The Aesthetics of Net.Art
Julian Stallabrass

On the face of it, the subject of net.art’s aesthetic seems slightly perverse; indeed, a colleagueof mine once asked what I was working on, and when I told her replied with the single word:‘yuk’.1 Much of the aesthetic feeling traditionally derived from fine art depends on theinterplay between representation, idea and its instantiation in some material form, and the
feeling of that material being worked with. That seems absent in online art. Furthermore,much net.art, as we shall see, strives to be manifestly anti-aesthetic, and the usual proceduresthat the art world uses for marking objects for aesthetic attention are not available, or are nottaken up, online. I hope, though, that its very resistance to the aesthetic makes it a useful
because extreme test case.
‘Net.art’ is the term used to refer to a strain of Internet art that emerged soon after theinvention and wide take-up of web-browsers in the mid 1990s: it was a conceptually
informed art that explored the possibilities of this new arena for art, had an at bestambivalent relationship with the mainstream art world, was often collaborative, and was
supported by a lively and disputatious criticism, much of it penned by the artists themselves.
Not all Internet art was at all like this, and artists continue to produce a very wide range ofwork online—some of it manifestly designed to elicit an aesthetic response. Much net.art
played with the legacy of modernism; but for an example of another, more straightforward
response we can look to the work of by online commercial designer and artist John Maeda,
who has produced what is both a technical update, and an idealist realisation of Malevich’s
painted cosmological fantasies. Viewers, who have a passive relation to the work once they

1 This is the text of a plenary lecture given to the American Society for Aesthetics, Annual Meeting, San
Francisco, October 2003.

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have clicked on the link to initiate the animation of floating squares, are I think meant tofind it beautiful.2
The act of aesthetic attention can be applied to just about any phenomenon, though there
are circumstances that seem to favour it; and it is concomitantly something that is hard toassure, though we will come to art-world tactics for its encouragement. In circumstances ofextreme material deprivation, works of art may be used for manifestly instrumental purposes,
and Duchamp’s provocation—to use a Rembrandt as an ironing board—is realised invarious forms. Equally, aesthetic attention is very difficult to abolish: at the origins ofconceptualism, Duchamp’s Fountain was described by some who sought to support its
display at the American Society of Independent Artists in formal terms as a beautiful object,
the comparison being with Buddhist sculpture, and this despite Duchamp’s striving for‘aesthetic indifference’ in the readymades.
In later conceptual art, resolutely anti-aesthetic and functional works, such as Art andLanguage’s Index series, meant to provoke reading, the linking of data fragments (in this case,on index cards) and contributions from gallery-goers, came to be taken as sculptural objects,
or at least as the remains of a performance (definitely over) that the viewer must take ontrust. We now see Index 01, a venerable and valuable antique, displayed alongside prominent‘Do not touch’ signs, and defended against such violation by gallery guards.
With Index: Wrongs Healed in Official Hope, (1998-9) Art & Language recently protested againstthat fate, and by implication against that of conceptualism as a whole, by producing asimulation of Index as prettily polychrome non-functioning sculpture, juxtaposed with apornographic text-painting rendered nonsensical by many malapropisms (the latter meant toindicate the vulgar and self-consciously dumb misappropriation of Conceptualism by the‘young British artists’). The reasons for that wide failure to foster dialogue, to engage theviewer, to produce a continually changing work in collaboration with others, are evidently to
do with the economy of the art world itself which requires the sale and collection of uniqueor rare objects. The data of Index was held in the form of a ‘sculpture’ by artists whose

