of the Korean Language and the Department of Language Information
Management of Chinese Ministry of Education, respectively.1 The neologisms survey
in both countries is conducted by extracting neologism candidates from media such as
newspapers, broadcasts, and the Internet, and then researchers review themthemselves to select the neologisms. The results of the neologism survey of the two
projects are the Neologism Data Collection published by the National Institute of
Korean Language and the Chinese Neologisms published by the Commercial Press. In
the past 10 years, Korea did not implement the 2011 neologism survey. So there is no
officially published data about neologism. Therefore, this study adds the 2010 Korean
neologisms as the object for analysis. The total number of Korean and Chinese
neologisms per year is as follows.
Table 1 Annual total of Korean and Chinese neologisms
2010
KoreanChinese

2011

351
628

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

Total

500

476

334

277

625

373

434

342

405

4,117

533

366

434

478

433

247

248

242

263

3,872

Since the source language of the loanwords is arbitrarily listed in the materials on
Chinese neologisms, this paper analyzes the Chinese neologisms one by one to findthe loanwords among them. For the judgment and source language of loanwords, theauthors refer to Baidu Baike and Baidu Hanyu. The changes in the distribution of
loanwords over 10 years are compared by checking the number and proportion of
loanwords borrowed each year in the neologisms of both countries.
In addition, it is necessary to look at the morphological characteristics ofloanwords in forming Korean and Chinese neologisms. Hacken and Panocová(2020)
discussed the need to study the interaction between “formation” and “borrowing”,
noting that we have only focused on word formation in traditional morphology, buthave not discussed borrowing in depth. This criticism needs to be paid more attention
to, especially from the perspective of studying neologisms, because globalization isincreasing the number of modern neologisms not only through the use of existingwords, but also through loanword borrowing.
In order to examine the morphological characteristics of loanwords among
Korean and Chinese neologisms, it is necessary to systemize the borrowing methods.
According to the forms of loanwords in neologisms, this paper divides the borrowing
methods into direct and coinage borrowings. Direct borrowing refers to the borrowing
1

In Korea, the neologisms survey project, which began in 1994, has been led by the National Institute of Korean
Language for more than 30 years, but it was suspended from 2020 for no particular reason. However, the Language
Information Research Center of Kyungpook National University collected the neologisms in 2020 using the same
method adopted by National Institute of Korean Language. In this study, we will make use of it.

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of pure loanwords by transliteration, liberal translation and phonetic translation
integrated with association. Coinage borrowing may be subdivided into simple
combined borrowing, abbreviating borrowing, clipping borrowing, affix borrowing
and other borrowing according to the form of loanwords in neologisms. The scopeand examples of each borrowing method are as follows Table2.
Table 2 Classification and scope of loanword borrowing methods
Methods

Transliteration

Free Translation

Scope

ExampleBorrowing in Transliteration of Pure코비디보스(covidivorce)

Loanwords

凡尔赛(Versailles)

Borrowing in Direct Translation of Pure똑똑전화(smart phone)

Loanwords

虎妈(Tiger Mother)

Transliteration
DirectIntegrated with

Borrowing Combining Transliteration and줌폭탄(zoom bombing)

Borrowing

Association

Free Translation of Pure Loanwords

绿 V 客(green week)

Borrowing that Retains the Original Form of
Simplea Loanword while Combining it with the달고나커피(달고나 coffee)

Combination

Vernacular or Other Foreign Language by

白雪可乐(白雪 cola)

Transliterating or Translating it

Clipping

Borrowing that Clips the Form of Loanwords

픽처리어(picture interior)and Accepts them as they are or Combines

好莱虎(Hollywood 虎)

Coinagethem with Foreign Language Elements

Borrowing

Borrowing that Cuts the form of a Loanword
and then Accepts it Immediately or

Abbreviation

Combines it with Another Element. And패테(fashion terrorist)

Borrowing in which a Loanword, in its

ICO(Initial Coin Offering)Complete Form, is Combined with Another
Element and then the Whole Expression isAbbreviated.
Borrowing that Accepts the Affix of a

Affix

Loanword. And Borrowing in which a지규너(지균-er)

Loanword Functions as an Affix in the颜值控(颜值-コン)

Vernacular Language.
OthersBorrowing Other than in the Method Stated동생-덕후(otaku)Above笨 nana(Banana)

According to the detailed types of loanword borrowing methods presented inTable 2, the annual number and ratio of loanwords in Korean and Chinese neologisms
are checked, and the morphological characteristics and changing trend are analyzed.
3. The Distribution of Loanwords in Korean and Chinese Neologisms
In order to find out the changing trend in the distribution of loanwords in Korean andChinese neologisms, we checked the annual number and ratio of loanwords among
Korean and Chinese neologisms over the past 10 years. The results are shown in the84

PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

following Table 3 and Figure 1.
Table 3 The distribution of Korean and Chinese neologisms borrowing loanwords
2010

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

Total

173

299

283

212

166

350

237

291

215

187

2,413

49.3%

59.8%

59.5%

63.5%

59.9%

56.0%

63.5%

67.1%

62.9%

46.2%

58.6%

130

65

43

35

53

47

39

38

23

47

520

20.7%

12.2%

11.7%

8.1%

11.1%

10.9%

15.8%

15.3%

9.5%

17.8%

13.4%

(2011)
KoreanChineseFigure 1 The distribution trends of Korean and Chinese neologisms borrowing
loanwords
In the above chart, Korean and Chinese neologisms showed clear differences in
the acceptance of loanwords. First of all, more than 58% of the 4,117 Korean
neologisms in the past decade included loanwords. In comparison, only 520 out of
3,872 Chinese neologisms borrowed foreign words, accounting for only about 13%.
In terms of timing, the proportion of Korean neologisms that accept loanwords
remains at more than 40% and is steadily rising until 2019. On the other hand, theproportion of Chinese neologisms that borrowed foreign words was relatively high in
2011, and has remained below 20% since 2012. The large difference in the proportionof loanwords among Korean and Chinese neologisms can be attributed to thecharacteristics of the language and character types of the two countries. Chinese is an
isolating language and it has excellent productivity in vocabulary formation becauseof its use of ideogram. Therefore, even if new concepts, things, and acts from othercountries enter China, they can be expressed easily in Chinese. Since Korean uses
phonogram, when it accepts concepts or objects from other countries, it is easier totransliterate them.
In addition, the borrowing of foreign words from Korean and Chinese neologisms
is showing different trends against the background of the COVID-19 pandemic in
2020. The proportion of foreign words borrowed in Korean neologisms, which had
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PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

remained around 60% since 2012, fell by nearly 20% in 2020. On the other hand, theproportion of loanword borrowing among Chinese neologisms has remained around
10% since 2012. But in 2020, it was the highest in nine years, nearly doubling that in
the previous year. This is because the main usage fields affected by COVID-19 aredifferent among Korean and Chinese neologisms. Korean neologisms are used in
specialized and general fields, with the number used in the specialized field increasing
significantly in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, compared to otheryears where many neologisms in ECONOMY and SOCIETY appeared, the proportionof neologisms in HEALTH, WELFARE, ADMINISTRATION, LAW and POLITICS wassignificantly higher in 2020. Most of the neologisms in these fields have been createdby the Korean government’s response to COVID-19, which has been less affected byother countries. This led to a lower proportion of loanword borrowing.
In Chinese neologisms, a series of “cloud”-related word groups have been
generated due to the influence of COVID-19. Out of 47 Chinese neologisms that areborrowed from foreign words in 2020, 27 are related to “云(cloud)”, accounting for57%. The Chinese word “ 云 [yún]” originally meant “cloud”. Later, with theintroduction of “cloud”-related concepts in the IT field, such as “cloud computing”,“云[cloud]’ gradually came to mean “online, network”. In order to control the spreadof COVID-19, in 2020, many activities were conducted online instead of face-to-face.
Most of them adopted “云(cloud)” when creating neologisms that represent online
activities, and the proportion of loanwords borrowed among Chinese neologisms
increased in 2020.
Naturally, both Korea and China have taken a series of government measures andstarted online activities due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, compared with theprevious distribution of Korean and Chinese neologisms, Korean government-actionrelated and Chinese online-activity-related areas are causing changes.
4. The Morphological Characteristics of Loanwords
Based on the form of loanwords in the Korean and Chinese neologisms, the method ofborrowing shall be divided into direct borrowing and coinage borrowing. First of all,in order to examine the trends and changes in the form of loanwords in Korean andChinese neologisms over the past 10 years, we checked the annual number andproportion of direct borrowing and coinage borrowing in neologisms. The results are
as follows.

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Table 4 The distribution of Korean and Chinese neologisms according to borrowing
methods
2010

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

Total

(2011)

KoreanChineseDirect

N

43

53

50

48

44

85

70

69

36

27

525

Borrowing

%

24.9

17.7

17.7

22.6

26.5

24.3

29.5

23.7

16.7

14.4

21.8

Coinage

N

130

246

233

164

122

265

167

222

179

160

1,888

Borrowing

%

75.1

82.3

82.3

77.4

73.5

75.7

70.5

76.3

83.3

85.6

78.2

Direct

N

7

5

7

3

4

9

8

5

0

5

53

Borrowing

%

5.4

7.7

16.3

8.6

7.5

19.1

20.5

13.2

0

10.6

10.2

Coinage

N

123

60

36

32

49

38

31

33

23

42

467

Borrowing

%

94.6

92.3

83.7

91.4

92.5

80.9

79.5

86.8

100.0

89.4

89.8

It can be seen that the borrowing of loanwords in Korean and Chinese neologisms
is mainly based on the coinage borrowing. There are only a few neologisms thatborrow foreign words by transliteration or free translation. This shows that when
Korean and Chinese borrow foreign words, they often borrow them according to themorphological characteristics of their own language through changes in form rather
than borrowing pure loanwords as they are. The following is a detailed analysis of themorphological characteristics of direct and coinage borrowings among Korean andChinese neologisms.
4.1 Direct Borrowing
There are three ways of direct borrowing of loanwords from Korean and Chinese
neologisms: transliteration, liberal translation and transliteration integrated withassociation.
(1) Direct borrowing of loanwords in Korean neologisms• transliteration: 셀피(selfie), 버핏룰(Buffet rule), 그린 스완(green swan), …
• free translation: 똑똑전화(smart phone), 지도층 의무(noblesse oblige), …
• transliteration integrated with association: 줌폭탄(zoom bombing), …
(2) Direct borrowing of loanwords in Chinese neologisms• transliteration: 阿尔法狗(AlphaGo), 奥陌陌(Oumuamua), 雷金(Regin), …
• free translation: 金拱门(Golden Arches), 矩形时间(rectangle time), …
• transliteration integrated with association: 绿 V 客(green week), 比特素养(Bitliteracy), …
In order to compare the characteristics of Korean and Chinese neologisms in the87

PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

way of directly borrowing foreign words, we analyzed the number and ratio of Korean
and Chinese neologisms by year for each borrowing method. The results are as
follows.
Table 5 The distribution of Korean and Chinese neologisms according to thesubdivision of direct borrowing
2010

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

Total

(2011)
T

Korean

FT

TIWA

T

Chinese

FT

TIWA

N

41

53

50

48

44

85

70

69

36

26

522

%

95.3

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

96.3

99.4

N

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

%

4.7

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0.4

N

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

%

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3.7

0.2

N

1

3

3

1

3

4

1

1

0

1

18

%

14.3

60.0

42.9

33.3

75.0

44.4

12.5

20.0

0

20.0

34.6

N

5

2

2

2

1

4

7

4

0

4

31

%

71.4

40.0

28.6

66.7

25.0

44.4

87.5

80.0

0

80.0

59.6

N

1

0

2

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

4

%

14.3

0

28.6

0

0

11.1

0

0

0

0

7.7

Figure 2 The distribution trends of Korean and Chinese neologisms according to thesubdivision of direct borrowing
It can be seen from the above statistical results that the direct borrowing ofloanwords in Korean and Chinese neologisms rarely adopts transliteration integrated
with association. In the past decade, only one Korean neologism was judged to havebeen formed by borrowing from a foreign language through this way, accounting for
only 0.2% of the total. Among Chinese neologisms, only four, accounting for 7.7%,
borrowed foreign words through transliteration integrated with association.
In the Korean neologisms, direct borrowing of foreign words is concentrated on
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transliteration, while free translation is very rare. In contrast, although transliteration
also plays an important role in Chinese neologisms, the main direct borrowing method
is free translation. This difference is due to the character feature of the two languages.
The Korean language uses phonetic characters, so when borrowing pure loanwords
directly, transliteration is more universal. However, Chinese uses ideographic
characters, so the number of neologisms directly borrowed from foreign words
through free translation is relatively large. It is worth noting that although Chinese
uses ideographic characters, free translation should have a strong universality in the
direct borrowing of loanwords. However, the proportion of direct borrowing of
foreign words through transliteration among Chinese neologisms should not be
underestimated. This is because these loanwords are usually proper nouns or peculiar
concepts or things from other countries. It is difficult to analyze the meaning of theseloanwords. So free translation borrowing is rare, and transliteration is usually adopted.
4.2 Word Formative Borrowing
In Korean and Chinese neologisms, the word formative borrowing of loanwords is
simple combined borrowing, abbreviating borrowing, clipping borrowing, affix
borrowing and other borrowings.
(3) word formative borrowing of loanwords in Korean neologisms• simple combined borrowing: 팔로인(follow 人), 달고나커피(달고나 coffee),공적 마스크(公的 mask), 게임 마피아(<영>game <이>Mafia), …
• clipping borrowing: 공감툰(共感 cartoon), 꽃캉스(꽃 vacance), 마코인(mask
bitcoin), 나핑족(night camping 족), …
• abbreviating borrowing: 딥디(DVD), 따아(따뜻한 americano), 워라밸(work life
balance), 커캠족(couple camping 족), …
• affix borrowing: 언컨택트(un-contact), 놀앎러(놀앎-er), 무나니스트(无难-ist),각시탈리즘(각시탈-ism), …
• other borrowing: 언택트(un-contact), 다꾸러(diary 꾸미-er), 깡통폰(깡筒 phone),에바참치(over 참치), …
(4) word formative borrowing of loanwords in Chinese neologisms•

simplecombinedborrowing:

BOSS

89

直播,

妈妈粉(妈妈

fan),

PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

车厘子自由(Cherries 自由), 帕克号(Parker 号), …
•clipping好莱虎(Hollywood

borrowing:虎),杰克苏(Jack

Mary

Sue),

Vtuber(Virtual YouTuber), …
• abbreviating borrowing: XR(Extended Reality), 黑五(Black Friday/黑色星期五),闭麦(闭microphone),

位出道(center

C

位出道),

爱彼迎(Air

Bed

andBreakfast/让爱彼此相迎), …
• affix borrowing: 颜值控(颜值-コン), …
• other borrowing:

AIoT(AI/Artificial Intelligence+IoT/Internet ofThings),痛包(pain 包), 金砖梦(Brick<-BRIC 梦), 梦想芯片, …
In order to make a comparative analysis of the morphological tendency andchanging characteristics of word formative borrowing in Korean and Chinese
neologisms, the annual number and proportion of loanwords are counted according toeach way of borrowing. The results are as follows.
Table 6 The distribution of Korean and Chinese neologisms according to thesubdivision of word formative borrowing
2010

201

201

201

201

201

201

201

201

202

Tota

(2011

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0

l

)

KoreanSimple

N

75

112

91

68

55

179

78

97

58

80

893

Combination

%

57.7

45.5

39.1

41.5

45.1

67.5

46.7

43.7

32.4

50.0

47.3

Clipping

N

36

80

70

66

42

41

56

75

74

25

565

%

27.7

32.5

30.0

40.2

34.4

15.5

33.5

33.8

41.3

15.6

29.9

N

12

41

62

27

23

37

23

32

39

46

342

%

9.2

16.7

26.6

16.5

18.9

14.0

13.8

14.4

21.8

28.8

18.1

N

4

5

7

1

1

2

2

5

2

1

30

%

3.1

2.0

3.0

0.6

0.8

0.8

1.2

2.3

1.1

0.6

1.6

N

3

8

3

2

1

6

8

13

6

8

58

%

2.3

3.3

1.3

1.2

0.8

2.3

4.8

5.9

3.4

5.0

3.1

Simple

N

39

24

17

17

20

21

11

11

11

29

200

Combination

%

31.7

40.0

47.2

53.1

40.8

55.3

35.5

33.3

47.8

69.0

42.8

Clipping

N

1

1

0

0

2

1

3

0

2

0

11

%

0.8

1.7

0

0

4.1

2.6

9.7

0

8.7

0

2.4

N

75

24

16

11

24

13

15

18

9

12

217

%

61.0

40.0

44.4

34.4

49.0

34.2

48.4

54.5

39.1

28.6

46.5

N

6

6

2

2

1

2

0

1

0

1

21

Abbreviation

Affix

OthersChineseAbbreviation

Affix

90

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Others

%

4.9

10.0

5.6

6.3

2.0

5.3

0

3.0

0

2.4

4.5

N

2

5

1

2

2

1

2

3

1

0

18

%

1.6

8.3

2.8

6.3

4.1

2.6

6.5

9.1

4.3

0

3.9

Figure 3 The distribution trends of Korean and Chinese neologisms according to thesubdivision of word formative borrowing
It can be seen from the above that when borrowing loanwords in Korean andChinese neologism, the main way is simple combination borrowing, which accounts
for more than 40%. Affixes and other borrowings are rare.
In addition, there are two main differences in word formative borrowing between
Korean and Chinese neologisms. First, in The Korean neologisms, the clipping
borrowing of loanwords is more active, while in the Chinese neologisms, the clipping
borrowing of loanwords is very rare. Second, in Korean neologisms, the abbreviation
borrowing of loanwords is on the rise, while in the Chinese neologisms, theabbreviation borrowing of loanwords is on the decrease, but the proportion of simple
combination of borrowing is increasing. These two differences are due to the language
and character features of Korean and Chinese. Korean is an agglutinative languagewith phonetic symbols, and word formation based on morphological changes isrelatively active. However, Chinese is an isolating language with ideographic
character, and it is difficult to change the morphology of Chinese words. Therefore,
when borrowing foreign words, the simple combination of borrowing withoutmorphological change is more universal.
4.3 Konglish Borrowing
In the sections above, based on the morphological characteristics of loanwords
borrowing, we have made a comparative study of the characteristics of loanword
borrowing in Korean and Chinese neologisms. However, from the perspective of thegroup of language usage and the way in which the vocabulary is created, someneologisms formed from pure loanwords are not expressions existing in the original
language. The most representative example is the Konglish neologisms. These
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neologisms are the combination of loanwords or word-forming elements according to
the morphological and semantic characteristics of Korean. Here are some examples ofKonglish neologisms.
(5) Konglish borrowing of loanwords in Korean neologisms• Konglish borrowing: 언택트(un- contact), 온택트(on-contact), 펫맘(pet mom),티처맘(teacher mom), 토마토맨(tomato man), 스쿨 미투(school me too), 원룸푸어(one-room poor), 웨딩 푸어(wedding poor), …
5. Conclusion
The paper examined the borrowing of loanwords in Korean and Chinese neologisms
over the past decade. The results show that the number of loanwords borrowed in
Korean neologisms is much higher than that in Chinese neologisms in the past ten
years. Moreover, the distribution and trend of loanword borrowing in Korean andChinese neologisms have not changed significantly. In addition, the paper classified
the loanwords borrowing methods of Korean-Chinese neologisms systematically fromthe morphological perspective, and investigated the annual distribution of
Korean-Chinese neologisms according to the classification. The methods ofborrowing loanwords in Korean and Chinese neologisms are mainly word formative
borrowing, but less direct borrowing. Influenced by the characteristics of Korean andChinese language and characters, the direct borrowing of loanwords in Korean
neologisms mainly adopts transliteration, while the direct borrowing of loanwords in
Chinese neologisms mainly relies on free translation. Moreover, the word formative
borrowing of loanwords based on morphological changes is more active in Korean
neologisms, such as clipping borrowing and abbreviating borrowing. In Chinese
neologisms, the simple combination borrowing without morphological changes is themost common.
Korea and China have government-level institutions that formulate andimplement language policies, and have relatively strong authority over the collectionof neologisms, the compilation of dictionaries, and making language purification
policies. Although the borrowing of loanwords is increasing, both Korea and China
are trying to purify loanwords with their own languages. However, the results of thiseffort are not very effective and are often unsuccessful. This study on the phenomenonof loanword borrowing in Korean-Chinese neologisms in the past 10 years canprovide some references for language policy making in Korea and China.

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Medical Eponyms Deserve to be Saved:
Inclusion in English-Chinese Medical Dictionaries and Necessity
Peng Fu
Fudan University, China
21110120003@m.fudan.edu.cn
Abstract: As an affluent resource of vocabulary enrichment, eponyms are widelyused in the medical field which is an outstanding characteristic of medical language.
Some linguists and lexicographers endorse the gradual extinction of thistime-honored lexical category by discouraging and dissuading its usage in medical
research for being morally unacceptable, lack of medical accuracy, making confusion,and hampering scientific research. Others argue that eponyms presenting unusual
word-formation processes as well as a humanism of hardhearted medicine can makeobscure and difficult medical terms memorable and also commemorate the doctors
and patients behind them. Complex medical concepts can be concisely named, while
medical history attracts more interest and acquires further promotion that medical
traditions and culture are embodied by eponyms. Some of them are so deeply rooted
in medicine that it would be very difficult to replace them with more accurate terms.
The controversial debate about the replacement for medical eponyms should haveprovoked more attention and drawn to closure through research into the eponyms
included in medical dictionaries to summarize their developmental trend. Therefore,
two of the most commonly used English-Chinese medical dictionaries, The
English-Chinese Medical Dictionary and Yatsen English-Chinese Chinese-English
Medical Dictionary, are chosen for this study to be thoroughly studied and analyzed.
This paper attempts to present a comparative study of the inclusion of eponyms inthese two medical dictionaries, make critical identifications of principal problems
found therein that will have implications for the compilation and publication ofEnglish-Chinese medical dictionaries in the future and eventually explore thearguments for and against the continuous usage necessity of eponyms with medicalsignificance.
Keywords: medical eponyms, English–Chinese medical dictionaries, inclusion,necessity

1. Introduction
Eponym, a traditional and special word-formation process, is defined as “A proper
name used generically; more loosely, the generic name itself, or any noun phrase of
specific meaning which includes a proper name” by Oxford English Dictionary (OED)95

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Online. Both eponym and its adjective eponymous are derived from the Greekepōnumos (epi ‘upon’ + onoma ‘name’). The term eponym, which first appeared in
English in 1885, owns a relatively short history in the English lexicon. The firsteponym dictionary The dictionary of eponyms compiled by Hendrickson (1972), hadlaid a solid foundation for eponym research after.
Medical eponyms play a considerably large role in eponyms. Through analyzing
the eponymic lexicons on websites “Wikipedia” and “Whonamedit”, there is a hugeamount of medical eponyms 7,877, accounting for approximately 57% of 13,784
eponyms in total. Some articles and monographs focused on the etymologies of
medical eponyms and their usage in medical research (DiPoce et al. 2014; Gest 2014;
Somford et al. 2015; Bunch 2016; Kricka et al. 2021). Yet in most cases, etymologies
of medical eponyms were simply listed in the form of storytelling, and these authors
made the research of eponyms from the perspective of medical science. However, thestudy on eponyms from the perspective of linguistics and lexicography is sparse,
much less on medical eponyms. Medical eponyms are typically used to indicate
syndromes, diseases, surgical procedures, bodily functions, fractures, treatments,
human anatomical parts, medical signs, medical devices, drugs, and so forth. In the
21st century when language specification and cultural property are both attached more
importance, medical eponyms are praised for their profound cultural heritage,
meanwhile, they are blamed for their semantic confusion. The debate on whether
medical eponyms should be saved from obsoleteness or abandoned from modern
English began at least in the middle of the 20th century (Gordon-Taylor 1959), andremains unsettled (Lawrence Abel 2014; Fargen et al. 2014; Thomas 2016; Zheng etal. 2020). This paper will present the evidence from advocates and objectors of
medical eponyms and hopefully may contribute to the wide acknowledgment of thenecessity of medical eponyms.
The English-Chinese Medical Dictionary (henceforth ECMD) and Yatsen
English-Chinese Chinese-English Medical Dictionary (henceforth YMD) are two
mainstream bilingual medical dictionaries targeting assisting clinical medical workers
and medical students. This paper will concentrate on medical eponyms included in
ECMD and YMD to observe their inclusion and microstructures, and compare theadvantages and disadvantages. Furthermore, the study may help promote the social
acceptance of medical eponyms from the angle of medical lexicography.
2. Eponyms Related to Medical Science
Some articles and books have touched on that eponyms were initially applied inscientific fields, especially medical science (Minkova 2019; Taubayev 2021; Gao2021). It is a reflection of medical eponyms’ significance in the eponym category. Oneof the earliest books concerned with eponyms, Fielding Garrison’s Eponymic
Expressions in Medical Literature published in 1909, confirmed the significance of
medical eponyms in the eponym family to some extent. From then on, the majority ofrepresentative books about eponyms are oriented toward medical science, as shown in
Table 1. It is observed that medical eponym occupies a significant position in the96

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eponym category since eponym was paid attention to and studied in the first place.

