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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
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No. +**, p. /+- ,**/

 *ῌPer Moldrup**
The Emerging Role of Soil Physics in Environmental Engineering
Toshiko KOMATSU* and Per MOLDRUP*** Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Saitama University, ,// Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama --2῍2/1*, Japan** Department of Life Sciences, Section for Environmental Engineering,
Aalborg University, DK-3*** Aalborg, Denmark
Abstract
Historically, soil physics research in Japan and worldwide has focused on soil-water physics
with a majority of studies on cultivated surface soils, and with the objective of optimizing watersupply to plants and minimize leaching of pesticides and nutrients below the root zone. Recently, transport, fate and emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane is anarea where rapidly growing environmental concerns about global warming and climate e#ects
has provided new challenges for soil physicists.
Another important challenge originates from the increasing problems in most urban areas withcontaminated sites, where soil and groundwater have been polluted with EICs (Environmental
Impact Chemicals) including gasoline and chlorinated compounds. To respond to these challenges, a broader focus in soil physics research and more emphasis on soil physical properties andprocesses in an environmental engineering perspective is needed.
Improved understanding and better predictive models together with reliable in-situ measurement methods for a larger variety of soil physical parameters can give soil physicists a major role
within the rapidly emerging research ﬁeld that combines environmental engineering and polluted
soil science ; soil environmental engineering.

Detailed knowledge of soil physical processes in all

three soil compartments (the soil-air, water and particle phases) is the platform for soil environmental engineering, including :῍ Realistic calculations of transport and fate of EICs at contaminated soil sites
῍ Risk assessments concerning indoor and outdoor air and groundwater pollution
῍ Development and optimization of remediation methods for soil and groundwater
In this perspective, future soil physics research should focus on chemical di#usion, sorption,
release, and convective transport in both the soil-water and soil-air phases and, also, evaluate thesigniﬁcance of particle-facilitated chemical transport through soil. As examples of less investigated soil physical parameters that are key parameters in soil environmental engineering, we
advocate the importance of gas and solute di#usivity, air permeability, and vapor sorption
coe$cients in relation to both risk assessment and to remediation by soil vapor extraction andpump and treat methods.
For soil environmental engineering purposes, not only the surface soil but the entire vadosezone between the soil surface and the groundwater table should be considered during studies of*   :

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6soil physical parameters.

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The dominating role of soil-physical processes in controlling andoptimizing biodegradation of pollutants during soil remediation should be investigated andhighlighted. With this emerging role of soil physics in environmental engineering combinedwith the rapid developments in process understanding and non-destructive measurement equipments, we are on the brink of an exciting new era in soil physics.
Key words : Soil Physics, Environmental Engineering, Fate and Transport of Chemicals, Environmental Impact Chemicals (EICs), Soil Remediation'+ῌ ΐῒ῔῕῎῍῏ῐῑ῎   

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ῌApplications of Soil Physics. +32*
ῌIntroduction to Soil Physics. +32,
ῌEnvironmental Soil Physics. +332

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4567 !8)(all Academic Press). F0 Jury and Horton K,**.L i Warrick

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General soil physical characteristics

MSoil physics : The branch of soil science that deals,The soil solid phasewith the physical properties of the soil, with empha--The soil water phasesis on the state and transport of matter (especially.

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; !"5 Fig. , h9 :;

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GHIJ 56

;!":4 s5" )  ,**. ^_* ( <.  7Xy 14K  L

=$G )Volatile Organic Chemicals ; VOCs* 

MN$& O P4&

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ῌ

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 +33+ o56(pq :·FCD!y ABCD8

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5K CD -.!K;;4;U

V6"

V6" ῌABCD/w x":4 -05y!"Fig. +

 1x 2"zG 

Q 3.bcCD .b

Relative number of polluted soil sites exceeding the environmental soil quality standard (datafrom Ministry of the Environment, ,**/).

tu 7  +**  2,**/3

8

Fig. ,

Frequency of detected contaminants at +*2, polluted soil sites in Japan (,**-. -). (data from
Ministry of the Environment, ,**/).

Fig. -



Fate and transport of Environmental Impact Chemicals (EICs).



\E]T W0^ 0T _` aCb   !!"#$%& VOCs,

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drocarbons ; PAHs3 4567

>?rs EICs tu*Dvw tu;<=/>?

89 0:@1 %&/A

4C*DE%F

/A

Impact Chemicals ; EICs3

B

2Environmental

GH89

Fig. - TU 'V[e]fO8ghῌ

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 

9

 Table + 5O " PQ#G¡$&GO ¢£%¤8

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9particle-facilitated chemical transport: ¥&5

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9Fate and Transport:; 4& <=>?@(¬  9Kersting, et al., +333: ­6®"[

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mO 9e.g. )j6 ,**+ Schelde, et al., ,**,,
Motoshita, et al., ,**-:

} )²°±³´[µO ¶&GO­6 hot spot [6\M ]^_ 9travel time: `a bc`defgWPQh&[H[  i EICs IJ`8! jkGO\jl]W& \jlPQRST4W
mn\jlkW& o3pqWWr
! &s\jltuOPQIKGOv
 GmO\jlM ]^_G wpq&4&* &  Fig. . xWyz {z Lz[6|e  }~ EICs

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
NAPL:

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Hillel

5 9Hillel, +332:

Table +

Fig. .

The three physical phases (solids, water, air) of a soil system. Environmental
Impact Chemicals (EICs) can distributeamong the three phases and can betransported by all three phases (colloidfacilitated transport, solute transport,
and gas transport).

Soil physical and physical-chemical processes and measurement methods

Processes in soils

Parameters

Measurement methods*

Unsaturated and satu- unsaturated and saturated TDR (Time Domain Reﬂectometry) and mini-TDR
rated water ﬂow
hydraulic conductivity
Solute dispersion and dif- dispersivity and solute dif- EC sensors (electrical conductivity sensors),
fusionfusivity
HPLC micro-column method**, and undisturbed
half-cell methods***
Air and gas transport

air permeability, gas di#u- air permeameter, GC micro-column method****,
sivityand gas di#usion chambers

Heat transport

thermal conductivity

heat probes

Physical / Physical-chem- linear or Freundlich sorp- batch and column set-ups, and HPLC and GC
ical sorption (hydropho- tion coe$cient, vapor sorp- micro-column methods****bic sorption)
tion coe$cient* Dane and Top (,**,), ** Komatsu (,**,), *** Olesen (,***), **** Yamaguchi (Komatsu) (+331).

  d +** ¼ 7,**/810

< Fῌ.$I 7Excavation8

Table +    

!"

