教育ネットワーク研究室年報, 2005, 5, 139-147

尾形尚子基金レクチャー報告２

尾形尚子祈念レクチャーの報告
谷口 和也
東北大学大学院教育学研究科
去る、2004 年 10 月 19 日に、「カリキュラム改革の世界的動向―90 年代以降における市民性の変容とカリキュラム改革―」と題して、尾形尚子基金による補助を受け、国際シンポジウムが開かれた。
シンポジストは、以下の通りである。
谷口和也（東北大学大学院教育学研究科）「90 年代以降における市民性の変容とカリキュラム改革の国際的動向」
水原克敏（東北大学大学院教育学研究科）「日本および中国におけるカリキュラム改革の現状」
戸田善治（千葉大学教育学部）「EU 統合とイギリスにおける市民性の変容」
C. F. Risinger（元・全米社会科協議会会長、元・インディアナ大学教授、元・ERIC 日米センター長）「Challenges Facing Social Studies in the United States」
特に、今回、尾形尚子基金によって米国より招聘した C. F. Risinger は、1990 年に全米社会科協議会の会長を務め、ナショナルカリキュラムの作成や、各州の社会科カリキュラ
ムの作成に深く関わってこられた。また、歴史教科書の編纂や、ERIC US-Japan
Clearinghouse のセンター長として日米の教育事情にも詳しい。一方、千葉大学の戸田助教授は、元国立教育政策研究所（当時は国立教育研究所）にも務められ、現在、千葉大学で歴史教育を中心に研究しておられる。氏は、イギリスの歴史教育を中心に研究してこられたが、このたび、EU との関連でイギリスの市民性の変容と教育改革についてご講演をいただいた。
シンポジウムは、10 月 19 日（火）の 13：00～15：00、東北大学文系総合棟の 11 階大会議室で、約 80 人の学部生、大学院生、および教員の参加のもと行われた。
まず、谷口が、「90 年代以降における市民性の変容とカリキュラム改革の国際的動向」と題して、1900 年代以降、それまでの主権国家を基盤とした教育が変容してきたこと、また、新しい知のあり方が求められつつあること等を講演した。
つづいて、水原教授が、特に中国における教育改革の事例、中でも都市部の先進的実践-139-

教育ネットワーク研究室年報第5号

校における科学教育や英語教育の実践事例を紹介した。科学教育においては、従来の知識偏重の科学教育（応試教育）から、（素質教育）への変化として、批判的な思考を育成するような科学教育の導入単元の事例を映像によって紹介した。その上で、日本、および中国において新しい知のあり方を求めるような改革が進んでいることを紹介した。
戸田助教授は、イギリスにおける市民性が、コミュニティ―イングランド―UK―EU との多重性を前提に再構築されつつある事例を、歴史教育実践やカリキュラム全体の改革、また 2002 年度から中等教育に導入された Citizenship の実践事例から紹介した。その上で、その背景となる考え方を詳細に分析しながら、新しい市民性のあり方を提示した。
最後に、C. F. Risinger 氏は、アメリカにおける社会科の直面する問題を、６人の全米社会科教委議会会長経験者を含む 12 人へのインタビューをもとにして分析し、６の論題に絞って分析を試みた。それぞれの論題は、社会科教育がもつ本質的な問題点から、実践上の課題に至るまで多岐にわたるものである。氏は、専門である社会科に絞った発表を行ったものであるが、その内容は現在の市民性育成のための全ての教育が直面する普遍的な課題も含まれている。以下、氏の講演の全文を掲載する。
なお、その後の質疑応答では、「アメリカにおける改革の方向性」「中国の新しい試みの是非」「イギリスにおける市民性の多重性の問題」など、シンポジストの論題全てにわたっての活発な論争が行われ、予定の時間を 1 時間越えて終わった。
[C. F. Risinger 氏の講演の全文]
CHALLENGES FACING SOCIAL STUDIES IN THE UNITED STATESC. Frederick Risinger
Coordinator of Social Studies, Professional Development and U.S.-Japanese Studies
Indiana University, Bloomington (Retired)
A Paper Delivered at the Symposium on the Imitational Movement of Curriculum
Reform in Honor of the Ogata Naoko Memorial Lecture Series, Tohoku University,October 19 2004
I am honored to be invited to participate in the Ogata Naoko Memorial Symposiumon the International Movement of Curriculum Reform. The family of Miss Naokoshould be commended on establishing this program of supporting the international
activities of undergraduate students at Tohoku University. And the administrators andfaculty of Tohoku University should be commended for their leadership in establishingand fostering this program.
When Professor Taniguchi invited me to visit Tohoku University and participate in- 140 -尾形尚子基金レクチャー報告２

this symposium, he said that I was respected in Japan as a researcher in the field ofsocial studies education.

