Volume 4

Fundamentals of Organic
Thin Film Solar Cells

AN ALDRICH ® MATERIALS SCIENCE TUTORIAL

Introduction
In recent years, while global environmental and energy conservation issues have become
increasingly serious, organic thin film solar cells have started to draw widespread attention
from the public as a new energy source. Development of high-performance organic thinfilm solar cells (Figure 1, page 1) that can generate power at low cost is essential for global
adoption of solar cells. Recently, the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of solar cells has rapidly
improved and is approaching a level that will enable widespread use. This article presents anoutline of the history and current status of the development of organic thin film solar cells. It
then describes the power conversion mechanism in organic thin film solar cells and a method
for fabricating organic thin film solar cell devices. The article also introduces a process forsynthesizing fullerene derivatives.

Table of Contents
History of Development of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells
Mechanism of Photoelectric Conversion in Organic Thin Film Solar Cells
Example of Strategy for Improving Power Conversion Efficiency
Process of Synthesizing Fullerene Derivatives
Method for Fabricating Organic Thin Film Solar Cells
Evaluation of Device Characteristics
Conclusion
Acknowledgments

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Fundamentals of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells
Present Status of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells

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Fundamentals of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells

FUNDAMENTALS OF ORGANIC THIN FILM
SOLAR CELLS
Yutaka Matsuo
Project Professor at School of Science, The University of Tokyo
Email: matsuo@chem.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Present Status of Organic Thin Film
Solar Cells
The production of solar cells and the size of the solar cell market have
expanded dramatically since the beginning of this century. However,the silicon-based solar cells that are now the main type in use require
high production costs, so their widespread use is not possible without
governmental subsidy. Accordingly, the fundamental issue of costremains to be solved. To find a solution to this issue, research anddevelopment of new solar cells is actively conducted globally. The
organic thin film solar cell (Figure 1) is one new type of solar cell thatuses organic semiconductors, which are expected to become inexpensivein the future, instead of silicon semiconductors. Organic thin film solar
cells have the characteristics of being lightweight and flexible. Therefore,
if they become available for commercial use, a wide variety of new
applications for solar cells, such as mobile battery chargers, will become
accessible. In addition, when highly efficient long-life organic thin film
solar cells are implemented in the future, we will be able to use themfor photovoltaic power generation. This application will make it possible
to increase the ratio of natural sources to fossil fuels used in energy
production, resulting in a reduction in environmental loads and theamount of carbon dioxide emissions. However, the power conversion
efficiency of conventional organic thin film solar cells is about 8% at a
maximum, which is not comparable with the 10% of amorphous siliconsolar cells and the 15 to 20% of polycrystal and single-crystal silicon solar
cells. Through discussion and improvement, various efforts are being
made towards the higher stability of organic materials and the longer lifeof organic thin film solar cells.

Historical Development of Organic Thin Film
Solar Cells
In 1986, C. W. Tang of Eastman Kodak Company reported a prototype
of an organic thin film solar cell.1 This prototype was a heterojunction(p-n junction) solar cell in which an organic electron donor (organicp-type semiconductor) and an organic electron acceptor (organicn-type semiconductor) were joined together (Figure 2). Copper(II)phthalocyanine (Aldrich Prod. No. 702854) was used as the electron
donor, and PTCBI (3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic bis-benzimidazole), a
perylenediimide derivative, was used as the electron acceptor in the solarcell. This research was published the year after the discovery of fullerene
C60 (Aldrich Prod. Nos. 572500, 379646, and 483036),2 which had not yet
been isolated. The photoelectric energy conversion significantly increased
from that of conventional Schottky organic thin film solar cells to the
1% level when a single organic layer was used.3 This marked the firstmilestone breakthrough. Research on higher-efficiency p-n devices of thistype, however, did not rapidly advance for several reasons, including thefact that Tang, the very developer of the prototype, subsequently focusedon the research and development of organic electronic devices.4 In 1991,
Hiramoto et al. reported on a p-i-n type device,5 which had an i-layer
formed by codeposition of an electron donor and an electron acceptor
between a p-layer and an n-layer. This device exhibited a conversion
efficiency of only a little less than 1%. However, a bulk heterojunction,
where an electron donor and an electron acceptor interblend, wasformed in the i-layer, so this research was pioneering in the sense thatit revealed the usability of bulk heterojunctions in organic thin film
solar cells.
Ag
PTCBI
CuPC
In2O3
glass

Donor (p): CuPc

Acceptor (n): PTCBI

Aldrich Prod. No. 702854

Figure 2. p-n Heterojunction Organic Thin Film Solar Cell.
Figure 1. Organic Thin Film Solar Celles (Konarka Technologies).
Photo presented by Nikkei Electronics.

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In 1992, immediately after the synthesis and isolation6 of fullerenes had
been developed, N. S. Sariciftci et al. showed a fullerene to be an excellent
electron acceptor by revealing ultrafast charge separation (60 ns or
less, which was the then limit of detection) from MEH-PPV (2-methoxy5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)polyphenylenevinylene; Figure 3; Aldrich Prod.
No. 536512, etc.), an electron-donating conductive polymer, to a fullerene(C60).7 Yoshino et al. also independently examined the optical dynamics
of a mixed film of a π-conjugated polymer and C60 .8 These research
results can be considered as a second breakthrough. The speed of charge
separation from a conductive polymer to a fullerene derivative wasrevealed to be about 45 fs as reported in 2001 after suitable measurement
instrumentation had been developed.9

MDMO-PPVMEH-PPV

Aldrich Prod. No. 546461

Aldrich Prod. Nos. 541443,
541435 and 536512

P3HT

PCBM

Figure 3. Conductive polymer materials and fullerene derivative used for organic thin film
solar cells.

During this period, however, the PCE of organic thin film solar cells did
not increase from the 1% reported in 1986, largely due to challenges
related to the processing of fullerenes. The fullerenes, which exhibited
low solubility in organic solvents, were not able to be dissolved athigh concentrations in electron donor polymers. In 1995, the third
breakthrough was made by A. J. Heeger et al.,10 that is, the advent of asoluble fullerene derivative and the use of a bulk heterojunction forminga charge separation layer in which a conductive polymer and a fullerene
derivative were interblended. Substituting PCBM (phenyl C61-butyricacid methyl ester; Figure 3; Aldrich Prod. No. 684457),11 developed by
J. C. Hummelen and F. Wudl et al., for C60 enabled the preparation of
the MEH-PPV:PCBM = 20%:80% blend solution, which thereby madeit possible to optimize the ratio of the electron donor to the electron
acceptor. In addition, the use of a bulk heterojunction layer in which an
electron donor and an electron acceptor are interblended made the areaof the charge separation interface (the interface between the electron
donor and the electron acceptor) wider than that of a heterojunction
layer and formed a mixed layer with phase separation in the order oftens of nanometers. These advantages made it possible for excitons toreach the charge separation interface effectively. Excitons are pairs ofnegative and positive charges. Since each of the pairs can be considered
to be a combination between the presence of an electron in the lowest
unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) level and the absence of anelectron in the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) in a molecule,the excitons may also be regarded as organic molecules in an excitedstate. It is known that the distance (the diffusion length of the excitons)
across which the excited state can propagate in an organic solid ranges
from several nanometers to tens of nanometers. An organic thin film solar
cell with a power conversion efficiency of 1.5% was thus fabricated using
the MEH-PPV:PCBM blend. In 2001, a device with a power conversion
efficiency of 2.5% was fabricated by substituting MDMO-PPV (Figure 3;
Aldrich Prod. No. 546461) for MEH-PPV to optimize organic thin film
morphology that differed depending upon the solvent used.9

2

Following this, researchers began examining the use of polythiophene as
an alternative electron donor to PPV. In the beginning, this attempt did
not work well, but, in 2002, C. J. Brabec reported achieving a PCE of 2.8%
by combining poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) (Figure 3; Aldrich Prod.
No. 698989, etc.) with PCBM (Aldrich Prod. No. 684457, etc).12 Since thisreport, the race to develop P3HT:PCBM organic thin film solar cells has
intensified in many countries. Significant power conversion efficiencychanges depending upon the treatment after the fabrication of thedevice (post-treatment), and various post-treatment effects have beenreported. In 2003, N. S. Sariciftci et al. (Johannes Kepler University of Linz,
Austria) reported the acceleration of polymer crystallization by thermal
annealing or application of an external voltage and using this to achievea power conversion efficiency of 3.5%.13 In 2005, Y. Yang et al. (UCLA, USA)achieved a power conversion efficiency of 4.5% by annealing at 110 °C for
10 minutes.14 In the same year, D. L. Carroll et al. (Wake Forest University,USA) reported that the optimal annealing temperature and period were
155 °C and 5 minutes, respectively, and that they had implemented
a device exhibiting a power conversion efficiency of 4.9%.15 In 2006,
D. D. C. Bradley (Imperial College, United Kingdom) investigated theinfluence of regioselectivity of polythiophene on thin film morphology
and photoelectric conversion characteristics in detail and reported ona device with a PCE of 4.4%.16 Subsequent reports of power conversion
efficiencies ranging from the 4% level to those a little less than 5% led to
the P3HT-PCBM combination becoming the standard material for organic
thin film solar cells. The background of the progress from the combinationof copper phthalocyanine and perylenediimide to that of PPV and C60
and on to that of P3HT-PCBM enables us to see that the optimization andimprovement of the electronic characteristics and molecular assembly
forming ability of molecules played significant roles in the improvementof the characteristics of organic thin film solar cells.
Since the establishment of the P3HT:PCBM standard device in around2006, development of new materials has further boosted conversion
efficiency (5–6%). Electron donors that can absorb long-wavelength
light due to charge transfer absorption in molecules were developed
by incorporating an electron-deficient unit into a π-conjugatedpolymer (Figure 4).17-19 In addition, fullerene bisindene adducts with
56 π-conjugated systems were developed as electron acceptors byfurther scaling down the conjugated systems of fullerenes.20–23 The
fullerene bisindene adducts have a high LUMO level and provide a highopen circuit voltage (Voc). Moreover, research on device structure has led
to developments such as tandem construction,24 in which solar cells areconnected in series, and the optical spacer25 for absorbing light reflected
on its rear electrode efficiently by its active layer.