#$

 7T8 .$I 7in situ Treatment8 , @B*#$ TI I%  $   & '$ ( 

7Removal8  I 7Bioremediation8 ῌ&)'*#$+ ,-.$/* 01 23$

7Pepper et al., +3308

'4 5,!6 7Convection Dispersion Equation ; CDE8 95 7retardation
factor8 &: 0;<#$ 3=>? !@3$ 7Fick’s law8

I 7Chemical Treatment8 Z l + *#$ddT¡iI&U I
@

¢V.$

.+  
VOCs H~I&: 3e *#$AB$ !C3,D/¡iI 7Soil Vapor Extraction ; SVE8 * 3E<#$&)' F >G $ d SVE ~I Fig. / £.FG '4 "#&: !$ # HIJKLMN 7NH.O8

VOC \7&: 7PQIRS8 .$+ T#+U!C¤iaua¥¦I§I 7superfund act8 ¨1 #FUVPQI 7NO-W8 %S #$& &PQI$ % /*# 'XY(:ῌ.$I$ Hw`

FP VOCs IW ,1῍ 7+311 X8 +d SVE ~I$& ©#$ 7USACE, ,**,8<  VOCs FGZ[) \]*^d~I`ggª«¬IA VOCs \7+._I`a, 7Henry’s law8 -:  ]. \.

&: ­®If: /*0 %

b*^/0c1.$23+$\& VOC ¡i#+YL$ P5.8dFG  e 2fghiEj

.$O\5 7air permeability8 +¯3Zuvwx&$ 4k.$3&)'*#$ 3=>? 

Z$ 7Table+ °±8 <  ¡i 798 Zl&.m5n+23$)'$23+$ +²Z:* & G67T3389 $k¡i

[K.$+ +$k\],:oZpq;'$ ,<=Jrs*^ ³]*^)\.$ 7Fig. . °±8 VOCs 

 >0$ bt$ ? 7Campbell ?

]+´ kµ^X+$ 

58 CEC, pH,&¶k+$ 7²Z¡iE @Auvwxo$B0;jd&+23$ T#Fy   B!z: FC{Z<=Jrs&ZG$
dd |}~AB$ D8E:</<&% $& FGZ$&)'*#$

:o 8 _·3¯3&Z$
M* SVE ~IN: O\5

=1I 7Iversen, et al., ,**-8 \795[K=1
I 7Yamaguchi (Komatsu), et al., +3318 \7ῌ FPAB$ EICs ,& G<= 7Yamaguchi (Komatsu), et al, +3338 SVE ~I῍ :\ῌ\F 'XF`iHhi- 7Poulsen, et al., +332, +3338 Zly owI῎ Fῌ'X 7H8 ~I)&-., 

U I 7pump and treat8  Fig. 0 £.FG

d#* #3JK5:$L$ M F 7contaminant plume8 +'X$*3 ῌ ῍ N: y A O\5k 'X&&3F¸¹P5 \7&Q !.$<=JrsR

I$ dI3 SVE ~I&&3e:$ 7e.g. Moldrup, et al., ,**- a, Poulsen, et al.,,**., Moldrup, et al., ,**., Moldrup, et al., ,**- b8* ῎ N:
~I@

3y

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*#

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# º0 `(»/*`(.$ `(» F¹a/ F/*# &d>bT.$23+$dIA F&&3¸¹$ % P5 FZl+¯3Z

F # ῌ'X 7clean-up8 $ 

uvwx&Z$  &Q,: cH 7remediation8 Z~I+$ ~I

+Z # o + M*&:  Q

¸¹ῌYº : !"#$%&'()*+$./Fig. /

Schematic illustration of a Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) system.

Fig. 0 11

Schematic illustration of a pump and treat system setup.

Yamaguchi (Komatsu), et, 0xy%z21I{()%bc|21

Komatsu, et al.,

*}KLMN~I immobile water 

,**,   Poulsen, et al., ,**. 

%Oz2_`| mobile water aE 2> u l

al., +323  /ῌ ῐ῏῍῎ῑD6 (~ intra-particle pore %uxy qhLO%

!"#$%&'()*+$,-./%0123~%7%I PQ*I%O;

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©r%PQ()ª« %|2I 89 *+¬ῌ«

KLMN]^E_` KLMNaPQ*bc$¬­ O; ®]*Y%O Bioremediation 7¯d efLghijk lmnoe7pqrWEz21>uE°±W V# %012u1

` mobile water sc immobile water

D²%\>@A7; ()*+$³0´µ¶·tAu

vw%I Fig. . ()[IV]?VE5xyH0

!"( £ +** ¤ V,**/W

12



 !"#$%&'()*+,-.
!"/&0123456789:;<Society of America Journal, 01 (+) : -,῍.*.
Moldrup, P., Olesen, T., Komatsu, T., Yoshikawa, S.,
Schjῌnning, P. and Rolston, D.E. (,**- b) : Model-=>*-.2?@ABC@;D EF?@ing di#usion and reaction in soils : X. A unifying

G!"EF*+HI*J=. ABC@K-.

model for solute and gas di#usivity in unsaturat-!"(@L MNOPQN=KRST<ed soil. Soil Science, +02 (/) : -,+῍--1.
Moldrup, P., Olesen, T., Yoshikawa, S., Komatsu, T.

ῌ ῏ ῎ ῍and Rolston, D.E. (,**.) : Three-porosity model

Dane, J.H. and Topp, G.C. eds. (,**,) : Methods of Soilfor predicting the gas di#usion coe$cient inAnalysis : Part . : Physical Methods, SSSA Book

undisturbed soil. Soil Science Society of America

Series No. /, Madison, WI.

Journal, 02 (-) : 1/*῍1/3.

Hillel, D. (+332) : Application of Soil Physics to Re-

Motoshita M., Komatsu, T., Moldrup, P., de Jonge, L.

mediation of Hazardous Waste Sites, Envi-

W., Ozaki, N. and Fukushima. T. (,**-) : Soil con-ronmental Soil Physics, Part III, Chapter , : 011῍

stituent facilitated transport of phosphorus from

03*, Academic Press.

a high-p surface soil, Soils and Foundations, .-Iversen, B.V., Moldrup, P., Schjῌnning, P. and Ja-(-) : +*/῍++/.

cobsen, O.H. (,**-) : Field application of a porta-

}~ῌqrstuῌMoldrup, P.ῌῌ

ble air permeameter to characterize spatial vari- V,**+W : *J!"T

ability in air and water permeability. Vadoseu !@{| No. 012 ῌῌ῍+3 : +++῍+,,.

Zone Journal, , : 0+2῍0,0.
Jury, W.A. and Horton, R. (,**.) : Soil Physics, 0th
edition, John Wiley & Sons.

EFU V,**.W : XY +0 Z[EF\]  V+331W : EF?@¡¢] p. 1-.