I do not consider myself a specialist in social studies

research. Instead, I consider myself an “observer” of social studies education in theUnited States…and observer from many vantage points…from many points of view. I
have viewed social studies as a classroom teacher for n]ore than twelve years. I haveobserved social studies as a faculty member and teacher educator at Indiana
University for more than 30 years. During that time, I observed social studies as aboard member and president of the National Council for the Social Studies. Most
recently, I have observed social studies in the United States as a director of
professional development, working with social studies and other teachers as they meetthe new rules and regulations for qualifying and maintaining teacher certification. I
also observe social studies education from my role as an author of several social studies
textbooks. I have been a co-author of three United States history textbooks, a book on
Indiana history, and now a Kindergarten-6th grade social studies series. In the UnitedStates, a textbook series must have a team of authors that "looks like America." Thismeans that there must be women and men authors, authors who are of Hispanic,African-American, Asian-American, Native American, and other ethnic origins. Whena group of authors this large comes together to conceptualize the textbook and decideon the content, and teaching styles, one can learn a great deal by observing andlistening.
I also did more than just observe. In preparation for this symposium, I wrote to 12
Individuals who I respect for their knowledge and wisdom about social studies. I asked
them what they believe to be the challenges facing American social studies. This group
includes six former presidents of the National Council for the Social Studies, officials at
two national professional associations, and other leaders in the field. I told them that I
only wanted a few paragraphs that summarized their views and I promised that I
wouldn't quote them directly. The results of this bit of research were quite remarkable.
The 10 responses I received were so similar that all of them could have been written by
the same person.
So, what do the results of my questions and my observations of social studieseducation in the United States tell us? They tell me that after nearly 100 years ofexistence as a subject in the kindergarten through 12th grade U.S. curriculum, social
studies is still fragmented, teachers are still unsure about what they should beteaching, and the demands of standardized testing are leading many teachers to stop
teaching students about participative citizenship in a democratic society. Instead, they- 141 -教育ネットワーク研究室年報

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teach only content they believe will be on the test their students have to take.
I have identified six challenges that currently face the social studies teachingprofession in the United States. This includes classroom teachers, university-level
teacher educators, textbook authors, and members of professional associations such as
the National Council for the Social Studies in the United States. These challenges havebeen around, in some form or another, throughout my career as a social studies
educator. However, I think that they are stronger than they have been in the pastand that social studies in the U.S., particularly in the elementary schools, is in danger.
I will each of these in order, beginning with what I believe is the most seriouschallenge.
【Challenge # 1―Fighting to Stay in the Curriculum】
This was the Number 1 reaction that I received from my panel of leading socialstudies educators. One former president of NCSS used this phrase in her e-mail ―"Fighting just to stay in the curriculum." The passage of President Bush's 'No Child
Left Behind" act has dramatically changed who controls the K-12 educational system.
Just a few years ago, the states were more important than the national government indetermining curriculum. Today, however, standardized testing of students in all grades
is common. If students within schools do not meet certain standards, they must submit
a "School Improvement Plan." If, in the next two years, the school does not improve, it
can be labeled a "failed school." Students, whose parents request them, can receive"vouchers" (permissions) to attend another school in that public school district or evena private school. If the school continues to fail, teachers and administrators may be
moved to another school and a new team will be brought in. If the school district does
not improve, the state (prefecture) can come in and completely take over theadministration of the school district. However, in most states, social studies is not evenon the test that students have to take. In my state of Indiana, like the majority ofstates, students are only tested and mathematics. Science and social studies are nottested. Only 14 of our 50 states include achievement tests in social studies in theiraccountability systems and many of them do not start testing social studies until themiddle school years. In Alabama, for example, students are tested only once during
their K-12 years in social studies-in Glade 10.
So what would you do if you were an elementary teacher in Indiana…or Alabama…orthe other 36 other states that don't test social studies? You know that your students aregoing to be tested on reading and mathematics. You know that you will be compared to- 142 -尾形尚子基金レクチャー報告２