2 Maeda url; see also John Maeda, Maeda@Media, Thames & Hudson, London, 2000.

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signature or brand conferred value upon it, so naturally the general public could hardly beallowed to interfere with it.
If in the art world aesthetic value is closely linked to monetary value, it is because of thestructural place of the art world in relation to mass culture and instrumental life. The
economy functions strictly and instrumentally according to conventions, imposed unequallyon nations by the great transnational economic bodies; it produces hierarchies of wealth andpower; it enforces on the vast majority of the world’s inhabitants a timetabled, andmechanical working life, while consoling them with visions of cinematic lives given meaning
through adventure and coherent narrative (in which heroes make their lives free precisely by
breaking the rules), and with strident or plaintive songs of rebellion or love.
Art appears to stand outside this realm of instrumentality, bureaucratised life and its
complementary mass culture. That it can do so is due to art’s peculiar economy, founded on
its resistance to mechanical reproduction. That resistance can be seen most clearly in thetactics used by artists and dealers to artificially constrain the production of works made in
reproducible media, with limited-edition books, photographs, videos or CDs. Through that
resistance, the cultural enclave of fine art is protected from vulgar commercial pressures,permitting free play with materials and symbols, along with the standardised breaking of
convention and taboo.
Plainly, contemporary art does not only try to assure by these means an aesthetic view of its
productions. Indeed, the ‘aesthetic’ as a category and art-world institutions have often beenchallenged in linked attacks, in that an assault on the coherence of the former makes theconstitution of the latter appear more a matter of arbitrary social fiat. In contrast, there havebeen many works that strive to bring about a feeling of the uncanny, the abject, thetraumatic ‘real’ (or its eternal absence), and the sublime (including, it should be noted, astrong engagement with the sublime of data).
It is unclear, though, how far separated these other experiences remain from the aesthetic.
All are supposed to be extra-linguistic, incorrigible sensations, undercutting cognitive
approaches to the object, and yielding perhaps some essential quality of object or of the3viewing mind. The theories with which they are regularly supported are updates of themystical Bergsonism that propped up aspects of early twentieth-century modernism. In thatall bear on self-awareness and self-realisation (if only to assure the viewer of the vanity ofsuch ambitions, straightforwardly envisaged), they are not so distant from the developmentof the sovereign individual that at least some version of the aesthetic presupposes. The
continuity between them is indicated by the resilience of the art institutions which, while
they have efficiently adapted to new market conditions, retain their basic function as
purveyors of celebration and mystification. What they offer is strictly separated from both
the general run of instrumental life (including giving or listening to lectures like this) and thenarrative comforts of mass culture.
We are familiar with the ways in which such experiences, including the aesthetic attitude
towards works, are encouraged: there is the mounting and framing of work, literally or
metaphorically, which mark it off as a discrete realm of experience. The gallery and museum
also emphasise their own discreteness, with architectural drama and authority, so that we go
to a unique place to commune with unique objects. These objects, aside from not being mass
produced, are often very laboriously produced, or use large amounts of expensive material,
and to the extent that the experience of the aesthetic is bound up with an experience of
uniqueness in time and space (Benjamin’s aura), that quality of rarity is important. They arefurther cocooned with promotional and befuddling literature, about which little need be said.
Finally, the works appear to have no immediate use, and are so associated with free selfrealisation.
In addition, it will hardly have escaped your attention that there has in the last few years
been a revival in writing and theorising about beauty and the aesthetic in contemporary art,
along with the production of many works that seem, in addition to having a conceptual
dimension, to be really very pretty, and even attempts to make shows that are more about
spectacle than concept. A recent example is Dave Hickey’s 2001, Site Santa Fe’s FourthInternational Biennial, entitled Beau Monde: Towards a Redefined Cosmopolitanism. It was an
attempt to refashion those overtly political biennales which tend to depress aesthetes, andproduce a show that would make its viewers wonder at the variety and beauty of cultural
exchange.
4Art production in the 1990s is sometimes thought of as a synthesis between grandiose andspectacular 1980s art with the techniques and some of the concerns of Conceptual art, theresult being to splice linguistic
and conceptual play with visually
impressive objects: to give asingle example, Tobias
Rehberger’s Seven Ends of theWorld, shown at the Venice
Biennale in 2003, fills a roomwith clusters of glass balloons
that glow with different coloured
lights in a beautiful, slowly
changing display. The lights in the balloons are renditions of local light conditions in various
locations around the world, relayed over the Internet, and the piece is both a technicallyaccomplished, spectacular and appealing object and the manifestation of an idea.
Now the point about net.art is that little of this applies—not that it cannot (though some ofit really cannot), but it did not. Art work can be framed online, in museum or art sites, or bylinking practices that suggest discreteness, but net artists often did the opposite. Again, totake a single example, in Alexei Shulgin’s WWW Art Medal (1995-7), pre-existing sites arelinked together on a page that awards them virtual medals for their artistic appeal.3 The artist‘draws’ links between these sites, presenting them within a new frame, both conceptually andliterally (a gilt picture frame is thrown about them). The sites include what seems to be aphilosophy page actually advertising beauty products, a collection of pretty if anodyne
photographs (the medal being awarded ‘for innocence’), and pages comprising song lyrics
alongside examples of ‘glamour’ photography (‘for correct usage of pink colours’). This pieceof online curation, or curation as art work, is a particularly pure form of Internet art thatlinks pre-existing data in a singular manner, as if it were the result of a database query. It isan act of appropriation, in the manner of Duchamp, though of a particularly minimal and