Olesen, T., Moldrup. P., Yamaguchi, T., Nissen, H.H.
http : //www.

and Rolston, D.E. (,***) : Undisturbed half-cell

env.go.jp/policy/hakusyo/hakusyo.php-?kid^

method for measuring the solute di#usion coe$-,+3

cient in unsaturated soil. Soil Science, +0/ (++) :EFUEF_(`aEFb V,**/W : XY +. Zc!"
deῌfghijkflmn*+deoLp6 http : //www.env.go.jp/water/report/h+0῍

2-/῍2.*.
Pepper, L., Gerba, C.P. and Brusseau, M.L. (+330) :Pollution Science, Academic Press.
Poulsen, T.G., Moldrup, P., Worsten, H. and Jacobsen,*//index.html.
Kersting, A.B., Efurd, D.W., Finnegan, D.L., Rokop, D.

O.H. (,**.) : Predicting three-region unsaturatedJ., Smith, D.K. and Thompson, J.L. (+333) : Migra-

hydraulic conductivity from three soil-water re-tion of plutonium in ground water at the Nevada

tention points. Soil Science, +03 (-) : +/1῍+01.

Test Site. NATURE -31 (1 JANUARY) : /0῍/3.

Poulsen, T.G., Moldrup, P., Schjῌnning, P., Mas-

qrstu V,**.W : !"

vmKwxyz a.0῍+ V0/+W : ,,῍,3.
Komatsu, T., Kawashima, H., Motoshita, M., Moldrup,smannn, J.W. and Aa. Hansen, J. (+332) : Gas permeability and di#usivity in undisturbed soil :Soil Vapor Extraction implications. ASCE Jour-P., Ozaki, N. and Fukushima, T. (,**,) Retarda-

nal of Environmental Engineering, +,. (+*) : 313῍tion of multiple Environmental Impact Chemi-

320.

cals in soils : Direct measurements by impulse

Poulsen, T.G., Moldrup, P., Yamaguchi, T., Schjῌnn-

type HPLC Micro-column method. Environmen-

ing, P. and Aa. Hansen, J. (+333) : Predicting soil-

tal Engineering Research -3 : +01῍.2,. VEF?@

water and soil-air transport properties and their78{|We#ects on soil vapor extraction e$ciency.

Moldrup, P., Yoshikawa, S., Olesen, T., Komatsu, T.
and Rolston, D.E. (,**- a) Air permeability in un-

Ground Water Monitoring & Remediation, +3(-) : 0+῍1*.

disturbed volcanic ash soils : Predictive model

Schelde, K. Moldrup, P., Jacobsen, O.H., de Jonge, H.,

test and soil structure ﬁngerprint. Soil Sciencede Jonge, L.W. and Komatsu, T. (,**,) : Dif-ῌ : 

13

fusion-limited mobilization and transport of nat-

Environmental Engineering Research, -0 : .11῍ural colloids in macroporous soil. Journal of.2,.

Vadose Zone Hydrology, + (+) : +,/῍+-0.

Yamaguchi (Komatsu), T., Inoki, H. and Moldrup,

Soil Science Society of America (,**+) : Glossary

P. (+331) : Gas chromatography micro-columnof Soil Science Term, http : //www.soils.org/

method for measuring retardation of volatile or-sssagloss/.

ganic chemical gas transport in soils. JSCE Jour-

USACE (US Army Corps of Engineers) (+33/) : Military Programs Engineer Manuals, +++*῍+῍.**+,
http : //www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/
eng-manuals/cemp.htm.
Warrick, A.W. (,***) : Soil Physics Companion, CRC
Press.
Yamaguchi (Komatsu), T., Poulsen, T.G., Moldrup, P.

nal of Environmental Systems and Engineering//3 (VIII-,) : +-῍,,. 
Yamaguchi, T., Moldrup, P. and Yokosi, S. (+323) :Using breakthrough curves for parameter estimation in the convection-dispersion model ofsolute transport. Soil Science Society of America
Journal, /- (0) : +0-/῍+0.+.

and Fukushima, T. (+333) : Predictive model for
adsorption of volatile organic chemicals in soils.

 : ,**/
 : ,**/

.
/

,0 
,- 

ῌ
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
d fNo. +**, p. +/,0 ,**/



   *Application of Soil Physics to Rainwater Dynamics at Forested Hillslopes
Ken’ichirou KOSUGI** Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto 0*0῍2/*,, Japan
Abstract
Rainwater dynamics at forested hillslopes are one of the most important themes in foresthydrology, because they have large e#ects on storm and base ﬂow hydrographs, occurrences ofslope failures, material transports in forest ecosystem, and stream water chemistry.

Rainwater

inﬁltration and discharge processes at forested hillslopes can be e#ectively studied by using
methodologies developed in soil physical studies, which includes methods for determining
saturated-unsaturated soil hydraulic properties, equipments for measuring matric potential andwater content in ﬁeld soils, and numerical simulation techniques for saturated-unsaturated soil
water ﬂow.

This paper introduces several previous and new studies which applied themethodologies of soil physics to the analyses of rainwater dynamics at forested hillslopes.
Topics includes characteristics of forest soil hydraulic properties in comparison with disturbed
sandy and loamy soils, e#ects of pore structure of forest soil on rainwater inﬁltration, indices ofwater holding capacity of forest soils, e#ects of soil water-repellency on heterogeneous inﬁltrationand occurrence of surface runo#, experiments and modeling of soil-pipe ﬂow, as well as rainwaterinﬁltration in weathered bedrock.
Key words : forest hydrology, forest soil, water retention characteristic, hydraulic conductivity,
pipe ﬂow

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perties of porous media. Hydrol. Pap. no. -. Colo-LMhij",hk!NK OPQcIRSc

rado State Univ., Ft. Collins.

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Chan, T.P. and Govindaraju, R.S. (,**-) : A new model

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bution model for soil water retention. Water

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unsaturated soil hydraulic properties. Water1 652  Q8

Resour. Res., -, : ,031῍,1*-.

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retention characteristics of forest soils based onF_`T 74 -??

soil pore radius distribution. J. For. Res., , : +῍2.

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Kosugi, K. (+331 b) : New diagrams to evaluate soil KOV Z +** ¼ ,**/

26+/῍,- IJKL (Mpore radius distribution and saturated hydraulicconductivity of forest soil. J. For. Res., , : 3/῍+*+.

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Kosugi, K., Mori, K. and Yasuda, H. (,**+) : An inverse
modeling approach for the characterization of
unsaturated water ﬂow in an organic forest ﬂoor.
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Kosugi, K., Uchida, T. and Mizuyama, T. (,**.) : Numerical calculation of soil pipe ﬂow and its e#ect
on water dynamics in a slope. Hydrol. Process.,+2 : 111῍123.