Year
1909
1924
1935
1965
1976
1989
1991
1993
1996

2001
2004
2009
2011
2021

Table 1 Representative books about eponym
AuthorRepresentative books about eponym
Fielding Garrison
Eponymic Expressions in Medical Literature
Herman Goodman
Eponyms of Dermatology
Louis R. Effler
Eponyms of Anatomy
C. P. Auger
Engineering Eponyms
Elizabeth Hogarth &Wellingtons, Bloomers and Sandwiches
Rowan Barnes-Murphy
Alvin E. Rodin
Medicine, Literature and Eponyms
Tad Tuleja
Marvelous Monikers: The People Behind MoreThan 400 Words and Expressions
Homer Hendrickson
Eponyms of Behavioral OptometryPeter Beighton, Greta
Beighton & H. R.
The Person Behind the Syndrome
Wiedemann
Lisa Marcucci
Marcucci’s Handbook of Medical Eponyms
Susan L. Bartolucci
Stedman’s Medical Eponyms
John Bemelmans
The Forgotten People Behind Everyday Words
Marciano
Kurt Ogden Gilliland &Anatomists and Eponyms: The Spirit ofRoyce Montgomery
Anatomy Past
Devaji Rao
Eponyms in Surgery

The majority of medical eponyms were derived from the family name of certain
physicians or surgeons. The people whom medical eponyms were named after usually
do not endow their family name with the conditions they first described or the medical
devices they invented. More commonly, a medical eponym is recommended by othercolleagues as a mark of respect in medical science. Hashimoto disease (a.k.a. chronic
lymphocytic thyroiditis or Hashimoto’s thyroiditis), is an autoimmune disease derived
from the Japanese physician Hakaru Hashimoto who was the first person to discoverand described the disease. On rare occasions, a medical eponym could be attached tothe person who was recognized as the first patient unfortunately suffering from thedisease or disorder. Lou Gehrig’s disease, also known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis(ALS) or motor neuron disease (MND), is named after the famous baseball player
Lou Gehrig in Yankees New York, who was stricken with this disorder. Eponyms may
also have an etymology for fictional characters. Rapunzel syndrome, also called
trichophagia, is derived from the long-haired girl Rapunzel in the fairy tale by the
Brothers Grimm. Besides, places or countries are also the etymological sources of
medical eponyms where the disease was first identified or paid attention to. A case inpoint is Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). The first case of the syndrome
was identified in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, and most cases have occurred in the Arabian
Peninsula. And Spanish flu, also written as Spanish influenza, was not named after the97

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earliest documented outbreak site in the United States. US media intentionallyreported the epidemic situation in Spain and aroused global attention, which misled
the public to believe the epidemic disease originate from Spain. Except for common
nouns, medical eponyms occasionally were recognized as adjectives as well. For
instance, eustachian tube was derived from Italian anatomist Bartolomeo Eustachi.
Likewise, fallopian tube had the etymology of another Italian anatomist Gabriel
Fallopius.
Medical eponyms have long been an integral part of medical terminologies, butmodern medicine requires higher accuracy which leads researchers to question thenecessity of medical eponyms, especially when most of them have more specificalternative terms. Some experts have argued that there are many limitations for
medical eponyms to apply academically as well as clinically, hence they should be
replaced and abandoned (Kishore et al. 2000; Winkelmann 2012; McNulty et al.
2021). There is much discussion of medical eponyms from the angle of clinicalpractice or medical education, while seldom research from the point of thelexicography of medical dictionary. Because the perspectiveness and authoritativenessof medical dictionaries indicate the direction of the development of medicine, thestudy of eponyms in medical dictionaries should be considered equally important.
3. Inclusion of Medical Eponyms in English–Chinese Medical Dictionaries
3.1 Introduction of ECMD and YMDEnglish-Chinese medical dictionaries own a huge market in China since there is theworld’s largest population while Chinese medical workers and students are the huge
majority of those with usage requirements of English-Chinese medical dictionaries.
ECMD and YMD are both commonly used paper medical dictionaries and are still onsale on the print dictionary market. They are selected as the research object to seek the
problems and enlightenment of medical eponym inclusion in medical dictionaries.
ECMD is a significant reference book for Chinese medical research institutions,
universities, and workers with great importance in research significance and academic
value. It contains about 200,000 entries, covering preclinical and clinical subjects. It
collected medical neologisms that have appeared since the 1990s, and Dorland’s
Illustrated Medical Dictionary (henceforth Dorland’s) and Stedman's Medical
Dictionary have some use for reference to its compilation. Translation of each entry
reportedly accords with the medical vocabulary framework published by China
National Committee for Terms in Sciences and Technologies (henceforth CNCTST).
YMD includes 130,000 medical terms in its English-Chinese part which is the major
research content in this paper. All terms and their translated name in the dictionary arebased on the standards of CNCTST and Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission andrespectively marked with 名委 and 药典. It is user-friendly as the synonyms,
antonyms, and cross-references function are provided.
3.2 Inclusion of Medical Eponyms in EDMC and YMD
There are many medical eponyms with a total of nearly 8,000. Because of their long98

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history and popularity, medical dictionaries include medical eponyms to different
degrees. For purpose of gaining a comprehensive insight into the inclusion of medical
eponyms in EDMC and YMD, a list of 150 medical eponyms of reiterative usage wastaken from The Medical Eponym (Gall 1960) as a small example lexicon ofcommonly used medical eponyms. It is worth noting that the possessive form of a
medical eponym is highly variable depending on tradition, country, and publication.
Since whether there is a possessive form in an eponym does not influence themeaning, this paper will consider eponyms both with and without apostrophes as thesame eponym.
3.2.1

Inclusion coverage is relatively wide

The medical eponym list of reiterative usage comprises 150 entities, including
eponyms for syndrome, disease, medical signs, and so on. Through a careful search of
the list in these medical dictionaries, the numbers and proportion of inclusion in
ECMD and YMD are shown in Table 2. It is observed that both ECMD and YMD
include over 85% of medical eponyms on the list. On the one hand, this proves that
English-Chinese medical dictionaries paid attention to medical eponyms. On the other
hand, the frequency of medical eponyms is too high to neglect for dictionaries.
Eponyms about disease account for approximately a half of the list, followed by
eponyms about syndrome (20%) and medical signs (10%). Likewise, the share of eachkind of included eponyms of ECMD and YMD is anastomotic with the list. In general,
medical eponyms receive relatively wide coverage in English-Chinese medical
dictionaries.
Table 2 Medical eponyms of reiterative usage and inclusion in ECMD and YMD
List & Dictionary
Number Proportion
Medical eponyms of reiterative
150
100%
usage
ECMD
130
86.7%
YMD
132
88%
Common eponyms for syndrome
30
20%
ECMD
26
17.3%
YMD
26
17.3%
Common eponyms for disease
52
34.7%
ECMD
47
31.3%
YMD
44
29.3%
Common eponyms for medical
15
10%
sign
ECMD
13
8.7%
YMD
15
10%

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3.2.2

Translated term lacks uniform standard

Translated terms of medical eponyms are varied and confusing because of thederivations from the name of people or places, which are generally transliterated toChinese from the English pronunciation. Different translators may have different
translated terms that will cause a lack of standardization of translated terms,
especially medical terms. Table 3 displays several medical eponyms on the list andtheir corresponding entries respectively in ECMD and YMD. Although both ECMD
and YMD claim that they conform to the standard of CNCTST, it still can be noticed
that they have different translated terms for the same medical eponym.
For instance, Addison’s disease, whose translated term is already standardized as“艾迪生病” by CNCTST, but ECMD still used “阿狄森病” as its translated term.
Additionally, CNCTST has not developed standards covering all medical
terminologies, there are still many terms translated without any standard. Laennec’s
cirrhosis is translated as “拉埃内克肝硬化” in ECMD, yet YMD adds the translation“雷奈克肝硬化” in the entry besides “拉埃内克肝硬化”. These two medical
dictionaries have not achieved a uniform standard of translated terms, which may
cause serious confusion for users. Therefore, English-Chinese medical dictionaries
should strictly follow the standard of CNCTST or other authoritative organizations toestablish a uniform standard for medical translated terms.
Table 3 Medical eponyms and corresponding entries in ECMD and YMDCorresponding entry in Corresponding entry in
Medical eponyms
ECMD
YMD
Addison’s disease 艾迪生
名委
病 [参 addisonian crisis][同 chronic adrenocortical
Addison disease 阿狄森病，Addison’s disease
insuffi-ciency 和 primary肾上腺皮质功能减退adrenal或primary
adrenocorticalinsufficiency]
Lutembacher syndrome 卢Lutembacher
Lutembacher syndrome 卢滕巴赫综合征名委[同syndrome滕巴赫综合征Lutembacher’s complex]
Cullen’s sign
Cullen sign 卡伦征
Cullen’s sign 卡伦征名委
Huntingtons chorea 亨 廷
顿 舞 蹈 症 名 委 [ 同 chronic
Huntingtons chorea 亨廷顿 progressive
hereditary
Huntingtons chorea
舞蹈症chorea,degenerative
chorea, hereditary chorea
和 Huntington’s disease]
Eisenmenger
Eisenmenger complex 艾森 Eisenmenger complex 艾complex门格复合征
森门格复合征Laennec’s cirrhosis
Laennec cirrhosis 拉埃内克 Laennec’s cirrhosis 雷 奈

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肝硬化

Schmorl’s node
3.2.3

Schmorl node 施莫尔结

克肝硬化，拉埃内克肝硬化 [见 cirrhosis of liver
for symptomas]
Schmorl’s node 施莫尔结

Possessive forms are confusedly used

It is noticed that in Table 3 there is a possessive form in some entries in YMD (such as
Addison’s disease), yet no apostrophes in any entries in ECMD (such as Addison
disease). Such a difference demonstrates that the possessive form of a medical
eponym is a controversial issue. Over the last half a century, the dispute has neverstopped and has even become fiercer. According to the statistics, the possessive formof medical eponyms is mostly used in European countries. In contrast, nonpossessive
forms are greatly supported by American doctors, medical publishers, andorganizations (Jana et al. 2009). Recently, the possessive form of medical eponyms
has dropped out of favor as more and more experts and doctors advocate thateponyms should be continually used under the condition of no apostrophes(McKusick 1998; Cheng 2010). Several authoritative English monolingual medical
dictionaries, such as Dorland’s and Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary(henceforth Taber’s) both abandon the possessive form of medical eponyms that may
be a guideline for the lexicography of English-Chinese medical dictionaries.
3.2.4

Cross-reference structure is not incomplete

Medical students are complaining that many medical eponyms have more than one
alternative terms that are all usable and express the same meaning. The
cross-reference structure of dictionaries ought to guild users to understand these terms
as a whole. From Table 3, it can be observed that ECMD owns no cross-reference
structure at all with only headwords and translated terms in one entry; fortunately,
YMD takes full advantage of the cross-reference structure to introduce all
terminologies with the same meaning.
Here the entry of Addison’s disease is taken as an example. YMD explained thatthe entry “addisonian crisis” can provide more related information, and chronic
adrenocortical insufficiency, primary adrenal insufficiency, and primary
adrenocortical insufficiency are all synonyms of Addison’s disease. In addition, YMD
also provides antonyms and words with similar meaning. Such a clear cross-reference
structure of YMD is much more user-friendly for consulting and searching than
ECMD. English-Chinese medical dictionaries could make full use of the structure andthen build a network where eponyms and their relevant scientific names are organized
and connected.
3.2.5

No etymology is shown in the entry

Eponyms have profound cultural meaning while their etymologies are the roots ofeponyms that represent the story worth remembering behind the eponyms. Medical
dictionaries are significant media to learn and understand most medical eponyms for101

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medical workers and students. Dorland’s and Taber’s both introduce detailed
etymology for eponyms included. To pursue the inclusion of a larger number of words
or more functions, some dictionaries choose to save space and ignore or omit the
etymological information of eponyms. It is a great pity that neither ECMD nor YMD
provided etymological information on medical eponyms that causes a major loss of
the readability of the dictionary. English-Chinese medical dictionaries could learn
lessons from other authoritative medical dictionaries about how they deal withetymologies of eponyms.
4. Necessity of Medical Eponyms
The discussion over the continuous use of medical eponyms persists. To sum up, there
are some major advantages considered to be the reasons to clarify the necessity of
medical eponyms.
4.1 Medical Eponyms are Endowed with the Humanities Significance
Medical eponyms would encourage medical workers and students to understand thehistory of discovering or describing diseases that related to the names of many people
who deserved to possess a position in medical history. “Eponyms envelop diseases inhuman rather than technological terms” that “increase appreciation of disease as ahuman experience” (Rodin and Key 1989: xix). Medical eponyms are realistic marksof the histories of scientists whose names are attached to a disease, s device, atreatment, a procedure, an anatomical structure, etc. They are like triggers to remind
all medical workers and students of the historical context for discoveries anddescriptions in medical science every time they are used. Tay-Sachs disease, initiallyconsidered to be two different infant diseases that were respectively named Tay’schoroiditis and Sach’s disease, was eventually confirmed to be two different
manifestations of the same disease. These two manifestations were conjointly named
Tay-Sachs disease at last in 1896.
4.2 Medical Eponyms Lend Dignity to Diseases
There used to be some medical terminologies for disorders involved in racial or ethnic
discrimination or carry ignorance and prejudice. One of the most noted examples is a
genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of chromosome
21 which is usually associated with physical growth delays, mild to moderateintellectual disability, and characteristic facial features. Over a certain period, it wascalled Mongolism just because the facial features of this disorder look like thestereotype of the faces of Mongols from westerners. The disorder was renamed Down
Syndrome until British doctor John Langdon Down fully described the syndrome in1866 which removed the racial prejudice from the disorder. ……
4.3 Medical Eponyms are Profoundly Rooted in Medical Science
When western medicine achieved its prosperity and development in the 19th and 20th
centuries, many eponymously named disorders, syndromes and diseases emerged and102

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were kept used until now. Many eponyms like Alpers disease, Cohen syndrome,
Tourette disorder, Broca aphasia, and Tinel sign are deeply rooted in medical history.
They left too many traces and evidence of being used and will probably not fade outof medical vocabulary. “Medical eponyms will continue to be used because there is asense of history to their use (Swee 2017: 21)”. Medical eponyms have time-honored
history and are applied in a wide range, so it is not easy to ignore or forget them inmedicine.
4.4 Medical Eponyms are Easy to Remember and Express
Complexity is a major feature of medical science, groups of diseases, syndromes,
signs, and treatments have manifold forms that are difficult to remember (Mora andBosch 2010). However, medical eponyms rescued doctors and patients fromcomplicated medical terminologies to some extent. They usually contain only one or
two relevant family names and are simpler to express and communicate. In most cases,
doctors would rather simply say that someone has Parkinson disease rather than apatient with a group of neurological disorders characterized by hypokinesia, tremor,and muscular rigidity.
5

Existed Problems and Solutions

5.1 Dealing with Eponyms with Vagueness
Probably the most powerful argument against medical eponyms is that they lackaccuracy and will cause confusion. For example, chronic autoimmune disease and asyndrome combining retinitis pigmentosa, spinocerebellar ataxia, and deafness areboth called Sjögren’s syndrome (the former and the latter are derived from different
persons both named Sjögren). Therefore, many medical eponyms are unable toprovide useful and adequate medical information and not helpful to describe themedical characteristics of patients, while scientific names could enhance the accuracyof medical science. Out of consideration for the future development of medicine,
medical dictionaries should take the lead in improving and even removing thevagueness of eponyms by replacing those with confusing meanings with scientificnames.
5.2 Dislodging the Tainted Eponyms
Medical eponyms are resented partly because some of them are long attached topersons who were publicly chastised, such as doctors working for Nazi Germany.
These words became more unwelcome with global awareness of anti-Nazi that evenare strongly recommended to be removed from the modern medical lexicon. Table 4lists all the medical eponyms with Nazi associations and their alternative
non-eponymous terms, as well as the occurrence frequency in News on the Web(henceforth NOW). It shows that the frequency of all 9 alternative non-eponymous
terms is not less than medical eponyms with Nazi associations, thus it is assumed thatthe media are taking the initiative in gradually eliminating these eponyms connectedwith the perpetrators of Nazi crimes. However, English-Chinese medical dictionaries
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have not kept up with the pace. Both ECMD and YMD include two-thirds of the 9eponyms related to Nazi, while one-third of the alternative terms reflect relative weakmoral rules of English-Chinese medical dictionaries. Hopefully one day all the tainted
medical eponyms will be fully abandoned and medical morality will be maintained at
the lexical level.
Table 4 Medical eponyms associated with Nazis and their alternative terms
Medical
Alternative
eponyms with
Freq ECMD YMD non-eponymou Freq ECMD YMDNazis termassociations
Asperger
autism spectrum
1190
√
√
6867
×
×
syndrome
disordercongenitalBeck–Ibrahim/
××
cutaneous/×
×
diseasecandidiasis
Cauchois–Eppi
portal veinnger–Frugoni
/
×
×
71
×
×
thrombosis
syndrome
Clara cell
12√√
club cell55
××
pantothenate
kinase-associate
Hallervorden–S
/
√
√
d
36
×
×
patz diseaseneurodegenerationReiter's
21√√
reactive arthritis 161√√
syndrome
infantile
Seitelberger/√√
neuroaxonal
13√√
diseasedystrophy
Spatz–Stiefler
paralysis agitans
/
×
×
9
×
×
reactionreactionVan
cerebrotendineo
Bogaert–Schere
/
×
×
us
1
√
√
r–Epstein
xanthomatosis
syndrome
Wegener's
granulomatosis
68
√
√
134
×
×
granulomatosis
with polyangiitis
5.3 Suggestions from WHO
As the highest authority, World Health Organization (henceforth WHO) appealed to“minimize the unnecessary negative impact of disease names on trade, travel, tourism
or animal welfare, and avoid offending any cultural, social, national, regional,
professional or ethnic groups (WHO 2015: 1)” in World Health Organization best104

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practices for the naming of new human infectious diseases. Once new medical
eponyms are commonly used via the media and Internet, it will be so difficult tochange including some inappropriate eponyms. Thus every newly identified medical
eponym should be named appropriately from the beginning so that will be welcomedby science and society. As for the existed medical eponyms, WHO established a new
International Classification of Diseases (WHO 2022). It will be one of theauthoritative universal standards in the field of global health, therein many
indispensable and meaningful eponyms are preserved while some stained ones are
eliminated by being replaced by scientific names.
6. Conclusion
Medical eponyms have a profound historical background in medical science that are
an indispensable part of medical terminologies. It’s very gratifying to see that
English-Chinese medical dictionaries include eponyms with a relatively large
coverage such as ECMD and YMD, yet with the defects of no uniform standard oftranslated terms, confusedly used possessive form, incomplete cross-reference
structure, and lack of etymology. Even so, medical eponyms are still worthy ofprotection and promotion. They bring humanities significance to the coldheartedscience and lexicon, show respect to memorable doctors, patients, and diseases, aredeeply rooted in medical science, and also make medical terms easy to remember andexpress. Although there are unsolved problems as well, measures are gradually taken
to avoid or discard the vagueness and taint of certain eponyms that engender adverse
effects. It is undeniable that medical eponyms represent the art of medicine, and they
deserve to be saved for substantial development.

References
A. Dictionaries
Anderson, D. M. 2012. Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary (32nd ed.). PA:
Elsevier Saunders
Chen, W. Y. and D. J. Li. 2015. The English-Chinese Medical Dictionary. Shanghai:
Shanghai Science and Technology Press.
Venes, D. 2017. Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary (23rd ed.). Philadelphia: FA
Davis.
Wang, X. Y. and Y. H. Zhang. 2008. English-Chinese Chinese-English Medical
Dictionary. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
B. Other Literature
Bunch, P. M. 2016. Anatomic eponyms in neuroradiology: Head and neck. Academic
radiology 23(10): 1319-1332.
Cheng, T. O. 2010. No apostrophes after an eponym. International Journal of
Cardiology 140(3): 259.
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DiPoce, J., Jimenez, G., and J. Weintraub. 2014. Historical perspective: Eponyms ofvascular radiology. Radiographics 34(4): 1120-1140.
Fargen, K. M. and B. L. Hoh. 2014. The debate over eponyms. Clinical Anatomy
27(8): 1137-1140.
Gall, E. A. 1960. The medical eponym. American Scientist 48(1): 51-57.
Gao, Y. W. 2021. A study on word-formation in contemporary English. Shanghai:
Shanghai Translation Publishing House.
Gest, T. R. 2014. Anatomical nomenclature and the use of eponyms. Clinical Anatomy
27(8): 1141-1141.
Gordon-Taylor, G. 1959. In defence of eponyms. Journal of the Royal College ofSurgeons of Edinburgh 4(2): 105-120.
Jana, N., Barik, S., and N. Arora. 2009. Current use of medical eponyms–A need for
global uniformity in scientific publications. BMC Medical Research
Methodology 9(1): 1-5.
Kishore, M., Khashaba, A., Babu, E. D., Harries, W. J., and N. Blewitt. 2000.
Eponyms-are they relevant?. Injury 31(6): 425-426.
Kricka, L. J., Cornish, T. C., and J. Y. Park. 2021. Eponyms in clinical chemistry.
Clinica Chimica Acta 512: 28-32.
Lawrence Abel, E. 2014. Medical Eponym Angst. Names 62(2): 76-85.
McKusick V. A. 1998. On the naming of clinical disorders, with particular reference
to eponyms. Medicine (Baltimore) (77):1–2.
McNulty, M. A., Wisner, R. L., and A. Meyer. J. 2021. NOMENs land: The place of
eponyms in the anatomy classroom. Anatomical Sciences Education 14(6):847-852.
Minkova, D. and R. Stockwell. 2009. English words: History and structure (2th Ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mora, B. and Bosch, X. 2010. Medical eponyms: Time for a name change. Archives ofInternal Medicine 170(16):1499-1500.
Rodin, A. E. and J. D. Key. 1989. Medicine, literature & eponyms: An encyclopedia of
medical eponyms derived from literary characters. Malabar: Krieger Publishing
Company.
Somford, M. P., Wiegerinck, J. I., Hoornenborg, D., van den Bekerom, M. P., and D.
Eygendaal. 2015. Eponyms in elbow fracture surgery. Journal of Shoulder andElbow Surgery 24(3): 369-375.
Swee, C. T. E. 2007. Eponyms in medicine. Singapore Medical Association News (39):
20–21.
Taubayev, Z. 2021. Pragmatics of eponyms in political discourse (on the material of
the speeches of politicians). Corvinus Journal of Sociology and Social Policy
12(1): 179-196.
Thomas, P. B. 2016. Are medical eponyms really dying out? A study of their usage inthe historical biomedical literature. The Journal of the Royal College ofPhysicians of Edinburgh 46(4): 295-299.
WHO. 2015. World Health Organization best practices for the naming of new human Infectious
diseases. https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/724114/retrieve
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Winkelmann, A. 2012. Should we teach Abernethy and Zuckerkandl?. ClinicalAnatomy 25(2): 241-245.
Zheng, J. and C. A. Gold. 2020. Eponyms are here to stay: Usage in the literature andamong current neurology trainees. Neurology 94(6): 257-264.

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Phraseological Cleansing:
Creating a Dictionary for Japanese English Learners
Ai Inoue
Toyo University, Japaninoue125@toyo.jp
Abstract: This paper introduces a new English–Japanese phraseological dictionary
and explains its aim, purpose, and background in detail. At the beginning of the 20th
century, Japan was introduced to English phraseology through a dictionary entitled『英和雙解熟語大辭典』(A Dictionary of English Phrases, edited by Naibu Kanda
and Tsunetaro Nannichi in 1909). Although such dictionaries have evolved throughtrial and error, they still have several drawbacks. First, English–Japanese dictionaries
solely devoted to phraseology have not been actively published because
English–Japanese dictionaries for learners (EJDLs) have played a prominent role indescribing the phraseological information of vocabularies. In fact, a limited numberof collocation dictionaries and discourse particles’ dictionaries, which emulate thefeatures of phraseological dictionaries published in western countries, have been
published in Japan. Second, English phraseology is not clearly defined and explainedin EJDLs; thus, phraseological subcategories vary from one dictionary to another.
Moreover, phraseological descriptions in EJDLs are sometimes far from correct
because they are old-fashioned or obsolete. These drawbacks reveal that EJDLs may
be quantitatively and qualitatively insufficient and unsuitable to promote the English
proficiencies of Japanese English learners (JELs). To put it differently, the current
phraseological and lexicographical situation in Japan poses an urgent need forrevising phraseological descriptions in published dictionaries and publishing anappropriate English–Japanese phraseological dictionary for JELs. Therefore, thisstudy minutely cleanses phraseological descriptions in EJDLs and identifies
important phraseological units that can enhance JELs’ proficiency.
Keywords: English phraseology, phraseological cleansing, English–Japanesedictionaries for learners (EJDLs), English–Japanese phraseological dictionary

1. Introduction
Languages have been often compared with a sea as represented by the title of aJapanese dictionary as a pioneering figure, “Genkai,” (『言海』、言 means words, 海means sea) published from 1889 to 1891. Dictionaries play a crucial role as a compass
or a map for navigation. The sea or a language always sways to and fro depending on
the social situations and changing times. Sailors will occasionally wander on a voyage
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until they reach their destination. Differently put, it takes learners a significant amountof time and effort to express themselves in English. Therefore, dictionaries need tofulfill their duty to minutely and correctly describe the actual use of English
vocabularies based on the outcome of scientific research to enhance learners’
understanding. Credible dictionaries’ descriptions play a crucial role in creative
language activity. The present study introduces a newly published phraseologicaldictionary, which explains the whole pictures of word combinations consisting of atleast two familiar words to enhance the accountability of dictionaries. The word
combinations, referred to as phrases and thought of as a powerful tool, help make avoyage more smooth than the one that solely depends on a compass and a map.
Phrases dealt with in this study are composed of clear-to-understand andubiquitous vocabularies. The phrases include idioms, collocations, phrasal verbs,
sayings, formulas, fixed phrases, and discourse particles as their subcategories. The
study explains in detail the comprehensive features of the phrases by adopting thelexical priming shown in (1).
(1) a. the words a phrase occurs withb. the grammatical patterns a phrase occurs inc. the meanings with which a phrase is associatedd. whether a phrase is used to be polite (or rude)e. the kind of style a phrase tends to occur in
f. whether a phrase occurs more often in your speech or writingg. whether the speaker is someone younger or older
In addition to lexical priming, the present study also attempts to enhance thecommunication ability of JELs in English from a phraseological perspective.
We tend to depend heavily on using frequently used and dimly familiar phrases incommunication regardless of the linguistic creativity that each person has. Look at (2),which shows the response of Jon Stewart, a genius comedian, when an interviewer
asks him whether “Crossfire” (a discussion program aired on CNN) or “Hardball with
Chris Matthews” (a discussion program aired on CNN) is more interesting. The
phrases are shown in italics (same as the following).
(2) Crossfire or Hardball? Which is funnier? Which is more soul-crushing, do you
mean? Both are equally dispiriting in their … you know, the whole idea thatpolitical discourse has degenerated into shows that have to be entitled Crossfire or
Hardball. And you know, “I’m Gonna Beat Your Ass” or whatever they’re callingthem these days is mind-boggling. Crossfire, especially, is completely an apropos
name. It’s what innocent bystanders are caught in when gangs are fighting. And it
just boggles my mind that that’s given a half hour, an hour a day to … I don’t
understand how issues can be dissected from the left and from the right as
though … even cartoon characters have more than left and right. They have up
and down (Goldberg 2019).
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The response, which makes good use of phrases, reflects native speakers’ level ofEnglish proficiency. If the response would be one without any phrases, as shown in(3), it would be prose.
(3) Crossfire or Hardball? Which is funnier? Which causes less enthusiasm, do you
intend? Both are equally dispiriting in their … you are aware, the complete ideathat talk of politics has degenerated into shows that have to be entitled Crossfire or
Hardball. And you are aware, “You will be Defeated” or whichever names they arelabeling them currently is upsetting. Crossfire, especially, is completely anapropos name. It’s what uninvolved people are caught in when gangs are fighting.
And it just jiggles my brain that that’s given 0.5 -1/24 to … I do not comprehend
in what way issues can be dissected from the left and from the right in themanner… even characters in cartoons have things in addition to right and left.
They have down and up. (ibid.)
Examples (2) and (3), as well as Table 1, serve to prove that a person cancommunicate in English on an even level with native speakers when they have a goodcommand of using phrases.
Example (4a) shows the results of a task handled by native English of English.
When the subjects were asked to choose the most natural and familiar collocation
among several options in (4a) (i.e., absolute/pure/sheer/stark/supreme silence), 80%of them selected the most conventional collocation—i.e., absolute silence. Same as in(4a), 90% of the participants in (4b) preferred arouse suspicious as the most common
collocation. These results suggest that native English speakers are inclined towardpicking a more familiar collocation when all collocations have no grammatical or
semantic problems.
(4) a. absolute silence (80%) > pure/sheer/stark/supreme silenceb. arouse suspicious (90%) > incite/kindle/revive/stimulate suspicious(Dabrwoska 2014)
From these examples, clearly, native English speakers depend on phrases morethan nonnative speakers. Also, another secret method of communicating effectively inEnglish just like native English speakers is to use phrases that native speakers heavily
resort to. However, it is also important to note that native English speakers are wellversed in how a word co-occurs with another word and under what contexts orgrammatical patterns a phrase is preferably used―i.e., predictiveness.
This study is organized as follows. Section 2 explains the English phraseology inJapan from a lexicographical perspective and the specific phrases discussed in thisstudy. Section 3 introduces the data used in the study as well as the methodology.
Section 4 highlights the unique features of the newly published English–Japanesephraseological dictionary, and Section 5 delves into the educational implication of thedictionary. Finally, Section 6 lays out some conclusions.

