Journal of Global Resources
Volume 5 (01)January 2019
ISSN: 2395-3160 (Print), 2455-2445 (Online)

Page 67-72

08
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION AND ITS IMPACT ON WOMEN’s HEALTH IN SIKAR
DISTRICTAnju Ojha
Assistant Professor (Geography), Govt. Lohia PG College, Churu, (Rajasthan) India
Email: draj2280@gmail.com

Abstract: According to the latest World Health Organization (WHO) report, 8 million people
die every year globally because of air pollution. Among these, 4.3 million die because of airpollution from household sources and 3.7 million die because of ambient air pollution. This
study explores the risk that women face from cooking food, using biomass fuels, on
traditional stoves and in unventilated rooms. They are exposed to fire, smoke and toxic
pollutants. Women are more at risks to health problems especially respiratory diseases
because of their long hours of involvement in cooking food. This study is based on primarysources of data collected with the help of questionnaire interviews from 1000 womenbelonging to different income groups. Since women are responsible for cooking they wereselected as respondents. This study is designed to examine the type of household energy
used, pollution levels emitted from different types of cooking fuels, and the correlation
between risk factors and respiratory health. About half of the women respondents were
found traditional cooking fuels and were more prone to respiratory problem and diseases.
Key words: Indore Air Pollution, Health Impact, Women Issues, Diseases.
Introduction
In the words of Rosalynn Carter, “There is nothing more important than a good, safe andsecure home”. It is believed that a house is the most secure and healthy environment for anyindividual. However, the house can also be a source of various air pollutants that can have asignificant adverse impact on health. The use of unprocessed biomass fuels for cooking has
been identified as the major source of indoor air pollution because it releases 50 times morenoxious pollutants than gas (Smith, 1990). The most important include particulate matter,carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, formaldehyde and carcinogens such as
benzo (a) pyrene and benzene (Ezzati et al., 2000). Levels of indoor particulate matter,
which are commonly measured in milligrams per cubic meter, reach transient peaks of as
high as 20-80 mg/ m3when fires are started or stirred; these peaks from up to half of total
exposure in women, as they are required to stay close to the fire while cooking. The stovesor chulha (u shaped open stoves made of bricks and mud) used for cooking purpose are notenergy efficient in which the fuels are not completely burned. Nearly three fourth of the
Indian households(including 3 out of 10 urban households and 8 out of 10 rural households)
use open fires or chulhas without chimneys (NFHS-3, 2007). Breathing of polluted air is as
old as mankind, particularly since the domestication of fire. Evidence of fire accompanied
hominid remains from 5 lac years ago in China (James 1989) and offered people then asurvival advantage through cooking foods, heating and keeping bugs and beasts away.
When people built shelters for dwellings, they also brought pollutants into the indoor living
space (Spengler and Samet, 1991). Today, burning biomass- principally wood, crop residues
and dung remains an important source of exposure to a variety of toxins mainly in the67developing countries. About 3 billion people use biomass and the remainder use coal for
most of their household energy needs (Bruce et al., 2006). The percentage of people using
solid fuels varies widely among different regions and countries ranging from 77 per cent in
Sub -Saharan Africa, 75 per cent in South- East Asia, 74 per cent in Western Pacific Region
to 36 per cent in Eastern Mediterranean Region and 16 per cent in Latin America andCaribbean and Central and Eastern Europe. In most of the industrialised countries, use ofsolid fuels falls below 5 percent (Rehfuess et al., 2006). In India 78 percent of population
relied upon biomass fuel and 3 per cent used coal (Census of India, 2001)
Indoor air pollution is the most direct physical health risk. It contributes to acuterespiratory infection in young children; chronic lung diseases and cancer in adults andadverse pregnancy outcomes (such as still births) in women exposed during pregnancy(Park, 2007). It increases the risk of other health problems including low birth weight,
prenatal mortality, asthma, otitis media, tuberculosis, nasopharyngeal cancer, cataracts,blindness and cardiovascular diseases (WHO, 2005). High concentration of indoor air
pollution increases the risk of acute respiratory infection (ARI). On the basis of site of
infection it is referred to as ARI of upper (AURI includes common cold, pharyngitis, and otitis
media) or lower (ALRI includes epiglottis, laryngitis, laryngotracheitis, bronchitis, bronchiolitis
and pneumonia) respiratory tract (Park, 2007). Keeping these aspects in mind an attempt
has been made to examine the links between indoor air pollution and respiratory health ofwomen in Sikar district.
Study Area
The district is located in the north eastern Rajasthan between 270 21’ to 280 12’ northlatitudes and 740 44’ to 750 25’ east longitudes. It is bounded by Churu and Jhunjhunu
districts in the north, by Jaipur district in the east, by Nagaur and Jaipur districts in the south
and in the west by Churu and Nagaur districts of Rajasthan. Sikar is situated midway
between Bikaner and Jaipur on national highway number 11. Sikar is located in theShekhawati region of Rajasthan. There is still no broad gauge railway track in the district. Itis connected through meter gauge to Delhi, Jaipur, Rewari, Bikaner, Sri Ganganagar, Churu,and Jhunjhunu. The district is divided in six administrative tehsils viz. Sikar, Fatehpur,Laxmangarh, Neem Ka Thana, Danta Ramgarh, and Sri Madhopur.
Database and Methodology
The study is mainly based on primary sources of data which have been collected throughhousehold surveys and monitoring of the level of pollutants released from cooking fuels.
Field work was conducted during 2017-18.
(i)