0..
Uchida, T., Kosugi, K. and Mizuyama, T. (+333) :Runo# characteristics of pipeﬂow and e#ects ofKutílek, M. and Nielsen, D.R. (+33.) : Soil hydrology.
p. /-, Catena Verlag, Cremlingen, Germany.
Noguchi, S., Tsuboyama, Y., Sidle, R. C. and Hosoda, I.

pipeﬂow on rainfall-runo# phenomena in a
mountainous watershed. J. Hydrol., ,,, : +2῍-0.

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pores and the distribution of preferential ﬂow

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pathways in a forested slope segment. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. J., 0- : +.+-῍+.,-.

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van Genuchten, M. Th. (+32*) : A closed-form equa-( 03 :unsaturated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., .. : 23,῍232.

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   *The Recent Studies on Precision Agriculture Based on Soil Physical Properties
Katsuhisa NIWA
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Earthen Wall and its Numerical Analysis
Takeshi ISHIZAKI** National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo
Abstract
In the Asian countries, there are many important wall paintings on earthen walls of temples andother historical buildings. Because earth can be considered as a porous material, there is water
redistribution in the walls due to the change of the surrounding environmental conditions.
Water evaporates under dry conditions from the wall surface and salts accumulate near thesurface zone and can cause salt e%orescence damages in the wall paintings. In order to develop
suitable protective measures, it is necessary to know the water content proﬁles and water
movement in the earthen walls. For this purpose, a model earthen wall has been built up in thehistorical folklore museum in Sapporo. The water redistribution in the earthen wall wasmeasured by using a TDR (Time Domain Reﬂectometry) apparatus.

The numerical simulation ofwater movement in the model wall was performed with the Delphin. program developed by the
TU Dresden.

The material data, such as moisture retention curve, liquid water conductivity andwater vapor di#usivity of the model earthen wall and climate data of the location Sapporo weretaken into account for simulation. For development of suitable protective measures, it is quite
important to have non destructive methods to understand the water regime in porous materials.
The good agreement between simulation results and measured moisture proﬁles in position andtime show the validity of using the Delphin. program for development and evaluation ofconservation measures of historical buildings and stone monuments.
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W=%h i . 
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mm, . mm, -. mm, ,. mm, +. mm, . mm 

{|%%3@/)¤¥Water retention curve of the soil used
for the model wall.

 /   3  QRS". /w xyῌ 5 yῌz %jk $yῌQRS. 
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%3.  -*"%JceJ%& / '()%* bJH 9HA 

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

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Sorption isotherm of the soil used forthe model wall.

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Liquid water conductivity of the soil
used for the model wall.

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Vapor di#usivity of the soil used forthe model wall.

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,-

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Delphin .

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~3

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 6$ +n.7

Burdine (+3/-) : Relative permeability calculations

Fig. +*

Measured volumetric water content
and calculated (Stage +n.).

from pore size distribution data. Petroleum
Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Eng., +32 : 1+ῌ12.

ῌ :1 23456n|_=vI

41

Dane, J.H. and Puckett, W.E. (+33,) : Field Soil Hy-

ing approximation of material characteristics fordraulic Properties Based on Physical and Miner-

input to Heat, Air and Moisture transport simu-

alogical Information. In : van Genuchten M.T. etlations. ++. Bauklimatisches Symposium an deral. (ed.) (+33-), Proceedings of the International

TU Dresden.

Workshop on Indirect Methods for Estimating

Ishizaki, T., Simunek, J. and van Genuchten, M. Th.

the Hydraulic Properties of Unsaturated Soils,(,**+) : Deterioration Mechanism of Stone, BrickRiverside (California) USA, -23῍.*-.

and Soil Building Materials, Proc. Corrosion &Grunewald, J. (,***) : Documentation of the Numeri-

Prevention-*+, Durability of Materials, .+stcal Simulation Program DIM-.+, Volume + : The-

Annual Conference, Newcastle, Australia, ,* : +῍oretical Fundamentals and Volume , : User’s+-.

Guide. Delphin..+ program installation available

Kuchitsu, N. and Duan Xiuye. (+331) : Geological En-

on the ftp-server ftp : //+.+.-*..+.+3. of the Insti-

vironment of the Mogao Grottes at Dunghuang.

tute of Building Climatology.

Proc. of Conservation of Ancient Sites on the

Grunewald, J. and Bomberg, M. (,**,) : An engineer-῍
$%

&'()*+, -./0

Silk Road, ,..῍,.2.

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 : ,**/  /  +2  : ,**/  0  3 ῌ
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
&!
No. +**, p. .-/- ,**/

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*A New Turn and Present State of Drainage Improvementin Snowy Cold Region
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ῐ
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
ῐ῎῍ῑῒ῏
No. +**, p. 0/ῌ1/ ῍,**/῎

The E#ect of Raindrop Impact and Initial Soil Conditions on
Surface Crust Formation
Getachew Girmay ASGEDOM* and Shuichi HASEGAWA** Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Kita 3 Nishi 3, Kita-ku,
Sapporo, *0*ῌ2/23 Japan.
Abstract
This study focused on the e#ect of raindrop impact on the crust formation processes using two
clay loam soils, Hokudai and Biei from Hokkaido, Japan. Four di#erent treatments AD (air dried),
PS (large aggregate), BD (bulk density) and WET (wet) have been prepared from disturbed
samples in a laboratory. A miniature type rainfall simulator with rainfall intensity of 0- mm/hr
was used for duration of one hour from a height of +1* cm to measure the impact of raindrop on
bare soils. The ﬁnal inﬁltration rates were PSῌADῌWETῌBD by raindrop impact. Therefore,
the impact of raindrop in impeding inﬁltration was high in smaller aggregates of AD and WET
treatments compared with PS. Furthermore, the impact was higher for Biei soil than for Hokudaisoil. The hydraulic conductivity of the crust layer for Hokudai and Biei had di#erent trends. The
order of reduction for Hokudai soil was WETῌPSῌADῌBD. The reason for this trend could be
the aggregate stability or resistance to breakage. While the magnitude of reduction in Biei was
ADῌPSῌWETῌBD. The initial moisture content appears to be more important factor for Biei
soil.
Key words : soil crust, raindrop impact, initial soil conditions, hydraulic conductivity, rainfall
simulator+.