3 http://www.easylife.org/award/

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filmy kind, since there is no movement or signing and dating of objects. It is also, of course,a critique of the art institutions’ apparently assured marking of works as works. Much of theconceptual tradition is distinguished by striving to be free of the burden of aesthetic
judgement, and Shulgin echoes Duchamp’s remark about the readymades that they shouldreflect a total absence of good and bad taste.4
Websites can be marked as distinguished by impressive design, just as galleries and museums
are by their architecture, but again, net artists tended to foster online confusion about what itis one is seeing by placing their works on non-art sites, or making their own sites but not
declaring the contents as art, and indeed making them seem very unlike art sites. Heath
Bunting, and many others, have placed their ‘works’ in non-art sites, just as a graffiti writer
throws up a tag on some place where you would normally see an advertisement.5 A wellknown example of a discrete site that confounds such expectations and does not declareitself as art, is Jodi’s rapidly changing, visually clunky and low-tech site, which is designed tobringing about a Brechtian education into the functioning of the net and computer culture.6
Computer code is held up for ideological examination on pages where spectacle normallyunfolds, while sometimes the code that produces those pages contains pictures.
Linked to the shunning of these means of marking art as discrete, is the suspicion of the very
term ‘art’. For Bunting, net.art tries not to carry too much baggage, and a lot of it is abouthoaxing, faking and rewriting. ‘So if you say: this is an artwork, you’ve blown your cover
immediately.’7 Again, this is the opposite of typical art-world practices.
The ‘objects’ of Internet art are far from being conventional art objects. They are not only
reproducible without degradation but are almost free to transmit (or rather, once the initialoutlay has been made, the marginal cost of each transmission is close to zero). Cheaply
reproducible artistic media have long existed, of course, but attempts at their wide
dissemination have foundered on the cost of distribution. Generally, when the code of
4 Pierre Cabanne, Dialogues with Marcel Duchamp, trans. Ron Padgett, Thames and Hudson, London, 1971, p. 48;
Rachel Baker, ‘A Conversation with Alexei Shulgin’, nettime posting, 16 March 1997.
5 An example would be Bunting’s Skint: The Internet Beggar, which can be found on www.irational.org
6 www.jodi.org