PCPDTBTPSBTBT

Aldrich Prod. No. 754005

PTB7

Aldrich Prod. No. 772410

ICBA

Aldrich Prod.
Nos. 745839 and 753955

IC71BA

Figure 4. Narrow band gap polymers and high LUMO fullerene derivatives.

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Fundamentals of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells

Mechanism of Photoelectric Conversion in
Organic Thin Film Solar Cells
This section describes how organic thin film solar cells convert solar
energy into electrical energy. The photoelectric conversion mechanism inorganic thin film solar cells is shown using a typical example of a p-n typedevice in Figure 5. Incident light reaching an organic thin film solar cell
is absorbed chiefly by electron donor molecules, which are excited andproduce excitons. These excitons diffuse to the interface between theelectron donor and the electron acceptor, where electrons flow from theelectron donor to the electron acceptor to form a charge separation state.
In other words, the electron donor turns into cations (holes) by providing
electrons for the electron acceptor, whereas the electron acceptor
becomes anions by receiving those electrons. The holes flow toward thetransparent electrode substrate, the electrons flow toward the counterelectrode, and thus, the solar cell provides a current for an external circuit.

CathodeElectron
acceptor
Electron
donor
Anode
1. Light absorption
Exciton generation

2. Exciton
diffusion

3. Electrontransfer
Chargeseparation

4. Chargetransport
5. Chargecollection

Figure 5. Mechanism for photoelectric conversion in organic thin film solar cells.

The mechanism for this photoelectric conversion can also be describedby using an energy diagram (Figure 6). An electron donor molecule isexcited to induce an electron present in the HOMO to rise to the LUMO;
the electron flows downward in the energy diagram smoothly without
encountering any barrier. Since the LUMO of the electron acceptor canaccommodate an electron more stably, the raised electron transfers fromthe LUMO of the electron donor to the LUMO of the electron acceptor
to form a charge separation state. In this state, the HOMO of the electron
donor has a vacancy (which means that a hole is present), and the LUMO
of the electron acceptor is occupied by an electron. The former is a radical
cation, and the latter is a radical anion.
At this point, a larger HOMO-LUMO gap between the HOMO of the electron
donor and the LUMO of the electron acceptor tends to produce a higher Vocof the organic thin film solar cell. However, if the LUMO levels of the electron
donor and electron acceptor are too close, it makes it difficult to form
sufficient charge separation. At this stage, a difference in the order of 0.2 to
0.3 eV is required. A hole moves upward in the energy diagram smoothly
without encountering any barrier, flowing from an electron donor moleculeto the indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode, whereas an electron is collected by
the aluminum electrode. Light induces electrons to flow within the solar cellfrom the ITO electrode with a high work function to the aluminum electrodewith a low work function, enabling the solar cell to provide a current for an
external circuit.

Electron donor

3.0Electron acceptor

3.2

3.3

LUMO

3.7

3.8

hv

4.0

4.2

SiMe2PhSiMe2Ph

4.8

5.0

ITO

5.0

4.9 HOMO

4.3

Al

C60
PCBM
SIMEF
(1,4-adduct) (1,2-adduct)BP
P3HT
Figure 6. Energy diagram of organic thin film solar cell.

Example of Strategy for Improving Power
Conversion Efficiency
Improvement of several factors contributes to an increase in power
conversion efficiency. In this section, two areas for improvement are
taken as examples from the point of view of material development.
One of them is development of electron acceptor materials. Organic
semiconductors have π-conjugated systems as their fundamental
framework. Many of the π-conjugated compounds that hold
π-conjugated planes possess a large number of π-electrons and usually
act as electron donors. Almost all of the π-conjugated compounds
obtained by expanding conjugated systems may become electron
donors. This characteristic gives us the ability to tune a number ofproperties, so research on these materials has been advancing. On theother hand, to obtain an electron acceptor, the energy level must be
modified by bending π-conjugated systems or reducing π-electron
density with the aid of electron-withdrawing groups. Fullerenes, whichhave π-conjugated systems that are bent and connected to form closed
spherical shapes, are optimal as electron acceptors. Fullerene C60 itself
is disadvantaged in that it takes only low voltage because its electron
affinity is too high. Accordingly, fullerene derivatives obtained bychemical synthesis in which organic groups are attached to fullerenes
are used for organic thin film solar cells. However, selective chemical
modification of fullerenes is not easy, and it is costly to separate a desired
fullerene product from a given mixture to highly purify it. In fact, typically
only PCBMs are used as electron acceptors in this research field at thepresent, providing only limited choices. Another area for improvement
is construction of the structure between the electron donors andelectron acceptors. Currently, the method of constructing a bulk
heterojunction by spin coating a blend solution of an electron donor andan electron acceptor is frequently applied for depositing two materials
in an organic thin film (Figure 7). However, it is difficult to fabricate thedesired structure by using this method, and directing our efforts into
constructing ideal phase separation structures has become increasingly
important. A structure in which electron donors and electron acceptors
are incorporated alternately (Figure 7) is thought to be optimal for charge
separation and charge transfer.
Alorganic
V semiconductor
Metal
Glass
Single Layer

V

Al
Acceptor

Donor
ITO
Glass
p-n
Heterojunction

Al

Al

Acceptor

V

V

ITO
Glass
Bulk
Heterojunction

Donor
ITO
Glass
Interpenetrating
Junction

Figure 7. Various device structures of organic thin film solar cells.

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Process of Synthesizing Fullerene Derivatives

Procedure for Synthesis of Methyl 4-Benzoylbutyratep-Tosylhydrazone

The opto-electronic function of fullerene derivatives is brought about by
the π-conjugated systems that are bound to the fullerene frameworks.
The shape of π-conjugated systems changes depending on the number
and positions of organic groups that are added to the fullerenes. In otherwords, the development of a process for introducing the desired numberof organic groups at the desired positions would make it possible todesign π-conjugated system structures that optimize the opto-electric
function. Based on such ideas, a variety of fullerene derivatives with various
π-conjugated systems have been synthesized (Figure 8). This chapter
describes the methods for synthesizing typical fullerene derivatives.

Methyl 4-benzoylbutyrate (20.6 g, 0.1 mol) and p-toluenesulfonyl­
hydrazide (22.3 g, 1.2 equiv; Aldrich Prod. No. 132004) are heated toreflux in methanol (70 mL) for 5.5 hours. Subsequently, the reaction
mixture is left without heating for one day and then cooled to −15 °C.
The mixture is filtrated to obtain the resulting crystal, which is thenrinsed in a small amount of cooled methanol. Finally, the crystal is driedin a desiccator, and 35.9 g of the product is obtained as a white crystal(yield: 96%).

C60

PCBM

SIMEF

fulleropyrrolidine

penta-adduct

PCBNB

fulleropyrrolidine

penta-adduct[70]PCBM

fulleropyrrolidine

Bis[60]PCBM

malonate

penta-adductcarboxylic acidmetal complex

Figure 8. Various fullerene derivatives.

Synthesis of PCBM
[60]PCBM (Phenyl C61-Butyric acid Methyl ester, Aldrich Prod. Nos. 684457,
684449, and 684430) is the most frequently used electron acceptor.
Tosylhydrazone, which is storable, is synthesized in advance and usedin the reaction with C60 (Figure 9). In the reaction of synthesizing PCBM,
a base abstracts hydrogen atoms to produce diazoalkane PhC(=N2)
CH2CH2CH2CO2Me, which is decomposed to generate carbene. This
carbene is added to C60 to produce a derivative. In the beginning,a [5,6] adduct forms as a kinetically obtained product. Heating thisproduct at a high temperature yields PCBM, a [6,6] adduct that is athermodynamic product usually used as an electron acceptor. The
following is the procedure for the reaction.11 Recently, the following
materials have also often been used: PCBMs with different lengths of alkyl
groups in their side chains; [70]-PCBM (Aldrich Prod. No. 684465), which
is a derivative of C70; and Bis[60]PCBM (Aldrich Prod. No. 704326), which
is known for producing a high open circuit voltage.