Introduction

Crust formation is an important phenomenon occurring on bare soils that a#ect the behavior of soil physical and hydrological properties like inﬁltration, erosion, runo# andseedling emergence. According to Valentine
and Bresson (+331), the term soil crusting refers
to the formation processes and the consequence of a thin layer at the soil surface with
reduced porosity and high penetration resistance.
The formation of surface crusting is a#ectedby the initial soil surface conditions, rainfall
characteristics and composition of the inﬁltrating solution (Hillel, +332). The initial soil surface conditions prior to raindrop impact suchas initial moisture content, aggregate size, bulk
density, slope of the soil, and texture are be-lieved to have an enormous impact on the process of surface crust formation and as a resulton the hydrological properties of the soil surface. The drier the initial moisture content is
the higher the probability of crust development. This phenomenon is related with slaking and dispersion of the surface soil (Norton,+321 ; Le Bissonnais, +33*) and other soil characteristics that cause swelling and microcracking. Initially large aggregates have lower
ﬁnal inﬁltration rate than small aggregates(Moldenhauer and Kemper, +303) whilst Farres(+312) obtained the opposite result. Surface
crust also reduces the hydraulic conductivityof the soil (Hillel and Gardner, +31* ; Ahuja,+31-). Oster and Singer (+32.) studied how thecrusting a#ected water inﬁltration in Californian soils and showed that over one million haof land was a#ected by slower inﬁltration pro-῏

66ΐῐ῎῔῕ῑ ῒ +** ῏ ῌ,**/῍

blems due to surface crust. The formation
processes in arid and semi-arid regions under sodic conditions have been studied well
(Sumner and Stewart, +33,). However, sodic
conditions are absent in high rainfall regions
as the amount of rainfall exceeds the amountof evapotranspiration. Mechanical energy created by raindrops at the soil surface disrupts
the aggregates and restructuring of soil aggregates which forms the surface crust. The
restructuring of the aggregates di#ers depending on the initial soil conditions. The use of
di#erent tillage instruments in the area anddi#erence in climate also create di#erent initialsoil conditions during the cultivation period.
In Biei-Furano area of central Hokkaido, theland is covered with pyroclastic ﬂow sediments
and is very susceptible to soil erosion (Kashiwagi and Sakuma, +33/). Soil crusting isthought to be a major cause for surface runo#
and as a result soil erosion occurs. By studying
the e#ects of change of the initial soil conditions on crust formation in the crust a#ectedarea of Biei by comparing with the Hokudai
alluvial soil can clarify the crust formation
process. Moreover, the problem of soil crustingin central Hokkaido is not addressed yet and as
it is a high rainfall region (+,*** mm per year), a
study on soil crusting with emphasis on themechanisms and nature of disruption of aggregates is vital.
Some of the studies on crust still have di#erent
thoughts on the process of formation ; such as,+. Crusts are mainly formed through theimpact of raindrops on bare soil, an aggregate
induced by entrapped air compression (Boi$n,+320) or micro-cracking from shrink-swell phenomena (Valentine, +33+),,. The process and formation of surface
crusting is the e#ect of structural disturbances(Duley, +3-3),-. The formation of crust is a#ected by thewash-in e#ect of the smaller soil particles into
the relatively large pores which results in thedecrease of inﬁltration rate (McIntyre, +3/2 ;Nishimura et al., +33-),.. The formation of crust is due to particle
deposition and compaction (Lemos and Lutz,+3/1),/. Crust formation is the e#ect of suction
force (Morin et al., +32+) which is developed at
the crust-soil interference and causes crust
densiﬁcation and stabilization,
0. Crust is formed due to ponding, suspension and settlement of soil particles during
rainfall (Chen et al., +32*) and1. Crust is formed due to a hard setting ofsoil by structural breakdown of weakened soil
aggregates during wetting (Mullins and Lei,
+33/).
The objective of the present study was to
examine the e#ect of raindrop impact on crust
formation processes using two di#erent soils
and to verify how soil physical properties like
initial moisture content, aggregate size andbulk density a#ect crust formation, inﬁltrationand hydraulic conductivity values using a
rainfall simulator in a laboratory.
,.

Materials and Methodology,. + Soil and soil column
Two types of soils from Hokkaido prefecture,
Japan were used. Disturbed samples of an
alluvial soil (Udiﬂuvent) from Hokkaido University Farm in Sapporo (Hokudai soil) and abrown forest soil (Typic Dystrochrepts) in a
private farm from Kamikawa district, Biei
town (Biei soil) were sampled from an Ap +horizon (*ῌ+0 cm). The ﬁeld physical propertiesof the two soils are shown in Table +. Aftersieving to the appropriate size depending on
the experiment to be executed, the samples
were packed into a column with diameter of 0
cm and height of +- cm to a length of +* cm.
Four combinations of treatments named as AD(air-dried), PS (large aggregate), BD (bulk density) and WET (wet) were used as shown in
Table ,. The Bulk densities at ﬁeld conditions
were *.33 and +.+3 Mg/m- for Hokudai and Biei
soils, respectively. AD sample, which wastaken as the control sample, was made to resemble the ﬁeld conditions when dry. The῏῎ : The E#ect of Raindrop Impact and Initial Soil Conditions on Surface Crust Formation

Table +
Type ofsoilrd(Mg/m-)

67

Physical properties of the soilsf(m-/m-)OMC(ῌ)

Particle size distribution
(ῌ)
Sand

Silt

Clay

TextureHokudai

*433

*400

+-

.2

,-

,3

Clay
loam

Biei

+4+3

*4.,

/

.1

-,

,+

Clay
loam

rd῍dry bulk density, f ῍porosity, OMC῍organic matter content.

Table ,

Physical properties of the samples

Type of soil

Group

rd
(Mg/m-)

f(mm)

w(kg/kg)

Hokudai

PS
AD
BD
WET

+4**
+4**
+4,*
+4**

/
,
,
,

*4,*
*4,*
*4,*
*4.,

Biei

PS
AD
BD
WET

+4,*
+4,*
+4/*
+4,*

/
,
,
,

*4**4**4**4,-rd῍dry bulk density f῍aggregate size, w῍initialmoisture content
AD : air dried soil, PS : large aggregate size soil,
BD : high bulk density soil and WET : wet soil

moisture contents of the samples were adjusted to *.,* and *.*- kg/ kg for Hokudai andBiei soils, respectively. PS sample had a larger
aggregate size than the control size. BD sample
had higher bulk density than the control sample which corresponded to the compacted state
under ﬁeld conditions. WET sample was madeto be high in moisture content to resemble thewet ﬁeld conditions of around ῌ0 to ῌ+* kPa.
The soil column had a runo# outlet just on thesurface of the soil with a collector connected toit. At the bottom of the soil column anothercollecting apparatus was used to collect thedrained water. The soil column had lateralholes at depths of +./, / and +* cm from the soil
surface to insert the tensiometers into the soil.
,. , Rainfall Simulator
A miniature rainfall simulator of a drop
forming type was used in the laboratory. The