6online work is left open to examination, the work is subject not only to copying but
alteration. So artists borrow or ‘steal’ from each other; Vuk Cosic talks of how he, Heath
Bunting, Alexei Shulgin, Olia Lialina, and Jodi, in effect, had neighbouring studios, ‘like
Picasso and Braque in Paris in 1907’, so that each could see what the other was doing,
respond to it, or collaborate.8 There have been attempts to make online work exclusive, tosell it or to tie it to a particular site and charge for access, but equally they have failed, notleast because of politically motivated hacking.
Net.art poses a challenge to the protected art economy. In his short book, Behind the Times,
Eric Hobsbawm convincingly argues that fine art has condemned itself to cultural
marginality by refusing fully to embrace reproducibility.9 While literature, music and film areindustrially reproduced and widely owned, fine art has stuck to craft production and archaic
systems of patronage. The art world is in an analogous situation to an economy, long sunk instatic agrarian activity, which finds it has the opportunity, not to follow through the stages
that led the first industrialised countries to modernity, but to leap right over them into thepresent.10 As in such an economy, archaic and modern elements abut each other in the
sharpest contrast, and those contrasts may foster radical totalising thought about the system
as a whole.11
Art world and net.art discourse are very different. Cosic remarked that in each the default
position for conversing is switched: in the online world you talk to everyone unless they give
you a good reason not to; in the gallery world, you only talk to someone if you know who
they are and want something.12 (It is, of course, not hard to work out why this should be so.)
Email forums such as nettime have provided sites for the discussion of art, culture, new
7 Josephine Bosma, ‘Ljubljana Interview with Heath Bunting’, nettime posting, 11 June 1997.
8 Tilman Baumgärtel, ‘Interview with Vuk Cosic’, nettime posting, 30 June 1997.
9 Eric Hobsbawm, Behind the Times: The Decline and Fall of the Twentieth-Century Avant-Gardes, Thames andHudson, London 1998.
10 This type of situation was analysed by Trotsky as ‘combined and uneven development’, drawing on the
exposure of agrarian Russia to Western industry. See Leon Trotsky, The History of the Russian Revolution, trans.
Max Eastman, Pluto Press, London, 1977, vol. I, ch.. 1.
11 This is the argument made about such economies in Fredric Jameson, ‘Marxism and Postmodernism’, inFredric Jameson, The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern, 1983-1998, Verso, London 1998.
12 See Cosic’s contribution to Sarah Cook, Beryl Graham and Sarah Martin, eds., Curating New Media: Third
Baltic International Seminar, Baltic, Gateshead 2002.

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media, politics and their intersections. While fractious controversies may sometimes rage
there, they also form a collective programme to which individuals make contributions withworks or words, analogous to the donation of time, creativity and labour in the free software
movement. Such forums for discussion and exhibition are open, disputatious, democraticand egalitarian, and permit a glimpse of a culture that is founded, less on broadcast bycelebrities than dialogue among equals.
So, given these differences, let’s look at some contrasting examples of net.art to get a feelingfor the role the aesthetic plays in them, if any.
In ‘form art’, Alexei Shulgin makes

formal, modernist patterns out of thestandard components of the interface,in a highly self-conscious play on thelink between modernism and the lookof the new online realm. This is a(deliberately) gruesome cross between
Greenberg and appropriation art, inwhich the pre-existing elements of theinterface are taken as the fundamental elements of the medium. I referred briefly to therenewed engagement with beauty in contemporary art: in contrast, some of the work on thissite (and in this it is not atypical) is actively horrible. The paradox here is much the same asthat with photographic formalism: that the focus on the inherent qualities of the medium (orin this case, the standard interface of the communications system) leads not as with painting
to formal qualities of flatness, colour and texture but to a sharper focus on the world itself—in photography’s case, the physical world, in net.art’s the virtual; and in both cases, thesocial.
The most fundamental characteristic of this art is that it deals with data, and can be thoughtof as a variety of database forms. Many works use the familiar look of databases. Installation
artist Antonio Muntadas’ The File Room was one of the first works made for the Web, going
online in May 1994. It is an extensive worldwide archive of cultural censorship, at first8