the teacher next door…and your school will be compared to the school on the other sideof town. . -and your city's schools will be compared to those in a nearby city….and thatyour state will be compared to all other states. Even though the state and city
curriculum says that you should spend 40 minuets each day on social studies, manyteachers neglect social studies in order to concentrate more on reading andmathematics. According to one study, many school districts have required schools tospend 3 hours each day or reading. Principals are turning their back on the rules thatsay that social studies must be taught each day. It is not only social studies, but science,art, music, and other subjects are being ignored so that students will have increa5ed
time to learn mathematics and reading. One teacher said, "Without pressure toimprove social studies instruction, districts are likely to spend much of theirprofessional-development and instructional-materials budgets elsewhere. A social
scientist with the Rand Corporation said, "When teachers and administrators are
feeling the pressure from a testing system that emphasizes reading and math, the day
will be restructured so there is less time available for other subjects."
Social studies textbook companies are struggling to meet this problem byenhancing their books with reading material and trying to persuade teachers andprincipals that, by using our textbook, you can improve your students' reading scoresand still teach social studies. On the last two textbook projects I've worked on, one
member of the author team was not a social studies person, but a reading specialist.
Each company also packages a set of books (fiction and non fiction, including biography,stories, even novels) for each grade level. In many American school districts, social
studies in the primary grades(K-3) has almost disappeared【Challenge #2-The Struggle Between Content and Citizenship】
Those of us in social studies have emphasized that our courses help "prepare students
for their role of citizens. Indeed, the NCSS Mission Statement states: "Social studies
educators teach students the content knowledge, intellectual skills, and civic values
necessary for fulfilling the duties of citizenship in a participatory democracy." But, inthe past 20 years, critics of this mission statement―first from policymakers outside
the profession―but now within our own ranks are calling for a return to "content,"
meaning factual knowledge from history and the social sciences. One recent book,which has angered many social studies educators, has a chapter titled, "The Educationof Idiots." The authors, and his colleagues who contributed to the book "Where Did
Social Studies Go Wrong," argue that students cannot learn the skills of citizenship- 143 -教育ネットワーク研究室年報