(2 eq.)
NaOMe (2 eq.)pyridine/1,2-Cl2C6H4
70 °C, 22 h

1,2-Cl2C6H4
180 °C, 2–7 h[5,6]PCBM[6,6]PCBM

Procedure for Synthesis of PCBM (in a nitrogen gas flow)
Methyl 4-benzoylbutyrate (1.50 g, 4 mmol) is put into a three-necked flask
equipped with a nitrogen gas inlet, a thermometer, and a magnetic stirrer
and dissolved in dried pyridine (30 mL). NaOMe (225 mg, 4.16 mmol) is
added to the mixture, and the mixture is stirred for 15 minutes. A solutionof C60 (1.44 g, 2 mmol; Aldrich Prod. No. 572500) in 1,2-dichlorobenzene(100 mL) is added to the mixture, and then the reaction is allowed toprogress in the mixture at a temperature of 65 to 75 °C for 22 hours.
The progress of the reaction can be followed by using a TLC plate (SiO2/
toluene). The reaction mixture is put into a round flask and condensed
under reduced pressure (about 0.1 mm Hg) until its total volume is
reduced to 70 mL. This solution is put into a silica gel column with amobile phase of toluene and then developed to batch off the product,
first with a mobile phase of chlorobenzene (100 mL) and subsequently
with a mobile phase of chlorobenzene-toluene solution with toluene
gradually increased. The first band is unreacted C60. The obtained solutionof the product undergoes vacuum concentration until its volume is
reduced to 20 mL, and then diethyl ether is added to the solution to
perform reprecipitation. The product is filtrated to obtain the purified
solid, which is then rinsed in a small amount of diethyl ether. Finally, thesolid is dried at 70 °C under reduced pressure, and 837 mg of PCBM is
obtained (yield: 58%). The product thereby obtained is a [5,6] adduct.
The product is dissolved into 1,2-dichlorobenzene (concentration: 1.5
to 10 mg/mL) and then heated to reflux at 180 °C for 2 to 7 hours toisomerize it, yielding PCBM, a [6,6] with a yield of 98%.

Synthesis of SIMEF
SIMEF is a possible substitute for PCBM as an electron acceptor.26, 27
This section describes the characteristics of SIMEF and a method forsynthesizing it. We developed a fullerene derivative C60(CH2SiMe2R)2(where R can be various organic groups; Figure 11) with two
substituted silylmethyl groups. This fullerene derivative has the following
characteristics: (a) electronic characteristics that produce high voltage;(b) a packing structure consisting of aligned fullerenes that are able
to produce large current; and (c) a thermal crystallization behavior
that enables crystallization in thin films. For easier pronunciation, we
named this series of fullerene derivatives with silylmethyl groups SIMEF(sai-mef ), an abbreviation of silylmethylfullerene. In particular, a simple
representation of SIMEF refers to a bis-phenyl derivative C60(CH2SiMe2Ph)2
useful as a standard material for electron acceptors. Substituents on
the silicon atoms can be easily replaced in SIMEF. This is because theformation of carbon–silicon bonds is easier than that of carbon–carbon
bonds in synthetic organic chemistry. This gives SIMEF its versatility,
enabling precise design of the packing structure and electronic
characteristics.

Figure 9. Synthesis of PCBM.

4

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Fundamentals of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells

SIMEF, which possesses 1,4-type 58 π-electron systems, has a higher
LUMO level and so affords a high open circuit voltage compared to PCBM,
which possesses 1,2-type 58 π-conjugated systems (Figure 6). In addition,
the thermal crystallization behavior of SIMEF is especially important.
SIMEF is transformed at 150 °C from an amorphous solid to a crystalline
solid that reflects X-ray diffraction measurement. In this crystalline solid,
C60 parts in SIMEF are aligned in straight columnar arrays (Figure 10).
This structural change can be regarded as a kind of phase separation. In
other words, C60 parts have a tendency to aggregate with one another,and organic groups in the side chains aggregate with one another, sothat such a structure forms. The pores of the distorted honeycomb-likehexagonal lattice formed by C60 parts are occupied by organic groups.
It is thought that this structure enables electrons to efficiently flow into
the aligned C60 parts. SIMEF exhibits relatively high mobility as an n-typeorganic semiconductor: 5.8 × 10−2 cm2/Vs (FET; field-effect transistor) and
8.0 × 10−3 cm2/Vs (SCLC; space-charge limited current).

Procedure for Synthesis of Mono-adduct C60(CH2SiMe2Ph)H

C60 (2.00 g, 2.78 mmol), N,N-dimethylformamide (6.45 mL, 83.3 mmol),and 1,2-dichlorobenzene (500 mL) are put into a 1 L three-necked flask
under a nitrogen atmosphere. A THF solution of PhMe2SiCH2MgCl (0.85 M,
9.80 mL, 8.33 mmol) is dropped into this mixture at 25 °C. The mixture isstirred for 10 minutes, and then saturated ammonium chloride aqueous
solution (1.0 mL) is added to the mixture to terminate the reaction.
After the solvent is distilled away under reduced pressure, the residue isdissolved in toluene (200 mL), and then this solution is filtrated with asilica gel short column to remove insoluble matter. The filtrate undergoes
vacuum concentration in an evaporator until its volume is reduced
to about 5 to 10 mL, and then methanol (100 to 200 mL) is added to
the filtrate to perform reprecipitation. After preparative HPLC isolationand purification (Buckyprep column; toluene/2-propanol = 7/3) of theresulting brown powder, the analytically pure target product is obtainedin 82% yield (1.99 g, 2.28 mmol).

Procedure for Synthesis of Bis-adduct C60(CH2SiMe2Ph)2 (SIMEF)

Figure 10. Crystal packing structure of SIMEF.

SIMEF is synthesized by nucleophilic addition reaction of fullerenes with
nucleophilic reagents and the nucleophilic substitution reaction between
fullerene anions and alkyl halides (Figure 11).26 At first glance, the key
addition reaction of organometallic reagents to fullerenes seems simple,
but in fact it is not. This is because electron transfer occurs between a
RC60- and a starting material C60 present in the system. In the course of
pursuing a highly efficient mono-addition reaction, we discovered thefact that the silylmethyl anion is an excellent carbon nucleophile in the
nucleophilic addition reaction with fullerenes and that the additionof dimethylformamide (DMF) remarkably accelerates this nucleophilic
addition reaction. By using this discovery, we developed a highly efficient
reaction to produce mono-adducts. We think that the efficiency of thisreaction is enhanced by the following two processes. DMF coordinates
to magnesium atoms in the Grignard reagent to improve the reactivity of
the Grignard reagent. DMF coordinates further to magnesium atoms in
the intermediate complex, MgC60 to stabilize it.

R1Me2SiCH2MgCl(3 eq)DMF (30 eq)

R2Me2SiCH2I
PhCN
up to 93%

Synthesis of Fulleropyrrolidine
Fulleropyrrolidine,28 a compound that was reported soon after the
research on the synthesis of fullerene derivatives had started, issometimes used in organic thin film solar cells. Its synthesis is easy
and can be produced by using readily available starting materials,
commercially-produced N-methylglycine (Aldrich Prod. No. 131776) andparaformaldehyde. The reaction between the two starting compounds
generates a five-membered lactone, which is then decomposed byheating into azomethine ylide, a 1,3-dipole compound (Figure 12). Thisazomethine ylide is added to a fullerene to produce fulleropyrrolidine.
In the actual reaction, C60, N-methylglycine, and paraformaldehyde areheated in toluene for 2 hours to reflux.

H+

1,2-Cl2C6H4
25 °C
5–10 minup to 93%

KOtBu

C60(CH2SiMe2Ph)H (1.02 g, 1.17 mmol) is dissolved in benzonitrile under
nitrogen. A THF solution of potassium t-butoxide (1.0 M, 1.41 mL,
1.41 mmol; Aldrich Prod. No. 328650) is dropped into the solution at
25 °C. After the solution is stirred for 10 minutes, PhMe2SiCH2Cl (4.23 mL,
23.4 mmol) and potassium iodide (23.4 mmol; Aldrich Prod. No. 429422)
are added to the solution. The solution is stirred at 110 °C for 17 hours,
and then cooled to room temperature. After the solvent is distilled away
in reduced pressure, the residue is dissolved in toluene (100 mL), and thenfiltrated with a silica gel short column to remove insoluble matter. After
vacuum concentration of the filtrate in an evaporator until its volume
is reduced to about 2 to 5 mL, methanol (50 to 100 mL) is added to thefiltrate to perform reprecipitation. The resulting dark brown powder
is subjected to silica gel column chromatography (carbon disulfide/hexane = 1/1 to 1/5) or HPLC preparative isolation and purification(Buckyprep column; toluene/2-propanol = 7/3), so that the analyticallypure target product is obtained as a black solid in 76% yield (0.906 g,
0.889 mmol).