compiled by a team of researchers but later added to by the public, and covering incidents
old and new, from Diego Rivera’s dispute with the Rockefeller Center over his depiction of
Lenin, through to the religious Right’s
assaults on the National Endowment
for the Arts. It is a collaborative site towhich users can contribute information
within the framework established by theartist.13 Naturally, censorship on theInternet itself was soon highlighted with
subscribers to AOL writing about thecompany’s deletion of postings that it
considers vulgar or sexually explicit.
Aside from its continuing online display, The File Room was also established as an installation
at the Chicago Cultural Center in 1994.
In its physical form, Muntadas’ The File Room was close to many Conceptual art projects thatbuilt physical databases, including card-index systems (such as Art and Language’s Indexseries). Yet while the object lends itself to gallery display and, whatever the intention of its
authors, tends to come across as fully formed, and to be venerated rather than used, this is
not so of the same information offered in dematerialised form on the Web. The break fromthe aesthetics of the isolated art object and the move towards an art of discursive processthat was begun by Conceptual art could be completed online where the provisional, everchanging character of material is taken for granted. As Lev Manovich puts it in his
meditation on the database form, historically, artists made unique objects in particular media
in which interface and content were inseparable (and in the assimilation of Conceptual art,
we may say that over time they congealed). In the new media, the content of the work andthe interface are separated; a work in new media can be understood as the construction of aninterface to a database.14

13 http://www.thefileroom.org/: for an account of Muntadas’ work, see Judith Russi Kirshner, ‘The Works of
Muntadas’ at the same site: for an account of the installation of The File Room at Chicago, see the sameauthor’s ‘The File Room’ in Gerfried Stocker/Christine Schöpf, eds., InfoWar, Springer, Vienna 1998, pp. 285-99RTMark demonstrate a model of radical politics and cultural activism coming into synthesis.
They pursue political ends through cultural means, and this form of political-cultural fusion
is found not only online but is matched by the actions of anti-capitalist protesters who havefound ways of uniting actions comparable to performance, environmental and installation art
with practical acts of subversion.15 RTMark was founded as a corporation, a clearing houseto aid subversive acts, online of off, and it armours itself with corporate law. Just as the
copyleft agreement that protects free software is a hacked copyright law, RTMark is a hacked
corporation.
While much of their activity is merely organised over the Net, RTMark also make online
interventions, particularly with spoof sites that stylistically mirror those of officialorganisations but load the pages with radical content. RTMark’s WTO pages (using the oldname of the organisation, GATT, for the site) imparted frank information about the
management of global trade to maintain the system of exploitation.16 They did the same in avery funny site devoted to George W. Bush which was uploaded during the last presidential
election (there is a new one now).17 Both sites have faced threats of legal action, and in
November 2001 the WTO pressured the sever organisation hosting the GATT site toremove it from the Web. Going to gatt.org now redirects the user to a copy of the official
WTO site.
A theoretical model of the character of corporations and the mass media underlies much ofthis activism. Based on Michel de Certeau’s book, The Practice of Everyday Life, which explored
popular, radical misuses of mass culture, and developed by a number of Net theorists,
particularly David Garcia and Geert Lovink, the practice of ‘tactical media’ stresses mobility
in the face of fast-moving technological and social change.18 The issue is put clearly by
RTMARK:
14 Lev Manovich, The Language of New Media, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 2001, pp. 226-7.
15 An example is Reclaim the Streets. See Aufheben, ‘The Politics of Anti-Road Struggle and the Struggles ofAnti-Road Politics: The Case of the No M11 Link Road Campaign’, in George McKay, ed., DIY Culture: Party& Protest in Nineties Britain, Verso, London, 1998.
16 See http://www.rtmark.com/gatt.html
17 See http://www.rtmark.com/bush.html
18 For a discussion of tactical media, see Josephine Berry, ‘“Another Orwellian Misnomer?” Tactical Art in
Virtual Space’, Inventory, vol. 4, no. 1, 2000, pp. 58-83; Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, trans.