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2. English Phraseology in Japan from a Lexicographical Perspective
English phraseology in Japan is a classic yet new research field. It was introduced at
the beginning of the 20th century through a dictionary titled A Dictionary of English
Phrases in 1909 edited by Naibu Kanda and Tsunetaro Nannichi. The preface of thedictionary says in English that “the lack of a reliable phrase dictionary on any
comprehensive plan has been regret and a check to thousands of students in the wayof learning English.” The importance of phrases was deeply understood at that timefrom an educational perspective. Subsequently, some dictionaries focusing on phrases
have been published through a trial and error method. However, almost all
dictionaries published have not always been entirely dedicated to phrases; instead,they are meant to serve the general purpose of English–Japanese dictionaries,
minutely describing the semantic and syntactic information of English vocabularies.
The information on phrases was more like appendages, and therefore, noquantitatively and qualitatively satisfactory explanations were given. Over time, thewidespread use of personal computers and the Internet as products of the IT age led tothe birth of large-scale computer corpora that have enabled researchers to actively
conduct phraseology. Hence, the descriptions of phrases in dictionaries have gradually
improved. However, there is still room for more improvement. For example, phrases
are not explained as they behave in a context in the right entry because it is hard to
grasp the whole picture of phrases although large-scale corpora are used.
2.1 Targeted Phrases in This Study
This study defines English phraseology as the study of repeatedly used phrases
comprising at least two words. This definition includes word combinations such as
idioms, collocations, phrasal verbs, proverbs (sayings), formulas, discourse particles,
and fixed phrases. The umbrella term for such word combinations is phraseologicalunits (PUs). Phraseme is another term for PUs. The two terms vary depending on thetype of research conducted because the targeted word combinations differ. This study
defines each word combination based on the following standards: frequency,
polysemy, semantic transparency, and commonly used definitions of each word
combination. However, it is important to note that this study does not intend to fully
explain the definitions of each word combination by comparing them with those in theexisting literature.
Idioms such as spill the beans are not frequently used, and their meanings are not
the sum of each component; therefore, idioms are not polysemous word combinations.
Collocations (e.g., look up a word in a dictionary and consult/*investigate a
dictionary) range from high to low in frequency. In both cases, they are notpolysemous and are semantically easily predictable from each component.
Phrasal verbs are word combinations comprising either a verb and an adverb or averb, an adverb (optional), and a preposition. Although frequently used, phrasal verbs
are not polysemous word combinations. Semantically, phrasal verbs are not always
composed by the sum of each component. For example, look around, look up to, andput off are phrasal verbs.
Formulas—for example, now you’re talking, Thank God/Goddess, it’s Friday, and111

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I wasn’t born yesterday—appear in a conversation and do not have polysemy. Theirfrequencies differ by formula. Additionally, some formulas are semantically easy tounderstand, whereas others are not.
Proverbs (sayings) such as Better to ask the why than go astray are not the sum ofeach component from a semantic perspective. Proverbs are used in a limited context;
therefore, they are neither frequently used nor polysemous word combinations.
Discourse particles have a high frequency when used in a conversation, and they
have polysemy. For example, discourse particles such as you know, I mean, and let’s
see have both a literal meaning and a pragmatic meaning, depending on the context inwhich they are used. Conversely, discourse particles such as after all and and stuff
like that are semantically difficult to understand because they are not the sum of eachcomponent and are not polysemous word combinations.
Inoue (2007) discussed fixed phrases, which are phrases with a high frequency
and polysemy such as you know what, here we go (again), and let’s say. Notably,some fixed phrases discussed in Inoue (2019), such as until before and until, aremonosemous (i.e., an antonym of polysemous). The common characteristic ofmonosemous and polysemous fixed phrases is that they have been overlooked inliterature because they are formed beyond the explanations of theories and English
grammatical rules.

3. Data and Research Method
The actual behaviors of phrases composed of English vocabularies were examinedbased on data from the Corpus of Contemporary American English, British National
Corpus, and Wordbanks Online. The 200 English vocabularies used in the present
study were selected from a vocabulary list referred to as the Longman
Communication 3000, which shows the 3000 most frequently used words in bothspoken and written English as established through a quantitative investigation of theLongman Corpus Network consisting of 390 million words.
The Longman Communication 3000 list consists of words that are mostfrequently used in the English language, and English learners need to learn thesewords for smooth communication in both speech and writing. These 3000 mostfrequent words in both spoken and written English account for 86% of English.
Differently put, English learners can understand 86% or more of what they read andlisten to by knowing the words shown in the list. However, recognizing and using thewords in the list is harder than knowing the words.
The present study chose 200 content words accompanied by the special symbols
S1 and W1. Table 1 shows the top 1000 most recurrent words in spoken and written
English.
Table 1 Selected core words used in the study
Core words
Core words
Core words
Core words
Acceptfact
operationtown
Actfamilyorder (noun)
train1
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ActionActivity
Address
Age
Air
AnswerArea
arm1
Attention
Baby
Bed
Beginning
bill1
Blood
Book
Building
Bus
Business
Car
case1
Cause
chance (noun)change (noun)
character (noun)Child
ChoiceCity
Class
cold (noun)
Community
Company
Computer
ControlCountry
course (noun)
court (noun)
damage (noun)
date (noun)
deal (noun)
Decisiondemand (noun)
Difference
Difficulty

fear (noun)
feelingfight (noun)
film
fire
fish
food
friendfuturegame
goal
guess (noun)
hair
hand
head
healthheart
help (noun)
hillhope (noun)
hospital
hotel
ice
idea
image
influence
information
job
land
languagelaugh (noun)law
letterlevel
life
light (noun)
limit
list
love (noun)
mattermeaning
meeting
member

page
pain
paper
party
pay (noun)
phoneplan (noun)
plant
play (noun)
policepopulation
power
present1
priceproblempromisequestion
race1
rain
reasonrecord (noun)
relationshipreport (noun)right (noun)rise (noun)
river
road
rule (noun)
sale
school1sea
sitsituation
skill
skin
sky
sleep (noun)
smile (noun)songsound (noun)
space (noun)
sport (noun)stage (noun)
113

value (noun)view
voice (noun)
walk (noun)
war
waste (noun)
wave (noun)
will (noun)
winterwish (noun)wood
work (noun)
workeryear

PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

DinnerDoctorDoor
doubt (noun)
dream (noun)
drink (noun)
Education
EffortEnergyEnvironment
Event
ExampleExerciseEye
Facememorymessagemistakemoneymorningmouth1
movie
music
name
need
news
newspapernight
numberoffer (noun)

standard
step (noun)streetstudy
subject (noun)
success (noun)support (noun)
surprise (noun)
systemtable
team
telephonetelevision
test
thought (noun)

To explain the unique features of the phrases, the present study adopted thelexical priming shown in (5) (already shown as (1)).
(5) a. the words a phrase occurs withb. the grammatical patterns a phrase occurs inc. the meanings with which a phrase is associatedd. whether a phrase is used to be polite (or rude)e. the kind of style a phrase tends to occur in
f. whether a phrase occurs more often in your speech or writingg. whether the speaker is someone younger or older

4. Content of a Newly Published Phraseological Dictionary
This section introduces the sample descriptions of phrases included in a newly
published phraseological dictionary. The sample descriptions are classified into thefollowing four categories: the revised ones of a word in (6), the revised ones of an
existing phrase in (7), the revised ones of semantically similar phrases in (8), and thedescriptions of newly observed phrases in (9).
(6) accept 他動詞、Spoken top 1000, Written top 1000
 日常的には、take を使用する。
e.g., She offered me a new job and I gladly accepted it. → She offered me a new job
and I gladly took it.
 accept an offer でもいいが、take sb up on one’s offer と言う。
(a)（贈り物、申し出、招待など）を受け入れる

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accept + 名詞：an offer（申し出）, an invitation（招待）, an award（賞）, a gift/ apresent（贈り物/プレゼント）, a job（仕事）, a lift (BrE)/ a ride (AmE)（車に乗せること）, an opportunity（機会）, a donation（寄付）, money（金）, a bribe（賄賂）
副詞 + accept：gladly（喜んで）, willingly（快く）, unwillingly（嫌々）, readily（快く）, reluctantly（嫌々）, gracefully（奥ゆかしく）, graciously（丁重に）動詞 + accept： be glad/ happy/ willing to（喜んで）, be reluctant/ unwilling to（嫌々）, be unable to（できない）
accept + 名詞 + 前置詞：accept + 名詞 + from(b)（問題、状況、忠告、提案、説明、責任など）を容認する、受け入れる、認める、同意する ⇆ rejectaccept + 名詞：help/ aid/ assistance（助け）, a challenge（挑戦）, an argument（議論）, a fact（事実）, a principle（規則）, a proposal（提案）, a recommendation（訂正）, responsibility/blame/ liability（責任）, a consequence（結果）, an idea
（アイデア）, a defeat（負け）, a premise（根拠）, reality（現実）, a punishment（罰）, a compromise（妥協、和解）, cookies((コ))（クッキー）
副詞 + accept：fully（全面的に）, readily（喜んで）, unwillingly（嫌々）, blindly（むやみに）, unquestioningly（疑わずに）, grudgingly（しぶしぶ）
動詞 + accept：be happy to/ be prepared to/ be ready to（喜んで）, be willing to（いとわない）, be reluctant/ unwilling to（嫌々）, be unable to（できない）, be forced
to/ have to（せざる得ない）, refuse to（拒否する）, learn to（〜するようにな
る）accept + 名詞 + 前置詞：accept + 名詞 + for
文法形式：accept + that 節、accept the fact that 節, it is widely/ commonly/
generally/ universally accepted that ~ （~は広く/ 一般的に/ 普遍的に受け入れられている）
フレーズ：accept sth at face value

sth を額面通りに受け入れる

have no choice but to accept 受け入れるしかない
be compelled to accept … 泣 き 寝 入 り す る （ … に は sb’s
fate/misfortunate（運命/不運）, the loss（喪失）, the situation（状況）など、もしくは名詞・動名詞がくる）

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PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022(c)（人を仲間、組織の一員として）認める、受け入れる
副詞 + accept： blindly（やみくもに）, unquestioningly（疑わずに）, grudgingly（しぶしぶ）
動詞 + accept： be happy/willing to（喜んで）, be prepared/ ready to（準備ができている）
accept + sb as ~（sb を~として認める）, accept + sb into ~ ((受身)): be accepted into~（~に受け入れられる）(7) know(1) 知っている、わかっているknow + 副詞/ 副詞 + know：very well（よく）, for sure/ for certain（確かに）know + 前置詞：about/ of（〜について）(2) 気づいている、わかる
know + 副詞/ 副詞 + know： exactly（はっきりと）, precisely（正確に）,immediately/instantly（すぐに）, intuitively（直感的に）(3) 経験的に知っているknow + 副詞： well（よく）, poorly（不十分に）, barely/hardly（ほとんど〜ない）, personally（直接的に、個人的に）
動詞 + know：get to know sb/sth（（人と）知り合いになる、（何かを）よく知るようになる）
句動詞
know A(sb/sth) from B(sb/sth) A と B の区別ができる
know of （間接的に）〜について知っている

cf. not that I know of（→フレー

ズ参照）
フレーズ
Do you know what I mean?/I know what you mean 私の言っていることがわかりますか？/ あなたの言っていることはわかります
God/ Goddess/ Heaven knows ((会話)) (1)神のみぞ知る、(2)誰が知っているのだ
ろうか(Who knows? の形でも使用される)
How should I know?/How am I to know?/How do I know? ((会話)) （イライラして）そんなこと知るわけない
I don’t know (1)知らない、わからない(I don’t know whether ~も有)、(2)そうは思わない(I don’t know that ~の形も有)、(3)（意見を述べる皮切りに）どう思
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I don’t know how to thank/reply you. ((会話)) あなたに何と御礼/お返事をすれば良いのでしょうか。
I know (1)その通り、(2)わかっているけれど、(3)そうだ、いいですか
It is (widely) known that/ who/ why/ what, etc. ((形式)) 〜のことは（広く）知られている
Not that I know of ((会話)) 私の知る限り、そうでないと思います
That’s all sb knows ((会話))バカの一つ覚え
Those who know, know (well)/Those in the know 知る人ぞ知る
You know something? ((会話)) ちょっと言っておくけどas we know it 私たちが知っているas you know ((会話)) ご存じのように
be commonly/popularly/collectively/variously/locally/formerly/previously known
as ~ (to) …
一般的に/総称して/様々に/地元で/以前は…に〜として知られている
be known for sth sth で知られている
be known to sb に知られている
be widely known 有名である
before you know it あっという間に
cf. a know-it-all （軽蔑的、皮肉的に）（何でも）知ったかぶりをする人
have know-how 処世術に長けている cf. have savvy((略式))でも可
if you must know ((会話)) どうしても知りたいのであれば言いますがknow a lot of people 顔が広い cf. know everybody who is anybody （有名人や有力者に）顔が広い
know a thing or two よく知っているknow all about ~ ~について熟知しているknow all along お見通しだ
know all there is to know about ~ ~通であるknow best 熟知しているknow better 分別がある cf. know the difference between right and wrong/ know
right from wrong も同じ意味
know how to get ahead 世渡りがうまいknow how to get along （人間関係、食べ物、生活などに）無難にやっていくknow how to get around （場所や状況などを）ある程度わかっているknow how to handle sb （人を）手玉にとる cf. run rings around sb も可know how to handle/ treat people 人のあしらい方がうまいknow how to hold sb’s tongue 言っていいこと悪いことをわきまえる
know how to swim with the tide 要領がいい cf. a smooth operator 要領がいい人
know no bounds ((会話)) 青天井である
know one’s job/ subject/ stuff 仕事/科目がよくできる、熟知している
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know sb by sight/ know sb’s face 顔見知りであるknow sb inside out 気心が知れているknow sth inside out (BrE: know sth backwards, AmE: know sth backwards andforwards) sth について精通しているknow the ropes コツの全てを掴む（その結果、（仕事で）熟達する） cf. get thehang of ~も可!ポイント! know the ropes, learn the ropes, find the ropes の違い
learn the ropes の ropes は、他者から力を借りて仕事などのいい面のコツという意味で使用され、learn the ropes はそのコツにより仕事等でうまくいく可能性があるという意味である。その次の段階として、find the ropes が使用される。
find the ropes の ropes は努力をして自発的に仕事などのいい面のコツという意
味で、その結果 find the ropes は仕事等でうまくいく可能性があるという意味
で使用される。find the ropes は、try to find the ropes, struggle to find the ropes の形で使用される傾向にある。learn the ropes, find the ropes の段階を経て、know
the ropes（仕事などの努力をして全ての水も甘いも知り尽くし、その仕事などで熟達する）が使用される。それぞれの違いは、下記のとおり。
learn the ropes: [+自発的], [+良いコツ], [±仕事などでうまくいく可能性](try to, struffle to) find the ropes: [+自発的], [+努力する], [+良いコツ], [±仕事などでうまくいく可能性]
know the ropes: [+自発的], [+努力する], [+熟練して、熟達して], [+水も甘いも知り尽くす], [+仕事などでうまくいく]
know the score ((会話)) 実情、内幕を知る
know what’s what (in ~) ((会話))（〜について）違いがわかる
know your own mind ((会話))気持ちがはっきりしている、決心している
know your way around sth (1)（物事など）について熟している、(2)（場所）をよく知っているknowing my luck （不吉な予感がする際に使用して）自分の運はわかっているけれど
let it be known/ make it known (that) ((会話)) 事前に知らせる
let sb know sb（人）に知らせる
make oneself known 自己宣伝する、売り込む
not know any better 分別がない
not know how to dress （服装が）野暮だ、洗練されていない
not know how to fix じっとしてられない cf. can’t sit still が簡潔な表現
not know how to let go and move on 粘着質である cf. be sticky が簡潔な表現
not know sb’s place ((会話)) 立場をわきまえない、身の程を知らず cf. not know
sb’s limitations も可
not know the first thing about ~ ~のイロハも知らない
not know the meaning of fear 恐れというものを知らない、大胆不敵な cf.
fearless が簡潔な表現
not know what hit you ((会話)) （予測していない悪いことが起きて）ショックを受ける、困惑する
not know what to do with ~ ~をどうしていいかわからず持て余す
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not know when sb is beaten 往生際が悪い
not know when to give up 諦めが悪い
cf. know how to lose gracefully 諦めがいい
not know when to quit やめ時がわからない
not know where to rest sb’s eyes 目のやり場に困る cf. not know where to lookが簡潔な表現not know whether you are coming or going ((会話))とても困惑している
not want to know ((BrE, 会話)) 興味がない、関わりたくない
ought to know enough to ~ ~することが粋である
pretend not to know シラをきる cf. pretend not to know to the end シラを切り通す
pretend to know all the answers 知ったか振りをする cf. pretend to have all theanswers も可
the next thing sb knew sb（人）が気づくとthere’s no knowing ((会話))どうなることやらわからない、予断を許さない
you don’t know ((会話))全くわかりっこない
you know what ((会話))(1)皮切り（あのですね、冒頭）、(2)話題転換（ところで、中頃）、(3)強調（いいですか、中頃、and/but you know what）、(4)間詰め（えーと、中頃）、(5)情報補足（それから、中頃、and/also you know what）、(6)代用（例のあれ、前置
詞の目的語）
you know との違い：you know は you と know の第一語義の意味が薄れており、文脈をつなぐために用いられる。それに対して、you know what は you, know,what のそれぞれの意味が失われることなく使用されている。しかし、間詰めの場合は you know と同じように意味が失われている。
you know who ((会話)) 例のあの人（すでにわかっている人、言い難い人をいう際に使用される）
you never know ((会話)) 先のことはわからない(well) what do you know ((会話))（驚きを表して）え、何、知らなかった(8) here, there (adv.)
It’s just a stone’s throw from here./ It’s right there./ It’s a little ways from here.
ここから目と鼻の先です。
be not all there ((略式)) まともでない、正常でない（be all there よりよく用いられる）
be out of here 立ち去る準備ができているbe there (for sb) 〜のためにいる、助ける準備ができている、寄り添う
be/get there 成功する、達成する
hello there/ you there （電話で）こんにちは
here and now (the here and now) 現在のところ、今この瞬間(the here and now)here and there あちらこちらに
here comes sb/sth ほら〜がやって来る（やって来るという行為の進行中）

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here goes （奮起）さあ、やるぞhere it is (1)（注意喚起）いいですか、(2)（奮起）さあ、やるぞ、(3)（提示）
これですhere sb is (doing sth) （予測しなかったことに対して現在の状況を説明）ほらここですhere sb is (also sb/sth is here) ほら〜がやって来た（やって来たという行為が完了）
here to stay 普及する、浸透する
here today, gone tomorrow 今日はここにあるが明日はもうない、一時的である
here we go (1)（注意喚起）いいですか（冒頭で用いられ、look/listen here we goの形）、(2)（奮起）さあ、やるぞ（冒頭で用いられ、OK/all right/ are you ready?
here we go の形）、(3)（嫌悪）あーあ、またか（冒頭で用いられ、oh/no here
we go の形）、(4)（同意）そうそう）（中頃で用いられる）、(5)（行為完了）
よし完璧（中頃で用いられ、OK here we go の形）、(6)（提示）これです
here we go again (1)（注意喚起）いいですか（冒頭で用いられ、look/listen here
we go again の形）、(2)（奮起）さあ、やるぞ（冒頭で用いられ、OK/all right/
are you ready? here we go again の形）、(3)（嫌悪）あーあ、またか（冒頭で用いられ、oh/no here we go again の形）、(4)（提示）これです
here you are (here you go) (1)（注意喚起）いいですか、(2)（提示）これです!ポイント! here, there を使用したフレーズのうち、here we go, here we go again,
there you go, here goes, here it is, there you are, here you are, here you go は、似たような機能を持ちます。
here, there, and everywhere あちこち至る所に
here’s to sb’s happiness/success, etc. 〜の成功、幸せなどに乾杯
neither here nor there 重要ではない、取るに足らない
sb/sth is here to do sth 〜のためにここに来る、あるSo there I was/ we/they were, ~. だから、私/私たち/彼らはそのとき〜でした。
there and then (= then and there) 即座に、直ちにthere goes sth/sb (1)人/物がどこかに行ってしまう、消えてしまう、(2)〜（電話の着信音やベルなどが）鳴っている、(3)（機会、金、希望などが）なくな
る、失敗する
there it is/ there you are/ there you go （状況に不満だけれどなすすべがない際に）そんなもんだ
there you are (1)（注意喚起）いいですか(look/ listen there you are の形)、(2)（提示）これですthere you go (again) (1)（奮起）さあ、やるぞ(there you go の形)、(2)（嫌悪）あーあ、またか(there you go again の形)
there/then again （真実味に欠ける説明を追加して）それからまたthere’s a good boy/girl/ dog, etc. ((BrE))（子供や犬などを褒めて）何ていい子/
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犬なんだ！
there’s sth for you （怒りもしくは落胆して）〜なんてもんじゃない。
間投詞
there, there! （泣いている人、怒っている人などをなだめて）よしよし、まあ
まあ
so there （いらだち、不快を表して会話の終わりに使用して）そういうことです、おあいにくさま(9) a. care
care of + sb (1)（人の）の世話をする、(2)〜が好き（take care of と care forの混交）
take care about + sb/sth (1)（人の）世話をする、(2)〜（物事）を気にかける（take care と care about の混交）
take care for + sb/sth (1)（人の）世話をする、(2)〜（物事）の責任をとる（take care of と care for の混交）
!ポイント! take care for, take care about, care of は、care を含んだ意味的に類似しているフレーズ take care of, care for, take care が混交してできた新しいフレーズです。
b. lady
It ain’t/isn’t over until the Soprano/ lady sings. 最後までどうなるかわからない。
!ポイント! 本来は、It ain’t//isn’t over until the fat lady sings.というフレーズでした。これは、オペラの最後でふくよかなソプラノ担当の女性が舞台で歌うことで、そのオペラが終わるという場面からできたものです。現在のオペラの最後に出てくるソプラノの女性は、厳しい体重管理などでふくよかではありません。また fat のように人の容姿を述べることをも適切とは言えません。It
ain’t/isn’t over until the Soprano/ lady sings.は、このような現況によりできたフレーズです。
c. until(up) until to （念押しの機能）〜までずっとfrom A until to B （念押しの機能）A から B までずっと!ポイント! (up) until to, from A until to B は、「〜まで」という意味を表す until,
to が屋上屋によりできたフレーズで、「〜まで」を念押しする機能を持ちます。このように、意味的に類似した単語を重ねあわせてできたフレーズは、
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現代英語の特徴の１つです。
5. Educational Implication
The phraseological cleansing in EJDLs discussed in this study reveals three points: (1)the importance of phrases for JELs, (2) the unique features of phrases, and (3) the
creation of newly observed phrases. These three points, if taken into account whenputting together a phraseological dictionary, can contribute to the enhancement of the
English proficiencies of JELs. They are also important in learning how phraseologicaldictionaries have evolved from an English lexicographical perspective.
6. Conclusion
This paper has introduced a phraseological English–Japanese dictionary, which has
not been published in ages. Thanks to data obtained from large-scale corpora, theresearchers were able to cleanse the actual behaviors of existing phrases and find anddescribe the actual behaviors of newly observed phrases in the phraseologicalEnglish–Japanese dictionary. The phraseological English–Japanese dictionary cancontribute to the development of English phraseology among JELs as it covers a wide
range of phrases that have not been discussed in the EJDLs published so far.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 20K00674(Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C)).

References
Dabrowska, E. 2014. Recycling utterances: A speaker’s guide to sentence proceeding.
Cognitive Linguistics 25(4): 617-653.
Goldberg, A. 2019. Explain me this: Creativity, competition, and the partial
productivity of constructions. U.S.: Princeton University Press.
Inoue, A. 2007. Present-day spoken English: A phraseological approach. Tokyo:
Kaitakusha.

