Designing Temporary Shelter for Post-Disaster Situations

Robert Kronenburg
There can be no doubt that the potential of demountable and portable structures for use shortly
after disasters occur has long been perceived as a real avenue for development by those
involved in the architectural design and construction world.1 Experienced and respectedarchitects have devoted time and energy to the creation of new, innovative and sometimes
ingenious prototypes for disaster relief situations, amongst many Buckminster Fuller, Alvar
Aalto, Future Systems, and Shigeru Ban. Industry has also engaged enthusiastically with theproblems of shelter manufacture, and many prototypes of varying degrees of complexity havebeen produced, tested and in some cases deployed in post-disaster situations. And yet thescenes that are still sought out by the media each time a disaster occurs are remarkably similar- people who are without adequate shelter, in obviously needy circumstances, surrounded by
the destruction that was once their own homes. It therefore appears from the selective imagesof television and the press, that despite the wide-ranging and diverse activity carried out into
the problems of disaster response, much of the work by architects, designers and themanufacturing industry seems to have had minimal impact on the relief of human suffering on
the ground.
The reasons for this apparent mismatch between the problems of disaster relief andmany well-intended design solutions are complex, but are primarily related to a fundamental
misunderstanding of the victims’ circumstances in a post-disaster situation. In the 1970s Ian
Davis, the respected researcher in the field of post-disaster shelter situations labelled thesemisunderstandings as ‘myths’; incorrect yet striking images that have led relief agencies andtheir agents to gauge their response on seemingly potent concepts that are unfortunately basedon an unverified and inaccurate understanding of the actual situation.2 Many of these myths
surround the response of victims to the disaster in which they are involved, myths often
perpetuated if not created, by the media. For example, it is a common and understandable
misconception that disaster victims are dazed and helpless, simply waiting for outside aid. It istrue there is a short period of shock at their misfortune but very quickly, far more quickly than
1 This essay is extracted from the author’s book Architecture in Motion: The History, Development andPotential of the Portable Building, to be published by Routledge, Oxford, UK in Spring 2013.
2 For a full list of these myths and their factual counterparts see Ian Davis, Shelter After Disaster, Oxford,
1978, pp.25-31.

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the space of time in which the authorities are usually able to react, victims become actively
involved in the task of saving lives and property. Another myth is that people camped out inthe wreckage of their home impede reconstruction efforts, sometimes resulting in them being
forcibly evacuated whilst the sites are cleared. In fact their actions are the first coherent acts of
rebuilding property and community - inhabitants staying close to their belongings to protect
them and maintain their personal geographical identity.3
In order to understand better how these myths have developed and how they haveinfluenced response effectiveness it is important to understand the nature of the disastersituation. Disasters can be roughly divided into three types; natural disasters that have as theirsource a phenomenon such as extreme weather conditions or geological disturbance; wartime
or post-war disasters that occur as a by-product of human conflict; refugee situations which
may occur as a result of natural disaster, a conflict situation, escape from famine or plague, ormigration for economic reasons. Though only 4% of all natural disasters between 1991-2005
were earthquakes, these were by far the most destructive event type resulting in more than
40% of all deaths, of which 95% are attributed to building failure. Floods are highly
destructive events accounting for 21% of all disasters although only 12.7% of deaths. Storms
account for15% of all natural disasters, which result in 23% of all deaths.4 Beginning in 2010a team from the UNHCR, the IFRC and UN-HABITAT have published annual projectsummaries of the major relief efforts carried out around the world. Aimed at managers
working in the humanitarian field at all levels of expertise these documents share experienceand lessons learnt at a level unprecedented in the preceding century.
The scale of the problem is huge. In 2010 alone over 400 natural disasters werereported, killing over 304,000 people, and displacing and affecting 300 million.5 The twosingle largest international emergency responses in that year were the Haiti Earthquake and
the Pakistan Floods but 43 million people were also forcibly displaced by conflicts. It is

3 Authorities’ misunderstanding of this situation has led to forced evacuation of inhabitants to remote camps
without facilities whilst the sites of their homes are bulldozed, destroying reclaimable belongings and reusablebuilding materials. Ibid, p.25.
4 Shelter Centre, Shelter After Disaster: Strategies for traditional settlement and reconstruction, DFID andUN/OCHA, 2010, p.xx-xxi.
5 Shelter Projects 2010, UNHCR, IFRC, UN-HABITAT, Shelter Case Studies, 2012, p.vii.