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without knowing the factual history of their country. This point of view is shared bymany policymakers in the U.S. Department of Education and those who design thestandardized tests. So, again, teachers are being forced to teach basic facts so thatstudents can do well on the tests; even If this means eliminating activities and projects
such as service learning.
【Challenge # 3-The Struggle between Content and an Interdisciplinary Curriculum】
This challenge is similar to Number 2, except that the struggle is not about the"mission" or goals of social studies; but, instead on how best to organize the curriculum.
Since the exciting days of "The New Social Studies," that began in the 1 960s, theconcept that social studies was best taught when history and the social science
disciplines were merged, or "integrated" into a "multidisciplinary" course. Instead ofstudying "history" or “geography, students would study a topic such as Australia or The
Vietnam War, by using knowledge and patterns of leaning from history, geography, andthe other social sciences. Again, the pressures of standardized testing and the No Child
Left Behind law are coercing teachers into planning their lessons so that students lean
factual information such as "What is the capital of Sri Lanka?" or "When Did thePilgrims Land at Plymouth Rock?" The most influential 5et of state standards―that ofCalifornia―is titled"California History/Social Science Standards." The term "social studies" does notappear in the document.
【Challenge # 4―The Struggle Between a "Core Culture" and Multiculturalism】
This issue, which has been around for at least two decades, is increasing inintensity at the present time in the United States because of two factors; (1) The
September 11 attacks and the "War on Terrorism;" and the influx of foreign
immigrants―both legal and illegal―from Latin America, eastern Europe, and Asia.
During the 19708 and 1980s, there was a confluence of groups that advocated for
textbooks and a curriculum that included all people who lived in the U.S., not just thewhite men who had previously dominated U.S. history and government. So, textbooks
and the curriculum began to include African-Americans, women, Native Americans,disabled Americans, and others. The goal was to reduce prejudice and conflict between
racial and ethnic groups, and bring women, Blacks, Hispanics, and others into thefabric of U. S., society. Many states passed laws that required textbooks to include augroups. The elementary social studies series that I recently worked on has pictures of- 144 -尾形尚子基金レクチャー報告２Mommy working on automobiles, Daddy doing dishes, and the kids playing with a boy
in a wheelchair on the playground.
But there are groups now who claim that by emphasizing our "differences” by
establishing "English as a Second Language" programs where students can continue to
speak their native tongue, we are keeping our children (and their parents) fromassimilating into the "core culture" and becoming "Americans. This challenge, I predict,will be with us for some time.
【Challenge #5―The Struggle to Keep Public Education Public】
This challenge faces all subjects taught in the schools, not just social studies. Since theReagan Presidency, Republicans have pushed for a voucher system where parents
receive a "voucher" from the state government which can be used to pay for a private
school-either a religious school or one that is not directly supported by tax dollars. I've
already mentioned how vouchers can be used by parents to take their children out of"failed schools" and enroll them in private and church-related schools. Indeed, someobservers―both teachers and others not involved in education―argue that the No
Child Left Behind act is actually a first step toward dismantling the public schools.
When parents can use vouchers to send their child to a private school, critics argue, it
won't be long until the only students in public schools will be poor, immigrants, fromhomes where parents don't care about schools.
This challenge is also affected by the growing number of U.S, parents who are taking
their children out of schools and are teaching them at home. The number of students
who are "Home Schooled" as this is called, has more than doubled in the past 5-6 years.
Many of these parents and students use textbooks and other materials that couldn't beused in public schools because they do not teach tolerance or diversity. For example, a
6th grade text titled, "Old World History and Geography In Christian Perspective,"says this about India and Hinduism: "The effects of Hinduism have been devastating
to Indian's history. Today, Indian is one of the poorest nations on earth. Their gods
stand in the way of the people's health and their knowledge of the one True God Who
promises to take care of all those who follow him." The private religious schools andhome schooling are building up barriers rather than tearing them down. Of all thechallenges that I’m discussing today this "religious divide" Is of most concern to me. It
not only affects what is being taught in social studies, but it is increasingly dividing theU.S, into those who would impose their religious beliefs on all citizens and those who
support the American concept of the separation of church and state.
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第5号【Challenge # 6―The Gulf Between Collage Teacher Educators and Classroom Teachers】
All of us that are or have been classroom teachers know that there is usually adifference between what we learn about teaching as undergraduates and what we findout when we begin our first teaching job. I can't tell you how many teachers (includingme) who say, "I leaned more about teaching in my first year than I did in four years ofcollege." In 1989 Jim Laming at Southern Illinois University wrote an article that said
that there were "the theorists"― professors at the college level; and there were the"practitioners"―elementary and secondary classroom teachers. I think that this"Challenge" is probably both the easiest challenge to overcome…and, also the mostdifficult. In the United States, undergraduates are going out into the schools beginningin their first year and continuing throughout their undergraduate years. By the timethey begin student teaching, usually in their last undergraduate semester, they haveseen enough classrooms, students, and teachers to have a more accurate idea of whatis expected of them.
So, in conclusion, how do I feel about these six challenges and the future of social
studies in the United States? Frankly, I'm a bit pessimistic. Oh, there will always besocial studies in American schools. But, there are societal forces―some of them a direct
result of September11 and the subsequent War on Terrorism―and others tied to thecurrent Bush administration. Multiculturalism, global education, and international
cooperation are not favorite words and concepts in a Bush-led Department ofEducation. Even if John Kerry defeats George Bush, I don't think there will be a rushback to global education or multicultural education in U.S. education policy. The No
Child Left Behind act is almost as popular with the American public as it is disliked byteachers and school administrators. The notion that we should "make teachers andschools accountable" for the education that our children receive is supported by manyAmericans. In the most recent Phi Delta Kappa/G8nup Poll on the American public's
view of the schools, 81% of those surveyed said that "Lack of good teaching" is one of
the reasons for learning failures in American schools.
In the long run, however, I believe that the pendulum will swing back. There is agrowing number of Americans who are beginning to question the reliance on
standardized testing to determine whether or not a school …or a teacher…is doing agood job. The concept of global education, which started in the U.S, but was improvedand expanded in Japanese schools, is too powerful…and too important to ignore.
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In the world of business, company leaders are fond of saying. "Challenges are reallyjust opportunities for growth and improvement." I suppose that's the way I'd like tothink of these six challenges. If American social studies educators can help Americans
know the importance of social studies and how preparation for citizenship involves
more than just memorizing factual information and passing a test. If we can show
them that it involves active learning, community service, and development ofanalytical skills, then we might have created opportunities from these challenges.
Again, let me thank you for your invitation to participate in this important
symposium.
Best wishes in your work.
[Sources Used for This Paper]・Grant & VauSledrigh, "The Dubious Connection: Citizenship and Social Studies”,

Social Studies, v.87,1996.
・ Leming and others, Where Did Social Studies Go Wrong? Thomas FordhamFoundation, August 2003.
・ Manzo, "Concentration on Reading, Math Troubles Social Studies Educators,"

Education Week, February 20, 2002
・Rose and Gallup, "The 35th Annual PDK/Gallup Poll of the Public's Attitudes Toward
the Public Schools, The Kappan, September, 2003.
・Previte and Sheehan, The NCSS Presidential Addresses, 1970-2000. v.2. NCSS andthe ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Sciences Education, 2002.

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