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Effects of Dictionary Consultation During L2 Writing on Error
Correction with Corpus Consultation
Yoshiho Satake
Aoyama Gakuin University
t31330@aoyamagakuin.jp
Abstract: This study examined the ways in which dictionary consultation during L2
writing affects the number of article and preposition omission errors and the accuracyof correcting these errors with corpus consultation in face-to-face classes to clarify
how dictionaries and corpora should be utilized to effectively implement data-driven
learning (DDL), which is corpus consultation for language learning. The participants
were 30 intermediate Japanese learners of English. In face-to-face classes, they spent
30 minutes writing essays with and without dictionary consultation, in which theauthor compared the number of omission errors of articles and prepositions, and theaccuracy of correcting these errors by referring to a corpus. The results showed thatwriting with dictionary consultation was no more effective than writing without it, in
reducing errors or encouraging accurate corrections, thereby restricting production.
The results suggest spending more time drafting with dictionary consultation topre-correct errors that dictionaries can correct and to focus DDL on error correction,
where corpus consultation is especially effective.
Keywords: dictionary consultation, article and preposition omission errors,
data-driven learning (DDL), phraseology, error correction

1. Introduction
Data-driven learning (DDL) is an inductive discovery learning method in whichlearners search for words and grammatical items in a corpus and observe examples ofusage (Johns 1991); it has been effective in various areas such as vocabulary learningand error correction (e.g., Boulton and Cobb 2017). In the author’s previous study
examining the effects of DDL on error correction in second language (L2) essays inface-to-face classes, corpus consultation was particularly effective in the accurate
correction of omission errors of articles and prepositions (Satake 2020). In theauthor’s other study on whether corpus-referenced correction tasks of article andpreposition omission errors in distance on-demand classes contributed to improving
accuracy in the usage of articles and prepositions, the tasks effectively improved
accuracy in article use but not in preposition use; this is because preposition use was
highly accurate before the tasks were implemented (Satake 2022). Unlike face-to-faceclasses—which did not allow dictionary use during L2 writing—the on-demandclasses may have been influenced by the availability of dictionaries when writing.
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This study compared the number of article and preposition omission errors and theaccuracy of corpus-referenced corrections in L2 essays written with dictionary
consultation with those in L2 essays written without dictionary consultation in
face-to-face classes to examine how dictionaries and corpora should be used to
implement DDL effectively.
2. Literature Review
In the L2 writing process, using a dictionary is especially necessary when one cannot
retrieve the desired words from their mental lexicon (Chon 2008). Various studies
have reported on the effects of dictionary consultation (e.g., East 2006). For example,
in a study investigating whether bilingual-dictionary consultation promotes good L2
writing, 47 lower-intermediate to advanced learners of German in New Zealand took
two tests, which were one with bilingual-dictionary consultation and one without, andthe results show that the test with dictionary consultation improved lexical range andsophistication but not accuracy (East 2006). Nonetheless, some studies have reported
contrary results (e.g., Roohani and Khosravi 2011). In a study examining whether
bilingual-dictionary consultation contributes to good L2 writing, 60 advanced Persian
learners of English took two tests, one with bilingual-dictionary consultation and one
without. The results show that the test with dictionary consultation contributed tohigher scores that indicated that dictionary consultation promoted accuracy. In
contrast, high frequent dictionary use led to lower scores (Roohani and Khosravi2011).
To improve accuracy in L2 writing, L2 teachers often use corrective feedback anderror correction, which promote accuracy over time (e.g., Ferris 2011). There aremany ways to provide learners with corrective feedback and conduct error correction
tasks in L2 classes, and corpus consultation for error correction in L2 writing has
recently increased (e.g., Crosthwaite 2017; Tono et al. 2014). The author’s previous
studies have examined the effects of corpus consultation on error correction in L2
writing. In Satake (2020), in face-to-face classes, 55 pre-intermediate to intermediate
Japanese learners of English wrote essays without using reference materials andreceived feedback on their errors, which they corrected with and without usingreference materials (corpus or dictionary). The results showed that the use of the
corpus allowed easy access to accurate target phrases and frequency information ofco-occurring words, which was especially helpful in correcting omission errors ofarticles and prepositions. In Satake (2022), in on-demand classes, the author
investigated the effects of correcting article and preposition omission errors with
corpus consultation on the accuracy of article and preposition use by comparing thepre- and the post writing. Dictionary consultation during writing was allowed because
the author had no control over students’ use of dictionaries in on-demand classes. The
results show that the number of article omission errors significantly decreased in the
post-writing, while there was no significant difference in the number of prepositionomission errors between the pre- and the post-writing because there were few
preposition omission errors in both the pre- and the post-writing.
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Students’ dictionary consultation in on-demand classes could have contributed to
the very few preposition omission errors in writing. Hence, this study compared thenumber of article and preposition omission errors, and the accuracy of correction with
corpus consultation in L2 essays written with dictionary consultation, with those in L2
essays written without dictionary consultation in face-to-face classes. This enables theauthor to investigate how dictionaries and corpora should be used to conduct DDL
effectively.
3. Method
3.1 Participants
The 30 participants—first-year university students at a private university inTokyo—were intermediate Japanese learners of English. The students’ TOEIC scores
ranged from 630 to 975, corresponding to the B1 to C1 level of the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). They took the compulsory
English writing course taught by the author. Before starting the study, the author
explained the study in Japanese. Furthermore, the participants were made aware thatparticipation was voluntary and non-participation would not affect their grades.
Anonymity and confidentiality were also assured. A total of 30 out of 31 students
provided written consent for their data to be used for the study. The data from 25 of
the 30 participants were used in this study because they participated in all tasks.
3.2. Data Comparison and Analysis
To examine the effects of dictionary consultation in a face-to-face class, theparticipants’ errors in writing with dictionary consultation and no consultation ofreference resources were compared. The comparison by reference resources involved
the number of omission errors of articles and prepositions, and the accuracy of error
corrections. The results were also compared with Satake (2022) on the effects ofcorpus referencing in on-demand classes.
3.3 Instruments
3.3.1 Essay and revision tasks
Timed essay tasks were used. For the first task, the participants were asked to write an
essay based on a topic from the writing course textbook, such as “communication”(Oshima and Hogue 2020). The first task was timed for 30 minutes. They referred to adictionary when writing the first week and wrote without referring to anything thesecond week. They wrote on different topics in the first and second weeks. In thesecond task, the students were given 15 minutes to revise their essays using a corpus.
Before the first revision, the participants were given basic instruction on using the
corpus as a reference resource.

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3.3.2 Reference resources
When writing, the author allowed the students to consult any dictionary they liked
because imposing only one dictionary for all the students was impractical, considering
each student has a different dictionary. The students used English-Japanesedictionaries, which is reasonable, as foreign language learners tend to use bilingual
dictionaries, irrespective of their language proficiency levels (Piotrowski 1989).
Almost all the students used the online Weblio English-Japanese Dictionary, whichcontains more than 12 million words (GRAS 2022).
The Wordbanks Online corpus—a large corpus that functions as a normativemodel for learners of English—was used as reference material for the students tocorrect their errors. The corpus contains approximately 600 million words fromvarious written and spoken genres, including American, Australian, and CanadianEnglish and British English from the early 18th to early 21st century (Shogakukan).
To enable the students to use the Wordbanks Online corpus easily, this study used apublicly available online corpus query system called Shogakukan Corpus Network(SCN). With SCN, users can search various corpora, including the Wordbanks Online
corpus. It has a user-friendly interface to search for words and phrases. Before thetasks, the students were provided with 20 minutes of instruction on using the corpus
tools. The author provided learners with instructions on how to search for word(s) andcollocations, and interpret concordance lines. Figure 1 shows an example ofconcordance lines displayed by searching for “respond.”

Figure 1 Example of concordance lines
3.3.3. Feedback on errors
The author gave error feedback by highlighting all noun phrases without articles andphrases without necessary prepositions in each essay. Examples of highlighted
feedback are as follows. The underlined words were highlighted in actual feedback.

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Internet teaches us the answers quickly.
So, we feel a sense of alienation, when everyone does not respond your word.
The week after writing the essay, the students received their essay with feedback andwere instructed to consult the corpus for highlighted words and phrases to correct
their errors. They were informed that the highlighted errors were omission errors, butwere not notified about where and which parts of speech were missing.
3.4 Procedure
The following procedure was adopted:
Step 1: The timed essay task with dictionary consultation was given (30 min in class).
Step 2: The following week, the students were given highlighted teacher feedback onomission errors of articles and prepositions in their essays.
Step 3: Before the first revision session, instruction on using the Wordbanks Online
corpus was provided (20 min in class).
Step 4: The students undertook a revision session (15 min in class).
Step 5: On the same day, the timed essay task without dictionary consultation wasgiven (30 min in class).
Steps 2 and 4 were repeated.
Step 6: The author created error-annotated learner corpora of the participants’ essays.
Step 7: Error analysis was conducted.
The students were given a revision sheet for error correction with corpus consultationand instructed to copy the identified errors and record the corrections in their essays
and parts of the concordance lines they consulted (see Appendix). The students
consulted the Wordbanks Online corpus by searching and reading the target phrases in
KWIC lines. Identified errors not corrected in the revision sheets were regarded as a
failure of correction if they were copied in the revision sheets, as the participants
could not correct them despite trying. Conversely, identified errors not copied in therevision sheets were not regarded as a failure of correction, as the participants did not
try correcting them at all.
3.5 Process of Data Analysis
To analyze how the participants corrected their errors, two corpora of the participants’
essays with error annotations were created: a corpus of 25 essays written withdictionary consultation (2470 words) and a corpus of 25 essays written without
dictionary consultation (3260 words). The error tag set was constructed based on the
Konan-JIEM learner corpus error annotation guideline (2011). The author manuallyassigned error tags for parts of speech, and whether they were corrected accurately to
all the omission errors of articles and prepositions. The following is an example oferror annotation.
<at crr="The" scrr="The" cwu="c"></at > Internet teaches us the answers quickly.
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The author loaded the error-annotated corpora into AntConc (4.0.10), a free corpus
analysis software for concordance and text analysis (Anthony 2022), and finallyconducted an error analysis based on the information from the corpora.
4. Results
4.1 Number of Errors
Let us start with the effects of dictionary consultation on accuracy in L2 writing.
Table 1 shows the number of article and preposition omission errors in total in theparticipants’ writing with and without dictionary consultation. To analyze thedifference in the number of errors with and without dictionary consultation, thenumber of omission errors of articles and prepositions, respectively, by each of the 25participants was tested by comparing those with and without dictionary consultation.
Since the data did not meet normality assumptions, a nonparametric test, theWilcoxon signed-rank test, was used. The results shows that there was no significant
difference between with and without dictionary consultation for both the number ofarticle omission errors (z = .23, p = .83, r = .03) and that of preposition omission
errors (z = 1.81, p = .12, r = .26). In 30 minutes of L2 writing in face-to-face classes,
dictionary consultation did not affect the number of omission errors of articles andprepositions.
Table 1 Number of omission errors in writing
Dictionary use No dictionary use
article47

48

preposition 5

124.2 Number of Accurate Corrections
Now we verify the effects of dictionary consultation on accurate corrections of errors
in L2 writing. Table 2 shows the number and percentage of accurate corrections ofarticle and preposition omission errors in total, in the participants’ writing with andwithout dictionary consultation. To analyze the difference in the number of accurate
corrections of errors with and without dictionary consultation, the number of accurate
corrections of omission errors of articles and prepositions, respectively, by each of the
25 participants, was tested by comparing those with and without dictionary
consultation. Since the data did not meet normality assumptions, a nonparametric test,
the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, was used. The results show no significant difference
between writing with and without dictionary consultation, for both the number ofaccurate corrections of article omission errors (z = 1.31, p = .20, r = .19) and that of
preposition omission errors (z = .90, p = .56, r = .13). In 30 minutes of L2 writing in
face-to-face classes, dictionary consultation did not affect the number of accurate
corrections of omission errors of articles and prepositions.
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Table 2 Number and percentage of accurate corrections of omission errors in writing
Dictionary use No dictionary use
article17 (36.2%)

30 (62.5%)

preposition 4 (80.0%)

7 (58.3%)

4.3 Length of Essays
Although dictionary consultation did not affect either the number of errors or thenumber of accurate corrections in L2 essays written in 30 minutes in face-to-faceclasses, it affected the length of the essays. Table 3 shows the average number ofwords per essay, and the participants wrote longer essays when not using a dictionary.
To analyze the difference in the average number of words written in essays with andwithout dictionary consultation, the number of words in essays by each participant
was tested by comparing those with and without dictionary consultation. The T-test
was used since the data met both assumptions of normality and homogeneity ofvariance. The results show that there was a significant difference between with andwithout dictionary consultation for the length of the participants’ essays (t (24) = -8.77,
p < .01, d = 1.05). The effect size is considered medium, according to the suggested
Cohen’s d values for within-group contrasts in L2 research (.60 as small, 1.00 as
medium, 1.40 as large, Plonsky and Oswald 2014). In 30 minutes of L2 writing in
face-to-face classes, the participants wrote significantly longer essays without
dictionary consultation, suggesting that dictionary consultation during writing
hindered learners’ fluency.
Table 3 Average number of words per essay
Dictionary use No dictionary use
99130

5. Discussion
The results showed that writing with dictionary consultation had no effect on reducing
errors or promoting accurate corrections over writing without dictionary consultationand had a more inhibitory effect on production than writing without dictionary
consultation. The results of this study—which was conducted face-to-face—were notconsistent with those of Satake (2022), which was conducted on-demand; in the latter,
dictionary consultation significantly reduced preposition omission errors during
writing. The difference could have been due to the difference in the time spent on
writing. In this study, there was a 30-minute time limit for writing in a face-to-faceclass, while in Satake (2022), there was no time limit in the on-demand classes. Thirty
minutes may have been too short for dictionary consultation during writing to beeffective in reducing preposition omission errors. To effectively practice DDL byconcentrating in-class corpus referencing activities on errors that can be easily andaccurately corrected by referencing the corpus, rather than errors that can be corrected
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by consulting a dictionary, teachers need to take various considerations into practice.
For example, writing assignments of certain lengths could be assigned as homeworkso that students can spend as much time as they like, consulting a dictionary whenevernecessary, at their own pace.
6. Conclusion
This study examined how dictionary consultation during L2 writing affects thenumber of article and preposition omission errors, and the accuracy of correcting
these errors with corpus consultation in face-to-face classes, to clarify how
dictionaries and corpora should be utilized to implement DDL effectively. The results
showed that writing with dictionary consultation was no more effective than writing
without it, in terms of reducing errors or encouraging accurate corrections, resulting in
restricting production. The results suggest spending more time drafting withdictionary consultation to pre-correct errors that can be corrected by dictionaries andfocusing DDL on error correction where corpus consultation is especially effective.
To effectively practice DDL, teachers should allow enough time for dictionary
consultation during writing to improve accuracy, and consider the types of errors forwhich corpus and dictionary consultation is effective.

References
Anthony, L. 2022. AntConc (4.0.10) [Windows]. Tokyo: Waseda University.
https://www.laurenceanthony.net/software
Boulton, A. and T. Cobb. 2017. Corpus use in language learning: A meta-analysis.
Language Leraning 67(2): 348-393.
Chon, Y. V. 2008. The electronic dictionary for writing: A solution or a problem?
International Journal of Lexicography 22(1): 23-54. doi: 10.1093/ijl/ecn034
Crosthwaite, P. 2017. Retesting the limits of data-driven learning: Feedback and error
correction. Computer Assisted Language Learning 30(6): 447-473. doi:
10.1080/09588221.2017.1312462
East, M. 2006. The impact of bilingual dictionaries on lexical sophistication andlexical accuracy in tests of L2 writing proficiency: A quantitative analysis.
Assessing Writing (11): 179-197. doi: 10.1016/j.asw.2006.11.001
Ferris, D. R. 2011. Treatment of error in second language student writing, 2nd ed.
Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
GRAS. 2005-. Weblio English-Japanese and Japanese-English dictionary.
https://ejje.weblio.jp/
Johns, T. 1991. Should you be persuaded: Two samples of data-driven learningmaterials. English Language Research Journal (4): 1-16.
Nagata, R. 2011. The Konan-JIEM learner corpus error annotation guideline. Konan
University.
NetAdvance Inc. 2003. Shogakukan corpus network. https://scnweb130

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japanknowledge-com.hawking1.agulin.aoyama.ac.jp/
Oshima, A. and A. Hogue. 2020. Longman academic writing series 4: essays, 4th ed.
Hoboken: Pearson.
Piotrowski, T. 1989. Monolingual and bilingual dictionaries: Fundamental differences
In Learners’ dictionaries: State of the art, ed. M. Tickoo, 72–83. Singapore:
SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
Plonsky, L. and F. L. Oswald. 2014. How big is “big”? Interpreting effect sizes in L2
research. Language Learning (64): 878-912. doi: 10.1111/lang.12079
Roohani, A. and A. Khosravi. 2011. An investigation into bilingual dictionary use: Do
the frequency of use and type of dictionary make a difference in L2 writing
performance? The Journal of Teaching Language Skills 3(2): 86-106.
Satake, Y. 2020. How error types affect the accuracy of L2 error correction with corpus use.
Journal of Second Language Writing 50. doi: 10.1016/j.jslw.2020.100757
Satake, Y. 2022. Effects of data-driven learning in on-demand classes. Journal of
Corpus-based Lexicology Studies (4): 1-13.
Tono, Y., Satake, Y., and A. Miura. 2014. The effects of using corpora on revisiontasks in L2 writing with coded error feedback. ReCALL 26(2):147-162. doi:
10.1017/S095834401400007X
Appendix: Example of revision sheet entries
1

誤り

smartphone

修正

the smartphones

参考にした文

2

3

Today’s Roman roads are the Internet, the smartphones

発見

the をつける 複数形

誤り

blue light修正

the blue light

参考にした文These glasses protect your eyes from the blue light that comes fromcomputers.

発見

the をつける

誤り修正参考にした文131

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発見
4

誤り
修正
参考にした文発見

5

誤り修正参考にした文発見

6

誤り修正参考にした文発見

7

誤り修正参考にした文発見

8

誤り修正参考にした文発見
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Issues in Creation of Electronic Dictionary for Meeteilon
Leihaorambam Sarbajit Singh
Indian Institute of Information Technology Manipur, India
sarbajit@iiitmanipur.ac.in
Abstract: Meeteilon is a Tibeto-Burman subfamily of Sino-Tibetan language family
and lingua franca of the state of Manipur in northeastern India. It is a tonal as well as
agglutinating language. It is one of the official languages of the Government of India.
Currently Meeteilon uses two scripts parallelly- Bengali/Assamese and Meetei script.
Most of the older generation of Meeteilon speakers has low acquaintance with Meetei
script as the Bengali/Assamese script was adopted for writing Meeteilon during 18th
century. The Bengali/Assamese script for writing Meeteilon in formal education has
been discontinued and replaced by Meetei script since 2006. By virtue of theimplementation of Meetei script in education system of Manipur, the younger
generations do not understand Bengali/Assamese script at all. Available Corpus for
Meeteilon is in Bengali/Assamese script. It is noticed that the spelling system of thelanguage in Bengali/Assamese script is very independent and it is obviously reflectedin the corpus. Even the Meeteilon spelling with the Meetei script has some problems
still. The paper will discuss the issues related to the spelling system, sorting order ofhead entries, handling of tone bearing words, etc. while compiling a dictionary. The
method of study will be based on the available corpora and dictionaries in both
scripts. The findings of study will be very helpful for the researchers andlexicographers dealing with Meeteilon.
Keywords: Meeteilon, electronic dictionary, spelling system, sorting order, Bengali
script, Meetei Script

1. Introduction
Meeteilon (Meiteilon/Meithei/Manipuri) has very few numbers of electronic
dictionaries. These electronic dictionaries are also in the initial stage with small data.
There are about 40 Meeteilon involving dictionary including glossaries. Most of
dictionaries are bilingual or trilingual in different combinations: Meeteilon, English,
Hindi and Bengali. The monolingual dictionaries for the language are four in number.
Among the four monolingual dictionaries, three is for archaic/old and only one is formodern Meeteilon. Meeteilon is using two scripts- Meetei Mayek ‘Meetei Script’ andBengali/Assamese Script for academic as well as official purposes. In the year 2006,
the Bengali/Assamese script for writing Meeteilon in formal education has been
discontinued and replaced by Meetei script. As a result, the older generations have
low acquaintance with Meetei script on the other hand the new generations cannot
understand the Bengali/Assamese Script. Some of the Text Corpora for Meeteilon areavailable in Bengali/Assamese script (LDC-IL 2022; TDIL 2022). It is noticed that the133

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spelling system of the language in Bengali/Assamese script is very independent and it
is obviously reflected in the corpus. Even the Meeteilon spelling with the Meetei
script has some problems still.
2. Bengali Script and Meeteilon
For writing Meeteilon, the speakers have a tendency to adopt all the characters ofBengali/Assamese script. Meeteilon has 36 segmental and 2 suprasegmental (tones)
phonemes. The present Bengali script has 55 symbols however Meeteilon has only 38
phonemes (including two tones). The symbols more than 38 phonemes are being usedunconsciously or very sparingly. It is of course in English, for example, an alphabet
represents more than one sound. In case of Meeteilon with Bengali script, mapping ofextra alphabets to a fix number of sounds produced originally is very contradictory as
well as purposeless. Eventually, the extra alphabets make obscure performance to theusers. However, some symbols are very useful to indicate the tonal variations inwriting Meeteilon, for instance, ই /ì/ against ঈ /í/, উ /ù/ against ঊ /ú/, etc. The
symbols in Bengali script cannot handle all the toned vowels (monophthongs anddiphthongs) of Meeteilon, for instance, আ /a/, ঐ /iə/, etc. Some consonants are being
used for marking of tonal variations, for instance, ◌ং /ŋ/ for low tone in syllable final
against ঙ /ŋ/ and য় /j/ for high tone against ই /ì/ on the other hand /ì/ is used for low
against ঈ /í/ elsewhere. In fact, tonal consonant is not acceptable linguistically andusing of either ঈ /í/ or য় /j/ against ই /ì/ creates inconsistency in writing Meeteilon.
Conjoint symbols of Bengali makes a great confusion to read a Meeteilon word, as
there are distinct consonant clusters which are familiar with Meeteilon speakers by
nature, for instance, ঙ া /ŋən.ta/ “early” and চম া /cəm.pɹa/ “lemon”, here in theformer the phonemes /n/ and /t/ are not to be clustered in actual Meeteilon
pronunciation, however, orthographically it is expressed as clustered one. The
insertion of “akar” ◌া /a/ for released consonants in the final position of a word creates
ambiguity with the consonants followed by /a/, for instance, উনা /u.nə/ “by wood” andউনা /u.na/ “leaf” (Ningomba 1971). The borrowed words from Indo-Aryan languages
like— Bengali, Sanskrit, etc. are used to retain their spelling. Likewise, English andmany other languages are also facing such problem in their spelling system and isbecoming a big question of inconsistency. The Spelling Committee Government ofManipur framed the first office spelling regulation rule in 1925. After a long gap of 44
years, in 1969 the government devised another spelling regulation rule for Meeteilon
spelling with some further modification. Though there is a conventionalized order of
the authority, the Meeteilon spelling with Bengali is becoming independent day by
day and continuing still. Nameirakpam opines that “The various daily papers andbooks including the text one published in the language have been found in using
variant spelling systems. Besides those who are learning postgraduate in language andliterature have come across different spelling system as different teachers have taught
them. Consequently, while they again become teachers in different institution, they
started teaching the spelling system differently. Likewise, spelling problem isdisseminated just like an epidemic.” (Nameirakpam 1998).
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Table 1 Meeteilon Consonant Sounds Represent More Than One Bengali Letters
Bengali Letters

Meeteilon Phonemes
t
tʰ
d
dʰ
ɟ
n
ŋ
s
ɹ

ত, ট, ৎ
থ, ঠ
দ, ড
ধ, ঢ
জ,য
ন, ণ, ঞঙ, ◌ংস, শ, ছ, ষর, ড়, ঢ়

Table 2 Meeteilon Monophthong Sounds and Bengali Letters
Meeteilon Phonemes
i
e
a
ə
o
u

Bengali Lettersই , ি◌ , ঈ , ◌ীএ, ◌আ , ◌া
অও, ◌া
উ , ◌ু , ঊ , ◌ূ

Table 3 Meeteilon Diphthong Sounds and Bengali Letters
Meeteilon Phonemes
ai
əi
oi
ui
au
əu

Bengali Letters
___
ঐ, ◌
___
___
___
ঔ, ◌ৗ

It is observed from the above tables 1., 2. and 3. that more than one character of Bengalialphabets are using for a single Meeteilon phoneme. However, some Meeteilon
diphthongs have no equivalent in Bengali script.
3. Meetei Mayek (Meetei script)
The Meetei script has 27 Iyek Ipi “main letter” (18 indigenous and 9 exotic). There
are 8 Lonsum/Lom Iyek “unreleased letter”, 8 Cheitap Iyek “vowel signs including
matra” and 3 Khudam Iyek “punctuation marks including diacritics”. It is interesting
to mention that Meetei script has its own numeral known as Cheising Iyek. For theunderstanding of Meetei Mayek “Meetei Script” one can refer The Unicode Standard,
Version 14.0 (Unicode 2022).

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3.1. Iyek Ipi (Main letters)
Table 4 Chart of main letters of Meetei script
Meetei IPA Meetei IPA Meetei IPA
ꯀ
ꯃ
ꯆ
ꯉ
ꯌ
ꯏ
ꯒ
ꯕ
ꯘ

k
m
c
ŋ
j
i
ɡ
b
ɡʰ

ꯁ
ꯄ
ꯇ
ꯊ
ꯍ
ꯐ
ꯓ
ꯖ
ꯙ

s
p
t
tʰ
h
pʰ
ɟʰ
ɟ
dʰ

ꯂ
ꯅ
ꯈ
ꯋ
ꯎ
ꯑ
ꯔ
ꯗ
ꯚ

l
n
kʰ
w
u
ə
ɹ
d
bʰ

3.2. Lonsum/Lom Iyek (Unreleased letters)
Table 5 Chart of unreleased letters of Meetei script
Meeteiꯛꯝꯟꯡ

IPA Meetei IPA
k
l
ꯜ
m
p
ꯞ
n
t
ꯠ
ŋ
i
ꯢ

3.3. Cheitap Iyek (Vowel Signs including Matra)
Table 6 Chart of vowel signs including Matra of Meetei script
Meeteiꯣꯥꯧꯩ

IPA Meetei IPA
o
i
ꯤ
a
e
ꯦ
u
u
ꯨ
ŋ
i
ꯪ

3.4. Swar Mayek (Vowels due to Matras)
Table 7 Chart of vowels due to Matras of Meetei script
Meeteiꯑꯣꯑꯦꯑꯩ

IPA Meetei IPA
o
a
ꯑꯥ
e
ꯑꯧ
u
i
ꯑꯪ
ŋ

3.5. Khudam Iyek (Punctuation Marks including Diacritics)
Table 8 Chart of punctuation marks including diacritics of Meetei script
Meetei꯬꯭

Diacritics
MeeteiHigh tone mark꯫Cluster mark136

Punctuation. (full stop)PROCEEDINGS OF ASIALEX 2022

Conventionally, written Meeteilon with Meetei script is from left to right and have aspace between the words. Capitalization is not used in written Meeteilon. The lettersin Meetei Mayek are named after parts of human body (Pravabati Chingangbam andTabish 2000). Main letters are used to write: released consonants and vowels in initial
or isolated syllable (Table 4). In the main character set, there are only three
independent vowel symbols— ꯎ /u/, ꯏ /i/, and ꯑ /ə/. The symbols for other vowel
sounds are produced by attaching the Cheitap to the independent vowel ꯑ “atiya”(Table 7). The sound /ə/ does not expressed when it follows a consonant in Meetei
script. Lonsum/Lom Iyek is used for writing unreleased sounds (Table 5). Lum Iyek
(high tone) “ . ” is marked just after the vowel symbol, which has high tone, forinstance, “tea” and “plastic” in Meeteilon, are pronounced differently as ꯆꯥ /ca/ “tea”
and ꯆꯥ. /cá/ “plastic”. Tapna Khudam/Apun Iyek “ ꯭ ” is marked below the clusteredconsonants, for instance, /pɹ/ as in ꯆꯝꯄꯔꯥ /cəm.pɹa/ “lemon”. It is indicated that “ ꯪ ”
and “ ꯡ ” is used in the final position of a syllable, for instance, ꯂꯪ /ləŋ/ “thread”.
However, “ ꯡ ” is to be used elsewhere if it is in the environment of any Cheitap(Matras), for instance, ꯂꯥꯡ /laŋ/ “net”. Punctuation symbols in Meetei script is termed
as Khudam Iyek (Table 8). The Cheitap (matras) ꯣ, ꯤ, ꯥ, ꯦ , ꯧ , ꯨ , ꯩ , ꯪ are used to write
immediately after a released consonant and “ ꯨ ” below it, for instance, ꯀꯣ, ꯀꯤ, ꯀꯥ, ꯀꯦ,ꯀꯧ, ꯀꯨ, ꯀꯩ and ꯀꯪ respectively. The symbols other than in Khudam Iyek will follow theinternational symbols (Generic ASCII punctuation).
4. Grammatical Information
It is complicated to provide the grammatical information for Meeteilon entry words.
Morphologically a series of morphemes can be arranged to form a word in thislanguage. For instance, /cá.niŋ.məl.lu.bə.də.ɡi.ni.ko/ ‘It is due to excessively fond of
eating’. In this example, /cá-/ ‘eat’ is the bound verb root and followed by suffixes.
Chelliah also informed that the range of suffixes which can be added to the verb root
can be from one to ten (Chelliah 1997). The highest percentage of Meeteilon words
are derived from verb roots, which are found only bound form. In fact, free form ofMeeteilon verbs used to suffix /-p ~ -b/ to the verbal roots and it becomes a derived
noun. It can be noted that most of the Meeteilon grammarians have used /-p ~ -b/
suffix as nominaliser in (Chungkham 2000). Other lexical categories are also formed
through the process of affixation. The language has number of homophonous suffixes.
For instance, suffix /­n/ it plays the following roles— nominative, instrumental,
adverbial, material, adjectival, causative, habitual, reciprocal, alternative, exclusiveand conjunctive (Soibam 2008). This leads to poor performance in providing
grammatical information for entry words. Besides, the codified dictionary for
Meeteilon is yet to be developed. As a result, different dictionary compilers supply
different annotations for same word.