For selecting the sample, multistage stratified sampling design was acquired. The
first stage consisted of selection of village from the total number of village. In
second stage, from each selected village about 100 households were selected
and from each sampled households a senior women was chosen as therespondent because women are engaged in household activities and they know
more about their household conditions. The total sample size consisted of 1200
households, of which, 120 (10 percent) were from the high income group (>Rs.
20,000 per month), 300 (25 percent) from medium income group (Rs.10, 00120,000 per month) and 420 (35 percent) from low income group (Rs.5001-10000per month) and 360 (30 per cent) from very low income group (< Rs.5000 permonth).

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(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

A questionnaire was prepared with the help of questionnaires used in similar
studies to collect information regarding the general profile of the sampled
households, types of households energy used for cooking food, ventilation
facility, time spent for cooking, exposure to smoke and heat and occurrence of
associated respiratory diseases.
On the basis of collected information, risk factors were identified and links
between indoor air pollution, types of household energy used and respiratory
health of women were examined.
Emphasis was laid on both primary and secondary data to collect large volume of
information in respect of indoor air pollution. Based on secondary data a generalprofile of the district out lined on the basis of above study. From the district 12
sample villages were studied for detailed study.
The selection of villages was based on random sampling. At the micro level thestudy has been done on the basis of questionnaire by personal interview methodwith the farmers. There were 100 household interviewed from each village.

Income Wise Profile of the Sampled Women Respondents
The detailed survey was conducted in all 12 villages of the district. The latest data have also
been collected. Table no 2 shows that about 35 per cent of the women respondents werefrom low income group, 25 per cent from medium, 30 per cent from very low and 10 per centfrom high income group. Regarding their family size and number of children it was observedthat most of lower income women were having large family size i.e. > 5members (70 percentof very low, 50 percent of low) and were having more number of children i.e. 4 and more (45percent of low and 70 percent very low) than the medium and high income women
respondents. Their educational status shows that more than three fourth (85 percent of verylow, 75 percent of low) of the lower income women respondent were uneducated while one
fourth of the medium and only few from the high income category were uneducated.
Regarding awareness about indoor air pollution and its health effect, it was observed that
more than half of the lower income women respondents (70 per cent of very low, 60 percentof low) were not aware about ill effects, while 44 percent of the medium and 5 percent ofhigh income women respondents were also not aware about the ill effects of the indoor air
pollution. Thus, it was observed that as income decreases the family size and number ofchildren increases and level of education and awareness (about the use of traditional fuels,
place of cooking, type of stove used, indoor air pollutants and effect on health) decreases.
Table 1: Income wise Profile of the Sampled Women Respondents
IncomeGroupPercentage
ofhouseholds

No. of family
members(in %)

1-5
High
1080
Medium
2556
Low
3550
Very low
3030
Total
100
48.5
Source: Based on Field Survey

>520
44
50
70
51.5

No. of children(in %)

1-4
90
60
55
30
52.25

>4
1040
45
70
47.75

Educational Status(in %)
Educated

Uneducated

95
71
25
15
40.5

5
2975
85
59.5

Awarenessabout indoor air
pollution (in %)

Yes
95
56
40
30
46.5

No5
44
60
70
53.5

Energy Used for Cooking
Table no. 2 shows that women belongings to lower income group tend to use the traditional
fuels (agricultural residues/ twinges, wood, dung cake, kerosene, coal etc.) and stoves69

(chulas, kerosene stoves etc.) in higher percentage (95 percent of very low income, 60
percent low income). The entire higher income group and 80 percent of medium groupreported of using modern cooking fuels (LPG, electricity) and stoves (gas stoves, heaters).
Some of medium income group (10 percent) and some of lower income group (20 percent)were found using both traditional and modern fuels and stoves in order to save money or at
the time of emergency when gas cylinders were not available or either at the time of power
cut. It can be analyzed that as the income increases households have higher quality of fuelchoices.
Regarding the place of cooking food it was observed that the very low income
women respondents reported of cooking either in verandah (40 percent) or in a multipurpose
room (30 percent) or in open space (30 percent ). Most of medium income (70 percent) andentire high income respondents reported of cooking in a separate kitchen. During the survey,
50 percent of very low, 40 percent of low and 20 percent of medium income women
respondents reported of improper ventilation in their homes. Regarding the time spent forcooking, means being exposed to smoke or fire.it was observed that more than half of thewomen respondents were spending > 3 hours per day in kitchen (80 percent of the very low,
70 percent of low, 40 percent of medium and nearly 25 percent of high income).