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important to acknowledge that regardless of the cause of a disaster, the severity of theproblems it causes are inevitably and inextricably linked with mankind’s ability to respond.
However, in the past few years the coordination of information and research into
shelter after disaster situations has improved dramatically, and just as important, so has thecommunication of this experience to the multitude of groups and organisations involved in thearea. In 2010, after in-depth consultation with UN institutions, key NGOs, internationalorganisations and government bodies over a three-year period, a revised accessible edition ofthe seminal 1982 Shelter After Disaster report was published. Taking into account holistic
research and experience, Shelter After Disaster (2010) sets out the context of post-disastersituations, describes appropriate patterns of response, and creates a series of management
toolkits to aid with this.6 An important starting point is recognising that every disaster
response project is different. Understanding local conditions (both physical and institutional),
local cultures, and priorities crucially affects decisions as to what the best response should be.
This community involvement must remain at the heart of the reconstruction process
throughout, engaging all participants - not only will local people know what transitional help
and reconstruction is most urgent, they will also carry out most of the work. Ultimately they
will also form the social and commercial basis of the successfully rebuilt neighbourhood, cityor region.
Shelter After Disaster also promotes the cluster approach, in which it is recognised that
there are many different organisations trying to assist with similar issues, and that these can be
more effectively used if coordinated under a lead agency. For example in emergency shelter
the Global Cluster Lead agency is UNHCR (United Nations High Commission for Refugees)with IFRC (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies) as the convener.
The cluster acts as a forum to enable all agencies to contribute opinions and experience but it
also coordinates leadership and responsibilities.
One year after the Tōhoku Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011, it is estimated that
more 260,000 people are still living in temporary accommodation, and though some of this has
6 Shelter Centre, Shelter After Disaster: Strategies for traditional settlement and reconstruction, DFID andUN/OCHA, 2010.

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been designed with longer-term use in mind, much of it delivers only minimum standards ofdiminishing comfort. For example in the town of Ishinomaki, Miyagi Prefecture, the local
government is intending to build new housing in two new areas, although they have yet toagree a price for the land from private owners. This has delayed construction and prolonged
the use of the emergency shelters for 10% of the town’s population, 16,800 people, frommonths to several years, during which time the buildings, not meant for such long occupation,
will deteriorate.7
Large organisations such as governments and humanitarian organisations like those
helping residents in Ishinomaki tend to think of their support as occurring in phases –gradually moving from emergency response to rebuilding. Recent studies have show thatphased response to disaster situations leads to less efficient aid that takes longer and helps
fewer people. Immediate, continuous, user focused aid is more likely to provide help whereand when it is needed. For the many people who do not leave their homes but remain to secure
their property and livelihood, reconstruction begins immediately, and speedy aid with thisrebuilding can prevent much hardship and suffering – this is particularly true for those
involved in urban disasters. Better construction design and choice of location could mitigate
much of the damage and health hazards associated with the major natural disaster types(earthquake, flood, storms), and it is essential that in the rebuilding process safe construction
methods are incorporated so in the event of further events the population and their property isprotected rather than injured by their homes. Specialist advice from architects, engineers andexperienced building contractors are of crucial value in this area.
For some, displacement is inevitable and the need for appropriate ‘transitional shelter’is crucial – shelter that is flexible enough to be of use immediately but also to be adapted asneed continues and changes, for example to be relocated, upgraded, reused or recycled. The
Transitional Shelter Guidelines published in draft form by the Shelter Centre in 2011 definestransitional shelter as ‘…a process rather than a product. It is not another phase of response as

7 Malcolm Moore and Danielle Demetriou, ‘Japan earthquake and tsunami anniversary: quarter of a million

face five years in shelters’. The Telegraph, 8th March 2012.