rainfall simulator consists of an airtight reservoir with a number of capillary tubes (,/ nozzles) pierced to the bottom. A Mariotte typebubbling tube for keeping the pressure head
constant was placed as used by Ogden et al.
(+331). The intensity of the rainfall was adjusted to a range of 0*ῌ0- mm/hr with an average raindrop size of , mm. The rainfall simulator had a fall height of +1* and +2 cm from thesoil sample. The +1* cm height (called as raindrop impact hereafter) was chosen to evaluate
the e#ect of raindrop impact from a heightwith energy to create free fall raindrops withterminal velocity of /.2 m sῌ+ as calculated fromthe energy conservation principle. The +2 cm
height (called as no-raindrop impact hereafter)
was used as no or minimum impact on the soil
surface.
,. - Experimental setup
Fig. + illustrates the experimental setup.
Measurements of matric potential were takenusing three tensiometers, each equipped withpressure transducers (Copal PA/**ῌ+*,), which
was connected to a data logger (M.S.C. free slot
02 KD/H) and a computer, inserted at depths of+./, /, and +* cm from the top of the soil surface.
Rainfall was applied for duration of one hourfor all experiments. Total amount of rainfall
was 0- mm or equivalent to +12 cm- per soilcolumn. Each treatment had at least two replications.
The rainfall simulator had been
vibrated manually throughout the experiment
to form uniform distribution of the rainfall on
the soil surface. Amounts of runo# and drainage were collected at +/ min interval. Saturat-ΐῐ῎῔῕ῑ ῒ +** ῏ ῌ,**/῍

68

Fig. +

Experimental setup, a, b and c are depths of tensiometer at +./, / and +* cm, respectively.

ed hydraulic conductivity was measured using
a constant head method immediately after therainfall.
-.

Results and discussion-. + E#ect of raindrop impact-. +. + Hokudai soil
All the rainfall inﬁltrated into the soil in theAD, PS and WET samples under no raindrop
impact. However, runo# was observed in BD
sample. The samples which all amount of rainfall inﬁltrated into the soil indicate that themain factor for inﬁltration was the rainfall intensity not the soil surface conditions. In otherwords, the rainfall intensity was less than thesoil inﬁltration capacity except in BD. Runo#
started in BD soil at ++, +/ and ,/ min after
rainfall for the three replicates. The corresponding amounts of runo# ranged from 30ῌ

+0+ cm-/hr or corresponded to /.ῌ3*ῌ of theamount of the rainfall. We believed that the
big gap seen between the results happened as
results of sample preparation.
For the raindrop impact, runo# was observed in all samples as shown in Table -. Fig.
, (a) shows cumulative inﬁltration versus timefor Hokudai under raindrop impact. Fig. , (a)as well as Table - indicates that the amounts ofruno# for the two replicates of PS were nearly
nil and ++ῌ of the total rainfall which were theleast amount of runo#. Lines shown in Figures,, -, and . are average values and the ranges ofthe measured values are shown in Fig. , bybars. In AD and WET, the amounts of runo#
were +3 & ,0ῌ and +1 & -*ῌ of the total rainfall for the replicates and the di#erence between AD and WET was minimal. BD had thehighest runo# observed, i.e, 0- & 1+ῌ of theῐ῏ : The E#ect of Raindrop Impact and Initial Soil Conditions on Surface Crust Formation

Table -

Hydrological conditions during rainfall of Hokudai soil
Runo#(cm-) (ῌ)

Stored(cm-)

Inﬁltrated(cm-)

Time to runo#(min)Impacted-- ῍+3῎.1 ῍,0῎

+./
+-+

+./
+-+

++
++

No impact

*
*

+,3
+*+

+12
+12

ῌ
ῌ

Impacted+ ῍+῎,* ῍++῎

+11
+/2

+11
+/2

/*
/*

No impact

*
*

103

+12
+12

ῌ
ῌ

Impacted/- ῍-*῎-* ῍+1῎

+,.
+.2

+,/
+.2

+,
+3

No impact

*
*

,1

+12
+12

ῌ
ῌ

Impacted++, ῍0-῎+,1 ῍1+῎

00
/+

00
/+

2
2

No impact+0+ ῍3*῎+,- ῍03῎
30 ῍/.῎

+1
//
2,

+1
//
2,

++
+/
,/

Type of soil
AD

PS

WET

BD

69

Total amount of rainfall equals +12 cm- for one-hour duration. The numbers
in parenthesis under runo# column are the percentage of the total amount of
rainfall.

Fig. , (a) Cumulative inﬁltration of Hokudai soil withraindrop impact at di#erent soil conditions.

total rainfall for the two replicates.
There were clear di#erences in the ﬁnal inﬁltration rates (the inﬁltration rate in the
fourth interval, between ./ and 0* min of rainfall duration) between no-raindrop impact andraindrop impact treatments. In the no raindrop
impact the ﬁnal inﬁltration rates for ﬁve of theeight samples were unchanged. The di#erence
in ﬁnal inﬁltration rate between no- and withraindrop impact was least in BD (*.++ cm/hr)
and the highest di#erence in ﬁnal inﬁltration
was in WET (+..3 cm/hr) and followed by AD(+.., cm/hr). Since the samples of the noimpact and impacted had the same initial conditions, the di#erence observed in the ﬁnal inﬁltration rate was attributed to the raindrop
energy. This result supports the studies conducted by Agassi et al. (+32/) and Keren (+33*).
They showed that the ﬁnal inﬁltration ratewith the high-energy rain was much lower
than the corresponding rate with the low-

70

energy rain.
-. +. , Biei soil
In case of the no raindrop impact of Biei,
there was a +**ῌ inﬁltration of the total rainfall in WET and PS treatments. However,runo# was observed in BD and AD treatments.
Runo# in BD started +3 min for two replicatesand +, min for the third one after the start of
rainfall and for AD runo# started after +0 min.
The BD had ,., 0., 1-ῌ of runo# of the total
rainfall for the three replicates and AD had ++and +2ῌ of runo# of the total rainfall as shownin Table .. Inﬁltration rate in BD decreased at
an early stage then became constant during
the rest of the rainfall duration. The decrease
in inﬁltration of AD with no raindrop impact
must be attributed to slaking e#ect whichmakes the soil aggregates disintegrate easily
and forms a less porous surface and as a result
runo# occurred. This disintegration might
Table .

PS

WET

BD

,**/

possibly occur in all dry treatments as AD, PS
and BD, however, the e#ect was high in AD.
Assuming equal disintegration occurred between AD and PS, PS’s relatively big pores
were possibly large enough to inﬁltrate thetotal rainfall while AD have impeded the inﬁltration due to clogging of small pores between the aggregates.
For the raindrop impact as shown in Fig. ,(b), runo# was observed in WET and PS as wellas an increase of runo# in AD which was clearly shown in Table .. Cumulative runo# washigh in BD samples followed by WET, AD and
PS. However, cumulative inﬁltration shown in
Fig. , (b) had similar trends with Hokudai asshown in Fig. , (a).
For both soils the di#erence in ﬁnal inﬁltration rate between the no- and with raindrop
impact treatments was relatively high in WET
and AD followed by PS while BD had negligi-

Hydrological conditions during rainfall of Biei soil
Runo#(cm-) (ῌ)

Stored(cm-)

Inﬁltrated(cm-)

Time to runo#(min)Impacted2, .0
0/ -1.- ,.

