Recent Research Activities about the Chernobyl NPP
Accident in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia

Edited by IMANAKA T.

Research Reactor Institute,
Kyoto University
July 2002

Recent Research Activities about the Chernobyl NPP Accident
in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia
Preface
Sixteen years have already passed since the Chernobyl accident, the worst accident in thehistory of nuclear energy development occurred in the former USSR on April 26, 1986. During
these years a large amount of reports, papers and materials have been published about this accident.
There remain, however, many questions that were not yet answered and should be answered by
future researches.
Our group, Nuclear Safety Research Group of Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University
has been involved in the task to assess the radiological consequences in case of large nuclear
accidents in Japan from 1970s. So our efforts to study the consequences by the Chernobyl accident
began from the next days after the accident.
During the first years after the accident, the information on Chernobyl was very limited. The
detailed situation about the radioactive contamination within the USSR territory at first appeared in
1989 with growing democratic movement in USSR. The break of USSR at the end of 1991
drastically changed the situation around Chernobyl problems. In 1993 our group had a chance tocollaborate with Belarusian scientists under a support from the Toyota foundation. This
collaboration was extended to a larger one in 1995-1997, getting cooperation with Ukrainian andRussian scientists. Our former Chernobyl report, “Research Activities about the RadiologicalConsequences of the Chernobyl NPS Accident and Social Activities to Assist the Sufferers by the
Accident” (KURRI-KR-21, March 1998) was produced as a result of these programs.
Under the title, “Investigation of Research Activities about the Chernobyl NPP Accident inBelarus, Ukraine and Russia”, we succeeded to get a new financial support for 2000 – 2002 fromGrant-in-Aid for Scientific Research of Japan Society for Promotion of Science (1.7, 2.0 and 1.9
million yen in 2000, 2001 and 2002, respectively). Compilation of a new Chernobyl report is one of
the main tasks in the new program. This report contains 22 articles by Belarusian, Ukrainian andRussian scientists and one article by Imanaka.
The editor is sure that the contents of this report are useful not only to specialists, but also to
all persons who have concern for the problem of Chernobyl. He is grateful to colleagues of Nuclear
Safety Research Group for their continuous encouragements and to staffs of Research Reactor
Institute, Kyoto University for various conveniences during the course of the present study.
Imanaka T.
Research Reactor Institute,
Kyoto University
July 2002i

CONTENTS

page

1. Current Topics about the Radiological Consequences by the Chernobyl Accident
Tetsuji IMANAKA

1

2. The Chernobyl Reactor: Design Features and Reasons for Accident
Mikhail V. MALKO

11

3. The Causes and Scenario of the Chernobyl Accident, and Radioactive Release on the CHNPP
Unit-4 Site
Boris I. GORBACHEV

28

4. Nuclear Fuel in the Destroyed 4th Unit of Chernobyl NPP
Volodymyr M. PAVLOVYCH

45

5. Analysis of Radioactive Contamination in the Near Zone of Chornobyl NPP
Alexander GAYDAR and Oleg NASVIT

59

6. Radioecological Situation in the Cooling Pond of Chornobyl NPP
Oleg NASVIT

74

7. Iodine-131 Contamination, Thyroid Doses and Thyroid Cancer in the Contaminated Areas of
RussiaValery F. STEPANENKO, Evgeny M. PARSHKOV, Viktor A. SOKOLOV, Mark Yu. ORLOV,
Alexander I. IVANNIKOV, Valery G. SKVORTSOV, Elena K. IASKOVA, Timofey V. KOLIZSHENKOV,
Irina G. KRYUKOVA and Anatoly F. TSYB

86

8. Radioactive Contamination of Food in Stepanivka Village, Zhytomyr Region, Ukraine: in 1992
and in 2001
Volodymyr TYKHYY

97

9. Content of Radionuclides of Chernobyl Origin in Food Products for the Belarusian Population 103
Vladimir P. MATSKO and Tetsuji IMANAKA
10. Long-Term Observation of Radioactivity Contamination in Fish around Chernobyl
Igor N. RYABOV

112

11. EPR Dosimetry of Chernobyl Liquidators
Vadim CHUMAK

123

12. Retrospective Dose Assessment of Inhabitants in the Contaminated Areas of Russia by EPR
Measurement of Tooth Enamel
Alexandre I. IVANNIKOV, Valeri G. SKVORTSOV and Valeri F. STEPANENKO

142

13. Estimations of Radiation Risk for the Population of Contaminated Territory of Belarus
Vladimir A. KNATKO, Mikhail M. KOMOCHKOV and Alla E. YANUSH

152

14. Estimation of Thyroid Doses from Inhalation of 131I for Population of Contaminated Regions of 160
Belarus
Vladimir A. KNATKO and Inga N. DOROZHOK
15. Radiation Epidemiological Studies in Russian National Medical and Dosimetric Registry:
168
Estimation of Cancer and Non-cancer Consequences Observed among Chernobyl Liquidators
Marat M. MAKSIOUTOV

iii

188
16. Review of Epidemiological Finding in Study of Medical Consequences of the Chernobyl
Accident in Ukrainian Population
Anatoly Ye. PRYSYAZHNYUK, Volodymir G. GRISHTSHENKO, Zoya P. FEDORENKO, Ludmila O. GULAK
and Mykola. M. FUZIK
17. Intelligence and Brain Damage in Children Acutely Irradiated in Utero As a Result of theChernobyl Accident
Angelina I. NYAGU, Konstantin N. LOGANOVSKY, Tatiana K. LOGANOVSKAYA, Viktor S. REPIN and
Stanislav Yu. NECHAEV

202

18. Health State of Belarusian Children Suffering from the Chernobyl Accident: Sixteen Years
after the Catastrophe
Alexander N. ARYNCHYN, Tatiana V. AVHACHEVA, Nika A. GRES and Ekaterina I. SLOBOZHANINA

231

19. Chernobyl Radiation-induced Thyroid Cancers in Belarus
Mikhail V. MALKO

240

20. Analysis of Chromosome Aberrations in Human Lymphocytes after Accidental Exposure to
Ionizing Radiation
Galina SNIGIRYOVA and Vladimir SHEVCHENKO

256

21. The Follow-up Study of Chromosomal aberrations in Chernobyl Clean-up Workers
Natalia M. SLOZINA and Elizaveta G. NERONOVA

268

22. Chromosomal Aberrations in Blood Lymphocytes of the Residents of 30-km Chornobyl NPP
Exclusion Zone
Larysa BEZDROBNA, Tetyana TSYGANOK, Olena ROMANOVA, Larysa TARASENKO,
Volodymyr TRYSHYN and Ludmila KLIMKINA

277

23. Cytogenetic Effects of Radiation on Agricultural Plants Observed in the Chernobyl region
during the First Years after the Accident
Stanislav A. GERASKIN, Vladimir G. DIKAREV, Yevgenia Ya. ZYABLITSKAYA, Alla A. OUDALOVA andYevgeniy V. SPIRIN

287

24. Abstracts (in Japanese)

297

iv

Current Topics about the Radiological Consequences by the Chernobyl
Accident
Tetsuji IMANAKA
Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University
Kumatori-cho, Sennan-gun, Osaka, 590-0494 Japan: imanaka@rri.kyoto-u.ac.jp

Abstract
Basic radiological factors of the Chernobyl accident are reviewed such as radioactivity
discharge, the size of contaminated area, radiation dose, radiation risk assessment etc. Roughly
estimating, 50-60 % of 131I and 30-50 % of 137Cs in the reactor core were released into theenvironment, which correspond to 40-50 MCi and 2-4 MCi, respectively, as the activities at the timeof the accident. The total area in 13 European countries with the 137Cs contamination more than 1
Ci/km2 amounts to 190,000 km2. The collective thyroid dose for the entire populations in the mostaffected three countries (Belarus, Ukraine and Russia) is estimated 1.6 × 106 person-Gy. The
collective effective dose (excluding thyroid dose) for 5.16 million people living in the maincontaminated territories in three countries is estimated 4.26 × 104 person-Sv during 10 years after
the accident. Using these collective doses together with radiation risk coefficients of ICRP (1990),
13,000 thyroid cancer and 2,100 other cancer deaths are expected among the corresponding
populations.
Other articles in this report indicate the followings. About 4,400 cases of radiation-induced
thyroid cancer were observed in Belarus by the end of 2000. There are also observed someincreasing tendencies of other cancers among inhabitants in the contaminated areas and liquidators.
Health deteriorations and mental retardations are observed among the children living in thecontaminated areas and having received irradiation in utero. All these findings suggest the necessityof well organized epidemiological studies before giving conclusions about the health consequencesof the Chernobyl accident as well as applicability of ICRP radiation risks to the related populations.
An interesting map is shown representing dose rate around the Chernobyl NPP on June 1, 1986.
Using the dose rate in this map for reconstructing radiation dose for evacuees, the possibility ofacute radiation sickness was confirmed among a substantial part of evacuees from some villages
within the 30 km zone.

1. Introduction
It was more than a quarter of century ago that our group, Nuclear Safety Research Group of Kyoto
University began to raise the alarm for catastrophic consequences in case of large nuclear accidents inJapan. According to our assessment based on the methodology developed by Reactor Safety Study of
USNRC (1975), about 5,000 acute deaths were forecast when a severe loss-of-coolant accident would
happen at the Ikata-1 NPP (560 MW, PWR) [1]. The high level of radioactive contamination was expected
to extend more than 100 km along the wind stream. The Japanese authorities, however, neglected
possibilities of such accidents, saying every time that nuclear power plants were designed and constructedunder conceptions; “Fail Safe” and “Fool Proof”.
In March 1979, a large loss-of-coolant accident happened at Three Mile Island-2 NPP (1,000 MW,
PWR) in USA, which resulted in a partial meltdown of the reactor core. Fortunately, the containment of
TMI-2 could keep radioactive particulates from escaping although a large amount of radioactive gases
were released [2]. The radiological consequences due to the TMI-2 accident were considered rather small

1

in comparison with the worst ones. This accident, however, demonstrated the reality of possible
catastrophic accidents at NPPs.
On April 26, 1986 an excursion accident occurred at the Chernobyl-4 (1,000 MW, RBMK) in theformer USSR and destroyed the reactor and the building at a moment, which released a huge amount ofradioactivity into the environment. Sixteen years have already passed since the occurrence of theChernobyl accident. There remain, however, many questions that were not yet answered. For example,
according to Malko’s article [3], the primary causes of the Chernobyl accident were design defects of thereactor and inadequate operation manuals, while unprofessional actions of the operators of the Unit-4 were
responsible for the accident, according to Gorbachev’s article [4].
In this article, current topics about the radiological consequences of the Chernobyl accident aresummarized, referring to activities of our group and the contents of the other articles in this report.
2. Radioactivity release
The amount of radioactivities released into the environment is the basic factor characterizing thescale of nuclear accidents. So far a number of estimations have been made by various authors about theradioactivity discharge by the Chernobyl accident [5-12]. Table 1 summarizes several estimations for mainradionuclides.
USSR 1986 Report:
In August 1986 the Soviet government sent a delegation to the post-accident review meeting on the
Chernobyl accident held in Vienna by IAEA. According to the report of the Soviet delegation [5], the total
release of non-gaseous radionuclides and gaseous ones were estimated to be 50 MCi and 50 MCi,
respectively. These figures were decay-corrected to the activities on May 5. The USSR 1986 Report
included valuable information, but the detailed methods of their estimation were not clear. I would like tonote one episode of our group with the USSR report. Our group was independently involved in the task toestimate the radioactivity release by the Chernobyl accident. In October 1986, after reading through the
USSR Report extensively, Seo of our group wrote a letter to Legasov, the head of the Soviet delegation in
Vienna, asking various unclearness and inconsistencies in the Soviet estimations. More than one year later,in January 1988, Seo received a kind answer from Legasov, writing “the discharge estimate has beenobtained measuring fall-outs from the initial discharge, radionuclide concentration in the air in the
direction of air mass motion and on the basis of model calculations” [13].
Estimation by our group:
By the end of 1986, we could collect radioactive deposition data by the Chernobyl accident from allover the northern hemisphere except for the Soviet territories. Our primary attention was directed to theground deposition of 137Cs. It was strange that our estimate for the 137Cs deposition on all European
countries except USSR was about 1 MCi, which was the same as the total release of 137Cs estimated in the
USSR 1986 Report.
Using the level of 137Cs deposition as the reference nuclide of the radioactive contamination, we haveanalyzed dependencies of radionuclide composition on the direction and the distance from Chernobyl.
Table 1. Estimates of released radioactivity of major nuclides by the Chernobyl accident.
Estimated released radioactivity, MCi (% of core inventory)
Inventory,
Nuclide Half life
USSR
reportSeo
Imanaka
UkraineBorovoiMCi(1986) [5](1988) [7](1993) [9] (1996) [10] (2001) [12]131I
8.05 d36.5
7.3 (20)
25.40 (70)(49)
(50-60)(50-60)137
Cs
30.2 y7.7
1.0 (13)
4.35 (57)(31)(20-40)(33±10)
95
Zr
64 d
119
3.8 (3.2)
5.60 (4.7)
(5.0)
(3.5)
90
Sr
28 y
5.5
0.23 (4.0)
0.53 (9.6)(4-6)- All activities are decay-normalized to values on May 6, 1986.
- Values of reactor inventory are cited from the USSR 1986 Report.

2

Then, by integrating the deposition functions, the total depositions were calculated up to 3,000 km from
Chernobyl [7]. The obtained results showed larger depositions than the USSR 1986 Report by factors of
4.4 and 3.5 for 137Cs and 131I, respectively (Table 1).
In our first estimation, only small data in the USSR 1986 Report were used for the contamination
within the USSR territories. The collapse of USSR at the end of 1991 changed the situation around
Chernobyl problems. In 1993 we organized a collaborative study with Belarusian scientists under aresearch-grant from the Toyota foundation [14]. We made new estimation using more data provided from
Belarusian side [9]. Our new estimates were smaller than the previous ones and by 2.4 and 2.5 times larger
than the USSR 1986 Report for 137Cs and 131I, respectively (Table 1).
Estimation based on the radioactivities remaining within Sarcophagus:
Another method for estimation of radionuclide discharge is to investigate the amounts ofradioactivities that remain within “Sarcophagus” (the concrete building containing the destroyed 4th unit).
Pavlovych’s article [15] describes the current situation of nuclear fuel within Sarcophagus. 190 ton of
uranium was loaded in the reactor core at the time of the accident. Now within Sarcophagus, uranium fuelexists mainly in three forms: fuel fragments, LFCM (Lava-like Fuel Containing Material) and dusts. The
amount of uranium in LFCM is estimated about 120 ton (min; 65, max; 165) [15]. According to Borovoi
and Gagarinsky [12], it was found that 60 % of 137Cs escaped from LFCM from the analysis of LFCM
samples, while no amount of 129I was detected in LFCM. Concerning fuel fragments dispersed from thereactor core at the time of the explosions, 25 – 37 % of 129I remain within them and 137Cs was retained as it
was in the core. Based on these data, they concluded that 33 ± 10 % of 137Cs and 50 – 60 % of 131I werereleased from the reactor core of the Chernobyl-4.
Looking at the values in Table 1, we can roughly say that 50 - 60 % of 131I, 30 - 50 % of 137Cs andabout 5 % of non-volatile nuclides in the reactor inventory were discharged into the environment by the
Chernobyl accident. These values correspond to round estimates of radioactivities: 40 - 50 MCi of 131I, 2 4 MCi of 137Cs and 0.3 MCi of 90Sr. These activities are adjusted at the time of the accident.
3. Radioactive contamination
One of unexpected features of the Chernobyl accident is that the contamination extended over a vast
area on the Earth. This was caused partly by the fact that radioactive plumes reached high altitude of theatmosphere by the first explosions and the consequent fire, and partly by the fact that the radioactive
discharge continued more than 10 days changing the direction of the radioactive plumes. These conditions
can not be supposed in case of accidents at water power reactors such as PWR and BWR.
Cesium-137 is the most important nuclide from the point of the long-term effects of radioactive
contamination. The areas of 137Cs contamination more than 1 Ci/km2 in European countries are
summarized in Table 2 [16]. As the value of the total deposition on the northern hemisphere, 70 PBq (1.9MCi) of 137Cs is given in UNSCEAR 1988 Report [8]. This value is near the lower limit of our roundestimate of 137Cs release (2-4 MCi). The following two points should be noted about the estimate in
UNSCEAR 1988. At first, UNSCEAR 1988 was made before the detailed information about the highly
contaminated within USSR was disclosed in 1989. Based on the more recent 137Cs contamination data in
Table 2, the amount of total 137Cs deposition in the most affected three countries (Belarus, Russia,
Ukraine) is calculated to be 1.2 MCi, which is 0.5 MCi larger than the value given for the USSR territories
in UNSCEAR 1988. At second, the UNCEAER 1988 estimate did not seem to include the radioactivities
in the 30 km zone. The 137Cs activity in the Ukrainian territory within the 30 km zone is reported to beabout 0.5 MCi: 0.11 MCi on soil and 0.41 MCi in radioactive waste pits [10]. Considering these factors,
the UNSCEAR 1988 estimate should be revised to 2.9 MCi, which lies in the middle of our round range.
Meanwhile, according to Nasvit’s article [17], 137Cs activity contained in the lake sediments of the cooling3

Table 2 Area of 137Cs contamination in European countries with more than 1 Ci/km2 (km2) [16]Country
Belarus
RussiaUkraineSwedenFinland
Bulgaria
Austria
NorwayGreeceSlovenia
Italy
Moldova
Switzerland
Total

Area
(km2)
208,000
17,075,000
604,000
450,000
337,000
111,000
84,000324,000
132,000
20,000301,000
34,00041,000

10 - 2060,000300,000
150,000
37,40048,80027,50027,60051,80016,6008,600
10,90020,0005,900
765,100

Level of 137Cs contamination, kBq/m2 (Ci/km2)
37 - 185
185 - 555 555 - 1480
20 - 37(1 - 5)(5 – 15)(15 - 40)
30,00029,900
10,200
4,200
100,000
48,8005,700
2,100
65,00037,2003,200
90042,60012,00037,40011,50040,4004,800
24,7008,600
13,000
5,200
6,400
1,200
8,000
300
5,600
300
100
60
1,900
1,300
375,100
161,160
19,100
7,200

>1480
(>40)
2,200
300
600
3,100

Note-1: 137Cs level in European countries due to global fallouts by nuclear test was 2 - 3 kBq/m2 in early 1990s.
Note-2: According to Chernobyl laws in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, the contaminated territories are legallydivided into the following categories depending on 137Cs density:(1) 1-5 Ci/km2 - zone of radiation control, (2) 5-15 Ci/km2 - zone of guaranteed voluntary resettlement,(3) 15-40 Ci/km2 - zone of obligatory resettlement, (4) > 40 Ci/km2 - zone of alienation.

pond of the Chernobyl NPP is estimated to be 4,400 Ci.
The processes forming radioactive contamination around the territories adjacent to the Chernobyl
NPP and their nuclide compositions were extensively analyzed in Gaydar’s article [18], taking into
considerations geological features of the contaminated territories. Detailed contamination maps were
presented for 137Cs and Pu isotopes and 241Am. Interesting data are presented in Stepaneko’s article [19]about the radioactive plume arrival and departure in contaminated settlements in Bryask, Tula and Kaluga
regions of Russia. According to Stepanenko’s article [19], about 80 % of the total 131I deposition wasformed during the first week after the accident.
Recent data about the food contamination of 137Cs and 90Sr in Belarus are reviewed in Matsko’s
article [20]. They noted that special attention should be paid to non-farm products such as mushrooms,
berries and meat of wild animals. For example, about 37,000 Bq/kg of 137Cs in fresh mushroom wasregistered in a settlement of Gomel region in 1999. Tykhyy’s article [21] presents the results of two seriesof measurements that were conducted in 1992 and in 2001 at the same village in Zhytomyr region,
Ukraine. The 137Cs activity in milk in the village was decreased by 9 times in 2001 in comparison with
1992, while the 90Sr concentration was 3 times higher in 2001 than in 1992.
Dynamics of 137Cs accumulation in fish in various water bodies are described in Ryabov’s article [22].
Although a general decreasing trend of 137Cs accumulation has been observed, lowering rates are quite
different, depending on fish species and conditions of water bodies. High levels of 137Cs accumulation are
still observed in some lakes with stagnant water. Nasvit’s article [17] provides the results of recent
radioecological monitoring of the cooling pond of the Chernobyl NPP.
3. Radiation dose and risk assessment
UNSCEAR 2000 report [11] provides a series of interesting information about radioactive
contamination, dose reconstruction and health effects due to the Chernobyl accident.

4

Table 3. Thyroid dose for the population in the main contaminated areas.
Collective thyroid dose,
Average individual thyroid
Country
Population
person-Gydose, mGy
Belarus [11]3,100,000
402,000
130
Russia [19]3,100,000
106,000
34
Ukraine [11]3,500,000
300,00086
Total
9,700,000
808,000
83
Note; Belarus- Gomel and Brest regions. Russia - territories with 137Cs contamination more than 1 Ci/km2
in Bryansk, Orel, Tula and Kaluga regions. Ukraine - 8 districts around Chernobyl and Kiev city.
Thyroid dose and thyroid cancer risk:
Thyroid dose for the populations in the main contaminated areas in the most affected three countries
is summarized in Table 3 [11, 19]. The highest average thyroid of 130 mSv is given in Belarus, while thelowest of 34 mSv is in Russia. Thyroid dose in Table 3 are given for the population including all ages. As
is well known, thyroid dose to children is larger than adults. For example, among 1,988 children less than
1 year old living in the contaminated district of Gomel region, Belarus, 667 children (34 %) received
thyroid dose more than 2 Gy [11]. For the evacuees from Ukrainian villages within the 30 km zone, themean thyroid dose of 3.9 Gy is estimated for 369 children less than 1 year old, while the average thyroid
dose for the people more than 18 years old is 0.40 Gy [11].
Collective thyroid dose for the entire populations of three countries are given as follows: 5.53 × 105
person-Gy for Belarus, 7.4 × 105 person-Gy for Ukraine and (2 - 3) × 105 person-Gy for Russia. Using thetotal collective thyroid dose of 1.6 × 106 person-Gy for three countries and the radiation risk factor forthyroid cancer of 8 × 10-2 Gy-1 from ICRP Publication 60 [23], about 13,000 thyroid cancer cases are
expected in these countries as the consequences by the Chernobyl accident. 10 % of them, that is, 1,300
cases will be fatal.
UNSCEAR 2000 Report [11] presents the data that about 1,800 thyroid cancers were observed during
1990 – 1998 in children 0 – 17 years old at the time of the Chernobyl accident: 1,067 cases in Belarus, 205
cases in Russia and 519 cases in Ukraine.
According to Malko’s article [24], 4,400 cases of radiation-induced thyroid cancer have been alreadyobserved in the whole population of Belarus by the end of 2000: about 700 cases in children under 15
years old and 3,700 cases in adolescents and adults at the time of diagnosis. The number of additional
thyroid cancer in Ukraine and Russia can be calculated using the ratio of their collective thyroid dose to
Belarus. Thus, about 12,000 cases of thyroid cancer are considered to have already appeared in theaffected three countries. Anyway, we have to carefully watch the results of future follow-up studies inorder to give conclusions about the total outcome of thyroid cancer by the Chernobyl accident.
Knatko’s article [25] describes a method to estimate thyroid dose from 131I inhalation in thecontaminated territories in Belarus. Average thyroid dose from inhalation for adults are estimated to be 20
and 130 mSv for the eastern and southern contaminated areas, respectively. The difference between twoareas was mainly due to the differences of the 131I/137Cs ratio and the type of 131I deposition (dry depositionin the southern and wet deposition in the eastern).
Effective dose and health effects other than thyroid cancer:
Estimates of effective dose for the total body (excluding thyroid dose) during the period 1986-1995
for the populations living in the contaminated areas with more than 1 Ci/km2 are summarized in Table 4[11]. Compared with the values for thyroid dose in Table 3, about 10 times less values are shown for
effective dose. The difference among three countries is rather small. In addition, age dependency ofeffective dose is reported to be small compared with the case of thyroid dose [11].
Forecasts of effective dose for 70 years after the accident (1986 – 2056) are also shown in5

Table 4. Effective dose for the population living in the contaminated territories more than 1
Ci/km2 of 137Cs for the period 1986-1995 (excluding thyroid dose) [11].
Collective effective dose
Average effective doseCountry Population(person-Sv)(mSv)
External
Internal
Total
External
Internal
Total
Belarus1,880,000
9,600
5,500
15,100
5.1
2.9
8.0
Russia1,980,000
8,500
5,000
13,500
4.3
2.5
6.8
Ukraine1,300,000
6,100
7,900
14,000
4.7
6.1
10.8
Total
5,160,000
24,20018,40042,600
4.7
3.5
8.2
UNSCEAR 2000 [11]. Effective dose during 10 years after the accident (1986 -1995) consists of 60 –70 % of the 70 years dose, within which the first year (1986) contributed 23 – 28 %.
Using the collective dose of 42,600 person-Sv in Table 4 and the radiation risk coefficient for cancer
mortality of 5 × 10-2 Sv-1 from ICRP [23], we can expect 2,100 cancer deaths among the 5.16 million
people other than thyroid cancer. Assuming that 15 % of this population will die of spontaneous cancer,
the number of cancer deaths without irradiation will amount around 770,000. Therefore, 2,100 cases ofradiation-induced cancer deaths will increase the cancer death rate about 0.3 %. If the cancer risk
coefficient from ICRP is applicable to the population suffering from the Chernobyl accident, it will beabsolutely impossible to observe such small increase of cancer death by means of epidemiological studies.
A new cancer risk model based on recent knowledge about dose-effect relationship is proposed in
Knatko’s article [26]. According to their cancer risk assessment for 250,000 inhabitants (average effective
dose, 43 mSv) living in the contaminated areas in Belarus more than 5 Ci/km2 of 137Cs, 5 – 6 % of ERR(excess relative risk) is expected during the whole life, which is about 6 times larger than the value basedon the risk coefficient from ICRP. In this case 2,200 cancer deaths will be added on 37,000 spontaneouscancer deaths.
Meanwhile, a significant increase of cancer deaths among 66,000 Russian liquidators (the mean dose,about 100 mSv) is reported for the observation period 1991 – 1998 in Maksioutov’s article [27]. The ERR
coefficient is estimated to be 2.04 Sv-1 (95%CI: 0.45, 4.31). This value is about 60 % higher than thecorresponding coefficient derived from ERR in Kantko’s article [26]. It should be noted that a significant
increase of deaths from cardiovascular diseases (0.79 Sv-1, 95%CI: 0.07 – 1.64) is also observed among
Russian liquidators in Maksioutov’s article [27].
Prysyazhnyuk’s article [28] presents analysis of medical statistics in Ukraine mainly based on the
National Cancer Registry that was established in 1989. The results suggest increasing tendencies of female
breast cancer among women liquidators, inhabitants in the most contaminated districts and evacuees fromthe 30 km zone. Arynchyn’s article [29] reports the results of a prospective cohort study of children in
Belarus: the main group consists of 133 children living in the contaminated territories and the control
group is 186 children in clean territories. Through clinical examinations they found significantly highrelative risks of the main group for diseases such as arterial hypotension and cardic metabolic dysfunction.
Nyagu’s article [30] presents the results of medical investigation concerning brain functions of 100
children prenatally irradiated at the time of the accident and born to mothers evacuated to Kiev from the
30 km zone. Bain damages expressed as decreases of IQ indices, mental disorders etc. were observed
among the prenatally irradiated children, compared with the control children consisting of theirclassmates.
Considering the findings shown in a series of epidemiological studies performed in Belarus, Ukraine
and Russia, it is early to say that the radiation risk from ICRP is applicable to the populations sufferingfrom irradiation due to the Chernobyl accident. The author would like to address the necessity of welldesigned and organized epidemiological studies in order to conclude about the radiation consequences by
the Chernobyl accident.
Concerning the efforts to reconstruct effective dose more precisely, Chumak’s article [31] overviews
6the current situation in Ukraine about EPR dosimetry using tooth enamel. Based on the EPR
measurements of 465 Ukrainian liquidators who worked in 1986-1987, the average dose of 110 mSv isobtained. This value is comparative to the average value of 130 mSv for Russian liquidators in 1986-1987
based on official records. Application of EPR dosimetry in Russia for the population living in thecontaminated territories is described in Ivannikov’s article [32]. From the regression analysys between
EPR dose and 137Cs contamination density, the normalized dose of 0.068 mGy per kBq/m2 of 137Cs was
obtained during 8 years after the accident, while UNSCEAR 2000 [11] gives the value of 0.037 mSv per
kBq/m2 of 137Cs for the rural area in Russia.
4. Cytogenetic research
Cytogenetic disturbances in cells are primary markers of irradiation effects on biological organism.
Geraskin’s article [33] presents the results of a cytogenetic experiment on plants in the first years after theaccident within the 30 km zone of Chernobyl. They observed chromosome aberration in rye and wheat.
Through the experiment of subsequent generations for 3 years, an increasing tendency of radiation
sensitivity of chromosome aberration was observed both for rye and wheat.
Chromosome aberrations in human lymphocyte have been investigated for more than 1,500
liquidators in Snigiryova’s article [34]. Even 15 years after the accident a significantly higher level ofdicentrics frequencies is still observed among liquidators although there is a general tendency of decrease
for this index. In Slozina’s article [35], an incresed level of chromosome abberation in lymphocyte is also
observed among the liquidators. An interesting tendency is reported that the dicentric frequency among
the liquidators shows an increase for the period 8-12 years after irradiation. Bezdrobna's article [36]presents the results of a cytogenetic examination of 33 self-settlers in the 30 km zone of the Chernobyl
NPP. The frequencies of chromosome abberation among the self-settlers were found to be significantly
higher than the control group living in relatively clean territories.
5. New information about radiation situation within the 30 km zone
According to UNSCEAR 2000 [11], 49,614 people in Pripyat city and Yanov railway station were
evacuated on April 27, 1986, the next day of the Chernobyl accident. Another 41,792 people evacuatedfrom Ukrainian territory within the 30 km zone, mainly in May 3 – 7. From the Belarusian territory within
the 30 km zone, 24,725 people evacuated mainly in May 2 – 7. In total, 116,231 people were evacuatedfrom the 30 km zone. A large part of evacuees stayed at their places for 6 – 11 days before evacuation.
There are two confronting opinions about acute radiation syndromes among the inhabitants. The firstone is official opinions beginning from USSR 1986 Report up to UNSCEAR 2000 Report that no case of
acute radiation disease occurred among the inhabitants around the Chernobyl NPP. According to thesecond opinion, there should be a lot of acute radiation sicknesses among inhabitants. For example,
according to the secret protocols of the Special Operative Group of the Central Committee of the USSR
Communist Party [37, 38], the number of patient with radiation sickness was periodically reported to
Moscow, including cases of children. Acute radiation syndromes were also confirmed from theinvestigation of medical records made in May – June 1986 at the Central Hospital of Khoyniki district
adjacent to the Chernobyl NPP [39, 40].
The level of radiation dose to evacuees is crucial in order to judge which side of two confronting
opinions is reflecting the real fact. According to UNSCEAR 2000 Report [11], the average external dose
for the Ukrainian evacuees is estimated 17 mSv with the maximum individual dose of 380 mSv.
Concerning Belarusian evacuees, the average eternal dose of 31 mSv is given for the whole evacuees,
while the highest average dose of about 300 mSv is estimated for the population in two villages; Chamkov
and Masany. These pieces of information are supporting the official opinion that no cases of acuteradiation sickness occurred among the inhabitants.
7

50

Radin

Prypyat R.
Ulasi
KryukiBorshchevka

200

200

Mashevo

Usov

50
500

Khatki

Krasnoe

Railway
Prypyat C.
500

Tolsty Less

Korogod
Chernobyl C.
0

5

10km

Fig. 1. Dose rate around the Chernobyl NPP on June 1, 1986; mR/h [44 ].
On the other hand, Imanaka [41, 42] suggested a possibility that a substantial fraction of evacuees
from the most contaminated villages could receive effective dose more than 1 Sv, which is a criteria for
acute radiation sickness, using the dose rate map on May 1, 1986 presented at CIS/EC Minsk conferencein 1996 [43] and temporal changes of dose rate until the evacuation.
After these works Imanaka happened to find another map representing the radiation situation around
Chernobyl on June 1, 1986 compiled by USSR scientists in 1991 (Fig. 1) [44]. As seen in Fig. 1, the dose
rate in Usov village on June 1 was around 200 mR/h. Our previous calculations [41, 42] indicate that thedose rate on May 1 was about 10 times higher than June 1, which means that a dose rate about 2 R/h canbe supposed in Usov village on May 1, 1986, from where inhabitants were evacuated on May 3.
In our previous works the average external dose of 0.32 Sv was estimated for the evacuees from Usovvillage based on a dose rate of 350 mR/h on May 1 in the previous map [43]. If a dose rate of 2 R/h is used
for May 1 instead of 350 mR/h, the average external dose for the inhabitants in Usov village becomes
about 2 Sv before the evacuation. In this case, the following description in the secret protocols of the
USSR Communist is seriously realistic: “By the situation at 9:00 on May 6, the total number ofhospitalized reached 3,454 persons. Among them, 2,609 persons are in hospital for treatment, including
471 infants. According to confirmed data, the number of radiation disease is 367 cases, including 19
children.” (from the protocol of the meeting on May 6, 1986).
6. Final remarks
For these 16 years our group has been studying the radiological consequences by the Chernobyl
accident, the worst accident in the history of nuclear energy development. We have visited contaminatedareas, measured radiation, took samples, discussed with scientists, met people and participated in meetings.
Then we clearly understood that the radiological aspect of the accident is only a small part of the tragedy
that happened to the people around Chernobyl.
8

We were overwhelmed by the followings. Just after the accident about 120,000 people were
evacuated from the 30 km zone. Several years later, resettlement of much more people began from thehighly contaminated areas. The total area for evacuation and resettlement amounted to 10,000 km2. About
500 villages and towns within the 30 km zone and in highly contaminated areas disappeared. We can say
the local societies have entirely vanished. A recent report [45] indicates that totally 350,400 people had toleave their homes.
We are sure that the Chernobyl tragedy can not be described without referring the pain of thesepeople. We should not consider that the whole aspect of the Chernobyl accident can be revealed byscientific approaches. Of course, the pain of these people is not the direct target of our scientific works.
We are thinking that scientific efforts, only by cooperating with other efforts such as films, photos,
documentaries, novels and so on, can be successful to draw the whole aspect of the Chernobyl tragedy.
Acknowledgement
The author should be grateful to Koide H., Kawano S., Kobayashi K. and Ebisawa T. of Nuclear
Safety Research Group for their encouragement in promoting the present studies. The leadership by late
Seo T. should be noted to begin collaborative works with former USSR scientists. This study is supported
by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from Japan Society for Promotion of Science.
References
1.

Seo T. et.al.; “Safety Problems of Nuclear Power Plants. Vol.1”, pp.113-131, Nuclear Energy Information
Center, Osaka (1976) (in Japanese).
2. Seo. T and Imanaka T.; Discharge of Radioactive Rare Gases by the NPP Accident: In case of TMI-2, kagaku,
52 No.1 (1982) 42-52 (in Japanese).
3. Malko M. V.; The Chernobyl Reactor: Design Features and Reasons for Accident, in this report, p.11-27.
4. Gorbachev B. I.; The Causes and Scenario of the Chernobyl Accident, and Radioactive Release on the CHNPP
Unit-4 Site, in this report, p.11-27.
5. USSR State Committee on the Utilization of Atomic Energy; “The Accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power
Plant and Its Consequences”, August 1986.
6. S. A. Khan; The Chernobyl Source Term: A Critical Review, Nuclear Safety, 31, No.3 (1990) 353-74.
7. Seo T., Imanaka T. and Koide H.; Released Radioactivity by the Chernobyl Accident, Kagaku, 58 No.2
(1988)108-117 (in Japanese).
8. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation; UNSCEAR 1988 Report, Annex D(1988).
9. Imanaka T. et.al.; The Final Report of the Research Grant of the Toyota Foundation in 1993 (in Japanese).
10. Minchernobyl; Ten years after the accident at Chernobyl NPP: National Report of Ukraine, 1996 (in Russian).
11. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation; UNSCEAR 2000 Report, Annex J(2000).
12. Borovoi A. A. and Gagarinsky A. Yu.; Release of Radionuclides from the Destroyed Reactor at Chernobyl NPP,
Atomnaya Energiya, 90 No.2 (2001) 137-45 (in Russian).
13. Letter from Legasov to Seo received on January 6, 1988.
14. Imanaka T.; Research Activities of the Nuclear Safety Research Group of KURRI with Belarusian, Russian andUkrainian Colleagues about the Chernobyl Accident, in “Research Activities about the RadiologicalConsequences of the Chernobyl NPS Accident and Social Activities to Assist the Sufferers by the Accident”,
KURRI-KR-21, p.1-4, 1998.
15. Pavlovych V. M.; Nuclear Fuel in the Destroyed 4th Unit of Chernobyl NPP, in this report, p.45-58.
16. M. De Cort and Yu. S. Tsaturov ed., "Atlas on caesium contamination of Europe after the Chernobyl nuclear
plant accident", EC/CIS international scientific collaboration, EUR 16542 EN (1996).
17. Nasvit O.; Radioecological Situation in the Cooling Pond of Chornobyl NPP, in this report, p.74-85.
18. Gaydar A. and Nasvit O.; Analysis of Radioactive Contamination in the Near Zone of Chornobyl NPP, in thisreport, p.59-73.

919. Stepanenko V. F. et.al.; Iodine-131 Contamination, Thyroid Doses and Thyroid Cancer in the Contaminated
Areas of Russia, in this report, p.86-96.
20. Matsko V. P. and Imanaka T.; Content of Radionuclides of Chernobyl Origin in Food Products for the
Belarusian Population, in this report, p.105-113.
21. Tykhyy V.; Radioactive Contamination of Food in Stepanivka Village, Zhytomyr Region, Ukraine: in 1992 andin 2001, in this report, p.97-104.
22. Ryabov I. N.; Long-Term Observation of Radioactivity Contamination in Fish around Chernobyl, in this report,
p.114-124.
23. 1990 Recommendation of ICRP, ICRP Publication 60 (1990).
24. Malko M. V.; Chernobyl Radiation-induced Thyroid Cancers in Belarus, in this report, p.242-257.
25. Knatko V. A. and Dorzhok I. N.; Estimation of Thyroid Doses from Inhalation of 131I for Population ofContaminated Regions of Belarus, in this report, p.154-161.
26. Knatko V. A., M. M. Komochkov M. M. and Yanush A. E.; Estimations of Radiation Risk for the Population ofContaminated Territory of Belarus, in this report, p.162-169.
27. Maksioutov M. M.; Radiation Epidemiological Studies in Russian National Medical and Dosimetric Registry:
Estimation of Cancer and Non-cancer Consequences Observed among Chernobyl Liquidators in this report,
p.11-27.
28. Pryshazhnyuk A. Ye et.al.; Review of Epidemiological Finding in Study of Medical Consequences of theChernobyl Accident in Ukrainian Population, in this report, p.190-203.
29. Arynchyn A. N. et.al.; Health State of Belarusian Children Suffering from the Chernobyl Accident: Sixteen
Years after the Catastrophe, in this report, p.233-241.
30. Nyagu A. I. et.al.; Intelligence and Brain Damage in Children Acutely Irradiated in Utero As a Result of theChernobyl Accident, in this report, p.204-232
31. Chumak V.; EPR Dosimetry of Chernobyl Liquidators, in this report, p.125-143.
32. Ivannikov A., Skvortsov V. G. and Valeri F. STtepanenko V. F.; Retrospective Dose Assessment of
Inhabitants in the Contaminated Areas of Russia by EPR Measurement of Tooth Enamel, in this report,
p.144-153.
33. Geraskin S. A. et.al.; Cytogenetic Effects of Radiation on Agricultural Plants Observed in the Chernobyl region
during the First Years after the Accident, in this report, p.289-298.
34. Snigryova G. and Shevchenko V.; Analysis of Chromosome Aberrations in Human Lymphocytes after
Accidental Exposure to Ionizing Radiation, in this report, p.258-269.
35. Slozina N. M. and Neronova E. G.; he Follow-up Study of Chromosomal aberrations in Chernobyl Clean-up
Workers, in this report, p.270-278.
36. Bezdrovna L. et.al.; Chromosomal Aberrations in Blood Lymphocytes of the Residents of 30-km Chornobyl
NPP Exclusion Zone, in this report, p.279-288.
37. A. Yaroshinskaya, “Chernobyl: Top Secret”, Drugie-berega, Moscow, 1992. (in Russian).
38. A Yaroshinskaya; Impact of Radiation on the Population during the First Weeks and Months after the Chernobyl
Accident and Health State of the Population 10 Years Later, KURRI-KR-21, p.104-107, 1998.
39. V. Lupandin, Invisible Victims, NABAT 36, Minsk, October 1992.
40. V. Lupandin; Chernobyl 1996: New Materials concerning Acute Radiation Syndrome around Chernobyl
KURRI-KR-21, p.108-113, 1998.
41. T. Imanaka and H. Koide; Dose Assessment for Inhabitants Evacuated from the 30-km Zone Soon after the
Chernobyl Accident, KURRI-KR-21, p.121-126, 1998.
42. T. Imanaka and H. Koide; Assessment of External Dose to Inhabitants Evacuated from the 30-km Zone soonafter the Chernobyl Accident, Radiation Biology Radioecology, 40 (2000) 582-588.
43. I.K.Baliff and V.Stepanenko ed., “Retrospective Dosimetry and Dose Reconstruction”, Experimantal
Collaboration Project ECP-10. EUR 16540, EC, 1996.
44. G. M. Kozubov et.al.; The Map-scheme of Radiation Damage of Coniferous Forests in the Region of Accident
on the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, Institute of Biology, Komi Scientific Center, Ural Division of USSR
Academy of Sciences, 1991.
45. UNDP and UNICEFF; The human consequences of the Chernobyl nuclear accident: A strategy for recovery, 25January 2002.

10

The Chernobyl Reactor: Design Features and Reasons for Accident
Mikhail V. MALKO
Joint Institute of Power and Nuclear Research, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus
Krasin Str.99, Minsk, Sosny, 220109, Republic of Belarus: mvmalko@malkom.belpak.minsk.by

Abstracts
The report describes the main features of the Chernobyl reactor and possible reasons of theaccident that happened on 26 April 1986. Analysis of scientific results established after the accident
demonstrates that shortcomings in the design, and freak infringements of safety regulations for theconstruction as well as inadequate documentation for reactor operation were the main reason of theChernobyl accident. Various scenarios proposed for this accident are also analyzed in the report. It is
concluded that a very high probability of the nuclear explosions at the reactor of the Unit 4 of theChernobyl accident exists. The power of it could be equivalent to 200 tons of the trinitrotoluene(TNT).

Introduction
The accident at Unit 4 of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) on 26 April 1986 is the most
severe accident in the history of the peaceful use of the nuclear energy. As a result of this accident thereactor of the fourth unit of the Chernobyl accident was fully destroyed. This caused a release of a very
high amount of radioactive species into the environment. The total activity of all radionuclides thatescaped from the active core of the reactor during 10 days after the explosions is assessed as
approximately 1019 Bq [1]. The reasons for the Chernobyl accident and its consequences were the subjectof the Post-Accident Review Meeting held on 25-29 August 1986 in Vienna, Austria [2]. It was organizedunder the auspices of the IAEA. The Soviet experts reported at the meeting their version of the reasons of
the accident as well as its possible consequences [3]. The accident occurred during a turbogenerator test
carried out at the chance of the shutdown of the unit for a planned maintenance. The destruction of thereactor happened 6-7 seconds after the operator pressed the scram button, AZ-5 to insert all control rods
into the core.
According to the Soviet experts the prime cause of the accident at the Chernobyl NPP was “…anextremely improbable combination of violations of instructions and operating rules committed by the staffof the unit” [3]. This conclusion sets a full responsibility for the accident at the Chernobyl NPP on its stuff.
Participants of the Post-Accident Review Meeting [2] also accepted the Soviet version. However, it wasincorrect. This was demonstrated in 1990 by the commission of the State Committee for Atomic Safety
Survey of the USSR which concluded that the main reasons of the Chernobyl accident were serious
shortcomings in the design of the Chernobyl reactor as well as inadequate documents regulating a safe
operation of the reactor [4]. Various errors, that were made during the turbogenerator testing by the
personnel of the fours unit of the Chernobyl NPP, according to the commission, could only contribute to
the development of the accident. This commission will be named in the present report as the Sternberg
commission after the name of its chairman.
The conclusions of the Sternberg commission were accepted later by the International Consultative
Group on the Nuclear Safety that issued in 1993 a Supplement to INSAG-1 [5]. In this report of theInternational Consultative Group on the Nuclear Safety, the main accent was laid also on various
shortcomings of the RBMK design. At the same time the International Consultative Group on the Nuclear
Safety indicated that the important reason of the Chernobyl accident was an inadequate “nuclear safety11culture” in the nuclear industry of the former USSR.
Main design features of the RBMK reactor
History of the RBMKThe abbreviation RBMK means in Russian: a channel-туре reactor of a large power. There were two
modifications of the RBMKs in the USSR: RBMK-1000 and RBMK-1500. They differ only in theircapacity. The RBMK-1000 has the nominal power equal 1000 MW electrical gross. The nominal capacityof the RBMK-1500 is 1500 MW electrical gross. Some principal characteristics of the RBMK-1000 are
given in Table 1. It is a kind of a boiling water reactor with enriched uranium as fuel, graphite asmoderator and water as coolant. Reactors of this type were constructed and operated only in the USSR.
The construction of the first RBMK was begun in March 1970 (Leningrad NPP) [6]. It was put into thecommercial operation in November 1974. Later other 14 RBMK reactors were constructed and put into
operation in the USSR before the Chernobyl accident [6]. Thus, 15 RBMK reactors were in operation in
the USSR at the time of the Chernobyl accident. They were 4 reactors at the Leningrad NPP, 4 at the
Chernobyl NPP, 4 at the Kursk NPP, 2 at the Smolensk NPP and 1 at the Ignalina NPP [6]. The RBMK
reactors were built in pairs, with two units occupying opposite sides of a single building complex.
Turbogenerators of such pair of reactor units were constructed in one building. Reactors of the first twounits of the Leningrad, Chernobyl and Kursk NPPs belong to the first generation of RBMKs. The other
RBMKs belong to the second generation of the reactors of this type.
The difference between RBMKs of the first and second generations was not very significant. All
these reactors were practically copies of the first RBMK. They were constructed by using the technicalproject of the first RBMK reactor that was developed in 1960s [4]. This means that all RBMKs had
similar shortcomings and an accident similar to the Chernobyl accident could happen at each Soviet NPP
with a channel-type reactor [4].
The first and second units of the Chernobyl NPP belonged to the first generation of RBMKs and thethird and fours units to the second generation. The construction of the Unit 1 of the Chernobyl NPP started
in June 1972 [6]. The commercial operation of it began in May 1978. The construction of the Unit 4
started in April 1979 and commercial operation began in March 1984 [6].
Core of the RBMKThe core of the RBMK reactor (element 1 in Fig.1) has a form of a vertical cylinder with anequivalent diameter of 11.8 m and height of 7 m [7]. The schematic presentation of it is given in Fig.1.
Table 1. Principal characteristics of the reactor RBMK-1000 [3].
Characteristics
Thermal power
Electrical power
Fuel enrichment
Mass of uranium in an fuel assembly
Number of sub-assemblies in an fuel assembly
Number of fuel elements in a fuel sub-assembly
Diameter of fuel elements
Fuel burnup
Coefficient of nonuniformity in radial power density
Coefficient of nonuniformity in vertical power density
Maximum design channel power

12

3,200 MW1,000 MW2.0 %114.7 kg2
18
13.6 mm
20 MW⋅d/kg
1.48
1.4
3,250 kWThe core is constructed from closely packed graphite blocks. They are stacked into columns with verticalcylindrical openings into which channels for fuel (pressure tubes) as well as channels for absorbing rods
are inserted. The core is surrounded at top, bottom and lateral by graphite reflectors. The thickness of thelateral reflector is 1 m. The thickness of the top and bottom reflectors is 0.5 m. The weight of the coregraphite is 1,700 t. The weight of graphite reflectors is about 300 t.
The RBMKs of the first generation have 1,693 fuel channels (technological channels) and 179
channels for rods of the control and protection systems (CPS) [8]. The RBMKs of the second generation(for example, the Unit 4 of the Chernobyl NPP) have 1,661 fuel channels and 211 channels for the control
and protection systems. The fuel assemblies of the RBMK reactor are made in a form of a cluster [7,8].
Each fuel assembly consists of two sub-assemblies, one over the other. The sub-assembly contains 18 fuelelements. The diameter of fuel elements is 13.6 mm. The weight of uranium containing in one fuelassembly is 147.5 kg The fractions of a pressure tube that are located in the active core are made ofzirconium alloy. The lower and upper parts of it are made of steel.
.
At the time of loading the core with fresh fuel, one part of fuel channels (230-240) is loaded withspecial additional absorbing rods (AAR) because the control rods can not compensate the large reactivity
surplus of the core [7]. The geometrical parameters of the AAR rods do not differ from those of fuelassemblies. Therefore, the additional absorbing rods can be inserted at any channel of the core. With
increase of the fuel burnup the AAR rods are withdrawn gradually one after the other. The fuel assemblies
are inserted then in the channels that were occupied previously by additional absorbing rods. Thus, theweight of uranium in the core increases with increase of fuel burnup. At the beginning of operation it isabout 165 t and reaches 192 t by achieving the stationary operation [7].
The graphite stack lays on a base steel plate (element 10 in Fig.1) that is placed on a bottom metal
structure (element 3 in Fig.1). The bottom metal structure is a cylinder of 14.5 m in diameter and 2 m high.
9

8

4

13
10

6
5

6

11
2
1

12

10
3
7

1. Core (graphite blocks)
2. Core shroud
3. Lower support structure
4. Upper core cover and shield
5. Fuel channel duct
6. Annular water tank

7. Supporting metal structure
8,9 Operating floor slabs
10. Steel base plate
11. Reactor vault
12. Sand filling
13. Core ventilation pipe

Fig. 1. The arrangement of the core of Chernobyl Unit 4 [8].
13The upper and lower plates of the cylinder are made from steel (10CrNi1Mo) of 40 mm thick [8]. They are
welded to the lateral shell by means of leak-tight welds, and welded to each other by means of verticalstrengthening fins. The bottom metal structure is mounted on the supporting metal structure (element 7 inFig.1) that composed of plates with reinforced fins of 5.3 m high. They intersect each otherperpendicularly at the center of the reactor [8].
The construction of the top metal structure (element 4 in Fig.1) is similar to the construction of thebottom metal structure. It is a cylinder of 17 m in diameter and 3 m high [8]. The upper and the bottom
plates of it are made from steel (10CrNi1Mo) of 40 mm thick. They are also welded to the lateral shell andto each other by means of vertical strengthening fins. The holes in the top and bottom plates are for the
tube ducts (element 5 in Fig.1) holding the fuel and absorber channels. The similar ducts for the fuel andabsorbers channels are made in the bottom supporting structure.
The space between different tubes and communications in the top and bottom metal structures are
field with serpentinite (a mineral containing bound water of crystallization) [8]. The metal top covering of
the core (element 8 in Fig.1) is covered with the removable floor constructed from steel slabs (element 9
in Fig.1).
The lateral side of the graphite stack is surrounded by a cylindrical shroud (element 2 in Fig.1) madeof steel sheeting (10CrNi1Mo) of 16 mm thick. It has an outer diameter of 14.52 m and height of 9.75 m[8]. The shroud together with the top and bottom metal structures creates a closed reactor space that isplaced into the concrete vault (element 11 in Fig.1). The shroud of the reactor is surrounded laterally bywater tanks and sand filling (elements 6 and 12 in Fig.1).
About 5% of the heat generated in the core are released to the graphite stack [3]. This heat is removed
to fuel and partially to CPS channel. To reduce a thermal resistance and prevent oxidation of the graphite
the cavity in the graphite stack is filled with a slowly circulating mixture of helium and nitrogen. The
piping bends of the circulating system of this mixture are shown in Fig.1 (element 13).
System of the RBMK reactor cooling
Cooling of the RBMK reactor is assured with help of two parallel loops [7,8]. Thy are schematicallyshowed in Fig. 2. Each loop is designed for cooling of one half of the reactor core (the left and righthalves) and consists of 2 steam separators and 4 main circulating pumps (MCPs). Three main circulating

14

pumps are used for normal operation of the reactor. One pump is in a reserve for a breakdown of one ofthe operating pumps [7,8]. The main circulation pumps of one cooling loop are switched to busbars of thefirst turbogenerator of the unit. The main circulation pumps of other loop are switched to busbars of thesecond turbogenerator of the unit.
The coolant (light water) enters the fuel channels from the bottom of the core. The inlet pressure andtemperature are 8.2 MPa and 270 0C, respectively [8]. By passing of the channel the pressure of water
decreases to approximately 7 MPa and temperature increases up to 284.5 0C at the core outlet. The
increase of the temperature and the decrease of pressure cause boiling of water. This process begins at the
distance approximately 2.5 m from the inlet to the core [7]. At the outlet of the core, steam content reaches
the value of to 14.5 wt%. This steam-water mixture flows into steam separators, where it is separated into
saturated steam and water. The separated steam flows then to the turbines and after passing of them goesto condensers where it is condensed to water. This water (feed water) is then pumped by electrical feedwater pumps to steam separators. Here the feed and separated out water is mixed together. On this way thetemperature of the separated out water decreases to 270 0C. This provides the necessary cavitation margin
required for operation of the main circulating pumps and boiling of water at the inlet to the core (thesaturation temperature of water at the pressure at the inlet to the core is about 284 0C).
At normal operating circumstances, each of the 6 main circulating pumps can work with flow-rate
about 7,000 t/h [8]. Their operating with higher flow-rates at the stable power output of the reactor is notdesirable. Such operation causes a change of the relation between the mass of feed water and the mass ofwater separated out in steam separators. The average temperature of the mixture of feed and the water
separated out water increases in this case and this causes a decrease of the cavitation margin. This cancause cavitation of the main circulating pumps and boiling of the coolant even at the inlet to the core. The
same situation arises in case of operations of the main circulating pumps at their nominal flow-rates whenreactor is operated at decreased power.
In case of the RBMK the coolant flows separately to each fuel channels. This requires an individual
regulation of flow-rate to each fuel channel. Therefore, the thermohydraulic scheme of the reactor is much
more complicated than PWRs and BWRs.
Control and protection system
The control and protection system (CPS) of the RBMK reactor has absorbing rods and different
measuring devices for a control of a number of parameters. There are 211 absorbing rods in case of the
RBMK reactors of the second generation [3,4]. According to their functions they are divided in 4 groups[7]:- shortened absorbing rods (SAR) for regulation of the axial neutron distribution;- absorbing rods for a manual regulating of the radial neutron distribution (MR);- absorbing rods for an auto control of the reactor power (AC);- emergency rods (ER).
The total numbers of the SAR, AC, MR and ER absorbers are 24, 24, 139 and 24, respectively [4].
The absorbing rods used for control and protection systems of the RBMK reactor are assembled from theidentical absorbing elements made of carbide boron [7]. These elements have the same length equal to967.5 mm. The absorbers of the type SAR have only three absorbing elements. Their length is 3,050 mm[7]. Other absorbing rods are assembled from 5 absorbing elements. Their length is 5,120 mm [7]. There
are another feature in absorbing rods of the RBMK reactor. The absorbing rods of the type SAR, MR andER have special graphite displacers that are assembled from 5 graphite elements. These displacers remainin the core by full withdrawal of absorbing fractions of rods. The use of graphite displacers improves
significantly the neutron economy of the RBMK reactor because graphite absorbs neutrons much less thanthe light water. Fig.3 demonstrates schematically different absorbers of the control and protection systems
15

of the RBMK reactor.
Negative features of the RBMK reactor.
The RBMK reactors have a number of negative features that strongly influence the safety of theiroperation. Some of them were eliminated after the Chernobyl accident. However, we shall discuss here thenegative features of the RBMK reactor that existed before the accident.
One of them is an enhanced sensitivity of neutron fields to the moving of control rods [7]. This effectis caused through a big number of absorbers in the core for compensation of a large reactivity surplus. By
withdrawal of some absorbers, especially absorbers in peripheral zones, a local criticality is also possible.
According to [7], it can appear in the zone consisting of 15 - 20 channels loaded with fuel when there are
no one absorber among them. These features of the core cause significant problems in controlling of the
RBMK reactors in comparison to PWRs and BWRs.
Another significant problem creates the large positive steam-void coefficient of the RBMK reactor.
Experimental studies carried out at the end of 1970s have shown that the steam-void coefficient increases
up to 5 βeff by decreasing of the number of additional absorbing rods (AAR) in the core and by increasingof the fuel burnup [4]. Appearance of such large positive reactivity decreased the period of the powerstabilization of the core to 3 minutes [4]. This made the safe operation of the RBMK reactor quite
problematic. A special local auto-control system was developed in order to prevent uncontrolled power
excursions. It was clear already in 1970s how to decrease the high steam-void coefficient [4]. It disappears
by introducing of a certain number of additional absorbing rods in the core. The permanent presence ofthem in the core required fuel with a higher enrichment. Therefore, from 1970s the enrichment of fuelused for RBMKs was 2 % instead of 1.8 % used at the beginning of the operation of the first RBMK
(reactor of the Unit 1 of the Leningrad NPP). It was found later that the enrichment of fuel up to 2 % was
not enough for decreasing of the steam-void coefficient [4]. Experimental studies carried out at the end of
1970s has shown that only by enrichment 2.4 % and by the permanent presence of about 80 additional
absorbers in the core the value of the steam-void coefficient could be made less than βeff . These data werealso confirmed in a experimental study carried out after the Chernobyl accident [9]. However, the use of16

additional absorbers and fuel with higher enrichment was implemented for RBMKs only some years after
the Chernobyl accident.
The significant shortage was also in the design the SAR, MR and ER absorbers of the RBMK reactor.
These absorbers had special graphite displacers in the length of 4.5 m [10]. By a withdrawal of the SAR,
MR and ER absorbers up to their extreme top position above the core, the midpoint of each displacer is at
the midpoint of the core. Because their length (4.5 m) is less than the height of the core (7 m), the watercolumns in the height of 1.25 m are formed below and above the displacers. On moving down of absorbers
into the core, their displacers displace water columns from the lower part of the core. Thus, inserting ofabsorbers from their extreme top position introduces a positive reactivity into the core because graphiteabsorbs neutrons much less than water. This effect of absorber displacers is shown in Fig. 4. It was knownby operators of RBMKs. They named it the “end-rods effect”. Specialists named the “end-rods effect” as
the positive reactivity surge. It was not fully understood by them because it appeared occasionally andonly by some neutrons distributions in the core. For example, in one document of the Chief Designerorganization it was told that the positive reactivity surge could appear only in case of neutron field
disturbed downwards [10]. This statement was wrong. It is known that before pressing the button AZ-5 theneutron field was distorted upwards and not downwards. This fact says about misunderstanding by the
Chief Designer organization of the real nature of the positive reactivity surge caused by inserting ofabsorbers from their extreme top position.
The situation with the control and protection systems of RBMKs became complicated because of avery low speed at which the control and emergency rods could be inserted into the core from their extreme
top position. The speed was only 0.4 m per second. Thus, they could be fully inserted into the core for 1820 seconds [4,9]. Such protection system was not able to shut down the reactor in cases, when the
excursion started. In such situation, the reactor period can be in order of some seconds.
The additional problems of RBMKs arise from a very complicated system of the core cooling and theuse of the coolant that can change its physical state in the core.
Accident at the Unit 4 of the Chernobyl NPP
Chronology of the accident
The accident at the Unit 4 of the Chernobyl NPP occurred on 26 April 1986. This unit had to be
shutdown on 25 April 1986 for the planned maintenance. Before the shutdown, it was planned to study thepossibility of utilization of the mechanical energy of a turbogenerator after cut-off of steam supply, in17order to ensure the power requirements in a case of a power failure [3]. This test had to be carried out at
the power level 1,000 –700 MW thermal. The decrease of power began on 25 April 1986 at 01 hr 06 min.
The reactor had at this time the nominal power 3,200 MW thermal (the time and other data are given here
and below after records of the operator in the operative log-journal) [4]. At 03 hr 47 min the reactor
power reached the level of 1,600 MW thermal. It fell to the value 1,500 MW thermal by the time 04 hr 13
min. The reactor was operated at this power until 12 hr 36 min. The operation reactivity surplus (ORS)
beginning from 07 hr 10 min decreased to 13.2 manual absorbing rods (MR). At 13 hr 05 min, theturbogenerator TG7 was switched off. Four main circulating pumps, two electrical feed water pumps andother equipment that was connected with this turbogenerator were switched to the busbars of theturbogenerator TG8.
The following pump configuration arose as a result of these actions: four pumps running from theturbogenerator TG8 (MCP-13, 14. 23, 24), two pumps running from grid (MCP-12, MCP-22) and two
pumps (MCP-11, MCP-21) connected to grid on standby. At the foreseen experiment the pumps MCP-13,
MCP-14., MCP-23 and MCP-24 had to run together with the turbogenerator TG8. The main circulating
pumps: MCP-11, MCP-12, MCP-13, MCP-14 belonged to the loop for cooling of the left half of the core.
The main circulating pumps: MCP-21, MCP-22, MCP-23, MCP-24 belonged to the loop for cooling of theright half of the core.
At 14 hr, the emergency core cooling system (ECCS) was switched off according to the experiment
program. At this time, the Kiev dispatcher of the electrical grid ordered to continue the operation of theUnit 4 because of a shortage of power [4]. From this time the reactor was operated at the power 1,500 MW
thermal with the switched-off ECCS system. The order of the Kiev distributor caused an important
disturbance for the test because the later continuation of the experiment had to be done by another shift of
the Unit 4 that was not planned for this important work.
At 23 hr 10 min, the operator of the reactor was allowed to decrease the power of the unit. At 00 hr
10 min on 26 April, it reached the level 720 MW thermal that was the lower limit of the power according
to the experiment program [4]. However, the operator could not stabilize the power of the reactor at thislevel. It continues to fall and at 00 hr 28 min, it fell down to 30 MW thermal. The operator of the reactor,
the senior engineer, Leonid Toptunov and the shift foreman, Alexander Akimov decided to insert
absorbing rods in the core in order to shutdown the reactor. They were forced by the deputy chief engineer
for operation of Unit 3 and Unit 4, Aleksander Dyatlov to withdraw the absorbers out the core in order toincrease the power of the reactor [11]. The latter wished to carry out the planned test at any price. The
necessity of the withdrawal of practically all absorbers out the core was dictated by a very strong xenon
poisoning as a result of very quick decrease of the reactor power.
After the withdrawal of a number of absorbers, the power of the reactor began to increase. At 01 hr
03 min, it reached 200 MW thermal [4]. At this time 2 reserve circulating pumps were put additionally
into operation. The total number of operating main circulating pumps reached 8 pumps. Therefore, thesummary flow-rate of water through the core became higher than at the nominal power of the operation.
Such increase in the summary flow-rate of the coolant was reached at very low reactor power and very
low steam generation. This caused the decrease in a cavitation and boiling surplus. According to [4], it
was only about 3 oC. Thus, the withdrawal of the majority of absorbers from the core after the fall of thepower to 30 MW thermal put the reactor into an unstable thermo-hydraulic state.
The use of two additional main circulation pumps after reaching of the thermal power 200 MW wasundertaken in order to guarantee a safe cooling of the reactor after finishing of rundown of theturbogenerator TG8 and 4 main circulating pumps connected to busbars of it (MCP-13, -14, -23, -24).
Four circulating pumps (MCP-11, -12, -21, -22) had to remain after finishing of the rundown. Performingsome actions the operating stuff could bring the reactor in a stable state before the experiment beginning[3,4]. An analysis carried later shown that no signals appeared indicating that something happened with18