HOOC

NHMe

N-methylglycine

R1,R2 = Ph,Ph (SIMEF)
Me,Ph (SIMEF-Me,Ph)
Me,Me (SIMEF-Me,Me)
Me, hexyl
Ph, hexyl, etc.

Azomethine ylide

C60 + MeHN COOH + HCHO
toluene(1.0 eq)(2.0 eq)(5.0 eq) 110 °C, 120 min
Fulleropyrrolidine

Figure 11. Synthesis of SIMEF.
Figure 12. Synthesis of fulleropyrrolidine.

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5aldrich.com/matsci

Method for Fabricating Organic Thin Film
Solar Cells
This section describes a procedure for fabricating a typical organic thinfilm solar cell, a bulk heterojunction device (Figure 13) using P3HT and
PCBM. This device, a standard building block of today’s solar cell products,
is fabricated by using a coating process; its anode is a transparent
electrode substrate consisting of glass on which ITO is deposited, and its
hole transport layer is made of PEDOT:PSS. Figure 14 shows the flowchartof the procedure for fabricating the device.
Donor

1. The ITO glass substrate surface is immersed in a solution obtainedby diluting a commercially available neutral detergent for organic
EL substrates with about 20 parts of ultrapure water and cleaned(10 minutes) using ultrasonic treatment.
2. The substrate surface is rinsed with ultrapure water for 3 minutes
and then cleaned in ultrapure water (10 minutes) using ultrasonictreatment.
3. The substrate surface is rinsed with ultrapure water for 3 minutes
again and then undergoes air drying.
4. The substrate undergoes UV ozonation (3 minutes).
Area developed into device(red-colored area)

Acceptor

2.0 mmAl (80 nm)
Photoelectric Conversion
Layer (150 nm)

PCBM

Hole Transport Layer (30 nm)
ITO (80 nm)

Al electrode(dotted line area)

P3HT

ITO

ITO

Glass Substrate

PEDOT:PSS

SIMEF

Figure 13. Device structure of Glass/ITO/PEDOT:PSS/P3HT:Acceptor/Al.

Patterned ITO Substrate

Solution Coating

Substrate Cleaning (Under Atmospheric Conditions)Cleaning (neutral detergent, ultrasonic treatment)
Rinsing (ultrapure water, ultrasonic treatment)
Air drying
UV ozonation
PEDOT:PSS Film Formation (Under Atmospheric Conditions)
Spin coat application of PEDOT:PSS solution (1,500 to 3,000 rpm)
Removing PEDOT:PSS on area that is not developed into device
Baking (120 °C, 10 minutes)
Active Layer Film Formation (Under Nitrogen)Weighing P3HT and fullerene derivative and dissolving them in solvent
Heating of substrate (120 °C, 10 minutes) and standing to cool
Spin coat application of active layer solution (1,500 rpm)
Removing active layer on area that is not developed into device
Annealing (150 °C, 20 minutes)
Aluminum Electrode Deposition (Under Vacuum)
Sealing (Under Nitrogen)

Organic Thin Film Solar Cell
Figure 14. Flowchart of procedure for fabricating device.

Procedure for Fabricating Devices
Substrate Cleaning
ITO glass substrates with low surface resistance (about 10 Ω/sheet) for
organic electroluminescence devices and solar cells are commerciallyavailable (aldrich.com/substrates). To form a photoelectric conversion
layer on the substrates, which enables devices to function without a shortcircuit, it is desirable that their surfaces be as flat as possible (averagesurface roughness: Ra <1 nm). The choice of substrate size varies, we used
ITO glass slides (75 mm long, 25 mm wide, and 0.7 mm thick). The ITO
had undergone patterning, so that the 2 mm × 2 mm device area has anelectrode leading portion. Figure 15 shows an example of patterning.

6

Figure 15. Example of ITO Patterning: constructing multiple patterns of this type on one
substrate enables multiple devices to be simultaneously fabricated under the same conditions.

The thickness of films obtained by the film formation depends upon thesize of substrate used, the rotary speed of coaters, and the viscosity andboiling point, which depend on solvent used. The thickness of thin films
formed under the same conditions as those of devices is evaluated. A
stylus profile measuring system (Dektak) enables the film thickness in thesolid state to be precisely measured. AFM may be substituted for Dektak.
The presence of insoluble elements and coagulation after the preparationof the solution results in defects in the formed film. Accordingly, it isessential to use filtration in advance to remove foreign matter from thesolution. The filter used must be made of a material suitable for thesolvent used (a material for water medium or for organic solvent) andhave a pore diameter of about 0.45 μm.
1. Solution Coating of PEDOT:PSS
PEDOT:PSS is an aqueous dispersion where polystyrene sulfonate (PSS)
is doped into poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) to regulate
ionization potential. In addition, PSS consists of colloidal nanoparticles
with a diameter of 30 nm, so that application of its aqueous dispersion
produces PEDOT:PSS layers with flat surfaces.
ITO glass is fixed on a spin coater, and several drops of PEDOT:PSS
aqueous dispersion (Aldrich Prod. No. 560596) are put on it andspread across the glass surface. Subsequently, spin coating is
conducted at 1,500 to 3,000 rpm to form a PEDOT:PSS thin film with athickness of 30 to 40 nm.
After the film formation, PEDOT:PSS in locations other thanphotoelectric conversion area is wiped off according to the ITO
pattern by using a cotton swab or a spatula with a Kimwipes® wipe
wrapped around it. Subsequently, the ITO glass undergoes heating
treatment at 120 °C for 10 minutes to dry it. The above steps arefollowed under atmospheric conditions, and then the substrate is put
under nitrogen in a glove box.

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Fundamentals of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells

Deposition of Aluminum ElectrodeA deposition boat (molybdenum) on which aluminum is placed is put
into a vacuum deposition apparatus connected to the glove box. The
vacuum deposition apparatus is evacuated and then put under nitrogen,and subsequently the substrate is transferred from the glove box to thedeposition chamber. Since the deposition chamber is connected with theglove box under nitrogen, the substrate can be placed in the depositionchamber completely without being exposed to the atmosphere. An
electric current is applied to the deposition source under vacuum (upto 10−4 Pa) to heat the source, and an aluminum electrode is depositedwhile the deposition rate is controlled to be about 1 to 10 Å/s by using
a quartz resonator thickness monitor that has undergone tooling until
its thickness reaches 80 nm. Finally, nitrogen is injected in the depositionchamber, and the substrate is transferred to the glove box to be heatedon the hot plate in the glove box for annealing.

Sealing
To prevent the device fabricated in the above manner from being
exposed to the atmosphere, it is sealed by using a compact dispenser
robot installed in the glove box. UV photo-setting resin is applied to thesealing glass, which is then added to the substrate. The resin-applied
region is irradiated with UV light to adhere the sealing glass to thesubstrate in order to seal the device. The device characteristics of devices
fabricated in this way can be evaluated under atmospheric conditions.

Evaluation of Device Characteristics
Measurement of current with voltage applied obtained from the device
irradiated with light gives the following values: open-circuit voltage Voc(V); short-circuit current density Jsc (mA/cm2); fill factor FF (-); and power
conversion efficiency PCE (%). Short-circuit current density must be
commuted into the value per unit area where incident light is converted
to electricity. A J-V curve and the relationship between the open-circuit
voltage, the short-circuit current density, and the fill factor revealed
from the measurement are shown below (Figure 16). The short-circuitcurrent density is the current density that is obtained with no bias
voltage applied. After this point, the open-circuit voltage is the voltage
at which the current finally stops flowing when voltage is applied andincreased in the direction opposing the current. There is a point where
the product between current and voltage, that is, the output power,
reaches its maximum on the segment of the J-V curve between the
point representing the short-circuit current density Jsc and the point
representing the open-circuit voltage Voc.
Voltage for
maximum
output, Vmax

2

Current density
for maximum
output, Jmax

Current density (mA/cm2)

2. Solution Coating of Photoelectric Conversion Layer
Poly 3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) (Aldrich Prod. No. 698997; Mn 30,000–
60,000) (15 mg) to be used as an electron donor, and PCBM (Aldrich
Prod. No. 684457) (12 mg), to be used as an electron acceptor, areput into an amber vial in which chlorobenzene (1.0 mL) is then added
to dissolve the two substances. Thus, a blend solution composedof about 1.25 wt% of P3HT and about 1.0 wt% of PCBM is prepared.
This preparation may be conducted quickly outside the glove box,
but after preparation, the vial must be put into the glove box under
nitrogen and uncapped for nitrogen substitution.
The PEDOT:PSS-coated ITO glass substrate is heated at 180 °C for
5 minutes on a hot plate placed in the glove box for further drying
and the elimination of oxygen. The substrate is fixed on a spin coater
placed in the glove box. A P3HT:PCBM blend solution is filtered witha syringe filter (made of PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) and with apore diameter of 0.45 μm) and put on the substrate to be spread byspin coating. A blend solution of this composition produces a thinfilm for a photoelectric conversion layer with a thickness of about
150 nm at a spin coating rotary speed of 1,500 rpm. At this point, thephotoelectric layer is removed from the substrate in locations otherthan photoelectric conversion area.
If necessary, the substrate with the organic thin film is annealed.
Annealing induces π-π stacking of thiophene frameworks between
polymer chains in the π-conjugated polymer, so that the opticalabsorption and hole drift mobility properties are improved. Annealing
treatments for such self-organization of polymers include heat
treatment (thermal annealing) and solvent exposure treatment(solvent annealing). Although in heat treatment, self-organization
progresses in a short time, the aggregation of fullerene derivatives
occurs simultaneously and can interfere with the self-organization ofpolymers. On the other hand, solvent exposure treatment does not
induce aggregation because the treatment is performed at room
temperature; therefore, annealing takes longer compared with heat
treatment. We conducted heat treatment (150 °C, 20 minutes) after
deposition of the aluminum electrode.