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5. Discussion
The text corpora for a language are based on the available written documents. It isobserved that different writers of Meeteilon are adopting different spelling rules. In
short, the writers are independent in writing Meeteilon with Bengali script. The
corpora for the language are available in Bengali script and the problems related tospelling is reflected to the corpora. The use of Meetei script for written Meeteilon
reduces spelling problem. Meetei script for Meeteilon is almost adopting
phoneme-grapheme system. However, there are some sounds (potential phonemes),
which have been developed due to the influence of the globalization of language, forinstance, ꯔ /ɹ/, ꯁ /s/ in the final position of a syllable. It can be mentioned that thesesounds cannot exist in the final position of a syllable in indigenous Meeteilon lexicon.
However it will be rather nice, if possible, to bring forth the Lonsum Iyek (unreleased
letters) for such letters, which can occur at the final position of a syllable. I /i/ in
Lonsum Iyek could be omitted—argument here is that this letter of Meetei script canbe treated as an independent syllable, for example, ꯆꯥꯛꯏ /cak.i/ “burnt”. “ ꯡ ” /ŋ/ inthe final position of a syllable but not in the environment of other matras can be used
for tone variation against “ ꯪ ” /ŋ/. This indicates that use of “ . ” / ́/ Lum (high tonemarker) for the final /ŋ/ with the environment of other Matras is obvious. So is thecase, such situation for unreleased “ ꯡ ” /ŋ/ can be served with or without the “ . ” / ́/
Lum (tone marker) accordingly. Discussion on other issues is to be analysed in thefurther study.

References
Chelliah, S. L. 1997. A grammar of Meithei. New York: Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin.
LDC-IL, 2022. Text Corpora at Linguistic Data Consortium for Indian Languages(LDC-IL) https://www.ldcil.org/resourcesTextCorp.aspx Accessed May 2022
TDIL, 2022. Manipuri General Text Corpus at ILTP&D Centre
http://tdil-dc.in/index.php?option=com_download&task=showresourceDetails&t
oolid=452&lang=en Accessed May 2022
Nameirakpam, G. S. 1998. Manipuri spelling. On Compilation of An Advanced
Learner’s Manipuri Dictionary. Imphal: Working Paper Series-2, Language
Cell, Government of Manipur.
Ningomba, M. S. 1971. Manipuri Londa Akar. Ritu Vol. 41, ed. Ch. Manihar Singh.
Imphal.
Ningomba, M. S. 1975. Manipur Sarkargi Manipuri Longi Banan Kanglon MityengAma. Ritu Vol. 57, ed. Laishram Samarendra. Imphal.
Soibam, I. S. and L. S. Singh. 2008. Function of suffix /-nə/ in Meiteiron. Indian
Linguistics (69):1-4.
Unicode, 2022. The Unicode standard, Version 14.0 http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/UABC0.pdf
Accessed May 2022.

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On CEDU’s Treatment of Culture-Bound Lexical Items Under the
Beyond-Equivalence Principle1
Jiangbo Wan
Fudan University, China
jbwan@fudan.edu.cn

Abstract: The Chinese-English Dictionary Unabridged (hereinafter abbreviated as
CEDU) pursues a guiding principle of reserved descriptivism and includes far moreculture-bound entries than other Chinese-English dictionaries, which has greatly
increased the difficulty in dictionary-making. Accordingly, how CEDU has planned totreat culture-bound lexical items in principle and how it has tackled the difficulties inapplying the principle deserves our attention. This study probes into the essence of thebeyond-equivalence principle proposed by its editor-in-chief Lu Gusun and his ideasof acculturation and cultural overflow. This study explores three major compensation
operations in treating culture-bound lexical items: 1) to use lexicographicalmetalanguage to compensate for lacunae beyond equivalence; 2) to compensate forthe treatment of an entry word through examples; 3) to use both foreignization anddomestication to compensate one another in rendering equivalents.
Keywords: The Chinese-English Dictionary Unabridged (CEDU), culture-boundlexical item, beyond equivalence, compensation

1. Introduction
In the Preface to The Chinese-English Dictionary – Unabridged (hereinafter
abbreviated as CEDU), its editor-in-chief Lu Gusun summarized the purpose of thedictionary as building an unabridged Chinese-English dictionary to accommodate“cross-cultural communication against the backdrop of globalization” (Lu 2015). Partof its target users are Chinese native speakers. Lu hoped that young readers especially
who were no longer familiar with traditional Chinese characters, ancient words orloan terms could use this dictionary to enhance their cognition of their mother tongue
and make up for the necessary lesson of traditional Chinese culture. At the same time,
he hoped that foreign users who were interested in Chinese civilization and language
would find this dictionary helpful for them to better understand Chinese traditions andculture.
The paper was published in December 2021 on Lexicography: Journal of ASIALEX, 8(2),149–165. (Wan, J. 2021. On CEDU’s treatment of culture-bound lexical items under the
beyond-equivalenceprinciple. Lexicography:
Journalof
ASIALEX, 8(2),149–165.
https://doi.org/10.1558/lexi.20992)
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To meet the needs of contemporary users, CEDU pursues the guiding principle ofreserved descriptivism (or “descriptivism with a grain of salt” in Lu’s words). With
this general guideline in dictionary planning, CEDU includes significantly more
entries and examples, especially culture-bound lexical items, than existent
Chinese-English dictionaries, so as to achieve a high “successful search rate” (“查得率” by Lu; Wan 2017a: 108). According to Huang Yuanshen, CEDU’s successful
search rate of Shanghai-related words and dialect words randomly selected from
Fanhua2 is as high as 83.3% (Wan 2017a: 108). So far, CEDU has treated more than
20,000 culture-bound idioms in all the three volumes. In the first volume alone, 734
entries are labelled as “[Chin Med]” indicating terms in Traditional Chinese Medicine,
227 labelled as “[Chin Myth]” indicating terms in Chinese mythology, 504 entries
labelled with “[Chin +X]” other than the above two types indicating other
China-specific terms (Shan 2019). Needless to say, the treatment of culture-bounditems poses an unprecedented challenge for its compilers, and this study will probe
into how CEDU treats culture-bound entries in principle and in practice.

2. Preparing the GroundIn this part, three basic concepts are briefly reviewed for a further study on CEDU’s
treatment of culture-bound lexical items: 1) culture-bound lexical items, 2) the
purpose of a bilingual dictionary, and 3) the beyond-equivalence principle.
2.1 Culture-bound Lexical Items
When communicating cross-culturally in either spoken or written form, people tend tofeel more anxiety with the concepts or objects peculiar to a certain culture. To
facilitate the communication, we have to explain not only the semantic denotation but
also the cultural connotations to our audience. This challenge is posed by a special
category of words and phrases, known as culture-bound lexical items. According toTomaszczyk (1984: 289), “the set of culture-bound lexical units should include only
those items which represent objects, ideas, and other phenomena that are truly uniqueto a given speech community”. Hartmann and James (2000: 33) defined culture-boundlexical items, or culture-specific vocabulary, as “the words and phrases associatedwith the ‘way of life’ of a language community”. In academic circles in China,culture-bound words are more often called culture-loaded words or culturally-loaded
words (namely 文化负载词). According to Hu (1999: 64), “culturally-loaded words
and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and reflects
deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in
the morphology of words and expressions.”
In a bilingual dictionary, culture-bound entry words are those that fall into a
culture gap due to cultural differences (Li and Zhou 2011). For example, different
culinary cultures give rise to entirely different foods and eating habits which leave
Fanhua (《繁花》) is a novel set in the background of Shanghai’s local history and culture written
by Jin Yucheng in carefully stylized Chinese inflected with Shanghai dialect.
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lacunae or gaps for translators and bilingual dictionary writers to fill. Nida (1945: 196)
identified five major elements of culture, namely, ecology, material culture, social
culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture. For translators and bilingual
dictionary compilers, culture-bound lexical items “cause particular problems ofequivalence” (Hartmann and James 2000: 33).
2.2 The Purpose of a Bilingual Dictionary
Zgusta (1971: 294) pointed out that “the basic purpose of a bilingual dictionary is tocoordinate with the lexical units of one language those lexical units of anotherlanguage which are equivalent in their lexical meaning”. Compared with monolingual
dictionaries, the major task of a bilingual dictionary is to provide translationequivalents in the target language, rather than defining them in the target language.
Zgusta’s insightful understanding of a bilingual dictionary’s basic purpose was echoedby another leading lexicographer Hartmann who summarized that “The bilingual
dictionary is often called the translation dictionary par excellence because it offers theuser interlingual lexical equivalents” (1989: 9). He and James defined “bilingual
dictionary” as “a type of dictionary which relates the vocabularies of two languages
together by means of translation equivalents” (Hartmann and James 2000). Svensén
also held a similar view. He believed that “the task of bilingual dictionaries is toprovide the words and phrases of the original language with the semantic and stylistic(register) equivalence as close as possible in the target language” (Svensén 1993).
Huang Jianhua and Chen Chuxiang, two leading lexicographers in China, pointed
out that “as a translation dictionary, a bilingual dictionary is not to translate thedefinition or explanation from a source-language monolingual dictionary, but totranslate the meaning of a word into its equivalent in the target language in an
appropriate way” (Huang and Chen 1997). To bilingual dictionary writers, this“appropriate way” is the most important and most challenging part of dictionary
writing, especially when treating the culture-bound lexical units because mostculture-bound words do not have equivalents at all in the target language. For
example, zongzi (粽子) is a traditional Chinese food eaten during the Dragon Boat
Festival since the Warring States Period. The word has its origin deeply rooted in the
Chinese history and culture, as a result no ready equivalent lexical units for zongzi canbe found in English. Just like zongzi, most culture-bound words lack equivalents inthe target language, and the coordination between the two languages is an extremely
demanding task for bilingual dictionary writers.
Considering the complex cultural differences between languages, Wei Xiangqing
challenged Zgusta’s opinion on the purpose of bilingual dictionaries and argued that
“offering equivalents is far from enough” (2005: 61). However, if we look into bothstudies, we find both scholars actually noticed that culture-bound words deserved
special attention and treatment beyond equivalence. Zgusta discussed in great length
the treatment of anisomorphism between languages. He believed that “thefundamental difficulty of such a co-ordination of lexical units is caused by theanisomorphism of languages, i.e. by the differences in the organization of designate in
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suggested that in such cases “the bilingual dictionary must use other means than thecoordination of lexical units mentioned above”, for example by using “explanation
which is not dissimilar to the definition of a monolingual dictionary but is worded in
the target language” (Zgusta 1971).
To some extent, it is safe to say that pursuing equivalents is the highest ideal ofbilingual dictionaries, however dictionary writers have to face up to the reality of aworld of anisomorphism and endeavour to provide the closest equivalents rather thanexact ones.
2.3 The Beyond-equivalence Principle
The quality of definitions is crucial to any dictionary, because definitions are what
dictionary users consult most. Concerning definitions in CEDU, Lu believed thatequivalence must be pursued both semantically and pragmatically, but close
equivalents are like “a tight dress”, and in practice CEDU’s dictionary writers seek toarrive at somewhere “beyond equivalence” – “we expand the scope of cultural
pragmatics so that the translation of lemmas has a little acculturation, or I call it‘cultural overflow’” (Lu 2015). For example, when treating the idiom 木已成舟 (seeExample 1), CEDU first offers its literal meaning within brackets – “(the wood has
already been made into a boat)”, then offers its close equivalents “the die is cast” and“what is done cannot be undone”, followed by its acculturated equivalents “onecannot unring a bell” and “one cannot unscramble eggs”. After the “cultural
overflow” part, the definition is extended and further illustrated by an example with
its translation to offer a natural and pragmatic context.
Example 1:木已成舟 mù yǐ chénɡ zhōu <idiom> (the wood has already been
made into a boat) the die is cast; what is done cannot be undone; one
cannot unring a bell; one cannot unscramble eggs: 如今~, 也是林兄命定如此 now the die has been cast for Brother Lin, who is bound toobey Fate’s dictates3

Although the beyond-equivalence principle may occasionally compromisefaithfulness when transferring an imagery from L1 to L2, the practice of acculturation
contributes to maintaining the vitality of languages so that a bilingual dictionary will
actually play the role of “a ferry bus” between two languages (Lu 2015).
Lu’s idea of “cultural overflow” is a method of cultural adaptation used in thetranslation process of dictionary writing, with an active intention to provide diverse
choices to meet the diverse needs of users in different contexts. Liu (2015: T05)
believed that Lu’s beyond-equivalence principle had cracked the hard nut of
anisomorphism pragmatically because in daily communication, literal translations or
The first volume of CEDU was published in 2015 covering A-K, and the second and third
volumes are under edition for the time being and will come out in one and two years. All theexamples cited in this paper, if in the second and third volumes, are drafts that might undergo
further modification and appear slightly different than the final published version.
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equivalents sometimes do not make sense. When Chinese people say “Have you
eaten?” (你吃了吗?) upon meeting each other, pragmatically it serves as greetings
like “How are you?”, “How have you been?”, “Hey, you look great!”, so on and soforth. In such contexts only acculturation will help remove misunderstanding (Liu
2015).
3. Compensation and the Beyond-equivalence Principle
3.1 Translatability
People may intuitively guess that some items in one culture simply defy translation,e.g. a rhyme, a palindrome, a pun, a culture-specific hair style or dress style. When
Chairman Mao Zedong out of curiosity asked Yang Xianyi, translator of the great
Chinese novel Hongloumeng and some other classics, whether anything could betranslated, Yang instantly gave a positive answer – “everything we say istranslatable”.
Although various factors have led to anisomorphism between languages, there isa basis and possibility for conversion between different languages. As a universalist,
Nida believed that all languages have the same expressive power. In Nida and Taber’s(1969: 4) words, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another,unless the form is an essential part of the message”. According to Nida (1969: 483),“effective interlingual communication is always possible, despite seemingly
enormous differences in linguistic structures and cultural features”, due to two
fundamental factors, namely, the “common core of human experience” and core-level
similarities in the syntactic structures of languages. Liu (1999: 99-101) believed that
there exist wide-ranging conditions and means for conversion between languages, andthe commonality of human conceptual system opens up the channel for message
transferring.
3.2 Types of Equivalents
As aforementioned, the basic purpose of a bilingual dictionary is to provide dictionary
users with interlingual equivalents. However, perfect equivalents between L1 and L2
are “a real rarissimum” (Zgusta 1971). The degree of equivalence varies in suchdimensions as semantics, register, pragmatics, grammar, etc.
Previous literature on equivalence offered a trichotomy of equivalence degrees:
full equivalent, partial equivalent, and zero equivalent (Kromann et al. 1991; Svensén
1993 and Yong 2003). In addition to these three types of equivalents, there is yet
another kind of equivalence between L1 and L2: false equivalent (or faux ami), suchas “gift” in English and “Gift” (poison) in German, “rest room” (toilet) in American
English and 休 息 室 (literally “a rest room”) in Chinese (Wan 2012). False
equivalents can be deceptive and misleading due to their seemingly close coordinationand therefore deserves consistent attention from bilingual dictionary writers.
To bilingual lexicographers, Nida’s common core theory reveals the possibility ofinterlingual communication and the important truth that all words can be treated andprocessed in a bilingual dictionary despite the varied degrees of difficulty. When
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dealing with an entry word, a bilingual lexicographer always looks for full equivalents(e.g. by matching 纸 老 虎 with “paper tiger”), compensates partial and zeroequivalents with special lexicographic measures (e.g. by offering supplementary
explanations to definitions), and avoids false equivalents by all means. The mostchallenging and intriguing part is what special lexicographic measures can be taken toaddress the partial and zero equivalents. In Section 4, this study will mainly discuss
how to compensate partial and zero equivalents in practice under the guidance of thebeyond-equivalence principle.
3.3 The Beyond-equivalence Principle in Light of Compensation Theory
Basically, a bilingual dictionary is a product of translation work. The translation
quality of definitions and examples is closely related to the quality of a bilingual
dictionary, including CEDU. As a matter of fact, the bulk of bilingual lexicographers’
daily routine is translation, or technically, compensating partial and zero equivalents.
Then what does “compensate” mean to bilingual dictionary writing? How does the
beyond-equivalence principle of CEDU help enhance the effect of compensation?
Fang (2004: 106) defined “compensation” as “compensating for the semantic loss
caused by the conversion from the original language form to the target languageform”. The compensation method, according to Barkhudarov (1985: 191)4, is one of
the substitution methods which is a special replacement technique to achieveequivalent translation. In order to compensate for the loss of meaning in treating acertain lexical unit that somehow cannot be translated or completely translated, thetranslator can use other means to convey the message and meanwhile change its
position in the sentence. Newmark (1988: 42) pointed out that “compensation of somekind is usually possible” and that compensation occurs “when loss of meaning,sound-effect, metaphor or pragmatic effect in one part of a sentence is compensated inanother part, or in a contiguous sentence” (1988: 90). Nida dialectically elaborated on
how to deal with form and content in translation practice and proposes six adjustment
strategies for formal translation (Nida 1993). Ma (2003) put forward a dichotomy ofcompensation: explicit compensation and implicit compensation. Explicit
compensation refers to the translator’s illustrative notes (including footnotes, endnotes,
transposition notes, in-text notes, as well as the translator’s preface, appendix, etc.), tosome extent reflecting the translator’s tendency of foreignization in translation. On theother hand, implicit compensation refers to various means to adjust the text (including
supplements, paraphrases, reification, domestication, etc.) so that the L2 readers can
respond in the same way as the L1 readers, reflecting the translator’s overall
domestication strategy.
In essence, the beyond-equivalence principle adopted by CEDU is an operationalguideline for compensation. It embraces both foreignization and domestication incross-cultural communication by employing a flexible and mutually complementarycompensation strategy to achieve equivalence or approximate equivalence. Under the
Based on the Chinese version translated by Cai Yi et al. of Barkhudarov’s Language andTranslation.
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beyond-equivalence principle, Lu and his team put to use various lexicographicalmeasures – including both language and metalanguage methods (to be discussed ingreater detail in Part 4) – to compensate for interlingual anisomorphism and make up
for gaps caused by cultural differences. Lu’s idea of “cultural overflow” reflects an“impartial hospitality” (Lu and Wang 2011) – the dictionary’s descriptivist tendency
to approach language facts by exerting compilers’ subjectivity and professional means.
Ultimately the guiding principle of reserved descriptivism calls for a reserved
descriptive translation approach, which is based on compilers’ observational view
about translation operations and equivalence that take place in life, rather thanprescribing what should happen (Wan 2017). As a result, foreignization equivalents
and domestication equivalents are juxtaposed to compensate one another based oncompilers’ observation and selection from different corpora, as a representation ofreal-life language use. “Cultural overflow” also allows more pragmatic contexts andaudience-adapted treatments with “overflown” explanations beyond equivalents withan attempt to provide an overall equivalent entropy in the semantic and pragmaticfields of the lexical units. On the other hand, “cultural overflow” in designing CEDU
at the principle level gives full play to dictionary writers’ subjectivity in compensation
operations – which is viewed as a highly subjective work in practice (Lu and Wang2011). In principle, reserved descriptivism provides CEDU’s dictionary writers with aperspective for objectively observing the real world of L1 and L2, but meanwhile
writers’ subjectivity in entry selection, meaning analysis, judgment and compensation
is to be highly recognized and encouraged. Lu believed subjectivity to be the ultimate
nature of dictionary-making. For a dictionary that adopts a descriptive attitude, alltreatments eventually rely on compilers’ individual expertise, range of knowledge,
and sometimes even intuitive judgments (Lu and Wang 2011).
4. CEDU’s Compensation Operations in Treating Culture-Bound Lexical Items
In the process of entry treatment in dictionary-making, bilingual dictionary compilers
first need to understand the senses of an entry word, then translate and explain thesenses, and then if necessary select and translate examples to further illustrate thesenses and usage of the entry word. In practice, CEDU follows three specific methodsof compensation: 1) to use lexicographical metalanguage to compensate for lacunae
beyond equivalence; 2) to compensate for the treatment of an entry word throughexamples; 3) to use both foreignization and domestication to compensate one anotherin rendering equivalents.

4.1 Use Lexicographical Metalanguage to Compensate for Lacunae Beyond
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Two types of “language” are used in dictionary writing: language and metalanguage5.
To a dictionary, paper or electronic dictionary alike, “language” can be entry words
and cited examples in L1 – considered as natural language waiting to be treated,
whereas “metalanguage” is a man-made language that can include all thelexicographical conventions and treatments in the written and/or audio-visional forms
offered to its user. In the field of lexicography, metalanguage is lexicographers’
working language and a language about language.
Metalanguage to dictionary writers is what tools are to carpenters. It helps
construct both the microstructure of an entry as a specific lexical item and themacrostructure of a dictionary as an interactive system. In CEDU, metalanguage may
cover such specific measures as subject label, register label, style label, grammaticallabel, parallel structure between equivalents, translation of senses and examples,paraphrase format, phonetic symbol and format, omission format, sense number, fontand font size, symbol, defining vocabulary, cross-reference system (explicit reference
and implicit reference), “language block” information, thumb index, colour, preface,
instructions for use, appendices, etc. Please look at the following two entries from
CEDU.
Example 2:

药师经 yào shī jīng [Budd] Yaoshijing, The Medicine Master Sutra[including twelve great vows (十二大愿 /shíèr dà yuàn/) by Medicine
Buddha upon attaining dharma and enlightenment, which are like
medicines to alleviate the illnesses of living beings]

In Example 2, the first compensating part is “[Budd]”, the subject label for the
religion “Buddhism”, suggesting that 药师经 is a Buddhist term. The secondcompensation then is the two italicized parallel equivalents compensating one another:transliteration “Yaoshijing” and literal translation “The Medicine Master Sutra”.
Unlike translating a literary work which usually deals with a term only one time in
one context, the convention of a bilingual dictionary, however, allows two or moreparallel equivalents, with each explaining the sense in a certain way. When all parallel
equivalents are put together, they complement each other and combine to present a
fuller description of the sense. Here, the two equivalents may suggest to the user that
it is a Buddhist sutra, however the two English equivalents still cannot clearly convey
the connotative meaning, so there is a need to offer further explanation in the square
brackets as to its content, systematic cross-reference, and the link between the word’sliteral meaning and its denotation. The further compensation part in the square
brackets is beyond equivalence, but it is with this part, as well as with the
In Dictionary of Lexicography (Hartmann and James 2000: 80, 93), “language” is defined as “themost basic means of communication between human beings”, and “metalanguage” as “thelanguage used to present and comment on a subject field. … In lexicography, metalanguage
includes such conventions as grammatical codes, labelling of usage and the formulation ofdefinitions.”
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compensation of label and parallel equivalents, CEDU is able to present an overall
equivalent entropy in the semantic field of the lexical unit 药师经.
Example 3:

门吹儿 mén chuīr <old> 1.menchuir, playing funeral music at the gate[local funeral ritual in Beijing; on the funeral day the bereaved family hired
a wind-and-percussion band to play funeral music with the drum, suona
horn (唢呐), nine-toned Chinese gong chimes (九音锣 /jiǔ yīn luó/), etc. infront of the gate in the morning and then at noon; mainly with two
categories: guanchuir (官吹儿) and qiechuir (怯吹儿)] 2.funeral musician