the reactor that could hinder conducting of the experiment [4]. It seemed for the operating stuff that thereactor was in the normal state. This was a very serious mistaken. In reality, the reactor was in a very
dangerous state. At 01 hr 22 min 30 sec, the operative reactivity surplus was only 8 rods [4]. It means thatthe water in the core, especially in its lower part, became the most important absorbers of neutrons. A
decrease of a pressure or an increase of a temperature of water at the inlet to the core could cause a local
boiling of water in the lower part of the core. Such process inserts the positive reactivity and as a result ofa large positive power coefficient causes a high increase of the reactor power. .Unfortunately, the operator
did not understand this dangerous feature of the Chernobyl reactor and continued to operate the reactor inthis dangerous state.
At 01 hr 23 min 04 sec, the experiment was started. At this time, the emergency regulating valves ofthe second turbogenerator, TBG8, were closed [3,4]. The power of reactor was 200 MW thermal. The
operative reactivity surplus was only about 6-8 absorbers. This was shown by the analysis carried out after
the accident. Shortly after the beginning of the experiment, the reactor power began to rise [3,4]. At 1 hr
23 min 40 sec, the unit shift foreman gave the order to press the button AZ-5, which would send allcontrol and scram rods into the core [3,4]. The rods began to move into the core. However, after several
seconds a number of shocks were felt and the operator saw that the absorber rods had halted without
plunging fully to the lower stops. Seeing this stop of absorbers the shift foreman cut off the current tosleeves of the servo drivers of absorbers in order to ensure the falling of rods [11]. -- This action did not
help to insert the rods into the core. Some seconds later the reactor was fully destroyed.
According to observers that were outside of the Unit 4, at least 2 explosions, one after the otheroccurred in the reactor at 01 hr 24 min on 26 April 1986 [3]. Here is a story of one fireman that heard
several explosions at the time of the experiment [11]: “At the time of the explosion I was near to thedispatcher bureau. I was in service. Suddenly we heard a loud clap of steam. We did not take into
consideration this event because throws of steam into atmosphere were quite often. I wanted to leave theroom for my rest and heard at this moment an explosion. I ran to the window and heard in a very shot time
the other explosions.” This story was recorded in the clinic in Moscow where the affected fireman andpersonnel members were treated because of the acute radiation sickness.
Another observer (a concrete worker of the Chernobyl NPP) told the following story [10]: “I wasnear the Unit 4, about 500 meters away, when I suddenly heard a loud clap. Then came something like thesound of an explosion. I thought it was the steam valve, which we used to hear from time to time. Then ina couple of seconds a bright, blue flash was followed by en enormous explosion. When looking at the
Block 4, I saw that there were only two walls of it left. The structure was in ruins, water was pouring out,
bitumen was burning on the roof of the Unit 4”
Destruction of the reactor
The explosions at 01 hr 24 min completely destroyed the core of the reactor of the Unit 4 [12]. Walls
and the ceiling of the central hall were demolished. Ceilings of the premises of the steam separators weredisplaced and walls were destroyed. Premises housing the main circulating pumps as well as two stories ofthe de-aeration stack were demolished. The reactor emergency cooling system was completely destroyed
from the north side of the reactor building and buried with frame details. The upper metal structure
together with top covering (the summary weight 2,000) and rests of the steam–water system were throwninto vertical direction and fell on the rib with the inclination angle 15o [12]. The artist picture in Fig. 4
shows its position after the explosions as well as the scale of the reactor destruction. The lower metal
structure after the explosion went down by 4 m lower than their initial position, crushing the supporting
constructions and pulling the water pipeline system. The southeast quadrant of the lower metal structure
does not exist. It was destroyed during the accident. The reactor space is empty. It does not contain any
more or less large fragments of the reactor laying [12].
19In addition to destructions listed here, many other premises and constructions were demolished too.
By destruction of the reactor a large amount of core materials were thrown out the core [13]. Large piecesof graphite and whole graphite blocks, fragments of fuel channels and fuel assemblies could be found evenin big distances from the reactor [13]. Practically the whole site of the Chernobyl NPP as well as all roomsof the reactor was covered with the graphite dust.
Physical nature of explosions
Soviet experts who participated at the Post-Accident Review Meeting in Vienna suggested thefollowing hypothesis of the physical nature of explosions that demolished the Unit 4 of the Chernobyl
NPP. According to them, the first explosion was a steam explosion [3]. It had to occur on the following
scenario. A very fast and high increase of a heat generation occurred in the core. It caused an intensive
steam formation and then a nucleate boiling. Soon, the melting of cladding and fuel as well as destructionof fuel tablets into small particles followed. Then the destruction of fuel channels occurred. The next step
was a very massive steam generation because of contacting of the destroyed fuel with water. This caused afirst explosion in the core because of a very high steam pressure. It can be named as a steam explosion.
Later a number of explosions followed as a result of exothermic reactions in a mixture containinghydrogen formed in the water-zirconium process and carbon monoxide formed by a fire of graphite.
The hypothesis about the steam explosion was accepted by specialists [4,14]. However, theassumption about the role of exothermic chemical reactions in the mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide
etc was not discussed more. It was shown in special model experiments carried out after the Chernobyl
accident that the role of them was negligible [13].
Some specialists are sure that after the steam explosion a nuclear explosion similar to an atomic
bomb explosion occurred in the core of the 4th Unit [13,15,16]. Its power had to be much higher than20

power of the steam explosion.
The conclusion of the authors [15] is based on experimental findings established by studying ofactivities of isotopes 133Xe and 133Xem in the air that existed in the first days after the Chernobyl accident.
Their study was carried out in the city Cherepovets that is about 1,000 km in north direction from the
Chernobyl NPP. The authors [15] could find that the ratio of activities of these isotopes is the same as in
the case of nuclear explosion.
Two different models of the nuclear explosions are known. According to [13], the core of theChernobyl reactor transformed to a turbo-jet solid-phase engine after a very short initial overheating of
fuel. It flied like a missile from the reactor vault to the central reactor hall by the hydrodynamic forces ofgas-phase streams flushing down from the fuel channels. Then it exploded as an atomic bomb in the spaceof the central hall. Practically, the whole fuel and graphite had to be thrown away from the reactor by this
explosion. This hypothesis explains a number of questions. For example, it explains why there is no fuel inthe vault. It gives an answer on the question why the metal shroud of the core could be in the central
reactor hall. It is situated now in the central reactor hall 35 meters from the entry to the reactor vault. Thisfinding was established in 1995 [13]. The hypothesis [13] makes also clear how could remain without any
visible demolishing the paint on the lower surface of the upper metal structure that stays now on its rib in
the vault. This paint is able to sustain only up to 300 oC. In a case of graphite burning during a long time,it had to be destroyed. This is a reason for authors [13] to reject the possibility of graphite burning in thecore after explosions. Their hypothesis seems quite reliable because it explains a number of other findings
established some years after the accident. At the same time, it can not explain some very important facts.
For example, it is well known that radioactive substances escaped from the destroyed reactor with a quite
constant release during 10 days after the accident. This had to be only in a case when significant amountsof fuel and graphite remained after the explosions and a long term fire of graphite was in the core.
Data on composition of radionuclides deposited in the areas contaminated by the accident indicate
also the presence of large amounts of fuel in the core after the explosions that destroyed the Chernobyl
reactor. In case of a scenario proposed by [13], no fuel and graphite could remain in the core. This meansthat the radioactive contamination of territories affected by the Chernobyl accident had to be caused byradioactive substances discharged to the environment only during the explosions. However in this case,radionuclides, deposited at any place of the world, had to have the same composition as the composition in
the core before the accident. Let’s consider here only one example. According to [1] 280 PBq of theisotope 137Cs and 200 PBq of the isotope 90Sr were in the core of the Unit 4 before the accident. Their halflives for the radioactive decay are quite similar. Thus, at any place of the world the ratio of the137Csconcentration to 90Sr concentration has to be equal to 1.4. However, reliable experimental data [17] showthat such values of this ratio exist only in areas close to the Chernobyl NPP. They increase up to 100 inareas that are more than 100 km from the Chernobyl NPP. These high ratios of 137Cs concentration to 90Sr
concentration indicate that the discharge of radioactive substances into the environment had to be caused
not only by explosions but also mainly as a result of fuel melting in the reactor core. This means that asignificant part of fuel had to remain in the reactor after explosions. This could happen when only a part offuel was thrown from the core by the nuclear explosion, for example, in case when the nuclear explosions
occurred only in one part of the core. The last assumption explains why only one segment of the lower
metal structure was destroyed.
Another model of the nuclear explosion was proposed by authors [16]. According to them, soon after
the beginning of the experiment a sudden boiling of water occurred in the core. It was caused as a result ofdepressurization and flow rate reduction of the coolant. The introduced positive reactivity was higher than
the anti-reactivity Doppler margin. Therefore, the fuel reached the enthalpy of disaggregation just being
able to quench the first reactivity trip. Some tenth seconds after this first power burst, the energy deposited
initially in the fuel was transferred to the water. This process was very fast and the heat transmission to the21water was so high that convective streams could not develop within the water. The steam film and bubbles
formed on the cladding. The internal pressure of the bubbles increased so rapidly that the water was
expelled from the reactor. This was the first explosion (steam explosion). It caused a demolishing of
coolant communications. The reactor became dried and more reactive than the wet one, and a new power
burst occur. The authors estimated the energy of the last power burst to be 1.0 TJ. This energy isequivalent to the energy of explosion of approximately 200 tons of the trinitrotoluene [18]. Similar
estimations were established also in the reports [13,15]. Western specialists claimed after the Chernobyl
accident that the catastrophic consequences of this accident were caused because an absence of thecontainment of the Chernobyl reactor. However, it is clear that there is no such containment in the worldthat can sustain to such explosion.
The assumption about the nuclear nature seems reliable. It allows to explain some facts, for example,
the observation of the witness that saw “a bright, blue flash” over the reactor of the Unit 4 and heard “anenormous explosion” at 1 hr and 24 min [10]. It is known that the blue light corresponds to thetemperature about 6,000 oK. Such temperature can not appear at the steam explosion. It is also clear that incase of the steam explosion a gray ball of steam and graphite dust had to appear over the building but not ablue flash.
It is evident the hypothetical character about the possibility of the nuclear explosion in the core of theChernobyl reactor despite of its seeming reality. It is necessary to carry out more detailed studies in orderto establish a conclusion about its possibility.
Main reasons of the accident
According to the Soviet participants of the Post-Accident Review Meeting in Vienna severe
violations made by the personnel of the Unit 4 of the Chernobyl NPP on 25-26 April 1986 were the main
reasons of the Chernobyl accident [3]. As especially serious violations were named the following:- operation of the reactor at a very low operative reactivity surplus (ORS),- conducting of the experiment by the power below the level provided for test,- blocking of the protection system relaying on water level and steam pressure in steam-separators,- blocking of the protection system relaying on shutdown signal from two turbogenerators,- connection of all the main circulating pumps to the reactor,- switching off the emergency core cooling system (ECCS).
The Sternberg commission [4] recognized only the first violation from given above. It stated that inaccordance with existing technological regulations the operator had to shut down the reactor already at 07
hr 10 min on 25 April 1986. The power of the reactor was then 1,500 MW thermal and the OSR was 13.2
rods. The existed technological requirements for operation of the Unit 3 and Unit 4 required the shutdownof the reactor when the operative reactivity surplus decreased to such value at such power level. The
operator did not fulfill this requirement. However, the Sternberg commission stated that this violation
could not initiate the accident or influence it [4]. Records made by the operator in the operative logbook
show that at 23 hr 10 min on 25 April 1986 the ORS value was 23 full rods. This means that in the period
from 07 hr 10 min to 23 hr 10 min the reactor of the fourth unit was brought in accordance withtechnological requirements.
The Sternberg commission noticed at the same time that this violation was possible because of very
unclear operation’s requirements existing in the USSR before the Chernobyl accident. For example, there
were no documents before the accident indicated the ORS as an important technological parameter.
Additionally, such equipment that could establish operative value of the ORS in a short time did not exist
as a whole. The operator had to establish at first fractions of absorbers inserted into the core. Then he had
to calculate the effective number of rods fully inserted in the core. The operator could also receive this22

information by using the computer of the reactor unit. In this case, he needed to wait 7-10 minutes for
estimation of the operative reactivity surplus. These procedures for an operative estimation of the OSRvalue indicate clearly that the ORS was never considered as a factor determining the safe operation of the
RBMK.
The Sternberg commission concluded that all other violations of the personnel named by Soviet
experts did no influence on the initiation and development of the Chernobyl accident. Let us consider, forexample, the switching off the emergency core cooling system. Data recorded by the reactor control
systems show that no emergency signals came to the ECCS system during the development of the accident.
They could not came because the sensors of the emergency core cooling system reacts on the events in thepremise compartments, but not on the events in the core. This means that there was no difference, was thissystem switched off or in.
The analysis of the Commission demonstrated also that some violations of the Chernobyl NPP stuff
were done because of a very poor regulations and instructions developed for operators of RBMKs by
designers of this reactor. The Sternberg commission could demonstrate that the Chief Designer of the
RBMK reactor was not able to understand clearly some negative features of the reactor, especially by
operation at low power
There is no doubt that severe shortage in the design of the RBMK and freak infringements of safety
regulations by construction of the Unit 4 are real reasons of the Chernobyl accident [4].
It is also evident today which physical factor caused the accident at the Unit 4 of the Chernobyl NPP.
This factor was the large positive reactivity inserted into the core. However, it is unclear up to present
what kind of initiating factors could cause this event.
Same specialists believe that the Chernobyl accident was triggered by pressing of the emergency
button AZ-5 [4,17]. According to them, the accident developed after the following scenario. After pressingof the button AZ-5 all absorbers for the manual regulation and all emergency absorbers began to moveinto the core. Before the pressing of the button AZ-5 the summary lengths of all absorbing elements thatwere in the core was approximately worth 6-8 rods of full insertion into it [3,4]. By moving of all theseabsorbers down the water columns under the graphite displacers were displaced out the core. This caused
the entry of the positive reactivity into lower part of the core.
In this case, the question about the responsibility for the Chernobyl accident is very easy to answer. It
is clear that the Chief Designer organization is responsible when the pressing of the button AZ-5 triggered
the accident. It designed such protection system that can introduce the positive reactivity into the corefollowed by fast increase of power instead of the negative reactivity required for the shutdown of thereactor. This means that a freak infringement of safety regulations was made by this organization for
construction of the Unit 4 of the Chernobyl accident. According to these regulations, the control andprotection systems have to be able to shut down the chain reaction at any circumstances.
On the contrary, the authors [16] believe that the pressing of the button AZ-5 did not play any role ininitiating of the Chernobyl accident. According to them, the boiling of water in the lower part of the corecaused because of the unstable thermo-hydraulic regime of the coolant flow was the initiating factor.
There was an unstable thermo-hydraulic regime of the reactor before the accident. The temperaturesurplus for water boiling was very small at least in case of some fuel channels. This could cause the waterboiling in the lower part of the core and introducing the positive reactivity into it. This caused an
excursion of the power in the lower part of the core and a very high release of heat in fuel channels. The
pressing of the button AZ-5 in this case had only a secondary meaning. It only added an additional
positive reactivity to the lower part of the core.
The hypothesis of [16] explains the reason for pressing of the button AZ-5 by the operator of theChernobyl NPP. We believe that he pressed this button because he could see a very rapid increase of
power. Other reasons for pressing of the button AZ-5 are less probable.
23

Computer simulations made on the basis of more sophisticated codes [19,20] shown that acceptanceonly one hypothesis that were described above can not explain the development of the Chernobyl accident.
They both have to be concerned in order to carry out the correct evaluation of the accident
An interesting assumption was proposed by Checherov [21]. He worked during some years as a headof the laboratory for fuel studying of the accidental unit of the Chernobyl NPP. Later he was a head adepartment for reconstruction of the accident reasons. Checherov could find that electric motors of themain circulating pumps of the Chernobyl NPP had the internal protection for a decline of frequency andvoltage. This protection disconnects electrical motors of the MCPs in 30 seconds after the decrease of thefrequency to 45 Hz and in 0.5-1-5 seconds after the decline of voltage to the level of 75% of its nominal
value. Checherov [21] believes that as a result of the decrease of the frequency and voltage of the currentof the turbogenerator TG8 approximately at 1 hr 10 min 40 sec electrical motors connected to busbars of
the turbogenerator TG8 were disconnected by the signals of the internal protection of the electrical motorsof the MCPs that participated at the run down experiment. This caused a significant drop in the pressure at
the inlet to the core and boiling of water in its lower part. This caused an inserting of the positive
reactivity and a large power excursion in the lower part of the core and the first explosion.
In the light of above discussed discrepancies, it is clear the necessity to carry out the further study ofthe initiating factors of the accident.
Discussion
The analysis of information on the main features of the design of the RBMK reactor indicated that a
number of shortages and a low safety culture in the USSR caused the accident at the Chernobyl NPP on 26
April 1986. The infringements of operation regulations made by the personal of the Unit 4 could only
contribute to the scale of the accident. It was very possible that the most severe destructions of the reactor
were caused by the nuclear explosion that happened after the steam explosion.
The Chernobyl accident was practically “planned”. Its roots lay in the history of the RBMK
development. The RBMK design was developed by the same organizations and specialists that wereinvolved in the development of the Soviet nuclear weapon. Therefore, the same level of secrecy wasbrought in the development of nuclear power reactors for electricity generation. It was forbidden in the
USSR to make public any information about incidences even at foreign NPPs. The former deputy head ofthe department for the NPP construction supervision in the USSR Ministry of Power, Grigorii Medvedev
remembered that the technical information about the accident at the Three Mile Iceland NPP wasclassified in the USSR [11]. No information was published in the USSR as a whole about various
incidences and accidents at the Soviet NPPs. On the contrary, it was said every time that the Soviet NPPs
were the safest in the world. Such statements were totally incorrect. A number of severe accidents
occurred in the USSR before the Chernobyl accident [11]. They are listed below.
 On 7 May 1966, an accident occurred at an experimental boiling water reactor in Melekess (near to thecity Gorjkii, now Nizhni Novgorod). In case of this accident, a power excursion appeared because ofchain reaction by prompt neutrons. The operator and shift foreman received high doses of irradiation.
 During 1964 – 1979, a series of destruction of fuel channels occurred in the reactor of the Unit 1 of theBeloyarsky NPP. The reactor of this NPP was of a channel-type reactor quite similar to the RBMK.
These accidents caused every time a significant irradiation of the personnel.
 On 7 January 1974, an accident happened at the Unit 1 of the Leningrad NPP. In case of this accident,
a ferroconcrete gasholder of the system to retain radioactive gases was destroyed. There were no victimsby this accident.
 On 6 February 1974, a rupture of the intermediate circuit of the Unit 1 of the Leningrad NPP occurred24

because of water boiling in it. Three persons were killed by this accident. High radioactive water
together with radioactive sludge of the filter powder was discharged into the environment.
 In October 1975, a partial destruction of the core of the Unit 1 of the Leningrad NPP occurred. The
reactor was shut down and the core was cleaned on the next day after the shutdown by pumping of an
emergency reserve of nitrogen through the core to the ventilation chimney. Consequently, approximately
1.5 million Curie of radioactive substances was discharged into the environment.
 In 1977, 50% of fuel channels were melted in the core of the Unit 2 of the Beloyarsky NPP. The
reactor of this NPP was of a channel-type also quite similar to the RBMK. Repairing of the reactor was
about 1 year long. The high irradiation of the personnel occurred.
 On 31 December 1978, a large fire at the Unit 2 of the Beloyarsky NPP. The fire was initiated througha downfall of a covering plate of the powerhouse hall on the turbine oil tank. 8 persons received highdoses during an organization of the core emergency cooling.
 In September 1982, a fuel channel in the center of the core of the Unit 1 of the Chernobyl NPP wasdestroyed as a result of mistakes made by the personnel. A large amount of radioactive substances was
released to the industrial site of the NPP and the city Pripyat. The personnel involved in the liquidationof the consequences of this accident received high irradiation doses.
 In October 1982, the generator of the Unit 1 of the Armenian NPP exploded. The hall for theturbogenerator burnt down. The main part of the personnel of the NPP simply fled from the plantleaving it in the emergency state. The special operative group of specialists from the Kolsk NPP flew by
an airplane and helped to save the Armenian NPP.
 On 27 June 1985, an accident occurred at the Unit 1 of the Balakovo NPP. One secure valve of thecooling circuit was pulled out. Therefore, the water steam at the temperature 300 oC came to a room
where people worked. 14 people were killed by this accident. The accident happened because of an
unusual tempo of the work and because of low experience of people.
 In August 1985, a severe accident happened in the bay near Vladivostok when reloading submarine
reactors [22]. This time, a water-water type reactor exploded. 10 people were killed by the accident. The
spontaneous chain reaction with a high release of energy arose. It caused a prompt evaporation of thecoolant. As a result of the explosion, the core with the fresh fuel was thrown to the pier. This accident
demonstrated clearly that water-water nuclear reactors can explode too.
Unfortunately, the information about these and other accidents was accessible only for highauthorities. The Soviet government forced the construction of nuclear power plants because this energy
source was considered in the USSR as a sign of the technological development. This practice did not allow
the Soviet specialists to improve the safety of nuclear powers. Such situation inspired them with an ideathat nuclear power plants do not differ significantly from the conventional power plants.
Detailed study of the accidents at nuclear power reactors in the USSR could have significantly
increased the safety culture and prevent the Chernobyl accident. Already at the end of 1975 specialists
could understand that the partial destruction of the core at the Unit 1 of the Leningrad NPP in October1975 was caused by the positive reactivity surge [23]. The Chief Scientific Supervisor suggested asolution of this problem: operation of RBMKs with permanent presence of a quite high number of
additional neutron absorbers in the lower part of the core and use of fuel with higher enrichment. This
recommendation was implemented only after the Chernobyl accident.
The reasons of the accident that happened in October 1975 at the Leningrad NPP or at other Soviet
NPPs was never discussed at scientific workshops and meetings. The similar power excursion because of
positive steam-void coefficient occurred also at the Unit 1 of the Chernobyl NPP in September 1982 [23].
There were still similar situations at other RBMKs when the central fuel channel was destroyed [23].
However, practically nothing was made in order to eliminate even known shortages of the RBMK reactor.
Two reasons were responsible for this strange practice. The first was the hyper-secrecy even in the25

field of the peaceful use of the nuclear energy. At second, such policy arose from the poor economics of
RBMKs. According to [23], the constant use of a large number of additional absorbers in the core and theincrease in the fuel enrichment were considered to decrease the competitiveness of this type of the nuclear
reactor as much as it could not compete with any other sources of the energy. At the same time, the Soviet
industry was not able to produce enough vessels for PWRs that could find a very bright use in othercountries of the world. The USSR was practically forced to construct and operate such unsafe reactors as
RBMKs.
The next complication arose from the fact that the Soviet specialists had not enough possibilities fordetailed study of nuclear reactors in various situations. This was the reason why the designer of the
RBMK was not able to receive a clear imagination about all features of it. All these circumstances resulted
at the end in the Chernobyl accident, which caused immense losses for the USSR. This accident made also
very negative influence on the development of the nuclear industry in the whole world.
The authorities of the former USSR tried to save the image of the Soviet nuclear industry and thepolitical system of the country. In order to achieve this goal the Soviet specialists at the Post-Accident
Review Meeting held on 25-29 August 1986 in Vienna, Austria [2] tried to put the responsibility for theaccident on the operation stuff of the 4th Unit of the Chernobyl NPP[3]. This attempt was totally
inadequate because the operating stuff as it was established later by the Sternberg commission [4]operated in frames of the existed regulations and instructions.
Conclusions
The main reasons of the accident at the Chernobyl NPP were sever shortages of the design, severe
infringements of the safety regulations for construction of the reactor as well as low safety culture in the
USSR preceding the accident. These factors were responsible for various errors of the operators that tried
to carry out the electromechanical experiment at the time of shutdown of the Unit 4 of Chernobyl NPP.
The reactor was brought by operators into unstable regime of operation in which a positive reactivity surge
was introduced to the core. Possibly, the accident began from the boiling of water in some fuel channels in
the lower part of the core because of a small temperature surplus. The pressing of the button AZ-5 bywhich all control and protection absorbing rods began to insert into the core increased the positive
reactivity surge instead to decrease it. This caused fission chain reactions by prompt neutrons anduncontrolled excursion of the power. There is a high possibility that a number of explosions occurred in
the core. One of these explosions was a nuclear explosion that destroyed the reactor of the Unit 4 of theChernobyl NPP. The further studies are required in order to establish the real initiating factors of theChernobyl accident and the real scenario of it.
References:
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

MinChernobyl. Ten Years after the Accident at the Chernobyl NPP. National Report of the Ukraine. Kiev.1996(in Russian).
International Atomic Energy Agency. Summary Report on the Post Review Meeting on the Chernobyl Accident.
Report by the International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group. Safety series N75-INSAG-1. IAEA, Vienna, 1986.
USSR State Committee on the Utilization of the Atomic Energy. Accident at the Chernobyl-Nuclear-Power
Plant and its Consequences. Information Compiled for the IAEA Expert’s Meeting, 25 - 29 August 1986. Part I.
General Material. Draft. August 1986.
The State Committee for Atomic Safety Survey of the USSR. On Reasons and Circumstances of the Accident in
the 4 Unit of the Chernobyl NPP on April 26, 1986.1991 (in Russian).
International Atomic Energy Agency. The Chernobyl Accident: Supplement to INSAG-1. Report by theInternational Consultative Group on the Nuclear Safety. Safety series N75-INSAG-7. IAEA, Vienna, 1993.
International Atomic Energy Agency. Nuclear Power Reactors in the World. Reference Data Series No.2. April
1992. IAEA, Vienna, 1992, p.38.

26

7.
8.

Dollezhal, N.A., Emeljanov I.Ya. The Channel Nuclear Power Reactor. Atomizdat. Moscow.1980 (in Russian).
USSR State Committee on the Utilization of the Atomic Energy. Accident at the Chernobyl-Nuclear-Power
Plant and its Consequences. Information Compiled for the IAEA Expert’s Meeting, 25 – 29 August 1986. Part II.
Annexes 2,7. Draft. August 1986.
9. Adamov, E.O., Asmolov, V.G., Vasilevsky, V.P. Raising the Safety of Atomic Power Station with Reactor
RBMK. Atomnaya Energiya. Moscow.1987, Vol.62. N4, April 1987, pp.219-226 (in Russian).
10. Chernousenko, V.M. Chernobyl. Insight from the Inside. Springer Verlag. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York,
London, Paris, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Barselona, Budapest. 1991.
11. Medvedev, Grigorii.Chernobyl Notebook. Novyi Mir. Moscow.1989, N6 (in Russian).
12. Ukraine Minchernobyl. Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. Description of the Ukrytiye Encasement andRequirements for its Conversion. Kiev. Navukova Dumka.1992 (in Russian and English).
13. Kiselev, A.N., Checherov, K.P. The Model of Destruction Process of the Unit 4 the Chernobyl Power Plant.
Atomnaya Energiya. Moscow. Vol.91. N6, December 2001, pp.425-434 (in Russian).
14. Adamov, E.O., Vasilevskji, V.P., Ionov, A.I. et al. Analysis of the Accident Development First stage at the fours
Unit of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Atomnaya Energiya. Moscow, 1980, Vol.64. N1, Januar 1988 (inRussian).
15. Pakhomov, S.A., Krivokhvatsty, K.S., Sokolov, I.A. Assessment of the Prompt Energy Release by the Accident
at the Reactor of th Chernobyl NPP Based on Estimation of the Ratio of Activities of Xenon-133 and Xenon133m in the Air. Radiokhimiya. Vol.33, N6, 1991, pp.125-132 (in Russian).
16. Martinez Val, Jose M., Aragones, Jose M., Mingues, Emilio, Perlado, Jose M., Velarade, Guillermio. An
Analysis of the Physical Causes of the Chernobyl Accident. Nuclear Technology. Vol. 90, June 1990, pp.371 –378.
17. Chernobyl: Radioactive contamination of Natural Environments. Edited by Yu.A.Izrael. Leningrad.
Hydrometeoizdat. 1990, pp.141-142 (in Russian).
18. Arpott, D.G. and Green, C.D. Chernobyl Unique Safety Valve for a Reactor Clear Explosion. Proceedings of the
British National conference “The Legacy of Nuclear-Lessons`for the UK” held at the Council House, Bristol,
11th March 1992.
19. Krayushkin, A.V., Kubarev, A.V., Tokarenko, V.E. et al. Simulation of the Initial Phase of an Accident at the
Chernobyl NPP 4th Power Unit. In Proc. First Intern. Workshop on Past Severe Accidents and theirConsequences. Moscow. Nauka, 1990.
20. Afanaseva, A., Burlakov, E., Krayushkin, A.V., Kubarev, A.V. TheCharackteristics of the RBMK Core. Nucl.
Techn..Vol.103, N1, 1993, pp.1-9.
21. The succeful Experiment that ended with the catastrophe. Tekhnika Molodezhi, Moscow. 1997, N9, pp.2-4 (inRussian)
22. Sivintsev, Yu.V. Fission Numbers by the Accident at the Atomic Submarine in the Bay Chazhma. Atomnaya
Energiya. Moscow. Vol.89. N3, September 2000, p.256 (in Russian).
23. Chernobyl Catastrophe; Reasons and Consequences (expert’s conclusion). Part one. Direct Reasons of theAccident at the Chernobyl NPP. Dosimetrical Control. Protection Measures and their Efficiency. Edited by
V.B.Nesterenko and D.S.Firsova. SENMUR. TEST. Minsk. 1993, pp.48-49 (in Russian).

27

The Causes and Scenario of the Chernobyl Accident, and Radioactive Releaseon the CHNPP Unit-4 Site
Boris I. GORBACHEVNational Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, The Interdisciplinary Scientific and Technical Center “Shelter”
36-a, Kirova st., 07270, Chernobyl, Ukraine: gorbachev26@mail.ru gorbachev@slavutich.kiev.ua

Abstract
On the basis of analysis of old and new data, a realistic version regarding the causes of theChernobyl accident was developed. In contrast to the previous official versions, this version gives areasonable explanation to the accident process itself and the various circumstances around themoment of the accident that have not been properly explained up to now. According to this version,
the personnel of the Unit-4 rushed to push the emergency shutdown button, AZ-5 after the first
explosion occurred in the reactor core, and the seismic impact by the second explosion, which wasmore intensive than the first one, was registered at three seismic stations located 100 – 180 km fromthe CHNPP. Little-known experimental data regarding the nuclear fuel release around the 4-th Unitbuilding are also presented.

1. Causes of Chernobyl accident: final choice between two versions
1.1. Two points of view
There are various explanations for the Chernobyl accident. Up to 2002 they can be counted more than
100 versions. However, from the point of view of reactor physics, only two versions can be deemed
reasonable. The first one was reported in August 1986 [1], its essence being that at night on 26.04.86 thepersonnel of the CHNPP Unit-4 have outrageously violated the reactor safety regulations 6 times during
the setting and executing process of the electrical test. The last violation was so outrageous that 204
control rods out of 211 regular ones (i.e. more than 96%) have been drawn out from the reactor core. The
reactor safety regulations required meanwhile that “When the operational reactivity margin be reduced to
15 rods, the reactor should be shut down immediately” [2, p 52]. Moreover, the personnel havepreliminarily switched off almost all of the emergency protection devices. While the reactor safety
regulations stated that “11.1.8. Any interference in protection devices, automated protection mechanisms
and blockage devices is forbidden, except for system malfunction cases [2, p 81]”. These personnel
actions have caused the reactor going out of control, followed by the uncontrolled chain reaction andfinished with the thermal explosion of the reactor. In [1] “a careless reactor operation” has also been
mentioned as well as the lack of understanding by the personnel about “the peculiarities of the reactor
technological processes” and a loss of the “risk feeling” by the reactor personnel.
In addition, some specific features of the RBMK reactors have been pointed out that “helped” thepersonnel in bringing the serious nuclear accident to international catastrophe. In particular, “the reactor
designers have not considered a possibility of such situation that the security system signals capable ofpreventing the accident would be intentionally disconnected from the technical protection system under
the condition of the violations of the reactor safety regulations, only because they deemed such factor
combination impossible”. One can not object against the designers’ opinion because the intentional
disconnection and violations meant the “grave digging” that no-one is keen in. The final conclusion wasstated as “the primary cause of the accident was the hardly possible combination of violations of safety
and exploitation rules committed by the personnel of the Unit-4” [1].
In 1991 the second official governmental commission, organized by Governmental Committee for28

Atomic Power Supervision (GCAPS) and composed of various NPP operators, has produced anotherexplanation for the causes of the Chernobyl accident. The main idea provided by the second commission
was that certain “construction defects” present in the Unit-4 reactor “helped” the reactor personnel tobring the reactor to explosion. The positive steam coefficient and the installation of long (until 1 m)
graphite displacers of water at the end of the control rods are usually named as the main defects. The
neutron absorption capability of the named displacers is lower than that of water. Therefore, theirsimultaneous insertion into the reactor core after the AZ-5 button pressing has displaced the water fromtechnological channels. This, in turn, has added so much positive reactivity that the remaining “effective”
6-8 rods have no longer been capable to compensate it. Thus an uncontrolled chain reaction has started in
the reactor, which has ended by the thermal explosion of the reactor.
After all, the pressing of the AZ-5 button is considered to be the starting accident event, having
initiated the rods’ moving into the reactor core. Water displacement from the lower parts of technologicalchannels has caused the increase of the neutron flux in the lower part of the reactor core. Local thermalloads in technological channels have exceeded the relevant mechanical strength limits. Breakage ofseveral zirconium tubes of technological channels led to partial detachment of the reactor cover plate fromthe reactor casing. It caused multiple breakages of technological channels and the wreckage of the rodsthat were on their half-way to the lower position.
Consequently, scientists and the reactor designers were accused of the accident, as they created thereactor and the graphite displacers, while the personnel on duty had nothing to do with the causes of theaccident.
In 1996 the third official governmental commission, also dominated by the former NPP operators,
has confirmed the conclusions of the second commission after having analysed the cumulative materials.
1.2. Balance of standpoints
As the years passed, both parties have been keeping up their own standpoints. It is a curious pointthat the three official governmental commissions (all of the commissioners being highly experienced
authorities) have reached absolutely opposite conclusions based on the same materials. There appears a
general impression that suggests some kind of concealment in either the research materials or thecommissions’ functioning. Especially, in the reports of these commissions, a series of key issues at thecritical moment of the accident seem to be not described, or too simply described. Probably this is thereason why none of the parties could indubitably prove its case.
The ‘criminal relation’ between the reactor operators and its designers remained unclear, in particular,
due to the fact that during the electrical test “only the operation factors important for the analysis of thetest results were registered” [4]. The personnel is explained the situation as such. It is strange, however,that the personnel failed to register a series of main operation factors that were subject to automatic andcontinuous measurement (e.g. reactivity). “Therefore the accident development was reconstructed bymathematical simulations of the Unit 4, using the DREG printouts, the registered data and theinterrogation of the reactor personnel” [4].
In this way, a long contradiction between scientists and operators has urged the need for an impartial
study of all the accident-related data and materials accumulated during the last 15 years. This researchshould be on the leading principle of the Academy of Sciences, i.e. every statement needs convincing
proof and every process needs natural and reasonable explanation. The most important results of suchstudy are set forth herein.
1.3. The AZ-5 button pressing or doubts turning to suspicions
Scientists are commenting on the numerous documents produced by the governmental commissions(the Commission, afterwards) [1] that, if someone reviews the documents quickly, he has an impression of29

a well-composed and consistent picture of the Chernobyl accident. A closer look, however, leaves afeeling of certain vagueness, as if there were either an incomplete investigation or withholdings of certain
information by the Commission, e.g. concerning the AZ-5 button pressing episode.
“At 1 h 22 min 30 sec, the operator saw the program printout stating the operational reactivity margin
has reached the limit requiring the immediate shut-down of the reactor. The personnel disregarded the data
and the test was launched.
At 1 h 23 min 04 sec, the emergency stop valves (ESV) were closed at turbogenerator No 8…The
available emergency protection system for ESV closing …was blocked to assure the possibility to repeat
the test in case the first attempt fails...
In a certain period of time the slow power rising was noted.
At 1 h 23 min 40 sec, the operators’ chief ordered to press the emergency protection button AZ-5 that
initiates the insertion of all the emergency protection control rods into the reactor core. The rods started
moving down, but in a few seconds the blows were heard ….”[4].
The AZ-5 button is usually the last resort to be pressed in case there is an urgent emergency process
within the reactor that can not be stopped by other means. In the quoted evidences, however, there was no
reason for pressing the button, as there was no emergency process developing.
The testing period was initially fixed as 4 hours, and the quoted texts prove that the new attempt of
repeating the test was planned by the shift personnel, which will take another 4 hours. During the test itself,
i.e. on 36-th second of the experiment, however, the operators suddenly changed their opinion and started
shutting down the reactor. One must have in mind that 70 seconds ago they refused the same procedure
despite a highly risky situation and contrary to the requirements of the reactor safety regulations. All
reporters have noted the groundless pressing of the AZ-5 button [5,6,9].
In addition, “The combined study of both the DREG printouts and teletypes indicates specifically thatthe 5-th category emergency signal … AZ-5 appeared twice, the first one was recorded at 1 h 23 min 39
sec” [7]. But there are also additional data stating the AZ-5 button was pressed three times [8]. The
question therefore is: why was the second and the third pressing needed, if the “rods started to movedown” after the first pressing? Besides, when the testing was keeping up the initial plan, why should theshift personnel be so nervous? So, physicists started suspecting that at 1 h 23 min 39 sec or earlier someserious emergency did arise, which has made the shift personnel to change their plans, even at the cost ofgiving up the electric test program that could cause them serious administrative and other punishments.
However, the issue was not subsequently reported by either the Commission or the shift operators.
This suspicion grew, as the scientists studying the causes of the Chernobyl accident have found out
the asynchronous records within the original proving documents (DREG printouts and oscillograms). The
suspicions grew even more when they found out they were given not the originals, but the copies thereof,“copies lacking the timing marks” [6]. That was a very likely attempt to mislead the scientists in respect of
the real chronology of the emergency process development. And the scientists had nothing to do but saythat “the most completed accident chronology is available…only until the test beginning at 1 h 23 min 04
sec 26.04.86” [6]. The subsequent “event information has essential gaps….and the accident chronology ishighly contradictory” [6]. The above-cited scientific-diplomatic wording means practically the lack ofcredit to the copies presented for research.
1.4. Motion of the control rods
The majority of the afore-mentioned contradictions can be found in the information covering theissue of the control rods motion into the reactor core after the AZ-5 button pressing. One must bear inmind that after the AZ-5 button pressing all control rods had to be moved into the reactor core, 203 ofthem being from the upper limit stop switches. Consequently, by the moment of explosion they were to be30

moved to the equal depth into the reactor core, which had to be registered with the selsyns pointers in the
Unit-4 control room. The real picture is quite different. Some quotes below would be helpful:“The rods started moving down….”[4]. No more records.
“01 h 23 min – strong blows, control rods stopped before having reached their lower limit
stopswitches. Power supply key was switched off”. This is a quote form the operation log.[9].
“…approximately 20 rods kept staying in the upper position, while 14-15 rods were plunged into thereactor core not more than 1…2 m…“[16].
“…displacers of the emergency control rods have passed the distance of 1. 2 m and displacedcompletely the water columns thereunder…” [9].
“The neutrons absorbing rods started moving down and stopped almost immediately, theirpenetration to the reactor core being around 2-2.5 m instead of normal 7 m” [6].
“The investigation of the rods’ final positions under the selsyns pointers data showed approximately ahalf of rods stopped at a depth of 3.5 to 5.5 m” [12]. The question therefore is: where was the second halfof the rods, provided all of them started moving down after the AZ-5 button was pressed?
“The positions of the selsyns pointers as conserved after the accident gives an assumption that…
some of the rods reached the lower stop switches (the total of 17 rods, 12 of them being from the upper
stop switches) [7].
The afore-stated quotes show various official documents describe differently the rods’ movement
process. The oral evidence by the personnel indicates that the rods have moved into the core up to 3.5 m
and stopped afterwards. The main proof of the rods’ motion into the reactor core is thus an oral evidenceby the shift personnel and the selsyns pointers positions in Unit-4 control room. No other proof to therods’ movement was discovered.
Should the pointers’ positions be documentary fixed during the accident, these data could serve thebasis for reconstructing the accident. However, the afore-said pointers positions were fixed only during thedaytime of April 26, 1986” [7], that is 12-15 hours after the accident. This fact can be deemed crucial,because the physicists working with selsyns are fully aware of their crafty properties. The first one is thatthe pointers of the selsyns-synchroreceivers can take any position in case the selsyns-synchrotransmittersundergo the uncontrolled mechanical impact,. The second property is that the absence of power supply tothe selsyns causes the same effect to the selsyns-synchroreceivers pointers. Selsyns are not a mechanicalwatch fixing the specific moment of the air crash.
Therefore, defining the depth of the rods’ insertion into the reactor core at the moment of accident via
fixing the selsyns-synchroreceivers pointers’ positions in Unit-4 control room 12 - 15 hours after theaccident is highly inaccurate method, as the Unit-4 selsyns were exposed to both factors. This is disclosed
in document [7], stating that 12 rods after the AZ-5 button pressing have passed the 7 m distance from theupper stop switches to the lower stop switches before the explosion happened. A logical question arises as
to how the mentioned distance could be passed in 9 seconds while the normal timing to the same distancemakes 18 to 21 seconds [4]. The data are obviously erroneous.
Therefore, the position of the pointers of selsyns-synchroreceivers in the Unit-4 control room as fixed
12 - 15 hours after the accident can not be deemed an objective scientific proof of the rods’ insertion into
the reactor core after the AZ-5 button pressing. The proof remaining is only the subjective evidence of
persons highly interested. The issue of the control rods motion into the reactor core after the AZ-5 buttonpressing is therefore still pending.
1.5. Seismic impact
In 1995 a new hypothesis has been spread in mass-media, stating that the Chernobyl accident wascaused by a ‘narrow-beam like’ earthquake of 3 - 4 degree which took place near CHNPP approximately
31

16 – 22 sec before the Chernobyl accident, and this fact was confirmed by the relevant seismogram peaks[10]. The scientists, though, have rejected this version immediately as the unscientific and ill-proved.
According to the seismologists’ opinion on the issue, an earthquake of 3-4 degree with the epicenter in thenorth of Kiev region is nonsense.
But in 1997 a serious scientific report was published [21], containing the accurate data on the issue
based on the analysis of seismograms obtained from 3 seismic stations located 100 – 180 km from the
CHNPP. The data showed that at 01 h 23 min 39 sec (± 1 sec) local time “a week seismic event” happenedat the distance of 10 km to the east from CHNPP. The MPVA magnitude of the source defined based on
the surface waves amplitudes was coordinated at all 3 seismic stations and was equal 2.5. Its TNTequivalent was 10 t. It was impossible to estimate the source depth on the basis of the available data. In
addition, the low amplitudes level on the seismograms and the one-way location of all seismic stations
with regard to the epicenter gives the geographic coordinates error that can not to be less than 10 km.
Therefore, this “week seismic event” could really happen at the CHNPP location [21].
These results made the scientists to reconsider more attentively the geotectonic hypothesis, because
these seismic stations appeared to be the supersensitive ones that could register the underground nuclear
tests all over the world. Therefore, the fact of an earthquake 10 – 16 sec before the official moment of theChernobyl accident became an indisputable argument that no one could ignore.
The only strange circumstance with regard to these seismograms was the absence of peaks at the
moment of the ‘official’ explosion of the Unit-4. We can say the following: the seismic devices registereda seismic event no one else could notice, while the Unit-4 explosion, which shook the earth and was felt
by many persons, passed the attention of the seismic devices. One has to note that the devices in question
are capable of detecting the explosion of some 100 t of TNT at a distance of 12 000 km, while the Unit-4
explosion was equal to 10 t of TNT and the distance was 100-180 km.
1.6. The new version
Numerous contradictions listed above as well as the lack of clarity in the materials in respect ofvarious issues have strengthened the scientists’ suspicions regarding the facts’ concealment by the reactor
operators. As the time passed, a revolutionary concept has been growing with the scientists – why could
not the events happen vice versa? First – the double explosion, 500-meters high violet flames over thereactor, building of the Unit-4 shuddering all over, concrete beams shaking and steam-saturated air blast
bursting into the Unit-4 control room. The general lightning went off, and only three accumulator-fed
lamps kept functioning.
The personnel in the control room could not miss that. After having recovered from the first shock,the personnel rushed to press the AZ-5 button. But it was too late. The reactor was already destroyed. The
whole story could take up to 10, 20 or 30 seconds after the explosion. Given that, the accident itself could
have begun not at 01 h 23 min 40 sec, but earlier, and consequently, the uncontrolled chain reaction began
before the AZ-5 button was pressed.
The suggested sequence of events gives a natural explanation for both the urgent multiple pressing of
the AZ-5 button and the personnel’ nervousness, which happened when they were going to exploit thereactor peacefully at least 4 hours more. This concept explains also the registered peak on the seismic
curves at 01 h 23 min 39 sec and its absence at the ‘official’ moment of the accident. Finally, with thisconcept a natural explanation can be given to certain events that happened before the explosion and had
previously no logical explanation, such as “vibrations”, “the increasing boom”, “hydroblows” from thecentral hall, “jumping” of 2000 “biological shield” blocks in the reactor central hall, etc [11].
1.7. Quantitative proofs
The naturalness of the explanations given to a series of unclear events by the afore-stated new32

concept is a weighty argument in favor thereof. These arguments, however, have mostly of qualitative
character, while our implacable opponents could be successfully persuaded only by the quantitativearguments. Therefore, the ‘rule of contraries’ (reductio ad absurdum) method will be used fordemonstration.
Let us assume the reactor exploded “in some seconds” after pressing of the AZ-5 button and graphite
displacers’ moving into reactor core. Such scheme presumes clearly that the Unit-4 was controlled by its
personnel till the events started. That is, by the moment the AZ-5 button was pressed, the reactivity was
somewhat near 0 β. It is well known that the simultaneous moving of all control rods with graphite
displacers into the reactor core can add positive reactivity from 0.2 β to 2 β dependent on the reactor state[5]. Should the sequence of events be the ‘official’ one, the total reactivity could at a certain moment
surpass 1 β value, which means the start of the explosive type uncontrolled chain reaction based on
prompt neutrons.
Should that be the real accident scenario, the designers of the reactor would share the responsibility
for the accident instead of the reactor operators. But should the reactor explode before the AZ-5 button
was pressed or at the moment it was pressed, then the reactor reactivity at that moment was already morethan 1 β. In this case the fault for the accident falls apparently on the reactor personnel, as they lost control
over the chain reaction after 01 h 22 min 30 sec when the reactor safety regulations required the reactor
shut down. The question on the reactivity value at the moment of pressing of the AZ-5 button by the
personnel has therefore has a fundamental importance.
The Unit-4 reactivity-meter readings could help to answer the above question. These readings,
however, were not found among the accident-related documents. The question had been solved by various
authors based on the computer simulation of the accident. The possible total reactivity values wereobtained within the research process as lying between 4 β to 10 β [12]. In these works the total reactivity
balance included mainly the effect of the control rods’ moving into reactor core (up to +2 β), the steam
void effect (up to +4 β) and the loss-of-water void effect (up to +4 β). The impact of other processes(cavitation and others) was deemed secondary.
In all these works the accident process began with the AZ-5 button pressing followed by the movingof control rods into reactor core (adding another up to +2 β to the total reactivity). That has caused the
beginning of the uncontrolled chain reaction in the lower part of the reactor core, which has led to thebreakage of the fuel channels. Then the steam and loss-of-water void effects came into action. They, in its
turn, could bring the total reactivity up to +10 β by the end of the reactor life. Our estimations of the total
reactivity at the moment of the accident (based on the analog method using the American experimental
data) [13], have shown a rather close value of 6-7 β.
Now, assuming the most likely total reactivity value was 6 β and deducting the highest possible +2 β
added by the graphite displacers, the final total reactivity value before moving the control rods into reactor
core made +4 β. Such reactivity value is enough to cause the immediate destruction of the reactor. The
reactor lifetime with such reactivity level makes no more than 0.01-0.02 sec. No personnel, whatever betheir experience, could timely react to the appearing threat.
Hence, the quantitative estimations of reactivity before the accident also show the uncontrolled chain
reaction began in the Unit-4 reactor before the AZ-5 button was pressed. Therefore, its pressing could notcause the reactor thermal explosion. Moreover, given the afore-stated circumstances, the specific time of
AZ-5 button pressing (either before, or within, or after the reactor explosion) was already of no matter.
1.8. What are the witnesses saying?
During the investigation and tribunal the witnesses present in the Unit-4 control room during theaccident were actually divided in two groups. The first one, composed of those who were liable by law for33

the reactor safety, was stating that the reactor exploded after the AZ-5 button pressing. The second group,composed of those bearing no legal liability for the reactor safety, stated the reactor exploded either before
or immediately after the AZ-5 button was pressed.
As everyone of them was trying to justify his actions when recalling the events, such evidences haveto be treated with some caution. So did the author considering them as supplementary materials. The
correctness of our version, however, can be seen even through this stream of justifications. Here is somequoting of the witnesses’ evidences.
“The main engineer of the CHNPP second stage, who was in charge of the experiment… reported tome that he has pressed the AZ-5 button, as usually, to assure the reactor shut-down in case of any
emergency…” [14].
This quotation is taken from the memories of B.V. Rogozkin who was the shiftman at the CHNPP
during the night of the accident. It clearly shows that at first the emergency situation arose at the Unit-4
and then the operators pressed the AZ-5 button. In case of the reactor thermal explosion, the creation andrunning of the “emergency situation” occurs very fast within a second. Once it arose, the operators had nochance to react it.
“The whole event took 10 – 15 seconds. The vibrations appeared. The boom was growing quickly.
The reactor power dropped at first and then started growing out of control. Then followed the several
sudden claps and two “hydroblows”. The second one was much stronger and came from the central hall.
Lightning went off in the control room, the ceiling plates started falling and the equipment went off aswell” [15].
This is his description of the course of accident (no timing marks mentioned). Another suchdescription was given by N. Popov.
“… a low-toned boom was heard, its source being absolutely unclear, similar to a human groan (thewitnesses of the earthquakes and nature convulsions have been reporting similar sounds). The floor andwalls shook strongly, dust and small crumbs started falling from the ceiling, lighting went off and then adull sound came out, being followed with a thunderous burst …”[17].
“I. Kirshenbaum, S. Gasin, U. Lisyuk, who were present in the Unit-4 control room witnessed they
heard the order to shut down the reactor just either before or after the explosion” [16].
“At that moment I heard Akimov’s order to shut down the reactor. Then immediately the strong
rumble came from the central hall.” (quote from A. Kuchar evidences) [16].
All these evidences show the moment of the reactor explosion and that of the AZ-5 button pressing
almost coincided.
The impartial data also point this important circumstance out. Let us remember that the AZ-5 button
was pressed at the first time at 01 h 23 min 39 sec and the second time – two seconds later (according toteletype data). Seismic curves showed the Unit-4 reactor explosion took place within the period of 01 h 23
min 38 sec to 01 h 23 min 40 sec [21]. Bearing in mind that the teletype time shift towards the standard
USSR time could be ±2 sec [21], one can firmly assume the moment of the reactor explosion and that of
the AZ-5 button pressing almost coincided. This fact implacably denotes the uncontrolled chain reaction
to have started in the Unit-4 reactor before the AZ-5 button was pressed.
But which explosion is now under consideration - the first or the second? The answer to this question
can be found in the seismic curves and in the witnesses’ evidences. Should the seismic stations haveregistered only one out of the two weak explosions, the natural assumption is that the stronger explosion
was registered. According to the witnesses’ evidence, the second explosion was the stronger one. It leads
us to another firm assumption that the second explosion happened within the period of 01 h 23 min 38 sec
to 01 h 23 min 40 sec.
The witnesses’ evidences support this conclusion as follows.

34

“The reactor operator L. Toptunov shouted the reactor power had reached the emergency markup.
Akimov shouted loudly: “Shut down the reactor!” and dashed to the control desk. There was the second‘shut down’ order well heard by everyone. That happened apparently after the first explosion…” [16].
This evidence proves that the first explosion happened before the AZ-5 button was pressed for thesecond time. This is very important for our further analysis. An easy timing calculation would be ofcertain use. It is already known that the first AZ-5 button pressing took place at 01 h 23 min 39 sec and thesecond AZ-5 button pressing took place at 01 h 23 min 41 sec [12]. The time interval between bothpressings makes 2 seconds. Viewing the emergency readings of the equipment, analyzing them andshouting “emergency power increase” would take no less than 4-5 seconds. Then one would need another4-5 seconds to hear that, take the decision, order the reactor shut down, dash to the control desk and press
the AZ-5 button. Thus, we have already 8-10 seconds ‘reserved’ before the AZ-5 button pressing.
Remember now that by that moment the first explosion happened already. That is, it happened even earlier
and definitely before the first AZ-5 button pressing.
How many seconds before the pressing? With regard to the inertness of the human reaction to an
unexpected danger, which makes usually at least several seconds, we‘ll need to add another 8-10 sec. So
we obtain the total of 16 – 20 seconds ‘reserved’. Should the personnel act two times quicker, we still
have 8-10 seconds ‘reserved’.
As the uncontrolled chain reaction finished with the thermal explosion, it had to have started 10 –15
sec earlier. We can therefore ultimately presume the uncontrolled chain reaction started within the periodof 01 h 23 min 05 sec to 01 h 23 min 10 sec. Whatever surprising it may seem, the main witness pointed
out, when answering the question regarding the adequacy or inadequacy of the AZ-5 button pressing at 01
h 23 min 40 sec (according to DREG), “I did not emphasize on the time – the explosion would have
happened 36 seconds earlier…” [16]. That is, at 01 h 23 min 04 sec. As noted above, as early as 1986 the
VNIIAES specialists pointed out the same moment as the moment, after which the accident chronology(as reconstructed on the basis of the copies of accident-related documents presented for their study) was
uncertain. There seems to be too many coincidences. What mean these coincidences? Apparently, the first
accident features (“vibrations”, “unclear boom”, etc.) appeared already 36 seconds before the first AZ-5
button pressing.
The comparison of the accident materials and the witnesses’ evidences (as sited above) allows theconclusion that the first explosion happened within the period of 01 h 23 min 20 sec to 01 h 23 min 30 sec.
It became the primary reason for the first AZ-5 button pressing. Remember now that no official
commission or any author could give natural explanation to that.
But, why did the Unit-4 operators, being not beginners but an experienced team led by even moreexperienced the main engineer of the CHNPP second stage, nevertheless lose control over the chain
reaction? Their memories answer to this question.
“We never intended to violate ORM and we did not violate it in fact. The violation is a willful
disregarding of the devices’ readings, but on April 26th, 1986, nobody saw the ORM less 15 rods… But
we evidently failed to notice that…” [16].
“One can never know why Akimov delayed his shut down order. We have been communicating eachother, till we were put to different hospital rooms...” [16].
This declaration was written directly by the main participant of the accident events many years after
the accident, when he was no more under the danger from either justice, or his former superiors. So he
could write frankly. This declaration shows obviously to any reasonable man that the reactor explosion isdefinitely due to the fault of Unit-4 operators. Most likely the operators were so keen in the risky processof supporting the reactor power that has come to self-poisoning process due to their own fault, at the levelof 200 MWt, and ‘failed to notice’ the inadmissibly dangerous rods removing out of the reactor core. And
then the personnel “delayed” pressing the AZ-5 button.
35

That was the immediate technical cause of the Chernobyl accident. All the rest is misinformation (or,at best, just a huge mistake). The time has come to finish the heated discussion on who is in charge of theChernobyl accident and shifting of the fault to scientists, as the reactor operators normally do. The
scientists were right as early as 1986.
2. Accident scenario
2.1. The initial event
The new version permitted to prove the most natural scenario of the Chernobyl accident. By now it
looks like as follows. At 00 h 28 min on April 26, 1986, while switching the reactor to the electric tests
operation via switching from local automatic control (LAR) system to the power automatic control (AR)system, the operators made an error. Due to this error the reactor thermal power went down to 30 MWt
while the reactor neutron power went down to zero and continued like that during 5 min according to theneutron power plotter [5]. The process of self-poisoning by short-life fission products started
automatically in the reactor. The process itself contained no threat of nuclear explosion. Moreover, as thisprocess develops, the reactor capability to support the chain reaction declines until the reactor fully stops
irrespective to the operators’ intentions. Throughout the world the reactor is being shut down in similarcases, and a 1-2 days’ break is made till the reactor operation capabilities are restored. Then the reactor isswitched in again. This is not an extraordinary process and does not present any difficulties for theexperienced personnel of the Unit-4.
But this is a rather bothering and time-consuming procedure for RBMK-1000 reactors installed at
CHNPP. In our case it also meant the wreckage of the electrical test plans that could cause various
administrative troubles. So, being eager “to finish the testing as soon as possible”, as it was later explainedby the personnel, they began step-by-step removal of the control rods from the reactor core. Such removal
was to compensate the reduction of the reactor power that happened as the result of the self-poisoning
processes.
Such procedure was also usual for the Unit-4 reactor and could cause the nuclear accident only incase of excess removing of the control rods from the reactor core. When the quantity of the remained

Fig. 1. The power (Np) and the operational reactivity margin (Rоп) of the Unit-4 reactor indiapason of the time from 25.04.1986 to the official moment of the accident 26.04.1986 [12]. The
pre-accident and accident diapason of the time was marked by oval.
36

“effective” rods reached 15, the operators were to shut down the reactor, as it was their definite official
duty.
By the way, similar violation happened for the first time at 07 h 10 min on April 25, 1986. That is,almost one day before the real accident, and this violation continued till 14 h 00 min (Fig, 1). It isinteresting to note that within the course of this violation the operating shift teams and the shiftmen of the
Unit-4 and of the whole CHNPP changed. Still, none of them gave any alarm, as if everything was undercontrol, though the reactor was already on its breakpoint. The unwitting conclusion arises that the similar
violations were common not only within the course of the 5-th shift of the Unit-4. This conclusion is
supported by the evidence of I.I. Khazachkov, who was the day shiftman of the Unit-4 on April 25, 1986:“We had many experiences of excessive removal of rods, I’d say – and nothing happened...”, “No
one of us could envisage those actions could cause nuclear accidents. We knew these actions wereprohibited, but we never thought…” [18].
The second time the violation took place on April 26, 1986, soon after midnight. But for somereasons the operators did not shut down the reactor and continued the rods’ removal. As a result at 01 h 22
min 30 sec the ORM reduced to “effective” 6 –8 rods. But this fact did not stop the personnel and they
began the testing. Given that, we can definitely assume the operators continued the removal of the control
rods till the explosion moment. This point is supported by the evidence that “the reactor power started
growing slowly” [4] and the experimental curve of the timing markups of the reactor power changes [12](Fig. 2).
No one throughout the world treats the reactor this way, as there are no technical means to assure thesafe control over the self-poisoning reactor. The personnel of the Unit-4 evidently had no such means attheir disposal. Definitely no one intended to make the reactor explode, so the excessive (more thanstandard “effective” 15) removal of the control rods was effected instinctively. From the point of view of aprofessional it was a pure venture. Why they did embark to it is a separate issue to be discussed.
Somewhere between 01 h 22 min 30 sec and 01 h 23 min 40 sec the intuition betrayed the operatorsand the number of “effective” rods remained in the reactor core appeared to be less than 6-8. Maybe 2 or 0.
The reactor switched automatically to the support of the chain reaction based on prompt neutrons. There
are no technical means to assure the reactor control within the similar regime, and such means are unlikely
to be ever created. Therefore, during some fractions of seconds heat release in the reactor increased 1,500

Fig.2. The change of the power (Np) of the Unit-4 reactor in the diapason of the time from 23
h 00 min 25.04.1986 to the official moment of the accident 26.04.1986 .(The magnified part ofthe curve in Fig. 1). The unabated increasing of the reactor power calls attention.
37

times and nuclear fuel was heated up to 2,500 –3,000 °C [5,6]. Further the process named ‘the thermal
explosion of the reactor’ began. The consequences thereof made CHNPP ‘famous’ throughout the world.
Therefore, the excessive rods’ removal from the reactor core should be considered more certainly as
the event that initiated the uncontrolled chain reaction. The similar process happened in 1961 and in 1985
during other nuclear accidents that finished by the reactor thermal explosion. After the destruction of thefuel channels the reactivity increased due to both steam effect and void effect. To estimate the individual
contribution of each of the stated factors to the final result, one needs a detailed computer simulation of
the most intricate and at least the studied of the second phase of the accident.
The afore-stated scenario of the Chernobyl accident looks much stronger and seems to provide a far
more natural explanation than the version based on the idea of moving the rods into the reactor core afterpressing of the AZ-5 button. Because the quantitative effect data of this moving as given by different
authors are scattering from rather serious 2 β to negligibly small 0.2 β, no one can say which of them has‘worked’ during the accident. In addition, “as a result of studies by various teams of specialists….it was
found out that one positive reactivity input via moving of RCPS-rods into the reactor core after AZ-5
button pressing, was not enough, provided all the feedbacks are taken into consideration, to reproduce thepower peak, the start of which was recorded by the central control system CCS SKALA of the CHNPP
Unit-4” [7] (Fig 1).
At the same time it has long been known that the control rods removal out the reactor core can add abigger reactivity by itself – above 4 β [13]. That is the first issue. The second one is that the rods’ insertion
into the reactor core still has no scientific proof. The new version shows meanwhile that the rods could not
be placed into the reactor core, because by the moment of pressing the AZ-5 button neither the rods, nor
the reactor core existed. Thus the version stated by the personnel meets the qualitative arguments’ check
but fails to meet in terms of quantitative arguments and, therefore, should be shelved from now on, while
the scientists’ version has gained the additional quantitative support.
2.2. The “first explosion”
The uncontrolled chain reaction within the Unit-4 reactor began in a certain (rather small) part of thereactor and caused local overheating of cooling water. It is most likely to have started in the south-east
quadrant of the reactor core at the height of 1.5 – 2.5 m above the OR-system. When the steam-water
blend pressure exceeded the break point for the zirconium walls of the fuel channels, the channels were
torn apart.
The extremely overheated water has turned into a high-pressure steam almost in a moment. The
steam, while expanding, pushed up the heavy (2,500 t weight) E-system. The breakage of some of the fuelchannels appeared to be enough to assure this effect. The initial phase of the reactor destruction was
finished thereby and the second phase began.
While going up, the E-system was tearing the rest of the fuel channels like in the domino effect.
Many tons of the overheated water have turned into steam almost in a moment, and the steam pressure
pushed up the E-system up to the high of 10 – 14 m. The mixture of steam, graphite parts, nuclear fuel,parts of the broken fuel channels and other constructive elements of the reactor core rushed to the crater.
The E-system itself, after swinging around in the air, fell back onto the crater having thereby crushed the
top of a reactor core and causing the additional release of radioactive substances to the atmosphere. The
double character of the “first explosion” can be explained by the blow caused when the E-system fell
down.
2.3. The “second explosion”
In parallel to the afore-said mechanical processes various chemical reactions started in the reactor
core. The exothermal steam-zirconium reaction is the most interesting one. It normally starts at 900°C and38

Photo 1. The destroyed Unit-4 reactor (top view).