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it begins with the first assistance offered, such as the distribution of plastic sheeting.’8 A
particularly speedy, simple and effective approach to emergency aid is that provided by
Shelter Box, a charity that delivers the essentials a family needs to survive in the immediate
aftermath of a disaster in a large green box, the contents of which are tuned to the environment
in which they will be used.

These include a specially designed tent, a tool kit, cooking andheating supplies, fabrics for warmth and comfort or insect protection, and children’s learningand play pack.9 The aid can be distributed from a central supply base in the UK but also frompre-positioned depots around the world. Local information is gathered to ensure the boxes aredistributed to those most in need and the impact of the boxes is assessed in the post-disasterperiod.
Transitional shelters built after the initial emergency situation should be made with,and by the community, to standards agreed by them. The objectives should be to maximise
safety and health, and the materials and construction methods chosen should be familiar,
making use of skills local people have access to. An important issue in transitional shelter island tenure, which can often form a stumbling block in allowing homes to be built because offear from the landowners that their property will never be returned. In addition, building codes
and regulations designed for permanent buildings by local authorities can also form hindrances.
It is therefore essential that transitional shelter, which is often first erected not long after thedisaster situation first occurs (when land rights and government control are temporarily set
aside) is designed as something that can be relocated, providing less of a threat to landowners,
and is clearly perceived as outside normal building conditions by regulators. This also makes
it more effective in the medium and long-term, being not only relocatable but resalable,reusable (for the same or other functions) and recyclable.
In terms of the design of appropriate mid to long-term transitional shelters, though it
may take some additional time, it is first necessary to determine the functional, social andcultural demands that will be made on the building. These will be different for each situationand the determination of the actual parameters for form and construction should only be made8 Shelter Centre, Transitional Shelter Guidelines, International Organisation for Migration, 2011, p.9.
9 See Shelter Box (www.shelterbox.org) accessed 12/04/2012.

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after appropriate use of local knowledge. Though the building should protect the inhabitantsfrom harsh weather conditions, cold, heat, wind, rain, and snow, it should also establish anarea of territory for its inhabitant, either of occupancy or ownership. It should provide aphysical manifestation of personal identity, privacy and security and an address for the receipt
of communication, services and aid. It should support the continuation or establishment of aform of income, either from business or by adjacency to previous or new employment andshould be capable of expansion to accommodate family members. It should have the capacity
to store and protect personal property, and be capable of maintenance and upgrading. Shigeru
Ban’s temporary housing in Onagawa, Miyagi Prefecture, completed six months after theearthquake struck, is designed within a community area that also incorporates a market, alibrary and an assembly space. Constructed using shipping containers in conjunction withmore conventional prefabricated building methods, the three-story apartment dwellings aredesigned to be earthquake proof. The housing has several different flexible apartment layoutsfrom small single rooms to larger multiple room family units, in order to offer a longer termdwelling alternative if residents cannot, or decide not to return to their damaged homes.10
Esoteric and inventive creations for shelter after disaster are interesting to others in thedesign professions, but of no value whatsoever to refugees and disaster victims. What isrequired are dedicated design and construction responses focused on the geographic locations
where disasters are known to occur. The role for specialist mobile structures is very limited,
perhaps only to medical or command facilities, however, the role of building professional
advisors is essential in advising on effective, responsive transitional shelter, and in ensuringthat the long term reconstruction process incorporates designs that protect inhabitants fromfuture disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis and floods.

10 Kyodo, ‘Miyagi completes work on temporary housing’.

6The Japan Times, 7th November, 2011.