0Open-circuit
voltage, Voc–2–4

Maximum
output point[mW/cm2]

–6
–8
–10
–12
–0.2

Short-circuitcurrent density, Jsc

0

0.2

0.4
0.6
Voltage (V)

0.8

1.0

Ideal
maximum
output[mW/cm2]

Figure 16. J-V curve and relationship between open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current density,and fill factor.

The current density and voltage at the maximum output are represented
by Jmax and Vmax, respectively. The fill factor FF satisfies the following
relationship.
FF = (Jmax × Vmax) / (Jsc × Voc)
In other words, FF is given by dividing the actual maximum output by theideal maximum output (Jsc × Voc), which means that the characteristic isbetter when FF is closer to unity. Since the power conversion efficiency(PCE) is given by dividing the obtained electric energy (electric power) by
the optical energy of incident light, the following equation holds whenthe energy of incident light is expressed as Pinc.
PCE (%) = {(Jmax × Vmax) / Pinc} × 100
Evaluation during measurement is often done using a light sourceof 100 mW/cm2. In this case, Pinc = 100, so that the following simple
equation holds.
PCE (%) = Jmax × Vmax = Voc × Jsc × FF
In evaluation, we used incident solar-simulated light (AM 1.5 G)(100 mW/cm2) from a solar simulator equipped with an air mass filter. The
thickness of the atmosphere through which equatorial sunlight passes
from directly above is regarded as AM 1.0, and at the latitude of Japanand nearby regions, sunlight is assumed to reach the ground after passing
through atmosphere that is 1.5 times as thick. The J-V characteristic
was measured with a sourcemeter unit (Keithley 2400 or similar). This
sourcemeter unit may be substituted by a potentiostat (Hokuto Denko
Corporation HZ-5000 or similar) used for electrochemical measurement,such as cyclic voltammetry (CV), and the results can be evaluated bylinear sweep voltammetry (LSV).

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7

aldrich.com/matsci

According to the Japanese Industrial Standard JISC8931 (secondaryreference amorphous solar cells), the amount of incident light iscalibrated by using a standard solar cell. Thus, the light source used
for the solar simulator is supposed to be calibrated by using a solar
cell exhibiting a spectral characteristic similar to that of the solar cellto be evaluated. No reference cell for organic thin film solar cells iscommercially available. Therefore, we evaluated the device performanceby using a reference cell (Bunkoukeiki Co., Ltd. BS-520, a detector for
amorphous silicon solar cells) to adjust the intensity of light from a lightsource lamp.

Actual Example of Device Characteristics
This section describes the characteristics of devices fabricated inaccordance with the above manner, with P3HT used as the electron
donor and PCBM or SIMEF used as the electron acceptor. The resultsof evaluating organic thin film solar cells using two different electron
acceptors shows that the device using SIMEF produces higher Voc(Figure 17), which reflects the characteristics of its higher LUMO level.
Generally, Jsc declines for higher Voc; there often exists a trade-off between
Voc and Jsc. However, the device using SIMEF successfully increased
Voc without reducing Jsc. This is because of the ideal packing structureof SIMEF.
15

Current Density [mA/cm2]Voc
acceptor [V]

10

PCBM
SIMEF

0.58
0.65

Jsc
[mA/cm2]

8.9
9.0

FF
[–]
0.61
0.62

PCE
[%]
3.2
3.6

5
0
–5

–10
–0.2

0

0.2

0.4

Applied Voltage [V]

0.6

0.8

Figure 17. Device characteristics and J-V curve of organic thin film solar cell:
Solid lines: Photocurrent
Dotted lines: Dark current
Red lines: PCBMBlue lines: SIMEF

There was no significant difference between the spectral sensitivity
characteristics of the two devices (Figure 18), which accords with the factthat there was almost no difference in their short-circuit current density.
Although the device using SIMEF showed a slightly higher IPCE, at around450 nm, this was due to absorption by the fullerene derivative, that is,
SIMEF. PCBM is a fullerene derivative with 1,2-type 58 π-electron systems,
whereas SIMEF is a fullerene derivative with 1,4-type 58 π-electron
systems; 1,4-adduct compounds absorb light at wavelengths near
450 nm.

8

60
50
40

IPCE [%]In addition, spectral sensitivity in a wavelength region ranging from 350
to 750 nm was measured by irradiating the device with monochromatic
light from a spectroscope in the presence of bias light. The spectral
sensitivity represents the ratio of the number of photons converted toelectrons flowing through an external circuit to that of incident photons
at each wavelength of light. To obtain the spectral sensitivity, thephotoelectric current of the device was measured while the wavelengthof the incident light was varied continuously.

30
20
10
0
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

Wavelength [nm]Figure 18. Spectral sensitivity spectra of organic thin film solar cells (IPCE: Incident Photon to
Current Conversion Efficiency):
Red line: PCBMBlue line: SIMEF

Conclusion
Organic thin film solar cells are made of organic compounds andcharacteristically form lightweight flexible solar cell products and canbe print processed. These advantages enable us to design practicalapplications for them that are difficult to implement using silicon solar
cells. Some have proposed applications such as mobile and outdoor
battery chargers, indoor power generators, and specially designed
building materials, although these are niche applications. As use oforganic thin film solar cells spreads from a narrow niche field to the wider
world and their conversion efficiency further improves, they will become
applied to photovoltaic power generation for solving energy issues. The
following challenges remain for widespread implementation of long-lifehighly efficient organic thin film solar cells.
1. Development of organic semiconductor materials that enable highly
efficient light absorption and electron transfer
2. Construction of optimized molecular assembly and organization
structures in organic thin films
3. Elucidation and precise construction of device structures that willproduce highly efficient photoelectric conversion
4. Development of wide-area continuous coating processes for printing
organic semiconductor molecules, such as roll-to-roll slot-dye coating,gravure printing, and ink-jet printing
5. Development of an inexpensive sealing process for high barrier
properties

Acknowledgments
Some of the organic thin film solar cell data in this article were obtainedin the ERATO Nakamura Functional Carbon Cluster Project of the Japan
Science and Technology Agency. I am deeply grateful to Professor Eiichi
Nakamura and Dr. Yoshiharu Sato, my collaborators in the Project. I am
also very grateful to Mr. Naoki Obata for help in writing this article. The
FET mobility of SIMEF in this article has been measured by Professor
Zhenan Bao of Stanford University. I am grateful to Mitsubishi Chemical
Corporation for supporting the foundation of the photoelectric
conversion chemistry laboratory in School of Science of the Universityof Tokyo.