Photo 2. The view to the Central hall of the Unit-4 reactor(side view). The points of the fuel sampling
for the following investigations were marked by circles.
proceeds intensively at already 1,100°C. Its possible role was studied in more detail in work [19]. This
work showed that with regard to the conditions of the Unit-4 accident only this reaction itself could
39generate more than 5,000 m3 of hydrogen.
When the E-system went into the air, the afore-said mass of hydrogen burst from the reactor into thecentral hall. While mixing with the air of the central hall, it created a detonation air-hydrogen blend. Thenthe blend exploded due to either a casual spangle or red-hot graphite pieces. According to the type ofdamages caused to the central hall, the explosion was rather massive - an analogy to a famous “vacuumbomb” explosion. It ruined the Unit-4 reactor building. Its outward results look rather impressive on the
May 1986 photo. Two of them (Photos 1 and 2) are given as an example. Later the photos describing the
explosion effect in under-reactor premises were obtained.
After both explosions the formation of the lava-like fuel-continued materials started in the underreactor premises. But this unique phenomenon is the result of the accident and is worth a separate detailed
consideration.
3. The fuel release to the Unit-4 site
3.1. First measurements of the radiation situation
After both explosions the nuclear fuel fragments, graphite fragments and radioactive constructions
fragments were scattered around the reactor building. Main part of the release was concentrated in heaps
near the walls of the Unit-4 building and on the roof of nearest building of the second stage of CHNPP.
The radius of the reactor core fragments scattering reached 100 m. Some fragments were even found at a
distance of 200 m. In addition to this release the fuel “hot particles” were falling on the Unit-4 site until 6
May 1986 (active stage of accident).
During the first days after the accident, exposure rate measurements were carried out by different
means and improvised technical devices, via walking on foot or military transport with no accurate fixingof the measurements points coordinates (x,y,z) on maps.
Exposure rates on the Unit-4 site varied greatly – from tens of milli-Roentgen to thousands Roentgen
per hour. Maximum value was reported near the destroyed Unit-4 and near the reactor core fragments.
As the measurements of the radiation situation were fulfilled under the conditions highly dangerous
for the life of the investigators, they could not be systematic. The general radiation situation at the Unit-4
site by April 26, 1986, as reconstructed by the scientists of the “Khurchatov’s Institute”, Radium Instituteand ISTC “Shelter” on the base of systematization and analysis of the first measured data, is shown in Fig

Fig. 3. The radiation situation on the CHNPP Unit-4 site at 26.04.1986 (Р/час=R/hr).
40

3 [20].
3.2. Radiation measurements from helicopters
On May 22, 1986 the “Radium Institute” scientists began studying the gamma-field distribution
around the Unit-4 site from helicopters type MI-8T. It flied over 12 routes along the CHNPP building withthe 25 m interval from north to south and back. The site surface was scanned with the collimated detector
with the NaI-crystal at the height of 200 m. The lead collimator assured the coverage area of the site
surface at around ≅30 m in diameter. The initial calibration was fulfilled during the helicopter hang-up
over the radioactive territory out of the Unit-4 site, where the concentration of the radionuclides andexposure rates were measured previously.
According to the “Radium Institute” estimations, the amount of the nuclear fuel released around the
Unit-4 site (that remained at the moment of measurements) was 700 kg with the error ±30% [20].
Somewhat later (from 30 May 1986 to 09 June 1986) the joint team of “Khurchatov’s Institute” andof the Ministry of Geology started measuring from helicopters the radiation situation at the Unit 4 site andnear the destroyed reactor. The measurements were taken over the reactor and near it using the measuring

Fig 4. The nuclear fuel distribution, released to the Unit-4 site at the accident (relative unit).

Fig. 5. The nuclear fuel distribution, released to the Unit-4 site at the accident (in kg on site 50×50
m2).
41

apparatus system placed at the helicopter type Ka-32CH. It allowed the surface scanning for the exposure
dose at a height of 200 m and higher over the investigated surface.
Within the course of measurements the maps of the exposure rates at the reactor zone, the north andsouth drum-separators zone and at the other parts of the Unit-4 was obtained. Around 2,000 measurements
were done on the surface sectors with the area of 10×10 m2 to 20×20 m2.
The chart of the relative gamma-fields distribution at the Unit-4 site is shown in Fig 4. The errors ofthese measurements are evidently much less than the errors of the absolute measurements. The results ofthis measurements permitted to estimate the total fuel amount at the Unit-4 site as 600 ± 300 kg [20].
The data obtained by both teams permitted, after certain analysis, to produce the most reliable chartof the fuel distribution at the Unit-4 site, averaged by 50×50 m2 sectors. For that purpose the quantitative
data of the Radium Institute team were averaged and marked on the chart according to the relative
measurements of the Khurchatov’s Institute” team. Then the special program calculated the most probablecorrelation coefficient. As a result the full fuel amount at the Unit-4 site (outside the actual Unit-4
building) was estimated as 600 kg (-180, +300). The final estimations are shown in Fig. 5 [20].
The total error appeared to be rather serious. Therefore the investigators wanted to repeat themeasurements work with more accuracy. But in some time the area of the Unit-4 site started being filledwith different materials and then the concreting works started in order to cover the site surface. Therefore
the repeated measurements appeared to be impossible. Still, the main result obtained during thesemeasurements was that no more than 1 ton of the nuclear fuel kept staying around the Unit-4 site. The
later measurements taken by boring the wells at the territory of the Unit-4 site supported this estimation,
600± 200 kg [20].
4. Some words on the adequacy of DREG printouts
One can object that the afore-stated new version of the Chernobyl accident contradicts the official
chronology, based on the DREG printout as shown, for example, in [12]. The author does agree there is acontradiction, but a closer look into the stated printouts ultimately shows that the official chronology is notproved with the other accident-related documents starting at 01 h 23 min 40 sec and also contradicts
completely both the reactor physics and the witnessed evidences. The VNIIAES specialists have paid
attention to that as early as 1986 [4,5]. It was pointed out above already.
For example, the official chronology based on the DREG printout describes the accident process asfollows:• 01 h 23 min 39 sec (on teletape) AZ-5 button pressing.
• 01 h 23 min 40 sec(on printout of DREG)
AZ-5 button pressing.
• 01 h 23 min 41 sec (on teletape) AZ-5 button pressing.
• 01 h 23 min 43 sec (on printout of DREG) An emergency increasing of the reactor power.
• 01 h 23 min 45 sec (on printout of DREG) - A reducing a amount of the pumped coolingwater to 18 000 m3/h.
• 01 h 23 min 48 sec (on printout of DREG) An increasing a amount of the pumped coolingwater to 28 000 m3/h.
• 01 h 23 min 49 sec
A signal of the emergency protection “The pressure
increasing in the reactor volume”.
That is, according to the official chronology an emergency increasing of the reactor power began 3
seconds after of the AZ-5 button pressing (on DREG).
While, the witnesses evidences describe the accident process in the opposite order:“…I was diverted to something. Maybe, it was the Toptunov’s cry: “The reactor power increases
42with an emergency speed!”. I am not sure in accuracy of this phrase, but the sense remember just such.
Akimov dashed to the control desk quickly, opened the cover and pressed the AZ-5 button …”. [22].
The main witness describes the same order of the accident events, which was shown above already[16].
According to the witnesses’ evidences, at first an emergency increasing of the reactor power began
and then the AZ-5 button was pressed some seconds after it.
The official chronology contradicts to the reactor physics also. As directed above, a reactor life-timeat a reactivity value 4 β and above is a value of order 0.01-0.02 sec only. But, according to the DREG
printout, 6 seconds was needed from the moment of an emergency increasing of the reactor power before
the fuel channels began to break down only.
Nevertheless, for some reason absolutely, almost all of authors neglected this circumstance andassumed the DREG printout as a document, that adequately described the accident process. But it is wrong.
The CHNPP personnel have known about it very long ago. The DREG program at CHNPP “wasrecognized as a background program, which was interrupted by all other functions” [22]. Consequently“… event time of DREG is not the true event time, but it is the time of signal recording about the event ina buffer (for a following tape recording)” [22]. By other words, the pointed events occurred, but at other,earlier times.
This very important circumstance was concealed from scientists 15 years. As a result of it, dozens ofscientists worked during a lot of time in vine, investigating physical processes that led to such grandaccident. They did their investigations based on the contradicted DREG printout and the evidences of
witnesses who were liable by law for the reactor safety and therefore were strongly interested personallyin an expansion of the version – “reactor exploded after the AZ-5 button pressing”. Meanwhile, for somereasons, they neglected the witnesses, bearing no legal liability for the reactor safety and therefore weremore objective. And this most important recently opened circumstance confirms the conclusions of thiswork additionally.
5. The conclusions
1. The initial cause of the Chernobyl accident was the unprofessional actions of the 5-th shift personnelof the Unit-4. Most likely the operators were so keen in the risky process of supporting the reactor
power, which has come to self-poisoning process due to their own fault at the level of 200 MWt, and‘failed to notice’ the inadmissibly dangerous rods removing out of the reactor core. And then the
personnel “delayed” pressing the AZ-5 button.
2. The motion of the graphite displacers into the reactor core could not be the cause of the Chernobyl
accident, because at the moment of the first AZ-5 button pressing (01 h 23 min 39 sec) there did notexist the control rods and the reactor core already.
3. The reason for the first AZ-5 button pressing was the first explosion of the Unit-4 reactor, whichhappened in the period from 01 h 23 min 20 sec to 01 h 23 min 30 sec and destroyed the reactor core.
4. The second AZ-5 button pressing happened at 01 h 23 min 41 sec and essentially coincided with thesecond, more intensive explosion of air-hydrogen blend, which destroyed the Unit-4 reactor divisionbuilding.
5. The official chronology of the Chernobyl accident, based on printout of DREG, describes theaccident process inadequately after 01 h 23 min 40 sec. The VNIIAES specialists were the first men
who paid an attention to it in 1986. It is necessary to start the official reconsideration of the accident
chronology, taking into account the new circumstances, opened during the last years.

43

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21. В.Н.Страхов, В.И.Старостенко, О.М.Харитонов и др. «Сейсмические явления в районе Чернобыльской
АЭС». Геофизический хурнал, т. 19, № 3, 1997.
22. Карпан Н.В. Хронология аварии на 4-м блоке ЧАЭС. Аналитический отчёт, Д. № 17-2001, Киев, 2001.

44

Nuclear Fuel in the Destroyed 4th Unit of Chernobyl NPP
Volodymyr M. PAVLOVYCHInstitute for Nuclear Research of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine,
01028, Pr.Nauki, 47, Kyiv, Ukraine, e-mail: pavlovich@kinr.kiev.ua

Abstract
The main question, which determines the nuclear safety of the 4th destroyed unit of theChernobyl NPP, as well as the question about the amount and distribution of nuclear fuel inside the“Sarcofagus” is discussed in the paper. The methods of determination of nuclear fuel quantity inside
the “Sarcofagus” and the quantity thrown out of its boundaries are considered in detail. Special
attention was paid to the quantity and distribution of the fuel in the under-reactor premise 305/2,
which is looked as the most nuclear dangerous. On the base of such investigation and also taking into
account the results of fuel containing material sample analysis, it is possible to make some calculationof the fuel containing material criticality and scenario of self-sustaining chain reaction development in
the hypothetical situation of nuclear danger. Some of the results of such calculation are also presented
in the paper.

1. The general description
One of the basic problems of the destroyed 4-th unit of Chernobyl NPP (somebody began to call it as"Shelter" or "Sarcophagus") which substantially defines the nuclear and radiation safety of the object, isthe problem of nuclear fuel inside the Shelter. In order to estimate the nuclear and radiation safety ofvarious premises of the Shelter, the knowledge is necessary about the nuclear fuel amount in each premise,the degrees of its primary enrichment and burnup at the moment of accident, the physical properties of thefuel containing materials (FCM), and opportunity of water incoming into each premise of the Shelter.
It is well known (see for example [1]) that at the moment of the accident there were approximately
214,600 kg of nuclear fuel in the fourth unit of ChNPP. The basic amount (190.2 ton) of this fuel was
loaded into the reactor core, the part of the spent fuel was placed in the south cooling pond (14.8 ton), at
the stand in the central hall (CH) there were the assemblies of fresh fuel (5.5 ton) prepared to loading to
the core, and, at last, there was 4.1 ton of fresh nuclear fuel in a room of fresh fuel preparation.
At the moment of the accident, there were 1,659 fuel assemblies in the reactor core, and each
assembly contained 0.1147 ton of uranium. The fresh fuel of the reactor RBMK-1000 before the accident
at Chernobyl NPP contained 2 % of uranium-235. By the moment of the accident the majority of fuelassemblies were the first fueling assembly with fuel burnup from 11 up to 15 MWt⋅day/kg U. There wereTable 1. Burnup distribution of fuel assembly (FA).
Average burnup
Group
Number of FA
MWt⋅day/kg U
1
721
13.7
2
392
12.3
3
154
10.5
4
101
8.8
5
35
7.0
6
43
5.4
7
41
3.5
8
172
1.2
FA total number
1659
Average burnup
10.9

45

also fresh fuels in the reactor core. The distribution of fuel assemblies by the burnup level of 8-group
approximation is given in Table 1.
A rough estimation shows that the burnup of 10 MWt⋅day/kg U approximately corresponds to a
reduction of uranium-235 concentration by 1 % and an increase of plutonium-239 concentration (at theinitial stage of campaign) by 0.4 %. Thus, if assuming an average burnup of 10.5 MWt-day/kg U, there
were approximately 1,900 kg of uranium-235 and 760 kg of plutonium-239 in the reactor core at the
moment of the accident.
Already in 1986 first estimations [2] have shown that as a result of the accident 3 - 5 % of nuclear
fuel originally concentrated in the reactor core was thrown out of the 4-th unit boundary. The researches,
which have been carried out during the subsequent 15 years, have confirmed these estimations as a whole.
Now it is considered [1] that more then 96 % of fuel of the core + fuel in the pool of endurance + fresh
fuel of the central hall remain inside the Shelter. 4.1 ton of fresh fuel was removed in 1986 from the fresh
fuel preparation room after the accident.
In order to understand the physical properties of the fuel containing materials of the Shelter it isexpedient to remind the basic stages of the accident scenario. As a result of reactor runaway with prompt
neutrons there was a destruction of pin claddings, and the heated fuel has entered contact to the coolant(water). The explosive formation of water vapors has caused a sharp increase of pressure inside the reactor.
This first explosion has resulted that the reactor cover (scheme “Е”, see Fig. 1 [1]) was thrown out in thecentral hall at the height about 14 m, and the reactor bottom plate (scheme “ОР”) was lowered
approximately by 4 meter into the under-reactor premise 305/2, and the southeast quadrant of the scheme“ОР” was completely destroyed. During the flight of the scheme “Е” there was the second explosion
which has destroyed the reactor building and particularly a drum-separator premise a part of wall of which
has appeared inside the reactor vault. After that explosion the reactor cover was lowered in the position
shown in Fig. 1.
As a result of the explosions a part of the fuel was thrown out of the limits of the reactor building,and the residual fuel in reactor began to be heated up due to heat release of fission products and burning ofgraphite. This process proceeded approximately within 10 days. During this time about 14 thousand tonsof various materials: lead, dolomite, marble powder, sand, zeolite sorbent, and absorbers of neutronscontaining boron were dropped from helicopters to the central hall and the reactor vault.
A part of these materials which has got into the reactor vault was melted together with fuel, pincladdings, walls of technological channel pipes, and material of the scheme “OP” backfilling (serpentinite).
These melted materials have penetrated into the under-reactor rooms, whence then they have spread on

Fig.1
46

Fig.2numerous premises of the lower floors of the reactor building (Fig. 2 [1]). In these premises the solidified
melt has formed so-called lava-like fuel containing masses (LFCM).
The lava-like FCM of the Shelter represent heterogeneous ceramics of brown or black color withinclusions of various natures. For example, only black ceramics is located in the premise 304/3, and there
are both black and brown ceramics in the premise 305/2. The color of black ceramics is caused mainly byradiation defects, and after annealing it gets the bottle-green color which is the characteristics of silicabase glasses. The oxides of iron cause the color of brown ceramics, basically. The average content ofdifferent nuclides in ceramics of the premises 304/3 and 305/2 with exception of actinides is submitted inTable 2. A special attention should be given to the boron contents in LFCM. As it is known, boron is "aburning-out absorber", i.e. the quantity of an isotope B-10, which absorbs neutrons, decreases in the media
with non-zero neutrons flux. In addition, boron is well-dissolved in water and can be washed away fromthe porous LFCM. We can not make the exact estimations of the amount of "burnt out" and moreover ofthe "washed up" boron. Therefore, it is necessary to make criticality calculations with content of boron
taken from 10 years old LFCM sample analysis, and also without boron.
Table 2. Chemical composition of the FCMin premises 304/3 and 305/2 and concrete in wt. %.
MixtureChemical element
FCM, 304/3
FCM, 305/2
Concrete
B
0.06*
0.07*
O
43.4
37.1
55.26
Na
4.20
3.34
0.55
Mg
2.40
3.34
0.79
Al
4.80
2.90
2.90
Si
29.8
24.7
26.44
K
1.25
1.05
0.61
Ca
5.50
3.90
8.64
Fe
1.40
0.70
3.64
Zr
3.20
4.00
3.20
C
0.40
H
0.77
47

Let us consider now the LFCM macroscopic properties. According to the data of numerous
investigations of samples taken from various under-reactor premises, the density of the LFCM changes
over a wide range depending on porosity of the material. In this connection it is necessary to note that the
LFCM are a strongly porous material with the sizes of pores and cavities of which change frommicroscopic dimensions up to the sizes about 1000 - 2000 cc. The LFCM are also a strongly non-uniform
material whose density varies depending on the depth within the LFCM: for example, (0.9 - 1.8) g/cc in
the premise 304/3 and (1.8 - 3.5) g/cc in 305/2.
At the present time the nuclear fuel in the Shelter is in several modifications. First of all, there are the
kept fuel assemblies (the southern cooling pond and the central hall). The fragments of fuel pins andassemblies (core fragments) are found out also in various places. In some places of the under-reactor
rooms, non-melted pellets of uranium dioxide were found out. In the LFCM, fuel exists as various
inclusions in a silica-base matrix with the sizes from several up to 300 micrometers of various chemical
structures [3]. Besides, uranium is also dissolved in a silicate matrix of the LFCM [4]. The concentrationof uranium dissolved and included in the LFCM matrix changes from 4 % up to 10 % in various premisesof the Shelter, and the mass portion of uranium-235 mainly corresponds to the burnup rate [5,6], though insome samples the portion of uranium-235 was much higher than the average [7,8].
Practically in each premise of the Shelter, the finely dispersed fuel particles (fuel dust) are observedwith the sizes of particles from parts of micrometer up to hundreds of micrometers. This dust can represent
the main radiation danger in conditions of hypothetical caving of the Shelter structures.
At last, it was revealed in 1990 that in water, which accumulates in some places of the bottom floorsof the Shelter, salts of uranium, plutonium and americium are dissolved. The estimations show that up to
4,000 cubic meter of water per one year [7] can penetrate through the holes of the roofing of the Shelter
and at the process of moisture condensation from the air. Percolating through fuel containing materials,
this water dissolves some salts of uranium and transfers them to the bottom premises of the Shelter.
The nuclear safety of each premise of the Shelter is determined by the amount of fuel in this premise,
the geometrical arrangement of this fuel, the opportunity of water ingress in this premise and its
penetrations inside the fuel containing materials.
2. Estimation of fuel quantity in the Shelter premises and thrown out of its boundaries.
An estimation of the thrown out fuel quantity (3 ± 1.5) % offered in 1986 in the report of the Soviet
delegation at IAEA meeting [2] has caused the large doubts. These doubts, which bound up basically withplentiful release of radioactive iodine-131 and caesium-137, were expressed as a rule by thenonprofessionals who did not take into account volatility of some components of the spent nuclear fuel.
It is possible basically to estimate the emission of nuclear fuel by three different ways [9]:1. Measuring the quantity and the content of activity thrown out into the environment directly during theactive stage of the accident;
2. Measuring the density of radionuclide pollution of the territory both directly adjacent to the Shelter
and in the remote areas;
3. Determination of the fuel quantity in various premises of the Shelter. Then the knowledge of the total
fuel load of reactor make it possible to estimate the quantity of the thrown out fuel by the difference.
It is natural that the most exact estimation of the thrown out fuel amount can be obtained combining
all three methods.
The measurement of activity and contents of emission directly during the active stage of the accident
was connected to the large methodical difficulties of aerosol sampling above the damaged reactor. Thesedifficulties have resulted in the large enough errors (50 %) in determination of radioactive aerosol
concentration in emission. Therefore, the first estimations of the thrown out activity were rather
approached. Table 3 contains the results of researches published in work [2].
48Table 3. Radioactivity ejection from the 4-th unit (in % to the activity accumulated
in reactor to the moment of the accident).
IsotopeEjection,%
IsotopeEjection,%
133
141
Xe
~100
Ce
2.3
85m
144
Kr
~100
Ce
2.8
85
89
Kr
~100
Sr
4.0
131
90
I
20
Sr
4.0
132
239
Te
15
Np
3.2
134
238
Cs
10
Pu
3.0
137
239
Cs
13
Pu
3.0
99
240
Mo
2.3
Pu
3.0
95
241
Zr
3.2
Pu
3.0
103
242
Ru
2.9
Pu
3.0
106
242
Ru
2.9
Cm
3.0
140
Ba
5.6
The second way requires an estimation of the radioactive pollution of the large territories in the
different countries and is very labour consuming. However, since the remote territories became polluted
mainly by the volatile radionuclides (iodine, tellurium, caesium), and finely dispersed fuel particles
containing heavy transuranium elements accumulated in the majority within the limits of a 30-kilometerzone around the Shelter, then it is possible to make an exact enough estimation of fuel emission by having
carefully performed pollution investigations of the zone of alienation. In addition to this, undoubtedly, it isnecessary to estimate a degree of reduction of the pollution by transuranium elements with increase of
distance from a source of emission.
Such estimations were executed in 1986 by the group of researchers of Kurchatov Institute, and they
were continuously became more precise during all 15 years past after the accident [10,11,12]. Theseestimations once again confirm a conclusion of work [1]: more than 95 % of fuel from the destroyed
reactor core is concentrated in the Shelter.
3. The distribution of nuclear fuel on the Shelter rooms.
It seems that the third way of determination of the nuclear fuel amount which has been thrown out
from the Shelter, i.e. the determination of the amount of fuel located in various premises of the Shelter, isexactest and accessible. However, a plenty enough of reasons exist obstructing to the detailed inspectionof the Shelter. It is possible to attribute such handicaps to the followings: high radiation fields in the
Shelter premises, the blockages of various materials dropped from helicopters to the central hall, theoverflows of stiffened "fresh" concrete (1986) on the LFCM congestion and the large thickness of the
LFCM layer in the premise 305/2, where the basic LFCM congestion is located.
The determination of the nuclear fuel quantity inside the Shelter and its distribution on premises isvery important also from the point of view of nuclear safety of the Shelter and its radiation influence on
the ChNPP personnel and the environment in the case of possible emergencies. Therefore below, we shallconsider in detail the items of information about the distribution of nuclear fuel in the Shelter premises
obtained up to the present time.
Let's begin from the central hall (CH) - one of the most complex places of the Shelter premises for an
estimation of fuel quantity. Let's remind that in the CH before the accident, there were 5.5 ton of fresh fuelprepared for loading into the reactor core and 14.8 ton of the spent fuel in the southern cooling pond. The
fuel pins are also in so-called “Helen hair” – the rests of technological channels which are hanging downfrom the scheme “Е”. Besides, in various places of the CH there can be fuel dispersed by the second
explosion. It is possible only to use the indirect methods to estimate the quantity of the dispersed fuel,since the materials dropped from helicopters during the active stage of the accident cover the CH. The
estimation of fuel quantity in “Helen hair” also can be carried out by indirect methods in connection with49

high radiation fields in the CH.
Scientific groups from Khlopin Radium Institute and Kurchatov Institute carried out such estimations
on the basis of measurement of radiation dose rate and localization of its sources in 1992. The estimationsof such type can be only qualitative in connection with impossibility of exact localization of radiation
sources. The results of calculations based on measurements of such type give that the quantity of fuel on
the scheme “Е” can be in limits from 10 up to 30 ton. There was found also up to 1 ton of fuel on the wallsof the CH and other structures. Totally together with the spent fuel of cooling pond (the periscope
inspection of which have shown the absence of water and the presence of all nondestroyed fuelassemblies) there can be from 31 up to 51 ton of fuel in the CH.
On the basis of video and periscope inspections of the reactor vault, it is possible to make aconclusion that there are no ordered structures of the former reactor in the shaft and now it iscommunicated with the under-reactor premise 305/2. Therefore, it is meaningful to estimate the quantityof fuel in the reactor shaft together with a premise 305/2.
Already in 1986 – 89, the first thermometric measurements of fuel quantity in the under-reactor
premises were performed. These measurements were based on the fact that the integrated thermal flow
outgoing from these premises completely should be determined by the thermal source power, andconsequently by the complete mass of the fuel [13]. The specified estimations of 1990 [14] taking into
account an error of measurements give for fuel mass in the premise 305/2 the value of 75±25 ton.
It is possible also to estimate the fuel quantity in lavas of the under-reactor premises by balance of
caesium and magnesium [3]. The last specified data [11,12] show that the complete emission of caesium137 has made an activity about 2 MCi that forms about 28 % from the value of 7 MCi initiallyaccumulated in the reactor core at the moment of the accident (compare with initial assessments of works[2], Table 3). This caesium took off only from the fuel, which has melted during the active stage of theaccident and has formed the lava-like FCM.
On the other hand, the data of the numerous analyses show that no more than 40 % of caesium-137
remained in lava. It means that about 60 % of caesium-137 from its initial quantity in fuel, which hasformed lava, has taken off, and these 60 % of caesium-137 have given the activity of 2 MCi. Therefore theinitial activity of the caesium-137, which contained in the fuel forming a lava, is equal to (2/0.6) =3.3 MCi.
It makes (3.3/7) =47 % from the amount originally accumulated in reactor, so 47 % of reactor fuel loading(190.2×0.47) =89.39 ton has come in a lava. Taking into account an error of estimations, we have 90±27
ton.
The similar estimations can be made by the amount of magnesium whose average concentration inlava is equal to 3 % (compare with Table 2). The magnesium enters only into the structure of serprntinite,by which the scheme “OP” was filled up and its contents in serpentinite are 25.1 %. During the formationof lava, about 140 ton of serpentinite were melted [3]. Taking into account the percentage of magnesium
in serpentinite and in the samples of a lava, it is possible to say that during the melting in the process of alava dilution by other materials its weight has increased in (25.1/3) =8.5 times and has reachedapproximately 1200 ton. The average content of uranium in lava samples is about 7 % [3]. Therefore thelower estimation of its weight in lava of the under-reactor premises makes about (1200×0.07) =84 ton.
Taking into account the possible error, we have 80±24 ton. All three estimations are in good coincidence
among themselves.
It is necessary to note that at these estimations the presence of reactor core fragments is not taken into
account, i.e. the fragments of pins and fuel assemblies and also non-melted fuel pellets which wereobserved in the under-reactor premises, and also can be under the melt in connection with their large
densities. Therefore, and also with other reasons, it is necessary to consider the estimation of fuel quantity
by the amount of caesium and magnesium to be underestimated.
Nevertheless, there was a work [15] in 1992 in which these estimations are put under doubt. The
50

Fig.3 Computer model of the premise 305/2 and the reactor shaft.
authors of the paper [15] used for the estimations only the data of visual inspection and principle ofcommunicated vessels. In their opinion, the under-reactor premises contain no more than 25±5 ton of
uranium.
This work was fairly criticized by many authors. However, it has served as a certain stimulus for new
careful auditing of all data on the fuel quantity in the premise 305/2 [16]. For this auditing, the authors
used the results of the analysis of more than hundred samples taken from the premise 305/2 in 1986-1997,
the measurements of dose rate of γ - radiation, the results of all video- and photography of the premise
305/2 and the reactor shaft.
Then the whole space of the premise 305/2 was separated by the squares with a cross section 2×2 m.
The estimation of the fuel quantity was performed in the LFCM volume over every square taking into
account all data mentioned above. The square which data were absent or even partly was considered as
empty that certainly underestimated the results. The computer model of the premise 305/2 and the reactor
shaft was composed on the base of such detailed analysis of all materials which are located in this premise(Fig.3).
The precise consideration of all data concerning the premise 305/2 and the reactor shaft allows to
make the following conclusion: there are not less than 60 ton of fuel in these premises. The LFCM passed
from the premise 305/2 through the concrete wall destroyed by the explosion (or burns by the LFCM?)
into the room 304/3 and then to steam distribution corridors (see Fig.2). The second flow of the heatedlava passed through the steam outlet valves of different floors even to the first floor of the pool bubbler.
The estimations of fuel quantity in all these premises raise no doubts. They are presented in Table 4 where
the data of all measurements and estimations of fuel amount in the Shelter are summarized [1].
As we can see from this Table, the premise 305/2 and the central hall are the most “suspicious” fromthe point of view of nuclear safety. At the steam distribution corridors with marks 9 and 6 m, the lava
layers are thin (the maximum value of 0.6 m in the premise 304/3), and in spite of sufficiently large fuelamount the probability of self sustaining chain reaction (SCR) ignition in these premises is negligible
according to some evaluation.
In the southern cooling pond of the spent fuel where the water is absent at the present time thesituation is safe until the pitch of the assembly suspension is conserved. The danger can arise only in thecase of assembly caving to the bottom of the pond and its affluxion by water.
The water in the lowest premises of the Shelter has no nuclear danger at the present time. However,51

Table 4. FCM distribution inside the Shelter.
Premises (mark)- The central hall (35.50)- Other upper floor premises- The south cooling pond
(18.00-35.50)- The under-reactor premises:
305/2 (9.00) + 307/2 + the"OR" system + the reactor
vault- 304/3, 303/3, 301/5, 301/6, the"elephant's foot " and others- Stream-distribution corridor(SDC) (6.00), including FCM
in the valves.
- Pool bubbler, 2d floor (PB-2)- Pool bubbler, 1st floor (PB-1)- Lower premises of the reactor
unit,

Estimated fuel in
FCM (on uranium basis in
metric tons)

FCM type and state- Core fragments (most of them areburied under materials dropped at
the active stage of the accident.
Under them LFCM can be found)- Fuel dust.
- Fresh fuel assemblies- In the area of the scheme "E"- Fuel assemblies with the spentfuel- Lava-like FCM, core fragments

?

30?
5.5
10-30
~14.8
75 (+25,-35) was proved
to be >60 t.

- LFCM

11±5- LFCM

25±11- LFCM- LFCM- Water with dissolved salts ofuranium8±3
1.5±0.7~3000 m3 of water <3 kg U

as far as the concentration of uranium salts will increase in the future the risk of the SCR ignition can also
increase.
In order to estimate the nuclear safety of various premises of the Shelter two different ways exist. The
first way is calculation of the neutron multiplication factor in these premises in different conditions
including the most unfavorable condition of FCM water affluxion. The criticality calculation should be
supplemented with calculation of SCR scenario development in the case if the criticality calculation showsa possibility of the multiplication factor exceeding of unity.
The second way consists in direct measurements of the neutron multiplication factor in the Shelter
premises, and possible organization at this base of the continual monitoring of the FCM reactivity. The
most expedient way is a creation of the mutual experimental and calculational method due to the absenceof the full data to both precise criticality calculation and interpretation of experimental measurements.
4. The evaluation of the nuclear safety of different Shelter premises and possible scenario of SCR
development.
The nuclear safety of the “Shelter”, which is actually the question of criticality of the fuel-containing
masses, has been considered by several groups of researchers [17-19]. Most of these calculations used themodels whose properties are rather far from that of the real LFCM.
A model of the LFCM, closest to reality, was used in [18]. The LFCM in this paper were simulated
by a multilayer system with variation of the LFCM density by layers in a rectangular geometry
approximately corresponding to the layout of the rooms 304/3 and 305/2. The neutron reflection fromconcrete walls and floor was also taken into account. The nuclide composition of the LFCM and fuelconcentration was chosen closest to the experimental data that were obtained during a study of the LFCM
composition. The calculations show a deep subcriticality of both dry LFCM and LFCM filled by water.
Nevertheless, the question of LFCM criticality remains open because in this work the existence of the core52

Fig. 4. Vertical cross section of rectangularparallelepiped of FCM with fuel pellets
randomly distributed over its volume(model 1d).

Fig. 5. Vertical cross section of rectangularparallelepiped of FCM: three layer model of
FCM, limited by a layer of concrete frombelow with nonmelted part of fuel in bottom
sublayer as a cubic lattice of pellets (model
3b).

fragments in the premise 305/2 did not take into account.
What is it necessary to know for realization of criticality calculations?
1. Nuclide composition of the FCM and concrete, on which the FCM are located and also which covers
the FCM in some places. This concrete can play a role of a reflector of neutrons.
2. Macroscopic properties of the FCM, such as density and porosity.
3. Geometrical parameters of the FCM – the size and shape of FCM accumulations.
4. Quantity and spatial distribution of fuel – this is the main question.
Nuclide composition of the FCM and concrete and also macroscopic properties of the FCM are
known rather well from the results of the numerous analyses of the FCM samples. The geometricalparameters of the FCM in the under-reactor premises are known at the present time with sufficientaccuracy due to investigation [16]. However, the question on quantity and spatial distribution of fuel in the
FCM remains open in many details, especially in distribution of non-melted core fragment and fuel pellets,and for realization of real calculations it is required to involve the additional assumption about fueldistribution.
To determine the greatest possible value of the effective multiplication factor the various models of
the FCM in the premise 305/2 were considered [20]. The schematic image of some of these models is
given in Figures 4 and 5.
The enrichment of fuel was determined on the basis of the average fuel burnup of the order of 11.5
МWt⋅day/kgU [3]. As there was also the fresh fuel in the reactor before the accident, some models of the
FCM were calculated with enrichment of fresh fuel. The total amount of fuel in the FCM was defined byboth the average and the top values given by thermal measurements. The results of calculations are given
at Figures 6-7 and in Table 5. All values were calculated depending on the contents of water in the FCM.
In Figure 6, the neutron flux density spatial distribution is presented taking into account the presence of
upper concrete reflector (ceiling). The analysis of such figures can help to determine the places of neutron
detector installation in the FCM accumulations. In Figure 7, the neutron energy spectrum inside the FCM
is given depending on a degree of FCM filling by water. In Table 5 the dependencies of the effective
multiplication factor on a degree of FCM filling by water are given.
As it is evident from Table 5, the account of FCM heterogeneity not always results in increase of theeffective multiplication factor. The effect depends on water concentration that is influencing on slowing-53

down properties of the medium. The results of calculations show that the value of the effective
multiplication factor weakly depends on the accepted model of an arrangement of non-melted inclusions,which allows to use for the majority of calculations the lattice models. For all models with the averageamount of fuel (Model 3-5), the effective multiplication factor quickly increases from values 0.25-0.35 fordry FCM up to 0.65-0.70 at 20 % filling by water. At the further filling FCM by water, the effective
multiplication factor decreases up to 0.60-0.65 for first two models of the FCM (Model 3, 4) and slowly
increases up to value 0.8 for the last model of the FCM with non-melted inclusions in the bottom sublayer(Model 5). For infinite medium with a maximum quantity of fuel and the average burnup with a cubic
lattice of pellets (Model 1f), the multiplication factor reaches 0.87 at 20 %-filling by water. The samemodel with fresh fuel (Model 1g) gives k ∞ ≈ 0.99 at 20 %-filling by water, which is increased till 1.07 at
40 %-filling by water.
Thus, some models of fuel containing masses of the “Shelter” give the FCM multiplication factor
exceeding unity. Our recent calculations show that there can be other models with the multiplication factor
exceeding unity even with the spent fuel but with the bigger thickness of the layers. However, these valuesof the multiplication factor are reached only when enough quantity of water is contained in FCM volume.
It means that during affluxion of the FCM by water from any external sources (rains, the condensation) the
self-sustaining chain reaction of fuel nucleuses can arise inside the FCM.
The dynamics of ignition and development of SCR in FCM in various conditions of filling FCM bywater and at various values of greatest possible reactivity, i.e. maximal effective multiplication factor,
taking into account the Doppler-effect, is analyzed below. It is shown that, depending on the speed of
FCM filling by water, the various modes of SCR development can be realized.
We shall assume that the heterogeneous composition with greatest possible effective multiplication
factor exceeding unity is realized in the FCM (both the presence of such composition and an opportunityof its affluxion by water up to achievement of maximal reactivity are rather problematic), and we shallconsider a qualitative picture of SCR development.

Neutron flux spatial distribution

14
12

FAST, DRY FCMDRYFCM

25

THERM., DRY FCM

10

5%H2O
20

FAST, 20%H2O
8

20%H2OTHERM., 20%H2O

Neutron Flux, rel.un

Neutron Flux, rel.un

Energy spectra

30

15

6

10

4
2
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

5

0

350

-2

10

Height, cm

-1

10

0

10

1

10

2

10

3

10

4

10

5

10

6

10

EnergyFig. 6. A fast and thermal part of a neutron
flux in a premise 305/2 in dependence onheight for model 2a taking into account thepresence of a concrete ceiling at height 1м
from a FCM surface.
(0-100 cm – concrete, 100-180cm – FCM,
180-280 cm – air, >280cm – concrete)

Fig. 7. A neutron energy spectrum in a
premise 305/2.

54

7

10

8

10

Table 5. Results of the effective multiplication factor calculations for different models of the FCM
in the room 305/2
Effective multiplication
factorModel of the FCM
SubmodelDry FCM+ FCM+
FCM
20%
40%
H2O
H2O
Completely homogenized fuel
0.26
0.76
0.70
1a. cubic lattice of pellets in the uniform FCM 0.28
0.75
0.68
1b. square lattice of pins in the uniform FCM
0.29
0.75
0.67
1. Model of the FCM in the form 1c. repeating cubes of the FCM,
0.28
0.65
0.70
of infinite medium
containing lattice of pellets
1d. random distribution of pellets
0.28
0.65
0.70
1е. cubic lattice of pellets in the uniform FCM
0.32
0.81
0.73
– fresh fuelCompletely homogenized fuel
0.30
0.85
0.90
1. Model of the FCM in the form
1f. cubic lattice of pellets in the uniform FCM 0.32
0.87
0.96
of infinite medium (maximal
1g.
cubic
latticeofpellets
intheuniform
quantity of the fuel)0.40
0.99 1.073
FCM –fresh fuelCompletely homogenized fuel
0.11
0.64
0.64
2. Model of the FCM in the form
2a. cubic lattice of pellets in the uniform FCM 0.11
0.63
0.62
of the uniform layer with2b.
squarelattice
of
pins
in
the
uniform
FCM
0.12
0.63
0.62
vacuum boundary conditions
0.11
0.63
0.61
2c. random distribution of pellets
3. Model of the FCM in the form Completely homogenized fuel
0.25
0.66
0.65
of the uniform along height
3a. cubic lattice of pellets in the uniform FCM 0.25
0.65
0.63
layer, located over the concrete
3b. square lattice of pins in the uniform FCM
0.26
0.65
0.62
layer
Completely homogenized fuel of sublayers
0.25
0.66
0.66
4. Three-layer model of the FCM
4b.
cubic
latticeofpellets
intheuniformwith sublayer density
0.26
0.65
0.63
FCM of sublayers
dependence on the height,
located over the concrete layer 4c. square lattice of pins in the uniform FCM 0.25
0.65
0.62
of sublayers
Completely homogenized fuel of sublayers
0.32
0.73
0.78
5. Three-layer model of the
5b.
cubic
latticeofpellets
intheuniform
FCM, located over the concrete
0.33
0.67
0.76
layer with nonmelted part of the FCM of sublayers
5c. square lattice of pins in the uniform FCM
fuel in the lower sublayer
0.34
0.68
0.74
of sublayers
In order to analyze the FCM behavior in conditions of its reactivity changing due to filling FCM bywater, it is necessary to solve the system of kinetic equations describing the situation. First of all, this is
the equation of neutron transfer in the FCM medium, which should take into account the change in mean
neutron lifetime due to the presence of delayed neutrons and dependence of reactivity on water quantity
into the FCM and its temperature. The steady state calculations show that the dependence of reactivity on
water quantity seems to be quadratic, which represents the moderating and absorbing properties of thewater.
The second equation actually is the law of energy conservation, which takes into account fission
energy release, the heating of the FCM, heat removing from the FCM surface and water evaporation. The
third equation represents the law of water mass conservation, which takes into account the water incomingfrom the external source and its evaporation due to fission heating.
These equations in the frame of point model were investigated by qualitative stability methods andwere solved by numerical methods [20]. The mentioned above different modes of SCR development
depending on the parameter values were found. These modes are: the single neutron burst both insubcritical and overcritical regimes, the damped and stable neutron oscillations. The realization of one of55

Neutron Flux

6

10

5

10

4

10

3

10

time, c

2

10

0.0

6

5.0x107

1.0x107

7

1.5x102.0x1077

7

7

2.5x100100

Temperature, C

80
60
40

time, c

20
0.0
0.20

6

5.0x101.0x10

Water Mass, g/cm

0.15

1.5x107

2.0x102.5x10

3

0.20

0.10

0.19

0.05
0.18
2.0x10

0.00
0.0
0.0

6

7

5.0x107

2.2x107

1.0x10time, c7

1.5x107

7

2.0x102.5x10

Reactivity
0

-0.1
-0.2

-1x10

-3

-2x10

-3

2.0x10

-0.3
0.0

6

5.0x107

1.0x107

2.2x10time, c77

1.5x107

2.0x107

2.5x10Fig. 8. Mode of an aperiodic subcritical burst.
these modes depends on the value of the neutron multiplication factor, on the velocity of FCM filling by
the water, on the rate of heat removing etc. One of the most probable regimes of the subcritical neutron
burst is presented in Fig. 8.
It is necessary to note that in 1990 and 1996 there were two neutron bursts registered by the neutron
detectors located in the premises 304/3 and 305/2. There were a lot of discussions on the causes of thesebursts, but it is evident that in both cases they occurred after the intensive rains in Chernobyl region. The
pictures of burst development were very similar to that presented in Fig. 8.
5. The measurement of the FCM reactivity in the Shelter premises
Let us emphasize once more that the nuclear safety of the Shelter is defined first of all by the value ofthe neutron multiplication factor in the FCM of premises 305/2, 304/3, 210/6, the central hall, the reactor
shaft and the southern cooling pond. Since the space distribution of the fuel in those places and thegeometry of the FCM also are known inaccurately, the neutron calculation in those premises could be
performed with the help of not very realistic models giving only not exact evaluations of the multiplication
factor. In order to make the well-founded decision to increase the nuclear safety of the Shelter, thoseevaluations were inadequate. Therefore, a necessity arisen to measure the multiplication factor in thosepremises.
It is necessary to note that the attempts of such measurements in the Shelter were made in 1991 [21].
Those measurements were performed on the base of neutron pulse method, and authors have used the56standard geophysical equipment of neutron logging of the bores. They have no possibility to vary thefrequency of neutron pulse emission, and they have small time of registration (2 ms) of the system
response. Therefore, they could not detect the delayed neutrons and determine the multiplication factor
with a sufficient precision.
One can conditionally divide the experimental methods of reactivity measurement on two classes:
active and passive methods. The active methods assume some impact to multiplying system andsubsequent measurement of the system response. One can realize the active methods both by the
introduction into the system of the subsidiary reactivity (positive or negative) or with the influence by theexternal neutron source.
The methods connected with the introduction of additional reactivity are not suitable to measure theneutron multiplication factor in the FCM of the Shelter. This is, first of all, due to impossibility to estimate
the value of injected reactivity even with known physical parameters of the injected materials. The causeof such situation is the same that leads to impossibility of exact calculation of the neutron multiplication
factor. The pulse neutron method is the most widely distributed among the methods of external neutron
source influence. But it is necessary to insert the pulse neutron source inside the FCM and to have a goodelectronic equipment in order to obtain the precise result. This method needs the boring of cavities inside
the LFCM that is impossible at the present time.
Contrarily, the passive methods of reactivity determination are based on the measurement andanalysis of the fluctuations of steady neutron background which is caused by the buildup of transuranium
elements during the reactor operation or by the stationary external neutron source. By now in the FCM of
the Shelter, the steady neutron background is determined by the spontaneous fission of some transuranicsand (α,n)-reactions, and it's fluctuations are due to statistical (probabilistic) nature of those processes.
By now there are several monitoring systems of the FCM neutron characteristics in operation at theShelter («Finish», «Pilot», «KSFCM»). The current measurements of neutron flux density in the locationsof neutron detectors are carried out with the help of these systems. The indications of neutron detectors areaveraged over some intervals of time, considerably larger than the neutron lifetime. So there aremeasurements of the average on-time neutron flux density.
The indications of existing FCM monitoring systems can give the information only about thetendencies of neutron flux density changes, nothing speaking about the real value of such importantcharacteristic of nuclear material accumulations as the effective multiplication factor keff. The knowledgeof keff and keeping it at the certain level is one of the requirements of regulating bodies to organization
maintaining, storing or supervising of the nuclear material accumulations.
It should be noted that the measurement of the neutron statistical characteristics can give much more
information on nuclear material accumulation parameters than simple establishment of the tendency to
reduction or growth of the neutron flux density. The methods of the analysis of the neutron flux density
fluctuations and definition on their basis of the nuclear critical characteristics are conditionally divided
into two parts: statistical discrete methods and methods of the neutron noise analysis. Both methods arebasically possible to use for the subcriticality control of nuclear material congestion in the Shelter. The
condition of modern electronics allows joining practically all methods in one experimental device
executed on the basis of personal computer, which provides processing of the information according toalgorithms determined by theoretical approaches. By now, such device is manufactured, and it is planned
to use it in the near future to measure the effective multiplication factor in FCM of the Shelter.
6.Conclusion
As it is evident from the above that the Shelter at the present time is the nuclear dangerous object, itis necessary to make the significant efforts in order to define the degree of the danger and then to make theShelter ecologically safe.
57

References
1.
2.

The Shelter Current Safety Analysis and Situation Development Forecasts (Updated Version). Tacis, 1998.
USSR State Committee on the Utilization of Atomic Energy - The Accident at the Chernobyl NPP and its
Consequences, IAEA Post Accident Meeting, Vienna, 25-29 August, 1986.
3. Pazukhin E.M. Lavalike Fuel Containing Masses of the 4th Unit of the Chernobyl NPP: Topography, Physicaland Chemical Properties, Scenario of Formation. Radiochamistry. 1994, v.36, No.2., p.97-142. (In Russian)
4. Zhidkov A.V. Fuel Containing Materials of the Shelter Today: Actual Physical Properties and the Possibility of
Their State Forecasts. The Problems of Chernobyl. No.7, p.23-40, Chernobyl 2001.(In Russian)
5. Pazukhin E.M. The Burnup and Isotope Content of the Nuclear Fuel in the lava of the 4th Unit of Chernobyl
NPP. Preprint of the ISTC “Shelter” No.00-8 Chernobyl 2001,12p. (In Russian)
6. Pazukhin E.M. Some Nuclear Physical Properties of the Fuel of the 4th Unit of Chernobyl NPP. The Problemsof Chernobyl. No.7, p.149-158, Chernobyl 2001.(In Russian)
7. Bogatov S.A., Korneev A.A., Krinitsin A.P. et al. The problem of water in the Shelter Preprint of the ISTC
“Shelter” No.99-5 Chernobyl 2001,27p. (In Russian).
8. Olkhovik Yu.A., Bondarenko G.N. Regional and Geochemical Evaluations of the radionuclide release of
ChNPP including “Hot” Particles. In “Chernobyl Accident”. Kiev, Naukova Dumka, 1995,p.203. (In Russian)
9. Borovoi A.A. Nuclear Fuel and Fission Products Release from reactor of the 4th Unit of ChNPP during theaccident. The Problems of Chernobyl. No.7, p.130-140, Chernobyl 2001.(In Russian)
10. Borovoi A.A. Fission products and Transuranic Release during Chernobyl Accident. International Conference“The fission of Nuclei – 50 Years”, Leningrad, 1989.
11. Sich A.R. The Chernobyl Accident Revisited, Part 3: Chernobyl Source Term Release Dynamics…// Nuclear
Safety. – 1995. V.36, No2.
12. Devel I., Guntay S., Powers D.A. The Chernobyl Reactor Accident Source term. OCDE/GD(96)12.- Paris, 1996.
13. Grinchenko G.P., Ogorodnik S.S., Popov V.D. et al. Thermometric measurement at the Shelter. The Questionsof the Atomic Science and Technology. Ser.Nuc.Phys.Res.1990, No.11(19), p.32-35.(In Russian)
14. Borovoi A.A., Ogorodnik S.S., Popov V.D. et al. The Evaluation of the Fuel Amount in the FCM
Accumulation of Under-Reactor Premise: (Intermidiate Report/ KE of Kurchatov Institute. .№ 11.07/26 –Chernobyl, 1990. (In Russian)
15. Kiselev A.N., Nenagliadov A.N., Surin A.I. et al. Experimental Study of the Lavalike Fuel Containing Masses(FCM) at the 4th Unit of ChNPP. М. 1992, 120 p. (Preprint of the Kurchatov IAE, №5533/3). (In Russian)
16. Borovoi А.А., Lagunenko А.S., Pazukhin E.M. Under-Apparatus Premise 305/2 of the 4th Unit of Chernobyl
NPP: Its State, Fuel Quantity Evaluation. Chernobyl 1997, 12 p. (Preprint of the ISTC “Shelter” №97-7). (InRussian)
17. Nuclear and Radiation Safety during the Operations at the “Shelter”: (Report)/ ISTC “Shelter” of the National
Academy of Sciences of Ukraine.- Archive No. 3173 - Chornobyl, 1993. (In Russian)
18. The Elaboration of Suggestions and Recommendations on Monitoring and Diagnostics of Multiplying
Properties of the LFCM of the “Shelter” of Chernobyl NPP: (Report)/ISTC “Shelter” of the National Academy of
Sciences of Ukraine. Archive No. 3234 - Chernobyl, 1993. (In Russian)
19. The Technical Justification of Nuclear Safety of the “Shelter”: (Report)/ I.I.Kurchatov Institute.-Moscow, 1990.
(In Russian)
20. V. A. Babenko, L.L. Jenkovszky, V.N. Pavlovych, et al, Fuel-Containing Masses of the Destroyed 4-th Unit of
the Chernobyl NPP: Multiplying Properties and Neutron Characteristics. Nucl.Sc.&Eng. November 1999.
21. Lebedev G.V., Shikalov V.F. The Subcriticality Measurement of the Fuel Containing Masses of theShelter. Moscow, 1995, 24 p. (Preprint of the Kurchatov IAE,No.5876/5)

58

Analysis of Radioactive Contamination in the Near Zone of Chornobyl NPP
Alexander GAYDAR and Oleg NASVIT*
Institute of Nuclear Research, NASU,
Prospekt Nauki, 47, Kyiv-28, 03680, Ukraine: gaydar@ukr.net*Research Innovative Implementation Enterprise “Stroom”, Office “Stroom-Kyiv”
28A, Artema St.,Kyiv, 04053, Ukraine: nasvit@public.icyb.kiev.ua

Abstract
As a result of the Chornobyl accident a large amount of radionuclides have been turned out
to the environment and spread over a large territory. The largest part of radioactive depositions islocated on the territories adjacent to Chornobyl NPP.
The paper presents a brief review of the history and the current state of investigation of the
Chornobyl accident deposition around the territories adjacent to Chornobyl NPP where a massive
amount of reliable data have been accumulated about contamination levels and radionuclide
compositions by using improved techniques for sampling and measurements. A geostatisticalanalysis of the obtained data provided a possibility to reveal the regional tendencies for levels andcomposition of the contamination, and to compile detailed maps of the contamination levels on
the investigated territory for radionuclides such as 137Cs, 90Sr, 241Am and plutonium isotopes. The
contributions to the transuranium contamination due to Chornobyl were estimated by separating
the contributions due to global depositions, and a prognostic map of 241Am contamination wasdeveloped.
New geoinformation technologies elaborated by the authors are shown to provide a
possibility to reveal the influence of landscape factors upon the contamination structure formation.
An explanation of peculiarities of the shape and location of highly contaminated areas is proposedon the bases of landscape approach.

Introduction
Radioactive contamination of the environment in global scale was formed as a result of nuclear
weapon tests in the atmosphere. The most part of residual radioactive products of nuclear explosions
penetrated into the stratosphere (up to 40-50 km) and then slowly (during months and years) deposited on
the earth surface and formed more or less uniform contamination with the maximum in the middleattitudes of northern hemisphere [1]. As a result of the major accidents at nuclear and radioactive wastes
processing and storage installations (Windscale, UK in 1957, the industrial complex “Mayak”, USSR in
1957 and 1967) the areas with high levels of radioactive contamination were formed [2].
On April 26, 1986, at about 1.24 a.m. two successive explosions that followed the reactor runaway at
the Unit IV of Chornobyl NPP destroyed the reactor active zone and the unit building [3]. As a result of
the accident various materials of the active zone (dispersed fuel, bits of fuel rods and graphite stack) wereejected from the reactor well and turned out into the environment. The initial release of radioactive
materials to the atmosphere was so large and energetic that it resulted in penetrating of fission products tothe atmospheric layer up to some kilometers [3, 4]. The exposed reactor core with burning graphite stack
was a source of continued release of radioactive material to the atmosphere [4,5,6].
During ten days (April 26 – May 5, 1986) a large amount of radioactive materials released into theatmosphere (Fig. 1) were transported to a large distance in different directions depending on the change ofwind directions [7, 8].
59

Fig. 1. Daily release rate of radioactive material into the atmosphere by the Chornobyl accident [1].
The highest levels of radionuclides deposition were formed on the territories of Ukraine and Belarus
adjacent to Chornobyl NPP [7], while Chornobyl depositions were found in most of countries within theEurope [1]. With regard to its radioecological consequences the Chornobyl accident is recognized as theworst nuclear accident in the history of peaceful use of nuclear energy.
Radiation levels around Chornobyl NPP after the accident
From the first days after the accident extraordinary efforts to determine the contamination levels were
undertaken to prevent the unwarrantable overirradiation of people. For the most contaminated area (up to
100 km around the Chornobyl NPP) the first map of radiation levels was made as early as May 1, 1986,[4] (at that time the formation of the Southern trace was being continued). By May 10, 1986, the map of
exposure dose rates of gamma radiation was made. The first governmental decrees on people evacuationand other protective measures were decided on the basis of these maps.
However, the study of the detailed structure of contamination fields, comprehension of fallout
characteristics and their time variation required significant efforts and could not be done right after theaccident because of the large scale of contamination areas and specific features of the Chornobyl accident
release.
Due to the lack of reliable objective data on the accident releases, contamination parameters and dose
rate dynamics have been obtained by calculations which were based on the analysis of radionuclide
depositions and the corresponding synoptic maps. These estimations have been corrected as new moredetailed information has become available or new approaches have been developed.
On the basis of data on caesium isotopes deposition on the territory of the former Soviet Union the
total release of 137Cs has been estimated as 37·1015 Bq or 13% of its activity in the reactor core [5]. Lateran analysis of data on precipitation in the Northern Hemisphere resulted in correction of the corresponding
values up to 70 - 85·1015 Bq or near 33% [9]. This estimation is in a good agreement with the results
obtained from the analysis of quantity and radionuclide composition of the fuel remaining in the “Shelter”
object [6].
The release into the environment of significant quantity of radioactive iodine is considered as one of
peculiarities of the Chornobyl accident. The radioiodine effect on thyroid is one of principal consequencesof the Chornobyl accident. However, there is uncertainty in the assessments of the total release of60

radioiodine from the Unit VI of Chornobyl NPP. The report [5] has given the value of (0.62±0.3)·1018 Bq
or 20% of activity in the core (re-calculation for May 6, 1986). Later a more pessimistic evaluation wasmade up to 50-60% [9]. On the basis of the investigation of 129I content in the fuel remaining in the“Shelter” object [6] the value near 60% is considered as more reliable.
Comprehensive investigation of the distribution and specific features of the contamination around
Chornobyl NPP provides necessary information for more correct assessments of absorbed radiation doses
to population as well as for verification of hypothesis (models) of the processes and conditions in thedestroyed reactor core.
History of investigation of spatial distribution of Chornobyl deposition
Among specific features of the Chornobyl accident contamination, it is necessary to note thefollowing:• extreme mosaic structure of contamination of large affected areas [1,4,7,10,11,12];• complicated radionuclide composition of radioactive fallout [13,14,15];• wide range of types and physical-chemical properties of radioactive precipitations [16,17];• diversity of landscape and meteorological conditions, and their influence upon the processes ofdeposition, redistribution and migration of radionuclides in ecosystems [18].
A simple application of previous experience without taking into account above-mentioned specificfeatures could lead and, unfortunately, did result in some slips, especially at the first post accident period.
The radiological data with gridding to nearest settlements have permitted to estimate the average values ofcontamination levels for certain settlements but were unusable to provide information for the detailed
investigations of spatial distribution of contamination. Due to the strong inhomogeneous distribution of
hot particles the radiochemical determination of the content of certain radionuclides from different sample
aliquots led to significant errors in radionuclides composition determination.
It should be mentioned also that in the former Soviet Union practically all investigations connectedwith nuclear energy and industry were unreasonably secret and centralized. By this reason a significant
part of radioecological data for the first days and months after the disaster were accumulated in the secretdepartments of central offices and have been practically lost.
The most detailed information on the contamination structure has been obtained with airbornegamma-spectrum survey (AGS). Such investigations were carried out from the very first days after theaccident. But, due to complicated character of gamma-spectra, the first reliable and detailed maps of 137Cs
contamination were obtained only by 1988-89 [4]. Unfortunately, these results are available (in Ukraine)
only on paper.
At present, there are some regular digital sets of 137Cs contamination levels for the territories adjacentto Chornobyl NPP. One of the first digital maps of 137Cs contamination was compiled on the basis of dataobtained with the AGS survey carried out by the Institute of Radiology UAAS and STC “Prypiat” in
1992-1993 [19]. This map covered, however, only the 30-km zone and the scale of mapping was not
sufficient enough for detailed analysis of the contamination structure.
During the ensuing years enterprise "Pivnichukrgeologiya" carried out AGS for the adjacentterritories to Chornobyl NPP as well as for the most contaminated part of Ukraine. The map compiled on
the basis of theses data [20] provided more detailed information on the contamination structure, but later
investigations found certain discrepancy in a number of cases about the 137Cs contamination level between
AGS and measurements of soil samples [21].
At present 137Cs dominates the radioecological situation on the major part of the contaminatedterritories in Ukraine. For the territories adjacent to ChNPP, however, the study of spatial distribution andproperties of 90Sr and transuraniums contamination will remain the task of great importance for a long61

time.
In 1987-88 for the purpose of detailed and systematic investigation of contamination properties andtheir dynamics, a special observation network was establish on the territories adjacent to ChNPP [4,7]. By
this network the sampling and determination of contamination levels have been performed for wide rangeof radionuclides including 241Am, 144Ce, 137Cs, 90Sr and 238,239+240Pu. On the basis of obtained data thecorresponding maps have been made as well as necessary evaluations of the radioecological situation. But,
the very inhomogeneous spatial distribution of contamination and the formalism of establishing of the
network (nomination of observation points) didn’t permit to obtain the detailed information about spatial
distribution of contamination (especially at the periphery and outside of the 30-km zone). For example, the“narrow west trace”, which was most contaminated by fuel component, appeared to be situated between
two sets of observation points and was practically lost under the map compiling [7].
Modern approach to investigation of spatial distribution of Chornobyl deposition
In order to obtain more detailed information about the contamination structure a group of scientists of
the Institute for Nuclear Research of NASU (KINR) has been carrying out sampling and measurements
since 1992 based on a more regular network established in the frame of national programs. Using
improved techniques investigation is being carried out on the spatial distribution and the radionuclide
composition of radioactive contamination on the territories adjacent to Chornobyl NPP [21,22,23] as wellas on the remote regions of Ukraine.
The latest developments in Geographical Information Systems (GIS) for compiling of contamination
maps provides a possibility to formulate the basic protocols of the new approach, which include
requirements for data analysis as well as for soil sampling and radionuclides measurements, as follows:• sampling location is selected after analysing the existing data and the information about thecontamination structure of the territory being considered;• sampling plot within the selected location is determined on the basis of careful radiological inspectionof the location so as to provide the most representative position;• exact gridding of sampling plots by using GPS and topographic maps of the corresponding scale;• determination of sampling depth on the basis of preliminary study of the 137Cs depth profiles;• sampling of not less then 5 soil cores for each sampling plot;• using of the same sample for measurements of all radionuclides;• careful verification of the obtained data and establishing of the most reliable values for the location;• geostatistical analysis of the obtained data (spatial distribution of the absolute values as well as
regional peculiarities of the radionuclides ratios);• determination of the regional regularities and invariants of the spatial distributions of radionuclides(including their ratios);• taking into account landscape features of the locations and territory;• selection of the most appropriate methods for map compiling according to the established regularities.
By now the data on the contamination levels were obtained for more than 1,500 locations on the
territories adjacent to Chornobyl NPP. For example, a map indicating sample location (the VoronoiThiessen polygons) is shown in Fig. 2, together with 137Cs contamination levels obtained by AGS survey.
The density and the shapes of polygons characterize the quality of new observation (the center of eachpolygon coincides with the sampling points). For each sampling location the levels of contamination by
long-lived radionuclides, including 137Cs, 90Sr, 238,239+240Pu, 241Am have been determined.
Due to high gradient of contamination levels on the investigated territory the representativeness ofthe observed locations takes on special significance. The exact locating of sampling plots has permitted tomake a precise comparison of the data obtained for locations (soil samples) with the average data for the62

Fig. 2. Map of the locations studied on the adjacent territory to Chornobyl NPP (Ukrainianpart) overlapping the AGS: 137Cs contamination.
nearest grid points of AGS (Fig. 3).
Grouping of data points near the bisecting line testifies a high level of the agreement for dataobtained by different techniques and the representativeness of the observed plots. As a result of spatial
analysis for the corresponding data, it has been established that at locations with high levels ofcontamination the data of AGS must be slightly corrected accordingly to the data of soil samples
measurements. The improved map compiled by new approaches about 137Cs contamination on the adjacentterritory to Chornobyl NPP is shown in Fig. 4.
The used techniques of sampling and measurements permitted to carry out comprehensive analysis ofregional tendencies for the values of ratios between different radionuclides. For example, the trends of the
5

137

CsProbe , kBq/m

2

10

4

10

3

10

2

10

1

10 1
10

2

3

10

10

137

4

10

CsAGS ,kBq/m

5

10

2

Fig. 3. The regression of data obtained by the probe sampling measurements and by AGS.
63

Fig. 4. 137Cs contamination map of the adjacent territory to Chornobyl NPP (Ukrainian part).
137

Cs/239+240Pu values for the various radioactive traces are presented in Fig. 5.
As it can be seen in Fig. 5, the ratio of 137Cs/239+240Pu for all directions is practically constant up to
10 km (for the south trace up to 30 km), and similar to that of the Unit IV fuel. As the distance increases,
the regional peculiarities become apparent. For example, for the north trace the ratio begins increasing at
about 10 km and exceeds 350 at distance 20 km, while for the western trace the corresponding values
remain less then 300 up to 100 km.
400

Pu

North Trace

100

South Trace

300
200

Cs/

200

239+240

300

137

137

Cs/

239+240

Pu

400

0

0

5

10

15

100
0

20

0

5

Distance, km

10

15

20

25

30

Distance, km

Fig. 5 Dependence of 137Cs/239+240Pu ratio on the
distance from Unit IV of Chornobyl NPP for
the various traces.
64

137

Cs/

239+240Pu

400

W estTrace

300
200
100
0

0

20

40

60

80

100

N = 753

Percent

20

Mean
44.8 (01.01.2000)
62.4 (26.04.1986)

15
10
5
0
0

20

40
90

Sr/

90

60

80

100

239+240Pu

239+240

Fig. 6. Frequency distribution of Sr/
Pu ratio in soil samples within the 30-km zone ofChornobyl NPP.
A more stable behavior within the 30 km zone of Chornobyl NPP is observed for 90Sr/239+240Pu ratio.
Fig. 6 presents the frequency distribution of it within the territory being considered.
Taking into account the steady character of 90Sr/239+240Pu ratio, it was proposed to use a constant90
239+240
Sr/
Pu ratio, by combining a more numerous array of 90Sr contamination data, in order toreconstruct the transuraniums contamination levels on the 30 km zone of the Chornobyl NPP as well as on
more remote regions.
However, the results obtained during further investigations testify that such approach can lead toconsiderable errors. Practically on the boundary of the 30 km zone of ChNPP in the direction of the southwest trace, a significant abmodality was established for values of 90Sr/239+240Pu ratio (Fig. 7), comparedSouth-W est
Pu

239+240

100

90

150

Sr/

Pu

239+240

Cs/

137

1000

200

100

50
0

(A)

South-W est

250

10000

0

15

30

45

60

75

(B)

Distance, km

0

30

45

60

75

Distance, km

250South-W est

150
100

90

239+240

200

Sr/

Pu

15

Fig. 7 The dependences of radionuclide relation
on distance from Unit IV of Chornobyl NPP
and 137Cs contamination levels

65

50
0

(C)