30
+++-/

30
+++-/

+0
+/
+0

No impact-, +2,* ++

+.0
+/2

+.0
+/2

+/
+1

Impacted-. +3.2 ,1

+..
+*0

+..
+-*

,,
,2

No impact

*
*

+12
+12

+12
+12




Impacted// -++*2 0+

+,1*

+,1*

,*
,*

No impact

*
*

+12
3,

+12
+12




Impacted+-* 1-++/ 0/

.2
0-

.2
0-

1
2

No impact++. 0.
., ,.+-* 1-

0.
+-0
.2

0.
+-0
.2

+3
+3
+,

Type of soil
AD+**

Total amount of rainfall equals +12 cm- for one-hour duration. The numbers
in parenthesis under runo# column are the percentage of the total amount of
rainfall.

῏῎ : The E#ect of Raindrop Impact and Initial Soil Conditions on Surface Crust Formation

71

Fig. , (b) Cumulative inﬁltration of Biei soil with raindrop impact at di#erent soil conditions.

ble di#erence. For those samples that all theamount of rainfall was inﬁltrated into the soil
during the no-raindrop impact (in ﬁve of theeight cases as shown in Tables - and .), it canbe said that there was no surface crust formation.
From the above facts we can conclude thatthe rainfall energy was the main reason for theoccurrence of surface runo# or decline of ﬁnal
inﬁltration rate by activating the formation ofcrust. From our visual observation, this happened by the breakage or disruption of the soil
aggregates by the raindrop impact resulted
in rearrangement of the soil particles into
smoother, denser and relatively smaller aggregates.
-. , E#ect of soil initial conditions and its
impact on surface crusting
The responses for the raindrop impact weredi#erent for di#erent initial conditions. Thechange in the ratio of inﬁltration rate between
the no- raindrop impact and raindrop impact

treatments was expressed as ei῍(ioῌi)/io, where
io and i are the inﬁltration rates at +/ minutes
interval for the no- and with raindrop impact
treatments, respectively. In Hokudai soil, as
shown in Fig. -, BD had its maximum value ofei at the ﬁrst +/ min-period. Furthermore, thetime to runo# for both no- and with raindrop
impact was observed by +/ min except one case
(Table -), indicating raindrop impact being earlier to appear. Nevertheless, ei of BD at ./ to 0*
min period was about /ῌ as shown in Fig. -,which was small. The e#ect of crusting,though little, happened during the ﬁrst +/ minperiod. The highest value of ei was observed in
AD and WET which was ,- and ,.ῌ respectively. In PS, ei remained nil until ./ min thenincreased to 0ῌ. There was no runo# until thelast +* min. It is clear from the graph that the
impact of raindrop was low in PS for Hokudai.
Biei soil had higher ei in WET and AD andleast ei in BD like Hokudai soil as shown in Fig.
.. For PS, ei was quite signiﬁcant (,-ῌ) only72ΐῐ῎῔῕ῑ ῒ +** ῏ ῌ,**/῍Fig. -

Change in the ratio of inﬁltration rate
between no- and with raindrop impact
soils of Hokudai.

Fig. .

Change in the ratio of inﬁltration rate
between no- and with raindrop impact
soils of Biei.

less by ,ῌ from AD. Unlike Hokudai soil, PS of
Biei had high value of ei, which indicated thatBiei soil is more vulnerable to crust formation.
From this we can say that WET, for both
Hokudai and Biei, seems to be a#ected as much
as AD. However, combining all factors liketime to runo#, total inﬁltration, amount drainedwater, ei and the saturated hydraulic conductivity (to be discussed in following section),gives the true picture of the crusting e#ect andits process. In Hokudai soil, WET and AD
treatments had almost similar inﬁltration until
the termination of the rainfall as shown in Fig.
, (a) whereas AD had early time to runo# asshown in Table -. In case of Biei, the e#ect of

initial moisture content was high as it a#ects
PS sample almost equally to AD unlike Hokudai. From the tensiometer reading, however,inﬁltration did not reach / cm depth in all replicates of AD while it reached +* cm depth in PS
and WET. This is an indication that AD wasmore vulnerable to the formation of crust.
Though the two types of soils belong to thesame clay loam texture category, the impact ofrainfall had di#erent responses. Biei soil was
more a#ected by the raindrop impact in alltreatments.
PS was included in the present study to evaluate the e#ects of aggregate size with respect
to porosity and wash-in e#ect. Our hypothesis
was that as the aggregate size crumbled, thesmaller size particles would be washed-in andcumulative inﬁltration becomes low and ei
becomes high in PS compared to AD. However,
the result did not meet our hypothesis. Cumulative inﬁltration of PS was higher than AD for
both soils as shown in Fig. , (a) and (b). Therewas slow disturbance on the surface of PS fromthe observation and this was clearly seen in
Hokudai soil. Two factors should be taken into
consideration for the reason why PS had lessdisturbances than AD. The ﬁrst factor is thatthe change in porosity due to the e#ect ofraindrop impact and the second factor is thestrength of the raindrop energy to break theaggregate size. Either the raindrop energy to
break the bigger aggregates was not strong
enough or the change in porosity from theinitial pore volume due to raindrop impact wasless in PS assuming the raindrop energy had
equal e#ect in both AD and PS treatments. In
this study, the wash-in mechanism was not
conﬁrmed either through our results or ourvisual observations.
In case of BD, the di#erence between the noand with raindrop impact treatments was low
and it was not quite clear to explain the crust
formation using the inﬁltration rate of the soil.
Nevertheless, the time to runo# was early inthe raindrop impact treatment that can give an
indication of earlier formation of crust than theῑῐ : The E#ect of Raindrop Impact and Initial Soil Conditions on Surface Crust Formation

no-raindrop impact treatment. Furthermore, ei
showed an earlier di#erence, indicating the evidence of the e#ect of the raindrop impact (Fig.
- and .).
There was an apparent di#erence in inﬁltration rate as well as time to runo# between thetwo soils. Biei soil has a less inﬁltration capacity and faster to generate runo#. This is anindication of the fact that Biei soil was more
susceptible to crust formation, which must be
due to its low organic matter, high silt, lowporosity and high bulk density of the soil.
-. - Changes in saturated hydraulic conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity of the surface crust
was evaluated using Darcy’s law in stratiﬁedsoil. Hydraulic conductivity of two layered soil
is expressed as (July and Horton, ,**.),
LtῌKtot῏LcrῌKcrῌLnῌKnῌ