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Fundamentals of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells

References
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H. W. Kroto, J. R. Heath, S. C. O’Brien, R. F. Curl, R. E. Smalley, Nature 1985, 318, 162.
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W. Kretschmer, L. Lamb, K. Fostiropoulos, D. Huffman, Nature 1990, 347, 354.
N. S. Sariciftci, L. Smilowitz, A. J. Heeger, F. Wudl, Science 1992, 285, 1474.
S. Morita, A. A. Zakhidov, K. Yoshino, Solid State Commun. 1992, 82, 249.
C. J. Brabec, G. Zerza, G. Cerullo, S. De Silvestri, S. Luzzatti, J. C. Hummelen, N. S. Sariciftci,
Chem. Phys. Lett. 2001, 340, 232.
(10) G. Yu, J. Gao, J, C. Hummelen, F. Wudl, A. J. Heeger, Science 1995, 270, 1789.
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(12) P. Schilinsky, C. Waldauf, C. J. Brabec, Appl. Phys. Lett. 2002, 81, 3885.
(13) F. Padinger, F. R. S. Rittberger, N. S. Sariciftci, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2003, 13, 85.
(14) G. Li, V. Shrotriya, J. Huang, Y. Yao, T. Moriarty, K. Emery, Y. Yang, Nat. Mater. 2005, 4, 864.
(15) M. Reyes-Reyes, K. Kim, D. L. Carroll, Appl. Phys. Lett. 2005, 87, 83506.
(16) Y. Kim, S. Cook, S. M. Tuladhar, S. A. Choulis, J. Nelson, J. R. Durrant, D. D. C. Bradley, M. Giles,
I. McCulloch, C.-S. Ha, M. Ree, Nat. Mater. 2006, 5, 197.
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2006, 18, 2884.
(18) J. Peet, J. Y. Kim, N. E. Coates, W. L. Ma, D. Moses, A. J. Heeger, G. C. Bazan, Nat. Mater. 2007,
6, 497.
(19) J. Hou, H.-Y. Chen, S. Zhang, G. Li, Y. Yang, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 16144.
(20) Y. He, H.-Y. Chen, J. Hou, Y. Li, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132, 1377.
(21) Y. He, G. Zhao, B. Peng, Y. Li, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2010, 20, 3383.
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PRODUCT HIGHLIGHT

Transparent Conductive Substrates
ITO Coated Slide
Thickness: 1.1 mm, surface resistivity: 8–12 Ω/sq
rectangular (75 × 25 mm)

578274-10PAK578274-25PAK

square (25 × 25 mm)

703192-10PAK

Indium Oxide-coated PET Slide
Thickness: 0.2 mm, surface resistivity: 10 Ω/sq
square (150 × 150 mm)

700177-5PAK700177-10PAKFor a variety of substrates available from Sigma-Aldrich, visit
sigma-aldrich.com/organicelectronics

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9aldrich.com/matsci

P-type Organic Semiconductors
P-type Small Molecules
Structure
H3C
S N
N
CH3(CH2)4CH2

H3C

S N
N
CH3(CH2)4CH2

S

F
H3C

S

S

S

S

S

N

S

CN

S
N

PurityProd. No.

-772380-100MG

DTS(PTTh2)2

λmax 655 nm in chloroform-

772372-100MG

2-{[7-(5-N,N-Ditolylaminothiophen2-yl)-2,1,3-benzothiadiazol-4-yl]
methylene}malononitrile

λabs 662–664 nm in dichloromethane

99%, HPLC

777293-250MG

2-[7-(4-Diphenylaminophenyl)2,1,3-benzothiadiazol-4-yl]
methylene­propanedinitrile

λmax 549 nm in dichloromethane

96%790524-100MG

2-[(7-{4-[N,N-Bis(4-methylphenyl)amino]phenyl}-2,1,3-benzothiadiazol4-yl)methylene]propanedinitrile

λabs 570 nm in dichloromethane

97%, HPLC

777048-500MG

SMDPPEH

λabs 644 nm in methylene
chloride~10−4 cm2/V·s

97%, HPLC

753912-250MG

SMDPPOλabs 644 nm in methylene
chloride-753920-250MG

2,4-Bis[4-(N,N-diphenylamino)2,6-dihydroxyphenyl]squaraine

λmax 720 nm

98%757233-1G

2,4-Bis[4-(N,N-dibenzylamino)2,6-dihydroxyphenyl]squaraine

λmax 640-646 nm in chloroform

97%757268-1G

CH2(CH2)4CH3

CN

H3C
N

Optical Properties/Mobility
λmax 590 nm in chloroform

CH2(CH2)4CH3

CH3
CH3
N S
N

Si

N

S

S

F

H3C

Name
DTS(FBTTh2)2

CH3
N S
N

Si
S

S

S

CH3

N

S

CH3
CN
CN
N
S
N

N

CN
CN
N
N

S

N
H3C

CH3
CH 3

CH 3
O
N
C 6 H 13

S

S

S

S

S

S

C 6 H 13

N
O

H 3C

H 3C

CH3(CH2)6CH2
O
CH3(CH2)4CH2

S

S

S

OH

O

HO

CH2(CH2)4CH3

N

O

HO

OH

O

HO

2+
OH

S

O
N
CH2(CH2)6CH3

OH

N

S

S

2+

N

10

N

O

N
HO

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Fundamentals of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells

Structure
O

OH

H3C
H3C

2+

N
H3C

HO H3CCH3 OH

CH3
N

Optical Properties/Mobility

PurityProd. No.

λmax 700 nm

97%758337-1G

Dinaphtho[2,3-b:2’,3’-f]thieno[3,2-b]
thiophene

2 cm2/V·s

99%, sublimed
grade

767638-100MG
767638-500MG

2,7-Diphenyl[1]benzothieno[3,2-b][1]benzothiophene

2 cm2/V·s

99%, sublimed
grade

767603-100MG
767603-500MG

C8-BTBT

5.5 cm2/V·s≥99%, HPLC

747092-100MG
747092-250MG

2,6-Diphenylbenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b’]dithiophene

4.6 × 10−3 cm2/V·s

97%, sublimed
grade

767611-100MG
767611-500MG

2,6-Ditolylbenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b’]dithiophene10−2 cm2/V·s

95%, sublimed
grade

767646-100MG
767646-500MG

Naphtho[1,2-b:5,6-b’]dithiophene>0.5 cm2/V·s

97%768677-500MG

ADT

0.3 cm2/V·s

97%754080-250MG

TES-ADT

1 cm2/V·s>99%, HPLC

754102-100MG

diF-TES-ADT

1 cm2/V·s

99%, HPLC

754099-100MG

5,5’-Di(4-biphenylyl)-2,2’-bithiophene

0.04 cm2/V·s

97%695947-1G

FTTF

0.3 cm2/V·s

sublimed grade

754056-250MG

DH-FTTF

0.05–0.12 cm2/V·s

95%754064-250MG

5,5’’’’-Bis(2’’’’’,2’’’’’-dicyanovinyl)2,2’:5’,2’’:5’’,2’’’:5’’’,2’’’’-quinquethiophene(DCV5T)λabs 530 nm in DMSO

≥97%745596-250MG

α-Sexithiophene

0.075 cm2/V·s-

594687-1G

5,5’’’’’-Dihexyl-2,2’:5’,2’’:5’’,2’’’:5’’’,2’’’’:5’’’’,2’’’’sexithiophene

0.13 cm2/V·s-

633216-500MG

CH3
CH3

HO

O

Name
2,4-Bis[4-(N,N-diisobutylamino)2,6-dihydroxyphenyl] squaraine

S
S

S
S
S
CH2(CH2)6CH3

CH3(CH2)6CH2
S
S
S
S

H3C

CH3

S
S

S
S
S

H 3C

Si

CH 3
CH 3

S
S

H 3C

CH 3

Si

CH 3
CH 3 CH 3
CH 3
Si

F

S

Si

H 3C
H 3C

CH 3

S

S

S

S

S

C 6 H 13

N C

C N

S
S

S

S
S
S
S

C N

S

S
S

S

C 6 H 13S

S

S

CH3(CH2)4CH2

S

S

N C

F

S

S
S

CH2(CH2)4CH3

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11aldrich.com/matsci

Structure

H3C
H3C

H3C
Si

Si
CH3

Name

Optical Properties/Mobility

PurityProd. No.

Pentacene

0.4–3 cm2/V·s≥99.995% trace
metals basis,
triple-sublimed
grade

698423-500MG

Pentacene

0.4–3 cm2/V·s≥99.9% trace
metals basis,
sublimed grade

684848-1G

Pentacene

0.4–3 cm2/V·s

99%

P1802-100MG
P1802-1G
P1802-5G

6,13-Diphenylpentacene

UV absorption 308 nm indichloromethane
8 × 10−5 cm2/V·s

98%760641-1G

6,13-Bis((triethylsilyl)ethynyl)
pentacene

10−5 cm2/V·s≥99%, HPLC

739278-100MG
739278-500MG

CH3
CH3

P-type Polymers
Structure
CH2(CH2)8CH3

Name

Molecular Weight

Optical Properties/Mobility

Prod. No.

PDPP2T-TT-OD

average Mw 40,000–60,000
by GPCλmax 820 nm

791989-100MG

PTB7

average Mw 80,000–200,000

λmax 680 nm

772410-100MGPBDTTT-CF

average Mw 53,000–83,000
by GPC

7×10−4 cm2/V·s

772402-100MG

Poly[(5,6-dihydro-5-octyl-4,6-dioxo4H-thieno[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,3-diyl)[4,8bis[(2-ethylhexyl)oxy]benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b’]dithiophene-2,6-diyl]]-

λmax 627 nm

773514-100MGPBDTBO-TPDO

average Mn 10,000–50,000

λabs 609, 557 nm in THF

777080-100MG

CH2(CH2)6CH3
N

S
O

O
S

S

N

n

S

CH3(CH2)6CH2
CH2(CH2)8CH3
H3C

CH3
O

S

S

S

H3C

O

n

O

S

F

CH3

H3C

O

H3C
CH3
CH3
O
S

S
S

F

S

CH3(CH2)5CH2

n

O
CH3

O
CH3
CH3

H3C
O

S

S

S

n

O

O

O
N
CH3 CH2(CH2)6CH3

H3C

C4H9

C6H13

O
S
O

12

S
S

N
O
C8H17

n

O
C4H9

C6H13

TO ORDER: Contact your local Sigma-Aldrich office or visit sigma-aldrich.com/order.