0

5000
137

10000

15000

Cs , kBq/m

2

20000

with the corresponding values in Fig. 6. Analysis of the dependency of 90Sr/239+240Pu values on the 137Cs
contamination levels (Fig 7C) indicates a similar behavior of 90Sr to that of 137Cs, which permits to
suppose that the vaporized-condensed component was significant in the formation of 90Sr contaminationon this region. More distinctly this contribution is observed on the territory of more remote regions along
the south and the north-east traces [15, 23].
As it was mentioned above, the drastically inhomogeneous spatial distribution of radionuclide
depositions on the adjacent territory to Chornobyl NPP does not permit to make quantitative and detailed
contamination maps based just on the data of soil samples measurements, even under high density ofinvestigated plots [21]. Thereafter, taking into consideration local tendencies of radionuclide composition
and their regularities, new technique has been developed for mapping of contamination by transuraniums
and 90Sr [23]. This technique includes:• unification and preliminary verification of all available data;• compilation of the regular data grid for the most detailed studied long-lived radionuclide (137Cs);• investigations of radionuclide composition and local peculiarities of contamination;• compilation of the regular grid data for the less studied radionuclide (90Sr or transuraniums) on the baseof the established local regularities of their ratios to the most studied radionuclide (137Cs).
Using the new proposed technique, the narrow-shaped west trace of the 90Sr and 238+239+240Pu
contaminations have been clearly reconstructed on the maps (Fig. 8). The high levels of 90Sr andtransuraniums contamination are observed on the wide south areas of the adjacent territory to ChNPP,
where the contamination is dominated by fuel component. At the same time, on the territory of the southwest trace (outside the 30 km zone), the condensation character of 137Cs contaminations resulted in theessential distinctions in the high levels of 137Cs compared with transuraniums contamination. On thisterritory the levels of 137Cs can exceed 15 Ci/km2 (555 kBq/m2), while the corresponding levels oftransuraniums practically tend to be global one.
The analysis of 238Pu/239+240Pu ratios permitted to evaluate the contribution of Chornobyl depositionsof transuranium elements on the background by global ones. It should be noted that the global levels oftransuraniums on the territory of Ukraine are known only roughly: the corresponding 239+240Pu values arewithin 0.04-0.12 kBq/m2. The values of 238Pu/239+240Pu ratio for global fallouts are more fixed and are

Fig. 8. 238+239+240Pu contamination map of the adjacent territory to Chornobyl NPP (Ukrainian part).
66

25

Percent

20
15
10
5
0
0.3

0.4

0.5
238

Pu/

0.6

0.7

239+240

Pu

Fig. 9. Distribution of values for 238Pu/239Pu obtained within 30-km Chornobyl NPP.
within the range of 0.02-0.04 [24,25]. In general, the values of 238Pu/239+240Pu in Chornobyl depositions
can vary due to the different fuel burnup in different parts of the core [16,17]. However, the numerous
data obtained on the nearest Chornobyl NPP zone indicate that the corresponding values are practicallywithin the range of 0.4-0.6 (Fig. 9). Thus, the sharp distinction in the ratio of 238Pu/239+240Pu between for
global and for Chornobyl depositions permits to evaluate the contribution from different origins.
The Chornobyl part in the contamination of transuraniums has practical significance for forecastingof the radioecological situation on the contaminated territories.
The dynamics of the radioecological situation is determined mainly by radioactive decay and verticalmigration of radionuclides [26]. The only exception is 241Am (half-life 433 yr). The main part of 241Am in
Chornobyl depositions is formed as a result of beta-decay of 241Pu parent nuclei (half-life 14.35 yr). By
this reason the 241Am contamination levels are increasing at present and will reach maximum about 2060.
By that time the alpha-activity of 241Am will be practically twice as the gross activity of alpha-emitting
plutonium isotopes (for the area where contamination is determined by Chornobyl fallouts) (Fig.10). This
fact should be kept in mind when forcasting the radioecological situation in the adjacent territory to

Fig. 10. 241Am prognostic map of exclusion zone and adjacent territory for 2056 Ukrainian part).
67

ChNPP.
Landscape factors and their influence on the formation of contamination structure
As described above, more detailed and accurate contamination maps than ever have been elaborated
by new techniques. New techniques, in addition, have brought to light on some questions about theChornobyl depositions: strange shapes of traces and spots, and the peculiarities of the radionuclide
composition of depositions (often for the neighbouring regions).
At present there are numerous model calculations to explain the spatial distribution of Chornobyl
fallouts based on the synoptic maps in the scale of European part of the former USSR or the European
continent. Due to the lack of information about releases parameters and meteorological data, theuncertainty in the input parameters for calculations led to discrepancy in the results obtained by different
authors [8,27,28]. Furthermore, practically all of them could not explain the detailed shape of thecontamination spots under local-scale mapping [29]. It must be noted that the complicated character of theinteraction between the air streams and the underlying surface was considered in these models only
partially [30].
Therefore, it was interesting to perform comprehensive analysis of the improved radioecological data
and the landscape factors to determine a role of the latter on the shaping of a primary contamination.
Modern GIS techniques provide an opportunity to link and analyse simultaneously several layers of
information (contamination level isolines, surface geometry, location of forestry, rivers, settlements etc.)[31]. Results of such analysis can be presented as three- or multi-dimensional drawings .
The interaction between the ground surface and the atmosphere depends significantly upon
meteorological condition [30]. During the active stage of the accident releases these conditions were
essentially changing [4, 7, 8 , 28].
During April 25-26, 1986, the Chornobyl NPP region was situated in the low gradient barometricfield of the anti-cyclone periphery part. Such condition determined the considerable changes of winddirection under weak speed of it (up to 2-3 m/s). At night, the air stream directions at the ground surface
might be different from the wind direction at height 1.5-2.5 km up to 45-50°. At the near surface layer thedominating directions of the contaminated air mass flow were west and south-west but, while at the layer

Fig. 11. Trajectories of radioactivity transport that started on 26 April, 1986 at 3:00 from UnitIV of Chornobyl NPP by atmosphere layers in different height.
68

of 1.5-2.0 km high the corresponding directions might be west or north-west (Fig. 11) [7]. The stableconditions in the boundary layer were observed during the night. As a result of weak atmosphere
perturbance, the narrow-shaped “explosion” west trace was formed (Chornobyl NPP-VilchaPershotravneve). At the same time, the air stream at height more than 1 km, which was enriched in volatile
radionuclides, started to move in the north-west direction. During April 27 the speed and the direction of
the air mass transport remained without considerable changes. During April 28-30 the directions oftransport considerably changed and practically made rotation on 360o, while the wind speed remained
weak.
During May 1-6 a considerable increase of wind speed was observed (on May 2-3 gale-force wind).
The contaminated air masses were being transported predominantly in the south direction (south-east on
May 4 and south-west on May 5). This period is characterised by a more uniform distribution of the windspeed and the direction along the atmosphere layers at different heights. Also must be noted the increasingof the boundary layer height and the intensity of diffusion processes. During this period the wide south
trace was formed.
Thus, the contamination fields on the territory of Ukraine in the west (north-west, south-west) andsouth directions were formed under different meteorological conditions. It is reasonable to expect (becauseof more quiet atmospheric conditions) the most noticeable influence of landscape factors on the formationof the contamination fields in west and south-west direction from Unit IV of Chornobyl NPP [30]. Multidimensional topographic maps of the corresponding territories were constructed on the basis of improved
digital techniques. This gave a possibility to analyse the radiological data in the form of the superposed
colour isolines together with the landscape features of the area.
As a result of multi-dimensional view visual analysis the followings were found:• correlation between the location of highly contaminated areas and the elevation of forestland locations;• under the condition of low-gradient barometric fields the river flood-planes became the guiding lines
for contaminated air streams, especially in west and south-west directions;• influence of the chain of hills and the mountain-valley wind on the streamline of air mass propagation.
In the light of above-mentioned findings the strange shape of Narodychi “horseshoe” (near 70 km
south-west from Chornobyl NPP, Fig. 12) can be explained by the interaction of forestlands with passing
air currents above them. The radioactively polluted air masses, which had overcome the Chystohalivka
ridge, passed the low laying area without noticeable deposition on it (Figs. 12 and 13).
Strong perturbations of air currents at the region of the forest-covered hills caused considerable
increasing of fallout depositions. It must be noted that fallouts in this case were originated fromatmosphere layers up to 1.5-2.5 km. Experimental data obtained for radionuclide composition on thecorresponding territory can be considered as an evidence of the proposed model. As it was mentioned
earlier, the domination of 137Cs and considerable 90Sr contamination were found on this area. Suchpeculiarities of contamination (radionuclide composition) are also observed for more remote regions
where depositions were caused by fallout from the top atmosphere layers, while Narodychi “horseshoe”
situated not far than 70 km from Unit-IV of Chornobyl NPP.
The suggested landscape approach was also fruitful for explanation of a number of phenomena. The
minor change of the direction of the narrow "explosion" west trace was caused by the influence of the
Chystohalivka chain of hills (about 6 km south-west from Chornobyl NPP). The perturbance of the airflow at this area resulted in significant increasing of fallouts at the northern slopes of the Chystohalivka
chain of hills due to depletion of passing air currents. Though the height of the Chystohalivka chain ofhills does not exceed 200 m, the formation of low contaminated wedge-shaped region in the south-westpart of the exclusion zone can be explained by its influence. The depleted air current passed over thecomparatively low altitude area (village Stechanka in Fig. 4) and then went onto the higher one(Narodychi-Bober), forming the observed shape of the contamination field.
69

137

Cs, kBq/m

2

Fig. 12. The view of territory of Narodychi “horseshoe” with isolines of 137Cs contamination levels.
1000
100
10

Altitude, m

200
150
100
0

25

50

75

100

Distance, km
Fig. 13. The dependence of 137Cs contamination levels on distance from Unit IV of Chornobyl NPP(along line Chornobyl NPP - Chopovychi) and relief cross-section (solid black colour) withmarked forestry location (grey colour).
Luhyny “horseshoe” (about 100 km west from Chornobyl NPP) was formed as a result of the air
current dividing into two streams by natural “stem cutting bar” (to north–east from village Ihnatpil, at theleft-bottom part in Fig. 14). The forestry on the path of these streams resulted in strong air distortion andsignificant increasing of fallout depositions.
A very specific character of the narrow-shaped “explosion” west trace, radioniclide composition ofwhich is featured by a large fraction of fuel component, was studied taking into account the influence oflandscape factors on the propagation of contaminated air masses on the territory. As a result of the strong
perturbations of air currents on the north-east slope of the Ovruch ridge, the narrow shape of the"explosion" west trace was significantly widened (in the right-bottom part in Fig. 14).
Considerable decreasing of the contamination levels at this area can be interpreted as the ending of
the trace. However, the analysis of multi-dimensional views for this area provided a reason to suppose that70

Fig. 14. The view of region of Luhyny “horseshoe” (in west direction) with isolines of 137Cs
contamination levels.
the “explosion” west trace after dividing into several streams surmounted the ridge. In order to check thisassumption a special investigation on the north and north-west slopes of the Ovruch ridge and Luhyny“horseshoe” was carried out in 2001. Then, it was found that on the north slopes of the Ovruch ridge
contamination levels of 238+239+240Pu were more than 0.5 kBq/m2 and the fuel component in contamination
was evaluated as 20 percent. The similar radionuclide composition was found also on the north-west
slopes of the Ovruch ridge, while the density of contamination was lower. At the same time, on the
territory of Luhyny “horseshoe” contamination levels of 238+239+240Pu did not exceed 0.2 kBq/m2 and thecontribution of fuel component was less than 3 percent. So, it is evident that the contaminations of Luhyny“horseshoe” and the north-west slopes of the Ovruch ridge, despite of being neighbouring , were formedby different processes in different air streams.
Thus the integrated study of the various information layers provided the possibility to evaluate thecontribution of various factors to the processes of formation of the contamination structure. The obtained
results testify to the necessity of more careful investigation of the interaction processes between the
ground surface and the radioactive air currents.
Conclusions• Investigations of the Chornobyl contamination of the adjacent territory to ChNPP carried out in 19861989 provided necessary basic information for radiological protection of population but were unable toreveal regional tendencies and specific features of contamination, and consequently to explain theobserved picture of contamination.
• Further investigations of Chornobyl contamination using GIS-oriented advanced modern techniques,
which include special procedures for sampling, measurements of radionuclide specific activity in soils
and data analysis, provided the possibility to obtain reliable set of experimental data and to compile
improved detailed maps of 137Cs 90Sr, 241Am and plutonium isotopes contamination of the adjacentterritory to Chornobyl NPP.
• The detailed data obtained for the structure of the Chornobyl deposition permitted to verify the existing71

models of propagation and deposition of radioactive releases.
• Landscape factors significantly influenced the processes of the air currents propagation from Chornobyl
NPP and shaping of contamination areas especially on condition of the low gradient barometric fieldthat continued during the first two days of the accident.
• Landscape approach together with meteorological modelling seems to be the most fruitful method for
explanation of the shapes and the radionuclide composition of radioactive traces on the local scale
mappings.
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Energia, 2001, v. 91, N6, p. 425-434 (in Russ.)“Chernobyl: Contamination in the Environment. Edited by Y.A.Izrael. Leningrad. Gidrometeoizdat. 1990 (inRuss.)“Information to IAEA about the Chernobyl NPP Accident”. Atomnaya Energia, 1986, v. 61, N5, p. 301-320(in Russ.)
Borovoy A.A, Gegerinsky A.Yu. Release of radioactivity from destroyed unit of the Chernobyl NPP.
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Izrael Yu.A. Moscow. Federal Service of Geodesy and Cartography of Russia. 1998. 143 p. (in Russ.)
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(in Russ.)
Kvasnikova E.V., Pegoev A.N., Stukin E.D. Modern radionuclide contain of the Chernobyl deposition on the
different distance from the location of the accident. // Proceedings of international conference "Radioactivity
after nuclear explosions and accidents", Moskow, April 24-26, 2000, Sankt-Peterburg, Hydrometeoizdat, 2000
(in Russ.)
Arutunjan R.V., Bolshov L.A., Vasilieva S.K. at al. Spatial regularity of radionuclide contamination caused by
accident on ChNPP. Atomnaya Energia, v.61, N6, 1993, p.453-457 (in Russ.)
Bogatov S.A., Borovoy A.A., Dubasov Yu.V. et al. Form and characteristics of fuel particles from ChNPP
accident release. Atomnaya Energia, v.69, N.1, 1990, с.36-40 (in Russ.)
Loshilov N.A., Kashparov V.A., Polyakov V.D. at al. Nuclear-physical characteristics of hot particles caused
by ChNPP accident. Radiochimiya, N4, 1992, p.113-119 (in Russ.)
Davydchuk V.S., Zarudnaya R.F., Mikheli S.V. Landscapes of the Chernobyl zone and their assessment by thecondition of radionuclides migration. Kyiv, Naukova Dumka, 1994 (in Ukr.)
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Radioecological Situation in the Cooling Pond of Chornobyl NPP
Oleg NASVIT
Research Innovative Implementation Enterprise “Stroom”, Office “Stroom-Kyiv”
28A, Artema St.,Kyiv, 04053, Ukraine: nasvit@public.icyb.kiev.ua

Abstract
Analysis of the monitoring data on the radionuclides specific activity in water of the Cooling
Pond of Chornobyl NPP revealed the regular seasonal cycling of the 137Cs concentration but did notreveal this for 90Sr. It is strongly supposed that this phenomenon is caused by the microbialcontrolled seasonal dependant flux of 137Cs from the bottom sediments to the water. Analysis of the137
Cs profiles in deep water sediment (silt) provides additional forcible argument in favour of this
supposition.
The data obtained during radioecological survey carried out in August 2001 proved that on theeve of its decommissioning the Cooling Pond of Chornobyl NPP entered the stage of stabilisation ofradioecological situation. The amounts of major radionuclides accumulated in the bottom sedimentsof the Cooling Pond are estimated to be 4,400, 650 and 18 Ci for 137Cs, 90Sr and 241Am, respectively.
About 70% of 137Cs, 50% of 90Sr and 80% of 241Am that are present in the Cooling Pond willremain under the water after the water level will have been dropped down to the natural elevation.
The data on the concentration of 137Cs and 90Sr in different fish and water plant species as well as inbivale mollusc Dreisena are also presented.

1. Introduction
The Cooling Pond of the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant, which is situated in the northern part ofUkraine, is an artificial reservoir, created on the right-bank flood plain of Prypiat river for cooling of four
reactor units of NPP. Banks of the Cooling Pond are formed by both an above-land terracing of the riverand a protecting dike of 25 km in length. The diked-off area includes river bed, old arms and lakes. The
water surface area of the Cooling Pond is about 22 km2, volume – about 0.15 km3, length – 11 km, andwidth – 2 km. The mean depth of the Cooling Pond is 6.6 m, maximum depth – about 18 m, and water
elevation 5-7 m over the Prypiat river level. To compensate water losses due to leakage and evaporation,water is permanently pumped from Prypiat river to the Cooling Pond.
After a devastating accident happened at Chornobyl NPP on 26 April 1986, a large amount ofradioactive materials released from the completely destroyed Unit #4 caused radioactive contamination of
the environment, especially severe in the vicinity of NPP.
The Cooling Pond on the bank of which Chornobyl NPP is situated was contaminated byradioactive fallout, mainly dispersed fuel particles that felt directly on the water surface. In addition, 5,000
m3 of heavily contaminated water from the reactor basement was released to the Cooling Pond, and during
the decontamination activities a massive amount of soil removed from the nearby sites with high level ofTable 1. 137Cs and 90Sr in components of Cooling Pond ecosystem in Summer 1986, kBq/kg
f.w., kBq/l [2].
13790Component
Cs
Sr
Water, up to
1.7
0.05
Bottom sediments
10-3801-100
Aquatic plants
50-18015-45
Molluscs
18-35
35-60
Fish (carp)
100-260
2-3
74

radiation was also placed in the Cooling Pond [1]. According to various estimates, the Cooling Pond in
total received from 2,200 to 13,000 TBq (60 to 360 thousands Ci) of radionuclides [1, 2, 3]. Specificgross-beta activity of water in the beginning of May, 1986 was about 105 Bq/l, mainly due to 131I and othershort-living radionuclides. Radioecological investigations performed in Summer, 1986, showed highlevels of 137Cs and 90Sr specific activity in all components of the Cooling Pond ecosystem (Table 1).
During 1986 due to physical decay short-living radionuclides gradually eliminated from the spectrumof radioactive contamination of the Cooling Pond ecosystem, and about 95-98% of remaining radioactivity,
including long-living nuclides such as 137Cs, 90Sr, 238, 239, 240, 241Pu and 241Am settled to the bottom due toprocesses of sedimentation. After survey of bottom sediments had been carried out in 1989 and 1991, theestimates was done of the inventory of long-living radionuclides in the Cooling Pond. According to theseestimates the Cooling Pond contains about 170 TBq (4,600 Ci) of 137Cs, 35 TBq (950 Ci) of 90Sr and 0.8
TBq (22 Ci) of 239,240Pu [1].
In December 2000, the Unit #3, the last operating one at Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant was shut
down. In some years Chornobyl NPP will not need the Cooling Pond anymore. Considering the future fateof the Cooling Pond and respective necessary actions, one should take into account the followings: fromone hand, keeping the existing water level is rather expensive and, from the other hand, leaving the
Cooling Pond without pumping of water from the river would drain a large part of bottom and may causeradiological problems for personnel of the industrial site due to wind resuspension of dried sediments
containing transuranics.
The problem of possible resuspension of bottom sediments is being studied now in a number ofprojects. But another side of the problem, i.e. what will happen to water bodies, which will remain on theplace of the Cooling Pond after it will have been drained, is still without proper attention ofradioecologists. Assessment of the future state of the Cooling Pond is possible only on the basis ofcomprehensive description of the existing situation and using of validated models of radionuclides
migration which take into account specificity of biological processes during the transition period.
The objectives of this work are to summarise the existing information on the levels of radioactive
contamination of the components of the Cooling Pond ecosystem, to reveal probable processes governingthese levels of radioactive contamination, and to provide the information to forecast the futureradioecological situation in this water-body.

Cooling Pondof Chornobyl NPP
NPP
Bathymetry andsampling stations

Constructions
Elevation, m Depth, m< 96.5> 14.596.5 – 99.0 12.0 – 14.5
99.0 – 101.5 9.5 – 12.0
101.5 – 104
7.0 – 9.5
104 – 106.5
4.5 – 7.0
106.5 – 111
0 – 4.5
Prypiat river with old arms

Sediment cores
Fish
Water
Water plants

Fig. 1. Scheme of the Cooling Pond of Chornobyl NPP with bathymetry and samplingstations location.
75

2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Water samples
Water samples from the Cooling Pond were taken at the regular intervals since the beginning of 1987
within the program of radioecological monitoring of the exclusion zone. During 1987 samples were taken
4 – 6 times per month, in 1988 – 2 times per month, since 1989 and up to now – monthly. The number ofsample sites varied from 5 to 10. During 1987 – 1992 from 1 to 10 litres were sampled for total (without
separation for suspended and dissolved fractions) 137Cs and 90Sr activity determination. In 1987 – 1988
direct gamma-spectrometric measurements of water samples were performed. In 1989 – 1992 137Cs wascollected by sorption on FEZHEL (potassium-iron ferrocyanide) at natural pH without prior filtration of
the water.
Since 1993 surface water samples are taken at 5 sites shown in Fig. 1. On each site a sample of 20 l istaken. In the laboratory sample is filtered through paper filter (blue band), and dissolved 137Cs is collectedby sorption on FEZHEL at natural pH. Filter and sorbent are measured separately for determination of
associated with suspended matter and dissolved 137Cs.
Since 1997 the radiochemical isolation of 90Sr from water by the sulphate method [4], which wasused since the beginning of regular observations, was modified and collection by sorption (complexation)
on VS-15M1 (synthetic selective sorption fibre material with grafted macro cycles groups) at natural pH
was introduced at the first stage [5].
2.2. Bottom sediments samples
Samples of bottom sediments were collected in July and August 2001 with ДТШ-3 (DETESHA-3)
corer at water depths 0 – 6 m, and a weighted gravity coring rig with 70 cm transparent cylindrical nozzle
was used at water depths more than 6 m. For investigation of the depth distribution as well as the total
inventory of 137Cs in deep-water sediments, cores (5.8 cm diameter and up to 70 cm long) were cut on site
into slices as a rule 5 cm thick, but in a number of cases the slice thickness was adjusted to observed
natural boundaries of core material with different properties.
Cores of shallow sediments (water depth less than 6 m), represented by sands, silted sands andtransformed primary soils were cut into three layers: 1 cm top, 1 cm bottom, the rest. All sediment
samples were analysed for bulk density, content of water and radionuclides.
2.3. Biotic samples
Biotic samples were taken in August, 2001 during radioecological survey of the Cooling Pond.
Fish was sampled by fishing net. All fishes were caught at the same site shown in Fig. 1. Each fish
was weighted and measured in length. About 100 g of fresh muscle tissue was dissected from each fishand packed into plastic vials for 137Cs measurements. Selected samples were taken for 90Sr analysis. Scales
were taken from each fish for determination of age.
Dreissena molluscs were collected from concrete hydrotechnical constructions with scraper or frombottom (3-7 m depth) with dredger together with sediments sampling, and ground for analysis.
Plants were collected in the littoral zone at 11 sites around the Cooling Pond. The above-sedimentparts of plants were sampled. Plant tissues were rinsed, air-dried and ground for analysis. The fresh anddry weight was determined.
Seston samples were collected with phytoplankton net (gauze Nr. 76) in pileup of planktonic algae,
mainly blue-green. Samples were air-dried, weighted and ground for analysis.
Samples of invertebrates, plants and seston were measured for 137Cs. Selected samples were taken for90
Sr analysis.

76

2.3. Radioactivity measurements.
Gamma-spectrometry was performed using Ge(Li) detector and MCA. Beta-measurements were
performed using beta-spectrometer AKC-1 and low-background counting devises UMF-1500M.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Water
Annually averaged specific activities of total 137Cs and 90Sr in water of the Cooling Pond arepresented in Fig. 2. In general this data is in good agreement with the results presented earlier for 1986 –1995 [2, 6]. It is well known that 137Cs and 90Sr content in water is influenced by several main processes.
Among them the interaction in a system “water-suspended matter-bottom sediments” is of major
importance for water-bodies with medium and high level of biological productivity and/or high level ofsuspended particles concentration. During the first year after the accident the observed fast declining of
137
Cs and 90Sr specific activity in water was caused by their trapping with suspended matter and settling to
the bottom. Slowing down of declining for 137Cs and even increasing of concentrations of 90Sr observed in

1000

Specific activity, B q/l

137C s
90Sr
100

10

1
1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

Years

Fig. 2. Total 137Cs and 90Sr in water of the Cooling Pond, annually averaged.
the third and fourth years were caused, probably, by the additional release of these radionuclides to waterfrom the fuel particles due to their destruction. From 1990 to 1997 almost equal declining of both
radionuclides was observed and since 1997 both radionuclides tend to have about stable concentration.
Some minor discrepancies in figures and declining rates between 137Cs and 90Sr specific activities for
1992-1995 presented in publications [2, 6] and in Fig. 2 could be explained by the fact that the latter wasprovided on the basis of more regular observations.
Monthly averaged specific activities of total 137Cs and 90Sr in water of the Cooling Pond are presented
in Fig. 3. As it could be seen from Fig. 3 regular observations of 137Cs in the Cooling Pond waterproviding the possibility of the analysis on monthly basis were started in late 1986 (actually in December)and of 90Sr – in spring 1988, although this analysis has never been done before. It was just noticed thathigher specific activities of 137Cs in water of the Cooling Pond were observed usually in summer andduring the year the variations with a factor of 2-3 were observed. If one get a look of plots presenting
monthly averaged specific activities of total 137Cs and 90Sr in water of the Cooling Pond on the backgroundof grid-lines marking the beginning of the year (Fig. 3), he could assume the presence of regular seasonalchanges of at least 137Cs concentrations.
To reveal the seasonal regularities the period of 1993 – 2000 was taken as less influenced by generalprocesses of radionuclide concentration reduction. For this period the detailed analysis of seasonal77

S pecific activity, B q/l

1000,0100,0C s_137T
S r_90
10,0

1,0

0,1
05.01.86

05.01.88

04.01.90

04.01.92

03.01.94

03.01.96

02.01.98

02.01.00

01.01.02

D atesFig. 3. Total 137Cs and 90Sr in water of the Cooling Pond, monthly averaged.
behaviour of the total 137Cs and 90Sr specific activity in water was performed and the general trends were
found (Fig. 4). Using the regression lines in Fig. 4, the seasonal component of specific activity changes
was extracted (Fig. 5). The relative units in chart represent the ratios of the actual monthly data to therespective calculated values (regression lines) and the confidence intervals represent the standard
deviation values.
As it could be seen from Fig. 5, 90Sr does not tend to show the seasonal changes. To the contrary,137
Cs strongly tends to show the regular seasonal changes with minimum values in February-March andmaximum – in June-September with August values exceeding that of February by a factor of 2.5.
There are two main ideas of explanation of the revealed phenomenon. The first is the presence of
seasonally dependant flux of 137Cs to water from the bottom sediments. The second is the seasonal
development of plankton organisms that would influence the total 137Cs specific activity in water. To
check the possible influence of the seasonal plankton development the seasonal behaviour of a ratio of
suspended to total 137Cs in water was studied. It was found that the highest contribution of suspended 137Cs
12,0

6,0
y S r = 1875399e-0 , 000 38x

C s_137T

R 2 = 0,792

5,0

Sr_90
Expon. (S r_90)
4,0

137

3,0

4,0

Sr

Cs

Expon. (C s_137T )

90

8,0

2,0

y C s = 778437e -0 , 000 35x

1,0R 2 = 0,391
0,001.01.93

0,001.01.94

01.01.95

01.01.96

31.12.96

31.12.97

31.12.98

31.12.99

30.12.00

T ime

Fig. 4. Total 137Cs and 90Sr in water of the Cooling Pond in 1993 - 2000, monthly averaged, Bq/l.
78

2,0
Cs

1,8

Sr

Relative units

1,6
1,4
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
MonthsFig. 5. Seasonal behaviour of total 137Cs and 90Sr in water of the Cooling Pond.
is observed in May and comprise about 25% of total 137Cs in water with mean seasonal value less than
15% (Fig. 6). So, the 137Cs fraction associated with seston, being the composition of plankton organisms,
organic detritus and mineral particles, does not exceed 25% of total 137Cs in water and could not provide
seasonal deviations with a factor of 2.5. That is why the presence of seasonally dependant flux of 137Csfrom the bottom sediments is strongly supposed.
Meanwhile, the seasonal cycling of 137Cs concentrations in water peaking in winter or summer has
been reported to take place in several lakes [7-11]. In each study this phenomenon was attributed todissolution of 137Cs from the bottom sediments by ion exchange with ammonium ions whose elevatedconcentrations are observed under anoxic conditions. It was proved by field measurements and laboratory
experiments that microbially produced NH4+ is the most important in release of 137Cs from sediments intolake water. Nowadays the linkage between Cs and nitrogen transfer, which is mediated by microorganisms,
is considered to be a rather general phenomenon in freshwater systems rich in organic matter [11]. In orderto clarify the real mechanism about the 137Cs seasonal cycling in water of the Cooling Pond, theexperiments should be planed to check the distribution of ammonium ion concentrations in water column
and sediment cores.

0 ,4 0 0
0 ,3 5 0
0 ,3 0 0

R a t io

0 ,2 5 0
0 ,2 0 0
0 ,1 5 0
0 ,1 0 0
0 ,0 5 0

De c

No v

Oct

Sep

A ug

Ju l

Ju n

May

A pr

Mar

Fe b

Ja n

0 ,0 0 0

M o n th s

Fig. 6. Seasonal behaviour of ratio of suspended to total 137Cs in water of the Cooling Pond.

79

3.2. Bottom sediments
Before the accident the last comprehensive hydrological survey of the Cooling Pond bottom
sediments was performed in 1985 by the Institute of Hydrobiology [12]. Primary soils (sand loam andloam) of different stage of transformation were found to meet at water depths of 3 to 8 m and to be
dominant at depths of 4-7 m. Sands of different extent of silting were met to the water depths of 12 m, andwere found to be dominant at depths of less than 5 m and 6-10 m (Fig. 7). Bottom areas with depths morethan 10 m were occupied by silts.
It was also found that two parts of the Cooling Pond that were sequentially turned into operation in1976 and 1982, and were 9 and 3 years old in 1985, respectively, had different dependencies of silt layer
thickness and annual sedimentation rate upon the water depth to the bottom (Fig. 8). The younger part had
1.5 times less average thickness of the silts layer and 2-3 times more sedimentation rate, being maximal of
about 12 cm/year (the thickness of last-year layer of sediments) [13]. The last finding was very importantfor understanding of the distribution of radionuclides over bottom sediments of the Cooling Pond after theaccident.
20
18

R elative units

16

PS

14

S

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
3-4

4-5

5-6

6-7

7-8

8-9

9-10 10-11 11-12

D ep th , m

Fig. 7. Depth distribution of primary soils (PS) and sands (S) at the bottom of Cooling Pond, 1985.

3 0 ,0

12

h1
10

h2
dh1
dh2

2 0 ,08

1 5 ,06

1 0 ,0

4

5 ,0

2

0 ,0

S e d i m e n ta ti o n r a te , c

S i l t se d i m e n t l a y e

2 5 ,0

0
0

5

10

15

20

D e p th , m

Fig. 8. Average silt sediment layer (h) and annual sedimentation rate (dh) at different depths of
the first (1) and second (2) parts of the Cooling Pond [13].
80Table 2. Specific activity of the top layer of deep-water sediments, kBq/kg d.w.
137

90

Cs
470
580

Average
Maximal239, 240

Sr
41
110

238

Pu
1.4
2.4

Pu
0.67
1.2

241

Am
2.0
4.1

The bottom sediments surveys carried out in 1989, 1991, 1999 were concentrated mostly on theradiological issues and did not contribute a lot to the understanding of development of different soils
distribution over the bottom of the Cooling Pond with respect to different depths.
Investigations carried out in 2001 revealed that primary soils did not degrade completely and still
could be recognised by the presence of roots remains. In most cases, however, being different from thesituation in 1985, wide areas of primary soils are covered by layer of silt (as a rule thin 1 – 1.5 cm, andsometimes up to 6 cm), in many cases mixed with Dreissena bivalve shells. Stable silt accumulation isobserved at depth more than 10 m on the older part of the Cooling Pond, and at more than 11 m on theyounger part.
Deep-water silt sediments present the highest specific activity of radionuclides. In the top layer ofthis sediment represented by recently settled materials the specific activity of all radionuclides other than90
Sr varies insignificantly over the whole area (Table 2). For 90Sr the difference was observed with a factorof 10.
In the areas of stable silt accumulation the density of radioactive contamination was generally foundto correlate with the thickness of accumulated silt. That is why it is not surprising that the highest densitiesof 137Cs contamination, up to 4,000 Ci/km2 or 150 MBq/m2, were found in the younger southern part of theCooling Pond where higher annual sedimentation rates were observed in 1985. The most active samples ofsilt with 137Cs specific activity of about 1.4 MBq/kg d.w. were taken also in the southern part. At water
depths of 11-14 m the most contaminated layer of 1986 is covered with several tens centimeters of more
recent silt sediments (Fig. 9). The most recent top layer within 5-6 cm has more contamination than thenext deeper one (Fig.9) that is against the general tendency of decreasing with time of contamination levelof the settling material. Taking into account the seasonal variations of 137Cs concentrations in water andour considerations on the possible reasons of that, the observed picture might be explained by the presenceof flux of 137Cs from deeper layers of sediment to upper and then to water. In upper layers of sediment theflux of cesium meets different conditions (less anoxic, less ammonium concentrations in the interstitialwater) and is being trapped by the sediment particles. These assumptions should be checked in future
1,6
C o r e # 07.02

1,4

C o r e # 10.02
C o r e # 12.07

Spe cific activity

1,2

1,0

0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2

0,0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

De p th in co r e , cm

Fig. 9. 137Cs specific activity in bottom sediments (silts), MBq/kg d.w.
81

Table 3. Inventory of radionuclides in the bottom sediments of the Cooling Pond, after [14].
Total content in the
Total content in the bottom sediments in a
Radionuclides
bottom sediments, Cipart which will remain under water, Ci
137
Cs
4,400
about 3,000
90

Sr

650

313

239, 240

Pu

14

11

Pu

7

n.e.*

238
241

Am
18
n.e.*
* - n.e. means not estimated.
investigations.
On the basis of investigations carried out in 2001 the whole inventory of radionuclides in the Cooling
Pond was estimated as well as the part of area which would remain under water after the water level
would had been dropped down [14]. This gave us the possibility to assess the minimal activity ofradionuclides (without taking into account transsedimentation processes) that will remain under water,(Table 3).
So, after the water level in the Cooling Pond will have been dropped down to the natural elevation,
about 70% of 137Cs, 50% of 90Sr and 80% of 239, 240Pu will remain under water and will form the new
radioecological situation in a number of water-bodies on that territory.
3.3. Biota
Fish: Average 137Cs and 90Sr specific activity in fish muscles is presented in Table 4. As it is seen from
Table 4, the highest specific activity of caesium is observed for typical predatory species, perch and pikeperch. Some less activity is observed for omnivorous sabre carp and freshwater catfish that tend to feed
also on other fish. Typical omnivorous species goldfish and lake catfish (the last being facultative predator,
but in the Cooling Pond feeding upon periphyton and detritus [15]) are the next in this downward row.
The lowest concentrations are found in silver bream, rudd, roach and bream which feed upon benthos andplankton organisms and vegetation. Some more concentration observed in chub, being omnivorous andfacultative predator, and silver carp, which feeds upon plankton.
Almost the same row (sequence of species) was reported for 137Cs specific activity in fish of theCooling Pond in 1999 [15], the only exclusion was the highest concentration observed in freshwater
catfish. It should be noticed that not only the sequence of species but also the absolute values of caesium
concentrations were about the same in respective species.
On the contrary to caesium, concentration of 90Sr in fish muscles is rather low, being minimal in lake
Table 4. Average 137Cs and 90Sr specific activity in fish muscles, August 2001, Bq/kg f.w.
Fish species
Silver bream
Rudd
Roach
Bream
Chub
Silver carp
Lake Catfish
Goldfish
Sabre carp
Freshwater Catfish
Pike-perch
Perch

137

Cs
2,400
2,750
3,100
3,100
3,850
3,900
5,100
5,800
6,300
8,100
11,80018,100
82

90

Sr
6.6
10.9
4.3
9.5
1.7
5.3
15.3
2.3
2.7

catfish and predatory species and maximal in mainly planktotrophic species (Table 4).
Molluscs: Periphyton and benthos bivalve molluscs Dreissena were studied. Average 137Cs concentration
was about 2,600 Bq/kg f.w. with the range from 270 to 9,100 Bq/kg f.w., being the highest at the end of
directing dyke, i.e. the most southern part of the habitat. Average 90Sr concentration in Dreissena was
about 760 Bq/kg f.w. with the narrower range from 610 to 1,140 Bq/kg f.w.
Plants: Macrophytes of the Cooling Pond have rather wide ranges of 137Cs and 90Sr contamination. For
each species the ratio of maximal to minimal observed concentration was usually of about 5 to 10 and insome cases up to 80. The narrowest range and respectively the most definite values of 137Cs and 90Sr
specific activity were observed for filamentous algae and Potamogeton pectinatus. The highest
concentration of 137Cs was observed in Ceratophyllum demersum - 86.6 kBq/kg d.w. and of 90Sr in
Phragmites communis – 3.9 kBq/kg (Table 5).
Submerged plants, that are filamentous algae, Miriophylum spicatum, Potamogeton pectinatus,
Ceratophyllum demersum, have higher levels of 137Cs and 90Sr contamination than semi-water ones
(Phragmites communis).
Table 5. 137Cs and 90Sr in macrophytes of the Cooling Pond, August 2001, Bq/kg d.w.
137

Plant species
Filamentous algae
Miriophylum spicatum
Potamogeton pectinatus
Ceratophyllum demersum
Phragmites communis

90

Cs

Range
7,900 – 12,700
2,200 – 23,200
5,030 – 22,600
2,100 – 86,600
530 – 6,200

Mean
10,8008,700
12,20020,600
2,340

Sr

Range
300 – 1,460
440 – 3,300
640 – 1,160
320 – 3,260
51 – 3,900

Mean
720
1,080
960
1,120
560

Seston: Seston was collected at three stations and measured for 137Cs and 90Sr concentrations (Table 6) andwas represented mainly by phytoplankton.
Table 6. Specific activity of 137Cs and 90Sr in seston, August 2001, Bq/kg d.w.
Station
MOG
PK39
TPD

137

Cs
10,3007,685
12,430

90

Sr
705
460
1,362

3.4. Dynamics of the 137Cs and 90Sr in the components of Cooling Pond ecosystem
The results obtained together with the previous data [6, 15] gave us the possibility to compile a tablefor comparison of specific activity of 137Cs and 90Sr in components of the Cooling Pond (Table 7). In
comparison to 1995 137Cs concentration in seston in 2001 dropped down by about a factor of 10, andseveral times of decrease were also observed for semi-water plants and fish. Real water plants andTable 7. Specific activity of 137Cs and 90Sr in components of the Cooling Pond, seston and water
plants in kBq/kg d.w., molluscs and fish in kBq/kg f.w.
1991
1995
2001
Ecosystem
137
90
137
90
137
90
components
Cs
Sr
Cs
Sr
Cs
Sr
Seston300 – 1,000 60 - 270
20 - 140
0.1 - 1.5
7.7 - 12.4
0.7 - 1.3
Water plants
15 - 200
30 - 200
Semi-water
3 - 25
0.1 - 0.8
0.5 - 6.2
0.05 - 3.9
Real water
8 - 93
1 - 23
2.1 - 87
0.3 - 3.3
Molluscs
1.2 - 6
10 - 25
1.2 - 3.3
2.0 - 6.5
0.3 - 9.1
0.6 - 1.1Fish
1 - 45
2.4 - 180.0017 - 0.015
83

1000
Pike-perch
Silver breamSpecific activity

Molluscs
Plants

100

10

1
0

50

100

150

200

Months after the aciident

Fig. 10. The dynamics of 137Cs specific activity in the components of Cooling Pond ecosystem,
kBq/kg f.w.
molluscs demonstrated the same levels of concentrations as in 1995. As to 90Sr, almost the same as in1995 or higher concentrations are observed in semi-water plants and seston in 2001. Real water plants andmolluscs demonstrate decreasing of 90Sr concentration.
As it could be seen from the Fig.10, during the last 5 years contamination level of molluscs andplants remained almost the same and during the last two years the stabilisation of fish contamination is
also seems to have taken place.
4. Conclusions
On the eve of decommissioning the Cooling Pond seems to enter a period of stabilisation of theradioecological situation. General trends of radioactivity reduction are being masked by the seasonal
deviations in radionuclides concentration.
It is strongly supposed that seasonal cycling of 137Cs water concentrations are caused by the seasonal
dependant flux of caesium from bottom sediments into water. This supposition to be checked in special
field studies on the Cooling Pond.
About 70% of 137Cs, 50% of 90Sr and 80% of 241Am that are present at the moment in the Cooling
Pond will remain under water after the water level will have been dropped down to the natural elevation.
References
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Final Report. CEC-Contract Number: B7-5350/99/6241/MAR/C2,.GRS mbH, September 2000. 198 p.
2. Modelling and study of the mechanisms of the transfer of radioactive material from terrestrial ecosystems to andin water bodies around Chernobyl. Experimental collaboration project No 3 (ECP3). Final report. EC.
Luxembourg: Office for Official publications of the European Communities, 1996 – VIII, 184 pp. EUR 16529.
3. Yegorov Yu.A., Kazakov S.V., Leonov S.V., Staurin N.V. //Radiation state of the Cooling Pond of ChNPP in
May 1986. //Chernobyl’88. Reports of the 1st All-Union Scientific-Technical Conference on Overall Results ofElimination of the Consequences of Chernobyl NPP Accident. :Chernobyl, 1989. Vol. 6, P. 76-84. (Rus).
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Measurement Techniques, 18-22nd October 1999, SCK CEN, Mol, Belgium, p.70.
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Smirnova O., Wilhelm Ch., 1992. Transport of Chernobyl radionuclides in freshwater lakes. Proc. Eighth World
Congress of the International Radiation Protection Association, Montreal, pp. 1693-1696.
8. Linder G., Kaminski S., Greiner I., Wunderer M., Behrschmidt J., Schroder G., Kres S., 1993. Interaction ofdissolved radionuclides with organic matter in prealpimne freshwater lakes. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol.,25:238-241.
9. Evans D.W., Alberts J.J., Clark R.A., 1983 Reversible ion-exchenge fixation of cesium-137 leading tomobilization from reservoir sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 47: 1041-1049.
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85

Iodine-131 Contamination, Thyroid Doses and Thyroid Cancer in theContaminated Areas of Russia
Valery F. STEPANENKO, Evgeny M. PARSHKOV, Viktor A. SOKOLOV, Mark Yu. ORLOV,
Alexander I. IVANNKOV, Valery G. SKVORTSOV, Elena K. IASKOVA,
Timofey V. KOLIZSHENKOV, Irina G. KRYUKOVA, Anatoly F. TSYB
Medical Radiological Research Center, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Korolev Str., 4, 249020,
Obninsk, Russia: valeri@obninsk.com

Abstract
About 1,800 PBq of I-131 was deposited in the environment as a result of the Chernobyl
accident. The most contaminated territories in Russia are located in Bryansk, Tula, Orel and Kaluga
regions. About 80% of total I-131 deposition was formed during the first week after the accident.
Direct measurements of deposition densities of I-131 were very limited as far as this radionuclide
decayed very fast (with half time about 8 days). In contrast, Cs-137, which is long-lived radionuclide,
was investigated much more extensive. As a result all available information about the ratio of I-131 to
Cs-137 has been used to estimate deposition densities of I-131 for the purpose of thyroid dose
estimation. The results of direct measurements of radioactive iodine content in human thyroid gland
together with the available data on I-131 and caesium-137 contamination of the soil were used fordevelopment of semi-empirical model for reconstruction of thyroid absorbed doses in cases when themeasurements were not performed in 1986.
According to the estimations, which are based on the results of direct measurements of I-131
activity in thyroid (Kaluga and Bryansk regions), the median of individual thyroid dose values in
Kaluga region (7 districts) varies from 30 mGy for children to 8 mGy for adults. In Bryansk region (5districts) the median dose values for adults are in the range from 140 mGy to 30 mGy. Collective
thyroid doses over the territories where the density of Cs-137 soil contamination exceeded 3.7 kBq/m2(0.1 Ci/km2) in the most contaminated 4 regions were estimated to be 72,600, 16,900, 13,400 and
3,400 person-Gy for Bryansk, Orel, Tula and Kaluga regions, respectively.
The data on annual thyroid cancer morbidity over 1986-2000 years in residents of the mostaffected Bryansk region, aged 0-50 years at the moment of the accident, is also presented. During thefirst five years after the accident (1986-1990) annual thyroid cancer morbidity in different age groups(0-4 years, 5-9, 10-14, etc.) remained at quite stable levels. Since 1991 a stable increase of the numberof thyroid cancer in all age groups of the studied population has started. The semi-empirical model
was applied to reconstruct individual thyroid dose for 26 thyroid cancer cases (0 - 18 years old at the
moment of the accident) in the most contaminated 4 districts of Bryansk region. The tendency of dose
dependence of thyroid cancer incidence was found.

IODINE-131 CONTAMINATION
In total about 1,800 PBq of I-131 was deposited in the environment as a result of the Chernobyl
accident [1]. The most contaminated territories in Russia are located in Bryansk, Tula, Orel and Kaluga
regions [2] (see Table 1).
Data on the radionuclide composition of fallout and atmospheric aerosol samples have been obtainedby the Institute of Experimental Meteorology (SPA “TYPHOON” now, Obninsk, Russia) [2]. The firstsoil samples near the Chernobyl NPP were collected on 30.04.86. The fallout and atmospheric aerosol
samples have been taken beginning on 27.04.86. The principal measurements of the isotopic compositionof environmental samples have been performed after 10.05.86. The basic body of soil samples, for which86Table 1. Population residing in the contaminated regions following the Chernobyl accident(Russia, 1991.01.01).
N

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Regions

Belgorod
Bryansk
Voronezh
KalugaKursk
Orel
St.-Petersburg
Lipetsk
RyasanTambov
Tula
Ul’yanovsk
Penza
Smolensk
Mordoviya
Total

Cs-137 soil
contamination:
37-185 kBq/m2(1-5 Ci/km2)
No ofPopusettlem.
lation
56
1940
829
227220
35
11940
289
78078
230
1341891987
326581
44
19591
149
38882
646
182000223569
1736
768773
9000
51000
10000
20000
1882763

Cs-137 soil
contamination:
185-555 kBq/m2(5-15 Ci/km2)
No ofPopusettlem.
lation288

147361

135

15492

64

17648

311

166776798

347277

Cs-137 soil
contamination:>555 kBq/m2(>15 Ci/km2)
No ofPopusettlem.
lation
275

93100

275

93100

Subtotal
No ofsettlem
56
1392
35
424
230
2051
44
149
646
22
2047

7096

Population
1940
46768111940
93570
13418934422919591
38882
1820003569
935549
9000
51000
10000
20000
2323140

the isotopic composition is known, was collected and measured in the second half of 1986 and during
1987, i.e. when iodine-131 activity was already negligible. As a result, direct measurements ofenvironmental iodine-131 are very scarce now.
To get detailed information on soil and atmospheric contamination by I-131 in the first period after
the Chernobyl accident, all available data were used on the isotopic composition of soil (43 points), fallout(14 points) and atmospheric aerosol samples (7 points) [3]. To verify the validity of estimating the isotopic
composition of soil, fallout and aerosol samples, the 134Cs/137Cs activity ratios were determined
simultaneously with 131I/137Cs activity ratios. The accuracy of the ratios for soil samples was estimated as
15-25%, for the fallout - as 20-30% and for aerosol - 30-50%. The 134Cs/137Cs ratio averaged for thereactor core during the Chernobyl accident is known to be 0.53 with a high accuracy of SD=0.02.
From the very beginning when plotting the fields of soil I-131 contamination, it was attempted toconnect this contamination with the density of soil contamination by Cs-137 (having a relatively long halflife, T1/2 = 30.2 years) for which the measurement data are maximum available. However, such a
description may be accepted only for rough estimates of I-131 activity. In fact, there were notabledifferences in the radionuclide composition of contamination due to the peculiarities of transfer ofradioactivity and to the variations of transfer directions in the atmosphere: the I-131 to Cs-137 activity
ratios did not exceed a value of 15 in Russia (from 4.4 to 15, at 1st of May 1986), whereas in someterritories of Belarussia these ratios were remarkable greater – from 5 to 42 on 1 of May 1986 [1,2].
Therefore, even if Cs-137 contamination levels were equal, the values of iodine radioisotopes intake could
be different for various regions.
To reconstruct the trajectories of radionuclide transfer in the first period after the accident, the data
were collected on wind velocity and direction at various heights above the sea level for the European
territory of the former USSR (ETU) and also precipitation data were collected between 230-380 E and 460560 N from the end of April to late May 1986 [3].
Using the trajectories analyses, the time of particle arrival to a given site, district or region for eachheight level was estimated [2]: the earliest time of arrival and the latest time of leaving of air particles
were determined for a given site or region (Tables 2-4) This time was considered as a probable period
during which a given territory was radioactively contaminated.
87

Table 2. Data on air particles transfer trajectories in Bryansk region (Russia).
Trajectory departure from Chernobyl - 27 - 29 April 1986
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
Bryansk
17/28 19/28
06/27
22.7
2
Dubrovka
21/28 00/29
03/27
no *
3
Dyatkovo
00/29 03/29
06/27
no *
4
Zhukovka
20/28 21/28
06/27
no
5
Kletnya
18/28 19/28
06/27
6
Zhiryatino
17/28 19/28
07/27
7
Karachev
17/28 19/28
09/27
1.3
8
Trubchevsk
23/29 01/30
03/27
4.0
9
Navlya14/28 16/28
09/27
no
20/29 22/29
03/27
no10 Pochep
12/28 14/28
09/27
5.7
11 Fokino
19/28 21/28
07/27
22.7
14/28 0.2 16/29 0.7
08/27
14/28 15/28
08/27
12 Komarichi
04/29 0.7 06/29 0.7
08/28
11/29 0.7 13/29 0.7
03/29
13 Suzemka
05/29 0.7 07/29 0.7
21/28
10/29 11/29
00/29
14 Klintsy
12/28 13/28
09/27
no *
15 Starodub
11/28 13/28
09/27
no16 Krasnaya Gora
14/28 15/28
07/27
no17 Mglin
17/29 21/29
03/27
no *
12/29 0.7 13/29 0.7
10/27
no18 Sevsk
04/29 0.7 05/29 0.7
18/28
no11/29 0.7 16/29 0.2
03/29
0.5
12/29 16/29
00/29
0.5
19 Lokot
14/28 15/28
11/27
20 Surazh
16/29 20/29
03/27
no
14/28 15/28
08/27
no21 Unecha
18/28 21/29
03/28
no22 Vigonichi
16/28 17/28
08/27
Explanation for columns 1-7:
1 - earliest date of the trajectory arrival, hour/day (hh/dd) and trajectory height above the sea level, km;
2 - latest date of the trajectory departure, hour/day (hh/dd) and trajectory height above the sea level, km;
3 - date of the air particles trajectory departure from the Chernobyl reactor, hour/day (hh/dd);
4 - precipitation, mm/day ( no - no precipitation, * - data related to the nearest settlement);
5 - earliest date of the trajectory arrival at the height 0.45 km above the sea level, hour/day (hh/dd) and latest date ofthis trajectory departure, hour/day (hh/dd);
6 - date of the 0.45 km air particles trajectory departure from the Chernobyl reactor, hour/day (hh/dd);
7 - precipitation, mm/day (no - no precipitation, * - data related to the nearest settlement);
N

Settlements

1

Table 3. Data on air particles transfer trajectories in Tula region (Russia).
N

Settlements

Trajectory departure from Chernobyl - 27 - 28 April 1986
2
3
4
5
6
01/29 02/29
19/27
06/29 09/29
08/27
03/29 05/29
09/27
02/29 04/29
10/27
05/29 07/29
06/27
02/29 0.2 11/29 0.7
18/27
no *
02/29 04/29
18/27
17/29 0.2 17/29 0.2
18/28
no *
05/29 0.2 10/29 0.7
12/27
08/29 0.7 10/29 0.7
00/28
01/29 0.2 09/29 0.7
15/27
no01/29 02/29
15/27
08/29 0.2 09/29 0.7
15/28
no22/28 23/28
12/27
01/29 03/29
09/27
07/29 08/29
06/27
03/29 06/29
09/27
23/28 0.2 14/29 0.7
18/27
23/28 01/29
18/27
13/29 0.7 14/29 0.7
18/29
1

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Efremov
Novomoskovsk
Uzlovaya
Bogoroditsk
Klimovsk
KurkinoKurkinoEpifanEpifanVolovoVolovoChern
Plavsk
Schekino
Kireevsk
Arkhangelskoye
Arkhangelskoye

Explanations for columns 1-7 are shown in Table 2.

88

7
no
1.7 *
1.7
no
1.7 *
no *
no
1.6
0.3
no *
no *
-

Table 4. Data on air particles transfer trajectories in Kaluga region (Russia).
N

Settlements
1

1
2
3
4
5

Lyudinovo
ZhizdraDuminichi
Khvastovichi
Ul’yanovo-

Trajectory departure from Chernobyl - 27- 28 April 1986
2
3
4
5
6
02/29 04/29
06/27
23/28 01/29
06/27
23/28 01/29
06/27
20/28 22/28
06/27
03/29 06/29
06/27

7
no*
no
no*
0.7*
no*

Density of I-131 activity on the soil, kBq/sq.m

Density of I-131 activity on the soil, kBq/sq.m

Explanations for columns 1-7 are shown in Table 2.

Gomel (Belorussia)
3

10

Kiev (Ukraine)2

10

Minsk (Belorussia)

101
Obninsk (Russia)

100

10-1
2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

Days after the accident
Fig. 1. Accumulation of I-131 activity in soil.

103

Pinsk (Belorussia)
Baltiysk (Russia)

Klaipeda (Lithuania)

102

Mogilev (Belorussia)
Poltava (Ukraine)

101

Donetsk (Ukraine)

Izmail (Ukraine)

100

10-1
5

10

15

20

Days after the accident
Fig. 2. Accumulation of I-131 activity in soil.

As noted above, the data on the results of direct measurements of radioactive iodine isotopes in theenvironment after the Chernobyl accident are scarce: for example the time dependences of I-131 fallout
are known only for a few location over all territory of FSU [2-5]. The time integration of such kind of
dependencies show that a major part (more than 80-90 %) of I-131 contamination was accumulated instudied territories by the moment D + 5 days (Fig.1,2). These data are confirmed by analyzing the dose
rate dependence on time at some settlements. For example, in Novozybkov (Bryansk region, Russia) as
well as in Chernobyl (Ukraine), Pinsk (Belorussia) and Semenovka (Ukraine), the dose rate trend on timeshows that a dose rate had increased only during the radioactive cloud passage, i.e. prior to D+5[2,4].
After the cloud passage the dose rate had rapidly decreased.
Despite the shortage of the available data with the results of I-131 measurements, this information isvery valuable because the knowledge of I-131/Cs-137 ratios and time parameters of fallout are very
important for thyroid dose estimations.
THYROID DOSES
Intake of radioactive iodine isotopes, mainly I-131 in milk, was the main source of thyroid irradiationof population in contaminated settlements. The results of direct measurements of radioactive iodine
content in human thyroid gland in Byelorussia together with available data on I-131 and Cs-137
contamination of the soil were used for development of semi-empirical model for reconstruction of thyroid
absorbed doses in cases when the measurements were not performed in 1986 [2]. For validation andtuning of this model in Russian territories about 30,000 direct measurements of radioactive iodine content

89

in human thyroid gland in Kaluga and Bryansk regions (Russia) [6] and all available data on I-131 and Cs137 contamination of the soil [4,5] were used.
Dose estimation by semi-empirical model
Mean dose values in exposed population of each contaminated settlement over Russia where thedensity of Cs-137 soil contamination exceeded 3.7 kBq/m2 (0.1 Ci/km2) were evaluated using the model.
Collective doses for contaminated “spots” in 4 most contaminated Russian regions were estimated as thefollowing [2]: 72,600 person-Gy for Bryansk region (in population of 1,137,100 persons), 16,900 personGy for Orel region (in population of 448,000 persons), 13,400 person-Gy for Tula region (in population of
1,310,000 persons) and 3,400 person-Gy in Kaluga region (in population of 213,500 persons) (see Table 5
and Table 6).
Dose estimation based on direct measurement data
According to the estimations (Table 7), which are based on the results of direct measurements of I131 activity in thyroid gland in the inhabitants of the contaminated district in Kaluga and Bryansk regions[6], the median of individual thyroid dose values in Kaluga region (7 districts) varies from 30 mGy forchildren to 8 mGy for adults (geometric standard deviation of about 2.6). As seen in Table 8, in Bryansk
region (5 districts) the median dose values for adults are in the range from 140 mGy to 30 mGy (geometricstandard deviation of about 2.7).
THYROID CANCER
Annual thyroid cancer morbidity over 1986-2000 years in residents of the most affected Bryansk
region, aged 0-50 years at the moment of the accident, is presented in Table 9-11.
All thyroid cancer cases (in total 1201 cases) in patients aged 0–50 years at the period of iodine
radionuclides action (May-June 1986), which were registered in the Bryansk Regional oncological registry,
were taken as the basic material for analysis. Age limit in 50 years is explained mainly by low life span of
Russian population (around 70 years for females and 60 for males). We believe, that the used age period(0–50 years at the moment of the accident and correspondingly 0–65 years at the moment of diagnosis) islarge enough for elucidation of the general features of the post-Chernobyl thyroid cancer situation. Annual
thyroid cancer morbidity was followed up in this cohort of population since 1986 to 2000 and summarized
over 5-year periods (1986-1990, 1991-1995, 1996-2000) in different age groups (0-4 years, 5-0, 10-14,etc.). Such division permitted to form comparable subgroups for both sex ans age over all period ofsurveillance.
Average number of Bryansk region population in the age cohort 0-50 years at the moment of theaccident (and correspondingly in the next 5-year periods) comprised approximately 1 million and in eachage group around 100,000 (Table 9). Only in the age group 40-44 year (period 1986-1990), whichcorresponds to 45-49 year (period 1991-1995) and 50-54 year (period 1996-2000), there is a demographic
fall as a consequence of the World War II. It should be noted that the number of the total examined cohort
as well as the numbers of population in individual subgroups did not markedly change during theanalyzing period. This permitted to carry out a correct analysis of thyroid cancer morbidity in age groups.
Table 10 demonstrates annual distribution of thyroid cancer cases in patients aged 0-50 at the
moment of the accident (Bryansk cohort, 0-64 years old at diagnosis, both sexes). Table 11 presents
thyroid cancer incidence rate in the same cohort averaged over five years periods after the accident.
Table 10 and Table 11 demonstrate that during the first five years after the accident (1986-1990)
annual thyroid cancer morbidity in different age groups (0-4 years, 5-9, 10-14, etc.) remained at quite
stable levels. Since 1991 a stable increase of the number of thyroid cancers in all age groups of the studied
population has started. It’s seems to be that the minimal duration of the latent period of radiogenic thyroid
90

Table 5. Thyroid doses : Bryansk and Tula regions, Russia.
Cs-137 soil
contaminat. density,
kBq/m2BRYANSK
3.7- 37
37 - 185
185 - 555
>555
Total
TULA
3.7- 37
37 - 185
185 - 555
Total

Population,(×103 pers.)

Average Cs-137
soil contaminat.
density, kBq/m2

Average thyroid
dose in population,mGy *Collective dose inpopulation,(×103 person-Gy) *

670
227
147
93.1
1137.1

12.6
86.6
336
918

9.5
58.9
176
289
64

6.39
13.4
25.9
26.9
72.6

370
770
170
1310

24.4
112
281

4.43
11.2
18.3
10.2

1.64
8.64
3.11
13.39

* - Taking into account the real beginning of the pasture period.

Table 6. Thyroid doses: Kaluga and Orel regions, Russia.
Cs-137 soil
contaminat.
density, kBq/m2
KALUGA
3.7- 37
37 - 185
185 - 555
Total
OREL
3.7- 37
37 - 185
185 - 555
Total

Population, (×103
pers.)

Average Cs-137 soil
contaminat. density,
kBq/m2Average thyroid
dose in population,mGy *)

Collective dose inpopulation, (×103
person-Gy) *

120
78
15.5
213.5

20.3
98.4
263

9.50
21.9
35.5
15.9

1.14
1.71
0.55
3.40

100
330
18
448

23.3
90.3
220

17.3
42.0
72.7
37.7

1.73
13.85
1.31
16.9

* - Taking into account the real beginning of the pasture period.

Table 7. Estimated parameters of individual thyroid dose distribution (7 investigated districtsof Kaluga region).
ItemsaN
MID(mGy)
DA (mGy)
SD (mGy)
DM (mGy)
GSD

Groups by age at the time of the accidentb
1-2
2-7
7-12
12-17
989
7491
6440
4997
530
460
320
250
43
23
15
14
52
29
17
17
26
14
10
8.3
2.7
2.6
2.4
2.7

-1
1075
550
52
58
31
2.7

175732
250
13
15
8.1
2.7

a

: N=number of persons with the results of direct measurements in given age range; MID=maximum individual dose;
DA=arithmetic mean dose; SD=standard deviation; DM=median dose; GSD=geometric standard deviation.
b:Include the left end while exclude the right end.

Table 8. Estimated parameters of individual thyroid dose distribution (five investigateddistricts of Bryansk region).
District
Gordeevskiy
Klimovskiy
Klintsovskiy
Krasnogorskiy
Novozybkovskiy

Arithmetic mean dose
(mGy)
120
48
62
223
46

a

Geometric standard deviation is 2.7.

91

Median dose (mGy)a

Number of adults

74
31
41
143
30

75
9
10
93
83

Table 9. Average size of cohort and number of persons in different age groups in 5-year periods.
(Bryansk cohort, 0-50 years old at the moment of the accident, both sexes)
Number of population in different age groups (persons)Totalnumber of
populationin cohort

0–4

5–9

10 – 1415 – 19

20 – 24

25 – 29

30 – 34

35 – 39

40 – 4445 – 49

50-54

55-59

1986-1990

988315.4110431.8

103914.4

100992.8

95863.894283.0114403.4

115018.0

102798.2

64859.2

85750.8++

1991-1995

974626.8-111004.4

104406.898640.4

88211.2

95248.8116310.2

113623.8

100113.4

59952.8

87115.0+

1996-2000

982553.7--

114588.0104153.3

96770.089934.3

102560.0121572.0

111663.796125.051610.3

93577.0

Years

Notes: 1. Sign (-) means the shift-out of cohort after 5-year periods.
2. Sign (+) means that age groups 0-49 analyzed in period 1986-1990 entered in the age groups 5-54 in period 1991-1995 and the age groups 10-59 in period 1996-2000.

Table 11. Thyroid cancer incidence rate at diagnosis in persons aged 0–50 years at the moment of the Chernobyl accident avareged over 5 years periods
after the accident. ( Bryansk cohort, both sexes, per 100 000 of population)
Year ofdiagnosis

Number of thyroid cancer cases in different age groups
0-4

5-9

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

1986-1990

0

0

1.9

2.1

6.4

15.7

26.1

35.0

37.0

29.2

27.3

+

+

1991-1995

-

6.5

14.6

17.5

21.9

27.7

35.4

58.2

70.3

74.1

57.2

49.7

+

1996-2000

-

-

19.2

30.6

28.1

35.6

37.5

70.6

87.8

133.3

116.8

74.7

63.0

Notes:
Sign ( - ) means the absence of patients in the corresponding age groups owing to their natural shift in elder age groups.
Sign ( + ) means the absence of patients in the corresponding age groups owing to restriction of the analyzing cohort by the of age 50 years old at the moment of the accident.