The entry word 门吹儿 in Example 3 was a Beijing local funeral custom informer times which has never been covered by other dictionaries. It finds its place inan unabridged dictionary like CEDU due to its important cultural load in local
traditions and customs in Beijing but has to be treated concisely yet clearly enoughwithout offering too much encyclopaedic detail. In the treated entry above, one canidentify such compensation methods as the register label “<old>”, mutualcompensation as the transliteration “menchuir” and the literal semantic translation“playing funeral music at the gate”, further compensation in brackets with some brief
information about place, occasion, time, people, instruments, classification, etc.,
offering a rough picture of this custom. If interested, a user may pursue more
information by cross-referencing the usual musical instruments (唢呐, 九音锣, etc.)in 门吹儿 and its two hyponyms (官吹儿 and 怯吹儿) to understand further how
wealthy families and average families conducted this custom respectively. The
metalanguage system of CEDU helps its writers operate beyond equivalence in a
concise, systematic, and flexible way and contributes to actualizing its guiding
principle of “reserved descriptivism” in a small way.
4.2 Compensate for the Treatment of an Entry Word Through Examples
Headwords are the skeleton of a dictionary, definitions are the flesh, and examples are
the blood of a dictionary. Examples give dynamic life forces to a dictionary. For thesake of practicality, definitions of a bilingual dictionary often appear as equivalents
which are substitutable in the L2 context and concise in wording and present the mostcommon, stable, and relatively static meanings. The dynamic and pragmatic usage ofa lexical unit, however, dwells in the use of subsequent typical examples. In a way,
examples can be taken as an extension of definitions, giving a general meaning a
specific and typical real-life collocation and its translation, providing useful decoding
and encoding information and necessary social and cultural contexts. On account of
this, appropriate example selections and translations can effectively compensate forthe possible insufficiency in the equivalents on the definition part.
Just like in other dictionaries, in CEDU the main purpose of exemplification was
to support and supplement the definition, and exemplification is a confirmation,
continuation or expansion of the definition (Lu 2015). For instance, when dealing
with 练达 (see Example 4), a literary adjective often found in culture-bound contexts,
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explain the first sense of “experienced and worldly wise” – a disposition highly
valued in Chinese.
Example 4:练 达 liàn dá <lit> 1.experienced and worldly wise: 开 明 ～ beenlightened and experienced | 世事洞明皆学问, 人情～即文章 truelearning implies a deep insight into mundane affairs, and genuine culture
involves a mastery of worldly wisdom 2.(to be) proficient andunderstanding: ～法理 have thorough knowledge of legal principles

Example 5:

替代医学 tì dài yī xué alternative medicine: ～在西方国家是指标准
医疗之外的治疗手段, 包含冥想疗法、自然疗法、顺势疗法、催眠疗法、
整体医疗、香味疗法、印度草药疗法、精神祈祷等 alternative medicine
in western countries falls outside of standard medical care, ranging frommeditation,

naturopathy,

homeopathy,

hypnosis,

holistic

medicine,aromatherapy, Ayurveda, to spiritual devotions | 眼看他日渐羸弱, 家人
决定求助于～ desperate for his increasingly delicate state of health, hisfamily decided to resort/turn to alternative medicine/treatments

In the Preface, Lu discussed the purposes of treating 另类医学 (or 替代医学)with examples: firstly, to continue with the definition and partially solve the definition
problem, and secondly, to be user-friendly. “After giving its equivalent ‘alternative
medicine’, a Chinese-English dictionary writer can well put aside his/her pen, and thereaders can move on to consult an encyclopedia or search on the Internet. In view of
the numerous therapies included in alternative medicine, if we can include a numberof hard terms or proper names together with their Chinese equivalents in an
example, ... couldn’t we provide sufficient relevant information for general users, aswell as for professional readers, to sketch out a rough road map to continue the search?
At least to a certain extent, an example like this can reduce the workload of dictionary
users in the next step” (Lu 2015).
“Alternative medicine” in the western world is taken as a medical treatment usedinstead of mainstream therapies. However, its translated Chinese counterparts (e.g. 替
代医学, 另类医学) do not fit into Chinese social and cultural discourse very well,because the major therapies in “alternative medicine” – herbal medicine (草药),acupuncture (针灸), tuina (推拿), etc. – belong to the mainstream therapies in
Traditional Chinese Medicine and are highly recognized in China both officially andby the general public. CEDU notices this factual discrepancy in recognition between
China and the western world and uses examples to illustrate the term as a concept
against the backdrop of a dialogue between Chinese and western cultures.
4.3 Use Both Foreignization and Domestication to Compensate One Other in
Rendering Equivalents
An ideal bilingual dictionary should make full use of the overlapping or approximate
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counterparts between L1 and L2 (Wan and Lu 2016) and provide the most equivalenttreatment as an overall equivalent entropy. It is a bilingual dictionary writer’s
inalienable task to find suitable matches in L2, so as to maximize the equivalence
level in terms of the semantic, register, pragmatic and cultural information containedby L1 lemmas. This is seeking common ground, and meanwhile reserving differencesis also necessary. Literal translation (a method of foreignization) is ideal forpreserving the original imagery and flavour, but with the compensation ofcommunicative translation such as imagery transference (a method of domestication),
readers can certainly deepen their understanding of the culture-bound word being
treated and begin to appreciate “the unique taste of the ‘otherness’” (Wan and Lu
2016). In short, when dealing with culture-bound lexical items, dictionary writers
should seek common ground while reserving differences in the pursuit of the beyond
equivalence principle.
Venuti (2008: 19) believed that in developing the strategy of resistancy6, “fluency
is not to be simply abandoned, completely and irrevocably, but rather reinvented ininnovative ways. The foreignizing translator seeks to expand the range of translation
practices not to frustrate or to impede reading, certainly not to incur a judgment oftranslationese, but to create new conditions of readability”. The same holds true forbilingual dictionary writing. The “new conditions of readability” in a bilingual
dictionary can be achieved by a combined use of foreignization and domestication,
and a balance has to be achieved somewhere in between. When dealing with
culture-bound words, CEDU tends to use the foreignization strategy in order toimpress the user first with the original cultural information and original expressive
strength, and then list other approximate equivalents by using domestication to allow
a fair communication between L1 and L2 cultures.
Example 6:

说他胖，他还喘 shuō tā pàng, tā hái chuǎn <familiar> (people say heis fat, and he pants to show that he is more than that) if you grant him asmall favour, it only encourages him to take much more than he is offered;give knaves an inch, they will take a mile
Example 7:

屋漏偏逢连夜雨 wū lòu piān féng lián yè yǔ <idiom> (a leaking roof
is hit by an overnight downpour) one misfortune comes after another; when
it rains it pours; it’s a perfect storm
Example 8:
6 By “resistancy”, Venuti means a strategy of foreignization translation aforementioned in his

book The Translator’s Invisibility. Venuti (2008: 18) explained, “The resulting strategy might becalled resistancy, not merely because it tries to avoid the narrow kinds of fluency that have long
dominated English-language translation, but because it challenges the receiving culture even as itenacts its own ethnocentric violence on the foreign text.”
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清江使(者) qīng jiāng shǐ (zhě) <lit> (envoy of the Qing River) turtle[from the story of Yuanjun of Song (宋元君) who dreamed of a turtle inhuman form commissioned by the Qing River, as mentioned in Zhuangzi
Waiwu (《庄子·外物》)]

In Examples 6 and 7, a word-by-word translation is given in the first place within
the brackets to decode the original meaning, then it is followed by a literal translation,and finally by one or two interpretative equivalents. Technically, the word-by-wordtranslation and the literary translation parts offer foreignization translations of theentry word, whereas the interpretative equivalents offer domestication translations
which are “cultural overflowing” equivalents and ready popular sayings in English(Lu 2015). For bilingual dictionaries with some functions of learning dictionaries,
foreignization translation can meet users’ decoding needs, while domesticationtranslation can serve their encoding purposes (Wan 2017). These two translation
methods compensate each other so that a bilingual dictionary as a whole can play abetter role in language learning and cross-cultural communication. With suchmutually compensatory equivalents offered as a whole range of choices, dictionary
users may easily find a right expression that serves their needs.
Example 8 清江使(者) is also a case in point here. As we know, in Chinese 乌龟
is a much more popular equivalent for “turtle” than 清江使(者). As a culture-boundword of the same meaning, 清江使(者) deserves more cultural compensation. From
this perspective, CEDU offers its literal meaning, denotative equivalent, as well as
supplementary cultural information to give a word sketch of the lexical unit.
Foreignization sometimes seems to bring a sense of strangeness or “otherness”, butfrom a long-term perspective, it may enrich the target language and inject a large
number of new expressions into the target language. According to Lu Xun, translation“is not only importing new content, but also new expressions” (Luo 1984). He
advocated that “all translations must take into account two aspects, one of course is to
strive to be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original(Luo 1984: 301)”. It is noteworthy that many once-foreignized translations havealready been integrated into the target language, such as the English words “paper
tiger” and “kung fu” loaned from the Chinese words 纸老虎 and 功夫, and theChinese words 头脑风暴 and 以牙还牙、以眼还眼 loaned from the English word
“brainstorm” and phrase “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”. Between
domestication and foreignization, bilingual dictionaries need to reach a dialecticalbalance. Blind domestication and unprincipled tampering with the cultural image ofthe original language will obviously reduce the cultural influence of a bilingual
dictionary and distort the cultural image, while deliberate foreignization will makeinterpretations obscure and even incomprehensible. The criterion for judging its
appropriateness is to check out whether the translated language is fluent and natural inforeignization and whether the “equivalent” is faithful enough to transfer the originalidea in domestication, otherwise it is better to give up either (Wan 2012).

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5. Conclusion
Lu (2015: 3) found that “translation activities between different languages have an
inherent ‘other side’”. The “other side” to bilingual dictionary writers, I believe, is the
pursuit of equivalence, and the journey to the “other side” of the river requires firstly
an accurate navigation – e.g. the reserved descriptivism and the beyond-equivalenceprinciple guiding the dictionary writing as far as CEDU is concerned – and secondly,
flexible and practical operations – e.g. all the compensation methods used in treating
culture-bound lexical units, including those with language and metalanguage methods,
the treatment of examples with an overall vision of equivalence, a fair combination ofcultural translation strategies of both foreignization and domestication.
Born into the era of globalization, CEDU carries the weight of international
communication on its shoulders. In the fast-changing contemporary world, Chinaneeds to understand the world, and vice versa. Bilingual dictionary writers need to
pay special attention to the treatment of culture-bound lexical items to help avoid andreduce misunderstanding and facilitate the mutual communication between China andthe rest of the world. As dictionary writers, we are ready to observe the common
ground and differences between the source language and the target language and deal
rigorously with both the macroscopic planning and the microscopic entry structuring.
However, just as Lu pointed out in the Preface, “so many places in the dictionary have
not reached a satisfactory state, and I can only blame it onto the compilers’ limited
ability” (Lu 2015). Although in principle and in practice, CEDU writers have striven
to reach the “other side” of equivalence, it still leaves much to be desired andwelcomes criticism and suggestions from experts and users.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express her deepest gratitude to the two anonymous
reviewers for their helpful and pertinent suggestions for improvement. This research
was supported by a grant from China’s National Social Science Foundation (No.
16ZDA213).

References
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Jie and Duan Jinghua). Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.
(Tr. from: Barkhudarov, L. S. 1975. Language and Translation. International
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Hartmann, R. R. K. 1989. Lexicography, translation and the so-called language barrier.
Translation and Lexicography: Papers read at the EURALEX Colloquium held at
Innsbruck 2-5 July, 1987, eds. In: Mary snell-hornby et al., 9-20. Amsterdam:
John Benjamins B.V.
Hartmann, R. R. K. and G. James. 2000. Dictionary of lexicography. Beijing: Foreign
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Language Teaching and Research Press and Routledge.
Hu, W. 1999. Intercultural communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching andResearch Press.
Huang, J. and C. Chen. 1997, 2001. Introduction to bilingual lexicography. Beijing:
The Commercial Press.
Kromann, H., Riibe. T., and P. Rosbach. 1991a. Principles of bilingual lexicography.
Wörterbücher. Dictionaries. Dictionnaires. International Encyclopedia of
Lexicography, eds. In Hausmann et al., 1989-1991. Vol. I-III. Berlin: Walter De
Gruyter. 2711-2728.
Kromann, H., Riiber, T., and P. Rosbach. 1991b. Grammatical constructions in thebilingual dictionary. Wörterbücher. Dictionaries. Dictionnaires. International
Encyclopedia of Lexicography, eds. In Hausmann et al., 1989-1991. Vol. I-III.
Berlin: Walter De Gruyter. 2770-2775.
Li, M. and H. Zhou. 2011. An introduction to bilingual lexicography. Shanghai:
Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press．
Liu, M. 1999. Contemporary translation theories. Beijing: China Translation andPublishing Corporation.
Liu, S. 2015. “Equivalence” and “beyond equivalence”. Wenhuibao. March, 27. T05.
Lu, G. 2015. The Chinese-English dictionary unabridged (Volume I). Shanghai:
Fudan University Press.
Lu, G. and F. Wang. 2011. Research on the compilation characteristics of largebilingual dictionaries. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House.
Luo, X. 1984. Colloquia of translation studies. Beijing: The Commercial Press.
Ma, H. 2003. Classification and application of translation compensation methods.
Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Studies (10): 37-39.
Newmark, P. 1988. A textbook of translation. New York: Prentice Hall.
Nida, E. A. 1945. Linguistics and ethnology in translation-problems. Word 1(2):194-208.
Nida, E. A. 1964. Toward a science of translating. Leiden: Brill Academic
Publishers．
Nida, E. A. 1969. Science of translation. Language 45(3): 483-498.
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Netherlands: E.J. Brill.
Nida, E. A. 1993. Language, culture, and translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign
Language Education Press.
Shan, Y. 2019. Lu Gusun: Learn foreign languages and be Chinese. Wenhuibao.
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Svensén, B. 1993. Practical lexicography: Principles and methods ofdictionary-making. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Tomaszczyk, J. 1984. The culture-bound element in bilingual dictionaries.
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Wan, J. 2006. A study on bilingual dictionaries and translation. Shanghai: Fudan
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Wan, J. 2017b. On the guiding principle of “descriptivism with a grain of salt”
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Wei, X. 2005. On the essence of translation of modern bilingual dictionaries and its
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Some Preliminary Thoughts on the Deficiencies in A New
Comprehensive Chinese-English Dictionary
Anmin Wang
Guangxi Minzu University, China
anmin.wang@gxun.edu.cn
Abstract: Hanying Shun Ni Xu Da Cidian (A New Comprehensive Chinese-English
Dictionary) (henceforth New Comprehensive) came to print in 2016. It was compiled
by Prof. Chan Sin-wai from The Chinese University of Hong Kong single-handedly,claimed to be the third largest print Chinese-English (henceforth C-E) Dictionary todate. To the author’s knowledge, the dictionary has been one of the few large C-E
ones published in China since 2010. It boasts about 60, 000 single-character headword
entries and multiple-character sub-entries, 420, 000 English translation equivalents.
Entries are arranged based on semantic interrelatedness and keywords (Chan 2016: v).
They are also arranged “in both normal or reverse sequences to give a larger context
for users to understand the semantic, pragmatic and cultural connotations in their
entirety” (Chan 2016: xiii). Despite the merits mentioned above, there are several
aspects in New Comprehensive which can be improved, listed as follows. To start with,
it often lacks the diverse translations of a headword in context. However, without suchtranslations, the efficiency of a C-E dictionary in helping a user output in English canbe compromised. In addition, the inclusion of various senses of a headword can be
improved, which is especially true for some multi-sense ones. In addition, similar or
the same expressions need to be treated more systematically. Fourthly, the inclusion ofsome Chinese expressions as headwords or examples can be more systematic. Last
but not the least, the translation of some entries or sub-entries can be improved. All
the aspects mentioned above can be noted in the revision of Shun Xi Xu in the future,so as to further enhance its quality.
Keywords: deficiency, diverse translation, semantic interrelatedness, balance,
unsystematic

1. Introduction
New Comprehensive was compiled by Prof. Chan Sin-wai alone, in roughly elevenyears. It was published by The Commercial Press (HK) Limited in 2016. Comparedwith other similar C-E dictionaries, it has various advantages, such as large number of
entries, the provision of more equivalents, entries arranged based on semanticinterrelatedness and keywords, entries arranged in both normal or reverse order to154

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give a larger context for users to understand the semantic, pragmatic and culturalconnotations in their entirety (Chan 2016). To the best of the author’s knowledge,
New Comprehensive and the revised edition of New Century Chinese English
Dictionary (henceforth New Century), which came out in 2016, make two largest C-E
dictionaries published in China in recent years. The first edition of New Century cameout in 2004, the revision of which was headed by the ex-president of Xi’an Foreign
Studies University, Prof. Du Ruiqing. Therefore, in terms of the most recently
published large-scale C-E dictionaries, New Comprehensive can be counted as the
only one1.
In the paper, some preliminary thoughts on the deficiencies in New
Comprehensive will be discussed. However, it needs to be acknowledged thatcompiling such a large C-E dictionary is nothing easy, even if there are various
compilers involved to accomplish it. Not to mention that it is compiled by Prof. Chansingle-handedly. It took him about eleven years to compile, revise and publish it. Prof.
Chan is not a professional lexicographer. He has administrative, teaching andacademic tasks to fulfil. Therefore, “Dictionary-making is a time-consuming task.”(Chan 2016: iv) in the preface to the New Comprehensive is the true picture of hiscompiling the dictionary. Therefore, the intention of looking into the deficiencies inthe dictionary is not to find fault with it purposely or challenge his authority. The
purpose is to point out some places that can be improved, thus helping with its futurerevision if possible.
2. The Various Deficiencies in New Comprehensive
It can be argued that the deficiencies in New Comprehensive are as follows. To begin
with, very few diverse translations of a headword in context have been provided.
Secondly, the provision of the senses of some headwords of entries or subentries canbe further supplemented. Thirdly, the treatment of similar or the same expressions
lack systematicity. Fourthly, sometimes the inclusion of some Chinese expressions is
unsystematic. Fifthly, the translation of some entries or subentries can be improved.
All the points will be discussed below.
2.1 The Lack of Diverse Translations
C-E dictionaries generally adopt a certain way to highlight the different translations ofa headword in context. In New Comprehensive, there is a lack of such translations. In
many cases, the compiler only lists out its translation equivalents. For many
headwords or one of their senses, only several such equivalents are provided. Whensuch a headword is used in context, actually different translations can be offered.
However, very few such translations are provided. To dictionary users, suchtranslations are very important, since they show how a headword can be flexiblytranslated in the target language.
The first volume of The Chinese-English Dictionary (Unabridged) came out in 2015. As only the
first volume has been published, it is not counted as one of the large-scale C-E dictionaries
published recently.
1

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The translation of “lian zao buxing 连遭不幸” within the entry of “buxing 不幸”
can serve as a case in point. It is rendered into “a succession of misfortunes has
befallen sb”. The accuracy of the translation is beyond doubt. However, to translate“lian zao buxing 连遭不幸”, apart from the translation above, can other possible ones
be provided? Actually, it can also be translated into “sb meets with/suffers a run of
misfortunes or bad/ill/rough/tough luck”. In addition, it can also be rendered into
“successive misfortunes or bad/ill luck/rough/tough luck) strike sb” or “sb suffers one
misfortune after another/successive misfortunes”, or “sb is dogged by successive
misfortunes”. It can be argued that the translations above are all native, capable ofconveying the meaning of “lian zao buxing 连遭不幸”.
The translation of “buxiang 不想” can serve as another example. When it is used
as a “ci 词 word” in Chinese, it conveys surprise or unexpectedness(Dictionary-making Office of Institute of Linguistics of The Chinese Academy ofSocial Sciences 2016: 112). In C-E translation, it can be rendered flexibly into either aprepositional phrase or adverb. For example, “buxiang wanhui jing hui ruci
chenggong.不想晚会竟会如此成功。To our surprise, the evening party turned out (tobe) a great success.” (Du 2016: 127) or “buxiang, ta yijing xian dao le. 不想，他已经
先到了。Unexpectedly, he arrived before us.” (DeFrancis 2003). In the meantime, italso makes sense if “buxiang 不想” is translated into a verb in context. Therefore,“buxiang wanhui jing hui ruci chenggong. 不想晚会竟会如此成功。” can also be
rendered into “I never expected the party to have been such a great success/so
successful.”
Therefore, it can be argued that with the lack of diverse translations of aheadword in context, the effect of New Comprehensive in helping dictionary users
output in the target language can be compromised.
However, without the support of large parallel C-E corpora, it would be quite
challenging to provide the different translations of a headword in context by relying
on the intuition of a compiler. To be best of the author’s knowledge, not a single
general C-E dictionary has been compiled with the help of large parallel C-E corpora,
which is really a pity. In China, there are already several such large corpora available.
If such corpora were used for compiling C-E dictionaries, apart from digging out
more potential translation equivalents for a headword, its diverse translations invarious contexts will increase quite a lot. Such a change can be quite helpful todictionary users in their capacity to output in the target language.
2.2 The Incomplete Inclusion of Senses
Sometimes the provision of the senses of a headword of an entry or subentry is
incomplete. When it comes to the provision such senses, the compiler of New
Comprehensive can refer to various authoritative Chinese dictionaries so as to coverits senses, especially those high-frequency ones. This is not to say that the senses in a
C-E dictionary need to follow those in Chinese dictionaries rigidly. Sometimes, some
Chinese words have only one sense in Chinese dictionaries. However, in terms of themeaning of the translation equivalents, they can be further grouped into two or more
senses (Wu 1980). “youxiao 有效” can serve as a case in point. Its sense can be further
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divided into two in C-E dictionaries, which means “having effects” and “being valid”
respectively. It is also possible that the different senses of a Chinese headword may be
combined into one in C-E dictionaries. Therefore, C-E dictionary compilers do notneed to follow the sense division in a Chinese dictionary rigidly.
For the headword of an entry or subentry, at least its frequently used senses need
to be included in C-E dictionaries. Or the efficiency of C-E dictionaries in helping
users can be weakened. “buxing 不幸” can again serve as an example. In Xiandai
Hanyu Cidian (2016: 112), one of the most authoritative Chinese dictionaries, threesenses have been presented, one labeled as a noun and two as adjectives. In New
Comprehensive, no part of speech of a headword or its translation equivalent islabeled. However, judging by the part of speech of translation equivalents of “buxing
不幸”, it only provides those of the second and the third senses, with those of the first
sense missing. As a matter of fact, it should be pretty frequent for “buxing 不幸” tofunction as an adjective to modify nouns. Take New Century as an example. After the
first sense of “buxing 不 幸 ”, four examples are listed out: “ ～ de hunyin/de
mingyun/shigu/shijian～的婚姻/的命运/事故/事件” (Du 2016). However, such afrequently used sense is missing in New Comprehensive, which is really a pity.
The absence of the sense of “buxiang 不想” as a conjunction can serve as
another example. Judging by the translation equivalents in New Comprehensive, “不想” is considered to be the combination of the adverb “bu 不” and the verb “xiang
想”. Whether such free combinations should be included in C-E dictionaries like New
Comprehensive is something worthy of careful consideration by itself. Meanwhile, thesense of “buxiang 不想” as a conjunction has not been included, namely, “buliao 不料 unexpectedly” (Dictionary-making Office of Institute of Linguistics of The
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2016: 112) . The omission of such a frequent
sense does not make good sense.
Thus, it can be argued that the inclusion of the senses of a headword needs to be
improved and frequently used ones need to be covered. In this way, the usefulness of
New Comprehensive in helping users can be enhanced
2.3 The Unsystematic Treatment of Similar or the Same Expressions
Sometimes, expressions with similar or the same structure in New Comprehensive are
not treated systematically in terms of their translation equivalents. This should really
be something to be avoided in dictionary-making. For example, structurally speaking,“hengzao buxing 横遭不幸”, “liangzao buxing 连遭不幸”, “xianzao buxing 险遭不幸” and “zaofeng buxing 遭逢不幸” are similar, all being “a transitive verb plus anobject”. Therefore, their translations could be more or less the same. However, one of
the translations of “hengzao buxing 横遭不幸” is “sudden misfortune” a nominal
phrase, different from the translation of three other ones, all being“subject+verb+object” or “verb+object”. In addition, “zaofeng buxing 遭逢不幸”,
when included as one of the examples of “buxing 不幸”, is translated into “meet with
misfortune”. Nevertheless, when it becomes one of the examples of “zaofeng 遭逢”,
it is translated into “suffer misfortune”. The same expression is translated differently
in two places.
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The translations of “gonggong cesuo 公共厕所” and “gongce 公厕”, “nan cesuo
男厕所” and “nance 男厕”, “nv cesuo 女厕所” and “nvce 女厕” can serve as anotherexample. For the headword “ce 厕”, “cesuo 厕所” is included as one of the three
entries arranged in the normal sequence. Within the entry of “cesuo 厕 所 ”,“gonggong cesuo 公共厕所”, “nancesuo 男厕所” and “nvcesuo 女厕所” are included.
Then, below “cezhi 厕纸”, “gongce 公厕”, “nance 男厕” and “nvce 女厕” areprovided, among others, to be entries in reverse sequence for the headword “ce 厕”.
It can be said that the latter three are the abbreviated forms of the former three.
Therefore, their translation should be the same. However, “gonggong cesuo 公共厕
所” is rendered into “public convenience”, while “public toilet” is added for “gongce
公厕”. “nancesuo 男厕所” is translated into “men’s room”, while “nance 男厕” into“men’s lavatory; the gents”. “nvcesuo 女厕所” is rendered into “ladies’ room;
powder room; the ladies”. However, for “nvce 女厕”, “powder room” is missing. In
the meantime, “women” and “women’s lavatory” are added. For similar or the same
expressions, their translation should be similar or the same. New Comprehensive canbe improved in this regard.
2.4 The Unsystematic Inclusion of Chinese Expressions
For New Comprehensive, sometimes the inclusion of Chinese expressions functioning
as headwords or examples is unsystematic. Sometimes, some commonly used
expressions are missing, while those that are not used so frequently are included.
Below are some examples.
For the entry “buyan 不厌” (Chan 2016), “ hanxue buyan 好学不厌” and “xueer
buyan 学而不厌” are missing among the subentries arranged in the reverse sequence.
And for “danxin 丹心” (2016: 453), the famous quote like “liuqu danxin zhao
hanqing 留取丹心照汗青” is not found among examples. And for “eji 恶疾” (Chan
2016: 593), expressions like “rangshang eji 染上恶疾” and “huan le eji 患了恶疾”
are not included in the examples. For the headword “fudu 服 毒 ”, “fudu you
shangdiao—si ding le 服毒又上吊—死定了” and “wudalang fudu—chi ye si, buchi
yesi 武大郎服毒—吃也死，不吃也死” (2016: 701) are included as its examples.
However, the two expressions are even not included in general Chinese dictionaries
and other C-E dictionaries. Therefore, it may not make good sense to include them in
New Comprehensive. Sometimes, one commonly used expression is included while
another one which can be equally often used is not. For example, for “xiuzheng 修正”, “xiuzhengye 修正 液 ” is included as one subentry (2016: 2672), but not“xiuzhengdai 修正带”. It does not make good sense to leave out the latter since they
are both used quite often.
Sometimes, New Comprehensive covers a certain expression and its translations.
Nevertheless, other relevant expressions,which can be equally frequently used, are notincluded. Here, “wenrun 温润” can be a case in point. Only “wenrun keguan 温润可观 ” (2016: 2435) is included in the dictionary. Other relevant multi-character
expressions like “qihou wenrun 气候温润”, “xingqing wenrun 性情温润”, “yuzhi
wenrun 玉质温润” and “wenrun tongbian 温润通便 are all missing. “wenshi 温室” (ibid.) can serve as another example. Only “wenshi qiti 温室气体”和“wenshi
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xiaoying 温室效应” are included therein. However, other semantically relevant
expressions like “wenshi zaipai 温室栽培”, “wenshi shengchan 温室生产”, “wenshi
zhiwu 温室植物”, “wenshi peiyang 温室培养”, “wenshi qiti paifang 温室气体排放”, “wenshi qiti chuncun 温室气体储存” and “wenshi yumiao 温室育苗” are allabsent. It can be argued that all of them can be included, to help dictionary users
output.
Another point worth considering is the inclusion of the free combinations ofChinese words, like “～+kai/shang/xia/chu/jin～+开/上/下/出/进”. C-E dictionaries
generally don’t include those expressions as entries, unless they are regarded as “ci词 word”. Such combinations are often listed as the illustrative example of the senseof a certain headword, like “kai 开”. For example, “zoukai 走开” is listed as one of
the examples to illustrate the sense of [indicating separation and departure].
Meanwhile, such expressions are numerous and the systematic inclusion should beconsidered in taking them as headwords. In New Comprehensive, “bikai 避开”, “dakai
打开”, “chukai 除开”, “chaikai 拆开” and “zoukai 走开” are included , but not“dangkai 挡开”. “chuanshang 穿上”, “pashang 爬上” and “aishang 爱上” areincluded but not “dengshang 登上” and “kaoshang 考上”. As a matter of fact,
expressions like “dangkai 挡开”, “dengshang 登上” and “kaoshang 考上” should
be included as well for the inclusion of headwords to be systematic.
Therefore, it can be argued that New Comprehensive can be more systematic in its
inclusion of some expressions as headwords or examples. In this way, can it be more
helpful to dictionary users.
2.5 The Inaccurate Translation of Some Entries or Subentries
The accuracy of the translation of some entries in New Comprehensive is underquestion. Three examples can be cited to illustrate the point. For example, “open” islisted as the translation equivalent of “chuikai 吹开”, followed by the example “fengba chuang chuikai 风把窗吹开 the wind opened the window”. However, whether“open” should be listed as the translation equivalent remains a question. In themeantime, the nativeness of the translation of the example also needs to be considered.
The examples in English dictionaries indicate that the agent of “open” should be
animate rather than inanimate beings when it means “to move a door, window, lid, etc.
so that it is no longer closed” (Lea and Bradbery 2020). As far as “feng ba chuang
chuikai 风把窗吹开” is concerned, other translations can be provided, such as “Thewindow blew open.”或 “The wind blew the window open.” Or it can be rendered into
passive voice, like “The window was blown open by the wind.” However, translating“feng ba chuang chuikai 风把窗吹开” into “the wind opened the window” may not bea good choice.
The second sense of “dache 搭车” is rendered into “do sth at the same time; do
sth along with someone else” (Chan 2016). The translation is not accurate. According
to Xiandai Hanyu Cidian(7th Edition) (Dictionary-making Office of Institute of
Linguistics of The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2016: 230), its second senseis “biyu jie zuo moushi de bianli zuo lingwai de shiqing, cong’er dedao haochu 比喻
借做某事的便利做另外的事情，从而得到好处” <fig>...use sth. one is doing as a
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pretext for doing sth. else to gain a profit. Therefore, it might make better sense totranslate it into “take an opportunity; to take advantage of” (Lu 2015: 355) or “standor gain from a ready opportunity” and “do sth at an opportunity” (Du 2016: 305). In
addition, translating “huozi 伙子” as “partnership, company” is not accurate as well.
It can be argued that it can be translated into “group; gang” (Lu 2015: 940), which
also matches its part of speech as a measure word.
3. Conclusion
The paper provides some preliminary findings about the inadequacies of New
Comprehensive. As a large-scale C-E dictionary published in recent years, it does
have various advantages, which have been mentioned above. However, it also has atleast five aspects which can be improved when it is revised in the future, such as thelack of the diverse translation of a headword in context. It is hoped that if all theissues mentioned above are attended to, the quality of the dictionary can be further
improved. Future researchers can evaluate its quality more thoroughly from otherperspectives. They can also focus on just one aspect, such as arranging the entries
according to semantic interrelatedness and keywords or in the normal and reverse
order, to see how useful the innovations are to users.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by Innovation Project of Guangxi Graduate Education underGrant [JGY2019072] and Innovation Project of Graduate Education of Guangxi
Minzu University under Grant [2018XJGY23].