10the flexibility of corporate power, its lack of a center, comes at a price: it has nobrain. It may be as tenacious as a virus, but it also has the intelligence of one:mechanical, soulless, minuscule.19
Since it reacts to attack by mutation, the argument goes, a sustained series of minor assaults,
each tailored to the new situation brought about by their predecessors, can drive real change.
It is ironic that this view of corporate power buys into the conservative view of the market
and its creatures as natural forces. In fact, corporations remain highly structured andhierarchical entities with geographical bases (generally in global cities), and are far from being
indifferent to vertical organisation. Corporate and state powers are perfectly capable ofacting in concert, of long-term forward planning, and of systematic destruction of theiropponents. Indeed, the entire neoliberal and postmodern turn is proof of that.20
Etoy’s ia another collective that has established itself as a corporation and makes art byplaying with corporate components just as others played visually with the elements of theinterface. Etoy even took to issuing shares, which, while not recognised by stock markets, dofluctuate in value. People who invest in these shares get dividends, not in money but inseeing the realisation of etoy’s cultural output. Where does this practice lead? Josephine
Berry has argued that etoy, in their pursuit of a brand image, in their issuing of ‘shares’ fortheir supporters to buy and their awarding of loyalty points, have come so close to thecorporate activities that they set out to undermine as to be indistinguishable from them. The
crucial test for Berry is function, for art risks its autonomy when it moves into market
manipulation and legal disputes, especially when they are effective (as Etoy’s legal disputewith online toy company, etoys, famously was).21 This is a widespread view, but theinsistence on art’ uselessness can appear arbitrary: failed interventions can always be

Steven Rendall, University of California Press, Berkeley 1984; David Garcia and Geert Lovink, ‘The ABC of
Tactical Media’, nettime posting, 16 May 1997.
19 RTMARK, ‘Sabotage and the New World Order’, in Stocker/ Schöpf, p. 242.
20 Noam Chomsky has written much about the sustained, massively funded corporate propaganda efforts tochange the political climate. See, for instance, his book World Orders, Old and New, Pluto Press, London, 1994,
ch. 2.
21 Josephine Berry, ‘Do as they do, not as they do’, Mute, no. 16, 2000, pp. 22-3.

11interpreted as conceptual art experiments, but successful ones must leave the realm of art forpolitics.
It is this issue of use that bears on aesthetics, at least as conventionally conceived, mostdirectly. Some net.art has sought to be directly useful, and this should not be a cause forsurprise. While computing is often lazily considered to be a matter of simulation alone,
digital technology synthesises reproduction and production. If modernism was most strongly
associated with new technologies of mass-production that had a profound impact on
everyday life (such as electric lighting, cars, planes and ocean liners) and postmodernism withnew technologies of reproduction that transformed domestic life (above all, television), then
the new era is brought into being by their synthesis.22 To take effective action online is togain power that can have immediate consequences in the offline world.
One signal example is Brett Stalbaum’s programme Floodnet which, as its name suggests,
overloads a site with calls to load its pages, and also returns pointed error messages. For
instance, in an attack in support of the Zapatista rebels on the Mexican government’s official
site, Floodnet returned the message ‘human_rights not found on this server’. If an attack is
to be successful, many people must launch Floodnet against the targeted site at the sametime, gaining legitimacy by weight of numbers, much as a political demonstration does.
Stalbaum is clear that Floodnet, in addition to being a tool of political protest, is also a workof art—a ‘collaborative, activist and conceptual art work of the net’.23
Contemporary art, as we have seen, positions itself between instrumental life and consolingculture, and net.art seeks to do the same but without the various strategies that gallery art
uses to mark itself off from the rest of the culture and defend itself against the commercialpressures that affect mass culture. Net.art does so in an environment in which commercial
competition is intense, and failure can mean invisibility. Lacking these usual defences andstrategies, it can (dialectically) only mark itself off as art, and as non-instrumental, by
becoming useful in the struggle against instrumentality and exploitation. In different ways, by
22 For this view of the division between modernism and postmodernism, see Perry Anderson, The Origins ofPostmodernity, Verso, London, 1998, pp. 87-89.
23 Brett Stalbaum, ‘The Zapatista Tactical FloodNet’, www.nyu.edu/projects/wray/ZapTactFlood.html