92

Table 10. Annual distribution of thyroid cancer cases in patients aged 0-50 at the moment of accident.
(Bryansk cohort, 0-64 years old at the moment of diagnosis, both sexes)
Number of thyroid cancer cases in different age groups
Year ofdiagnosis

1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
Sub total
1986-1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Sub total
1991-1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Sub total
1996-2000
Total
1986-2000

0-4

5-9

10-14

15-19

20-24

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
1

0
1
0
0
1

1
1
1
3
0

Sub
total
0-24
1
3
1
3
2

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

4
4
5
3
2

5
5
5
10
5

4
6
10
7
9

1
5
5
6
7

2
7
4
6
6

Sub
total
25-49
16
27
29
32
29

0

0

2

2

6

10

18

30

36

24

25

-

1
3
1
2
-

0
0
0
7
8

2
0
5
7
3

1
4
3
5
7

4
7
9
21
18

8
3
6
4
8

6
8
10
7
10

8
7
15
18
15

7
16
11
7
17

-

7

15

17

20

59

29

41

63

-

-

3
7
7
2
2

3
3
5
10
10

2
6
2
8
8

8
16
14
20
20

5
5
4
9
10

5
8
4
13
11

-

-

21

31

26

78

33

0

7

38

50

52

147

80

50-54

55-59

60-64

Total
0-64

4
2
7
6
7

+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+

21
32
37
41
38

133

26

+

+

169

5
6
11
16
16

34
40
53
52
66

13
12
8
12
6

+
3
13
10
14

+
+
+
+
+

51
62
83
95
104

58

54

245

51

40

+

395

6
17
17
14
29

14
15
13
22
29

14
18
17
29
26

44
63
55
87
105

7
8
9
28
29

16
10
11
20
8

3
12
8
15
21

78
109
97
170
183

41

83

93

104

354

81

65

59

637

112

182

175

183

732

158

105

59

1201

Notes:
1. In shaded lines and columns the summarized data over time intervals and age groups are presented.
2. Sign ( - ) means the absence of patients in the corresponding age groups owing to their natural shift in elder age groups.
3. Sign (+) means the absence of patients in the corresponding age groups owing to restriction of the analyzing cohort under 50 years old at the moment of the accident.

93

cancer is equal abut 5 years. After that we can see the rise of thyroid cancer morbidity in all age groups
due to possible influence of the Chernobyl accident.
One of the key questions regarding the radiogenic nature of thyroid cancer following the Chernobyl
accident was focused on its dose dependence of the thyroid cancer incidence. There was an attempt toinvestigate this question using the available individual data for 26 thyroid cancer cases in Bryansk region.
The retrospective individual dose estimations were performed for 26 thyroid cancer cases (17 female
and 9 male cases in the age 0-18 years old at the moment of accident) [7] which had been registered before
the end of 1997 in Novozybkovsky, Krasnogorsky, Klintsovsky and Klimovsky districts – the four of themost contaminated territories of Bryansk region. The verification of diagnosis in 18 cases was performed
by a group of experts at an international level: Prof. D. Williams (Cambridge, UK), Prof. E. Lushnikov(Obninsk, Russia ), Prof. G. Frank (Moscow), Dr A. Abrosimov (Obninsk). Other cases were diagnosed
and operated in Children Oncology Research Institute of Oncological Scientific Centre (Moscow).
A special questionnaire was used to gather data for individual thyroid dose reconstruction, including
information about milk consumption, leafy vegetable consumption, and use of thyroid blocking agents.
Individual doses were retrospectively estimated using semi- empirical model [2]. In Table 12 thereconstructed individual thyroid doses are presented for different dose ranges: < 0.25 Gy, 0.25 Gy ≤ 0.5
Gy, 0.5 Gy ≤ 0.75 Gy, 0.75 Gy ≤ 1.0 Gy and ≥ 1.0 Gy.
The results of analysis of available individual dose estimates based on thyroid counting todetermine I-131 content in May-June 1986 were applied in order to estimate the numbers of young
population related to various individual dose ranges [6]. Then, the numbers of thyroid cancer cases
corresponding to the different individual dose ranges were referred to the young population of the same
dose ranges (Table 12).
The “background” level of thyroid cancers for the investigated population during 11.7 years after theaccident was taken into account. For calculation of the background level the statistical data of [8] wereused. The results of dose dependence estimation are presented in Table 12 and in Figure 3.
CONCLUSIONS- The most contaminated territories in Russia following the Chernobyl accident are located in
Bryansk, Tula, Orel and Kaluga regions. According to the trajectory analysis of the radioactive plumes
from Chernobyl, the main part (more than 80-90 %) of I-131 contamination in these regions was formedby the five days after the accident. There were notable differences in the radionuclide composition ofcontamination due to the peculiarities of transfer of radioactivity and to the variations transfer directions inatmosphere: the I-131 to Cs-137 activity ratios did not exceed value of 15 in Russia, whereas in the someterritories of Byelorussia these ratios were remarkable greater than 15.
Table 12. Estimation of thyroid cancer incidence dose dependence for population in fourcontaminated districts of Bryansk region (age group < 18 years old at the moment ofaccident); see Figure 3 as well.
Number of “Background”
thyroidlevel of thyroid
cancer cases cancers for thein the dose
population inrange
the dose range

Standard
Incidence of thyroid
Thyroid dosedeviation ofcancer cases in thein cancer
thyroid dose indose range per 104
cases,
cancer cases,
Gy,( D )persons
Gy

Range ofindividual
thyroiddoses,
Gy

Populationin the dose
range,
persons

<0.25

29316

8

1.53

0.073

0.069

2.21

0.25≤0.5

14439

5

0.752

0.32

0.096

2.94

0.5≤0.75

9294

6

0.484

0.67

0.043

5.93

0.75≤1.0

2654

3

0.138

0.87

0.095

10.1

≥1.0

2960

4

0.154

1.25

0.27

13.0

94

TH YR O ID C AN C SER IN C ID EN C E AB O VE B AC K G R O U N D
PER 1 0 0 0 0 P ER SO N S

I

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

0 ,0

0 ,2

0 ,4

0 ,6

0 ,8

1 ,0

1 ,2

1 ,4

1 ,6

D

TH YR O ID D O SE, G yFig.
F ig.31. . TH Y R O ID C AN C E R IN C ID E N C E V S IN D IV ID U AL TH Y R O ID D O SE S
fo u r districts o f B ryansk regio n: 2 6 cases fro m 0 4 .1 9 8 6 till 1 2 .1 9 9 7 ).
O nly perso ns o f 1 8 years o ld by 0 4 - 0 5 .1 9 8 6 .
U pper and lo w er cu rves are 9 5 % co nfidence bands.
See Table 3 and relatio nship (1 ), (2 ) as w ell.

- The results of direct measurements of radioactive iodine content in human thyroid gland in
Byelorussia as well as the available data on iodine-131 and Cs-137 contamination of the soil were used fordevelopment of semi-empirical model to reconstruct thyroid absorbed doses. For validation and tuning of
this model in Russian territories about 30,000 direct measurements of radioactive iodine content in human
thyroid gland in Kaluga and Bryansk regions (Russia) and all available data on I-131 and Cs-137
contamination of the soil were used.
- By using semi-empirical model mean thyroid dose values in exposed population of eachcontaminated settlement over Russia where the density of Cs-137 soil contamination exceeded 3.7 kBq/m2(0.1 Ci/km2) were evaluated. Collective doses for contaminated “spots” in the most contaminated 4
regions were estimated as the following: 72,600 person-Gy for Bryansk region (in population of 1,137,100
persons), 16,900 person-Gy for Orel region (in population of 448,000 persons), 13,400 person-Gy for Tularegion (in population of 1,310,000 persons) and 3,400 person-Gy in Kaluga region (in population of
213,500 persons).
- According to the estimations, which are based on the results of direct measurements of I-131
activity in thyroid (Kaluga and Bryansk regions), the median of individual thyroid dose values in Kaluga
region (7 districts) varies from 30 mGy for children to 8 mGy for adults (geometric standard deviation of
about 2.6). In Bryansk region (5 districts) the median dose values for adults are in the range from 140
mGy to 30 mGy (geometric standard deviation of about 2.7).
- The data on annual thyroid cancer morbidity over 1986-2000 years in residents of the most affected
Bryansk region is presented in different age groups. During the first five years after the accident (19861990) annual thyroid cancer morbidity remained at quite stable levels. Since 1991 a stable increase of thenumber of thyroid cancers in all age groups of the studied population has started as a possible result ofradiogenic influence of the accidental release of I-131 from the Chernobyl NPP.
- The semi-empirical model was applied to reconstruct individual thyroid doses for 26 thyroid cancer
cases (0 - 18 years old at the moment of accident) in the most contaminated 4 districts of Bryansk region.
A special questionnaire was used to gather data for individual thyroid dose reconstruction, including
information about milk consumption, leafy vegetable consumption, and use of thyroid blocking agents.
The incidence rate of thyroid cancer cases corresponding to the different individual dose ranges were
calculated by referring the number of thyroid cancer case to the young population of the same dose ranges.
The tendency of dose dependence of thyroid cancer incidence was found.

95

Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by Russian Ministry of Health and by Russian Academy of Medical
Sciences. This work has been supported in part by Grant N N00014-94-1-0049 issued to Georgetown
University from the Office of Naval Research in support of the International Consortium for Research on
the Health Effects of Radiation. The contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do notnecessarily reflect the views of the Office of Naval Research or Georgetown University. A part of thiswork was supported by Hiroshima University, Japan (special gratitude to Prof. M. Hoshi). Special
gratitude to the Ministry of Education (Japan) and to Dr. T. Imanaka (Research Reactor Institute of Kyoto
University, Japan) for the possibility to publish this paper. Authors are very grateful to Dr. P. Voilleque,
MJP Risk Assessment, USA, for very useful discussion and comments to the materials and data of thispaper.
References.
1. UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly. Annex J: Exposured and Effects of the Chernobyl Accident.
In: International Journal of Radiation Medicine. Special Issue. Vol. 2-4 (6-8). 2000. Kiev. P. 3-109.
2. Stepanenko V.F., Tsyb A.F., Parshkov E.M. et al. Retrospective thyroid absorbed doses estimation in Russia
following the Chernobyl accident: progress and application to dosimetrical ecaluation of childhood thyroid
cancer morbidity. In: “Effects of low-level radiation for residents near Semipalatinsk nuclear test site”. Proc. of
the Second Hiroshima International Symposium, Hiroshima, July 23-25, 1996 (Edited by M. Hoshi, J. Takada, R.
Kim, Y. Nitta). Hiroshima University, 1996, p. 31-84.
3. Environmental Radioactive contamination after Chernobyl NPP Accident. IEM SPA “Typhoon”. Obninsk. p.305,
1986 (in Russian).
4. Orlov M.Yu., Snykov V.P., Khvalensky Yu.A. et. al. Radioactive contamination of Belorussia and Russia
territories after the Chernobyl accident. Atomnaya Energiya. 72:4. p. 371-376, 1992 (in Russian).
5. Makhonko K.P., Kozlova E.G., Volokitin A.A. Radioiodine accumulation on soil and reconstruction of doses
from iodine exposure on the territory contaminated after the Chernobyl accident. In: Radiation and risk, Bulletinof the National Radiation and Epidemiological Registry. English translation of Russian issue N7. Cambridge,
MA; 1997. p. 90-142.
6. Stepanenko V.F., Gavrilin Yu.I., Khrouch V.T. et al. Re-evaluation of thyroid doses in Russia after the Chernobyl
Accident. In: International Congress Series. Elsevier Science. 642 ,2001 (in press).
7. Stepanenko V., Tsyb A., Skvortsov V. et al. New results of thyroid retrospective dosimetry in Russia following
the Chernobyl accident. In: “Radiation and thyroid cancer”. (Eds.: G. Thomas, A. Karaoglou, E.D. Williams).
World Scientific Publishing Co.Pte. Ltd. Singapore-New Jersey-London-Hong-Kong. 1999, p. 333-338.
8. Dvorin VV, Axel EA, Trapesnikov NN. The statistics of malignant neoplasams in Russia and CIS. Moscow,
1995 (in Russian).

96

Radioactive Contamination of Food in Stepanivka Village, Zhytomyr Region,
Ukraine: in 1992 and in 2001
Volodymyr TYKHYYInstitute of Mathematical Machines and Systems, the National Academy of Science of Ukraine
42 Glushkova str., Kyiv 187, Ukraine: eeic@gluk.org

Abstract
Two series of measurements of radioactive contamination in food samples were performed in
1992 and in 2001 in a village contaminated by the Chernobyl accident. The village, Stepanivka islocated 120 km to the west of Chernobyl NPP and has a typical level of Cs-137 surface contamination
around that area (3 – 5 Ci/km2). The study was performed by the Independent Environmental
Laboratory in Kyiv, jointly founded by the Ukrainian NGO "Green World", Greenpeace International
and the International Renaissance Foundation.
It is shown that the Cs-137 contamination in milk in 2001 became 9 times lower than in 1992,
while the Cs-137 contamination in wild mushrooms and berries remained at the same level. Annual
intake of Cs-137 by the people in Stepanivka through food products and water was about 3 times lower
in 2001 than in 1992. On the contrary to the trend of Cs-137, activity of Sr-90 in milk and dried berries
was significantly higher in 2001 than in 1992.

1. Introductory note
The idea of the study was not merely scientific, but included also a social aspect. In 1992, generalpublic usually did not trust "official" data on radioactive contamination because the Soviet era attempts ofhiding the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster were still fresh in memory. Thus the results of an
independent laboratory which was run by non-governmental organizations with strong "green" reputation
would have an important social value. At that time (1991-1992), as became clear from later publications,many scientific organizations were studying radioactive contamination of food, but very few results were
published yet. Of course, there were no attempts to make the results of the investigations available andunderstandable for general public. Only later results of investigation were presented at conferences, see, forexample, [1].
The first research was undertaken in spring-summer of 1992 by the Radiological Laboratory ofGreenpeace Ukraine (this laboratory was a joint project by Greenpeace International, Ukrainian NGO"Zelenyi Svit (Green world)" and the Kyiv-based International Renaissance Foundation. Part of theequipment was donated to "Green world" by two German universities).
The idea of the study included "on-site" measurements of food samples. This was very important torelieve possible feeling of insecurity in local communities. On-site measurements were possible because thelaboratory possessed portable gamma-radiation monitors LB200 (manufactured by Berthhold, Germany)with the low limit of Cs-137 detection in 0.5-0.8 kg samples. Indeed, the attitude of the villagers was rather
negative when the investigation began: "you are just another team that will fool us". Later we managed tobuild their trust. The people of Stepanivka and other villages nearby were informed about the results of the
1992 study through local newspaper and at various meetings.
The second research was conducted in summer of 2001, owing to a support from the grant of the
Ministry of Education of Japan. The study would reveal some changes (first of all - radioactive
contamination of food) that took place in Stepanivka village during almost 10 year period.
For both studies, analyses of Cs-137 and Sr-90 were performed by the Laboratory of the Radiation
97

Hygiene of the Ukrainian Institute of Hygiene and Medical Ecology. Cs-137 was measured using Camberra
Ge spectrometer with the lower limit of detection 0.17 Bq (for 10,000 sec measurement). Sr-90 was detectedby Y-90 radiochemical method.
2. General information
Village Stepanivka is located 120 km to the west of Chernobyl NPP. In 1992, there lived 369 people,
including 75 children and 108 retired people. In 2001, the population slightly decreased and became older:
45 children, 145 retired. The main enterprise in the village is a collective (in 1992 - state) farm that produces
milk, potato, hops and some other crops. Most officials (director of the farm, village Council Head,radiologist, agronomist) have been working in the same positions since 1992. Villagers have cows in private
sector and produce potato and vegetables in their vegetable gardens for their own consumption. In 1992,
many people collected and ate mushrooms (8 families out of 25 interviewed) and berries (15 out of 25) fromnearby forests. They indicated that they were eating less mushrooms and berries than before the Chernobyl
accident, because they knew about radioactive contamination. Several families ate fish from the small river
Zherev.
Soils in the vicinity of the village are light sour turf-podzol and grey, with pH from 4.6-5.5. Soilsamples were taken on plowed fields, from the upper layer 0-20 cm (same fields in 1992 and 2001). Several
samples collected in 1992 by 5 cm layers showed a uniform distribution of radioactivity. In 2001, radiationlevels on sites varied between 0.06 - 0.13 µSv h-1. Radioactive contamination of soil in 1992 and 2001 issummarised in Table 1.
The results of measurement of radioactive contamination of soil are close to the data provided by the
local agrochemical service (surface contamination by Cs-137 between 3 - 5 Ci/km2). Thus Stepanivka could
be considered as a typical village for the areas not located directly on the so-called “Western plume ofChernobyl contamination”.
Dietary habits and local food consumption were investigated in 1992. Out of 100 families, 25 wereinterviewed (10 of them had children). Average consumption of main locally produced food products perperson is summarised in Table 3. Milk products (usually - white cheese and sour cream) were re-calculated
into milk (with the assumption that milk products retain all radioactivity that was in milk). The diet(milk-based) is characteristic for this region of Ukraine [2]. In 2001, the consumption patterns were thesame. Bread, other cereals, fruits, soft drinks and beer are imported from different regions of Ukraine, andwere not included in the study. In Table 3 we also included values of permissible levels (regulations of
1997) for Cs-137 and Sr-90 in food products included in the study [3].
Samples were collected and measured first on-site using LB200 gamma monitor (in 1992), and later ina laboratory. In 2001, on-site measurements were impossible due to low activities of samples. In 1992, milk
samples were collected in two more villages of the same region.
Table 1. Soil contamination in and around Stepanivka.
Cs-137Year

Sr-90

Number ofsamples

Activity (range),
Bq/kg

Number ofsamples

Activity (range),
Bq/kg

1992

10

530

3

34

2001

4

485 (250-825)

2

3.8 (2.0-5.5)

98

3. Results and discussion
Water. Two types of drinking water supply are used in the village: centralised supply from 120 m deep
artesian well and private water wells 1 - 3 m deep. Some people use both pipeline water and wells. Waterfrom artesian well was rather radioactive (total gamma-activity by LB200 monitor about 100 Bq/1 apparently radium, thorium and their daughter products - the region is known for its granite deposits).
Average gamma activity of water in private wells (measured by LB200) was 59 Bq/1, ranging from 0 - 179
Bq/1. In this research, we had no opportunities for investigation of radioactivity of drinking water in details.
In 1999, in the other study of villages in the same Polisse region and with similar level of radioactive
contamination of soil (Cs-137 1.1 - 3.9 Ci/km2), Cs-137 activity of water in wells varied from 0.06 - 2.6 Bq/l[4]. According to this study, activity of water in 1992 was 9 times higher than in 1999.
Milk. Results of analyses of milk are presented in Table 2. Average contamination of milk with Cs-137 in
2001 was 9 times lower than in 1992. In our study, in 1992 average activity of five samples of hay was 500
Bq/kg (dry weight, measured by gamma-monitor LB200) and in 2001 activity of Cs-137 in two samples of
hay were 1,125 and 711 Bq/kg. It is not possible to conclude what is the main source of radioactive
contamination of milk - more detailed studies are needed.
Radioactive contamination of food samples is summarised in Table 3.
Meat, poultry, eggs and fish. Only several samples of meat, poultry, fish and eggs were available formeasurements, because these food products are scarce and people plan their consumption (usually this isconnected with seasonal or family celebrations, and even in these periods they are not in abundance).
Potato is very important as a food product and also as forage for pigs and chickens. All consumed potato is
produced locally, and daily consumption for food is higher than the average for Ukraine (0.63 and 0.36
kg/day, respectively).
Mushrooms and berries. Fresh, canned, dried mushrooms (many different species) and berries (mainly
blackberry Vaccinium Myrtillus) are very important food products in Stepanivka. Most people harvest themin forests and eat. People know that these products are radioactive, but they constitute very significant
additives of protein (mushrooms), minerals and vitamins (berries) that are unavailable from other sources.
When filling up interview sheets in 1992, we re-calculated fresh and canned berries into dry berries. In 2001,
consumption of mushrooms and berries was apparently higher than in 1992, but we used the same figures
for our calculations.
Calculation of intake of radionuclides. The results of calculation of intake of Cs-137 and Sr-90 from themain food items in the investigated area are presented in Table 3. The shares of Cs-137 intake from the mainfood products are plotted on two diagrams in Fig.1.
Table 2. Average activity of Cs-137 in milk samples, Bq/l; n - number of samples.
1992

2001

Cs-137

Villagen
Stepanivka

51

Dibrova

14

RudniaRadovelska

19

Activity(range)228(28-940)71(14-150)298(45-720)

Sr-90
n

Cs-137

Activityn

Activity(range)25.5(7.1-43.8)

Sr-90
n

6

0.34

10

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

99

4

Activity(range)1.00(0.74-1.37)

Table 3. Permissible levels of contamination (PL) and activity (Bq/l or Bq/kg) of water and food in Stepanivka, and average annual intake(Bq). Absent data are marked "na".
Cs-137
Consumption(kg/pers/year)

PL(Bq/l, kg)

Sr-90

1992
Activity(Bq/l, kg)

2001
Intake(Bq)

PL(Bq/l, kg)

1992

Activity(Bq/l, kg)

Intake(Bq)

Activity(Bq/l, kg)

0.05

18

2

na

2001
Intake(Bq)

Activity(Bq/l, kg)

Intake
(Bq)

0.25

91

1.0

256

Water

365

2

na

Milk

256

100

210

53,800

25.5

6,528

20

0.34

Meat,
poultry

80

200

62

5,000

43.9

3,512

20

na

0.5

40

Fish

0.6

150

330

200

47

28

35

na

2.2

1.3

Eggs
(pieces)

300

6

1.5

450

na

2

na

na

Potato

230

60

12

2,800

14.9

3,427

20

na

0.5

115

Dry
mushrooms

0.7

2,500

30,50021,30020,047

14,033

250

na

4.8

3.4

Dry berries

0.3

2,500

18,0005,400

17,650

5,295

250

4.5

56.6

17

Total intake from local food

88,95032,841**Including water

100

87

1.4

523*

Annual intake of Cs137 with local food in 1992
(total 88 kBq)

6%
24%

Milk
Meat
PotatoMushrooms
Berries

61%

3%
6%

Annual intake of Cs137 with local food in 2001
(total 33 kBq)

16%

20%

11%
10%

43%

Milk
Meat
PotatoMushrooms
BerriesFig.1. Intake of Cs-137 from main food sources.
Discussion
From the results of our study it is clear that average intake of Cs-137 in 2001 is almost three times
lower than in 1992: 89 kBq and 33 kBq, respectively. In 1992, milk contamination accounted for 61 % ofannual intake of Cs-137, and mushrooms and berries accounted for 30 % together. In 2001, the share of milk
dropped to 20 % and the share of mushrooms and berries became 59 %. The content of Cs-137 in berries andmushrooms has been more or less stable in 1992-2001, as it was also shown in other studies (see, forexample, [5] for the period 1991-1999).
Our results prove that Stepanivka is located in a rather "good" area, because in many other villages(even to the west of Stepanivka) radioactive contamination of milk remains significantly higher. In 1998,
out of 34,233 samples of private sector milk in Ukraine, contamination of 19.7 % of them with Cs-137 washigher than permissible level 100 Bq/l [6].
It is also clear that contamination of food with Sr-90 increased significantly: almost three times formilk and 12 times for dry berries. There exist numerous investigations which show that the migration of
Sr-90 in plants increases with time due to chemical transformations of deposited fuel particles. (See, forexample, a paper by Yu.O.Ivanov with quite comprehensive bibliography [7]).
In 1992, we used (to make a rough estimate) the results presented by Smoliar [2] that an intake of eachkBq/year of Cs-137 results in an annual dose of 0.011 mSv/year. In this case the average dose in Stepanivka(from locally produced food) was 1.2 mSv/year in 1992. This dose was lower than 1992 permissible level of
5 mSv/year.
Later, several regulations on calculation of internal doses from food and other sources were publishedby international organizations and in Ukraine [see, for example, 8]. But, if we use the same assumption by
Smoliar for Cs-137 intake results of 2001, then the annual dose from local food would be 0.37 mSv/year,101which is lower than the permissible radiation dose for population - 1 mSv/year, stipulated by National
Radiation Protection Norms. Of course, this calculation does not account for doses from incorporated
strontium and alpha-emitters, as well as for inhalation and external irradiation doses. As it is shown in [3],for people living in similar environment, internal irradiation from food contamination by Chernobyl
radionuclides comprises only about 40 % of the total internal dose, while 60 % of internal dose is formed bynatural radionuclides such as Rn and Tn and their daughter products (results of the 1996-1997 studies; thepaper provides a breakdown of the total intake of Cs-137 and Sr-90 from various food products).
It should be noted, however, that we did not investigate patterns of individual intake of radionuclides,
which vary very significantly even for people living in the same village.
Acknowledgements
The paper was discussed and recommended for publishing at the Laboratory of Radiation Hygiene of
the Institute of Hygiene and Medical Ecology of the Academy of Medical Science of Ukraine.
The author expresses his gratitude to Prof. Edmund Lengfelder from Munich University who organizeddonation of equimpent to Ukrainian Ecological Association "Green World" in 1990, Dr. Lyudmila
Nagovitsyna from Ukrainian Scientific Hygien Center, and Imanaka Tetsuji from Kyoto Research Reactor
Institute for the support of the second stage of the study.
The author also thanks the people of Stepanivka village and Luginy district, first of all Mykola
Kaminsky, the Head of the village Council and Yuri Grinevytch, teacher, and Volodymyr Prekrasny andVolodymyr Ovdienko who participated in field expeditions and measurements.
References
1. Mikhailov A.V., Los I.P., Bogdanov G.O. Results of assessment of partial input of some food products in internal
doses... In: Nauka. Chernobyl-97 (Science. Chernobyl-97). Proceedings of the Conference 11-12 February 1997. Kiev,
1998. p.128.
2. Smoliar V.I. Ioniziruyushaya radiatsia i pitanie (Ionizing Radiation and Nutrition). Kiev, 1992. 173 p. (in Russian).
3. State of Environment in Ukraine. National Report. - Ministry for Environmental Protection and Nuclear Safety of
Ukraine. Kyiv, 1999. p.33.
4. Bobyliova O.O. et al. Hygienic Assessment of Living Conditions of People... - In: Chernobyl. Exclusion Zone. National Academy of Science of Ukraine. Kyiv, 2001. pp.268-277 (in Ukrainian).
5. Orlov O.O. et al. Patterns of accumulation of Cs137 by mushrooms and berries... - In: Hygiene of Settlements, Issue 36,
Part 1, Ministry of Health of Ukraine, Kyiv, 2000. pp. 431-445.
6. V.I.Tsyprian, A.A.Myshkovska. Control of content of main dose-forming radionuclides... in Ukraine. In.: Higiena
Naselennyh Mest (Hygiene of populated localities). Vol.36, Part 1. Kiev, 2000. - p.42.
7. Yu.O.Ivanov. Dynamics of Redistribution of Radionuclides in Soils and Plants. - In: Chernobyl. Exclusion Zone. National Academy of Science of Ukraine. Kyiv, 2001. pp.47-76 (in Ukrainian).
8. International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation... Safety Series 115-I. Vienna, 1994. 387 p.

102

Content of Radionuclides of Chernobyl Origin in Food Products
for the Belarusian Population
Vladimir P. MATSKO and Tetsuji IMANAKA*
Institute of Radiobiology, Academy Sciences of Belarus
Kuprevich str. 2, 220141 Minsk, Belarus: irb@radbio.bas-net.by*Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University
Kumatori-cho, Osaka, 590-0494 Japan: imanaka@rri.kyoto-u.ac.jp

Abstract
Recent data on radionuclide contents of Chernobyl origin in food products and drinking water
for the Belarusian population are reviewed. Strontium-90 and Cesium-137 are main radionuclides
contributing to internal irradiation to the population. Contamination levels in food products from thesocial sector of agriculture (collective farms, agricultural co-operatives) are found to be generally
below the current legal admissible level of RAL-99 that are defined to make internal dose of the
population less than 1 mSv/yr. On the other hand, exceedings of RAL-99 are often found in foodproducts from the private sector, especially in settlements of Gomel region where the contaminationis the most serious in Belarus. Special attention should be paid to the non-farm products in thecontaminated areas: mushrooms, berries, fish and meat of wild animals. For example, about 37,000
Bq/kg of 137Cs in fresh mushroom was registered in a settlement of Gomel region, which corresponds
to 100 times of RAL-99 values. Concerning drinking water, the situation is quite good and no
execeedings have been registered for the last 10 years.

Introduction
The Chernobyl APS accident led to heavy socio-economic consequences and worsening of theenvironment in a large number of territories in Republic of Belarus as a result of their pollution withradioactive components including 90Sr and 137Cs. Presently, these two radionuclides are the principal
dose-forming factors of radiation on man and the most typical radioactive contaminants of food products.
As the majority of radioactive substances enter into human organisms together with food, there is apermanent necessity to develop the measures on radiation protection of population from incorporated
radioisotopes 90Sr and 137Cs.
In order to decrease radionuclide incorporation with food, legal measures are taken in Belarus by
setting admissible levels for 90Sr and radiocesiums (137Cs and 134Cs) in food products. Current regulation ofradionuclide contents in food products is carried out in correspondence with Republican Admissible Levels(RAL) adopted in 1999 (Table 1). The RAL values are defined so that annual internal dose of the population
does not exceed the dose limit of 1 mSv/yr as far as the structure of their food consumption is typical in
Belarus. Within the structure of food consumption by the Belarusian population, the share of potato, milk
and bread constitutes more than 50%. This allows to consider them as the group of principal products.
In this paper the recent situation of radionuclide contents in food products in Belarus is overviewed.
Food products from the social sector
The majority of food products in Belarus are produced by the social sector of agriculture (collective
farms, agricultural co-operatives).
90
Sr in principal products:
Strontium-90 activity in milk, potato, rye bread and wheat bread from the social sector in Brest, Minsk,
103

Table 1. Admissible levels of radionuclide content in food products and drinking water ofBelarus population (RAL-99).
RAL-99Product
Cesium radionuclides,
Strontium-90
Bq/kg, Bq/l
Bq/kg, Bq/l
Drinking water10
0.37
Milk and dairy products
100
3.7
Meat and meat products- beef, mutton products
500- pork, poultry products
180
Potato80
3.7
Root crops
80
Bread, bakery products
40
3.7
Flour, groats, sugar
60
Vegetable and animal fats, margarine
40
Vegetables
100
Fruits and berries
70
Canned vegetables, fruits and berries
74
Forest berries
185
Fresh mushrooms
370
Dried mushrooms
2,500
All species of children food ready for consumption
37
1.85
Other food products
370-; RAL is not defiend.
Vitebsk, Grodno and Mogilev regions registered in 2000 is shown in Table 2 [1]. The 90Sr activity in milk,
potato, rye and wheat bread generally does not exceed 0.25, 0.33, 0.34 and 0.33 Bq/kg, respectively.
In Gomel region where the radionuclide contamination is the most serious, some higher levels of 90Sr –as compared with the mentioned – in rye and wheat bread and milk were registered (Table 3). Their averages
in Gomel region were 0.89, 1.05 and 0.54 Bq/kg, respectively, and higher than on the whole in the country.
The observed difference in 90Sr pollution of the mentioned products in compared regions is a result ofradioactive pollution of Gomel region which is higher than that of other Belarus areas.
Among the examined food products from Gomel region, the highest level of 90Sr (not higher, however,than the admissible level) in rye bread was registered from Vetka, and the highests in wheat bread and milk
were from Mozyr (Table 3). The content of 90Sr and 137Cs in home-made cottage cheese constituted,
respectively, 1.12 and 16.7 Bq/kg (Tables 3, 4). Such level of radioactive pollution of cottage cheese also
does not exceed the admissible level even for children food (the requirements concerning the children foodare the toughest).
According to the data by [2], in 2000 the mean level in Belarus of 90Sr content in milk of dairy plants
and children milk kitchens constituted 0.2 Bq/l.
The data of other authors [3, 4] testify that the levels of 90Sr content in the principal food products fromthe mostly polluted areas of Gomel region are considerably higher than adduced in [1]. In 1999, theSanitary-Epidemiological Service of Gomel region examined 448 samples of milk, dairy products, breadand bakery products, and in 2000 - 365 samples. There were found no cases of exceeding RAL-99 (3.7 Bq/l,kg) . Nevertheless, it is necessary to note that the boundary levels of 90Sr content were registered in samples,
being close to the limit of 3.7 Bq/l:in 1999, milk – 3.52 Bq/l (Zhlobin cheese dairy plant),
dairy products – 3.44 Bq/l (Kalinkovichi dairy plant),
rye bread – 3.12 Bq/kg (Bragin bread factory);in 2000, dairy products – 3.29 Bq/l (Rogachev dairy plant),
rye bread – 3.00 Bq/kg (Korma bread factory),
wheat bread – 3.0 Bq/kg (Narovlya bread factory).
104

Table 2. Levels of 90Sr activity in food products from the social sector in Mogilev, Vitebsk,
Brest, Minsk and Grodno regions.
Food productSettlement
RegionLevel of 90Sr activity, Bq/kg
Milk
Bobrujsk
Mogilev<0.15
Mogilev
Mogilev
0.19±0.01
Lepel
Vitebsk
<0.15
Brest
Brest
<0.15
B. Maleshevo
Brest
0.25±0.02
Volozhin
Minsk
<0.15
VilejkaMinsk<0.15
Zhdanovichi
Minsk
<0.15
GrodnoGrodno<0.15
Volkovysk
Grodno<0.15
PotatoBobrujsk
Mogilev<0.15
Slavgorod
Mogilev
0.21±0.01
PolotskVitebsk
0.33±0.03
Novopolotsk
Vitebsk
0.33±0.04
Logojsk
Minsk
0.26±0.03
Volkovysk
Grodno0.18±0.02
Rye bread
Bobrujsk
Mogilev
0.34±0.02
Mogilev
Mogilev<0.15
Bykhov
Mogilev
0.18±0.02
Novopolotsk
Vitebsk
<0.15
Brest
Brest
0.27±0.02
Baranovichi
Brest
<0.15
VilejkaMinsk
0.23±0.02
Wheat bread
Bobrujsk
Mogilev<0.15
Mogilev
Mogilev<0.15
Slavgorod
Mogilev
0.33±0.03
Novopolotsk
Vitebsk
0.33±0.03
Table 3. The density of radioactive pollution of territory in places of sampling and the levels of 90Sr
activity in food products from the social sector in Gomel region.
Density of pollution with 90Sr,
Food product
Level of 90Sr activity, Bq/kg
Ci/km2
Svetlogorsk<1
Milk
0.28±0.02<1
Wheat bread
0.70±0.04<1
Rye bread
0.96±0.04
Gomel
<1
Milk
0.59±0.05<1
Wheat bread
0.50±0.04<1
Rye bread
0.20±0.01
Mozyr
<1
Milk
0.76±0.04<1
Wheat bread
1.96±0.16<1
Rye bread
0.90±0.06<1
Cottage cheese*
1.12±0.11
Vetka
1-2
Rye bread
1.49±0.13
Milk
Wheat bread
Rye bread*; Cottage cheese is not from the social sector.
In the region on the average

105

0.54
1.05
0.89

Table 4. Density of radioactive pollution of territory and levels of 137Cs activity in dairy products
from the social sector in Gomel region.
Density of pollution ofSpecific 137Cs
Settlement
Food product137
2territory with Cs, Ci/km
activity, Bq/kg
Svetlogorsk
<1
Milk
<3.75
Milk
16.0±3.4
Gomel
1-5
Sour cream
13.3±2.8
Milk
17.0±3.5
Mozyr
1-5
Cottage cheese
16.7±3.6
137

Cs in principal products:
The levels of 137Cs activity in milk, bread and potato from the social sector of Brest, Grodno, Vitebsk,
Minsk and Mogilev regions were considerably lower than the existing normative values and in the majorityof cases they did not depend on the place of sampling. The results of Gomel region became exception, where
the correlation was found between the level of 137Cs activity in milk of local production and the density ofradiocontamination of territory (Table 4). Whereas, the 137Cs levels in milk and other food products fromsocial sector in Gomel region were considerably lower than the values of admissible levels.
The Sanitary-Epidemiological Service of Gomel region examines annually potato from economies
situated within the zones of radioactive pollution. In 1999–2000, exceedings of RAL-99 were found in 2
economies of Bragin district. That potato was not consumed as food product. In 2000-2001, there were no
exceedings of RAL-99 found in other foods produced in the social sector, such as meat products, fish,
vegetables, berries, fruits, eggs, children food [5].
On the whole, the agricultural protective measures in the social sector allowed to observe the normativevalues of 137Cs content in milk which were valid in that period: up to 370 Bq/l in 1987, up to 185 Bq/l in
1990, up to 111 Bq/l in 1992, up to 100 Bq/l in 1999. Nearly 99% of milk samples from the social sector had
specific activity of 137Cs less than 20 Bq/l, whereas the normative value of RAL-99 is 100 Bq/l. However, in1999 there were registered 1,962 tons of milk with 137Cs content over 100 Bq/l. That milk was processed indairy plants for butter.
Food products from the private sector
137
Cs in milk and potato:
Much more anxiety is caused by the quality of food produced in the private sector of agriculture. Thismay be explained by the limited possibilities in taking full-value protective measures. According to the dataof Sanitary-Epidemiological Service, there were registered multiple cases of producing milk with high 137Cs
content in the private economies (Table 5).
While in the social sector the milk with exceeding radionuclide contents may be used as raw material
for re-processing, in the private economies it is mainly used for personal consumption, being thus dangerous
for the health of man, especially for children.
Table 5. Number of settlements in each region of Belarus where exceedings of RAL-96, RAL-99
were registered for 137Сs content in milk from the private sector.
Over 111 Bq/l (RAL-96)
Over 100 Bq/l (RAL-99)
Region
1997
1998
1999
2000
Brest
97
90
73
54
Gomel
380
351
143
225
Grodno
7
2
4
4
Minsk
7
7
3
1
Mogilev
89
66
56
43
Belarus
580
516
379
327

106

The 137Cs content in randomly selected milk samples reached the following values [6];in Gomel region: Lelchitsy district – 979 Bq/l,
Bragin district – 637 Bq/l,
Korma district – 394 Bq/l,in Mogilev region: Chausy district – 851 Bq/l,
Slavgorod district – 776 Bq/l,
Krasnopol’e district – 913 Bq/l,
Bykhov district – 625 Bq/l.
In 2000, the organs of state sanitary control of Gomel region examined 39,261 milk samples from thepersonal subsidiary economies (PSE). Exceedings were found in 4.8% of samples (1,873 samples). The
maximum share of milk with RAL exceedings was registered in Lelchitsy (19.6%), Narovlya (14.9%),
Vetka (13.1%), El’sk (9.0%) and Chechersk (8.3%) districts.
The maximum specific activity of radiocesium in milk samples was registered as follows:• Khojniki district - 894 Bq/l,• El’sk district - 889 Bq/l,• Narovlya district - 872 Bq/l,• Lelchitsy district - 803 Bq/l.
In 2000, in 326 settlements of Gomel region were registered cases of exceeding RAL-99 ofradiocesium contents in single samples of meat, meat products, potato, beet. In 1999, the RAL exceedings
were found in 259 settlements. The number of settlements with RAL exceedings was registered as follows:in Bragin (in 2000 – 30 settlements, in 1999 – 11), Vetka (26 and 30, respectively), El’sk (25 and 21),
Lelchitsy (41 and 36), Narovlya (23 and 22), Chechersk (40 and 33) and Khojniki (19 and 17) districts.
In 2000, the RAL exceeding in potato was registered only in one sample from v. Dzerzhinsk of
Narovlya district of Gomel region [3].
In Minsk region which was polluted much less than Gomel region, there were almost no cases of
exceeding the RAL of 137Cs in principal food products from the private sector (Table 5). However, theradioactive pollution of agricultural products in relatively “clean” Minsk region is tens of times as high as
the pre-accidental levels [7].
90Sr in milk, potato and vegetables:
The precipitations of 90Sr of Chernobyl origin are registered mainly in Gomel region. In 2000, theSanitary-Epidemiological Service of Gomel region examined the products of PSE in 282 settlements: milk
was examined in 264 settlements. On the whole in 2000, 1,613 samples of food products from PSE were
examined. Out of 605 milk samples examined, exceedings of strontium were found in 45 samples (7.4%),
and out of 331 potato samples the exceedings were found in 5 (1.5%).
In 2000, the RAL exceedings of 90Sr in milk were registered in 35 settlements, in potato – in 3
settlements. The maximum levels of 90Sr content in milk were registered as follows:• Bragin district - 13.6 Bq/l,• Khojniki district - 8.4 Bq/l,• Narovlya district - 7.89 Bq/l,• Dobrush district - 4.8 Bq/l.
Taking into consideration the results of observations for 4 years (1997-2000), the RAL exceedings of90
Sr in milk and potato from PSE were registered in 93 settlements of Gomel region. Constant RAL
exceedings of 90Sr during four and more years of observation were registered in the samples of PSE products
in 14 settlements of Gomel region, including 9 settlements in Bragin, 4 in Khojniki and 1 in Narovlya
districts.
The Sanitary-Epidemiological Service of Gomel region carries out the monitoring of widely consumed
107

Table 6. The share (%) of samples of food products from the personal subsidiary economies which
do not meet the requirements of RAL-99.
2000
2001
Food productCesium-137
Strontium-90
Cesium-137
Strontium-90
Milk
5.0
5.3
4.2
8.5
Dairy products
3.0
2.0
Meat and meat products
1.2
0.4
Potato0.03
0.7
Vegetables
0.02
0.02
PSE products for which 90Sr limitations are not defined in RAL-99: root crops and vegetables. Attracts
attention the fact that quite high 90Sr contents are registered in the samples of beet, carrot, cabbage in theregion. In 2000, the maximum levels of 90Sr content in these products were as follows:• Beet in Bragin district - 18.6-34.3 Bq/kg,• Carrot in Khojniki district – 43.3 Bq/kg,• Cabbage in Khojniki district – 35.8 Bq/kg, in Narovlya district – 29.3 Bq/kg.
Quite high levels of 90Sr content are also registered in samples from PSE of more “well-being” districtsof region [3, 4]:• Cabbage – 11.4 Bq/kg (El’sk district),• Carrot – 7.9 Bq/kg (Kalinkovichi district), 12.7 Bq/kg (Vetka district), 15.6 Bq/kg (Dobrush
district),• Beet – 12.7 Bq/kg (Kalinkovichi district).
In Belarus as a whole, the RAL-99 exceedings of 137Cs were registered in milk and dairy produce aswell as in single samples of meat and vegetables from PSE. About 90Sr contents, the RAL-99 exceedings
were registered only in milk from settlements of Gomel region (Table 6) [5].
Forest products
Belarus population consume also non-farm products that are not principal but – being more polluted –make sometimes very significant contribution into the dose commitments. During a number of years, inMogilev region and especially in Gomel region the RAL exceedings are registered in 30-40 % of samples ofwild berries and mushrooms (fresh and processed), and more than in 50 % of dried mushrooms prepared for
personal consumption. The RAL exceedings in these foods are registered in all districts of Gomel region. In
separate districts the exceedings are 70 % or more (Vetka, El’sk, Bragin, Narovlya, Korma and other
districts).
Table 7 shows the 137Cs contents of forest products that were randomly selected in 1994-1995 in
Mogilev and Gomel regions and measured by sanitary-epidemiological services of Mogilev and Gomel
regions [6]. The data in Table 7 considerably exceed the existing norms.
The maximum levels of radiocesium content in mushrooms exceed RAL up to 100 times. For example,
in 1999, in a sample of fresh mushroom from El’sk district the specific activity of radiocesium constituted
36,896.5 Bq/kg, while the RAL value is 370 Bq/kg [2, 3, 8].
In 2000, the following maximum levels of 137Cs content were registered in Gomel region:• Fresh mushroom from Korma district – 25,470 Bq/kg (75 times as high as RAL of 370 Bq/g),• Wild berries from Narovlya district – 4,742 Bq/kg (26 times as high as RAL of 185 Bq/kg),• Dried mushrooms from Rogachev district – 99,910 Bq/kg (40 times as high as RAL of 2,500
Bq/kg),• Dried mushrooms from Khojniki district – 90,950 Bq/kg (36 times as high as the norm).
The consumption of wild berries and mushrooms with exceedings of RAL leads to high doses of108

Table 7. 137Cs contents in separate samples of meat of wild animals, mushrooms and forest berries
from Mogilev and Gomel regions.
137
Cs content in “dirty” foodRegionDistrictproducts, Bq/kg (random
sampling)
Meat of wild animals (boars, elks, hares and others)
Mogilev region:
Slavgorod district
1,974
Cherikov d.
9,620
Bykhov d.
15,910Klichev d.
7,445
Gomel region:
Korma d.
18,000
Lelchitsy d.
17,659Vetka d.
9,768
Bragin d.
11,407
Mushrooms (fresh)
Mogilev region:
Krasnopol’e d.
875
Cherikov d.
1,079
Bykhov d.
2,512
Slavgorod d.
966
Gomel region:
Korma d.
793
Lelchitsy d.
1,984
Bragin d.
915
Bykhov d.
769
Wild berries
Mogilev region:
Slavgorod d.
758
Cherikov d.
993
Bykhov d.
1,134
Gomel region:
Korma d.
1,754
Lelchitsy d.
1,017
Bragin d.
795
Table 8. Share (%) of samples not meeting the requirements of RAL-99 for 137Cs in 2000 and in
2001.
Mushrooms
Forest berries
Meat of wild animals
Region
2000
2001
2000
2001
2000
2001
Brest
15.6
25.3
40.2
23.6
Vitebsk
4
11.5
6.7
2.3
Gomel
46.9
47.8
36
32.7
54.8
66.2
Grodno
25
28.5
7.7
1.25
Minsk
19.1
19.2
9.04
4.8
1/1*
Mogilev
32.4
33.3
26.2
31.2
68.7
64.7
Minsk city
16.3
21.1
6.9
6.4
2/2*
*; (Number of dirty samples)/(Number of measured samples).
internal irradiation. In case of non-observation of existing limitations of consumption for mushrooms andwild berries, the contribution of forest products into the formation of internal irradiation dose reaches 70%
in a number of settlements of the region (by the data of Gomel branch of Research Institute of Radiation
Medicine and Endocrinology).
In Table 8 is adduced the share of samples of mushrooms, forest berries and meat of wild animals,
which do not meet the requirements of RAL-99 in all regions of Belarus [5].
Fish
The fish of local catch makes its own contribution into the formation of internal irradiation dose of
population of region. In 1999, the RAL-99 exceedings of 137Cs in fish of local catch were registered in 9.7%
109

Table 9. Causes of exceedings of internal irradiation dose of population of Gomel region in
1998-2000.
Years
1998
1999
2000
Cause of exceeding the dose
number of cases
number of cases
number of cases
Total Share (%) Total Share (%) Total Share (%)
Wild berries and mushrooms
732
57.6
308
30.4
458
53.4
Milk from PSE
232
18.3
140
13.4
72
8.4
Fish from rivers
47
3.7
303
28.8
Meat of wild animals
99
7.8
56
5.4
141
16.4
Unknown
160
12.6
240
22.0
187
21.8
(13 samples out of 134), in 2000 – in 17.4% (21 samples out of 121). The samples of fish with RAL-99
exceedings were registered in the private sector of eight districts of Gomel region: Vetka, Dobrush,
Kalinkovichi, Petrikov, Narovlya, Rechitsa, Khojniki and Mozyr town. They reached 36% (Narovlya
district), 50% (Rechitsa district) and 82% (Khojniki district). The maximum levels of radiocesium content
in fish from reservoirs and rivers of the region were 11 times as high as RAL-99 in 1999 and 25 times – in2000 (Vetka district, maximum level – 9,310 Bq/kg).
Drinking water
When we speak about the radiation state of food products of Belarus population, we must mention
drinking water. In 2000, there were more than 3,000 samples of water from water pipes, wells, artesian wells
and open reservoirs in which 137Cs was measured, and near 100 samples in which 90Sr was measured. There
were found no water samples with exceedings of RAL-99. The samples of drinking water with exceedingsof norms were not registered in Belarus during the last ten years, testifying thus to quite good situation [2].
Formation of radiation doseInternal dose:
In case of observing RAL-99 of radionuclide contents in food products, dose values of internal
irradiation are not higher than 1 mSv/year [9]. In the real situation, however, there are being registered many
people whose internal dose exceeds the normative value due to the radionuclide intake through foodproducts.
Taking into account the results of laboratory studies of food products, the contribution of various foods
to the exceedings of annual internal dose limit was analyzed [3]. As seen in Table 9, the consumption of wild
berries and mushrooms by population comes to the first place. In Gomel region, the exceeding of internal
dose in 1498 persons (47.2% of registered number of persons) is connected with that cause. The second
component of exceeding the irradiation norm is the consumption of milk from the private subsidiaryeconomies: 444 persons (14%). 296 cases (9.3%) are connected with consumption of meat of wild animals,
350 cases (11%) – with consumption of fish from local reservoirs, in 587 persons (18.5%) the cause was notrevealed.
Table 10. Annual external dose registered among the critical groups working on polluted
territories in Gomel region.
Annual external dose (mSv/yr)
Group
1998
1999
2000
Agricultural mechanics
1.5 – 1.9
1.5 – 1.8
1.6 – 2.0
Animal breeders
1.6 – 2.9
1.5 – 1.9
1.8 – 2.2
Field workers
1.5 – 1.9
1.5 – 1.7
1.9 – 2.0
Foresters
2.0 – 2.5
2.0 – 2.4
1.8
110

External dose:In the last three years, a tendency of decrease is observed in the average annual doses of external
irradiation of the population living on polluted territories. Whereas, during a number of years, the cases ofhigh indices of dosimeters have been registered in separate critical groups (field workers, animal breeders,foresters). Annual external dose of these groups is summarized in Table 10, which testifies to the exceedingsof dose limit of 1 mSv/year. The analysis of seasonal trend of external dose shows that maximum values ofirradiation (2 times and higher) as compared with the average annual indices in critical groups are registeredin period of spring-autumn, when field works are carried out and the population is picking mushrooms andforest berries [3].
Conclusion
The content of radionuclides in food products of population of the Republic of Belarus, which havebeen produced in social sector of agriculture, as a rule, does not exceed the norms of Republican Admissible
Levels of 1999. The products from personal economies are of worse quality, from the point of view ofradiation hygiene. Considerable contribution into the dose of internal irradiation can be made by so-called“non-traditional” food products: meat of wild animals, fish from open reservoirs, wild berries andmushrooms.
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Murokh V.I., Rogovaya E.G., Shakun M.L., Zajtsev V.A. Study of levels of Strontium-90, Cesium-137 activity
and calcium content in food products in the connection with development of issues of radiation protectionof population of the Republic of Belarus//”National Policy of Sound Alimentation in the Republic of Belarus”,
Proceedings of International Conference, 26-27 Apr. 2001, Minsk. (In Russian)Gaevskij I.V., Lipnitskij L.V., Sharamkov V.A. et al. Assessment of radiation-hygienic situation//”75 Years of
Sanitary-Epidemiological Service of the Republic of Belarus”. Proceedings of Science-Practical Conference,
22-23 Nov. 2001, Minsk (In Russian)
Medico-Ecological Bulletin. Issue 6. 2001,Gomel. (In Russian)Zinovich V.N., Klyuchenovich V.I., Sergeenko E.V., Vlasova I.K. On the results and problems ofStrontium-90 control in food products//”Belarus and Chernobyl. 15 Difficult Years”, Proceedings ofInternational Science-Practical Conference, v. 1, 4-6 Apr. 2001, Gomel. (In Russian)
Radiation Control Of Food Products. Information Bulletin. no. 12. 2001, Minsk (In Russian)Instruction for Population Living on Territory Polluted with Radioactive Substances. Issue 2. 1997, Minsk (InRussian)
Kolosovskij B.S., Valetko I.I., Alekhnovich M.V. Comparative hygienic assessment of Cesium-137 intake by
the organism of people living in Minsk region in 1985 and 1995//”National Policy of Sound Alimentation in
the Republic of Belarus”, Proceedings of International Conference, 20-21Nov. 1997, Minsk. (In Russian)
Perevolotskij A.N., Bulavik I.M., Potylkin N.A. Dynamics of Cs-137 and Sr-90 accumulation in forest foodproducts//”Biochemical Technologies And Ecological Safety”. Proceedings of International Science-Practical
Conference. 15-17 May 2001, Minsk (In Russian)
Kenigsberg Ya.Eh., Buglova E.E. Limitation of dose of internal irradiation of Belarus population by the wayof setting hygienic norms of radionuclide contents in food products//”Belarus and Chernobyl. 15 Difficult
Years”, Proceedings of International Science-Practical Conference, v. 1, 4-6 Apr. 2001, Gomel. (In Russian)111

Long-Term Observation of Radioactivity Contamination in Fish around
Chernobyl
Igor N. RYABOV
A.N.Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences
Leninski pr. 33, Moscow, 117071, Russia: platon@genome.eimb.relarn.ru

Abstract
Dynamics of 137Cs accumulation by marketable fishes in different kinds of water bodies (cooling pond,
water reservoir, lake) polluted by radionuclides after the Chernobyl accident has been studied. The
highest concentration of 137Cs, reaching 500 kBq/kg w.w. (wet weight) was registered in fish
inhabiting the cooling pond of ChNPP in 1986. During the last 15 years the level of radionuclides infishes of all water bodies came down, but rates of lowering are different. Peculiarities of 137Cs
accumulation by fishes depending on the trophic level have been revealed. During the first months
after the Chernobyl accident the concentration of 137Cs in peaceable species of fishes in Kiev
Reservoir was by 10 times higher than in pike. After 1987 predatory fishes have the concentration of137
Cs by 2-3 times higher than peaceable fishes. Higher indices have been marked in pike and large
perches. By 2001 the content of 137Cs in fishes in the cooling pond did not exceed 5 kBq/kg w.w., inRiver Teterev – 0.09 kBq/kg w.w., in Kiev Reservoir – 0.5 kBq/kg w.w. High content of 137Cs
remained in the lakes of Bryansk region of Russia and in Mogilev region of Belorussia, which have
low content of +K in water and stagnant water, although these lakes are situated 100 - 200 km fromthe place of the accident. Biological effects of fishes in morphology of body and reproductive systemhave been marked in all studied water bodies. The largest quantity of abnormalities in the
reproductive system has been marked in predatory fishes.

Introduction
The Chernobyl accident of 1986 resulted in contamination of many bodies of water around Europe.
Three branches of radioactive plume dispersed radionuclides over northern, southern and western Europe.
Radioactivity from man-made nuclides increased considerably in freshwater bodies of Scandinavian
countries, England and in mountain lakes in Germany [1]. Forests and water bodies, located in close
proximity of Chernobyl NPP (i.e. within 30-km zone) appeared to be the most heavily contaminated alongwith Gomel’ and Mogilev region of Belarus, and Bryansk region in Russia [2,3].
A Combined Radioecological Expedition of USSR Academy of Sciences attached to the
A.N.Severtsov Institute of Evolutionary Animal Morphology and Ecology (now A.N.Severtsov Instituteof Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences) started its activity in the field of radioecology
of fish directly at the cooling pond of Chernobyl NPP in June, 1986. Later on, some other heavily
contaminated bodies of water, such as Kiev Reservoir, River Teterev, Lake Kozhanovskoe (Russia) and
Lake Svyatoe (Belarus) have been studied (Fig. 1).
The main objectives of our activity were:(a) To study the dynamics of radionuclide accumulation in fish after the Chernobyl accident in different
ecosystems such as cooling pond, river, lake, and reservoir;(b) To reveal peculiar features of 137 Cs and 90Sr accumulation in fish of different trophic level;(c) To evaluate doses of radiation and to find out their biological effects in fish living under the influenceof chronic irradiation.
Studied bodies of water differ by their hydrology, hydrochemistry and by the distance from the site of

112

137

Cs: Ci/km2
1-5
5 - 1515 - 40>40Оз.
Святое
Lake
Svyatoe

Kozhavskoeoe
Оз.LakeКожановское

Пруд-охладитель
ЧАЭС
Cooling Pond
ChNPP
с. Страхолесье
с. Ораное

Киевское
Kievводохранилище
ReserverRiver Teterev

Fig.1. Regions of expedition activity at water bodies contaminated by radionuclides
after the Chernobyl accident.
release (Table 1).
In all, 45 species of fish from 12 families and one species of Cyclostomata have been registeredduring multiple fish surveys (Table 2). The highest number of fish species was registered in River Teterev.
Natural water bodies are populated by a set of species, typical of this part of Europe. Different from thenatural bodies of water, the cooling pond of Chernobyl NPP was used before the accident as a raising
pond for a fish farm and contained several introduced species. These were grass carp, silver carp andspotted silver carp of Chinese origin as well as North American bigmouth buffalo and bullhead. The
isolated individuals of grass carp and silver carp may be found in Kiev Reservoir.
Altogether, more than six thousand individuals belonging to 46 species have been studied
morphologically. More than four thousand samples have been analyzed in a laboratory of radiation
spectrometry. Scintillometer RTF 20026 (made in Germany) has been used to evaluate the concentrationof 137Cs in different samples. Dose assessment has been done using the data on radionuclide concentrationin muscles and the gut content of fish according to the method suggested by S.V.Kazakov [4], taking into
account the main biological parameters, such as size and weight, of every studied individual.
Table 1. Hydrological and hydrochemical characteristics of studied bodies of water.
Max. depth,
Volume,Distance fromArea,
Water bodyK+, mg/lmm3
ChNPP, km
km2
Cooling pond of ChNPP
22
18
1.5
3.4-4.0
150×106

Ca++, mg/l
37.0-64.0

Kiev Reservoir

922

14.5

3.7×10960

2.9-3.4

32.4-60.0

River Teterev

-

20

-

Lake Kozhanovskoe
Lake Svyatoe

6
0.25

80

3.1-3.4

35.5-40.5

2.5

6

9×10

210

2.6-2.7

24.6-44.3

5.1

4

225

0.9-1.0

17.4-19.8

7×10

113

Table 2. List of species Cyclostomata and fishes registered during work of the Complex
Radioecological expedition of A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution RAS.
Cooling
pond

SpeciesI. Petromyzontidae
II. Clupeidae

1. Ukrainian lamprey - Eudontomyzon mariae (Berg) х
2. Common kilka – Clupeonella cultriventris cultriventris(Nord.)
III. Esocidae
3. Pike − Esox lucius L.
IV. Cyprinidae
4. Roach − Rutilus rutilus (L.)
5. Dace − Leuciscus leuciscus (L.)
6. Chub - Leuciscus cephalus (L.)
7. Orfe Leuciscus idus (L.)
8. Rudd – Scardinius erythrophthalmus (L.)
9. Grass carp – Ctenopharyngodon idella (Val.) •10. Asp - Aspius aspius (L.)
11. Verkhovka – Leucaspius delineatus (Heck.)
12. Tench Tinca tinca (L.)
13. Undermouth – Chondrostoma nasus (L.)
14. Stone moroco – Pseudorasbora parva (Temm. andSchl.) •15. Gudgeon - Gobio gobio (L.)
16. White – finned gudgeon Pomanogobio albipinnatus(Lukasch)
17. Bleak – Alburnus alburnus (L.)
18. Bystranka – Alburnoides bipunctatus (Bloch) х
19. Silver bream -Blicca bjoerkna (L.)
20. Bream − Abramis brama (L.)
21. White eye – Abramis sapa (Pall.)
22. Blue bream − Abramis ballerus (L.)
23. Vimba − Vimba vimba vimba (L.) х
24. Sabrefish - Pelecus cultratus (L.)
25. Bitterlings - Rhodeus sericeus amarus (Bloch)
26. Crucian carp – Carassius carassius (L.)
27. Golden carp - Carassius auratus gibelio (Bloch) •28. European carp − Сyprinus carpio L.
29. Silver carp − Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Val.) •30. Spotted silver carp − Aristichthys nobilis (Rich.) •V. Catostomidae
31. Bigmouth buffalo − Ictiobus cyprinellus (Val.)
VI.Cobitidae
32. Spiny loach − Cobitis taenia L.
33. Loach − Misgurnus fossilis (L.)
VII. Siluridae
34. Wels - Silurus glanis L.
VIII. Ictaluridae
35. Bullhead – Ictalurus punctatus (Raf.) •IX. Gadidae
36. Burbot - Lota lota (L.)
X. Gasterosteidae
37. Nine spined stickleback − Pungitius pungitius (L.)
38. Three spined stickleback − Gasterosteus aculeatus L.
ХI. Percidae
39. Sander – Stizostedion lucioperca (L.)
40. Perch - Perca fluviatilis L.
41. Ruffe − Gymnocephalus cernuus (L.)
42. Don ruffe – Gymnocephalus acerinus (Guld.)
XII. Gobiidae
43. Monkey goby − Neоgobius fluviatilis (Pall.)
44. Tube nosed goby – Proterorhinus marmoratus (Pall.)
45. Round goby – Neogobius melanostomus (Pall.)XIII. Syngnathidae 46. Black striped pipefhish − Syngnathus nigrolineatus(Eichw.)

Kiev
Reservoir

+

Lake
Lake
River
KozhaSvyatoe
Teterev
novskoe
+

+

++

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+++
+++
+
+
+
+++
+
+
+
+++
+

+++
+++
++
++
++
+++

+

+

+

+

+

+++

+
+++

+++
++
+
+

+++
+++
+
+
+
++
+
+
+++
+
+

++
+++
+
+
+
+

+++
+++
+

++
+++

+++

+
+
+
+

+

+

+++

+++

+++
+
+
++
++
+++
+
+

+++
+++

+++
+
+++
+++
+
+
+
+++
+
+++
+

+

+++
+++
+

+
+
+
+++
+++
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+++
+++
+
+
+++
+++
+

+
+
+

+
+++

++
+
+++

+
+

+++
+++

+++
+++

+

Note: + occurrence of different species +; low, ++; medium, +++; high,•; species populated in reservoirs because of fishing measures; х; species carried in the list of rare fishes.

Cooling pond of Chernobyl NPP
Chernobyl NPP is situated in the eastern part of the natural region called Poles’e, which means“marshy woodlands”, at the bank of River Pripyat, emptying into Kiev Reservoir. The source of watersupply for plant operation was the cooling pond that was made artificially along River Pripyat and located114

at 1.5 km southeast from the power site.
The highest concentration of radionuclides, reaching 500 kBq/kg wet weight (w.w.) was registered infish inhabiting the cooling pond in 1986. During the first months after the accident non-predatious fishes,
feeding on zoo- and phyto-plankton, were the most contaminated, but later predatious fishes accumulated
more radionuclides [5,6]. During the after-accident period the average concentration of radionuclides insilver carp decreased from 400 kBq/kg w.w. to 5 kBq/kg.
Aggregate dose for silver carp during the whole after-accident period reaches 10-12 Gy. Fish has
absorbed the main part of irradiation dose, 7-8 Gy, during the first two years after the accident. In recent
years internal dose was mainly obtained through intestine irradiation and amounted about 0.4 Gy per year,
while internal dose for muscles averaged only 0.02 Gy per year (Fig. 2).
During special studies of reproductive organs of fish, different abnormalities in anatomy of gonads
and morphology of reproductive cells have been found in silver carp. Gonad pathology included
hermaphroditism, gonad asymmetry and other anatomical defect [7]. A number of fish, surviving theaccident, had sterile gonads. Destruction of some amount of generative cells and contraction of generative
tissue volume were registered in 48% of males. 35% of females had disturbances in oocyte morphology
during vitellogenesis. In spite of various disturbances observed in generative organs, it was possible toobtain viable offspring from some fish in 1989-1990.
Silver carp, surviving the accident, could be easily bred, showing a high percentage of egg
insemination and high survival rates for embryos, larvae and fry [8]. Anatomical abnormalities became
apparent in the second and, especially, in the third year of life. There were curvature and length shortageof the dorsal or one of the pelvic fins, deformations of oral and gill structures, deformations of swimbladder and epidermal neoplasia (i.e. tissue overgrowth) in anal region of females, forming a kind ofgenital papillae.
Ten individuals of silver carp, belonging to generation F1-91, were analyzed in 1996 and only two
mature carp have been found; a male and female. Unusual was the fact of their maturation at amazingly
small size for this species; female was only 24 cm long, weighing 250 g, and a male was 31 cm long witha total weight of 461 g [9].
In 1991 during ichthyological survey of the cooling pond an abnormal young individual of tube-

1000

generation P 84 - 85
generation F1 - 89
generation F1 - 90

100

rad/yeargeneration F1 - 91

1011986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Fig.2. Internal committed dose for muscles of grass carp ofdifferent generations
115

Fig.3. Abnormal fry of tube-nosed goby caught in the cooling pond of ChNPP (11.05.92).
nosed goby was found, having an eyeball developed inside the mouth cavity (Fig. 3). But the rest of thecollected young fish of this species had no morphologic defects. During young fish collection in thecooling pond in 1992, a larval silver bream was found with spinal pathology and with primordial
malformed pectoral fins. The larva was found among pondweeds and evidently could feed without
swimming but keeping itself at the surface of weeds. It is obvious that individuals having such severe
pathology cannot survive in the natural environment.
In spite of high dose rates during several years after the accident, no significant changes in fish
community at population level have been observed. Comparison of the degree of abnormality indeveloping reproductive cells in both sexes reveals that structural damages are more pronounced in males
than in females.
2500
2000

Ton

1500
1000
500

1996

1993

1990

1987

1984

1981

1978

1975

1972

1969

1966

0

Fig.4. Dynamics of commercial catches in Kiev reservoir from 1966 to 1996.
planktophagous fish (3%)
predatory fish (6%)

benthophagous fish
(91%)

Fig. 5. Distribution of commercial fishes of Kiev Reservoir according to their food.
116

Kiev Reservoir
Kiev Reservoir is the first one in the Dnieper cascade into which run rivers Pripyat, Teterev and Uzh,flowing across the contaminated areas. During the after-accident period of 1986-1996, 10,245 ton of fish
were harvested in Kiev Reservoir. Such benthophagous species as bream, roach, silver bream andEuropean carp formed more than 90% of the total catch (Fig. 4, 5).
Radioecological monitoring of Kiev Reservoir revealed a decrease of 137Cs concentration in musclesof predatory fish from 1500-2000 to 200-400 Bq/kg w.w. during 1987-2000 (Fig. 6, 7). But in the autumn
of 2001, perches were met having 550 Bq/kg w.w. In muscles of non-predatory fish, constituting the bulk

1800
1600

Bq/kg w.w.