>3hrs

2040
50
34

75
60
30
20
39

25
40
70
80
61

Openspace< 3 hrs

Multipurpose roomNoSeparatekitchenTimes spendfor cooking (perday) (%)

VerandahProperventilation(%)

BothTraditional / Modern

Place of cooking food(%)

ModernfuelHighMedium
Low
Very LowTotal

Type of cooking stove used(%)

Traditiona
l fuelIncome Group

Table 2: Income wise Household Energy Used for Cooking

Yes

1060
95
52

100
80
20
5
38.5

1020
9.5

1630
40
26.5

100
70
30
38

620
30
17.5

82030
18100
80
60
50
66

Source: Based on Field Survey

Respiratory Diseases and Related Problem
Table no 3 shows that about 90 percent of the very low, 80 percent of the low, 50 per cent ofthe medium and 40 percent of the high income women respondents reported of sufferingfrom respiratory diseases and related problems. Of the very low income women
respondents, 21.61 per cent reported of AURI, 21.61 percent reported that their young ones
were suffering from child ARI, 15.44 per cent reported of ALRI, 6.17 percent reported ofdyspnoea, 10.49 percent reported of other respiratory infections, 6.17 percent reported oftuberculosis, 6.17 percent reported asthma, 6.17 percent reported of emphysema and 6.17
percent reported from asphyxia. Almost the same condition exists among the low incomewomen respondents table no 4 shows that as the income increases the use of modern fuels
for cooking purpose, use of neat, hygienic separate well ventilated kitchen increases and thetime involved in cooking decreases. As the income increases the exposure of women tosmoke, heat and fire decreases, so they do not suffer from respiratory diseases as the low
income women.

70

Table 3: Respiratory Diseases and Related Problems Reported

High
4060
31.2
10.4
31.2
4.1
10.4
4.1
Medium
50
50
20.0
13.3
20.0
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
Low
80
20
17.8
14.8
17.8
5.9
8.9
8.9
5.9
5.9
Very Low 90
10
21.6
15.4
21.6
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
Total
715
28
20.4
14.5
20.4
5.8
6.9
7.3
6.42
6.0
Source: Based on Field Survey
ARI: Acute Respiratory Infection
ALRI: Acute lower Respiratory Infection
AURI: Acute Upper Respiratory Infection
Any Other* Includes Difficulty in Breathing, Cough Blockage in Lungs, Infections ofRespiratory Tract etc.

Any Other

Tuberculosis

AsthmaDyspnea

Asphyxia

Emphysema

AURI

ALRIRespiratory Diseases and Related Problems Due to Indoor Air
Pollution
If Yes (Type) (%)

Child ARI

NoYes

Income GroupRespiratory
Diseases Dueto Indoor Air
Pollution (%)

8.32
13.3
13.6
10.4
12.1

Conclusion
The first and the most important step in the prevention of illnesses resulting from the use ofbiomass fuels is to educate the public, administrators and politicians to ensure theircommitment for the improvement of public health. Although a lot has been done in the arenaof household air pollution, there is still room for further understanding the newer sources ofindoor air pollution. Given the knowledge we have regarding household air pollution, longterm measures to curb its health effects have remained grossly insufficient. More than 60
percent of the households were cooking in verandas, multipurpose room or in open spaces
without having proper ventilation in cooking area and were found spending long hours forcooking. More than 50 percent of sampled household were using traditional fuels, becauseof their socio- economic backwardness, lack of education, unawareness about indoor air
pollution, customary thinking and non-affordability of modern cooking fuels. This longexposure poses high risk of health hazards particularly respiratory diseases. The toxicemission from traditional fuel was found very high as compared to that from modern LPG
fuel while nearly all the low income households are dependent on traditional fuels; they arethus exposed to high levels of indoor air pollution. This study concludes that poverty, lack ofeducation and awareness were the major factors affecting choice of cooking fuel, place ofcooking and level of respiratory health. It may be said that the burden of diseases due toindoor air pollution is highly concentrated among poor women and children in rural
households.
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