Fundamentals of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells

Structure
CH3

Name

Molecular Weight

Optical Properties/Mobility

Prod. No.

PBDT-TPD

average Mn 10,000–50,000

λmax 608 nm

776300-100MG

PBTTPDaverage Mn 3,500–20,000 g/mol

λmax 572 nm

745901-100MG

Poly[(9,9-dioctylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl)co-bithiophene]

average Mn >20,000

λem = 497 nm in chloroform(at Mn = 20,000)
5 × 10−3 cm2/V·s

685070-250MG

Poly[(9,9-di-n-octylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl)-alt(benzo[2,1,3]thiadiazol-4,8-diyl)]

average Mn 10,000–20,000

λem = 515‑535 nm inchloroform
4 × 10−3 cm2/V·s

698687-250MG

PFO-DBTaverage Mw 10,000–50,000

3 × 10−4 cm2/V·s

754013-100MG

PSiF-DBT

Mn 10,000–80,000

10−3 cm2/V·s

754021-100MG

PCDTBT-

λmax 576 nm
6×10−5 cm2/V·s

753998-100MG

PCPDTBTaverage Mw 7,000–20,000

λmax 700 nm
2×10−2 cm2/V·s

754005-100MG

PDTSTPD

average Mn 7,000–35,000
by GPCλmax 670 nm
1.0 x 10-4 cm2/V·s

745928-100MG

TQ1

Mn 12,000–45,000 g/mol

λmax 620 nm

745898-100MG

CH3
O
S

S
n

S

O

N

O

O

CH3

H3C
CH3

CH3
CH3
CH3
N

O

O

C12H25S

S

Sn

C12H25SmS

n

CH3(CH2)6CH2 CH2(CH2)6CH3

C8H17

n

C8H17

N

S

N

S

S
N

C 8 H 17 C 8 H 17

N

S

n
S

S

Si
N

C 8 H 17 C 8 H 17

N

S

n

S

N
C 8 H 17SN

C 8 H 17

S

S

n

S

N

H 3C

N

S

N

n

CH 3
CH 3

H 3C

H3C

H3C

CH3
Si

CH3

S
S

S

n

O

C8H17OON
C8H17
OC8H17NNSnFor questions, product data, or new product suggestions, contact us at matsci@sial.com.

13

aldrich.com/matsci

Structure
OCH3

RO

n

R= *

CH3

Name

Molecular Weight

Optical Properties/Mobility

Prod. No.

Poly[2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4phenylenevinylene]

average Mn 40,000–70,000

λem = 554 nm in toluene

541443-250MG
541443-1G

Poly[2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4phenylenevinylene]

average Mn 70,000–100,000

λem = 554 nm in toluene

541435-1G

Poly[2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4phenylenevinylene]

average Mn 150,000–250,000

λem = 554 nm in toluene

536512-1G

Poly[2-methoxy-5-(3’,7’-dimethyloctyloxy)-1,4phenylenevinylene]

Mn ~120,000

λem = 555 nm in toluene

546461-250MG
546461-1G

Poly[bis(4-phenyl)(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)amine]

average Mn 7,000–10,000 (GPC)10−3 - 10−2 cm2/V·s

702471-100MG
702471-1G

CH3
OCH3

n

O

CH3

CH3
CH3

CH3

H3C

CH3
N

n

Polythiophenes (PT)
Name

Structure

Regioregularity

Mol. Wt.

Prod. No.

CH3

regioregular

Mw 54,000 (typical)

495336-1GCH3

regiorandom-

511420-1G

CH 2 (CH 2 ) 4 CH 3

regioregularaverage Mn 54,000–75,000

698997-250MG
698997-1G
698997-5G

regioregularaverage Mn 15,000–45,000

698989-250MG
698989-1G
698989-5G

regioregular-

445703-1G

regiorandom-

510823-1G

regioregular

Mn ~34,000

445711-1G

regioregularaverage Mn ~25,000

682799-250MG

regioregularaverage Mn ~30,000
average Mw ~42,000

495344-1G

regioregularaverage Mw ~60,000

450650-1G

regioregularaverage Mw ~27,000

682780-250MG

Poly(3-butylthiophene-2,5-diyl)SnPoly(3-butylthiophene-2,5-diyl)S

Poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl)nSnPoly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl)

CH 2 (CH 2 ) 4 CH 3
SnPoly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl)

CH 2 (CH 2 ) 4 CH 3
SnPoly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl)

CH 2 (CH 2 ) 4 CH 3
SnPoly(3-octylthiophene-2,5-diyl)

CH 2 (CH 2 ) 6 CH 3
SnPoly(3-octylthiophene-2,5-diyl)

CH 2 (CH 2 ) 6 CH 3
SnPoly(3-decylthiophene-2,5-diyl)

CH2(CH2)8CH3
S

Poly(3-dodecylthiophene-2,5-diyl)nCH 2 (CH 2 ) 10 CH 3
SnPoly(3-dodecylthiophene-2,5-diyl)

CH 2 (CH 2 ) 10 CH 3
Sn14

TO ORDER: Contact your local Sigma-Aldrich office or visit sigma-aldrich.com/order.

Fundamentals of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells

Name

Structure

Poly(3-octylthiophene-2,5-diyl-co-3-decyloxythiophene-2,5-diyl)

CH2(CH2)6CH3
O CH2(CH2)8CH3
S

m

S

Mol. Wt.

Prod. No.

-

Mn 8,000
Mw 21,000

696897-250MG--

557625-1GnPoly(3-cyclohexylthiophene-2,5-diyl)

S

RegioregularitynN-type Organic Semiconductors
Fullerenes
Structure

Name

PurityProd. No.

[6,6]-Phenyl C71 butyric acid methyl ester, mixture of isomers

99%

684465-100MG
684465-500MG

O

70

OCH3

O
60

OCH3

D
D

[6,6]-Phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester>99.9%

684457-100MG[6,6]-Phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester>99.5%

684449-100MG
684449-500MG[6,6]-Phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester>99%684430-1G[6,6]-Pentadeuterophenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester

99.5%

684503-100MG[6.6] Diphenyl C62 bis(butyric acid methyl ester)(mixture of isomers)

99.5%

704326-100MG[6,6]-Phenyl-C61 butyric acid butyl ester>97%685321-100MG
685321-1G[6,6]-Phenyl-C61 butyric acid octyl ester≥99%684481-100MG[6,6]-Thienyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester≥99%688215-100MG

N-Methylfulleropyrrolidine

99%, HPLC

668184-100MG

Small gap fullerene-ethyl nipecotate≥95%, fullerenes 50%

707473-250MG

D
D
D

60
O

OCH3

O

60

OCH3

O
H3CO

O

60

O

CH3

O

60

OCH2(CH2)6CH3

S
60

O
OCH3

N CH3
60

N
60

O
O

CH3
x

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15

aldrich.com/matsci

Structure

OH
30

Name

PurityProd. No.

ICMA

97%, HPLC

753947-250MG

ICBA

99%, HPLC

753955-250MG

Polyhydroxy small gap fullerenes, hydrated

Polyhydroxy SGFs(TGA) ~ 85%707481-100MG• 30 H2O• 25 Na

N-type Small Molecules
Structure
F3C

N

S

Name

Optical Properties/Mobility

Purity/Dye Content

Prod. No.

2,2’-Bis[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-5,5’-bithiazole

1.83 cm2/V·s

97%749257-500MG

PI-BT

λmax 448 nm in THF>97%790893-250MG
790893-1G

4-(1,3-Dimethyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzoimidazol-2-yl)N,N-diphenylaniline

λabs 308 nm in dichloromethane

98%

763721-1G

4-(2,3-Dihydro-1,3-dimethyl-1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)N,N-dimethylbenzenamine-

98%, HPLC

776734-1G

5,5’’’-Bis(tridecafluorohexyl)-2,2’:5’,2‘‘:5’’,2’’’-quaterthiophene≤0.64 cm2/V·s-

764639-250MG
764639-1G

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8-Octafluoro-9,10-bis[4-(trifluoromethyl)
phenyl]anthracene-

97%757179-1G

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8-Octafluoro-9,10-bis[2-(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)ethynyl]anthracene-

97%758442-250MG

2,7-Dihexylbenzo[lmn][3,8]phenanthroline1,3,6,8(2H,7H)-tetrone

λabs 380, 360, 342 nm indichloro­methane
0.7 cm2/V·s-

768464-500MG

S

N

CF3

O
N CH2(CH2)4CH3
O
N
S
N
O
N CH2(CH2)4CH3
O
CH3
N

N

N
CH3
CH3
N

CH3
N
CH3

N
CH3
CF3(CF2)4CF2

S

S

S

S

CF2(CF2)4CF3

CF3

F

F

F

F

F

F
F

F

CF3
F

F

CH3

F

F

H3C

CH3

F

F

H3C

H3C

CH3

F
O
CH3(CH2)4CH2 N
O

16

F
O
N CH2(CH2)4CH3
O

TO ORDER: Contact your local Sigma-Aldrich office or visit sigma-aldrich.com/order.