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Fig. 6. Dynamics of Cs-137 accumulation in muscles of perch from Kiev
reservoir
1800
1600
1400

1000
800
600
400
200
0
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Fig. 7. Dynamics of Cs-137 accumulation in muscles of pike from Kiev reservoir

1000
900
800
700
Bq/kg w.w.

Bq/kg w.w.

1200

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Fig. 8. Dynamics of Cs-137 accumulation in muscles of bream from Kiev
reservoir

117

100
90
80

Bq/kg w.w.

70
60
50
40
30
20

perch

bream

tench

1991

pike

1990

0

1992
1993

10

Fig. 9. Dynamics of Sr-90 accumulation in muscles of fish from Kiev reservoir

Table 3. The incidence of gonad malformations in pike females of different generations, (%).
Year of generation
Type of gonad malformations
originGonad asymmetry
Grain of roe resorption Gonad hydration
1986
20.0
20.0
20.0
1987
33.3
0
16.6
1988
45.0
0
9.0
1989
0
0
0
1990
29.0
0
0
1991
46.0
23.0
0
1992
40.0
40.0
0
1993
65.0
10.0
0
1994
13.0
13.0
0
1995
33.0
22.0
0
1996
17.0
17.0
0
Note: the data on the before-accident generations are not cited because of their scarcity.
of commercial catch, bream for example, the concentration of 137Cs was two-three times lower than in
predators; pike and perch (Fig. 8). In the autumn of 2001, the highest figures for 137Cs in bream muscles
ranged between 40 and 70 Bq/kg w.w., averaging 55 Bq/kg.
Fishes of different trophic levels also accumulate in their muscles different amounts of 90Sr,
sometimes equivalent to 100 Bq/kg w.w. In 1991-1993 radionuclide concentration in muscles of bream,
the main commercial fish species, ranged between 15 and 50 Bq/kg w.w. (Fig. 9).
In order to evaluate the biological effect of deposited radionuclides on fish from Kiev Reservoir, 209
pikes, belonging to 17 generations, have been analyzed during 1987-2000. Three types of abnormality inmorphology of the reproductive system were registered: gonad asymmetry (34.1%), total resorption of
eggs (12.5%) and gonad hydration (2.5%). Gonad asymmetry, the most common imperfection, wasfrequently accompanied by constrictions. There were instances that the weight difference between rightand left gonad lobes was very high. Most frequently, this difference ranged from 1.5 to 3.0 times [10].
The first maximum in the number of malformations was observed in pikes born in 1986-1988.
Another rise in malformation number was noted for the second after-accidental pike generation born in
1991-1993 (Table 3). In pike females, born before the accident in years 1982-1985, no gonad
abnormalities was found, but one individual with asymmetric gonads, belonging to the generation of 1981,
has been registered.
118

In 1986 internal dose from 137Cs and 134Cs for pikes in Kiev Reservoir was about 0.1 – 0.2 Gy, in
1993-1997 it decreased to 0.001 – 0.002 Gy per year.
Lake Kozhanovskoe
During water bodies monitoring in Bryansk region, scientists from Combined Radioecological
Expedition of USSR Academy of Sciences in 1993 discovered abnormally high content of 137Cs in fishes
from Lake Kozhanovskoe. This lake, located at a distance of 210 km from Chernobyl NPP, has a square
about 6 km2, average depth of 1.5 m, maximum depth of 2.5 m. Lake sides are swampy and overgrownwith coastal vegetation. Its bottom is covered with thick sapropel deposits. According to limnologicalclassification, this lake may be attributed to eutrophic type. The concentration of K+ in water varies from
2.6 to 2.7 mg/l during a year, and the concentration of Ca++ is from 24.6 to 44.3 mg/l. One liter of lakewater during different seasons of 1993 contained 137Cs activity from 6.1 to 8.5 Bq. The lowest index was
registered in autumn. Seasonal measurements of pH showed the lowest figure for March (5.8) and thehighest (7.7) – for autumn [11].
Eleven species of fish were registered in the lake. They were: pike, roach, bleak, silver bream, bream,
crucian carp, golden carp, spiny loach, loach, perch and ruffe. Golden carp is dominating species. The
concentration of 137Cs in different fish species changed depending on their trophic level and size. The
highest figure, equivalent to 70 kBq/kg w.w., was registered in 1993 for big pike, and the lowest, from 5
to 8 kBq/kg w.w., for ruffe and roach. The concentration of 137Cs in muscles of golden carp, the maincommercial fish species in the lake, ranged from 6.5 to 15.6 kBq/kg w.w., being 10.4 kBq/kg in average.
The concentration of 90Sr in this species varied between 160 and 530 Bq/kg w.w. with the average figureof 260 Bq/kg w.w. At the same time, in River Iput’, very close to Lake Kozhanovskoe, the concentrationof 137Cs was almost 100 times lower.
According to the data of 2000, the content of 137Cs in fish flesh was retained at the level of 1993, andfor golden carp averaged at 8.14 kBq/kg w.w. Main factors, determining such high level of fishcontamination with radionuclides in Lake Kozhanovskoe, are the high content of radiocesium in lakewater and, accordingly, in feeding objects of fish, as well as low water exchange in the lake and the lowcontent of K+ in lake water.
Taking into account that the permitted level of 137Cs content in fish products in Russia is 120 Bq/kg
w.w. [12], it can be suggested with certainty that for such lakes as Kozhanovskoe with internal drainage,
fish purification up to the permitted level will take 60-90 years, i.e. two-three half lives of 137 Cs and 90Sr.
Analyses of gonad condition revealed that serious disturbances in gonad morphology were foundonly in predatory fish; pike and perch. In other species, like roach and golden carp, only small amount ofgerminal cells was damaged [13].
River Teterev
River Teterev flows across Kiev region of Ukraine at a distance about 80 km from ChNPP.
Contamination of the river with radionuclides happened primarily by radioactive fallouts from theatmosphere just after the accident, and later, as a result of wash out of radionuclides from thecontaminated river watershed. Ichthyofauna of lower reaches of the river, around settlement Oranoe, isvery similar to that of Kiev Reservoir and includes 38 species. The river supports active but mainly illegal
fishing by local peasants.
The highest indices of 137Cs content during study period (1990-2001) were registered for predatory
species; pike and perch. Monitoring of the contamination dynamics in pike revealed maximal levels of137
Cs concentration in the first year of investigation in this region (1990) with the average value in musclesof 728 Bq/kg w.w. In the summer of 2001 this index became 7-8 times lower with the average figure of 90
Bq/kg w.w. (Fig.10).
119

800

Bq/kg w.w.

700
600
500
400
300
200
100

1998

1997

1996

1995

1990

pike

1999

perch

2000

tench

2001

bream

0

Fig.10. Average concentration of Cs-137 in different species of fish from river
Teterev

1 cm

Fig.11. Abnormal roach from river Teterev, SL – 183 mm, age – 6+, caught in February 1998.
Several morphologically abnormal fish have been found during regular surveys of River Teterev.
Four abnormal roaches were caught in 1998. One of them had unusual body proportions – caudal peduncle
was very short, and relative body depth was almost twice higher than in normal fish (45% of standard
length). The age of the fish was 6+ years and it represented, most likely, the second after-accident
generation (Fig. 11). One more abnormal individual, aged 10+ had deformed scales. The rest two fish had
anomalies in body proportion combined with damages of scales. One of these fish in its right pelvic fin
had two more soft rays as compared with the left pelvic fin.
During next three years, 1999-2001 no more fish bearing morphological deformities were found inRiver Teterev.
Lake Svyatoe
Studies of this lake, situated in Mogilev region of Belarus, have been launched in 1997 [14]. It turned
out that in this lake, located at the distance of 225 km from Chernobyl Power Plant, the concentration of137
Cs in muscles of perch was equivalent to activity of 120 kBq/kg w.w. It was twice bigger than inmuscles of predatory fish from lake Kozhanovskoe and 24 times higher than in muscles of fish from thecooling pond of ChNPP. Activity of 137Cs in muscles of non-predatory fish such as roach and rudd
achieved 15 – 20 kBq/kg w.w.; their average values are 15.3 and 14.8 kBq/kg w.w., respectively (Fig. 12).
Maximum accumulated dose was found in perch to be 0.4 Gy per year.
120Bq/kg w.w

45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0

perch

pike

goldencarp

roachverchovka

rudd

ruffe

Fig.12. Average concentration of Cs-137 in different species of fish from
Lake Svyatoe in May,1998

Fig. 13. Head of pike with deformed upper jaw and pectoral fin rays SL – 453 mm age – 4+.
Lake Svyatoe, Mogilev region, Belarus, 16.05.98.
During fish survey of Lake Svyatoe in May 1998 only one pike was caught. It was four years old andhad several anatomical defects: shortened upper jaw (Fig. 13) and four deformed rays in the left pelvic fin.
Gonad imperfections included gonad asymmetry and constrictions in the right gonad. Calculated internal
dose for this pike was 2.5 Gy for all its life. One of the reasons of morphologic deformities in the afterChernobyl fish generations may be the phenomenon called “extended mutagenesis”. It means that
mutations are manifested in the offspring of parents, subjected to some negative influence. In our instance,
the initial impacts were given during the first days after the Chernobyl accident in 1986.
Conclusion
A considerable reduction of radionuclide content in fishes, inhabiting the most part of contaminatedbodies of water, took place during 15 years, passing from the time of the Chernobyl accident. After 1993,
the concentration of 137Cs in flesh of fish, living in rivers and reservoirs, does not exceed 600 Bq/kg w.w.
Only the cooling pond of ChNPP and some lakes in Russia and Belarus are the exception [15].
The rate of fish decontamination from radionuclides is connected with the initial amount of depositedradionuclides, and also with hydrology and hydrochemistry of the water body. Main reasons for the highconcentration of 137Cs in water, sediments and fish of Lake Kozhanovskoe are low content of K+ in waterand very slow water exchange. High level of contamination of this and some other lakes can last tens ofyears, decreasing only as a result of natural decay of 137Cs with half-life about 30 years. Since the rate ofnatural decontamination of Lakes Kozhanovskoe and Svyatoe is very low, the process of fish
decontamination or “purification” may also take several tens of years.
Predatory fish concentrate 2-3 times more 137Cs than non-predatory ones; in the process of 90Sr
accumulation this effect of trophic level is not expressed so evidently.
Biological diversity of fish in water bodies contaminated as a result of the Chernobyl accident does121not show significant changes, but the abundance of some species, representing the highest trophic level,
may decrease during the next 10-20 years because of disturbances in their reproductive system.
Considering the lack of proven practice and even any experience in rehabilitation of large fisherybodies of water such as rivers, lakes and reservoirs, there is a need in urgent development of scientificrecommendations for safe and rational fishing and fish processing in contaminated bodies of water, withthe help of international scientific community.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank our colleagues from the ichthyological group of Combined Radioecological
Expedition: N. V. Belova, L. I. Pel’gunova, N. I. Polyakova, N. V. Gemba, S. S. Gonchar, S. A. Smirnov,
M. I. Molyukov, A. O. Kulikov, for their lasting many years help in collection and processing of thematerial.
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Lake. First Int. Conf. European Commission, Belarus, Russian Federation and Ukraine on the RadioecologicalConsequences of the Chernobyl Accident, Minsk, pp. 213-216.
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122

EPR Dosimetry of Chernobyl Liquidators
Vadim CHUMAK
Scientific Center for Radiation Medicine, AMS Ukraine, Kyiv
04050 Melnikova, 53, Kiev, Ukraine: chumak@leed1.kiev.ua

Abstract
The paper is devoted to review of development and application of EPR dosimetry with teeth in
Ukraine. It deals with specific features of the EPR dosimetry protocol, which was developed and ispractically used in SCRM for retrospective dosimetry of clean-up workers (liquidators). Extensive
methodological research was conducted in SCRM in order to develop an original version of EPR
dosimetric protocol as well as to investigate the effects caused by confounding factors and develop
approaches to their account and mitigation. The proposed EPR dosimetric protocol addresses thedemand for high accuracy and reproducibility, low sensitivity threshold as well as high throughputof the technique. High qualities of SCRM version of EPR protocol were proven in the course ofelaborate quality assurance program, which included a series of international intercomparisons.
Creation and continuous operation of the nationwide tooth acquisition network is another key to thesuccess of EPR dosimetry in Ukraine.
Particular attention in the paper is paid to definition of the most optimal way of application of
EPR dosimetry for dosimetric support of the post-Chernobyl medical follow-up. The main
applications of EPR dosimetry in Ukraine are both routine high precision reconstruction of doses toChernobyl clean-up workers and the use of EPR dose estimates as a reference dose for validation ofother retrospective dosimetry techniques. The latter proved to be the most efficient application of
EPR dosimetry in the post-Chernobyl situation. EPR dosimetry was used for testing such methodsof retrospective dosimetry as FISH, ADR, SEAD and RADRUE. Nowadays EPR dosimetry plays
inevitable role in dosimetric support of the post-Chernobyl medical follow-up studies.

Introduction
The Chernobyl accident and obvious failure of routine dosimetric monitoring of clean-up workers(liquidators) had stimulated significant development of various methods of retrospective dosimetry.
Among those methods one of the most adequate proved to be an EPR dosimetry with teeth. Over last
decade EPR dosimetry made all way from unique experimental technique to the tool of routine dosereconstruction. Many different applications are known for EPR dosimetry with teeth. It was used for
determination of doses received in course of radiotherapy [1], dose reconstruction for atomic workers [2]as well as in several cases of accidental exposure [3-7]. In recent years, several review papers [8-11] andone book [12] were published dealing with various aspects of EPR dosimetry. Notable role in the processof development and implementation of this method belongs to the research performed in Scientific Center
for Radiation Medicine (SCRM) AMS Ukraine, in particular to the work performed in collaboration withleading laboratories worldwide [8, 13-21].
This paper is dealing with some specific features of the EPR dosimetry protocol which wasdeveloped and is practically used in SCRM, briefly touches results of investigations performed in thisinstitute, and concentrates to a larger extent on practical applications, which EPR dosimetry had found in
Ukraine. Particular attention in the paper is paid to definition of the most optimal way of application of
EPR dosimetry for dosimetric support of the post-Chernobyl medical follow-up.

1231. Methodological aspects of EPR dosimetry with teeth
1.1. EPR dosimetric protocol, SCRM version
In general, any version of EPR dosimetric technique comprises several distinctive steps or stages.
This includes collection of samples, sample preparation, recording and decomposition of EPR spectra,
determination of cumulative dose and assessment of accidental exposure component, and assessment of
uncertainty. It should be stressed that presently no single standard EPR technique exists. Combination ofparticular solutions concerning each element of this technique determines unique protocols, which arepracticed in each individual laboratory. Herewith we will briefly discuss an EPR dosimetric protocol,
which was developed and is being routinely used in SCRM AMS Ukraine. This protocol in more details is
described elsewhere [13]. The aforementioned sequence of steps as well as peculiar features of the SCRM
protocol are schematically presented at Fig.1. In may be seen, that quite significant modification wereintroduced into the generic scheme of EPR dosimetry with teeth. In our presentation we will follow the
logical scheme as presented at Fig.1.
Collection of samples. Sample collection is an inevitable element of EPR dosimetry with teeth. Obviously,
due to ethical considerations, extraction of teeth solely for dosimetric purposes is impossible. Therefore,
only teeth, which are being extracted by medical prescriptions in the course of routine dental practice, may
be collected and used for retrospective dosimetry. This consideration substantially reduces possibility toobtain dosimetric bioporobes (teeth) from the subjects, which are significant from the point of view offollow-up and thus dose reconstruction. Moreover, it should be taken into account that even sound molar
contains only about 300-500 mg of enamel, while in practice significantly damaged teeth are extracted,
having, respectively, much less enamel.
Obviously, teeth of Chernobyl clan-up workers are the unique and unrecoverable resource. The
problem may be solved by organizing and operation of a widespread network for collection of teeth(desirably - all!), which are extracted by medical prescriptions from the liquidators. In order to securecollection of teeth from maximum number of exposed individuals, tooth collection network branches were
established in 7 oblasts (regions) of Ukraine, which have the highest liquidator population. The structureof this network and respective flow-chart are presented at Fig.2. The teeth collected in various dentistryclinics within the given oblasts are collected in the regional hub and then, periodically, are forwarded to!
!
!

! Subtraction of the instrumental background signal! Source of the standard of background signal of enamel: mixture of
non-irradiated teeth from young people2+! Use of Mn :MgO standard for adjustment of magnetic field position! Manipulation with background and measured signals by varying
amplitude under fixed g-factor and width of signals! Radiation induced signal intensity determined as peak-to-peakamplitude

RECORDINGOF EPR
SPECTRA!
!
!

DECONVOLUTION
OF EPR SPECTRA!

!
!

DETERMINATIONOF CUMULATIVE
DOSE

!

!

EVALUATION OFTHE"ACCIDENTAL"
DOSE

!
!
!
!

Fig.1. SCRM version of EPR dosimetric protocol.
124

Kiev to the central bioprobe bank. Here the collected teeth are registered and logged into a database, and,after input inspection and estimation of quality, are placed into the bank for long-term storage. Later, upon
specific request, some samples are retrieved from the storage and are used for dose reconstruction. The
results of EPR dosimetry are used in a number of occasions - more detailed discussion of application areas
for EPR dosimetry is given below. In principle, as depicted in Fig.2, routine dose reconstruction could be
performed in several accredited EPR laboratories. However, so far such routine dose reconstruction is
performed in only one institution, namely Scientific Center for Radiation Medicine AMS Ukraine.
Since reconstruction of individual doses is concerned, some personal data need to be acquired in thecourse of tooth collection. This is achieved by filling out a special ID form, so called "Tooth passport".
This form consists of three main sections. First of all, contact and personal data is registered, allowing to
identify the tooth donor and, if needed, reestablish personal contact with him. Respectively, the firstsection includes the name of the clinics where the tooth was extracted and registration number of a person,
full name, year of birth and year of clean-up work in Chernobyl as well as contact telephone number(s). In
the second section of the tooth ID form all instances of lifetime exposure, both occupational and medical
are recorded. The third section contains characteristics of the extracted tooth, in particular its position in amouth and reason of extraction (diagnosis). Passport of tooth is filled out by a dentist prior to extraction of
tooth and it accompanies the sample until it arrives into the central bioprobe bank and passes check-in to
the respective database. In the course of practical collection of teeth the tooth ID form was substantiallymodified, being reduced only to the most essential entries. It was demonstrated that any additional
information could be acquired, if needed, by the secondary contact with liquidator.
Although legal grounds for establishment of the tooth acquisition network were laid in 1997, thiseffort came to active phase in 1999, when appropriate funding was put in place. In 2001 the network was
expanded, incorporating two more oblasts of Ukraine, increasing their count to seven. In total, since thebeginning of operation of the tooth acquisition network, about 4000 teeth were collected and checked into
Emergency Ministryof Ukraine

Chernigiv

Dnipropetrovsk

Poltava

Kharkiv

Health Ministryof Ukraine

Cherkasy

Zaporizhya

Usersof dosimetric information

Central bioprobe bank.. conservation. storage
preparation. sample
access for analysis

EPR-dosimetry
methodologicalcenter

Database section.
.
..

Bioprobe section. epidemiologists. physicians. social services. exposed individuals

registration of incoming probes
tracing of the samples
storage of reconstructed doses
retrieval and output of doses

EPR-dosimetry 1

Kyiv

EPR-dosimetry 2

EPR-dosimetry 3

Fig.2. Structure and operation flowchart of the tooth acquisition network in Ukraine.

125Grade123456Table 1. Quality grades of teeth and percentage in the pool of collected samples.
Percentage in the
Characteristics of a tooth
Applicability for EPR dosimetry
pool of collected
teeth
Tooth roots (including fragments),
Not applicable24
enamel is absent
Insufficient amount of enamel(10-20%), teeth under metal Practically not applicable
11
crown
Incisors, canines
Practically not applicable
17
Molars and premolars with 20Applicable if dose is high10
50% of enamel
Applicable, could be limitation in
Molars and premolars with more
21
terms of separate buccal andthan 50% of enamellingual part analysis
Intact crown and root
Unlimited applicability
17

the bioprobe bank.
Intermediate and long-term preservation and storage of teeth is a separate issue. Study of various
storage media (ethanol, formaldehyde, Nikiforov's mixture - 50% alcohol+50% ether) had revealed thatfrom the point of view of biological decontamination, pre-treatment of enamel and absence of destructive
effect on EPR spectra, the most appropriate medium is Nikiforov's mixture. However, from the practicalpoint of view, use of liquid storage media is quite difficult, requiring supply of robust vials, readysolutions and complicated transportation of the collected samples. Therefore for operation of thewidespread tooth acquisition network the simplified pre-storage protocol was proposed. According to thisprotocol, extracted tooth is washed and disinfected in formaldehyde, rinsed in large amount of tap water,
and then dried at room temperature and sealed in a paper envelope with the tooth ID form being stapled toit. It was demonstrated that a sample processed in such manner is being dried to the appropriate degree on
the way to the central bioprobe bank. According to Ukrainian legislation, extracted teeth are notconsidered as human organs or sources of biological hazard - this significantly simplifies the legal aspectsof the described procedures.
Obviously, there are certain aspects, which are significant from the point of view of dosereconstruction, in particular amount of available enamel or position of tooth (front teeth are not usable fordose reconstruction due to large and uncontrollable contribution of solar UV exposure into dosimetricsignal. In order to formalize qualitative evaluation of incoming teeth and facilitated retrieval of
appropriate samples from the bioprobe bank, a ranking system was designed in SCRM. All teeth areassigned with certain grades according to their status. The ranking criteria as well as distribution of thecollected samples by the quality grades are presented in Table 1. One may see that only about half ofcollected samples have grades-4 to -6 and thus are appropriate for dose reconstruction; the highest grade 6 have only about 17% of collected teeth and therefore only these samples are good for high precisiondose reconstruction using two halves of a tooth and detection of lifetime x-ray irradiation.
Upon incoming registration, each of the samples is examined and the grade is assigned. This
information is recorded in the database, significantly facilitating subsequent use of the collected material.
For instance, in the course of high precision dose reconstruction needed for provision of reference quality
dose estimates, only teeth having grade-6 are pulled from the bioprobe bank and used for EPR dosimetry.
In general, the system of formalized quality assessment of the collected samples proved to be very
efficient instrument for management of the bioprobe bank and sensible use of collected teeth.
Sample preparation. If reconstruction of low doses (below 0.5 Gy) is concerned, sample preparation
plays the key role. As shown in Fig.3, for doses below 0.5 Gy dosimetric signal appears as quite small
126

4

4
1
2

4

4
3

4

Н, 10 TFig.3. Typical EPR spectrum of tooth enamel exposed to dose 0.8 Gy.
1 - recorded (original) spectrum
2 - standard signal of native (background) signal
3 - dosimetric signal (difference of 1 and 2)
4 - lines of Mn2+:MgO spectrometric standard, used for calibration of gfactor and intensity of EPR signals
A - first maximum of dosimetric signal
B - first minimum of dosimetric signal

addition to the more intense background (native) signal. Obviously, improvement of this "signal to noise"ratio is an effective way of enhancement of the sensitivity of the method. Basically, this may be achievedby purification of the sample and reduction of the background signal
It is known that dosimetric signal is associated with mineral component of tooth, while native signals
are usually associated with organic component of tooth. In fact, the ratio of mineral to organic components
in enamel and dentine is 95:5 and 70:30, respectively. Therefore, rigorous separation of enamel fromdentine is one of the key issues in the sample preparation process. The most straightforward method ismechanical removal of softer dentine from the tooth crown using hard alloy dental drill. Although thisapproach is widely used [22-25], it is not perfect. First of all, this method is extremely labor intensive andhas relatively low throughput. High skills of operator are required for efficient removal of dentine fromthe curvatures of inner surface of dental crown. In addition, one should be aware of possible artifacts
which could be introduced by local overheating of enamel due do high speed drilling or generation of
unwanted EPR signals if UV illumination is used for visualization of dentine inclusions [26-28]. After all,the resulting purification of the sample depends of the skills of an operator, complicating thus
standartization of sample preparation procedure.
Alternative approach to the purification of enamel is based on chemical treatment of the samples. Thisapproach was perfected and brought to the state-of-the-art level in SCRM [13]. The flow chart of thisprocedure is presented in Fig.4. Essentially this is multi-stage technique; each progressive step is used if
the previous operation failed to provide the desired quality of the sample. The quality of purificationachieved after each individual step (Fig.4) is objectively controlled by means of EPR spectroscopy - if
EPR spectrum demonstrates presence of the signals from impurities, the sample is subjected to the next
step (degree) of processing. It should be mentioned that chemical processing with alkali solution (KOH or127

Step 1.
Crushing of tooth into grains of 1-2 mm size
Treatment with NaOH under ultrasound and temperature 60oC over several days
Recording EPR spectrum

NONO

Was Step2
done?

NO

YES

Is sample pureenough?

END

YES

Was Step3
done?

NO

YES

Was Step4
done?

YES

Fig.4. Flowchart of the SCRM sample preparation procedure.
NaOH) is conducted with ultrasound and enhanced temperature (60o C) applied to a solution.
Simultaneous processing of many samples using the same ultrasonic bath as well as extremely low labor
intensity are the strong sides of this operation. The process of chemical separation may last up to several
days; alkali solution in the tubes is changed several times over duration of the treatment until no white
sediment is created anymore. As a variant, big pieces of enamel after mechanical removal of dentine may
be subjected to this treatment. In case if steps 1 and 2 (Fig.4) turn to be inefficient, heavy liquid separationof non-enamel inclusions should be applied. This process makes use of difference in specific weight ofenamel (2.9-3.05 g cm-3) and foreign inclusions. In our practice we use non-toxic water solution of sodium
polytungstate (Na6(H2W12O40).H2O), which is quite flexible in terms of variation of a specific weight. In
some (in fact, very rare) cases when all three stages of sample purification are not successful, manual
removal of inclusions could be performed under visual control.
The described procedure of sample preparation has high throughput and possesses high degree ofstandardization - both features are extremely important when bulky dose reconstruction is concerned. In
fact, low labor intensity and high throughput are achieved due to parallel processing of a large number(several dozens) of samples and multistage protocol, while higher stages of purification are applied tosome samples only when needed.
It also should be mentioned that, in the latest version of the SCRM dosimetric protocol, buccal andlingual parts of a tooth are prepared and measured separately in order to allow determination and accountof possible lifetime x-ray exposures. With low speed diamond saw the buccal and lingual planar pieces are
cut from the tooth crown (Fig.5). The following purification of enamel from these plates is performed
according to the above-described procedure. As a result, it is possible to perform dose reconstruction
separately for buccal and lingual parts of tooth and subsequently evaluate the contribution of x-ray
irradiation.
Registration of EPR spectra. This step of the EPR dosimetric protocol (see Fig.1) is performed using Xband spectrometer BRUKER ECS-106 with registration parameters which are de facto standard in EPR
128

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig.5. Cutting of a tooth to buccal and lingual parts using low speed diamond saw.
a - original sampleb - process of cuttingc - result of cutting

dosimetry with teeth [21]. The unique feature of the SCRM protocol is a use of programmable goniometer,
which proved to be extremely efficient tool for elimination of sample anisotropy [29]. In order to secure
reproducibility of the results, spectrometric standard Mn2+:MgО is used for both calibration of g-factor
and intensity of EPR signal.
Spectra deconvolution. The spectra deconvolution (see Fig.1) is performed according to the spectrum
subtraction method in which the EPR spectrum of a non-irradiated reference sample is subtracted from thespectrum of the irradiated sample [24, 30-33]. In case of SCRM protocol, the reference sample is preparedfrom homogenized enamel material collected from teeth of several young adults [13, 30]. In addition, aspectrum of empty tube is subtracted in order to minimize the effect of low frequency noise signals andenhance thus the accuracy and reproducibility of low dose measurements. The "classical" version of
SCRM protocol [13] included manual spectra manipulation and subtraction. Recently an automatedprocedure for spectra decomposition was developed and implemented. The result of spectrum
decomposition step of the protocol (Fig.1) is the amplitude of the dosimetric signal in tooth enamel.
Evaluation of cumulative dose. The next stage of the technique is evaluation of the cumulative dose
received by the tooth (enamel). This procedure makes use of the fact that in a wide range of exposures,
intensity of the dosimetric signal linearly depends on the absorbed dose. However, the slope of calibration
curve (i.e. dependence "dosimetric signal vs. dose") and, sometimes, its shape depend on individual
properties of the particular sample. According to our experience based on analysis of several hundreds
teeth, individual variability of radiation sensitivity is about 15%. Moreover, about 5% of the samples
demonstrate non-linearity of calibration curve in the low dose range. Lack of account of the latter effect129

may lead to significant under- or overestimation of dose. Therefore, in the SCRM dosimetric protocol
individual calibration of radiation sensitivity is performed using the additive dose technique [12, 34].
Additional irradiation of the samples is performed using calibrated 137Cs source with accuracy not worse
than 3%.
In fact, application of the additive dose method has certain pros and cons comparing to the method of
universal calibration coefficient (application of single coefficient for all samples) [20, 21, 24]. The strong
sides of the additive dose method are discussed above, while its shortcomings are attributed to higher
labor intensity caused by the need for repetitive irradiation sessions and EPR spectrum recording. Anotherdisadvantage is caused by destructive nature of the additive dose method - dosimetric information in theenamel is altered after additional irradiation and the sample cannot be reevaluated in later time. In thepractice of SCRM, higher labor intensity is deliberately accepted for the sake of much higher precision ofdose reconstruction. From the point of view of destructive nature of additive dose method, a compromise
may be achieved by calibration using only small part of the available sample [35]. According to thisapproach, a small piece (several mg) of enamel is exposed to high dose (about 10 Gy) in order to assess
the slope of calibration line. Therefore, this method allows to address the problem of variation ofradiosensitivity of individual samples at the cost of moderate additional labor. At the same time, one needto keep in mind that this simplified additive dose method does not address the question of possible nonlinearity of dose response curves. In routine dose reconstruction of doses in SCRM we use universal
calibration coefficient during screening of incoming samples and then one of the discussed versions of theadditive dose technique is used for precision dose reconstruction.
If the additive dose method in concerned, quite important issues are related to the choice of irradiatorand the mode of additional irradiation: number of irradiations and dose increment.
Due to significant energy dependence of EPR response (at low energies the intensity of dosimetricsignal may be up to seven-fold to the respective signal caused by high energy exposure with the samedose), additional irradiation should be performed by the source with the energy similar to the energy of theconcerned accidental exposure. In case of Chernobyl exposure, average energy of gamma exposure wasabout 500 keV [36] and, therefore, 137Cs source (662 keV) is optimal for additional irradiation of thestudied samples. In order to provide the balance of secondary electrons, irradiation should be performed
behind the layer of a build-up material. In our practice we use 8 mm PMMA plate; special investigation
had revealed that under such conditions the balance of secondary electrons is achieved while attenuationof incident beam is still small. The irradiation protocol [37] assumes 4-6 additional irradiations withvariable increment of dose in order to obtain sufficient number of points in the region of possible nonlinearity of dose response curve. One of the options is to start irradiation with dose about the expected
accidental dose, doubling dose increment for each following irradiation.
In order to assess the uncertainty of cumulative dose evaluation, the stochastic modeling [38] is used,allowing to account the uncertainties of dosimetric signal evaluation and the accuracy of the dose ofadditional irradiation. Specialized software was developed for this purpose in SCRM [37].
Evaluation of accidental dose and its uncertainty. Once the cumulative dose is determined, the next
step (Fig.1) is expressed in evaluation of the accidental dose - a component of cumulative dose caused by
the concerned event of accidental or occupational exposure. One should remember that the cumulative
dose is also formed by the components related to the natural background exposure, medical x-ray exposureand solar UV exposure. The first component could be easily assessed knowing the age of extracted
permanent tooth (which is less than the age of the person and varies for different kinds of teeth). Twolatter components are less definitive and act as confounding factors in EPR dosimetry with teeth (seeSection 1.2). One of the most serious problems in EPR dosimetry is related to the effect of medical x-ray
exposure. Development of approaches to its account and mitigation became possible after fulfillment oflarge cycle of a research, which is briefly discussed in Section 1.2. The problem of UV exposure is130

addressed now by exclusion of the front teeth (incisors and canines) from consideration. Although thismeasure reduces the pool of available samples, lack of this consideration may result in severe distortion ofdose assessments.
Comprehensive discussion of different sources of uncertainty and approaches to their evaluation is
given elsewhere [39]. Here we will limit the discussion to a statement that, in general, overall uncertaintyof SCRM technique depends on possible contribution from x-ray diagnostics. In the case, when x-ray
component of dose is not present in the tooth, uncertainty (2σ) is ca.30-40 mGy. In the case when x-ray
component is present, uncertainty could be as high as 60-80 mGy.
1.2. Study of confounding factors
A good deal of research was devoted to the study of confounding factors and development ofapproaches to their account and mitigation. Limited volume of this paper does not allow us to present
these results in depth. We just mention that among those studies were investigations of the effect of
crushing enamel and grain sizes [17], UV exposure [18] and, in particular, medical x-ray exposure [19, 40].
The last included a large cycle of both theoretical and experimental studies. Among others we did Monte
Carlo simulations of depth dose profiles for idealized enamel slabs, whole isolated teeth [40] and teeth
placed in the head of mathematical phantom. Experimental research was concentrated on reproduction ofgeometries and conditions of exposures, which were modeled mathematically. In addition various types of
x-ray examination (both dental and thorax) were simulated using ALDERSON type heterogenic
antropomorphic phantom (Fig.6). It was demonstrated that x-ray examination of a torso has negligible
contribution to the dose to teeth (not more than 0.2 mGy), while dental x-ray examination may lead tohigh doses (up to 70 mGy) in enamel. It was shown that doses to teeth strongly depend on the type of
examination (local vs. panoramic) and the hardware used for this examination. At the same time, in allcases pronounced depth profiles were observed in the studied teeth. These observations suggested

x-raysx-rays(a)(b)

Fig.6. Geometry of simulation of local dental x-ray examination:a - exterior view of the ALDERSON type phantom headb - section of phantom at jaw level with whole teeth placed in 6-8 positions.

131rejection of our original approach to account of x-ray dose (assessed as a product of number of
examinations and dose per examination) and transfer to the approach based on separate analysis of buccal
and lingual parts of a tooth and observation of dose gradient. The modern version of the SCRM EPR
protocol requires the use of such separate analysis of two parts of a tooth in order to evaluate medical xray dose based on the results of this analysis.
1.3. Quality assurance program
Since EPR dosimetry is a relatively new method, which is still in the phase of establishment,
particular attention needs to be paid to quality assurance of the results and check of reliability of themethod. In order to ensure high quality of the results obtained in SCRM, an elaborate quality assurance
program was developed and implemented. Besides regular internal tests and verification of calibrator
source (the calibrator is traceable to IAEA laboratory of secondary standard in Siebersdorf), SCRM took
part in a series of bilateral and multilateral intercomparisons. It is generally accepted that intercomparisonis the most efficient mechanism for straightforward evaluation of quality of a radiation measurement
method.
From the point of view of its design, all intercomparisons fall into three groups:• intercalibration on the average samples of tooth enamel with uniform properties; 1st International
Intercomparison [20] including 9 laboratories from 6 countries was performed according to this plan;• intercomparison using whole teeth exposed in vitro; the 2nd International Intercomparison [21] with 20
participants and two bilateral intercomparisons were performed in this way [41];• intercomparison using whole teeth exposed in vivo; one bilateral test was performed with Center ofApplied Dosimetry of Utah University (USA), in which the actual teeth from liquidators were used [42].
All intercomparisons were performed as blind tests, e.g. nominal dose values were not known to theparticipants.
Fig.7 depicts the results of SCRM lab, which were demonstrated in the most recent intercomparison(bilateral test using whole teeth irradiated in vitro). One may see that in the whole range of doses, SCRM
EPR dosimetry protocol [13] performs very well, providing accurate dose estimates. Average deviationfrom nominal doses was about 30 mGy, relative deviation - less than 14%.

S C R M dose, m G y

y = 1.013x + 23.552
2
R = 0.9982

N om inal dose, m G y
Fig.7. SCRM results in the most recent international intercalibration of EPR dosimetry withteeth (bilateral intecomparison with CAD).
132

Fig.8. Geography of tooth acquisition in Poltava oblast of Ukraine.
2. Application of EPR dosimetry in Ukraine
2.1 Acquisition of teeth in the national scale
As mentioned in Section 1.1 of this paper, the nationwide tooth acquisition network was establishedin Ukraine. In 1997 a joint order of the Ministry of Health and Academy of Medical Sciences came toeffect, establishing the legal basis for collection of teeth from Chernobyl clean-up workers, which residein 5 oblasts of Ukraine. In 2001 two more oblasts were incorporated into this network. The central
bioprobe bank was established in SCRM AMS Ukraine with the function of accumulation and long term
storage of the collected samples. The modern structure of the tooth acquisition network is shown at Fig.2.
This network has hubs in each of the concerned oblasts, as a rule a principal dentist (officer of the
Ministry of Health) is assigned to be a person responsible for operation of the regional branch of the
network. As a rule, each regional hub receives collected teeth from a number of dental clinics spread over
the oblast. Collection of teeth from liquidators is organized in the specialized hospitals or dental clinics,
which provide medical service to Chernobyl clean-up workers. As an example, the geographical structureof tooth acquisition in Poltava oblast is presented in Fig.8.
Most general characteristics of the tooth acquisition network as well as the results of its operation arepresented in Table 2. It may be seen from this table that the effectiveness of this work in different oblasts
is not uniform. The best results were achieved in Kiev oblast, in which the pilot stage of this effort had
began in 1992, and in Poltava oblast. The last case is worth separate discussion. In 2000 in the framework
Table 2. Characteristics of infrastructure for collection of teeth from liquidators.
Number of dental clinics
Number of teeth
Year of
Number of
Oblast of Ukraine
involved in collection ofcollected ininitiation
dentiststeeth
1998-2001
Dnipropetrivsk
1998
30
40
152
Zaporijja
1998
12
18
75
Kyiv
1992
5
11
2096
Poltava
1998
57
94
1360
Kharkiv
1998
5
12
247
Cherkasy
2001
5
8
27
Chernyhiv
2001
2
5
24
TOTAL:
116
188
3981
133

900
800

C hernyhiv

N um ber ofteeth

700

C herkasy
600
500

Poltava

400

Zaporija

300

D nipropetrovsk

200

Kharkiv
100

Kiev

0

1998

1999
2000
Y ear ofoperation

2001

Fig.9. Collection of teeth in 7 oblasts of Ukraine.
of German-French Initiative "Chernobyl", one of the oblasts was selected for establishing "good practice"called to demonstrate the effectiveness of the tooth collection system under condition of appropriate
supply. In this oblast (Poltava) the monetary incentive was provided at a sufficient level, suggesting fixed
fee to the coordinator and "per sample" payment to dental practitioners and their assistants. This approachproved to be extremely efficient leading to significant expansion of the collection network (see Table 2
and Fig.8) as well to the increase of the number of collected samples (Fig.9). So the number ofparticipating dentists increased from 11 in 1998 to 94 in 2001, annual influx of collected teeth grew morethan twofold. In 2001 the logistics tested in Poltava oblast was applied in other regions covered by the
tooth acquisition network.
Tooth collection is performed in the following manner. When the tooth is extracted by a dentist, thespecial form (see Section 1.1 for details) is filled out and the tooth is washed and placed into a paper
envelope stapled to the form. Samples collected in local hospitals are forwarded to the regional hub andbatches of teeth are periodically sent to Kiev to the central bioprobe bank. Upon arrival to Kiev, allsamples are subjected to input control called to evaluate the state of a tooth and assign respective rank (seeTable.1). Then all teeth are logged into the bioprobe bank and the information from the tooth ID form isentered into the database. Periodically (at least once per quarter) a detailed review of the quality ofcollected samples is prepared and sent to the oblast coordinator, providing thus a feedback to the regional
level of the tooth acquisition network. Totally over the period of operation of the acquisition network(1992-2001) 3981 teeth were collected (see Table 2), and this number is increasing daily. In general, thepool of collected samples establishes a good basis for both routine dose reconstruction and, more
important, for randomized selection of subjects for all kinds of validation tests (see Section 2.3 of thispaper).
2.2. Reconstruction of individual doses
First time EPR dosimetry was used for reconstruction of individual doses Ukrainian liquidators in
1993. Since 1995, when the methodological guidelines [43] were adopted by the Ministry of Health, EPR
dosimetry is being performed regularly. Till the end of 2001 465 individual doses were reconstructed,
mostly using the whole scale SCRM protocol including individual calibration by the additive dosetechnique. However, all this time, our methodological research continues, finding its reflection in
upgrades of the dose evaluation protocol. So, till 1999 doses were reconstructed using the whole teeth and
134

120

Frequency

100
80
60
40
20
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

D ose,m Sv

Fig.10. Distribution of individual doses of liquidators 1986-1987 assessed by EPR dosimetry withteeth.
the contribution of x-ray doses was assessed basing on the data from the tooth ID forms regarding thenumber of x-ray procedures and the empirical data on average doses per one examination. However, in thecourse of tests and comparisons we found that information from the ID forms is very unreliable and,
therefore, the formerly used method of x-ray dose account is endowed with unacceptably high uncertainty.
As a result, since mid 1999 we have switched to the more elaborate protocol comprising separate dose
evaluation using lingual and buccal parts of teeth. All contemporary EPR analyses are performed using
this approach, which allows to detect and quantify the possible contribution of dental x-ray exposure.
Appearance of another confounding factor - UV exposure, which was first reported in 1996 [44],prompted the revision of all previously obtained results and withdrawal of dose estimates obtained withfront teeth. Although a comprehensive study [18] of the effect of UV exposure suggested a clue tomitigation and evaluation of this effect, currently we do not use front teeth for EPR dosimetry.
Fig.10 presents the frequency distribution of individual doses of Chernobyl clean-up workers
assessed by EPR. One may see that this distribution confirms the point that very high doses of liquidators
were rather exception than a rule, and a mean dose of liquidators of 1986-1987 is 110 mSv.
It should be stressed that a wide scale application of high precision measurement protocol withindividual calibration of each sample is a unique experience. In other cases a full scale EPR protocol wasused for reconstruction up to several dozens of persons [4, 45], ans a wide scale EPR dosimetry [46] wasapplied using certainly less accurate technique based on the use of a single calibration coefficient. In fact,
application of the elaborate protocol for reconstruction of several hundreds of individual doses in Ukraine
allowed not only to conduct accurate dosimetry, but also to bring some qualitatively new results. So, theeffect of non-linearity of dose response curves was discovered; as discussed above, this phenomenon may
have significant effect on the accuracy of dose reconstruction using EPR dosimetry with teeth. In addition,
application of the additive dose technique to all studied teeth allowed comparison of radiosensitivity ofdifferent types of teeth. It was shown (Fig.11) that radiosensitivity does not depend on type and location ofa tooth. Another important result is presented in Fig.12 reflecting degree of inter-sample variation ofindividual radiosensitivity. It was shown that relative variation of calibration coefficient (1σ) is about 12%.
Remarkably, these results provide quantitative measure of additional uncertainty, which is introduced into
EPR dosimetry if a method of universal calibration coefficient is used for dose assessment. This estimate(12% additional error) is applicable for all types of teeth used for dose reconstruction (Fig.11).
The results of routine EPR dosimetry are used in Ukraine in the framework of several medical
135

Radiosensitivity, normalised
units

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Position (number) of toothFig.11. Radiosensitivity of different types of teeth.
Teeth nos.1-2 - incisors, 3 -canines, 4-5 premolars, 6-7 - molars, 8 - wisdom teeth.

35

Relative frequency, %

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

Radiosensitivity, normalised units

Fig.12. Distribution of individual radiosensitivity of human teeth (Ukrainian population)
studies as high precision assessments of individual doses received by liquidators. However, high cost andlabor intensity of EPR dosimetry, as well as limited availability of samples, prevent this technique frombeing a routine dose assessment method for dosimetric support of a large-scale biomedical follow-up.
2.3. EPR dosimetry as a reference method for validation of other dose estimates
This unique application of EPR dosimetry was proposed and is effectively used in Ukraine. The
matter is that prior to its application, any method of retrospective dosimetry needs to be validated bymeans of independent, presumably superior accuracy, "gold standard" method. From the discussion above,
one may conclude that EPR dosimetry possesses unique qualities (high precision, possibility of dosereconstruction long time after exposure), which makes it an inevitable tool for calibration and validation ofother methods of dosimetry. In terms of accuracy, internal consistency and overall quality, EPR dosimetry
with teeth may be considered as a source of dose estimates of a reference quality. In fact, EPR dosimetryis the only retrospective dosimetry protocol, which comprises perfectly traceable elements; uncertainty of136

each of them may be evaluated in rather straightforward manner. Overall performance of EPR dosimetry
with teeth had been proven in the course of several blind intercomparisons (see discussion above - Section
1.3).
Therefore, on the basis of the described above results, a concept of utility of EPR dosimetry as areference method for validation of the potent methods of retrospective dosimetry, was developed.
According to this approach, the method under consideration is applied to the representative sample ofsubjects who have high quality (in particular, no x-ray dose) EPR dose estimates. Upon comparison of
results provided by the method of concern with the "gold standard" EPR doses, the conclusion regarding
the accuracy and general applicability of the given method can be derived. Not touching statistical aspectsof the validation studies, here we should concentrate on the aspects related to application of EPR
dosimetry.
Obviously, application of EPR as a reference method sets certain requirements for selection ofsubjects and quality of tooth samples. It should be stressed that selection of subjects for the validation testis one of the most demanding and responsible elements of such application. In general, subjects of thevalidation test should meet the following criteria:• A tooth must be good for EPR dosimetry, i.e. it should be molar or premolar, have sufficient amount ofenamel.
• Enamel must be distributed among buccal and lingual parts of a tooth, allowing thus separate analysisof these parts and evaluation of x-ray exposure.
• Indication on absence of medical x-ray examinations (e.g. from the tooth ID form).
• Availability of auxiliary dosimetric information, e.g. official dose record.
• Affiliation of a subject to the studied group (category).
• Adherence of a subject to given dose interval.
• Residence of a subject in a respective territory (for instance, the area included into certain study).
• Availability of actual postal address.
• Availability of a telephone number.
• Agreement to participate in a study (test).
• Possibility to establish personal contact with the subject (home visit or invitation for examination).
One may see that some of the requirements are difficult to meet and, moreover, sometimes they arecontradictory. Certainly, depending of particular plan of the validation test, the rigidity of the above-listed
criteria may vary to some extent. In general, however, the enlistment of subjects into the study group is adifficult task. There is very limited flexibility at the level of EPR dosimetry. Effectively this means thatapplication of all criteria leads to reduction of the number of appropriate subjects. The only way to deal
with depletion of the original sample is to prepare an abundant number of candidates in order to keep adesired sample size even after washing out some subjects. Since collection of teeth is very slow andinertial process, the solution lays in collection of all available teeth, their storage and selection of subjects
following the criteria set by a particular study. This approach (large-scale acquisition of teeth and theirretrieval from the central bioprobe bank) was implemented in Ukraine. Success of several validation
studies, which involved EPR dosimetry as a reference method, unequivocally proved adequacy of thisapproach.
As an example of this application of EPR dosimetry, we will take the testing of classical ADR(Analytical Dose Reconstruction). This method (ADR) makes use of the information about the motions
and durations during the work of liquidators at Chernobyl NPP site as well as dose rate data forassessment of their radiation doses. . The plan of the test, which was performed in 1998 in the frameworkof the pilot phase of Ukraine-US leukemia study, included independent evaluation of doses to 20
liquidators by ADR [47] and EPR. The following selection criteria were applied:137

1. Availability of a tooth good for EPR dosimetry (no requirement regarding separate analysis of
buccal and lingual parts was set at that time).
2. No more than one dental x-ray examination according the tooth ID form data.
3. Affiliation of liquidators to one of the categories for which ADR was applicable (Chernobyl
NPP staff).
Totally 30 candidates were selected for this study, 20 of them were interviewed according to ADR
procedure and enlisted into the study. ADR was performed by the expert-dosimetrists which routinely
perform this work. Comparison of two independent dose estimates revealed quite a significant discrepancy,
ADR results had a tendency to overestimation of doses. In depth analysis of ADR analysis, in particularseparate consideration of isolated components of dose (note that EPR is able to assess a total dose of
lifetime occupational and accidental exposure) allowed to identify the source of discrepancy. Fig.13
presents the comparison of EPR dose and a total dose assessed using ADR. For the latter, breakdown toseparate components is given. Finally, it was determined that inadequately high dose estimates wereassigned to the episodes of transportation across heavily contaminated territories around the NPP site. In
addition, contrary to the ADR protocol, practitioners did not apply respective correction factor to the final
result, i.e. the products of wrongly applied ADR were almost two times higher than the results of a
canonic ADR procedure. These observations allowed us to fix the weak points of ADR and resulted indevelopment of a substantially revised version of this analytical technique (RADRUE). From the point ofview of EPR application, abbreviated account of lifetime x-ray exposure was justified by high levels of
exposure of this group of liquidators and, respectively, lower contribution of x-ray exposure to a total dose.
Besides to the discussed test, this approach had been successfully implemented for testing various
methods of retrospective dosimetry. Among the tested methods were FISH, SEAD (Soft Expert
Assessment Dosimetry - a novel method, which makes use of typical dose distributions of particulargroups of liquidators) [48] and, finally RADRUE (ADR derivative, aimed to provide most universal dose
estimates to the subjects of the post-Chernobyl epidemiological study).
In general, results of such application of EPR proved to be very informative. For example, based onthese validation exercises, SEAD was rejected, classical ADR revealed its weak points and suggested
ways of its revision and improvement. Finally, the mentioned above RADRUE method was approved for
2
1.8
EPR

1.6

Dose on route

1.4

Outside Pripjat

Dose, Gy

1.2

Pripjat1

On-site activities

0.8

TLD monitoring

0.6
0.4
0.2
0

Subject

Fig.13. Results of ADR test. EPR doses vs. cumulative dose assessments with breakdown tocomponents.
138

use in the framework of Ukraine-USA case-control leukemia study on the basis of the results ofverification by EPR.
Conclusions
EPR dosimetry with teeth in Ukraine over the last decade went all way from first laboratory tests to alarge scale routine application. A large cycle of methodological research was conducted in order todevelop an original version of the EPR dosimetric protocol as well as investigate the effects caused by
confounding factors and develop approaches to their account and mitigation. In the development of the
EPR dosimetric protocol, the main attention was concentrated on achievement of high accuracy andreproducibility, low sensitivity threshold as well as high throughput. Elaborate quality assurance program,including a series of international intercomparisons had demonstrated high precision and sensitivity of the
SCRM version of the EPR protocol. Creation and continuous operation of the nationwide tooth acquisition
network is another key to the success of EPR dosimetry in Ukraine.
The main applications of EPR dosimetry in Ukraine are both routine high precision reconstruction ofdoses to Chernobyl clean-up workers and the use of EPR dose estimates as a reference dose for validationof other retrospective dosimetry techniques. The latter proved to be the most efficient application of EPR
dosimetry in the post-Chernobyl situation. EPR dosimetry was used for testing such methods ofretrospective dosimetry as FISH, ARD, SEAD and RADRUE. In general, EPR dosimetry plays inevitablerole in dosimetric support of post-Chernobyl medical follow-up studies.
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141

Retrospective Dose Assessment of Inhabitants in the Contaminated Areas of
Russia by EPR Measurement of Tooth Enamel
Alexandre I. IVANNIKOV, Valeri G. SKVORTSOV, Valeri F. STEPANENKO
Medical Radiological Research Center of RAMS,
Korolyov str. 4, 249020 Obninsk, Russia: a_ivann@mail.ru

Abstract
Results of wide-scale dose reconstruction with the use of EPR spectroscopy of tooth enamel arepresented for the population living in the radioactive contaminated territories of Bryansk region of
Russia. The population of radiation-free territories of neighboring Kaluga region was examined as thecontrol group. The excess doses caused by radiation contamination were determined after subtractionof the contribution into EPR signal in tooth enamel due to the action of the natural backgroundradiation during the lifetime of teeth. The average excess doses were determined for the groups of
population formed according to the place of residence. The average values were determined withaccuracy ranging from 4 to 25 mGy depending on the number of individuals included into the groups
and on the scattering of individual results. The average excess doses highly varied for different placesof residence and ranged up to 70 mGy. In general, the average doses of external exposure of the
population obtained with EPR spectroscopy of teeth enamel were found to be consistent with theresults based on other methods of direct dosimetry and retrospective dose reconstruction methods.
Essential exceeding of the individual doses above the average level within the population groups wasobserved for some persons. That gave a possibility to detect the individuals with overexposure and toinclude them into groups of increased radiation risk for medical monitoring.

Introduction
It is known that tooth enamel exhibits the features of individual dosimeter and it may be used forassessment of individual accumulated doses in accidental and uncontrolled situations. The stabile
paramagnetic centers are formed in calcified matrix of tooth enamel after its exposing to ionizing
radiation. These centers can be detected using the spectroscopy of electron paramagnetic resonance(EPR), and the individual accumulated doses can be estimated.
The method of EPR dosimetry was successfully applied for dose reconstruction at uncontrolled
irradiation [1-5].
This method of EPR dosimetry has advantages that tooth enamel accumulates the results of radiationinfluence during a whole period of existence of tooth enamel after its formation. Hence, EPR dosimetry
with tooth enamel is suitable for dose reconstruction many years after the exposure. This technique is ofparticular interest in case when the results of conventional dosimetry are not available (e.g. in accidental
circumstances), especially many years after the event, and when doses were accumulated during long
period of irradiation. Just the case is dose reconstruction for inhabitants in the contaminated areas after
the Chernobyl accident. A disadvantage of the method is that there are problems at sample collection,
because it is usually possible to obtain only teeth extracted for health reasons. So, it is often difficult tocollect enough samples from the population group of concern.
In this work, the results of EPR dosimetry for the population living in the south-west territories ofBryansk region subjected to radioactive contamination after the Chernobyl accident are summarized andanalyzed basing on our previous publications [4-7]. As a control groups, the population of142uncontaminated territories of the north part of Kaluga region was investigated.
All measurements were carried out with the same methodical approach adopted as standardized inroutine measurements, rigorously the same for all enamel samples. That permitted to make a combined
comparative statistical analysis at the examination of all obtained results which were considered to havethe same systematic uncertainties.
Materials and methods
Tooth samples were collected in local dental clinics as extracted during an ordinary dental practice.
Information about patients and teeth were provided by dentists in special questionnaires together with thesamples.
The optimized methodical approach developed in MRRC and adopted as standard for all routine
measurements was used for investigation of all enamel samples. Detailed description and basing of themethodical approach are given in the previous publications [4,8] , which meets the requirements of State
Standard of Russian Federation (1995) [9]. The essential features of the methodical approach used for
dose reconstruction are the following.
Enamel samples were prepared by removing dentine from a crown of tooth using hard alloy dental
drills at low rotation speed and were cut to pieces of about 1.0 mm. Samples with mass in the range 60 120 mg were assumed to be suitable for measurements. The EPR spectra were recorded at room
temperature with ESP-300-E spectrometer (Bruker, Germany) using a standard rectangular probe cavity in
X-band at microwave power of 10 mW. Modulation amplitude is 0.3 mT, sweep width 8 mT. The time ofrecording of each spectrum with 16-time accumulation was 45 min. The amplitude of the 4-d line ofmarker sample containing MnO permanently mounted near the bottom of the cavity was used as a signal
intensity reference.
It is known that an EPR spectrum of irradiated dental enamel is composed of two overlappedprincipal signals: the radiation induced signal (RIS) and the radiation-independent native backgroundsignal (BGS) described elsewhere [1,10]. In order to separate the RIS and determine its intensity, thebasic software of the build-in computer was used for spectra processing. The spectrum of children’sunirradiated enamel was used as the reference spectrum to simulate BGS. The amplitude, field position
and width of the reference BGS were manually adjusted under operator control to fit the low-field part ofthe measured spectra, where RIS was not revealed. The pure RIS was obtained after subtraction of thesimulated BGS. The intensity of RIS was measured as the amplitude of its low-field maximum.
The intensity of RIS was converted into units equivalent to exposure dose at calibration according to
the following formula:
R = A Kcal ,(1)where:A (g-1) - intensity of the RIS normalized by sample mass and by intensity of the marker signal;
Kcal (mGy g) - calibration coefficient corresponding to average slope of enamel EPR response toradiation versus exposure dose. This coefficient was taken as reciprocal of an average slope of calibration
dependencies measured for several enamel samples exposed to a direct collimated beam of 60Co gammaradiation source in dose range 0 - 500 mGy. The exposure dose was measured as air kerma by an air
equivalent dosimeter. Calibration with 137Cs source gives approximately the same estimation for radiation
sensitivity of enamel [11].
The intensity of RIS expressed in units equivalent to exposure dose at calibration was converted todose absorbed in enamel according to the formulae:
Den = (R - Di ) Kair-en ,(2)
where:
143

Kair-en = 0.99, conversion coefficient of air equivalent exposure dose at calibration to units of doseabsorbed in enamel. In the region of relatively high photon’s energy, which were used at calibration, it isdetermined by the ratio of mass-energy absorption factors of the enamel to that of the air, and its value isclose to unity [12].
Di - measurement bias arising from intercept value of the calibration dependence of the RIS
intensity versus irradiation dose. It is sometimes called initial (or intrinsic) signal [13,14]. This value isspecific for measurement conditions and spectra processing procedure. The value of this parameter ismainly determined by difference of the BGS lineshape between the spectra of samples under investigationand the reference spectra used for simulation of the BGS. Its average value can be determined fromcalibration dependencies after correction on the contribution of natural background radiation. In the caseof methodical approach used for spectra processing in this study, its average value was adopted as 65
mGy with a standard deviation of individual values estimated as about 20 - 30 mGy [4].
The additional dose (or excess dose) values caused by additional irradiation due to radiation
contamination were determined by subtracting the contribution from natural background radiation
accumulated during the lifetime of the tooth (age of the tooth from its formation up to the measurementfor dose reconstruction):
Dadd = Den / Ken - TA · Dn ,(3)
where:
Ken = 1.2 - correction factor on the energy dependence of enamel sensitivity taken for radiation of137
Cs contaminated soil [13].
Dn = 0.8 mGy y-1 - the annual contribution to dose in enamel due to accumulation of the natural
background radiation corresponding to typical value in radiation free territories of central Russia;
TA - age (lifetime) of the tooth (in years).
The lifetime of the tooth was obtained by subtraction of the average age of tooth formation for agiven tooth position from the age of a person at the moment of measurement. The ages of tooth formation
were determined according to published data [13,15].
The values of the calculated excess doses in some cases may be negative following subtraction of themeasurement bias and the accumulated background radiation. This is a result of uncertainty in the RIS
amplitude determination near the threshold of sensitivity. These negative values should not be rejected ashaving no physical meaning, but should be used for subsequent statistical treatment to get true averagevalues and distribution parameters.
A semi-empirical formula for the standard error of estimation dose absorbed in enamel was used:
Er2 = Er12 + (Er2 / (m/100))2 + (Er3 Den)2 ,(4)where:
Er - overall uncertainty of dose determination;
Er1 = 30 mGy – constant contribution to the error due to individual variation of the enamel
properties (BGS lineshape variation and impurity signals);
Er2 = 30 mGy – parameter specifying the sample mass dependent contribution to the error due toinstability and low frequency component of electronic noises of the spectrometer;
m/100 = sample mass (in mg) normalized by the standard value of 100 mg;
Er3 = 0.15 – coefficient specifying the contribution due to individual variation of the enamel EPR
dose response and to uncertainties in exposure dose determination at the calibration.
The formula was derived under the following considerations. There should be a constantcontribution to the error of RIS amplitude determination due to variation of the individual sample BGS
line shape. In addition, there should be a contribution due to uncertainty of the RIS amplitude
determination, which is caused by a low frequency noise component of EPR spectra. This contribution is144

specific for the sensitivity of the spectrometer used and for the precision of the spectra processing
procedure. Since the RIS value is normalized by a sample mass to obtain a dose value, this contribution
should be inversely proportional to sample mass. There also should be a dose dependent contribution due
to variation of enamel sensitivity and uncertainties of dose response calibration experiments [13,16]. It
should be emphasized that the values of the parameters in this formula are specific for experimental
conditions. These parameters were also determined in calibration experiments for methodical approachsimilar to that used in this study [17,18].
The methodical approach of MRRC used in this study was tested at international intercomparison[12], and it was proved to reconstruct doses with uncertainty within 32 mGy in the dose region 0 – 800
mGy. A modification of this methodical approach with the use of specially designed automatic computer
software was also tested [17,18], and the uncertainty of 25 mGy was achieved in the dose region 0 – 500
mGy.
So, the uncertainty of individual dose measurement in the range 200 - 300 mGy will be about 30 - 50
mGy for the sample mass range used. The close level of uncertainty is observed in the deviation of resultsaround the regression line for dose-age dependence obtained for the control population in uncontaminatedterritories [4].
The specifici fearture of this method appears when it is applied to for groups of population ; theaveraging of results reduces random errors. Accuracy of averaged value of the determined dose for thegroup of population (at N ∼ 50 - 100 persons) may be estimated as ErN = Er / N1/2 ∼ 5 mGy .
Results and discussion
The collection of tooth samples for EPR measurements was started in 1993. The structure of
population groups and the number of analyzed samples are presented in Table 1. All measured EPR
spectra in digital form, the result of measurement of RIS values together with questionnaire information
on patients were entered in a computer database, and used for subsequent interpretation and statisticaltreatment. The tooth enamel samples are also preserved and are available for repeated duplicate
measurements.