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DeFrancis, J. 2003. ABC Chinese-English comprehensive dictionary. Shanghai:
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Language Teaching and Research Press.
Lea, D. and J. Bradbery. 2020. (ed.). Oxford advanced learner's dictionary, 10th ed.
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Fudan University Press.
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The Collostruction-Based Definition Model in Language-Specific
Chinese-English Learner’s Dictionaries: The ·Case of ChineseCollective Classifier ‘Bǎ’
Li Zeng
Sichuan International Studies University, China
zengli2020@foxmail.com
Abstract: Definitions in language-specific Chinese-English learner’s dictionaries,
which target at English-speaking Chinese learners, should treat the
non-correspondences between Chinese and English in a language-specific way while
meeting the learnability requirement of general Chinese learner’s dictionaries. This
study, taking Chinese collective classifier “bǎ” as an example, adopting theCollostructional Analysis, proposes the model for defining Chinese collectiveclassifiers in language-specific Chinese-English learner’s dictionaries. Firstly, theCollostructional Analysis of “bǎ” obtains the collostructional features of the main
constructions of “bǎ”; then, the English counterparts of “bǎ” are filtered out, basedon which the comparative study on “bǎ” and its English counterparts is conducted tosummarize their degrees of correspondence; and then, the microstructure definitionsof “bǎ” in six dictionaries are studied; finally, based on the preliminary findings, thelanguage-specific definition model is proposed, followed by the exemplar entry of“bǎ”.
Keywords:
Collostruction-based
Definition
Model,
Language-Specific
Chinese-English Learner’s Dictionaries, “Bǎ”, Chinese Collective Classifier

1. Introduction
With the development of international Chinese teaching and learning, a number ofChinese learner’s dictionaries (hereinafter referred to as CLDs) for non-native
learners have been published, most of which target at Chinese learners with diverse
native language backgrounds. Nevertheless, when learners speaking different native
languages are learning the same target language, they are likely to make various kindsof errors in the production of the target language on account of their diverse native
language backgrounds. Under this background, the traditional general CLDs, whichtarget at non-native learners with different native language backgrounds, cannot reallymeet their learning needs. Thus, CLDs should be featured by user-oriented
language-specificity. The concept of language-specificity has been put forward first in
the field of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. With regards to CLDs, with anincreasing number of learners with different native language backgrounds, it is an
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inevitable trend to integrate the language-specificity feature to CLDs. In fact, thelanguage-specificity in lexicography has appeared with the publishment of Chinese
Essential Dictionary (Chinese-English) (hereinafter referred to as CED(C-E)) (Zheng2017), a language-specific Chinese-English learner’s dictionary targeting at English
speakers who are beginners in learning Chinese.
The linguistic means used for quantifying people or things have an important partin the grammatical system of one language. Chinese classifiers are the linguisticmeans for quantifying people, things, or actions. English-speaking learners might findit quite difficult to acquire Chinese classifiers since English, their native language,
doesn’t have such a part of speech as the classifier. Nevertheless, English also has the
linguistic means for quantifying collective people or things, the typical of which is“a(n) Ncollective of N”. Ncollective, a collective noun, serves as the counterpart of Chinesecollective classifier which is used for grouping discrete entities or abstract concepts todenote the collectiveness, and N, served by a plural noun or a material noun, refers to
the quantified objects. And some English collective nouns are in correspondences toChinese collective classifiers, such as “group” to “qún”. Due to historical and cultural
factors, however, there are non-correspondences between Chinese collectiveclassifiers and their English counterparts in the linguistic features, such as
constructions, collocations and meanings, which might have a significant role in
English-speaking learners’ acquisition of Chinese collective classifiers. For thisreason, the non-correspondences between Chinese collective classifiers and theirEnglish counterparts should treated in a specific way in language-specific
Chinese-English learner’s dictionaries (hereinafter referred to as CELDs).
And the common meaning of collective classifiers is quantifying collective
people or things, which is the combinational, colligational, or constructional meaning
generated by the co-occurrence of collective classifiers and other parts of speech inactual use, rather than the static lexical meaning. Thus, to better present the meaning
and usage of collective classifiers, explorations should be conducted in theirsyntagmatic relations, including grammatical constructions and lexical collocations,which can be achieved with the Collostructional Analysis. It is an innovative approachcombining the quantitative feature of corpus linguistics and the qualitative feature ofcognitive linguistics. The approach has firstly been put forward by Stefanowitsch andGries (2003), which is used for the explorations of the interactions between words andtheir associated constructions by the way of calculating the collostructional strengths
between them. With the Collostructional Analysis, the lexical collocations(statistically-significant collexemes) of collective classifiers can be obtained, based on
which the collostructional features and constructional meanings are explored, whichhave direct applications in lexicographical practices.
The importance of classifiers in Chinese leads to the compilations of learner’s
dictionaries for classifiers. 14 dictionaries for Chinese classifiers have been compiled
and published so far. More than half of them have been compiled for learners (Zhou2016). The presentations of classifiers in CLDs have drawn many scholars’ attention.
Xu Zuyou explored the presentations of classifiers in Modern Chinese Learner’s
Dictionary (Xu 1996). Zhou Juan suggested that the etymological motivations of162

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classifiers should be presented in learner’s dictionaries (Zhou 2009). Further, she,based on the analysis of the published dictionaries for classifiers, proposed a new
method for defining classifiers (Zhou 2016). Zheng Zezhi and Lin Liling put forward
the corpus-based annotation method for classifiers in CLDs for non-native learners(Zheng 2014). It is noticed that the lexicographical studies on the definitions ofclassifiers have yielded some fruitful achievements. However, the existing study
mainly focuses on the definitions of the general CLDs for non-natives. With agrowing number of English-speaking Chinese learners, it is likely for
English-speaking Chinese learners to encounter specific difficulties in learning
Chinese collective classifiers, and the general CELDs cannot really meet theirlearning needs. It is necessary to study language-specific definition models, which
contributes to the improvement of contemporary CLDs.
The collective classifier “bǎ” is considered as a partial classifier with complex
grammatical and semantic features and strong collocational ability. Among the 176
Chinese basic classifiers listed in Prompt Understanding of Measure Words, “bǎ” isthe classifier with the most senses (He 2008). The study, with the Collostructional
Analysis, taking “bǎ” as an example, explores the collostruction-based definition
model for collective classifiers in language-specific CELDs targeting at
English-speaking Chinese learners. Firstly, a corpus-based Collostructional Analysisof “bǎ” is conducted to study its collostructional features; then, the English
counterparts of “bǎ” are filtered out from Chinese-English bilingual parallel corpora
and studied with the Collostructional Analysis for the comparative study on thecollostructional features of “bǎ” and its English counterparts; then, an analysis on the
microstructure definitions of “bǎ” in the six CELDs is conducted; finally, thecollostruction-based definition model for collective classifiers in a language-specificway is proposed.
1.1 A Corpus-Based Collostructional Analysis of “Bǎ”
“Bǎ” is a pictophonetic character. As its etymological graph shows in Figure 1, the left
is “shǒu 扌(手)” like the shape of hands, from which the lexical meaning is
originated. The right is “bā” like the shape of a giant serpent, from which thepronunciation is derived. And the original meaning of “bǎ” is to hold or grasp
something with hands.

Figure 1 The etymological graph of “bǎ”
With the diachronic development of “bǎ”, it has extended its usage as a verb to aclassifier. “Bǎ”, in different contexts, can be used as an individual classifier (“yī bǎsǎn”), a collective classifier (“yī bǎ huā”) and a verbal classifier (“lā yī bǎ”). Withreference to the definition of Chinese collective classifiers proposed by Zong
Shouyun (Zong 2008), “bǎ” as the collective classifier, different from the individualclassifier, is used for quantifying two or more people or things, or denoting the whole
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quantity.
1.2 Research Overview
A corpus-based Collostructional Analysis of “bǎ” is conducted in the section. The
corpus for analysis is “Modern Chinese Corpus” from Corpus of State Language
Commission of China. It is a large balanced corpus covering a wide andcomprehensive range of language materials with a long-time span (Zhan et al. 2019).
And “bǎ” is studied with the Collostructional Analysis to answer the following
questions.
1) In terms of frequencies, what are the main constructions of “bǎ”?
2) What are the collostructional features of the main constructions?
3) What are the meanings of the main constructions?
Firstly, the main constructions of “bǎ” are sorted out, and then the collostructional
strengths between the main constructions and the lexical items in noun slots arecalculated with Coll. analysis 3.2(a script developed by Gries for calculating thedegrees of association between words and words/constructions) (Gries, S. T. 2007).
The calculated statistics show the relations of attraction or repulsion. The relations
between collostructional strengths and p values are as follows:
Collostructional strength >1.30103 => p< 0.05: significant;Collostructional strength >2 => p < 0.01: very significant;Collostructional strength >3 => p< 0.001: extremely significant.
When the collostructional strength > 1.30103, the construction and the lexical
item have a significant correlation. The higher the collostructional strength is, themore typical the lexical collocation is.
To ensure the statistical consistency, accuracy, and reliability, only nouns with a
total frequency of over 50 times in the corpus are the target lexical items to analyze.
1.3 Result
There are 1,028 concordance lines of “bǎ” as a classifier in the corpus. 252 lines of“bǎ” are identified after excluding its usage as an individual classifier and a verbal
classifier manually. According to the frequencies, there are two main types of
constructions of “bǎ”, including “numeral + bǎ + noun” and “yī + bǎ + noun”.
Next, the Collostructional Analysis is conducted with the corpus data. About“numeral + bǎ + noun”, the collostructional strengths are listed in Table 1. Only the
top 5 nouns in terms of collostructional strengths are listed here due to the limited text
length (the same below).

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Table 1 The collostructional strengths between “numeral + bǎ + noun” and nouns
ExpectedNo.
Nouns Relation
Coll.strength
frequency
1“mǐ”
attraction
0.005444586
46.568840“dào
2
attraction
0.00103877
13.360055
gǔ”
3“cǎo” attraction
0.006626634
13.019142
4“tǔ”
attraction
0.00703856
10.018836
5“chái” attraction
0.00149547
9.273537
According to the collostructional strengths, the construction has attractions to 46
nouns, all of which denote concrete objects which can be held or grasped withpeople’s hands. According to the shapes of the objects, the nouns in “numeral + bǎ +noun” are divided into the following two categories including powder-shaped or
granular things and strip-shaped things in Table 2.
Table 2 The categorization of nouns in “numeral + bǎ + noun”
Features of objects denoted
Relations
Construction
Examplesby the nouns
with hands
powder-shaped or granularbeing held“mǐ”, “dào gǔ”, “tǔ”
numeral + bǎ + things
noun
strip-shaped things
being grasped “cǎo”, “chái”, “dào cǎo”
The features of objects denoted by the nouns are the indications of thecollostructional features of “bǎ”. According to Table 2, the nouns in the first categoryrefer to powder-shaped or granular things, which are quantified by being held inhands, and the nouns in the second category refer to strip-shaped things, which arequantified by its whole cross section being grasped with hands. Only rough and vague
quantities in whole are measured with hands. Thus, “numeral + bǎ + noun” is used forquantifying concrete things held or grasped with hands.
Next, the collostructional features of “yī + bǎ + noun” are explored. The
calculated collostructional strengths between “yī + bǎ + noun” and nouns are listed inTable 3.
Table 3 The collostructional strengths between “yī + bǎ + noun” and nouns
No.
Words
RelationExp.freq
Coll.strength
1“huǒ”
attraction
0.006816011
66.558764
2“hàn”
attraction
0.002362228
48.350278
3“lì”
attraction
0.009836463
26.904929“yǎn4
attraction
0.003020452
18.075687
lèi”
5
“jìn”
attraction
0.002319166
15.320911
The “yī + bǎ + noun” construction has collocational attractions to 11 nouns
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according to the calculated statistics. It is found that these nouns can be divided into
two categories according to whether the objects denoted by them are abstract or
concrete, as shown in Table 4.
Table 4 The categorization of nouns in “yī + bǎ + noun”
Construction
Relations with Examples
Features of nouns
hands
nodirect “lì”, “jìn”, “niánabstract nouns
relationsjì”
yī + bǎ +noun
abstracted concretenodirect “huǒ”,“hàn”,
nouns
relations“lèi”
The abstract nouns in the first category, which have no direct relations with hands,
can collocate with “bǎ” owing to the metonymical mechanism. For instance, in thecollostructions of “yī bǎ lì” and “yī bǎ jìn”, both “lì” and “jìn” mean strengths, which
are associated with hands. “Nǐ de shǒu jìn zhēn dà” is said to show the strengths ofhands. With the diachronic development, “yī bǎ lì” can also be interpreted as“contributions” or “efforts”. For example, in the sentence “wéi shì jiè hé píng chū yībǎ lì”, “yī bǎ lì” means “making contributions to the world peace”. Besides, regarding“yī bǎ nián jì”, the collocation of “yī bǎ” and “nián jì” is attributed to the metaphoricalmechanism. The original nouns selected by “yī bǎ” refer to a collection of things witha certain spatial length, while “nián jì” is a collection of abstract concepts with acertain time length. The collostruction of “yī bǎ nián jì” is owing to the metaphor
mechanism mapping from the space domain to the time domain (Zong 2008). The
nouns in the second category are typical abstracted concrete nouns. In “yī + bǎ +noun”, for example, although the objects denoted by “huǒ”, “hàn” and “lèi” areconcrete in their original meanings, these words do not refer to concrete objects here.
For example, in the sentence “rú cǐ dà liàng zī jīn de tóu rù, shǐ bú shǎo rén dōu niē
zhe yī bǎ hàn”, the word “hàn” here does not mean sweat in reality, but describes
psychological anxiety and tension when collocating with “yī bǎ”. Besides, the lexical
items in the numeral slot of the construction can only be “yī”. The sentence *“shǐ búshǎo rén dōu niē zhe liǎng bǎ hàn” is not acceptable. “Yī + bǎ + noun” is theinstantiation of the rhetorical construction “yī + classifier + noun” used for describing
feelings or states, in which the classifier is deviated from the original meaning (Qiu, Y.
and Shi, C. H. 2019).

2. A Comparative Study on “Bǎ” and Its English Counterparts
In order to design language-specific CELDs facilitating English-speaking Chinese
learners to acquire Chinese collective classifiers, the linguistic features of Chinese andEnglish are compared. The English counterparts of the main constructions of “bǎ” arefirstly identified, based on which the subsequent comparative study on “bǎ” and its
English counterparts is conducted.
2.1 English Counterparts of “Bǎ”
English counterparts of “bǎ” are identified from Chinese-English bilingual parallel
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corpora (including CCL Chinese-English Bilingual Corpus, and the Chinese-English
parallel corpus of Four Great Classical Novels and Lu Xun’s novels) (Ren, L., Sun, H.
and Yang, J. 2010). With a comprehensive retrieval of Chinese-English bilingual
parallel corpora, 90 Chinese-English bilingual pairs of “bǎ” are sorted out. And“numeral + bǎ + noun” has two main English counterparts, as shown in Table 5.
Table 5 The English counterparts of “numeral + bǎ + noun”
Construction

Collostructions

English counterparts

numeral + bǎ +powder-shaped or
granular thingsa handful of + noun

numeral + bǎ +striped thingsa bundle of + noun

numeral + bǎ +noun

ExamplesKě jiāng yī bǎ cū tángfàng rù gǎn lǎn yóu
nèi jiǎo bàn.
Mix a handful ofcoarse sugar crystals
with some olive oil.
Fèng jiě ér yòng shǒujīn guǒ le yī bǎ yázhù, zhàn zài dìxià.
Xi-feng stood on thefloor below, a bundleof ivory chopsticks
wrapped up in a
tea-towel in her hand.

According to Table 5, “numeral + bǎ + noun” corresponds to different English
counterparts when quantifying different objects. When quantifying powder-shaped or
granular things, “numeral + bǎ + noun” corresponds to “a handful of + noun”. Whenquantifying strip-shaped things, “numeral + bǎ + noun” corresponds to “a bundle of +noun”.
Next, based on the bilingual parallel corpora, “yī + bǎ + noun” mainly has thefollowing examples of English counterparts, as shown in Table 6. Since “yī + bǎ +noun” is the rhetorical construction collocating with abstract nouns or abstracted
concrete nouns, the English counterparts are listed in the two different kinds ofcollostructions.
Table 6 The English counterparts of “yī + bǎ + noun”
EnglishConstruction Collostructions
Examplescounterparts
Tè bié shì nà xiē hái méi
yǒu xué huì shēng chǎngreateryī + bǎ +yī + bǎ +de dì qū, jīn nián yīngeffortsnoun
abstract nouns
dāng gèng dà dì nǔ yī bǎan effortlì.
Greater efforts must be
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yī + bǎ +great
abstracted
anxietyconcrete nouns fear

made
this
year,
particularly in areas
which have not yet
learnedtodevelopproduction.
Táng sēng niē zhe yī bǎhàn, zhī jiāo: “mò yào
shēng shì!”“Whatever you do, don’t
get into a row,” Sanzang
said again in great
anxiety.

It is found from Table 6 that there are no ready English constructions
corresponding to “yī + bǎ + noun” since “yī + bǎ + noun” is mainly used fordescribing feelings or states. Thus, the free translation method is adopted.
2.2 A Comparative Study on “Bǎ” and Its English Counterparts
As discussed in 3.1, “numeral + bǎ + noun” corresponds to two English constructions,
including “a handful of + noun” and “a bundle of + noun”, both of which arefrequently-used English constructions for denoting the collectiveness. The
collostructional nouns of “a handful of + noun” and “a bundle of + noun” are studied
based on the English language material from GloWbE, a collection of English datafrom twenty countries. The top 50 nouns in English constructions in terms of theirfrequencies in GloWbE are chosen for the Collostructional Analysis.
With the Collostructional Analysis of “a handful of + noun”, the calculated
collostructional strengths between “a handful of + noun” and nouns are listed in Table
7.
Table 7 The collostructional strengths between “a handful of + noun” and nouns
No.
Words
Relation Exp.freq Coll.strength1peopleattraction 10.961980
Inf
2
times
attraction 1.936827
Inf3othersattraction 1.824769
Inf
4
dust
attraction 0.116018
Inf
5
games
attraction 0.968880
Inf
According to the collostructional strengths, “a handful of + noun” has significant
attractions to the top 50 nouns. As is concluded in 3.1, “numeral + bǎ + noun”
corresponds to “a handful of + noun” when collocating with powder-shaped or
granular things held in hands. And according to whether the collocations of “a handfulof + noun” are in correspondences to those of “numeral + bǎ + powder-shaped or
granular things”, the nouns in “a handful of + noun” are divided into two categories
including the correspondence and the non-correspondence, as shown in Table 8.