12mounting Brechtian education, by establishing participatory and collective data projects, byovert political activity, it tries to break down the regular expectations of the online viewer for
seamless spectacle and the smooth running of business.
Such works also appear to be about creating circumstances in which human interaction candevelop in ways not normally permitted by either broadcast-mode mass culture or theadministered circumstances of working. In this, online art is not alone, for there has been
considerable gallery engagement with this activity. There are two recent and contrastingaccounts of how one might approach this general trend.
The first takes the engagement in recent art work with human relations aesthetic. For
Nicholas Bourriaud in his book, Relational Aesthetics, 1990s art has been most characterised bywork which makes of social interaction an aesthetic arena in which artists offer services orcontracts to visitors or simply facilitate talk between them. One of his examples illustrates
the idea well: Jens Haaning broadcast jokes in Turkish through a speaker in a square in
Copenhagen, forging a temporary bond between those who understood and laughed.
For Bourriaud the innovation of art employing social interaction in art is a direct reaction tohuman relations becoming increasingly subject to the division of labour, mechanisation andprofitability. Such work offers, not theoretical prescriptions but instead small, momentaryand subjective ‘hands-on utopias’ in which people can learn to live in a better way. Livedtime, rather than the occupation of space (by works), is most important here. Yet this ‘arenaof exchange’, says Bourriaud, must be judged by aesthetic criteria, through an analysis of its
form. Social relations are treated as another artistic medium. They are to be judged formally as
they are looked at (and they may well include things that look like conventional art objects
and which may be bought and sold, though they, too, are judged only as part of the overall
scene). Even the participants have this aesthetic relation to the work, for they bothparticipate and have a consciousness of themselves participating (in the way that you do inan artificial social environment set up in a gallery).
There are certain key features of these socially interactive works: first there is a trade-off
between the number of participants and their diversity and likely discourse. Active
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participants tend to be few, elite and self-selecting. Second, in these temporary utopian
bubbles, no substantial politics can be arrived at, not least because even among those who
do attend real differences and conflicts of interest are temporarily denied or forgotten.
If all this activity seems self-consciously token and even futile, then the rise of this art can betaken to be a good deal less rosy than Bourriaud suggests. Coupled with thinking about thehollowing out of democratic politics, what Bourriaud describes is merely another art-world
assimilation of the moribund or the junked, the re-presentation as aesthetics of what wasonce social interaction, political discourse and even ordinary human relations.
The second view, in contrast, would look to the transformation of work by computercommunications, and see the emergence of new ways of working and by implication new
subjects as a result. In Empire, Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri argue that the new mode of
production makes cooperation immanent to the act of labour. People need each other tocreate value, but no longer necessarily capital and its organisational powers. Rather it iscommunities that produce, and as they do so, reproduce and redefine themselves, and theoutcome is no less than ‘the potential for a kind of spontaneous and elementarycommunism’.24 While they do not mention it, the free software movement would seem to be
the model here: emergent software, often freely distributed, that is made by masscollaboration, time being given in reward for prestige and (sometimes) monetary reward. If
the aesthetic as an ideal of self-realisation was coincident with the rise of the bourgeois
subject, then this ethos of gift-giving, open exchange and dialogue may be concurrent (and ison the Empire view) with the emergence of the networked subject more interested in
exchanging bits—and bytes—than pieces.
The award of the prestigious art prize, the Golden Nica, at the 1999 Ars Electronica to thefree software operating system Linux raised fundamental questions about the definition of
the online art-work and the character of non-commercial collaboration. There is obviously avast difference between Linux and most cultural projects: Linux is a shared collective projectin which there are agreed aims and criteria. Speed, reliability, compatibility and simplicity are
virtues agreed upon by the Linux community. Art is generally not like this, not because