Table 1. Structure of population groups and numbers of measurements by tooth enamel EPR
spectroscopy for different population groups.
Number of measurements forPopulation groups
each group
Radiation contaminated territories of Bryansk
2518
regionAmong them:
Gordeevka district
625
Zlynka district
384
Klimovo district
423
Klyntsy district
382
Klyntsy city
280
Krasnaya Gora district
163
Novozybkov district
81
Starodub district
180
Control territories
420(uncontaminated territories of Kaluga region)
The Chernobyl liquidators
122
Total number of measurements
3060

145

In the course of investigations, the essential contribution into RIS due to the action of ultraviolet
component of solar light was revealed in tooth enamel from front part of jaw (incisors and canines, teeth
with positions 1 - 3) [4,19,20]. Therefore, it was concluded that only results obtained for back teeth(premolars and molars, positions 4 - 8) are suitable for interpretation in terms of exposure dose. Part ofmeasurements (about one third) was performed for front teeth or for teeth with unknown position in theformer period, when the effect of solar light on front teeth has not been discovered yet. Wherefore, theresults for front teeth and for teeth with unknown positions were rejected and are not considered here.
The dynamics of RIS formation in tooth enamel was analyzed to examine its dependencies on the400

Gordeevka district
Y = (125+/-11) + (0.20+/-0.30) X
SD = 74; N = 226

400
Control territory
Y = (72+/-11) + (0.80+/-0.28) X
SD = 35; N = 64300

R, rel. units

R, rel. units

300

200

100

200

100

0

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

10

20

Tooth age, years

Fig. 1 a
400

50

60

Myrny
Y = (79+/-14) + (0.72+/-0.40) X
SD=51; N = 73300

R, rel. units

R, rel. units

300

200

100

200

100

0

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

10

20

Tooth age, years

30

40

50

60

50

60

Tooth age, years

Fig.1 cFig. 1 d
400

400

ZlynkaY = (130+/-14) + (-0.23+/-0.48) X
SD = 41; N = 28

Vyshkov
Y = (77+/-31)+ (3.3+/-0.8)X
SD=71;N = 25

300

R, rel. units

300

R, rel. units

40

Fig. 1 b

Gordeevka
Y = (86+/-23) + (2.5+/-0.8) X
SD = 70; N = 39

400

30

Tooth age, years

200

200

100

100

0

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

0

60

10

20

30

40

Tooth age, years

Tooth age, years

Fig. 1 e

Fig. 1 f

Fig. 1. Dependencies of the RIS in enamel on tooth age for different groups of population.
(a) control territory; (b - f) radioactive contaminated territories: (b) Gordeevka district (137Cs soil contamination
density ranges from 1 to 41 Ci km-2); (c) settl. Gordeevka, (5 to 40 Ci km-2); (d) settl. Myrny (Gordeevka
district), (9 to 85 Ci km-2); (e) settl. Zlynka (10 to 70 Ci km-2); (f) settl. Vyshkov (Zlynka district) (9 to 45 Ci
km-2). Parameters of the appropriate linear regressions are given on the figures (SD - standard deviation from
regression line, N - number of measurements). The RIS values are expressed in relative units corresponded to
exposure dose units at calibration with 60Co gamma-radiation source. Note that the measurement bias is not
subtracted from the RIS.
146

age of teeth. Such dependencies on the examples of groups of population living in different territories arepresented in Fig. 1.
It should be emphasized that the RIS values in these plots should not be interpreted as absolutevalues of doses, because the measurement bias was not subtracted at conversion of RIS to dose units
according to the formula (1). Only results for adults are considered in order to avoid complication. The
results for the control territory (Fig. 1 (a)) have clear tendency to grow with the age. This is wellaccounted for by accumulation of the effect of natural background radiation with annual accumulated
dose about 1 mGy. Such clear tendency is not observed and the data scattering is much higher in Fig. 1 (b)2550Control territory<Dadd>=0.6 +/- 3.6 mGy
SD = 29 mGy; N = 64

15

10

5

0
-100

Gordeevka district<Dadd> = 29+/-4 mGy
SD = 63 mGy; N=226

40

NumberNumber

20

30

20

10

0

100

200

0
-100

300

0

Dadd, mGy

Fig. 2 a

300

Myrny
<Dadd> = 8+/-5 mGy
SD = 43 mGy; N=73

15

NumberNumber5200

Fig. 2 b

Gordeevka<Dadd> = 51+/-9 mGy
SD = 60 mGy; N = 39

6100

Dadd, mGy

4
3

10

2

5

1
0
-100

0

100

200

0
-100

300

0

Fig. 2 c300

Vyshkov<Dadd> = 71+/-13 mGy
SD = 66 mGy; N = 25

4

NumberNumberZlynka<Dadd> = 28+/-7 mGy
SD = 38 mGy; N= 28

6200

Fig. 2 d

5

8

4

2

0
-100

100

Dadd, mGy

Dadd, mGy

3
2
1

0

100

200

0
-100

300

Dadd, mGy

0

100

200

300

Dadd, mGy

Fig. 2 eFig. 2 f

Fig. 2. Histograms of additional dose distribution (the corrections are made with Di = 65 mGy, Ke= 1.2; Dn = 0.8 mGy year-1):(a) control territory; (b - f) radioactive contaminated territories: (b) Gordeevka district; (c) settl. Gordeevka;(d) settl. Myrny; (e) settl. Zlynka; (f) settl. Vyshkov. Parameters of distributions are given on the pictures(<Dadd> - average value; SD - standard deviation of the measurement; N - number of measurements).
147

for the population of Gordeevka distrct as a whole. For the population of individual settlements in
Gordeevka district (Fig. 1 (c)-(f)), however, some tendencies in the course of the RIS with age can befound. Data scatterings in individual settlements are smaller in comparison with that for the whole
Gordeevka district but higher in comparison with the control territory.
The observed slopes of appropriate linear regression can not be explained by accumulation of theeffect of natural background radiation. In some cases it is too high and in some cases, on the contrary, it
becomes negative. Such high data scattering and complicated behavior of age dependencies is obviously
caused by additional contribution into exposure due to radioactive contamination of territory, which wasdifferent for individuals of different ages.
The interpretation of the obtained results is rather complicated and ambiguous. High data scattering
may be caused by differences of professional occupation and high heterogeneity of radiation
contamination within the bounds of settlements. It was found that results of dose rate measurements after
the accident varied by factors up to 20 in different points of the same settlement (IAEA Technical Report,
1992, p.186) [21]. The differences in the slope of age dependencies may be caused by peculiarities ofprofessional occupation and migration behaviour of population of different age groups. According to theanalysis of migration of the population in radiation contaminated territories of Bryansk region [22], over
60% of population of some districts have been changed because of migration during the time period after
the Chernobyl accident. It is known that in Myrny and Zlynka settlements especially high migration of the
population had taken place and effective countermeasures against radioactive overexposure of population
have been undertaken.
Results of RIS measurements were interpreted in terms of additional expose doses Dadd due toTable 2. Average additional doses determined using tooth enamel EPR spectroscopy.

Bryansk region:
Gordeevsky district
Myrny
Gordeevka
Tvorishino
Kozhany
Strugova Buda
Klintsy city
Klintzovsky district
Smotrova Buda
Smolevichi
Gulevka
Zlynkovsky district
ZlynkaVyshkov
Krasnogorsky district
Klimovsky district
KlimovoN<Dadd>,
mGy

SE,
mGy

SD,
mGy

226
73
34
15
13
10
150
114
16
16
11
104
28
25
26
34
11

29
8
51
51
4
23
28
30
40
40
19
50
28
71
6
12
26

4
5
9
14
10
25
12
8
16
16
16
8
7
13
8
7
15

63
43
60
54
36
56
48
48
62
62
48
38
66
40
32
40

Q 137Cs,kBq m-2

Q 137Cs,
Ci km-2

1120
760
380
1400
296
130

30.2
20.7
10.3
37,7
8.0
3.6

200
100
260

5.4
2.7
7.0

1000
1000

26.8
27.1

270

7.4

Kaluga region (control
territories):
Borovsky district
64
1
4
29
<4
<0.1
Only posterior teeth with positions 4 - 8 of adults are used. Results are corrected on initial intrinsic signal 65 mGy,energy dependence correction factor 1.2 and on the accumulated natural background radiation 0.8 mGy per year
during time of tooth existence.
N - number of measurements; <Dadd> average additional dose, SE - standard error of the average; SD - standard
deviation of the measurement; Q - density of contamination of soil by 137Cs according to (Reference book, 1992)

148

radioactive contamination according to the formulae (3). Examples of histograms of additional dose
distribution for population of different territories are presented in Fig. 2. The parameters of distributions
are given on figures. The standard width of distribution of the control territory (29 mGy) gives theapproach to estimate the constant contribution of natural background to the overall uncertainty of dosereconstruction in low dose range, if we can assume that all persons were subjected to natural backgroundradiation in the same conditions. It is clearly seen in Fig. 2 that the width of distributions and averagevalues are higher for the population of contaminated territories in comparison with ones for the control
territory. The contribution into these parameters is given partially by random error of individual
measurements and the rest - by differences between individual excess doses. The average values show thepossibility to estimate the level of radiation effect upon the population of given territory with relatively
high accuracy.
The averaged values of additional doses determined from the intensities of RIS with taking into
account correction parameters for different groups of population are presented in Table 2. Only thosesettlements where more than 10 measurements have been made are included into the table. The values foraverage level of radioactive contamination of settlements by 137Cs were taken from Reference book(1992) [23]. It should be mentioned that average values of radioactive contamination are determined withhigh uncertainties because of small number of measurements in every settlement and large variation of thelocal contamination.
The dependence of the average dose versus the average level of contamination is presented in Fig. 3.
The initial part of this dependence is well described by the weighted linear regression with the slope
0.068 +/- 0.010 mGy per kBq m-2 (2.4 +/- 0.4 mGy per Ci km-2). This value is well consistent with one
obtained by analytical method for accumulated external dose during 8 years in the radioactive
contaminated territory. In Technical Report IAEA (1992, p246) [21] the value of the appropriate
coefficient was estimated for Bryansk region as 1.6 mGy per Ci km-2 for the first 4 years after theaccident.
As can be seen in Fig. 3, the results for Zlynka, Myrny and Kozhany settlements are not included
within the calculation of regression line. Average doses in these three settlements have anomalous low
values. Relatively low doses may be explained by a result of countermeasures which were undertaken inthese settlements having extremely high level of contamination. It should be mentioned that the analogous
effect was observed for the results of direct exposure doses measurements by individual dosimeters (ECP
10 Report 1996, pp104-110) [24], and it was explained by high value of shielding factor due tocountermeasures in high contaminated territories.

100<Dadd>, mGy

80

Weighted linear regression:
Y = (5+/-4) + (0.068+/-0.010) X
points included into the regression
not included

60

40

Fig. 3. The dependence of the averaged
additional doses determined by tooth
enamel EPR-spectroscopy on the level of137
Cs contamination of settlements.

20

0

0

200

400

600

800

Q, kBq m

-2

1000

1200

1400

Parameters of the weighted linear regression arepresented on the figure.

149

Conclusions
Regularities in formation of individual doses for the population residing radiation free and radiation
contaminated territories as a function of teeth age and 137Cs contamination density have been traced.
Statistical analysis of results allowed to detect the contribution into accumulated exposure dose due to theaction of the natural background radiation and due to radioactive contamination of territory.
In general, the average doses of external exposure of the population obtained with EPR spectroscopy
of teeth enamel are consistent with the results based on other methods of direct and retrospective
dosimetry. Relatively low average dose values obtained for some settlements may be explained bypeculiarities of behaviour and migration of population. It makes possible to appreciate the efficiency ofcountermeasures undertaken for prevention of overexposure of population.
The significant exceeding of the individual doses above the average level within the populationgroups is observed for some persons. This permits to choose the individuals with high radiation risk
among the population of radioactive contaminated territories and also to detect the overexposure among
the Chernobyl liquidators. Received results of measurement of individual doses are used for formation ofgroups of increased radiation risk for subsequent medical and dosimetric control.
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23. Reference book on the radiation situation and radiation doses in 1991 for the population of the areas of RussianFederation exposed to radioactivity as a result of the Chernobyl accident Part 1. Eds. by Ballonov M. I. andIvanov E. V.: St. - Petersburg, Ariadna, 1992 (in Russian).

151

Estimations of Radiation Risk for the Population of Contaminated Territoryof Belarus
Vladimir A. KNATKO, Mikhail M. KOMOCHKOV* and Alla E. YANUSH
Institute of Radiobiology of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus
Kuprevich str. 2, 220141 Minsk, Belarus: V_Knatko@radbio.bas-net.by*Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, 141980 Dubna, Moskow Region, Russia

Abstract
Accumulated doses for adult residents of contaminated regions of Belarus were calculated for
different periods after the Chernobyl accident. The average dose during the period of 1986-2001
was evaluated to be 50 mSv and 39 mSv in the southern and the eastern contaminated regions ofBelarus, respectively. Data obtained were used to evaluate the excess of the relative risk of cancer
mortality for adult residents of contaminated regions in terms of Two Defence Reactions (TDR)
model developed on the basis of modern results of radiobiological investigations. The results showthat the excess of the relative risk (ERR) of cancer mortality as a result of the Chernobyl accident isabout 5–6% during the whole life. The results were compared with risk values estimated in theframework of the 1990 Recommendation of the ICRP. The ERR values obtained in terms of TDR
model is about six times larger than values calculated on the basis of ICRP recommendations.

Introduction
The radionuclides released during the Chernobyl accident contaminated large areas in the southern
and the eastern parts of Belarus. At the present time more than 200 000 people live in regions where thelevel of 137Cs deposition density is higher than 185 kBq/m2. According to dose assessments [1, 2],radiation exposure of the population of the contaminated territory is characterized by low dose
distribution. Doses (without the thyroid doses) received by the majority of people in the first decade after
the accident were smaller than permissible dose limit for life — 70 mSv. Note that doses from external
and internal exposure in the first decade are equal to about 60% and 90% of doses for life,
correspondingly (see [3]).
To evaluate risks of damage at low doses an extrapolation of high dose results to low dose ones is
implemented. At present the non-threshold linear theory is most often, as well as officially, used to makeevaluation of radiation risks. However, experimental data accumulated during the last years show
evidence against the linear extrapolation of high dose effects to low dose range (see [4, 5] and references
therein). In this connection it is of interest to evaluate radiation risk for the population of the contaminatedregions of Belarus by using dose-effect relationship based on recent data on radiation-induced effects. The
present work gives radiation risk estimations obtained by using nonlinear dose-effect relationship derived
in terms of the Two Defence Reactions (TDR) model [6] developed on the basis of modern results ofradiobiological investigations. The calculation results are compared with the risk values estimated in theframework of the 1990 Recommendation of the ICRP [7].
Methods and Materials
Accumulated doses for adult residents of contaminated regions of Belarus
Estimation of radiation risk requires the knowledge of accumulated dose for residents ofcontaminated regions. An expression for evaluation of the average accumulated dose for adult residents ofn-th settlement is written
152

kBq/m 2
37-185
VITEBSK185-555555-1480
>1480
MINSK

MOGILEVGRODNO

GOMEL
BREST

Chernobyl

Figure 1: Belarus territory contamination with 137Cs.
tf

Dn (∆t = t f − ti ) = ∑ d (t ) S n (t ),t =t i(1)where ∆t is the time period after the accident (ti=1986), Sn(t) is the mean 137Cs deposition density in the nth settlement; d(t) is average annual dose of adult population exposure normalized to 137Cs deposition
density. Note that according to measurement results the concentration of 137Cs activity in organism ofadult inhabitants is in average about 1.5 times larger than that in organism of children of 10-15 years old[8]. As a consequence, radiation doses for adult population are higher than doses for children. Estimationsof Sn(t) were obtained by using of empirical data on 137Cs deposition density in settlements [2]. Values of
the average annual normalized dose d(t) for tf ≤ 1995 were taken from [9], and the sum of two exponents
was used for fitting and extrapolating these data for tf > 1995.
The distribution of 137Cs deposition density as of 01.01.1995 on the territory of Belarus is shown in
Fig. 1. One can see that the contaminated territory consists of the southern and the eastern regions (spots).
It is necessary to note that the regions mentioned above are characterized by different values ofnormalized dose d(t). The southern spot, closely situated to Chernobyl NPP, includes the Belorussian
Polesie area, where coefficients of 137Cs transfer from soil to agricultural plants are several times larger
than the coefficients obtained for other contaminated regions. Therefore the doses from 137Cs perroral
intake and respectively normalized average annual dose for residents of the southern contaminated region
are larger than doses in the eastern region (see [9]).
Taking into account the mentioned dose difference, calculations of accumulated dose Dn(∆t) werecarried out separately for adult residents of the southern and eastern contaminated regions. Values of theaccumulated dose Dn(∆t) estimated for the case of 137Cs deposition density Sn(t) = 370 kBq/m2 are shown
as example in Fig. 2. Dash line corresponds to the accumulated dose calculated by multiplying ∆t by
constant value of the permissible annual dose of exposure for population (1 mSv per year) (see [7]).
According to Fig. 2, doses accumulated by inhabitants of the eastern and the southern contaminatedregions during the first five years after the accident are about 5 and 10 times higher, correspondingly, than153

Dn, 70
mSv
65
60
55
1
50
45
40
35
30
25

2

20
15
10
3

5
0
1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

time after the accident, years

Figure 2: Accumulated doses Dn for residents of the southern (1) and the eastern (2) regionswith 137Cs deposition density Sn(t) = 370 kBq/m2. Dash line (3) corresponds to thepermissible annual dose: 1 mSv [7].
permissible level 5 mSv; doses for the 15 years period are about 2(4) times higher than permissible level
15 mSv.
The results show that about 80% of dose accumulated for the 15-years period were taken during thefirst five years after the accident. It means that the intensity of exposure in first years after the accident
was several times higher than permissible level.
Using assessments of Dn(∆t) and the population data of settlements, distributions of accumulated
doses for ∆t = 5, 10, 15 years were deduced for adult residents of the southern and the eastern regions
where the level 137Cs contamination is more than 37 kBq/m2 (see Fig. 3). Note that the percentage of adult
population in settlements was supposed to be constant for the period under consideration. The number ofthem are 103,680 and 153,380 in the southern and the eastern regions, respectively (see [2]). According tocalculation results, average values of the accumulated dose for residents of the southern region are about
30% higher than those for the eastern region. As it is shown in Fig. 3, the dose accumulated during tenyears and fifteen-years periods following the accident are about 20% and 25% larger than dose for the first
five-years period, correspondingly. In the second five-years period the average annual increase of the dose
was about 1.3 mSv/y. During the third 5-years period the dose increase rate was about two times smaller:
0.6 mSv/y.
Dose-effect relationship and radiation risk estimation in terms of model of Two Defence Reactions
Dose-effect relationship (DER) is the basis of radiation risk evaluation. Presently the official form of
DER is the linear non-threshold (LNT) relationship, which was accepted by UNSCEAR [10] andICRP [7]. It is the foundation for all present-day norms, standards and rules of radiation safety. In theformulation of UNSCEAR, the main merits of LNT hypothesis are its simplicity and agreement with mostconcepts and numerical data. At the same time modern results of epidemiological observations andradiobiological researches show difference between a variety of DERs obtained for stochastic
radiobiological effects at low dose range (see, for example [11]). The epidemiological data of the surveyof Japanese survivors cohort prove the non-linear dependence of the excess of the relative risk on dose at
low range [12, 13]. It is very likely that DER depends on kind of radiation damage, type of biological154

1986-1991
Adult population
% 35
30
25
Av=40.0 mSv
20
15
10
5
0

A

Adult population%B
Av=31.1 mSv

1986-1996
25

Av=36.5 mSv

Av=47.0 mSv

20
15
10
5
0

1986-2001
25

Av=38.8 mSv

Av=50.0 mSv

20
15
10
5

c

0

D ,mSv
10 30 50 70 90 >100110c

D ,mSv
10 30 50 70 90 >100
110

Figure 3: Distributions of accumulated doses for adult residents of the southern (A) and theeastern (B) contaminated regions.
object and exposure conditions.
In this paper the Two Defence Reactions (TDR) model [6] was used for radiation risk assessment.
The basis of the choice are the results of the observations of low dose radiation damages in cells ofdifferent biological objects: HT29 human lines [14], V79 Chinese hamster lines [11] and root meristem ofbarley grains [15]. The results obtained in the above mentioned works show nonlinear increase of damage
with dose growth (see Fig. 4–7). Data presented in these figures were treated in the framework of TDR
model [16]. According to the results, TDR model satisfactorily describes DERs for considered biologicalobjects.
The TDR model is based on the assumption that the cell response to irradiation is regulated byconstitutive and adaptive mechanisms. On the level of organism the response of the immune system toirradiation also consists of two components: innate and adaptive. The defence reaction at the organism
level acts in addition to the cell level defence. The differential equations describing interaction of two
components of defense system are similar for both the cell and the organism levels. Curves in Fig. 4–7 are
obtained through the fitting procedure of observed DERs by using the function found by solving the TDR
model equations.
Taking into account the results of TDR model application for description of DERs, the excess of therelative risks (ERR) for the population of the contaminated regions of Belarus was estimated on the basisof this model and on the dose distributions given in Fig. 3. The ERR for the group of N residents is

ERRN =∑ ERR N = ∑ ERR N ,
N
∑N
i

i

i

i

i

i

i

i

(2)
155

14

% inactivated cells HT29

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

40

20

60

80

100

Dose, cGr

Figure 4: Dependence of the yield for human tumor inactivated cells of HT29 line on X-ray dose [14].

Aberrant cells, %

25

20

15
10
5
0
0

100

50

150

200

Dose, cGy

Figure 5: Dependence of the frequency of Chinese hamster cells with chromosome
aberrations on γ-radiation dose from 60Co [11].
5

4

F, %

3

2

1

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Dose, cGy

Figure 6: Dose-effect relationship in root meristem cells of barley grains. F - output of
aberrant cells [15].
where ERRi is the excess of the relative risk for i-th subgroup of residents irradiated with the dose Hi.
According to the TDR model,

ERRi =(1 − Wc )(1 − f i )
,
Wc

(3)
where Wc is the spontaneous risk of mortality from cancer without irradiation (background), accepted tobe 0.28 [12], and function fi is determined as:
156

0.10
0.08

ERR

0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0

5

10

15

20

Dose, cGy
Figure 7: Excess of the relative risk (ERR) of mortality from all cancer other than leukemia forJapanese A-bomb survivors (men) who were 20-40 years old at the time of bombing [6].

f i = exp(− µ n H i ) +νµ n{exp[− µ a ( H i − H t )] − exp[− µ n ( H i − H t )]},
µn − µa(4)

with (Hi-Ht) ≥ 0 (see [6]).
The model parameters µn, µa, ν, Ht are found from the best description of empirical risk data by the
TDR model. Parameters µn and µa characterize two types of defence (response) reaction of biologicalobjects: constituent (or innate) and adaptive (or inducible) radiosensitivities, correspondingly. The
parameter ν characterizes capabilities of the adaptive protective mechanism. The dose Ht is the thresholdof inducible reparations action. Various ranges for the mentioned characteristics are considered in [16].
Epidemiological data for adult survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, who were 20–40 years old at
the time of atomic bombing [4], were treated in the framework of TDR model for evaluating the model
parameters. The fitting results of ERR of mortality from all types of cancer except leukaemia for Japanesesurvivors are presented in Fig. 7. One can see that the magnitude ERR is characterized by non-linear
growth at low dose range. The behavior of ERR is similar to the dose-effect relationships observed in cells(see Fig. 4–6).
Results and Discussion
Obtained model parameters were used for the assessments of ERR of cancer mortality for the adultresidents of the contaminated regions of Belarus on the basis of accumulated doses Dn(∆t). The results ofcalculation of the excess of radiation risk for residents of the southern and the eastern regions arepresented in the Table 1 in comparison with the values obtained in the framework of ICRP
recommendations.
The results show that excess of the relative risk of cancer mortality for the adult residents ofcontaminated regions of Belarus as a result of Chernobyl accident is about 5–6% during the whole life.
The main contribution to ERR was provided by the doses accumulated during the first five years after theaccident; further increase of ERR is 10–15%. The difference between ERR values predicted for thesouthern and the eastern contaminated regions is smaller than 10%. ERR values obtained in terms of TDR
model is about six times larger than values calculated on the basis of ICRP recommendations [7].
On the basis of the ERR assessments obtained in terms of TDR model the average annual excess ofcancer mortality for adults can be estimated as 6% / 50 years ≅ 0.1 % in a year. As the excess of cancer
mortality is proportional to excess of cancer morbidity the average annual excess of cancer morbidity is
expected about 0.1%. Statistical data on cancer incidence in Belarus for the period 1991-2000 (see [17])157Table 1: The excess of the radiation risk (ERR) for the residents of the southern (A) and theeastern (B) regions.
Period after the accident, years

Model
5

10

15

20

TDR

0.05540.05900.06100.0620ICRP 1990

0.00930.01060.01120.0113TDR

0.05040.05530.05780.0582ICRP 1990

0.00770.00870.00920.0093A

B
show that the average annual excess of cancer morbidity among adult residents of contaminated regions isabout 1.2%. Note that the same excess of cancer morbidity was observed for uncontaminated regions. So
according to assessments evaluated by using of ERR estimations and data from [17] one might expect thatthe contribution of the Chernobyl accident to annual excess of cancer morbidity would be about 10%. It
should be stressed that the latent period for solid cancers is about 10 years and the annual excess of cancer
morbidity increases with age. On this reason the mentioned value of the Chernobyl contribution to cancer
morbidity for the period 1991–2000 would be considered as overestimated assessment.
It is necessary to note that the quantity ERR in question is general index including all types of solidcancer. An excess of some types of cancer, which are characterized by the small weight coefficient, may
be considerably larger than the above-mentioned assessments. For example, in the period 1991–2000 the
thyroid cancer morbidity of the population of the easten contaminated region increased about 7 times(see [17]). For this reason it is of great interest to perform long–term epidemiological investigations in
Belarus to deduce dose-risk relationship for some types of cancer.
Conclusion
Accumulated doses for adult residents of contaminated regions of Belarus were calculated for
different periods after the Chernobyl accident. The results show that about 80% of dose accumulated forthe 15-years period were taken during the first five years after the accident. Distributions of accumulated
doses were deduced for adult population of the southern and the eastern contaminated regions. Averagevalues of the accumulated dose for residents of the southern region are about 30% higher than those forthe eastern region.
Modern data of epidemiological observations of Japanese survivors cohort and radiobiologicalresearches of low dose damages in cells of different biological objects were analysed in terms of Two
Defence Reactions (TDR) model. The results show that this model satisfactorily describes non-linear
dose-effect relationships for considered biological objects. The TDR model parameters obtained bytreating of data on mortality of adult survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were used for calculation of theexcess of the relative risk for adult residents of contaminated regions of Belarus on the basis of theaccumulated dose distributions. The results show that the excess of the relative risk of cancer mortality asa result of Chernobyl accident is about 5–6% during the whole life. ERR values obtained in terms of TDR
model is about six times larger than values calculated on the basis of ICRP recommendations.
References[1] Catalog of Exposure Doses fot Citizens of Settlements of Republic of Belarus, Minsk (1992), (in russian).
[2] Catalog of Annual Exposure Doses for the Population of Belarus. Report of the Institute of Radiation Medcine
and Endocrinology, Minsk (1995), (in russian).
[3] Levels of Irradiation and Effects as a Result of Chernobyl Accident. Report of ICEAR-2000, Application 7,
Moskow, 41 (2001), (in russian).

158

[4] M. M. Komochkov, On Similarity of Dependences of the Dose-Stochastic Radiobiological Effect at Cell andOrganism Level. Preprint of JINR, P19-99-78, JINR, Dubna (1999), (in russian).
[5] E. A. Krasavin, R. D. Govorun, Radiobilogical Research in JINR. Preprint of JINR, P19-2000-245, JINR, Dubna(2000), (in russian).
[6] M. M. Komochkov in Fundamentals for Assessment of Risks from Environment Radiation. "A Model of Two
Reactions as Dose-Stochastic Radiological Effect Relationship and Estimation of Radiation Risks" edited by C.
Baumstark–Khan et al. (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, 1999), pp. 25–34.
[7] International Commission on Radiological Protection. 1990 Recommendation of the ICRP, Pub. 60, Vol. 21, No.
1–3 of Annals of the ICRP (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1990).
[8] Health Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident. Scientific Report. International Programme on the Health
Effects of the Chernobyl Accident (IPHECA) edited by G. N. Souchkevich and A. F. Tsyb (World HealthOrganisation, Geneva, 1996), p. 219.
[9] V. F. Minenko, V. V. Drozdovich, S. S. Tretyakevich, A. V. Ulanovskiy in Analytical and informational bulletin"Medical and biological aspects of ChNP accident". “Irradiation of Population of Belarus after the Chernobyl
Accident: Collective Doses and Prognosis of Stochastic Effects”, 50 (1996), (in russian).
[10] Report of United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, Medical Radiology andRadiation Safety, 46, 28 (2001), (in russian).
[11] N. L. Shmakova, E. A. Fadeeva, E. A. Krasavin, M. M. Komochkov, O. A. Abouzeid, Cytogenetic Effects of
Low Dose Radiation in Chinese Hamster Cells, Nucleonika, 44, 539 (1999).
[12] D. A. Pierce, Y. Shimuzu, D. L. Preston, M. Vaeth, K. Mabuchi, Studies of the Mortality of Atomic Bomb
Survivors. Report 12, Part I. Cancer: 1950--1990. Radiation Research, 146, 1 (1996).
[13] D. L. Preston in Proc. of an International Conference on Low Doses of Radiation: Biological Effects andRegulatory Control. Invited papers and discussions. "Low Dose Radiation and Human Health. Risk Estimates",(IAEA, Vienna, 1998), p. 217.
[14] M. C. Joiner, P. Lambin, E. P. Malaise et al, Mutation Research, 538, 171 (1996).
[15] S. A. Geraskin, V. G. Dikarev, A. A. Udalova, N. S. Dikareva, Regularities of Induction by Low Doses of
Ionizing Radiation of Cytogenic Damages in the Cells of Barley Root Meristem. Radiation Biology.
Radioecology, 39, 373 (1999), (in russian).
[16] M. M. Komochkov, Dose Dependence on Stochastic Radiobiological Effects in Radiation Risk Estimation.
Preprint of JINR, E19-99-295, JINR, Dubna (1999).
[17] Belarussian Cancer Registry. Malignant Neoplasms in Belarus: 1991–2000, Minsk (2001).

159

Estimation of Thyroid Doses from Inhalation of 131I for Population ofContaminated Regions of Belarus
Vladimir A. KNATKO and Inga N. DOROZHOKThe Institute of Radiobiology, National Academy of Sciences,
Kuprevich Str-2, 220141, Minsk, Republic of Belarus: V_Knatko@radbio.bas-net.by

Abstract
Based on the relationships between 131I and 137Cs content in soil samples and the data on 137Cs
contamination of settlements, the 131I deposition density S n (131 I ) was estimated for the settlements
located in the eastern and the southern areas of Belarus (1,079 and 316 settlements, respectively). The
results show that the 90% interval of the S n (131 I) quantity is about 500 - 2,300 kBq/m2 and 700 3,500 kBq/m2 for the eastern and the southern area, respectively. Using assessments of S n (131 I) ,thyroid doses from inhalation of 131I were evaluated with taking into account the period and characterof radioactive deposition in various parts of the areas. According to the results, the thyroid doses for
adult population of the eastern and the southern areas vary from 3 to 80 mSv and from 40 to 370 mSv,
respectively, while the median doses are about 20 and 130 mSv, for the eastern and the southern area,
respectively. Uncertainties in the calculation of thyroid doses, due to the procedure applied, werediscussed.

Introduction
The data on cancer incidence rates accumulated in Belarus after the Chernobyl accident [1] show astatistically significant increase in the number of thyroid cancer, especially among the children. Accordingto [1], in period 1991-2000 standardized incidence rate for thyroid cancer increased from 3.6 up to 9.2 per
100 000 population (about 2.6 times). The fast increase of thyroid cancer cases evoked interest to the
problem of thyroid dose assessment. The individual thyroid dose estimations in Belarus were derived
primarily from the results of direct 131I thyroid measurements carried out in May and June of 1986 [2].
Note that 131I is the most important radionuclide that caused serious thyroid exposures in the affected areasin the first few weeks following the accident. Thyroid cancers risk assessments obtained in the frameworkof the ICRP recommendations by using the doses derived from thyroid measurements show an excess ofobserved thyroid cancer cases over the expected number [3]. In this connection the assessment of thyroid
doses from inhalation and ingestion of 131I is of interest for a prediction of radiological consequences by
the Chernobyl accident.
The measurements of 131I activity in thyroid of people and determination of 131I concentration in food
stuffs and air were accomplished only in part of the contaminated territory. In order to evaluate the thyroid
doses for the population of those regions where no monitoring was performed, a procedure based onreconstruction of 131I deposition density can be applied. Using the 131I-137Cs relation obtained in [4] and thedata on 137Cs contamination of settlements (see [5]) the 131I deposition density was evaluated in the present
paper for settlements placed in the eastern and the southern areas of Belarus (see Fig.1). Based on theseassessments thyroid doses from inhalation intake of 131I were obtained for adult population.
Reconstruction of 131I Deposition Density
The estimates of 131I deposition density were calculated on the basis of the relationship between 131I
and 137Cs activity concentration in soil samples taken in the contaminated regions under consideration [4].
160M in skM o gilev

BELARUS

Russia50km 100km

C h ern ob yl

50km

100km

Eastern area

G om el0km

0km

UkraineSouthen area

Chernobyl
0km

50km

100km

Fig. 1. Areas under investigation.
The points show settlements where soil samples were taken. Dot line within the southern area shows theboundary of the Polesskyi state radioecological nursery (the zone of evacuation).
Note that the relationship had been deduced in [4] with taking into account the contribution of 137Cs global
fallout that is about 2.2 kBq/m2. The regression function describing the data for the contaminated regions
was written in form:
131

I = A k ⋅[ 137 Cs] Bk(1)where the radionuclides activity in soil is expressed on May 10, 1986, and the parameters Ak and Bk arecharacterized by the following values: A1=33.8 kBq/m2, B1=0.63 and A2=69.4 kBq/m2, B2=0.59 for theeastern (k=1) and the southern (k=2) area, respectively. Starting from the expression (1), the mean densityof 131I deposition S n (131 I) in the territory of the n-th settlement situated in the studied areas was obtainedby using the formula:

S n ( 131 I) = A k ⋅ [ S n ( 137 Cs)] Bk

(2)

137

where S n ( Cs ) is the level of settlement contamination with

137

Cs. Empirical values of S n (137 Cs )expressed on May 10, 1986 were taken from [5].
It should be noted that the settlements situated in the territory of the zone of evacuation (see Fig.1)
were not included in the present calculations of S n (131 I) . Population of the evacuation zone was removed
during the first week of May 1986 when the radioactive release still continued. Dose estimation forremoved inhabitants needs special consideration taking into account a day of evacuation.
The distributions of values S n (131 I) calculated for 1,079 and 316 settlements situated in the easternand the southern areas, respectively, are presented in Fig.2 in comparison with the distributions ofempirical data on S n (137 Cs) . According to the results, the values of S n (137 Cs) and S n (131 I) are describedby a lognormal distribution:

161

Relative
Frequencies

A: Eastern

0.20

0.18
Model lognormal
a=0.78(0.04)
b=5.49(0.04)----------------E0 =307.960
M0 =256.632
N=10790.16

Model lognormal
a=0.48(0.03)
b=6.99(0.04)------------E0 =1175.30
M0 =1113.74
N=1079

0.15

0.12

0.12

137

Cs

0.08

131

I

0.09

0.06

0.04
0.03

0.00

0.00
0

400

800

1200

1600
137

2000

0

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

2131

Sn( Cs), kBq/m
Relative
Frequencies

2

Sn( I), kBq/m

B: Southern

0.25

0.20
Model lognormal
a=0.72(0.04)
b=5.26(0.05)-------------------E0 =296.29
M0 =192.03
N=316

0.20

Model lognormal
a=0.46(0.03)
b=7.33(0.04)--------------E0 =1849.19
M0 =1543.86
N=316

0.15

0.15

137

Cs

0.10

131

I

0.10

0.05
0.05

0.00

0.00
0

300

600

900

1200
137

1500

0

1000

2000

3000

4000
131

2

5000
2

Sn( I), kBq/m

Sn( Cs), kBq/m137

Fig. 2. Distributions of Cs contamination level and theestimated 131I deposition density for settlements situated in
the eastern (A) and the southern (B) areas of Belarus.

f(x) =
The

exp[ −(ln x − b) 2 / 2a 2 ].
2πa xparameter(3)

a in (3) characterizing skewness of the distribution is defined asa = [2(ln E − ln M )] , where E is the average, and M = exp(b) is the median of the distribution. The
1/ 2

analysis of the distribution parameters shows that the median value of S n (137 Cs ) obtained for thesettlements situated in the eastern area is about 35% larger than in case of the southern area. At the same2

time the variation V = σ/E = ( e a − 1) 1 / 2 of values S n (137 Cs) takes the close values for the studied areas.
Note that in accordance with [6] the quantity of variation of radionuclide deposition density reflects theheterogeneity of Chernobyl fallout.
According to the distribution parameters derived (see Fig.2), the median value of S n (131 I) obtained
for the settlements situated in the southern area is about one third larger than in case of the eastern area.
The 90% interval of the S n (131 I) quantity is about 500 - 2,300 kBq/m2 and 700 - 3,500 kBq/m2 for theeastern and the southern area, respectively. The comparison of the distribution characteristics given in
Fig.2 shows that the ratio of median values Rmed = med[ S n (131 I) ]/med[ S n (137 Cs) ] for the eastern area isabout 1.8 times smaller than for the southern area. It should be stressed that the present values of S n (131 I )162

Relative
Frequencies
0.25

A: Eastern

0.20
Model lognormal
a=0.27(0.01)
b=1.49(0.02)-------------E 0 =4.65
M 0 =4.34
N=1079

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

R

0.15

B: Southern
Model lognormal
a=0.37(0.03)
b=2.07(0.04)---------------E 0 =8.07
M 0 =8.04
N=316

0.12

0.09

0.06

0.03

0.00
0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

R

Fig. 3. Values of the ratio R=Sn(131I)/Sn(137Cs) obtained for settlements situated in
the eastern (A) and the southern (B) areas.
were obtained by using the radionuclides activities expressed on May 10, 1986.
The distributions of the isotope ratio R = S n (131 I ) / S n (137 Cs) are given in Fig.3. According to the results,
about 90% of ratio values obtained for the eastern area range between 3 and 7. In case of the southern area
the quantity R takes a value mainly in the interval 4 < R < 13. The estimations of R agree with the isolinesof the isotope ratio 131I/137Cs in the Chernobyl fallout at Belarus territory (see [7]). The observed
difference between isotope ratio 131I/137Cs in deposition of Chernobyl radionuclides can be caused byseveral factors, in particular, various gaseous and aerosol iodine fractions in radioactive discharges of theChernobyl NPP as well as the deference of wash-out rate between aerosol and gaseous iodine (see [8]).
Evaluation of Thyroid Dose from Inhalation of 131I
Thyroid doses from inhalation intake of 131 I were estimated in a framework of the approachdescribed in [9]. The formula used for calculation of the inhalation dose D was written as(4)
D = d ⋅ A = d ⋅ f ⋅C ⋅ r ⋅ t ,where d is committed effective or organ dose equivalent per unit intake via inhalation, Α is activity
intake over the time period t , C is the mean activity concentration of radionuclide in air, r is inhalation
rate, and f is the shielding factor of inhabitants. The values of quantities d and r for different age
groups of population are presented in [10] and [11], respectively. Following to [9] it was conservatively
assumed for the purposes of dose assessment that f = 1.
163

The radionuclide concentration in air C was estimated on the basis of the data on deposition density
S, deposition velocity v , and the time period of deposition T

C=

S
.
v ⋅T

(5)

According to the data presented in [12], in general the contamination of air in the southern area continued
for nine days. About 90% of 131I activity fell out during the period 8:00 April 26 - 8:00 April 29, 1986.
The territory of the eastern area was contaminated by radioactive fallout mainly in two days, namely 8:00
April 27 - 8:00 April 29. The fraction of 131I activity which fell out during the pointed period on the
territories of different administrative districts situated in the eastern area range from 75% to 95%. The
contamination of the eastern area persisted until May 10, 1986.
Data from [12] show different characteristics of radioactive deposition among the areas underconsideration. The territory of the southern area was contaminated by dry deposition, whereas wet
deposition prevailed in the eastern area. The contribution of wet deposition to the overall contamination of
territory of several districts in the eastern area was about 75%. The velocity values of dry (vd = 0.4 cm/s)
and wet (vw = 3.0 cm/s) deposition of 131I used in the present work were taken from [13].
The expression for evaluation of settlement contamination with 131I is written as

S n ( 131 I) = ∑ S n (t m ) ⋅ k (t m ) ,

(6)

tm

where S n (131 I) is the density of 131I deposition at the territory of the n-th settlement on May 10, 1986,
k (t m ) = exp(−∆t m / τ) , ∆t m = t f − t m is the period from the final day (tf) of deposition (i.e. May 10, 1986)

and the m-th day of deposition, and τ is half-life time of 131I. In order to use the data on daily depositionof 131I the quantity S n (t m ) was expressed

S n ( t m ) = a (t m ) ⋅ ∑ S n (t m ) ,

(7)

tm

where a(t m ) is daily fraction of summarized deposition activity of 131I. The values of a(t m ) characterizes
daily variation of 131I deposition in the period April 26 - May 10, 1986 (see [14]). Taking into accountexpressions (6) and (7) the relationship between S n (131 I) and ∑ S n ( t m ) is written astm∑ S n (t m ) = S n (131 I)/[∑ a(t m ) ⋅ k (t m )] .

(8)

tm

On the basis of Equations (4) - (8), the expression for estimation of thyroid dose from daily (t = T = 1day) inhalation of 131I was defined as

Dn (t m ) = d ⋅ f ⋅ r ⋅ h ⋅ S n ( 131 I)/v (t m ) ,(9)where h = a(t m ) /[∑ a(t m ) ⋅ k (t m )] . Distributions of S n (131 I) values used for dose calculations are given in
Fig.2. Starting from equation (9), the doses from inhalation during the main period of radioactive
deposition ∆t = April 26 - May 10, 1986 were estimated as a sum of doses from daily inhalation intake of131I:

Dn ( ∆ t ) = ∑ Dn ( t m ) .

(10)

tm

Results and Discussion
The calculation results show (see Fig.4) that thyroid dose equivalent for adult population of the areas
under investigation varies from a few to a few hundreds of mSv. Dose values obtained for 95% of thesettlements situated in the eastern and southern the areas are smaller than 45 and 300 mSv, respectively.
The maximal dose is about 80 mSv in the eastern area and about 370 mSv in the southern area. The
164

median value characterizing the dose distribution obtained for the southern area is about 6 times larger
than in case of the eastern area. The computations of thyroid dose for children show that the dose
assessments obtained for children of 10 years old are 1.8 times larger than the results for adult population.
It should be emphasized that present dose assessments correspond to conservative (largest) value of thefactor f. Note that thyroid doses from inhalation intake of 131I are smaller then doses from 131I intake withfoodstuff. According to [12], 131I intake with cow milk evaluated for adult residents of settlements locatedin Gomel district (southern area in our case) are higher than 500 mSv.
It should be emphasized that the present dose estimation based on the relationship between 131I and137
Cs activities in soil does not takes into account local features of 131I deposition and inhalation. As aresult the spatial distributions of the reconstructed 131I deposition densities S n (131 I) and the thyroid doses
Dn are similar to the distribution of the137

Cs contamination levels of the settlements S n ( 137 Cs) in the areaof investigation. In particular, two maxima revealed in the statistical distribution of dose Dn calculated for
population of the eastern area may be caused by the peculiarities of location of settlements in this area (seeFig.2 and Fig.4).
Based on the expressions (9) the behavior of the normalized thyroid dose D n0 = D n / S n ( 137 Cs) can bemodeled by the power function, which is simply deduced using the isotope ratio R = Sn (131I) / S n (137 Cs ) :Dn0 ∝ [ S n (137 Cs)]Ck(11)

Relative
Frequencies
0.15

A: Eastern

0.12

Model lognormal
a=0.48(0.03)
b=3.03(0.03)---------------E 0 =22.91
M 0 =21.40
N=1079

0.09

0.06

0.03

0.00
0

20

40

60

80

100

D

0.18

n

,mSv

B: Southern

0.15

Model lognormal
a=0.45(0.03)
b=4.85(0.04)---------------E 0 =155.29
M 0 =129.65
N=316

0.12

0.09

0.06

0.03

0.00
0

100

200

300

400

500

D

n

,mSv

Fig. 4. Distributions of thyroid dose Dn from inhalation of 131I calculated for adult
population of the settlements located in the eastern (A) and the southern (B)areas.
165

where Ck = Bk − 1 < 0 (see (1)). According to equation (11), the normalized dose Dn0 decrease withincreasing of 137Cs contamination density. Equation (11) can partly explains the decreasing trend in thenormalized mean values of thyroid dose measured for population of 70 settlements with the increase of the137
Cs contamination level [2].
The present estimats of thyroid dose from inhalation of 131I are associated with uncertainties arisingfrom different sources. One of them is the 131I deposition velocity v depending on type of deposition (wetor dry). No data about the quantity v in the areas of investigation are available. For this reason the velocity
values vw = 3.0 cm/s and vd = 0.4 cm/s derived in [13] for radioactive deposition were used for the present
calculation. The value 3.0 cm/s agrees with estimation 2.6 cm/s (the difference is about 15%) obtained forvelocity of 131I wet deposition in the town Obninsk situated on the territory of Kaluga region (Russia)
bordering upon the eastern area under investigation (see [15]). The velocity value for dry deposition (0.4cm/s) is two times larger than estimation 0.2 cm/s derived in the measurements carried out in the ResearchCenter of Seibersdorf (Eastern Austria) in April-July 1986 [8]. Considering that the radionuclide
concentration in air is directly related with deposition velocity, the value of deposition velocity would be
the important source of uncertainty in dose estimation, in particular for the southern area where dry
deposition was dominant.
The next source of uncertainties is dose dependence on the period of 131I deposition. In thisconnection it should be noted that the previous thyroid dose estimation for population of the eastern area(see [16]) was carried out in proposal of constant daily wet deposition of 131I during April 28 - May 2,
1986. The comparison of the dose distribution given in Fig. 4 with data from [16] shows that dose values
obtained in [16] in average are about 20% smaller than the present estimations. The similar uncertainties
in dose estimation can be caused by errors in the parameters Ak and Bk characterizing the relationshipbetween 131I and 137Cs deposition densities, or errors in the level of settlements contamination with 137Cs(see [16]). Note that despite the uncertainties mentioned above, the assessment of 131I deposition density
and thyroid exposure based on the procedure described seems reasonable taking into consideration thelack of empirical data on 131I content in air and soil.
Conclusion
Using the relationships between 131I and 137Cs activity concentration in soil samples and the data on
the level of settlements contamination with 137Cs, the 131I deposition density S n (131 I) was evaluated for thesettlements situated in the territory of the eastern and the southern areas of Belarus. The results show thatthe median values of Sn (131 I) obtained for settlements located in the eastern and the southern area areabout 1.1 and 1.5 MBq/m2, respectively.
Based on the assessments of S n (131 I ) thyroid doses from inhalation of 131I were calculated for adult
population of the studied areas. The results show that thyroid doses Dn for population of the eastern areachange in region 3 < D n< 80 mSv. In case of the southern areas the dose values vary from 40 to 370 mSv.
The median doses are about 20 and 130 mSv, for population of the eastern and the southern area,
respectively. The observed difference between doses is caused mainly by different character of 131I
deposition in the studied areas.
The values of thyroid dose normalized to the level of settlement contamination with 137Cs tend to
decrease with increasing 137Cs deposition density. This tendency in behavior of the normalized dosereflects the non-linear relationship derived between 131I and 137Cs concentration in soil.
The results of the present estimation of 131I deposition density and thyroid doses from inhalation of131
I will be included in wide-scale computations of thyroid dose for population of the contaminatedregions of Belarus.

166

References
1.
2.

Belarusian Cancer Registry. Ministry of Health of Belarus, Minsk (2001).
Yu.I.Gavrilin, V.T.Khrouch, S.M.Shinkarev, N.A.Krysenko, A.M.Skryabin, A.Bouville and L.R.Anspaugh,
Chernobyl Accident: Reconstruction of Thyroid Dose for Inhabitants of the Republic of Belarus. Health Physics
76(2), 105-119 (1999).
3. Buglova E.E., Kenigsberg J.E. and Sergeeva N.V., Cancer Risk Estimation in Belarussian Children due toThyroid Irradiation as a Consequence of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident. Health Physics 71(1), 45-49 (1996).
4. V.A.Knatko, I.I.Ivashkevich, V.D.Asimova. Relationship between 131I and 137Cs Deposition on Soil in the
Chernobyl Accident. Research Activities about the Radiological Consequences of the Chernobyl NPS Accident
and Social Activities to Assist the Sufferers by the Accident. Ed. by T.Imanaka, KUR-KR-21, Kyoto University,
90-93 (1998).
5. J.E.Kenigsberg, V.F.Minenko, S.S.Tretyakevich. Catalog of Annual Exposure Doses for Population of Belarus.
Report of the Institute of Radiation Medicine and Endocrinology, Minsk, 1995 (in Russian).
6. Yu.A.Izrael, and 10 others. Ecological After-Effects of Environment Contamination in Chernobyl Accident Area.
Atom. Energ. 64(19), 28-40 (in Russian) (1988).
7. Retrospective Dosimetry and Dose Reconstruction. Experimental collaboration project №10, Final report. Eds.
I.K.Bailiff and V.Stepanenko. Europian Commission, Brussels, 38, (1996).
8. K.Mueck. Variations in Activity Concentration and Radionuclide Ratio in Air After the Chernobyl Accident and
its Relevance to Inhalation Dose Estimates. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 22(4), 219–229 (1988).
9. V.A.Knatko, A.Mayall, M.A.Drugachenok, I.I.Matveenko, V.P.Mironov. Radiation Doses in Southern
Byelorussia from Inhalation of Specific Radionuclides Following the Chernobyl Accident. Rad. Prot. Dosimetry.
48(2), 179-183 (1993).
10. A.W.Phipps, G.M.Kendall, J.W.Stather and T.P.Fell. Committed Equivalent Organ Dose and Committed
Effective Doses from Intake of Radionuclides. NRPB-R245 (London: HMSO) (1991).
11. NRPB. Revised Generalized Derived Limits of Radioisotopes of Strontium and Curium. (Chilton: NRPB),
NRPB-GS8 (1987).
12. K.P.Mahonko, E.G.Kozlova, V.V.Volokitin. Dynamic of Radioactive Iodine Accumulation in Soil andReconstruction of Doses from its Irradiation at Territory Contaminated after the Accident at Chernobyl NPP.
Radiation and Risk 7, 140-191 (1996) (in Russian).
13. H.Muller, G.Prohl. ECOSYS-87: A Dynamic Model for Assessing Radiological Consequences of Nuclear
Accident. Health Phys. 64, 232-252 (1993).
14. V.F.Minenko, S.S.Tretjakevtch, S.V.Trofimik, Y.E.Kruck. Methodical Recommendations for Defining Thyroid
Doses for Inhabitants of Settlements of Republic of Belarus. (2001) (Project) (in Russian).
15. M.Y.Orlov, V.P.Snikov, Y.A.Hvalenski, A.A.Volokitin Contamination of the Soil in European Part of Territory of
USSR after Accident at the Chernobyl NPP. Atomic energy 80, 466-471 1996 (in Russian).
16. V.A.Knatko, I.N.Dorozhok. Reconstruction of 131I Deposition Density in Regions of Belarus with Estimation of
Thyroid Doses from Inhalation of Thyroid Doses from Inhalation of 131I. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 93(1), 43–48(2001).

167

Radiation Epidemiological Studies in Russian National Medical and Dosimetric
Registry: Estimation of Cancer and Non-cancer Consequences Observed
among Chernobyl Liquidators
Marat M. MAKSIOUTOV
Medical Radiological Research Center, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences,
National Radiation and Epidemiology Registry
Koroleva st. 4, Obninsk, 249020, Russia: nrer@obninsk.com

Abstract
In June 1986 the USSR Ministry of Health Care initiated a large-scale program to establish AllUnion Distributed Registry of persons exposed to radiation. The Research Institute of Medical
Radiology of Russian Academy of Medical Sciences in Obninsk (currently Medical RadiologicalResearch Center of RAMS) was appointed as the leading organization to create and manage theRegistry. Two tasks were set before the Registry: first, assessment of health effects due to the Chernobyl
accident with a view to develop an optimal strategy for alleviating the accident consequences for humanhealth and, second, organization of many-years epidemiological studies primarily directed to estimating
the actual radiation risks. By 1 December 2001, the Russian National Medical and Dosimetric Registry(RNMDR) included medical and dosimetric data for 585,121 persons exposed to radiation as a result of
the Chernobyl accident and residing in the territory of Russian Federation. At present the Registry
includes 187,596 liquidators (32.1% of total number of registered).
This article presents comprehensive radiological and epidemiological analysis of individual
medical and dosimetric data for the cohort of liquidators available in the RNMDR. Particular emphasis
is placed on the issue of estimating radiation risks in induction of cancer and non-cancer diseases. This isdue to the fact that the coefficients recommended by ICRP are primarily based on the Japanese
epidemiological studies of 1945 atomic bomb survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (the LSS cohort).
Statistically significant estimates of radiation risk coefficients for the Japanese cohort, however, werereceived in the individual dose range above 0.3 Sv. For low doses (up to 0.2 Sv), only extrapolation
models without direct epidemiological ascertainment were used. Therefore, the RNMDR is the first to
estimate radiation risks for low radiation doses using individual medical and dosimetric information
available for the liquidators cohort.
The article consists of five parts. Chapter 1 describes the organizational structure and basic
principles of operation of the Russian National Medical and Dosimetric Registry, and provides
characterization of the liquidators cohort in the RNMDR. Chapters 2-4 deal with direct radiationepidemiological studies aimed at estimating and predicting radiation risks using the actual data of theRegistry. Radiation risk estimates derived from incidence data on leukemias, solid cancers andnoncancer diseases among the liquidators are discussed. The last chapter 5 deals with estimatingmortality rate among the Chernobyl liquidators and establishing a possible dose response relationship for
mortality. The submitted material is based on scientific papers prepared by the experts of the Registry
and published in the famous Russian and international scientific magazines.

1. The short description of the Registry
In 1986 the USSR Ministry of Health Care initiated a program to establish All-Union Distributed
Registry (UDR) of persons exposed to radiation due to the Chernobyl accident. The computer center ofResearch Institute of Medical Radiology of USSR RAMS (Obninsk) became the core of the Registry. The
UDR was formed with contributions from all republics of the former Soviet Union, many scientific research
168

institutions and practical organizations [1]. Information to the UDR was mainly supplied by republican
information computer centers of Ministries of Health Care of Belarus, Russian Federation and Ukraine. In
1992 after the disintegration of USSR, on the base of the UDR the Russian National Medical and Dosimetric
Registry (RNMDR) was set up in Medical Radiological Research Center of RAMS (former ResearchInstitute of Medical Radiology). The principal objective of the Registry was organization of long-term
automated individual recording of persons exposed to radiation effects of the Chernobyl accident, theirchildren and subsequent generations as well as assessment of their vital status.
1.1. Organizational structure and tasks of the Registry
The Registry is a multilevel information system covering all regions of Russian Federation. The
Registry provides for four levels: federal, regional, province and district.
In each of the 11 administrative and economic regions of Russia a regional center of the RNMDR was
set up to collect individual medical and dosimetric information supplied from districts and provinces and topass it on to the national level (Fig. 1.1). In addition to regional centers established by the territorial
principle, the RNMDR has affiliation centers in Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Internal Affairs, Ministryof Railways, Ministry of Atomic Energy and Federal Security Service. Affiliations with the same status asregional centers were also set up in the regional cities the population of which was worst exposed toradiation as a result of the Chernobyl accident, namely Bryansk, Kaluga, Tula and Oryol.
The Registry is designed to provide information support and to improve the quality and effectiveness ofthe following:• clinical examination of the population;• treatment and health promotion activities;• studies of the incidence pattern, dynamics and trends of health outcomes in the monitored contingent;• recommendations on improving prevention, diagnosis and treatment of diseases, conducting protection
measures and perfecting the health care system;• special scientific studies on the health effects of the Chernobyl accident and other radiation disasters
and incidents.
The tasks of the Registry include:• automated recording of passport and registration data for persons exposed to radiation as a result of theChernobyl accident and other radiation disasters and incidents;• automated recording and determination of individual radiation doses among the population;• automated recording of chronic diseases in the monitored cohort before the accident and automatedFig. 1.1. Distribution of regional centers of the Registry across the territory of Russia.
169

recording of health status after the accident;• retrieval of data on request of users;• quality control for data completeness and medical follow-up.
The users of the Registry are Ministry of Health Care of Russian Federation and Ministry of Emergencyof Russian Federation. Other organizations are entitled to get access to materials of the Registry withpermission of appropriate health care authorities.
The structure of the Registry was devised with allowance for the experience of similar registries in theworld, in particular, the Japanese Registry of atomic bomb survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki as well as
registries in other countries [2].
1.2. Monitored groups and operational procedures in the Registry
By 1 December 2001, the Registry included medical and dosimetric data for 585,121 persons exposed
to radiation as a result of the Chernobyl accident and residing in the territory of Russian Federation. The
contingent of the registered persons consists of four groups:
1st group - persons involved in clean up works at the Chernobyl NPP (liquidators). These include:- persons who were involved in mitigation of the Chernobyl accident consequences in the exclusionzone in 1986-1990 (including temporary workers and those on a mission), persons dealing with public andcattle evacuation or working at the Chernobyl NPP, military servicemen including air force staff irrespectiveof where they were stationed and what works involved, and senior and junior militia personnel servicing in
the exclusion zone in 1986-1990. These include specialists, servicemen and reservists called up for
mitigation works and having a certificate of Chernobyl liquidator of established format. At present theRegistry included 187,596 liquidators (32.1% of total registered in the Registry).
2nd group - persons evacuated (among them volunteers) from the exclusion zone in 1986 (areas fromwhich the population was evacuated in 1986 by the radiation safety regulation) including children, among
them prenatal at the evacuation time (1.7 %).
3rd group - persons living in the monitored territories (relocation zone) or having lived there
immediately after the accident (later moved to another area) (61.1%).
4th group - children born to parents in 1st group involved in mitigation of the accident consequences in
1986-1987 (5.1%).
1.3. Doses for liquidators in the Registry
Let us consider the density f(D) of the distribution of absorbed dose D for liquidators. In what follows,
we give a step-by-step approximation to f(D), which by the definition for the dose interval (D, D+∆D) isequal to:f(D)=∆N ( D ),∆D ⋅ N(1.1)

where: ∆N(D) is the number of liquidators with a dose between (D,D+∆D);
N is the total number of liquidators in the group analyzed.
We then form groups of liquidators depending on the date of their entry into the contamination zone:
1986; 1987; 1989 and 1990. This classification corresponds to the type of work performed (from the end of
May to November 1986: the construction of the sarcophagus) and differs with regard to the radiation
situation [3,4].
Fig. 1.2 shows unnormalized histograms of the density of the distribution function D-∆N(D) for theabove groups. For convenience of comparison, the interval of histograms was taken to be the same for allgroups. As can be seen in Fig. 1.2, the distribution of absorbed doses for all liquidators (the group of 119,416
persons with known doses and places of accommodation and work) is rather complex and has peaks at doses
170

N=119416, 1986-1990

N=48575, 1986

16000

4000

14000
3000

∆N(D), persons∆N(D), persons

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000

2000

1000

2000
0

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

0

50

100

150

N=48077, 1987

300

350

400

450

500

350

400

450

500

400

450

500

6000

12000

5000

10000

∆N(D), persons∆N(D), persons

250

N=18208, 1988

14000

8000
6000
4000

4000

3000

2000

1000

2000
0

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

D, mGyD, mGyN=5475, 1989

N=1004, 1990

2500

600

500

∆N(D), persons

2000∆N(D), persons

200

D, mGyD, mGy

1500

1000

500

400

300

200

100

0

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

D, mGyD, mGyFig. 1.2. Unnormalized density ∆N(D) of the distribution of absorbed doses D in liquidators
registered in the RNMDR and densities ∆N(D) for liquidators with different dates of entry
into the contaminated areas - 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990.
of 10, 50, 100 and 200 mGy. At doses higher than 250 mGy the distribution density decreases sharply, whichsuggests proper management of doses during recovery operations (preventing the excess above the dose limitof 250 mGy for most liquidators) or can be explained by other, possibly, subjective reasons.
For the liquidators of 1986 the dose distribution density has maxima in the range of low doses up to 10
mGy (these doses are most probably attributable to the liquidators who were not involved in Recovery
Operations in heavily contaminated areas) and in the range of high doses of 200-250 mGy. For 1987 theindicated maxima are added with a sharp maximum at doses about 100 mGy. This is the dose limit which
was established for most of the liquidators in 1987. In the following years, the dose distribution was shiftedto even lower values with the maxima at about 10 and 50 mGy.
2. Prediction of long term stochastic effects for liquidators
There are currently two models of radiation risk used for prediction of the temporal trend of radiogenic
cancers: the model of relative risk (multiplicative) and the model of absolute risk (additive) [5, 6]. In this171

work the multiplicative model is used, since experts of the ICRP consider it to be preferable for most solidcancers.
In a simple multiplicative model for the i-th disease the increment to the cancer mortality rate due toradiation is written as:∆λi ( u, t , d ) = ERR i 1 Sv ( u , t ) × λi ( u, t ) × f ( d ) ,ERRi1Sv is the excess relative risk of mortality for the i-th disease per unit dose [1/Sv];f(d) is the dose response function (usually linear or linear-quadratic);λi(u,t) is the spontaneous mortality rate for the i-th disease in the stratum of the age group, t and thetime period, u.
In the additive model:∆λi ( u , t , d ) = EAR i 1 Sv ( u, t ) × f ( d ) ,EARi1Sv is the excess absolute risk of mortality for the i-th disease [104 person-years Sv]-1.
Obviously, ERRi1Sv = EARi1Sv/λi .
In case of rare diseases (for example, leukemia) or diseases with low survival rate and short diseasetime course, these models can be used to estimate additional incidence rate due to the radiation factor by
substitution of mortality rates for incidence rates.
Knowing the distribution of population density for liquidators with time and dose response coefficients,
frequency of radiogenic cancers for the i-th disease ∆IMi(t,d) (additional mortality due to radiation induced
cancers) can be estimated:umax∆IM i ( t , d ) = ∫ n( u, t ) × ∆λi ( u, t , d )du ,umin

where n(u,t) is the time variations in the size and age structure of the cohort. For calculation of thisvalue one can use survival tables or apply the approach to solve the equation accounting for variations in the
population.
Additional mortality rate from all radiogenic cancers is given by∆IM ( t , d ) = ∑ ∆IM i ( t , d ) .
i

For estimation of the contribution of radiogenic cancers to cancer mortality we estimate the value of
attributive risk equal to the ratio of the number of radiogenic cancers to the total spontaneous and radiogenic
cancers, i.e. to the detected number of cancers.
As exposure of liquidators was protracted in time (the dose rates are lower than in the LSS cohort [7])we used the dose and dose rate effectiveness factor (DDREF) of 2 for estimating radiogenic cancers.
Frequency of radiogenic cancers is calculated with allowance for the latent period (10 years for solid cancers
and 2 years for leukemias).
2.1.Calculation models of excess mortality risk for solid cancers and leukemias
In calculation of additional mortality from radiogenic solid cancers and leukemias the approximants ofexcess relative risk given in [21] were used.
The model used for describing the risk of radiogenic solid cancers has the following form (designations
are as in the original):

ERR( d , s , e ) = β s × d × exp( γ × ( e − 30 )) .
Here s is the sex attribute;d is the dose;
e is the age at exposure;βs is the risk coefficient dependent on sex and cancer localization (ERR/Sv). For all solid cancers thecoefficient is equal to 0.38;
172

Table 2.1. Age dependence of parameters βe and δe for leukemias
Age at exposure

0-19

20-39

40+

βe
δe

-0.553-0.0370.708-1.542-0.6880.173

Leukemia: In accordance with [21] the model of excess absolute risk of radiogenic leukemias formales is written as:

EAR( d , s , e , t ) = ( d + θ × d 2 ) × exp( β e + δ e × log( t / 25 )) .
The parameters βe and δe dependent on age at exposure account for the level and temporal trend of risk
for leukemias, respectively. The values of these parameters as a function of age at exposure are given in
Table 2.1. The value of θ is taken to be 1.53.