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Table 8 The categorization of nouns in “a handful of + noun”
Correspondences to “numeral + bǎConstruction+ powder-shaped or granular
Examplesthings”
correspondence
a handful of + noun
non-correspondence

dust, nuts, sandtimes,
games

people,“A handful of + noun” is in correspondences to “numeral + bǎ + powder-shapedor granular things” when collocating with the nouns denoting some powder-shaped or
granular things, such as “dust”, “nuts” and “sand”. But there are non-correspondences
in most cases when “a handful of + noun” collocates with other items including nouns
referring to abstract concepts, people or other entities, such as “times”, “people” and“games”, which are not the collocations of “bǎ”.
Next, the collostructional nouns of “a bundle of + noun” are studied. And thecalculated collostructional strengths between “a bundle of + noun” and nouns arelisted in Table 9.
Table 9 The collostructional strengths between “a bundle of + noun” and nouns
Coll.strengt
No.
Words
Relation Exp.freqh1
nervesattraction 0.004928 259.156515
2
joy
attraction 0.025955 192.024005
3
sticksattraction 0.007135 130.556274
4
contradictions attraction 0.003044 96.242181
5energyattraction 0.135162 88.300823
According to the collostructional strengths between “a bundle of + noun” andnouns, the construction has significant attractions to the top 50 nouns. As is concluded
in 3.1, when collocating with the nouns denoting strip-shaped objects, “numeral + bǎ
+ noun” corresponds to “a bundle of + noun”. And according to whether thecollocations of “a handful of + noun” are in correspondences to those of “numeral +bǎ + strip-shaped things”, the nouns in “a bundle of + noun” are divided into two
categories including the correspondence and the non-correspondence, as shown in
Table 10.
Table 10 The categorization of nouns in “a bundle of + noun”
Correspondences to “numeral +Construction
Examplesbǎ + striped things”
sticks,straw,
correspondence
firewooda handful of + noun
nerves,joy,
non-correspondence
contradictions
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According to whether the collocations of “a bundle of + noun” are incorrespondences to those of “numeral + bǎ + strip-shaped things”, “a bundle of +noun” is only in correspondences to “numeral + bǎ + striped things” when “bundle”
quantifies some strip-shaped things, such as “sticks”, “straw” and “firewood”. And thetwo constructions are not in correspondences when “a bundle of + noun” collocateswith abstract concepts, such as “nerves”, “joy” and “contradictions”.
In a brief summary, “numeral + bǎ + noun” and the English counterparts “ahandful of + noun” and “a bundle of + noun” are in partial correspondences, and thenouns collocated with “bǎ” and its English counterparts are partially overlapping. The
non-correspondences should be treated in a specific way in language-specific CELDs
compiled for English-speaking Chinese learners.
3. A Study on the Definition Models for Chinese Collective Classifiers in Existing
CELDs
In this section, the microstructure definitions of “bǎ” in the six CELDs published in
the century are studied. The six CELDs include A Concise Chinese-English
Dictionary (Revised Edition)(hereinafter referred to as CCED) (2002), ABC
Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary(hereinafter referred to as ABC)(DeFrancis, J. 2003), A Chinese-English Dictionary(hereinafter referred to as CED)
(Qian, W. S. and Yao, N. Q. 2007), A Chinese-English Dictionary for Foreign
Learners(hereinafter referred to as CEDFL) (2008), CED(C-E) and PLECO(a mobile
integrated Chinese-English dictionary founded in May of 2000 by Michael Love for
Chinese learning). The definitions of “bǎ” are summarized in Table 11 and the labels
before the definitions are the labels in the dictionaries.
Table 11 The definitions of “bǎ” in the six CELDs
Names ofdictionaries
CCED

ABC
CED

Definitions[量]②handful③for some abstract nouns, if used with a numeral, only 一
can be used
②for handfuls③for certain abstract concepts❷<量 meas.>一手抓起的数量 a handful of❹<量 meas. >用于某些抽象的事情 for something abstract

CEDFL➊一 ~ 花生 a handful of peanuts

CED(C-E)

unit word handful of

PLECO

MEASURE WORD
2 handful of
3 [for certain abstract concepts]

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According to Table 11, all the six CELDs include “bǎ” as a lexicographical entry.
Four dictionaries, including CCED, ABC, CED, and PLECO, divide the meaning of“bǎ” into two senses. For the first sense, CCED provides the word-type English
collective noun “handful” while CED, CED(C-E), and PLECO provide phrase-type
English constructions of “handful’. And the first sense indicates the meaning ofquantifying concrete things held or grasped with hands, but only CED points out themeaning “一手抓起的数量”. However, “一手抓起的数量” is the constructional
meaning rather than the isolated lexical meaning of “bǎ”, and it is necessary to present
explicitly the constructional form. And the collocational information is not presented
except that ABC provides “for handfuls”, which might lead to the negative transfer ofthe collocational information of “handful” to that of “bǎ” for English-speaking
Chinese learners.
The second sense indicates that “bǎ” is used for some abstract nouns. Only CCED
provides the constructional form with the sentence “if used with a numeral, only 一
can be used”. ABC, CED, and PLECO define it in the form of “for + quantified
objects”, such as “for certain abstract concepts” (ABC and PLECO), without
presenting the features of the abstract nouns and the typical examples. Althoughlearners can learn some collocations with lexicographical examples, the effect islimited. Furthermore, in the above six dictionaries, CEDFL provides one example as
the definition. Although dictionary users can learn lexical collocations with theexample, they have no understanding of the meaning potentials and usage of theheadword.
Generally speaking, the existing definitions lack complete and clear presentationsof usage information and the catering to English-speaking Chinese learners, and thelearnability and language-specificity features need to be reinforced for compiling
language-specific CELDs.
4. The Language-Specific Collostruction-Based Model for Defining ChineseCollective Classifiers
Language-specific CELDs, should be specific according to the native language
backgrounds of dictionary users while following the learnability requirement of CLDs
since they are CLDs in nature. According to the findings of existing definition models,incomplete and unclear usage information is provided by and large. Based on theconcept of the collostruction, a usage-based definition model, fully integrating andpresenting constructions, collostructions, collocations and English equivalents, is
proposed to enhance the learnability and language-specificity features.
According to the concept of the collostruction, the meanings of words areinterrelated with their constructions (form-meaning pairs), collostructions, andcollocations. In terms of definition contents, language-specific CELDs should fully
provide the usage information of headwords and the distinctive features of headwords,
which can be realized by providing the associated constructions, collostructions,collocations and English equivalents of headwords in the definition of an entry.
Construction is the basic unit of a language. The meaning of a word comes from171

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its usage-based constructions. And constructional information provides users with thebasic grammatical rules to produce the target language correctly, while showing theusage-based constructional meaning of headwords. And collostructions are theinstantiations of usage-based constructions. And the presentations of collostructions in
dictionaries are realized with the collostructional features summarized from multiple
collostructions. Collocations are the concrete items at the lexical level which co-occur
conventionally with the constructions of headwords, which serve as the
supplementary information of collostructions. The presentations of high-frequency
lexical collocations in definitions help non-natives further understand thecollostructional features of headwords and acquire the concrete collocations at thelexical level. Besides, English equivalents, the items from the native language system
of English-speaking learners, are in partial correspondences to Chinese headwords inmost cases. They should be presented as the triggers for activating the linguisticknowledge of native language in English-speaking Chinese learners’ mental lexicon toachieve potential positive transfer.
Integrating constructions, collostructions, and collocations involved in theconcept of the collostruction, and the English equivalents of headwords, thecollostruction-based definition model is proposed. Constructions, pairs of forms andmeanings, are taken as the leading points of the definition, and the collostructions
explored from the conventional co-occurrence of the construction and concrete
collocational lexical items are listed under constructions, and thestatistically-significant collocations at the lexical level are provided as theinstantiations of the leading constructions and the collostructional features. Besides,
the English equivalents, which are in partial-correspondence relations with Chinese
headwords, are presented along with the collostructional items. And there arepossibilities that more than one construction is listed under the same headword, morethan one collostruction is listed under the same construction, and more than one
typical lexical collocation is listed under the same collostruction. The
collostruction-based definition model is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2 The collostruction-based definition model in language-specific CELDs
It is shown from the collostruction-based definition model in Figure 2 that,
constructional information serves as the leading points of the whole definition, thephrase-type collostructions under constructions are highlighted in bold, and several
lexical collocations are presented in brackets, English equivalents are presented alongwith the corresponding Chinese collostructions. The language-specific172

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collostruction-based definition model describes the meaning of headwords fromabstractness to concreteness in a dynamic way while fully providing the usage
information and distinctive features of headwords, so as to reinforce the learnability
and language-specificity features of language-specific CELDs.
And the collostruction-based definition model is applied in writing the definitionof “bǎ”. For “bǎ”, it is found in 2.1 that the two common constructions of “bǎ” are“numeral + bǎ + noun” and “yī + bǎ + noun”, leading to two main constructional
meanings of “bǎ”. The constructional meaning of “numeral + bǎ + noun” isquantifying concrete things held or grasped with hands. Under “numeral + bǎ + noun”,
two categories of objects including powder-shaped or granular things and strip-shaped
things, are highlighted in bold with the definition deixis “用于” since the twocategories of objects indicate two main collostructional features of “numeral + bǎ +noun”. And since the headword “bǎ” is in partial correspondences to “handful” when
collocating with the nouns denoting powder-shaped or granular things, and to theEnglish collective noun “bundle” when collocating with the nouns denoting
strip-shaped things, the English counterparts are provided along with thecollostructions to achieve potential positive transfer. Besides, “yī + bǎ + noun” is therhetorical construction for describing feelings or states, collocating with abstract
things and abstracted concrete things, which should be highlighted in bold with thedefinition deixis “for”. And the typical lexical collocations under collostructions arepresented in brackets to serve as the supplementary and instantiated information of
constructions and collostructions. And the exemplar entry of “bǎ” is provided in
Figure 3.

把<量 meas.>①

计量带有手把的单个器具：数词+把+名词

a (for things with handles)②<1>计量一手抓起的具体事物：数词 + + 名词to quantify concrete things held or grasped with hands

1.用于粉末或颗粒状的事物 (一/两/三/几~米/稻谷/糖等)
a handful of/ handfuls of (for rice, paddy, soil, sugar, etc.)
2.用于条状的事物(一两/三/几~草/柴筷子/花等)
a bundle of/bundles of (for grass, firwoods, chopsticks, flowers, etc.)<2>表示情感或状态：一+把+名词
to describe feelings or states
用于抽象事物 (一~力/劲/年纪)for abstract things including 力/劲/年纪
用于抽象化的具体事物 (一~火/汗/泪骨头)for abstracted concrete things including 火/汗/泪/骨头③

计量手的动作次数：动词+数词+把to quantify actions done with hands (for specific actions done with hands)

Figure 3 The exemplar entry of “bǎ”
In Figure 3, sense ② indicates the definition of “bǎ” as the collective classifier,which is different from its definitions in existing six CELDs since it presents the173

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complete and clear usage information of “bǎ”, including constructional meanings,
forms, collostructional features and some high-frequency collocations, highlighting
the distinctive features of “bǎ”.

5. Conclusion
In the study, the collostruction-based definition model is proposed. Firstly, thecorpus-based Collostructional Analysis of “bǎ” summarizes the collostructionalfeatures of its two main constructions, including “numeral + bǎ + noun” and “yī + bǎ
+ noun”. “Numeral + bǎ + noun” has the meaning for quantifying concrete things heldor grasped with hands, collocating with powder-shaped or granular things andstrip-shaped things. “Yī + bǎ + noun” is the rhetorical construction for describing
feelings or states, in which the meaning of the classifier is deviated from the original
meaning, collocating with abstract nouns and abstracted concrete nouns. The
comparative study on the collostructional features of “bǎ” and its English counterparts
shows that “numeral + bǎ + noun” and the English counterparts “a handful of + noun”
and “a bundle of + noun” are in partial-correspondence relations. Moreover, the studyof the microstructure definitions of “bǎ” in existing CELDs finds that the definitionsof “bǎ” lack the complete and clear presentations of usage information and thecatering to English-speaking Chinese learners. Based on the preliminary findings, thelanguage-specific collostruction-based definition model for Chinese collectiveclassifiers is proposed. It is a usage-based definition model fully integrating andpresenting the constructional information, collostructional features, high-frequency
collocations and English equivalents. For the study, the collostruction-based definition
model for Chinese collective classifiers in language-specific CELDs is proposed tohelp English-speaking Chinese learners acquire Chinese collective classifiers more
effectively and enhance the learnability and language-specificity features. Other
elements of the microstructure definition will be followed up in the future study.
Acknowledgements. This work is supported by Graduate Innovation Fund ofSouthwest University of Science and Technology (20ycx0050).

References
Zheng, D. O. 2017. Chinese essential dictionary (Chinese-English). Beijing: Beijing
Language University Press.
Stefanowitsch, A. and S. T. Gries. 2003. Collostructions: Investigating the interaction
between words and constructions. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics
8(2): 209-243.
Zhou, J. 2016. Innovative thinking about interpreting Chinese classifiers. Applied
Linguistics (2): 74-82 (in Chinese).
Xu, Z. Y. 1996. Classifiers in Modern Chinese Learner’s Dictionary. Foreign
Language World (2): 63-64+62 (in Chinese).
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Zhou, J. 2009. The etymological motivations in Chinese classifier dictionaries.
Lexicographical Studies (3): 48-53 (in Chinese).
Zheng, Z. Z. and L. L. Lin. 2014. The research of quantifiers annotation pattern basedon corpus. Journal of International Chinese Studies 5(2): 90-100 (in Chinese).
He, J. 2008. Addendum to the study of classifiers in modern Chinese. Beijing: Beijing
Language and Culture University Press (in Chinese).
Zong, S. Y. 2008. A cognitive study on collective classifiers. Doctoral dissertation of
Shanghai Normal University (in Chinese).
Zhan, W., Guo, R., Chang, B., Chen, Y., and L. Chen. 2019. The building of the CCL
corpus: its design and implementation. Corpus Linguistics 6(1): 71-86+116 (inChinese).
Gries, S. T. 2007. Coll. analysis 3.2a. A program for R for Windows 2.x.
Qiu, Y. and C. H. Shi. 2019. The generative basis and mechanism of the rhetoric
construction “yi+CI+N” and the possibility and reality of the generation ofrhetoric construction. Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies (6): 65-77 (inChinese).
Ren, L, Sun, H., and J. Yang. 2010, February 14. Chinese-English parallel corpus of.
A Dream of Red Mansions. http://corpus.usx.edu.cn/. Available 10-31-2020.
Wu, X., Sun, H., and J. Yang. 2010, February 14. Parallel corpus of. Romance ofThree Kingdoms. http://corpus.usx.edu.cn/. Available 10-31-2020.
Zhu, X., Sun, H., and J. Yang. 2010, January 25. Parallel corpus of. Journey to theWest. http://corpus.usx.edu.cn/. Available 10-31-2020.
Compilation Committee of A Concise Chinese-English Dictionary. 2002. A concise
Chinese-English dictionary (revised edition). Beijing: Commercial Press.
DeFrancis, J. 2003. ABC Chinese-English comprehensive dictionary. Shanghai:
Chinese Dictionary Press.
Qian, W. S. and N. Q. Yao. 2007. A Chinese-English dictionary. Beijing: Foreign
Languages Press.
Compilation Committee of Chinese-English Dictionary for Foreign Learners. 2008. A
Chinese-English dictionary for foreign learners. Shanghai: Shanghai
Translation Publishing House.

175

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Let’s Teach (LexTeach) Lexicography to the Public:
A Mission Possible
Amy ChiThe Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Chinalcamychi@ust.hk
Abstract: This paper describes a pilot project entitled LexTeach which aims at
promoting English lexicography, particularly the use of EFL dictionaries. When
LexTeach was first introduced in ASIALEX 2019 Istanbul, it referred to dictionary
literacy workshops and lectures, which target EFL teachers, proposed to be given
regularly at annual ASIALEX conferences (Chi 2020). Such training will well-equip
EFL teachers with comprehensive lexicographical knowledge and teaching
methodology to design materials and activities suitable for their students. Under thetitle ‘Dictionary Literacy Training for EFL Teachers’, LexTeach received the A. S.
Hornby Dictionary Research Awards 2021. Its first workshop, ‘How to integrate theuse of learners’ dictionaries in class to teach vocabulary’ will be first trialled in 2022
conference. In ASIALEX 2022, LexTeach will take on a second role, that is, topromote English lexicography to laymen, mostly university students, who need
English in their studies. Since English lexicography is not a common discipline, withfew universities offering the subject, most students do not have any knowledge of
how such dictionaries are designed to support their learning. With the help of scholars
who attend ASIALEX annual conferences, LexTeach hopes to foster some interest in
dictionary knowledge on a regular basis. From the perspective of scholars inlexicography, LexTeach provides them with the opportunity to share their expertisewith laymen to attract them to explore lexicography. McGillivray et al. (2021)
conclude in their report that a note of optimism is observed in the public “interest inaccessible courses on lexicographic practice” after launching of the first Massive
Open Online Course (MOOC) dedicated to English dictionaries. LexTeach alsoendeavours to arouse the public interest, with particular focus on EFL dictionary users,and enrich their understanding of the English dictionaries.
Keywords: pedagogical lexicography, dictionary use training

References
Chi, M. L. A. 2020. Reconstructing the lexicographical triangle through teaching
dictionary literacy to teachers of English. Lexicography (7): 79-95.

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McGillivray B., Nesi H., Rundell M., and K. Süle. 2021. Understanding English
dictionaries: The experience from a massive open online course. EURALEX XIX:
Lexicography for inclusión proceedings book volume 1, 51-59. Retrieved fromhttps://euralex2020.gr/

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On Designing Media-Converged Entries of Chinese Twenty-FourSolar Terms
Yundong Geng Chenchen Zhang Jingyi Feng
Yiping Tan
Huazhong Agricultural University, China
njugyd@163.com

Abstract: In the past three years, the most noteworthy phenomenon in mainland
China’s lexicographical studies has been the introduction of the concept of“media-converged lexicography” and a series of relevant discussions triggered
afterwards. The media convergence opens up a great opportunity for the digitaltransformation of dictionaries. As Zhang (2019) argues, “the core is to adopt themedia convergence approach and digital communication technology to produce
multimodal lexicographical texts which can be queried and displayed through various
media and digital terminals.” To put into practice the concept of “media-converged
lexicography”, action is needed, rather than mere talk. Using the design ofmedia-converged entries of Chinese Twenty-Four Solar Terms as a case study, we
aim to develop an integrated approach to lexicographical innovation within theframework of media convergence. Chinese Twenty-Four Solar Terms, inscribed in2016 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity,reflect the Chinese wisdom of dividing time as well as the philosophy of harmony
between man and nature. Most of the solar terms bear with them rich social andcultural connotations, such as traditional celebrations, rituals and festivals. The
significance of the present study lies in exploring a media-converged lexicographicalway of promoting the Chinese culture to go global. In this paper, we first compare thepresentation of Chinese Twenty-Four Solar Terms in existing Chinese-English
bilingual dictionaries, and then identify the limitations in current practice. Finally,
with a sample entry, we set forth a composite framework for designing entries ofChinese Twenty-Four Solar Terms. Hopefully, our study contributes to promoting
media-converged lexicography from concept to practice.
Keywords: media-converged lexicography, Chinese Twenty-Four Solar Terms,
Chinese culture going global

References
Chapman, N. and J. Chapman. 2009. Digital multimedia (3rd edn.). Chichester:
Wiley.
Lugmayr, A. and C. D. Zotto. 2016. Media convergence handbook. Heidelberg:
Springer．
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Zhang, Y. H. 2019. On the innovation of dictionary compilation and publication in thecontext of media convergence. Chinese Journal of Language Policy andPlanning (6): 79-89.
Zhang, Y. H. 2021. Design scheme and compiling conception of English dictionary
for learners in the frame of media convergence. Technology-Enhanced Foreign
Language Education (3): 102-108.
Zhou, J. B. and Z. H. Zhou. 2017. The twenty-four solar terms. Beijing: China
Science and Technology Press / Popular Science Press.

179

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The Effects of Different Modifications in Illustrative Examples on L2
Learners’ Encoding Behaviour
Naho Kawamoto
Yukio Tono
Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Japannaho.kawamoto@tufs.ac.jp y.tono@tufs.ac.jp

Abstract: The debate between made-up and authentic examples has been popular inpedagogical lexicography. However, as Atkins and Rundell (2008: 457) pointed out,
this debate was ill-founded because the notion of a simple choice between ‘made-up’
and ‘authentic’ gives a misleading picture of how lexicographers really work. Rather,a degree of modification of authentic examples from corpora makes examples usefulfor dictionary users. This study investigates the effects of different types and degrees
of modifications of authentic examples on the encoding activities by L2 learners ofEnglish. The modifications include deleting coordinate or subordinating clauses,changing a distracting proper noun to a pronoun, or simplifying an obscure
vocabulary item, among others. Two groups of English learners (lower and higher
proficiency levels) participated in the study, where a series of encoding tasks fromJapanese to English were given. Each task focused on the use of particular verbs andtheir valency patterns. The learners were asked to look at examples of the verbs andinfer relevant usages from them and apply the information to a message they try to
encode. Modified examples provided information about the verbs with different
degrees of additional information regarding modifiers and contexts. The results show
some interactions between the types of modifications and the use of examples in
encoding activities in different L2 proficiency groups. Overall, less proficient learners
could not take advantage of examples if the modifications were minimum. Even more
proficient learners found it difficult to decode sentence patterns if they contained
extra information such as subordinations or lengthy noun phrases. Implications andsuggestions for the properties of good examples in pedagogical lexicography will be
discussed.
Keywords: illustrative examples, pedagogical lexicography, user study

References
Atkins, B. T. S. and M. Rundell. 2008. The Oxford guide to practical lexicography.
Oxford University Press.

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Reviving Pocket Electronic Dictionaries for Schools
Lorna Morris
Stellenbosch University, South Africa
lorna@lemma.co.za

Abstract: Pocket electronic dictionaries (PEDs) were extremely popular in Asia in
the 1990s and early 2000s, but lost prominence when smart phones became morecommon and people could use the internet or a dictionary app on their phone insteadof a stand-alone dictionary device.
The major benefits of PEDs were that they were portable and they were electronic.
Their portability meant that they could be carried to and from work or school, and thefact that they were electronic meant that they could contain more data than a printed
dictionary and be easily searchable. This paper will discuss whether thesecharacteristics can still be exploited to develop a new generation of PEDs for users
who need the combination of portability and the features available on electronic
dictionaries. In South Africa most school children are learning in a language that is
not their home language, and they would benefit from an electronic school dictionary,as it can contain features that offer more support that is not available in printed school
dictionaries. These features include a search function, audio, more illustrations,translation equivalents in their home language, more example sentences, andhyperlinks between synonyms and other related words. However, the children who
need this support generally do not have access to electronic dictionaries in the form of
online dictionaries or cellphone apps. Most schools in South Africa do not havereliable, if any, internet access, so even classroom computers are not feasible. This
paper will explore whether PEDs can be a practical solution to the dictionary needs ofSouth African learners. It will contain a description of the South African education
context, as well as the dictionaries that are currently available to learners. It will show
how a stand-alone dictionary device could be the best way forward for South African
school dictionaries.
Keywords: school dictionaries, pocket electronic dictionaries, electronic dictionaries,
pedagogical lexicography, electronic lexicography

References
Boonmoh, A. 2012. E-dictionary use under the spotlight: students’ use of pocket
electronic dictionaries for writing. Lexikos (22): 43–68.
Chiu, L. and G. Liu. 2013. Effects of printed, pocket electronic, and online
dictionaries on high school students’ English vocabulary retention. The
Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 22(4): 619–634.
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Sharpe, P. 1995. Electronic dictionaries with particular reference to the design of anelectronic bilingual dictionary for English-speaking learners of Japanese.
International Journal of Lexicography 8(1): 39–54.
Spaull, N. and E. Pretorius. 2019. Still falling at the first hurdle: Examining early
grade reading in South Africa. South African schooling: The enigma of inequality.
Policy implications of research in education, vol 10, eds. In Spaull, Nicholas andJansen, Jonathan. Springer, Cham.
Stirling, J. 2005. The portable electronic dictionary: Faithful friend or faceless foe?
Modern English Teacher 14(3): 64.

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Artificial Numerals in Bésɨro and Their Use in Bolivia
Noa Nishimoto
Kyoto University, Japannoa@cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp

Abstract: This paper provides a current report on three types of Bésɨro (or Chiquito)
numerals and their uses: (1) indigenous numerals (2) mixed numerals with Spanish
loanwords and (3) artificial numerals newly proposed by the Ministry of Education. It
also describes the language attitude of Bésɨro people toward their language based onsemi-structured interviews with speakers with ages ranging from 9-96 years. Bésɨroor Chiquito is a language spoken in eastern Santa Cruz in Bolivia. Although the
Chiquito population is widely dispersed, they rarely speak their indigenous language.
It is preserved among older people (age >70). Mathematicians refer to Bésɨro as alanguage with no numerals (Conant 1895). The paper examines this “language
without numerals”, to reexamine this condition from a linguistic perspective. I visited
Bésɨro living area in Chiquitiano. The Bésɨro people who speak Spanish were
surprised to hear that their indigenous language does not have numerals. Many Bésɨro
Spanish speakers who know no greetings in their own language helped me to findspeakers of Bésɨro out of curiosity. Some primary school children knew that theirindigenous language does not have many numerals by showing the textbook they use
at school to learn their local language. One schoolteacher in charge of Bésɨrolanguage and its revitalization showed me “a list of new Bésɨro numerals” currently
not in use. Finally, after a long journey, one village chief who is approximately 92-96(exact age unknown) and speaks fluent Bésɨro taught me its counting system withnumerals up to “two”. He was surprised to learn of the new artificial numerals. Bésɨrois apparently an endangered language despite the large population of its ethnic group.
Its traditional counting system is mostly dead. The newly proposed numerals are only
taught at primary school in connection with Bolivian language revitalization policy.
Keywords: Bésɨro, numerals, endangered languages, Bolivia, ethnomathematics

References
Conant L. L. 1896. The number concept: Its origin and development. Kessinger
Publishing183

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From Flat Lists to Hierarchical Domain Labels in General
Language Dictionaries
Ana Salgado1,2
Toma Tasovac3
Rute Costa1
1
Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Portugal
2
Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, Portugal
3
Belgrade Center for Digital Humanities, Serbia
anasalgado@campus.fcsh.unl.pt ttasovac@humanistika.org rute.costa@fcsh.unl.pt
Abstract: The lists of domains included in general dictionaries outside matter obeyalphabetical ordering without any concern about the relationships that can beestablished between those types of labels. We propose to organise and conceptualise
specialised knowledge in general language dictionaries using structured data formats,such as Text Encoding Initiative (TEI). We started from the flat (non-hierarchical) listof Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa (DLP) and selected domain labels associatedwith geological sciences. Then, we conceptually structure and organise the domain ofgeology to better describe specialised knowledge in general language dictionaries andimprove search engines. We consider three possible levels: superdomain, domain,
subdomain. This process also involved validation by a subject specialist. The last step
was the encoding of the hierarchical domain labels established. In this paper, we
describe and present: (1) both onomasiological and semasiological approaches totreating specialised lexicographic content in general language dictionaries; (2) anapplication of TEI Lex-0 specifications to an actual dictionary project – the DLP; (3)a contribution to the TEI Lex-0 specifications, namely to highlight and discuss theimportance of having hierarchical domain labels in TEI also bearing in mind possible
future alignments between different lexicographic resources. When proposing
hierarchical domain labels encoding, it is worth mentioning that the <usg> element
and @type or even @subtype attributes are not robust enough as a mechanism: 1) in
the future, we can have a more deeply nested hierarchy, i.e., not just superdomain,
domain and subdomain; and 2) ideally, we would want a kind of encoding where wecan separate canonical, possibly multilingual, labels that are defined in one place, andthen pointed to from the dictionary entry. For this same reason, we propose to define
a taxonomy in the <teiHeader>. The application of TEI Lex-0 will be demonstrated
with samples of some DLP selected terms.
Keywords: digital humanities, general language dictionary, interoperability,
lexicography, TEI Lex-0, terminology

References
DLP = Academia das Ciências de Lisboa 2021. Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa, ed.
Ana Salgado. Lisboa: Academia das Ciências de Lisboa. [New digital edition
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under revision.]
Atkins, B. T. S. and M. Rundell. 2008. The Oxford guide to practical lexicography.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Salgado, A., Costa, R., and T. Tasovac. 2019. Improving the consistency of usagelabelling in dictionaries with TEI Lex-0. Lexicography: Journal of ASIALEX 6:
133–156. DOI: doi:10.1007/s40607-019-00061-x.
Svensén, B. 2009. A handbook of lexicography: The theory and practice of dictionary
making. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tasovac, T., Romary, L., Bánski, P., Bowers, J., Does, J. de, Depuydt, K., Erjavec, T.,
Geyken, A., Herold, A., Hildenbrandt, V., Khemakhem, M., Petrović S., Salgado,A., and A. Witt. 2018. TEI Lex-0: A baseline encoding for lexicographic data.
Version 0.8.5. DARIAH Working Group on Lexical Resources. Retrieved fromhttps://dariah-eric.github.io/lexicalresources/pages/TEILex0/TEILex0.html.
TEI Consortium, (Eds). TEI P5: Guidelines for electronic text encoding andinterchange. [Version 3.5.0]. [Last updated on 29th January 2019, revision
3c0c64ec4].
TEI
Consortium.
Retrievedfrom
http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5/.

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A Review of Bilingual and Specialized Lexicography Research in
Malaysia
Intan Safinaz Zainudin
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
intansz@ukm.edu.my

Abstract: The field of lexicography covers the activities of dictionary making anddictionary theory; while bilingual lexicography and specialized lexicography are two
branches of lexicography based on different orientation and purpose. Malay
lexicography has advanced in terms of dictionary compiling and linguistic researchwith the newly launched Kamus Dewan Perdana, a grand project of corpus-based
Malay dictionary produced by Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. A review of current
research, particularly on Malay/English bilingual and specialized dictionaries
suggests that there is still so much to be explored. With the current global crisis of the
COVID-19, the aspects of specialized terminology came into focus especially whencommunication problem occurs due to mismatch terminology use in press release
regarding COVID-19. Suggestions on further research will be given based oninterdisciplinary approaches, combining insights developed over the last decades inlexicography and terminology theory with tools and methods from corpus linguistics.
Keywords: bilingual lexicography, specialized lexicography, Malay dictionary,corpus linguistics

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