where Lt, Lcr and Ln are total length of the soilcolumn, thickness of the crust and length ofsoil under the crust (Lt -Lcr), respectively. Ktot
and Kn are saturated hydraulic conductivity of
the raindrop impacted and no-raindrop impacted samples which were measured immediately
after the rainfall was over, and Kcr is saturated
hydraulic conductivity of the crusted layer.
The crusted length (Lcr) was measured after
careful removal of the loosened particles fromthe subsurface layer and determined as , mm
after measuring several samples of crusts byvernier caliper.
Saturated hydraulic conductivities of thecrusted layer (Kcr) for Hokudai soil decreased in
the order of four for WET, two for PS and one
for AD and BD compared to the no- raindrop
impact soil (Kn) as shown in columns , and - ofTable /. The impedance caused by the formation of crusted layer appears to be high in WET
and least in BD. It can be said that Hokudai soil
is easily disrupted by raindrop energy when
wet than dry. The bondage between particles
seemed to become hard when dry and moreenergy is needed to break aggregates into
pieces. Thus, Kcr of WET was lower than that73of AD. To further verify this idea, a study
should be done with high raindrop energy likehigh rainfall intensity and/or big raindrop size.
For Biei soil, Kcr decreased in the order offour for AD, three for PS and WET, and two for
BD compared to Kn as shown in columns , and- of Table /.
Initially dry samples showed extremely lower Kcr than WET. PS and AD had similar Kcr
values after the raindrop impact. Runo# occurred for Biei AD with no-raindrop impact,which indicates that the soil was easily disrupted even in the absence of raindrop impact.
E#ect of initial soil moisture content on Kcr wasvery di#erent between Hokudai and Biei soils.
The ratios of hydraulic conductivity of thewhole column of the raindrop impacted to thatof no-raindrop impacted (Kn/Ktot) were , times
for AD and BD, 2 times for PS and -** times for
WET for Hokudai. While for Biei, the ratios
were ,1, +*, +.-- and +* times for AD, WET, BD
and PS, respectively. The e#ect of the crusted
layer on the whole soil proﬁle was high in
WET, followed by PS and low in AD and BD for
Hokudai. Unlike Hokudai the impact on thewhole proﬁle was high in AD, followed by PS
and WET and low in BD for Biei.

Table / Average Hydraulic conductivity of Hokudai
and Biei soils after rainfall
Type of soil

Kcr
῎+*῍(cm/s)Kn῎+*῍(cm/s)

Ktot
῎+*῍(cm/s)

AD

HokudaiBiei+4,+*4*+0/

0,
,1

-/
+

PS

HokudaiBiei+41/*4*+1+

2**
+**

+**
+*

WET

Hokudai
Biei

*4*/0
-4*2

23*
+11*

-40
+2*

BD

HokudaiBiei*4*+*2*4*-///43
2-40

Where Kcr is the hydraulic conductivity of crusted
layer, Kn is the hydraulic conductivity of the noimpacted column and Ktot is the Hydraulic conductivity of the whole column of raindrop impactedΐῐ῎῔῕ῑ ῒ +** ῏ ῌ,**/῍74..

Conclusions

Four di#erent treatments for Hokudai andBiei soils were examined to investigate thee#ect of raindrop impact on the crust formation by comparing with no-raindrop impact.
The two soils used as well as the treatments
for each soil had shown di#erent responses
against the no-raindrop and raindrop impacts.
The following conclusions can be drawn regarding the e#ect of raindrop impact on thetreatments, soil type and the formation processof crust.
+. Results of the no- and with raindrop
impact indicated that raindrop energy was themain factor for the formation of surface crusting on bare soil. This result agrees with Boi$n(+320), McIntyre (+3/2) and Nishimura et al.
(+33-).
,. However, processes of crust formation byraindrop impact investigated from water movement were di#erent among the treatments.
The crust was formed earlier for high bulk
density (BD) treatment. Inﬁltration rates of
air dried (AD) and wet (WET) treatments decreased with time by raindrop impact. In large
aggregate (PS), cumulative inﬁltration was thehighest among the treatments. The small aggregates had higher impact. Similar results
were found by Farres (+312).
-. PS was prepared to check the wash-in
e#ect. Contrary to the expectation there were
no washed-in particles observed in our study.
Chen et al. (+32*) has similar outcome. However, other authors (McIntyre, +3/2 ; Nishimura
et al., +33-) have found wash-in e#ect.
.. Even though it could not show us theextent of formation, the time to runo# or ponding became an indication of formation of crusting in cases of WET, AD and PS.
/. In Hokudai soil, hydraulic conductivityof crust layer (Kcr) of AD was high compared tothat of WET indicating that aggregate became
more stable with decreasing soil water. While
in Biei, AD had the lowest Kcr followed by PS
and WET. The main reason for this can be thestrength of the aggregates at di#erent moisture contents, that is, Hokudai soil had highbondage between particles when dry and Biei
soil particles had strong bondage when wet.
Thus, Biei soil aggregates were easily disintegrated during rainfall when dry. In addition, the inﬁltration capacity of Biei soil was
low compared to Hokudai soil and the values of
Kcr decreased drastically in dry samples of Biei
soil. Thus, it can be said that Biei soil was more
susceptible to crust formation and surface
runo# when dry.
References
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Journal of the Japanese Societyof
Soil Physics
July ῍ῌῌ῎

No. +**
Contents

Foreword ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌI. TANIYAMAῌ

+Special reports for the issue of No. +**Introduction ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌS. HASEGAWAῌ

-I. Soil Physics in related research ﬁelds
The Emerging Role of Soil Physics in Environmental EngineeringῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌT. KOMATSU and P. MOLDRUPῌ

/Application of Soil Physics to Rainwater Dynamics at Forested HillslopesῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌK. KOSUGIῌ +/The Recent Studies on Precision Agriculture Based on Soil Physical PropertiesῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌK. NIWAῌ ,1Experimental Study of Water Redistribution Measurement in the Model Earthen
Wall and its Numerical AnalysisῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌT. ISHIZAKIῌ -/II. Roles of soil physics for stable crop production
A New Turn and Present State of Drainage Improvement in Snowy Cold RegionῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌI. KITAGAWAῌ .A Field Study of Irrigation Technics for Upland Crops in Humid AreaῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌH. TAKEUCHIῌ //Original Papers
The E#ect of Raindrop Impact and Initial Soil Conditions on Surface Crust
Formation ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌG.G. ASGEDOM and S. HASEGAWAῌ 0/
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Japanese Society of Soil Physics
Division of Environmental Resources
Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University
Sapporo, *0*ῌ2/23 Japan