24 Michael Hardt / Antonio Negri, Empire, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 2000, pp. 294, 304.

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collective judgements are never arrived at, but because the criteria that underpin them areoften unstated, and individuality—not to say eccentricity—is institutionally favoured. As
Eric Raymond notes, in art projects where the utility of peer review is lower, the incentives
for using the collaborative model almost evaporate.25 This point, however, leaves open thequestion of the evolution of art to take advantage of this system, and we have seen that someartists have used the Internet precisely to open a forum for users’ opinions.
To say that Linux is an art work may be a simple miscategorisation, and it has certainly not
been adopted by the wider art world, so on any institutional definition of art, Linux could
not be counted as a work of art. Further, to dub it a work of art is not necessarily to say that
there is anything aesthetic about it, or that it encourages aesthetic attention. To the extent
that aesthetics is opposed to business instrumentality, Linux’s very functioning, let alone its
success in certain markets, conventionally poses a problem to granting it such status.
Perhaps the use of Bourriaud’s view is that it fixes on the shuttling between the instrumental
and the aesthetic outlooks that can occur, quite rapidly, in experiencing such work. The
simultaneous double consciousness of doing and seeing oneself doing (and being seen
doing) that occurs in participatory work in the gallery may not apply online. What does, withworks that tightly bind up elements that may be taken as political and others as aesthetic,
seen in circumstances that are diverse and uncontrolled, is an oscillation of attention
between the aesthetic and the instrumental.
Yet, against Hardt and Negri’s view, it is odd to be talking this way or making work this way
against a social and political scene that appears so bleak. After all, commercialism, and with it
instrumentalism, proceeds in its global advance with little interruption; in many parts of theworld, and certainly in the Western democracies where this work is largely seen, the popular
power ideally inherent in democracy is more spectral than ever; social atomisation—a linked
development—continues its rise; and ‘Empire’, of course, seems a less postmodern termthan it did a few years ago.

25 Eric S. Raymond, The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary,
O’Reilly, Sebastapol, CA, 1999, p. 226.

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Further, as long as the artist’s position remains privileged, in creating frames in whichinteraction takes place, the dialectic that Adorno commented upon between bourgeois selfrealisation and domination still applies. There is an inverse relation between cogency,
coherence, order and domination and the degree of interaction permitted. The balance inmuch gallery work certainly lies with the artist, but this is even so of much the online work.
Set against this darkening background, the activities of the net artists seem ever more playful,funny, idealist—and perhaps the majority of its viewers remain just that, viewers, sitting backfrom these works, and taking them as performance, as aesthetic, and not too seriously as
having a likely use or effect, or perhaps only a limited one, a carnivalesque irruption which
serves to more securely anchor the order that it apparently opposes. On this view, even its
explicitly anti-aesthetic elements, indicated by references to Dada or conceptual art, andidealism in opposing the dominant art world, are taken as (retro) aesthetic gestures—rather
like wearing flares.
We are familiar with the way in which an aesthetic view of a work is more likely to assert
itself when local and temporal meaning fall away, so that, for instance, propaganda works
made for a government agency—the FSA, for example—become with the passing of time
nostalgic and sentimental icons of a vaguely understood epoch. Sometimes, though, theeffect works in reverse (as it did in the 1960s when the political charge of photography of
the Depression was reactivated). So, if political and social conditions become moreprogressive, work made in the service of political improvement and emancipation may cometo appear less gestural and ideal, and more directly useful, at least as models for further
action. So, personally, I look forward to a time when net.art tends to appear less aesthetic
than it does now.

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