Fundamentals of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells

Structure
O

O

N

N

O

O

O

O

H3C N

H3C

H3C

Name

Optical Properties/Mobility

Purity/Dye Content

Prod. No.

1,3,6,8(2H,7H)-Tetraone, 2,7-dicyclohexylbenzo[lmn][3,8]phenanthroline

λabs 382, 362, 243 nm inchloroform
6 cm2/V·s

98%761443-1G

N, N’-Dimethyl-3,4,9,10-perylenedicarboximide

λabs 522 nm in dichloro­methane
10-5 cm2/V·s

98%771481-1G
771481-5G

2,9-Dipropylanthra[2,1,9-def:6,5,10-d’e’f’]diisoquinoline-1,3,8,10(2H,9H)tetrone

λabs 524, 488 nm
0.1-2.1 cm2/V·s

97%771635-1G

N,N’-Bis(3-pentyl)perylene-3,4,9,10bis(dicarboximide)

λabs 524, 488, 457 nm indichloro­methane

99%, HPLC

776289-1G

N,N’-Dipentyl-3,4,9,10-perylenedicarboximide

λmax 527 nm~10−4 cm2/V·s

98%663921-500MG

2,9-Dihexylanthra[2,1,9-def:6,5,10-d’e’f’]diisoquinoline-1,3,8,10(2H,9H)tetrone

λabs 524, 448, 229 nm indichloro­methane
0.1-2.1 cm2/V·s

98%773816-1G

2,9-Diheptylanthra[2,1,9-def:6,5,10-d’e’f’]diisoquinoline-1,3,8,10(2H,9H)tetrone

λmax 254 nm indichloro­methane
1.4 × 10−2 cm2/V·s

99%773824-1G

N,N’-Dioctyl-3,4,9,10-perylenedicarboximide

λmax 526 nm
1.7 cm2/V·s

98%663913-1G

N,N’-Diphenyl-3,4,9,10-perylenedicarboximide

λmax 527 nm
10−5 cm2/V·s

98%663905-500MG

N,N’-Bis(2,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)-3,4,9,10-perylenedicarboximide

λmax 528 nm
1.8 × 10−4 cm2/V·s

Dye content 97%

264229-100MG

2,9-Bis[(4-methoxyphenyl)methyl]anthra[2,1,9def:6,5,10-d’e’f’]diisoquinoline-1,3,8,10(2H,9H)tetrone

λabs 527, 490 nm indichloromethane
0.5 cm2/V·s

99%771627-1G

1,3,8,10(2H,9H)-Tetraone, 2,9-bis(2-phenylethyl)
anthra[2,1,9-def:6,5,10-d’e’f’]diisoquinoline

1.4 cm2/V·s

98%, elemental analysis

761451-1G

N CH3

O

O

O

O

N

N

O

O

O

O

N

N

O

O

CH3

CH3
CH3

O
C5H11

N

O
O
C5H11

N
O

O

O

CH3(CH2)4CH2 N

N CH2(CH2)4CH3

O

O

O

O

CH3(CH2)5CH2 N

N CH2(CH2)5CH3

O

O
O
N

C8H17
O

O
C8H17

N
O
O
N
O

O
N
O
C(CH3)3O
NO(H3C)3C

C(CH3)3ON
O

C(CH3)3
H3CO
O

O

N

N

O

O

O

O

N

N

O

O

OCH3

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17aldrich.com/matsci

Structure
F

O

Cl

F

O

N

N

O

O

O

O

N

N

O

O

Name

Optical Properties/Mobility

Purity/Dye Content

Prod. No.

2,9-Bis[2-(4-fluorophenyl)ethyl]anthra[2,1,9def:6,5,10-d’e’f’]diisoquinoline-1,3,8,10(2H,9H)tetrone-

95%763942-1G

2,9-Bis[2-(4-chlorophenyl)ethyl]anthra[2,1,9def:6,5,10-d’e’f’]diisoquinoline-1,3,8,10(2H,9H)tetrone-

98%

767468-1G

DBP-

98%, HPLC

753939-250MG

Name

Mobility

Prod. No.

Poly(benzimidazobenzophenanthroline)

0.1 cm2/V·s

667846-250MG
667846-1G

Poly(5-(3,7-dimethyloctyloxy)-2-methoxy-cyanoterephthalylidene)~10−5 cm2/V·s

646628-250MG

Poly(5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-2-methoxy-cyanoterephthalylidene)~10−5 cm2/V·s

646644-250MG

Poly(2,5-di(hexyloxy)cyanoterephthalylidene)~10−5 cm2/V·s

646652-250MG

Poly(2,5-di(3,7-dimethyloctyloxy)cyanoterephthalylidene)~10−5 cm2/V·s

646571-250MG

Cl

N-type Polymers
Structure
O

O

N

N

N

N

H3CO

n

CN

OCH3
CN

CH3

O

O

CH3
CH3

CH3

n

CH3

CH3
H3CO

CN

OCH3
CH3
CN

O

CH3

O
CH3

n

CH3
CH3

CH3

O

CN

O
CN

OCH2(CH2)4CH3

OCH2(CH2)4CH3
n

H 3C

CH3

H3C
CH3

CH3
CH3

O
O
CN
NC

O

n

O
H3C
H3C

18

H 3C
CH3

H 3C

CH3

TO ORDER: Contact your local Sigma-Aldrich office or visit sigma-aldrich.com/order.

Fundamentals of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells

PEDOT:PSS
O

O

O

O

O

S
S

S
O

O

S
S

O

O

O
n

x

y

O S O
O

O S O
OH

Description

Sheet Resistance (Ω/sq)

Viscosity

pH

Prod. No.

dry re-dispersible pellets

200–450n/a-768618-1G
768618-5G

1.0 wt. % in H2O

50–120

7–12 mPa.s at 22 °C

1.8–2.2

768642-25G

5.0 wt. %, conductive screen printable ink

50–15050,000–90,000 mPa.s at 22 °C

1.5–2.0768650-25G

0.8% in H2O, conductive inkjet ink-

7–12 cP at 22 °C

1.5–2.5

739316-25G

1.1% in H2O, neutral pH<100 (>70% visible light transmission, 40 μm wet)<100 cP at 22 °C

5–7

739324-100G

1.1% in H2O, surfactant-free<100 (<80% visible light transmission, 40 μm wet)<100 cP at 22 °C<2.5

739332-100G

0.54% in H2O<200 (>90% visible light transmission, 40 μm wet)

<18 cP at 22 °C<2.7

739340-25G
739340-100G

3.0-4.0% in H2O

1,500 (4 point probe measurement of dried coating based on initial
6 μm wet thickness.)
500 (4 point probe measurement of dried coating based on initial
18 μm wet thickness.)

10–30 cP at 20 °C

1.5–2.5 at 25 °C(dried coatings)

655201-5G
655201-25G

2.8 wt % dispersion in H2O-<20 cP at 20 °C

1.2–1.8560596-25G
560596-100G

Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Coated Substrates
Description

L × W × Thickness (mm)Surface Resistivity (Ω/sq)

Prod. No.

Indium tin oxide coated PET

1 ft × 1 ft × 5 mil

60

639303-1EA
639303-5EA

1 ft × 1 ft × 5 mil

100

639281-1EA
639281-5EA

1 ft × 1 ft × 5 mil

200

749745-1EA
749745-5EA

1 ft × 1 ft × 5 mil

250

749761-1EA
749761-5EA

1 ft × 1 ft × 5 mil

300

749796-1EA
749796-5EA

1 ft × 1 ft × 7 mil

60749729-1EA
749729-5EA

1 ft × 1 ft × 7 mil

100

749737-1EA
749737-5EA

1 ft × 1 ft × 7 mil

200749753-1EA
749753-5EA

1 ft × 1 ft × 7 mil

250

749788-1EA
749788-5EA

1 ft × 1 ft × 7 mil

300

749818-1EA
749818-5EA

Indium tin oxide coated glass slide, squareIndium tin oxide coated glass slide, rectangularIndium tin oxide coated boro-aluminosilicate glass slide

25 × 25 × 1.1

8–12

703192-10PAK

25 × 25 × 1.1

30–60

703184-10PAK

25 × 25 × 1.1

70–100703176-10PAK

75 × 25 × 1.1

8–12

578274-10PAK578274-25PAK

75 × 25 × 1.1

15–25

636916-10PAK
636916-25PAK

75 × 25 × 1.1

30–60

636908-10PAK
636908-25PAK

75 × 25 × 1.1

70–100576352-10PAK
576352-25PAK

75 × 25 × 1.1

5–15

576360-10PAK
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