Cumulative number of radiogenic leukemias

2.2.Prediction of mortality from radiogenic cancers in the liquidators
Leukemia
Effects of exposure to ionizing radiation are characterized by the increase of the leukemia incidence rate
because, according to current concepts, radiation risks of leukemia are much higher than those for solidcancers. The time elapsed since the accident is now sufficient for leukemia induction (the latent period isabout 2 years). A prediction of expected mortality from radiogenic leukemias in the Chernobyl liquidators ispresented in Fig. 2.1. The expected life-time number of radiogenic leukemias is 32 cases (per 100,000
persons with the mean dose 0.11 Sv).
The attributive risk of radiogenic leukemias changes significantly with time since the accident. The peakin the attributive risk of 41% is expected 5 years after the accident. Such dependence of the attributive risk isdue to a similar time dependence of the excess relative risk. This means that today the peak in induction ofradiogenic leukemias has passed. The attributive risk is currently 35%, i.e. each third leukemia in the cohortof liquidators is radiation induced. Even 50 years after the accident the attributive risk of leukemias will
exceed the risk for solid cancers and be equal to 10%.
Solid cancers
Fig. 2.2 shows occurrence of solid radiogenic cancers in the cohort of liquidators as a function of timesince the accident (per 100,000 persons), the mean dose is 0.11 Sv (mean dose for liquidators). The expected
life-time number of radiogenic solid cancers is 320 cases (per 100,000 persons). The peak in the incidence
rate is expected to occur 30-35 years after the accident and will approximately be equal to 10 cases per year.
40

30

20

10

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Time since the accident (years)

Fig. 2.1. Temporal pattern of radiogenic leukemias in the cohort of liquidators(per 100,000 persons).
173

Number of radiogenic cancers per 100000

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Time since the accident (years)

Fig. 2.2. Temporal pattern of radiogenic solid cancers in the liquidators. (per 100,000 persons).
Table 2.2. Temporal pattern of the attributive risk of radiogenic cancers (%).
Time since the accident (years)
Malignant neoplasms
5
1020
Solid cancers
1.5
1.6
Leukemias
40.5
34.4
23.3
Digestive system diseases
1.5
1.7
Respiratory system diseases
8.4
3.3

50
2.4
10.1
2.3
0.9

The attributive risk increases with time and reaches 2.4% 50 years after the accident. The growth of theattributive risk with time is due to a greater contribution from liquidators exposed at younger age because theradiation risk of solid cancers increases as the age at exposure decreases.
Table 2.2 contains the values of the attributive risks for solid cancers, leukemia and malignant
neoplasms for the digestive and respiratory systems.
The presented results of predicting the excess cancer mortality due to radiation in liquidators are
preliminary. As was indicated, the estimates are rather approximate because of uncertainties in parameters
used in predictions. This is, first of all, the uncertainty in the risk coefficients which were obtained for
different exposure conditions (doses and dose rates) and for other populations. All this lets us assume that the
projection based on the models currently accepted in the world radiation epidemiology and discussed in thischapter may be underestimation. As a consequence, the expected stochastic effects can, in fact, be more
pronounced. Optimization of measures to minimize health effects of the Chernobyl accident becomes of evenmore social significance. Solutions to these problems can be sought in many-years radiation-epidemiologicalstudies in the RNMDR system based on the Chernobyl data.
3. Trends of cancer incidence among liquidators: estimation of radiation risks
One of the issues related to radiation effects on liquidators that has not been adequately covered in theliterature is how frequency of malignant diseases can be modified by risk factors. At the same time,
malignant neoplasms are known to be radiogenic [8], as confirmed by both clinical and radiationepidemiological studies [5].
The long-term study of the 1945 atomic bomb survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki has revealed anincrease in risk of malignant diseases and corresponding mortality with increase in radiation dose [2].
This chapter deals with calculating cancer incidence rates and assessing radiation risks for theliquidators in the period from 1986 to 1997-1998. The analysis is based on the data available in the RNMDR
about radiation risks of leukemia (ICD-9: 204-208) and solid tumors (ICD-9: 140-165, 170-195). The
174

incidence of leukemia and solid tumors was analyzed using the cohort methodologies [9,10]. Particularattention was attached to deriving a relationship between incidence rates and different risk factors. The
incidence rates are primarily dependent on age of liquidators, external radiation dose and time of entry into
the zone. The absolute values of incidence rates tend to increase with time since the Chernobyl accident.
3.1. Analytical method for radiation risk assessment
In cohort epidemiological studies long-term systematic surveillance of a group of persons is carried out
to collect individual information on their health status.
For each person the time at risk to develop a disease of a particular class is calculated as a difference ofdates T1 and T0, where T0 is time of arrival to the 30-km zone and T1 is one of the following dates: the dateof the first diagnosis for the class of diseases under study, the date of the latest medical examination or thedate of death. The incidence rate used in this study is defined as a ratio of the total cases to the total times atrisk measured in person-years.
At first, in order to estimate the difference in cancer incidence between liquidators and the population of
Russia as a whole, Standardized incidence ratio (SIR) is calculated. Age-specific incidence rates for the malepopulation of Russia were used in SIR calculations.
Secondly, to derive the dependence of incidence rates on dose, the individual data about liquidators
have been grouped in a multidimensional table. In the present study the data are grouped into 10 strata byage ([18-20), [20-25), [25-30), [30-35), [35-40), [40-45), [45-50), [50-55), [55-60), [60+) years), into 6
groups according to dose ([0-50), [50-100), [100-150), [150-200), [200-250), [250+) mGy) and groups bycalendar year (from 1986 to last year of surveillance).
Let i be the index of age-time group and j be the index of dose group.
Let Yij be the number of cases, Pij is person-years and Mij is the incidence rate in stratum ij. In theseterms Mij for a given class of diseases can defined as:(3.1)
Mij = Yij / Pij .
It is reasonable to assume [11,12] that Yij values are independent Poisson random variables withmathematical expectation E(Yij) = PijMij. To determine the dose dependence of Mij it is necessary to present
Mij in the form of parametric function and determine its parameters using the maximization of likelihood
function:(3.2)
l = Σ {Yij ln(PijMij) - PijMij},
where Mij = f(Dij) where Dij is the average dose in stratum ij.
Simple functions are used in this work:(3.3)
f(Dij) = Mi0 exp(adij),
dij = 0 for j = 0 and dij = 1 for j > 0.
(3.4)
f(Dij) = Mi0 (1 + bDij).
(3.5)
f(Dij) = Mi0 + yDij.
Equation (3.3) is used to determine the relative risk RR = exp(a), and equation (3.4) is used todetermine the significance of dependence of relative risk on dose. The statistical test applied for these
purposes is the test of ratios of likelihood maxima at null hypothesis b=0. The 0-50 mGy group is used asbaseline dose group (j=0, internal control).
Estimation of parameters of equations (3.3-3.4), statistical tests and determination of confidence
intervals are performed on the software AMFIT [12].
For calculation of the dose dependence of leukemia incidence rates, equation (3.5) was used withstratification solely by age.
3.2. Results of radiation risk assessment
Leukemia
The cohorts of liquidators in this study total 99,024 people [13]. All worked within the 30-km zone.
175Members of the cohort reside in the European part of Russia. In 1986, 44,057 individuals served, and theirmean dose from external penetrating radiation was 0.168 Gy. In 1987, 35,689 people served; their mean dose
was 0.093 Gy. For the three-year period 1988-1990 inclusive, additional 19,278 persons, with a mean dose of
0.033 Gy, from the Russian Federation were involved in recovery operations related to the Chernobyl
accident.
The incidence of leukemia in these liquidators has been followed up to the end of 1997. Standardized
incidence ratios (SIR) together with related information are provided in Table 3.1 for all leukemia, chronic
lymphocytic leukemia, and chronic myeloid leukemia in the liquidators. The results have been tabulated
separately for the early period (April 1986-1990), the later period (1991-1997) and for the entire period of
follow-up. The SIR values are relative to the comparable age-, sex- and period-specific rates for the RussianFederation as a whole.
The SIR for all leukaemia was elevated for both periods, but slightly more for 1991-1997. The question
is to what extent these elevated values may reflect the effect of differential case ascertainment for theliquidators compared to that for the general population of Russia. Table 3.1 provides the standardized
incidence ratios for chronic lymphocytic leukemia (deemed a subtype not increased by radiation exposure)and chronic myeloid leukemia (a subtype for which incidence can be increased by radiation exposure) for
these same periods. The elevated standardized incidence ratio for chronic lymphocytic leukemia indicatesthat a substantial effect of screening exists. However, the standardized incidence ratio for chronic myeloid
leukemia is some two-fold higher than that for chronic lymphocytic leukemia in the same 1991-1997 period,
Table 3.1 Standardized incidence ratio for various types of leukemia in Russian liquidators.
ExpectedStandardized
incidence ratio a
(SIR)

8.6
17.7
26.3

1.98 (1.15-3.17)
2.71 (2.00-3.59)
2.47 (1.91-3.15)

Number of cases
PeriodPerson-years

1986-1990
1991-1997
1986-1997

398 630
613 203
1 011 833

Observed
Leukaemia (ICD-9: 204-208)
17
48
65

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (ICD-9: 204.1)
1986-1990
1991-1997
1986-1997

398 630
613 203
1 011 833

1986-1990
1991-1997
1986-1997

398 630
613 203
1 011 833

4
14
18

1.7
4.5
6.2

2.33 (0.62-5.96)
3.10 (1.70-5.20)
2.89 (1.71-4.56)

Chronic myelogenous leukaemia (ICD-9: 205.1)
4
21
25

1.3
2.7
4.0

3.01 (0.81-7.72)
7.76 (4.81-11.9)
6.20 (4.01-9.16)

a 95% CI in parentheses.

Table 3.2. Standardized incidence ratio and excess relative risk for leukemia among Russianliquidators with documented individual doses.
Number of cases
PeriodPerson-years

Observed

ExpectedStandardized
incidence ratio a(SIR)

Excess relativerisk a(Gy)-1

Leukaemia (ICD-9: 204-208)
1986-1990
1991-1997
1986-1997

288 917454 867
743 784

16
36
52

6.1
12.6
18.7

2.63 (1.15-4.28)
2.85 (1.99-3.94)
2.78 (2.07-3.64)

n.a.
0.83 (-1.62-3.31)
1.16 (-1.17-3.52)

Leukaemia excluding chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (ICD-9: 204-208 excluding 204.1)
1986-1990
288 91713
4.9
2.55 (1.41-4.54)
n.a.
1991-1997
454 86727
9.5
2.84 (1.88-4.14)
2.93 (-0.83-6.72)
1986-1997
743 78440
14.4
2.78 (1.99-3.79)
4.58 ( 0.51-8.60)
a 95% CI in parentheses.

176

Table 3.3. Incidence of solid cancers among Russian liquidators.
PeriodPerson-years
of follow-up

Number of cases
Observed

ExpectedStandardized
incidence ratio(SIR) a293

0.95 (0.84-1.07)

1 259

0.91 (0.86-0.97)

Nuclear workers
1991-1998

107 133

278
Previously not nuclear workers

1991-1998

704 375

1 152

a 95% CI in parentheses.

Table 3.4. Standardized incidence ratio and excess relative risk of solid cancers among Russianliquidators with documented individual doses in the range of 0.001-0.3 Gy.
PeriodPerson-years
of follow-up

Number of cases
Observed

ExpectedStandardized
incidence ratio a(SIR)

Excessrelative risk a(Gy)-11.01 (0.86-1.20)

0.56 (-1.23-2.79)

0.94 (0.88-1.01)

0.82 (0.28-1.37)

Nuclear workers
1991-1998

56 356

149

146

Previously not nuclear workers
1991-1998

514 101847

898

a 95% CI in parentheses.

suggesting the possibility of radiation-related excesses.
The question whether radiation exposure from their work in the 30-km zone may have led to excess
leukemia was addressed by examining the excess relative risk (ERR) per Gy in the liquidators for whom
individual measurements of external dose were available. With this criterion, the number of person-years offollow-up (Table 3.2) is about three-quarters of the total in Table 3.1. The SIR for all leukemia is given in
Table 3.2 for this group with documented individual doses; 2.85 (95% CI: 1.99-3.94) for the period 19911997, which is essentially identical to the value of 2.71 (95% CI: 2.00-3.59) in Table 3.1 for the entire
cohort. The ERR per Gy for all leukaemias was not significantly associated with radiation dose. For theforms of radiogenic leukemia (all leukemia excluding chronic lymphocytic leukemia), however, a significant
association with dose is observed over the entire period of follow-up (1986-1997). For the period 1991-1997,
however, ERR per Gy is elevated but not significantly so.
Solid cancers
For investigation of solid cancers, Russian liquidators were divided into two different groups. The firstgroup comprised 16,280 persons who had been nuclear workers before the accident occurred. The second
group is larger (comprising 96,982 persons) and consists of those who had not been nuclear workers prior totheir participation in recovery operations within the 30-km zone.
A five-year latency period was employed for the analysis of solid cancers. The SIR values for solidcancer appearing 1991-1998 are provided in Table 3.3 for the two groups of the liquidators. The control isthe age-and sex-standardized rates for the whole of Russia. SIR were <1 for both groups, while for those who
had not previously been nuclear workers SIR was significantly low, indicating a significant healthy worker
effect.
The correlation of solid cancer incidence with dose was examined for those workers who had
documented individual doses (the range 0.001-0.3 Gy was selected). This selection decreased the personyears of follow-up by about 50% for those who had been nuclear workers (comparing Table 3.3 with Table
3.4) and by about 30% for those who had not previously been nuclear workers. The SIRs for those with
documented individual doses, however, were similar to those shown for the entire group. While the point
estimates of ERR were greater than zero for both groups (Table 3.4), the ERR was significant only for those
who had not been nuclear workers prior to their participation in recovery operations (0.82 (0.28-1.37)). The
ERR was not significant in the case of those who had been nuclear workers previously (0.56 (-1.23-2.79)).
Some words about risk assessment for other solid cancer sites. Table 3.5 contains estimates of radiation
177

Table 3.5. Excess relative risk for malignant neoplasm of the digestive and respiratory systems.
SignificanceDisease class
ICD-9 code
ERR/Gylevel
0.85
Malignant neoplasm of the digestive system
150-159.9
0.2(-0.3,2.04)
1.13
0.14
Malignant neoplasm of the respiratory system
160-165.9(-0.24,2.4)
risks for malignant neoplasm of the digestive and respiratory systems. For both types of the solid tumors
were detected non-statistically significant excesses in the incidence of malignant neoplasm.
The estimates of radiation risks for solid cancers in the previous studies of cancer incidence inliquidators [14] are consistent, within statistical errors, with the results of the present study. In our present
study the ERR per Gy for solid cancers is estimated to be 0.82 (0.28-1.37), which is somewhat higher thanthe values previously presented [15,16]. It should be pointed out, however, that the sex and age patterns ofthese cohorts are different, as well are the systems of health care, methods of data collection, estimation ofradiation doses etc. In order to assess the influences of all these factors, detailed long-term studies are
required. Further study of the Chernobyl liquidators will serve to reduce uncertainties in interpretation of theeffects of radiation on human health.
4. Radiation-epidemiological analysis of incidence of non-cancer diseases in liquidators.
Most of studies of health consequences of the Chernobyl accident and related radiation risks areconcerned with dose response relationship of cancer incidence and mortality. But in the last few years a
possible relationship between radiation exposure and frequency of non-cancer diseases is being discussed inscientific publications in Russia and abroad. Therefore it becomes particularly important to estimate
radiation risks of non-cancer diseases from low doses within the study of the health status of liquidators. This
chapter presents results of radiation-epidemiological studies of the cohort of liquidators registered in the
RNMDR. This chapter discusses the dose response relationship for non-cancer incidence [17].
For this epidemiological analysis we formed a retrospective cohort consisting of 68,309 maleliquidators, for each of which external gamma radiation dose was known and health information wasavailable in the RNMDR (at least one entry from 1986 to 1996) and all were registered before 1.01.1992. Forradiation risk assessment the analytical method described in chapter 3.1 was used. The 0-50 mGy group was
taken as the baseline group (internal control).
4.1. Results of radiation risk assessment

All non-cancer classes
This section provides estimates of the excess relative risks (ERR) for main classes of non-cancer
diseases derived from the cohort of liquidators.
As can be seen from Table 4.1, the statistically significant dose dependency with 95% confidence
interval was derived for four classes of non-cancer diseases [18]:1. endocrine diseases and metabolic disorders (ERR=0.58 with 95% CI (0.30; 0.87));
2. mental disorders (ERR=0.40 with 95% CI (0.17; 0.63));
3. diseases of the nervous system and sensory organs (ERR=0.35 with 95% CI (0.19; 0.52));
4. diseases of the digestive system (ERR=0.24 with 95% CI (0.05; 0.43)).
Two other classes of diseases have been estimated to be close to their statistical significance. These
classes are:
1. diseases of the circulatory system (ERR=0.23 with 95% CI (-0.03; 0.50));
2. diseases of the genitourinary system (ERR=0.43 with 95% CI (-0.02; 0.87)).
For other classes of diseases under study no statistically significant dose dependencies were observed. We also
calculated ERR for liquidators separately with different time of arrival to the emergency zone. It is only the endocrine

178

Table 4.1. Estimation of parameters of dose dependency of incidence rates for different non-cancer
diseases among liquidators.
DiseaseICD-9 codes

P

Infectious and parasitic diseases

001-1390.152

Endocrine and metabolic diseases

240-279<0.001

Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs

280-289

0.701

Mental disorders

290-319<0.001

Diseases of the nervous system and sensory organs

320-389<0.001

Diseases of the circulatory system

390-459

0.077

Diseases of the respiratory system

460-519

0.893

Diseases of the digestive system

520-579

0.013

Diseases of the genitourinary system

580-629

0.048

Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue680-709

0.377

Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective
tissue710-739

0.319

Injuries and poisoning

800-999

0.161

ERR (1/Gy)-0.49(-1.12; 0.15)
0.58(0.30; 0.87)-0.17(-1.00; 0.67)
0.40(0.17; 0.64)
0.35(0.19; 0.52)
0.23(-0.03; 0.50)
0.11(-0.15; 0.18)
0.24(0.05; 0.43)
0.43(-0.02; 0.87)-0.22(-0.70; 0.26)
0.09(-0.09; 0.26)
0.24(-0.11; 0.59)

and metabolic diseases for which statistically significant estimates of ERR were obtained for both 1986 and 1987. The
values of ERR for the liquidators of 1986 was 0.57 with 95% CI (0.19; 1.00) and for the liquidators of 1987 the value of
ERR was 0.75 with 95% CI (0.28; 1.22). Below listed are diseases for which statistically significant estimates of ERR
were obtained when the group was separated according to the year of arrival to the zone:• mental disorders, 1986 (ERR=0.53 with 95% CI (0.21, 0.85));• diseases of the nervous system and sensory organs, 1986 (ERR=0.45 with 95% CI (0.22; 0.68));• diseases of the digestive system, 1986 (ERR=0.27 with 95% CI (0.01, 0.52));• diseases of the genitourinary system, 1987 (ERR=0.89 with 95% CI (0.10, 1.68)).
Thus, as a result of the radiation-epidemiological analysis of the dose dependency of non-cancer
diseases a series of classes of diseases were identified which show a statistically significant growth withincrease in dose. For diseases of the genitourinary system, the statistically significant relative risk was
obtained only for the liquidators of 1987, whereas for all liquidators the estimate of relative risk is notstatistically significant.
Cardiovascular diseases
Table 4.2 gives calculated radiation risks of the diseases of the circulatory system among liquidators.
The conducted studies have revealed, first of all, a statistically significant estimate of ERR for
cerebrovascular diseases (ERR=1.17 with 95% CI (0.45; 1.88) and essential hypertension (ERR=0.52 with
95% CI (0.07; 0.98)). It has also been demonstrated that for the liquidators who arrived to the zone in 1986
the value of ERR for cerebrovascular diseases was higher than for the cohort as a whole and equals 1.29
(95% CI (0.34; 2.24)) and for essential hypertension among the liquidators of 1987 the value ERR is 0.88
with 95% CI (0.10; 1.66).
Among diseases of the circulatory system attention should be paid to the class as a whole, in which thevalue ERR is 0.23 with 95% CI (-0.03; 0.50), and hypertension (ERR=0.35 with 95% CI (-0.05; 0.74)). The
lower boundary of these two diseases is almost 0, i.e. there is a clear tendency, even though not statistically179

Table 4.2. Estimated parameters of the dose dependency of incidence of diseases of the circulatory
system among liquidators.
DiseaseICD-9 codes

P

Diseases of the circulatory system

390-459

0.077

Hypertensive disease401-405

0.071

essential hypertension

401

0.016

hypertension with heart affection

402

0.814

Ischaemic heart disease (IHD)

410-4140.735

acute myocardial infarction

410

0.702

other acute IHD

411

0.642

angina pectoris

413

0.372

other chronic forms of IHD

414

0.970

Other heart diseases

420-429

0.927

Cerebrovascular diseases

430-438<0.001

Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries

440-448

0.167

Diseases of veins, lymphatic vessels and otherdiseases of the circulatory system

451-459

0.341

ERR(1/Gy)0.23(-0.03; 0.50)
0.35(-0.05; 0.74)
0.52(0.07; 0.98)-0.08(-0.76; 0.60)
0.08(-0.39; 0.55)
0.29(-1.23; 1.81)-0.35(-1.74; 1.05)
0.31(-0.40; 1.01)-0.04(-0.64; 0.57)-0.04(-0.83; 0.90)
1.17(0.45; 1.88)
0.56(-0.31; 1.44)-0.25(-0.75; 0.26)

significant.
We also studied robustness of radiation risk estimates depending on dose group ranges and effect ofstratification by the arrival year on these estimates. The study has shown that division into smaller dosegroups does not result in noticeable differences in radiation risk estimates.
It should be noted that the study did not allow for recognized risk factors such as excessive weight,
hypercholesterolemia, smoking and alcoholism. Therefore, there is no way thus far to single out the radiation
component in incidence of diseases of the circulatory system and other somatic diseases among liquidators.
This requires in-depth studies considering all risk factors of both radiation and non-radiation nature andconducting detailed questioning of liquidators under study.
5. Mortality among the liquidators: estimation of radiation risksThis part of the article is based on the paper [19] and deals with estimating mortality rate among theChernobyl liquidators and establishing a possible dose response relationship for mortality (radiation risks).
The importance of these issues is associated with two aspects: first, from the epidemiological standpoint it isvital to study a possible dose response of mortality rate, considering low doses in the cohort under study (themean external gamma radiation dose to liquidators is 0.1 Sv), and secondly, because mortality and its
dynamics is a reflection of social, economic and political conditions in the country.
The size of the cohort of liquidators (65,905 persons) considered in the present paper is comparable tothat of the above mentioned cohorts and these data may be of interest as an additional source of information
about relationship of low radiation doses (<0.3 Sv) and mortality.
In the present work, the term dose implies a documented external radiation dose for a specificliquidator. In order to reduce the uncertainty in the marginal dose intervals, the analysis of dose response wasbased on data on liquidators with the doses from 5 to 300 mSv. A total of 65,905 liquidators with a
180

0.06
Alive
DeathsDistribution density

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

Dose (Sv)Fig. 5.1.Distribution of the alive liquidators and deaths by external radiation dose.
documented dose falling in this dose interval (follow up 1991-1998) were entered in the cohort under study.
The number of follow-up person-years in 1991-1998 in this cohort was 426,304.
Distribution of liquidators by external dose is shown in Fig. 5.1. It is seen from Fig.5.1 that the
distribution has four pronounced peaks. The peaks of 0.05, 0.10 and 0.25 Sv are dose limits establishedadministratively. The limit of 0.25 Sv was set for liquidators working in the zone in 1986, 0.1 Sv - forliquidators of 1987 and 0.05 Sv - for the remainder.
The analysis included 4,995 deaths with documented cause of death and doses in the selected doseinterval 5-300 mSv.
Basically, four classes of causes of death were considered as based on the International Classificationof Diseases (ICD) [18]:- malignant neoplasms: code of ICD-9 140-239.9;- cardiovascular diseases: code of ICD-9 390-459.9;- injuries and poisoning: code of ICD-9 800-E 999;
Table 5.1. Mean dose characteristics for death cases as a function of working time in the zone
(the range 5-300 mSv).
Mean length of stay
Mean dose rate
Year of working
Mean dose
Population(days)a(mSv day-1)atime(mSv)a
1986
1978
171
68.2
2.9
1987
2169
97
74.2
1.4
1988
636
37
74.5
0.4
1989
206
40
108.5
0.5
1990
16
43
30.0
0.5
1986-1990
4995
116
72.4
1.8
a
Person-year weighted averages.
Table 5.2. Number of deaths and SMR with 95% confidence intervals for main mortality classes.
Noncancer causes of death
MalignantCardiovasAll causes
Parameter
Injuries andneoplasms
cular
Other
Total
poisoningdiseases
Number of
515
1728
1858
894
4480
4995
deaths
SMR
0.87
1.07
0.78
0.82
0.85
0.85
(0.80, 0.95)(1.03, 1.13)(0.74, 0.81)(0.77, 0.88) (0.83, 0.88) (0.82, 0.87)(95%CI)
181

- diseases other than the above: code of ICD-9 0-139.9, 240-389.9 and 460-799.9.
Subclasses were not considered because of the short observational period and limited number ofdeaths.
The main dosimetric characteristics for cases of death are shown in Table 5.1.
The number of deaths included in the analysis of the mortality pattern is shown in Table 5.2.
For analysis of mortality rates and estimation of risk coefficients (using the external control), thegeneral spontaneous mortality rate in Russia in 1991-1998 obtained from official statistics sources was used.
5.1. Analytical method for radiation risk assessment
The performed descriptive analysis of mortality is based on using the standardized mortality ratio(SMR). The expected number of deaths is calculated using the dynamics of person-years in the cohort andthe age-specific mortality rate (males) for the population of Russia in the period from 1991 to 1998. The
confidence intervals for SMR were calculated using the approach proposed in [11]. The projection of themortality pattern is based on estimates of expected number of deaths.
Risk coefficients were estimated by the method of maximum likelihood, assuming that the numbers ofdeaths are the non-stationary Poisson series of events. We considered the non-stationary process to allow forchanges in the spontaneous mortality in the considered time period.
The significance tests were derived from asymptotic properties of the likelihood ratios. The analysis isbased on individual information about external radiation dose, number of observational person-years and age
at exposure time.
The risk estimates were made using both the external (spontaneous mortality in Russia as a whole) andthe internal control group. The logarithm of the likelihood function L for the given sample is [20]:
n

fpi

N

fpi

i =1

k =0

j =1 k =0

ln L( f , ERR1Sv ) = ∑ (ln( λi , fpi ) − ∑ λi ,k ) − ∑∑ λ j ,k .

(5.1)

Risk coefficients were estimated using the linear model.
Model for the external control
In calculations using the external control group the risk model takes the form:

λi ,k = λoi ,k ⋅ f ⋅ ( 1 + ERR1Sv ⋅ d i ) .

(5.2)

Where λi,k is the intensity of the events series (here the mortality) for person i at the k-th time interval;
fpi is the period of follow-up for the cohort member i (the time lapse from the start of follow up to thedate of death or the period of the follow-up for an alive member of the cohort);n is the number of deaths in the observational period;
N is the number of alive members of the cohort included in the analysis;

λoi ,k is the spontaneous mortality rate in Russia corresponding to the attained age of the i-th cohort
member at the k-th time interval;
di is the external radiation dose for the i-th cohort member;
ERR1Sv is the excess relative risk per unit dose (sought parameter);f is the coefficient (sought parameter) accounting for the difference between the spontaneous mortality
in the liquidators cohort and the general population of respective age in the time period considered. In theused model this coefficient is equal to the SMR for unexposed members of the cohort. The variation of thecoefficient f from unity may be explained by completeness and reliability of mortality data in the Registry or
a possible «healthy workers effect», as the liquidators were subject to additional medical checks before going
to work in the zone. The selected risk model has the advantage that it estimates both the dose response andthe difference in spontaneous mortality in the followed up cohort and the referent Russian population.
The spontaneous mortality rate for each person was equal to the corresponding national rate for theattained age at a given time moment. We believe that individual information is preferable for risk estimation182

because it makes possible to minimize the influence of subjective factor and loss of information in datagrouping and stratification.
Thus, it is only the relative age distribution of spontaneous mortality rates that is used for risk
estimation and this is a more robust characteristic than the absolute distribution. The value of f was assumed
to be the same for all age groups.
The 95% likelihood intervals were determined from the likelihood function profile.
Model for the internal control
When risk coefficients were estimated using the internal control, data were stratified by attained age
and calendar time, and the spontaneous mortality was determined from the balance of the observed andexpected number of cases in a given stratum.
The risk model is written as:
λi ,k = λiEW,k ⋅ ( 1 + ERR1Sv ⋅ d i )(5.3)

Where:λiEW,k -is the spontaneous mortality rate among liquidators in the stratum by the attained age andcalendar time in which the i-th person under study falls.
The spontaneous mortality in the stratum by attained age j, at time moment k was taken to be as
follows:
λEW
j ,k =

n j ,k

(5.4)∑ PYi ,k ⋅ ( 1 + ERR1Sv ⋅ d i )i⊂ j

5.2.Results
Fig. 5.2 shows the SMR dynamics from all causes in the studied cohort of 65,905 individuals.
The mortality from all causes is lower than the general Russian rate and is basically a reflection of thecorresponding pattern in Russia as a whole in the considered period. It should be pointed out, however, thatthe mortality rate in the cohort of liquidators is gradually approaching the general Russian one. In 1998 themortality from all causes was about 8 deaths per 1,000 persons.
Table 5.3 shows that for the considered dose interval (5-300 mSv) the spontaneous mortality ofliquidators is lower than the general Russian one and equals about 82% of the general all-Russian mortality
for the population of corresponding age. The observed difference in the spontaneous mortality (thecoefficient f=0.82) can be either because of incomplete data on mortality in the general population or due tothe «healthy workers effect» in the liquidators.

1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85

SM R

0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

Calendaryears

Fig. 5.2. SMR dynamics from all causes.
183

98

99

Table 5.3. Estimates of risk coefficients for deaths among liquidators.
Parameter

Non cancer
Cancer: ICD9 140-208

Number of
cases

515

Non cancer:
Other than
ICD-9 140208

Injuries andpoisoning:
ICD-9 800Е999

Cardiovasculardiseases: ICD9 390-459.9

Other than incolumns 3
and 4: ICD-9
0-139.9,240-389.9,
460-799.9

4480

1858

1728

894

All causes

4995

Risk coefficients derived using the external control (spontaneous mortality in Russia)
2.11
0.13
-0.36
0.54
0.23
0.27
ERR Sv(1.31, 2.92)(-0.09, 0.35)(-0.68, -0.04)(0.18, 0.91)(-0.26, 0.73)(0.06, 0.48)
0.70
0.84
0.81
1.01
0.80
0.82
Coefficient f(0.64, 0.76)(0.81, 0.87)(0.77, 0.85)(0.97, 1.06)(0.75, 0.85)(0.80, 0.85)
Risk coefficients calculated using the internal control (spontaneous mortality derived from the balance of theobserved and expected mortality in the strata at attained age and calendar time.
In parentheses are 95% likelihood intervals-1

ERR Sv-1

2.04(0.45,4.31)

0.15(-0.24,0.60)-0.36(-0.89,0.26)

0.79(0.07,1.64)

0.18(-0.67,1.26)

0.31(-0.08,0.74)

Fraction of the total number of deathes

The mortality pattern for the considered causes of death is shown in Fig. 5.3. The observed pattern is ingood agreement with the expected.
The proportion of deaths from malignant neoplasms and other causes (except the circulatory systemdiseases and injuries and poisoning) remains nearly constant at 10 and 20%, respectively, which is consistent
with the prognosis. The percentage of the deaths due to cardiovascular diseases grows, while deaths frominjuries and poisoning decrease. It is worth noting that the fraction of mortality from injuries and poisoning
among liquidators in 1986-1992 was significantly higher than in the same age group in the country as awhole.
The mortality from cardiovascular diseases becomes predominant (about 42% in 1998) and corresponds
to changes in the general mortality pattern for a given age group in Russia.
The SMR dynamics for cancer in Fig. 5.4 show a little lower mortality than the control (all-Russian). In
1998 the mortality rate from this cause was 110 deaths per 100,000 persons. Dynamics of SMR fromcardiovascular diseases is shown in Fig. 5.5
With respect to all causes of death as a whole and separate categories, the mortality pattern in theconsidered cohort reflects the general trends in Russia. The mortality among liquidators is lower than in the

0.7
Expected
Malignant neoplasms
Cardiovascular diseases
Injures and poisoning
Other

0.6

Actual

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
86

88

90

92

94

96

98

Calendar years

Fig. 5.3. Pattern of overall mortality by disease categories for liquidators.
184

1.10
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90

SM R

0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

Calendaryears

Fig. 5.4. SMR dynamics from malignant neoplasms.

1.4

1.2

SM R

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4
90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

Calendaryears

Fig. 5.5. Dynamics of SMR from noncancer diseases in liquidators(cardiovascular diseases).
corresponding age group in the country. An exception is the mortality from cardiovascular diseases forwhich the mortality became the same level as all-Russian by the end of the follow-up period.
Table 5.2 contains results of SMRs over the whole follow-up period. Comparing the SMR values from
Table 5.2 with the values of coefficients f (SMR for non-exposed liquidators) from Table 5.3, it can be seenthat the confidence intervals of these two estimates for various death causes are practically the same.
Results of estimation of the radiation risk coefficient for the mortality (ERR per Sv) are presented inTable 5.3. As follows from Table 5.3, the ERR values obtained using external and internal controls are close
and the difference does not exceed, on the average, 10-15% (the greatest difference of 46% is observed forthe death from cardiovascular diseases). It should be noted that the range of likelihood intervals derived
using the approach proposed by the authors is very narrow, which suggests, as mentioned above, an increasein estimate accuracy.
As is seen from the presented results for all causes of death, except cancer and cardiovascular diseases,
radiation risks are not statistically significant. For injuries and poisoning the dose relationship is actually
inverse: the risk is decreasing with dose.
The ERR of death from malignant neoplasms of 2.11 (1.31, 2.92 95% CI) (with external control) and2.04 (0.45, 4.31 95% LI) (with internal control) are statistically significant for the considered dose interval(0.005-0.3 Sv).
Thus, the results of the study lead us to conclude that there is a dose response relationship for mortality
185

from cancer in the cohort of liquidators. Given the above considerations and remembering that no account
was taken of the minimal latent period (10 years) preceding the development of malignant neoplasms, thederived values of risk should be treated as preliminary.
It should be also recognized that even with reliable estimates of risk, the dose values being low,
induction of radiogenic cancers will be insignificant. If the maximum risk estimate of 2.04 Sv-1 is adopted,
the attributive risk of induction of radiogenic cancers will be 20% (with the mean dose 0.1 Sv), whichcorresponds to 20 annual radiation-induced deaths per 100,000 liquidators.
In conclusion we would like to point out that the approach to estimation of risk coefficients using therelative age distribution of spontaneous mortality normalized to national rates (external control) seems to bejustified. The risk coefficients (ERR per Sv) estimated with the external and internal controls appear to beclose each other. The values of SMR (Table 5.2) and the coefficient f (Table 5.3) and their confidence
intervals for various death causes, which reflect no dose response, are also very close. We believe that the
proposed approach will have an advantage for rare death causes, for example leukemia, when the accuracy ofdetermination of spontaneous mortality in strata is not very high.
5.3. Conclusion
1. The mortality in liquidators is mostly lower than the all-Russian one and correlates with the trends in thecorresponding age groups of the Russian population. The SMR for liquidators varies from 0.62 to 0.90.
2. The observed pattern of mortality is consistent with the predicted. At present the percentage of deaths
from malignant neoplasms is about 10%, deaths from injuries and poisoning - 30%. Predominant are
deaths from cardiovascular diseases which account for 40% of the overall mortality.
3. The values of the excess relative risk per unit dose (ERR Sv-1) for malignant neoplasms andcardiovascular diseases are estimated as 2.11 (1.31, 2.92 95% CI) and 0.54 (0.18, 0.91 95% CI),
(external control), and as 2.04 (0.45, 4.31 95% CI) and 0.79 (0.07, 1.64 95% CI) (internal control),respectively. The risk of death from all noncancer causes is not statistically significant and close to
zero. The derived estimates of risk coefficients, however, are preliminary.
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2.
3.

4.

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187

Review of Epidemiological Finding in Study of Medical Consequences of theChernobyl Accident in Ukrainian Population
Anatoly Ye. PRYSYAZHNYUK, Volodymir G. GRISHTSHENKO,
Zoya P. FEDORENKO*, Ludmila O. GULAK*, Mykola. M. FUZIKScientific Center for Radiation Medicine of Academy of Medical Science of the Ukraine,
53, Melnikov str., Kiev, 04050, Ukraine. E-mail root@ucr.kiev.ua*Institute of Oncology of Academy of Medical Science of the Ukraine,
33/43, Lomonosov str., Kiev, 03022, Ukraine. E-mail root@ucr.kiev.ua

Abstract
Evaluation of the health status of different groups of the Ukrainian population affected by the
Chernobyl accident is one of the most important problems in elimination of the consequences of theChernobyl disaster. A lot of scientific researches devoted to study of health effects and based on
established registers of victims of the Chernobyl accident had drawn conclusion about worsening ofhealth of main groups of the affected population: Chernobyl accident recovery operation workers,
evacuees from Prypyat city and 30km zone, and residents of the most contaminated with radionuclides
territories. Most remarkable stochastic effect of radiation due to the Chernobyl accident is increase of
thyroid cancer incidence rate in the above-mentioned groups of the Ukrainian population. For female
breast cancer and some other solid cancers there are suggestions of increases. Further observation isneeded for long term stochastic and non-stochastic effects.

1. Introduction
The accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant on April 26th, 1986 is an unprecedented
complicated and large-scale disaster in views of its origin, spreading of radionuclides on relatively large
territories and the number of affected population. The release of dangerous radioactive substances diffusedover the wide areas of Ukraine, Belarus and Russia. Chernobyl accident recovery operation workers(CAROW), who participated in elimination of the consequences of the accident, as well as inhabitants ofterritories neighbouring Chernobyl received substantial dose of radiation.
According to National Report (2001) [1], during 15 years after the accident the rural population of the
Ukraine received 46.21 thousand person-Sv of accumulated collective dose. Average external dose in therural inhabitants during that period constituted 0.6-41 mSv. Average accumulated external and internal dose
per person in the territories with a density of nuclear fall-out more than 555 kBq/m2 exceeded 70 mSv.
Average external effective dose to the evacuated inhabitants of the 30-km zone formed 20-30 mSv;
Prypyat city - 10-12 mSv and Chernobyl city - 20 mSv. Taking into account the internal component, thisevaluation should be doubled. The main group of CAROW who participated in elimination of the accident
consequences in 1986 have received mean dose of 100-200 mSv, and CAROW in 1987 - 50-100 mSv.
Doses to thyroid for the population of the contaminated territories have shown significant burden on
this organ, especially in children. Estimated average of thyroid dose equivalent in the most contaminatedareas constituted 187 - 220 mSv in adults and children, while 877-1360 mSv only in children. Collective
dose to thyroid in Ukrainian children is estimated to be 400,000 person-Gy, and in the most contaminateddistricts - 57,000 person-Gy [2].
Evaluation of health status of the population affected by the Chernobyl accident is one of the mostimportant problem in elimination of the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. According to regulation of188Ukrainian government, there was established State Registry of Ukraine of persons affected by the Chernobyl
accident (SRU). In 2000 there were registered 1,258,241 persons, including 249,000 CAROW, 71,510
evacuees and 193,250 children [1]. Health care system in Ukraine and principles of activity of SRU aredescribed in details by [3].
To follow up haematological and thyroid cancer consequences two special registries are in operation;
Ukrainian Haematological Registry at Scientific Centre for Radiation Medicine, and Morphological Registryof Thyroid Cancer at Kiev Research Institute of Endocrinology and Metabolism.
The main cancer epidemiological studies related to the Chernobyl consequences are based on a database of National Cancer Registry (NCR), which was established in 1989 and covers all territory of Ukraine.
Personal information about all cancer cases is collected in NCR using a network of regional and city cancer
registries [4, 5, 6]. In the last years joint efforts between Research Institute of Oncology and Scientific
Centre for Radiation Medicine allowed to establish a frame of special sub-registry of NCR: cancer patientsfrom the sufferers by the Chernobyl accident (CAROW, evacuees, and people still living in thecontaminated territories). Before these registries, in Ukraine since 1953 there existed a system of cancer
registration based on paper documents which were filled in all cancer hospitals (oncological dispensaries).
Results of studies in the above-mentioned institutes have been published in periodical medical
literatures in Russian, Ukrainian languages as well as in proceedings in national and international symposia,
conferences, congresses and another scientific forums. The main purpose of the current paper is review ofpublications performed and devoted to epidemiological researches of health status, especially about
leukaemia and solid cancer in the groups of the Ukrainian population affected by the Chernobyl accident.
2. Somatic disorders in the main groups of population affected by the Chernobyl accident
2.1. Health status of residents in the contaminated territories with radionuclides
There were observed significant changes of health status of the population still living in thecontaminated territories with radionuclides [7]. During 1988-1999 prevalence and incidence of diseases inthese people increased by more than 2 times (from 620.9 to 1275.6 ‰ and from 305.5 to 746.0 ‰,respectively). Increases of morbidity were observed in almost all diseases classes, especially blood andblood circulation classes (10.8-15.4 times), endocrine pathology (4.1-8.1 times), neurological system andsense organs (3.8-5.0 times), skin and underskin cellulose (4.0-4.6 times). There were also observed morethan two fold increases in the level of morbidity of digestive organs, urinarygenital and muscular-skeletal
systems. It should be pointed out that the level of morbidity in the contaminated areas has exceeded the
Ukrainian population level since 1993-1994.
There was observed a tendency that morbidity in inhabitants of the contaminated areas depends on thelevel of contamination. Since 1988 through 1997 the most remarkable increase was observed in the
population of the territories with the highest level of contamination (so-called the 2nd zone of “obligatory
resettlement”) - by 4.2 times. In the areas with the intermedium level of contamination (so-called the 3rdzone of “guaranteed voluntary resettlement”) morbidity increased by 2.3 times. And in the areas with thelowest level of contamination (so-called the 4th zone of “enhanced radiation control”) - only by 1.4 times.
Only in the 2nd zone, however, there was observed significantly higher level of pathology in comparison
with the Ukrainian population level. Such difference in the levels of morbidity of inhabitants in the different
zones was demonstrated for almost all diseases classes. Attention should be drawn to the higher excess ofmental disorders in all contaminated territories. In the 2nd zone the maximal level of mental disorders
incidence reached 69.7 ‰ rather 4.4-5.4 ‰ in the Ukrainian adult population.
There was performed an incidence cohort study of inhabitants in the contaminated territories withdifferent dose of thyroid gland irradiation [7], which registered high relative risks of blood circulationdiseases, especially cerebrovascular pathology and muscular-skeletal system.
189

As pointed out [8, 9] since 1990-1991 a sign of demographical crisis has been observed, peculiarities ofwhich are a significant decrease of birth-rate and a steep increase of mortality, including a high level of
infant mortality. That happened in the negative radiation-ecological situation due to the Chernobyl disasterand its consequences. Forecasting calculation suggests worsening of the main demographical indexes in thecontaminated territories. It is difficult, however, to estimate the size of load due to ionising radiation in theworsening demographical situation.
2.2. Health status of Chernobyl accident recovery operation workers (CAROW)
During the last period of time there were registered significant changes toward worse health status of
CAROW [10, 11]. The proportion of healthy persons among this relatively young and healthy population at
the moment of participation in elimination of the Chernobyl consequences decreased from 78.7% to 10.3%.
In the people who have received external dose of radiation more than 250 mSv the percentage of healthy
persons decreased to 7.2% due to increase of non-cancer chronic pathology which is the leading cause in
their invalidity and mortality. There were observed increases of morbidity due to neurological diseases,
diseases of sense organs, endocrine system, blood circulation, digestive organs, urinogenital system, andblood and haemopoetic system. The levels of these pathologies exceeded the incidence figures in the adult
population of Ukraine.
There was observed a high level of psychiatric disorders incidence, especially in 1990-1993 [12]. In the
structure of all diseases priority belongs to digestive organs pathology, system of blood circulation,neurological system and sense organs [13]. These three diseases classes compose 85-87% from all causes ofinvalidisation.
According to epidemiological cohort studies [14] the most significant increase of prevalence andincidence of chronic non-cancer diseases was observed in CAROW of 1986-1987 in comparison withpersons who participated in the later period of time. Fourteen years follow-up of CAROW who had acuteradiation disease demonstrated high risks of leukaemia and combined forms of immunodeficit. In a third ofthese patients there were observed relapse of skin lesions. In clinical symptomatology there was observed
domination of radiation cataracts, hypothyreoidism, organic pathology of nervous system. About 90% ofrecovered patients from acute radiation diseases are severe invalids. The main cause of death of them issudden heart death. Obtained data [13] suggest a relationship between dose of irradiation and chronic noncancer morbidity among CAROW.
In CAROW there were observed annual increase of mortality. The level of CAROW mortality
approximated to figures of the mortality in the Ukrainian population of labourable ages [12]. In the last six
years there was observed two fold annual increase of death rate of blood circulation system diseases,
respiratory, digestive systems and endocrine pathology. In the structure of causes of death the first placebelongs to pathology of blood circulation system.
2.3. Health status of the adult population of evacuees
According to State Registry of the Ukraine (SRU) [15, 16], in the adult population of evacuees from
Prypyat city and the 30-km zone around Chernobyl NPP there were observed negative tendency of healthstatus. Since 1988 through 1999 the percentage of healthy persons decreased from 67.7 % to 29.0 %. In thesame time the relative frequency of pathology increase from 31.5 % to 71.0 %. During the above-mentioned
period of time the prevalence of diseases increased by more than 3 times, and the incidence - by 2 times.
The morbidity level was higher rather than the population level for the next classes of diseases:
pathology of endocrine system, blood and haemopoetic system, mental disorders, neurological system andsense organs, system of blood circulation, digestive, and muscular-skeletal systems.
In evacuees there was observed 1.5 fold increased incidence of thyroid gland pathology due to the190acquired hypothyreoidism, thyreoidite and non-toxical nodular goiter. Annual level of thyroid pathology infemale was higher rather than in male. There is an increase of this pathology with age, and more significant
increase was observed in the people older 30.
There are some peculiarities in the structure of evacuees’ morbidity. In the early post-accidental period
the leading role was mental disorders which relative frequency reached 14%. In the following years theleading places belonged to blood circulation diseases, respiratory, neurology systems and sense organs, anddigestive organs.
There was performed a special cohort study of evacuees’ morbidity [16] with different terms ofevacuation from Prypyat city and the 30-km zone around Chernobyl NPP: the first twenty four hours, 8-12
days and 19-50 days. The highest level of morbidity was observed in Prypyat inhabitants of the earliest
evacuation, the prevalence figure of which in 1988-1998 composed 7780 ± 212.4 ‰. The lowest level ofmorbidity was observed in the sub-cohort of evacuees during 19-50 days after the accident. The level ofprevalence was 3124 ± 108.8 ‰, two times lower than the earliest sub-cohort. The intermedium level wasobserved for 8-12 days evacuees; 5436.6 ± 62.2 ‰ of prevalence.
A study of evacuees’ mortality pointed out that at the present time its level does not exceed the
population level. Nevertheless, in separate years (1993, 1994) the mortality level in teenagers (15-17 years
old) was higher than in 18-29 years and corresponded with the mortality in older population groups. In the
structure of death causes the highest relative frequency was observed due to blood circulation diseases(47.6-83.1 %), neoplasms (7.4-16.5 %), and traumas and poisoning (2.7-19%).
2.4. Health status of children affected by the Chernobyl accident
The percentage of healthy children who were evacuated or born from CAROW decreased from 30% in
the first post-accidental years to 2.8 - 5.0% [17]. The percentage of invalid children affected by the
Chernobyl accident by four times exceeds the Ukrainian population level
There was revealed an increase of somatic diseases prevalence during the follow-up period. In 1999 thelevel of all diseases prevalence (49,967 per 10,000 children) was twice the figure in 1987-1988 (25,948 per
10,000 children). The most remarkable changes were registered in index of prevalence of digestive organs
diseases (4,659 in 1988 and 10,122 in 1999 per 10,000 children), nervous system diseases (2,369 and 4,350
per 10,000 children, correspondingly).
Comparison of morbidity figures with those in the identical age groups of non-affected children
suggests a significant difference between two groups (in 1999 by 3 times higher in the affected children). A
tendency of increase was determined distinctly in digestive organs pathology, nervous system and thediseases in pathogenesis of which the main the role belongs to changes of immune system [17, 18, 19].
There was denoted that the main risk of health damage in children living in the contaminated territories
were connected with blood diseases, haemopoetic system, endocrine system pathology, digestive organs
disorders and mental disorders [19].
The increased level of morbidity may be related with both radiological and non-radiological factors(contamination of soil with radionuclides, heavy metals, pesticides, chemical composition drinking waterand so on). Portion of ionising radiation contributing to the increased morbidity is considered from 2 to
20 %.
The most unfavourable changes were observed in the children with high dose of irradiation of thyroid
gland (over 200 cGy) and in utero irradiated children. Among them the percentage of practically healthy
does not exceed 2.6-5.0 % [13].Since 1986 there were observed determined effects of irradiation on thyroid
gland: primary functional reaction observed in 1986-1987, beginning of formation chronical autoimmunal
thyreoiditis in 1990-1992, and clinical realisation of diseases - in 1992-1993.
In the latest period after the Chernobyl accident the forecasting of health status of the children affected191

by radiation is unfavourable [20]. The higher proportion of these children has developed pathology in mostorgans and systems: thyroid gland - 32.6 % (15.4 % in the control group, P<0.05), respiratory system 26.0 % (13.7 % in the control group, P<0.05), heart-vessel system (including vegeto-vessel distonia) 57.8 % (31.8 % in the control group, P<0.05), gastro-intestinal tract - 18.9 % (8.9 % in the control group,P<0.05), immunological deficiency - 43.5 % (28.0 % in the control group, P<0.05), and endocrine infertility
in girls - 32.0 % (10.5 % in the control group, P<0.05).
3. Cancer incidence rates in main groups of population affected by Chernobyl accident.
Cancer incidence rates after the Chernobyl accident were studied in the population of the territories ofKiev and Zhytomir regions neighbouring with the nuclear power plant. The most contaminated districts
included in the study were Narodichy and Ovruch districts of Zhytomir region, Ivankov, Polesskoye andnow unpopulated former Chernobyl districts. At the moment of the Chernobyl accident these five districts
accounted 274 thousand of population including 59,200 children. In 2000 the four most contaminateddistricts (without unpopulated Chernobyl district) had 125,000 residents (including 21,600 children). During
the period of observation for 1980-2000 there were registered 11,400 cases of cancer and leukaemia,
including 126 cases in children [21].
Cancer incidence rates for the period of 1990-1997 were studied in Chernobyl accident recovery
operation workers (CAROW) of 1986 and 1987 years who were chosen from 6 regions of Ukraine:
Dnepropetrovsk, Donetsk, Kharkov, Kiev, Lugansk regions and Kiev city [22]. The sample population
containing the records on 95,000 CAROW as of 1990 was constructed based on the data acquired from theState Registry of Ukraine of persons affected due to the Chernobyl accident (SRU). Cancer incidence in the
Ukrainian evacuees was studied based on the data base contained in SRU. In 1990 there were accounted
51,500 evacuees [22, 23].
3.1. Cancer incidence rates in residents of the most contaminated territories
Cancer incidence rates in the population living in various regions are illustrated in Figure I for theperiod 1980-2000 [21]. Cancer rates in the populations still living in the most contaminated districts wereconsistently lower than for the overall Ukraine or for Kiev and Zhytomir regions. Cancer incidence rates inall four groups show a similar pattern of temporal increase. Regression coefficients, which characterise theincrement per year, do not differ significantly [21, 22, 23, 24].
Comparison of standardised incidence ratios (SIR) for all cancers in the most contaminated districts isshown in Table 1 for various periods of observation. Irrespective of the sub-periods for 1990-1993, 19941997 and 1998-2000, there is no significantly increased cancer incidence for all cancers in the residents ofAge-adjusted incidence rates (10-5)

300

250

200

150

UkraineKiev region
Zhytomir region
Most contaminated districts

100

50

0
1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

Fig. I. Incidence rates for all cancers in various regions of the Ukraine. Males and females.
192

Table 1. Standardised incidence ratios for various cancers in residents of the most contaminateddistricts in Zhytomyr and Kiev regions.
Observed
Expected
Years of
Number of personnumbers of
numbers of
SIR (%)
95% CI
observation
years of observation
cases
cases
All cancers (ICD-IX 140-208), males and females
1990-2000
1660971
5378
6781
79.3
77.2 - 81.4
1990-1993
654501
2143
2607
82.2
78.8 - 85.7
1994-1997
556631
1820
2283
79.7
76.1 - 83.4
1998-2000
449839
1415
1891
74.8
70.9 - 78.7
Leukaemia and lymphoma (ICD-IX 200-208), males and females
1990-2000
1660971
310
295.7
104.8
93.2 - 116.5
1990-1993
654501
127
114.1
111.3
92.8 - 131.5
1994-1997
556631
100
98.8
101.2
82.3 - 122.0
1998-2000
449839
83
82.8
100.3
78.7 - 121.8
Thyroid cancer (ICD-IX 193), males and females
1990-2000
1660971
107
57.3
186.7
151.4 - 222.1
1990-1993
654501
24
22.4
107.2
68.6 - 154.4
1994-1997
556631
48
19.3
249.1
183.6 - 324.6
1998-2000
449839
35
15.60
224.4
150.1 - 290.8
Breast cancer (ICD-IX 174) females
1993-1997*
389645
162
107.8
150.3
127.1 - 173.4
1998-2000*
240917
97
64.1
151.3
121.2 - 181.4*Because of significant territorial variation of breast cancer incidence in the Ukraine SIR was calculated on a baseof local standard 1980-1992.

the most contaminated districts.
For leukaemia and lymphomas (Figure II) in the population from the contaminated districts there werepronounced annual incidence fluctuations. Such annual figures showed an increase for the period 1987-1991
and 1999-2000. Analysis of aggregated time periods for leukaemia and lymphoma incidence rates showed
higher levels in 1986-1991, 1992-1997 and 1998-2000 in comparison with the pre-accident period (19801985) (Table 2). When individual subtypes of these diseases were evaluated, a comparable increase wasseen for lymphoid leukaemia in 1986-1991 and (non-significantly) for 1992-1997, 1998-2000. For myeloid
leukaemia there was an increase in 1986-1991 and 1998-2000 [21, 24].
A screening (ascertainment) effect could be supposed for the first after-accident period. The overall
regression coefficients for this entire period do not suggest any significant difference among the different
20.00

Age-adjusted incidence rates (10-5)

18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00

Ukraine6.00

Kiev region
Zhytomir region

4.00

Most contaminated districts
2.00
0.00
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Fig. II. Incidence rates for leukaemia and lymphoma in various regions of the Ukraine. Males
and females.
193

Table 2. Leukaemia and lymphoma incidence rates in the population (children and adults) of 5 mostcontaminated districts in Zhytomyr and Kiev regions, Ukraine.
Mean annual age-adjusted incidence rate (10-5)
ICD9Diseasecode
1980–1985
1986–1991
1992–1997
1998–2000
200–208 10.12 ± 0.75
15.63 ± 1.06
13.41 ± 1.10
13.82 ± 1.52
Leukaemia and lymphoma
Lympho- and reticulosarcoma
200, 202
1.84 ± 0.33
2.70 ± 0.41
3.70 ± 0.58
3.36 ± 0.90
Hodgkin’s disease201
1.82 ± 0.34
2.47 ± 0.48
2.10 ± 0.48
1.23 ± 0.50
Multiple myeloma
203
0.54 ± 0.16
1.03 ± 0.25
0.78 ± 0.22
1.38 ± 0.40
Lymphoid leukaemia
204
3.08 ± 0.40
4.93 ± 0.59
2.97 ± 0.49
4.11 ± 0.75
Myeloid leukaemia
205
0.49 ± 0.17
1.99 ± 0.41
1.06 ± 0.30
2.32 ± 0.62
Other leukaemias
206–208
2.35 ± 0.36
2.51 ± 0.41
2.81 ± 0.53
1.41 ± 0.53
territories [21]. Because of large-scale out-migration of the people from the contaminated areas, there is aconcern that some members of the group of highest potential risk may have been lost to follow-up.
On the western part of Ukraine there was performed a study of morbidity and mortality rate ofleukaemia and lymphoma in relation to the Chernobyl accident during the period 1981-1994 [25, 26, 27, 28].
There were studied the population in two regions: Rivne and Ivano-Frankivsk, which correspond to thecontaminated and the non-contaminated regions as a result of Chernobyl accident, respectively. The study
has revealed that leukaemia and lymphoma morbidity and mortality rate increased mainly during the period
1987-1994 in both regions, irrespectively of their being or not being contaminated by radionuclides. The
most pronounced increase was observed in older age groups of the population of two regions. Besides,
among different forms of these diseases there were registered increases of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma,
chronic lymphocytic leukaemia and multiple myeloma.
The radiation-related origin of the dramatic increase of thyroid cancer incidence is not in doubt [29, 30].
In Ukraine, the overall incidence of thyroid cancer was approximately doubled during the post-Chernobyl(Figure III). In the Kiev region and city of Kiev, where some 70% of the population of Pripyat and the 30km zone settled, the increases were significant (Figure IV). A dramatic increase occurred in 1996 and 1999
for the most contaminated areas [21].
In the 5 most contaminated districts, female breast cancer rate remained relatively stable during 19801992 (Figure V), though lower than in Ukraine as a whole or in regions that include contaminated districts.
In 1993-2000, however, an increase in the rate of female breast cancer (Table 1) occurred in the 5 mostcontaminated districts; which now corresponds more closely to the rate typical of Ukraine as a whole [21,22, 23].
A molecular-genetic study at Institute of Urology and Nephrology of AMS of Ukraine in collaboration

6

Age-adjusted incidence rates (10-5)5

M alesFem ales

4

3

2

1

0

1 96 2 -64

1 96 9 -72

1 97 7 -79

1 98 9 -92

1 99 3 -96

1 99 7 -99

Fig. III. Mean annual age-adjusted thyroid cancer incidence rates in the Ukraine.
194

Age-adjusted incidence rates (10-5)

16
Ukraine14

Kiev region
12

Zhytomir region
Kiev city

10

Most contaminated districts
8
6
4
2
0
1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

Fig. IV. Thyroid cancer incidence rates in various regions of the Ukraine.
50

Age-adjusted incidence rates (10 -5)

45
40
35
30
25
20

Ukraine15

Kiev region

10

Zhytomir region

5
0
1980

Most contaminated districts

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

Fig. V. Breast cancer incidence rates in various regions of the Ukraine.
with medical experts of University of Osaka (Japan) gave the evidence that, among prostate adenoma
patients who are inhabitants of the contaminated territories, in 53% there happened mutagenic inactivationof tumour-supressional gene, p53 and in 96% - development of pre-cancer changes in urotelii of urinary
bladder [31]. The authors has connected these changes with chronic influence of low level ionising radiation
which leads to genetic instability with possible development to chiefly invasive cancer of urinary bladder.
3.2. Cancer incidence in Chernobyl accident recovery operation workers (CAROW).
Standardised cancer incidence ratios (SIR) of different organs in CAROW of 1986, 1987 are illustrated
in Table 3 for periods 1990-1993 and 1994-1997. Significant excess is observed in CAROW for all cancers
in the first years following the accident, especially for the period 1990-1993 [22, 23].
Leukaemia and lymphoma are diseases that have drawn special attention after the Chernobyl accident.
A study of leukaemia and lymphoma in a cohort of Russian recovery operation workers has shown excess ofleukaemia and elevated radiation risks [32, 33, 34], but the data weren’t confirmed in a case-control study[30].
In Ukraine an international haematological review was performed in relation to diagnosis validation
evaluation of diagnostic material quality. The international experts panel has proved the adequacy of
diagnostic criteria applied in different regions of Ukraine as satisfying the international standards and highquality level of diagnosis of acute and chronic leukaemia [35, 36]. The percentage of confirmed cases of
Hodgkin disease and non-Hodgkin lymphomas for which histological slides were available was high, but theavailability of data from the different sources (oncological or haematological dispensaries) has to be
improved.
195

Table 3 Standardised incidence ratios for various cancers in Chernobyl accident recovery
operation workers of 1986 and 1987.
Observed
Years of
Number of personExpected
numbers of
SIR (%)
95% CI
observation years of observation
numbers of cases
cases
All cancers (ICD-IX 140-208), males
1990-1997
577536
1496
1354
110.5
104.9 - 116.1
1990-1993
263084
538
443
121.5
111.2 - 131.8
1994-1997
314452
958
911
105.1
98.5 - 111.8
Leukaemia and lymphoma (ICD-IX 200-208), males
1990-1997
577536
183
81.6
224.2
191.7 - 256.7
1990-1993
263084
81
31.8
255.0
199.5 - 310.5
1994-1997
314452
102
49.9
204.6
164.9 - 244.3
Thyroid cancer (ICD-IX 193), males
1990-1997
577536378.4
442.7
300.0 - 585.3
1990-1993
26308413
3.3
393.0
179.4 - 606.6
1994-1997
31445224
5.1
475.2
285.1 - 665.4
Breast cancer (ICD-IX 174), females
1990-1997
39188
44
29.1
151.2
106.5 - 195.8
1990-1993
15913
12
10.9
110.2
47.9 - 172.6
1994-1997
23275
32
18.2
175.6
114.8 - 236.5
A study based on the data base from the SRU for CAROW who were exposed in the period 1986-1987,
the leukaemia and lymphoma incidence rate was significantly elevated in the years 1990-1993 and 19941997 [22, 23].
Other group of investigators has followed the incidence of leukaemia in CAROW of 1986 and 1987 up
to the end of 1996 [37, 38]. In a cohort of 74.7 thousand CAROW (aged 20-69) there were registered 48
leukaemia cases during 1987-1996. The results were tabulated for the entire period of follow-up. The SIR
ratio values were relative to the comparable age and period-specific rate for Ukraine as a whole. SIR for all
leukaemia (107,8%, 95% CI 77.3 - 138.3%) were not elevated for the whole period of time. SIR for chronic
lymphoid leukaemia did not indicate changes. However, SIR for chronic myeloid leukaemia suggested aincrease of this malignancy (SIR - 258.7; 95% CI 127.8 - 389.5%). In 1989-1991 there was observed highrisk of leukaemia in CAROW of 1986 in comparison with CAROW of 1987 [39].
Russian CAROW from the same period displayed their increase in all types of leukaemia, chronic
lymphoid leukaemia and chronic myeloid leukaemia [32, 33, 34]. In Belorussian CAROW (again from1986-1987) excess of acute leukaemia was seen for 1990-1991 [40].
Besides, Table 3 demonstrates the most significant increases in thyroid cancer occurred in CAROW of1986, 1987 in the periods 1990-1993 and 1994-1997 [22]. A statistically significant increase in breast cancer
incidence rate was also observed in female CAROW of 1986, 1987 in the period 1994-1997, but not during
1990-1993 (Table 3).
3.3. Cancer incidence rate in evacuees from 30-km zone.
Standardised cancer incidence rates of different organs in evacuees are illustrated in Table 4 for theperiods; 1990-1993, 1994-1997. There is some evidence of increase of this pathology in the abovementioned group of sufferers by the Chernobyl accident. Leukaemia and lymphoma cases are significantly
elevated only for the 1990-1993 sub-period [23]. The most significant increases occurred in thyroid cancer
in both 1990-1993 and 1994-1997 sub-periods. About female breast cancer a small increase is suggested [22,
23].

196

Table 4 Standardised incidence ratios for various cancers in evacuees from 30 km zone.
Number of
Observed
Years of
Expected
person-years
numbers of
SIR (%)
95% CI
observation
numbers of casesof observationcases
All cancers (ICD-IX 140-208), males and females
1990-1997
408882
870
1234
70.5
65.8 - 75.2
1990-1993
208805432
618
69.9
63.3 - 77.8
1994-1997
200077438
616
71.1
64.5 - 77.8
Leukaemia and lymphoma (ICD-IX 200-208), males and females
1990-1997
408882
74
59.6
124.2
95.9 - 152.5
1990-1993
208805
43
30.0
143.4
100.5 - 186.3
1994-1997
200077
31
29.6
104.7
67.9 - 141.6
Thyroid cancer (ICD-IX 193), males and females
1990-1997
408882
66
12.9
513.4
389.6 - 637.3
1990-1993
20880523
6.4
362.0
214.1 - 510.0
1994-1997
20007743
6.5
661.4
463.7 - 859.1
Breast cancer* (ICD-IX 174) females
1990-1997
235072
72
52.3
137.7
105.9 - 169.5
1990-1993
119915
37
25.7
143.9
97.5 - 190.2
1994-1997
115157
35
26.6
131.7
88.1 - 175.3*Because of significant territorial variation of breast cancer incidence in the Ukraine SIR was calculated on abase of local standard 1980-1992.

3.4. Cancer incidence rates in children sufferers by the Chernobyl accidentChildren constitute a group vulnerable to radiation. Cancer incidence rates in the children population of
the most contaminated districts in Zhytomyr and Kiev regions are provided in Table 5, including the data forthe period before the accident (1980-1985). When compared to the pre-accident values (1980-1985), theonly significant excess observed in children is for thyroid cancer diagnosed during 1992-1997 and forleukaemia during 1986-1991, though the latter result may have other explanations than radiation.
According to [41] there was observed a steep increase of thyroid cancer incidence rate in children andadolescents of Ukraine. Before the Chernobyl accident (1981-1985) the level of morbidity constituted 0.05
per 100,000 children. In the post-accidental period the dynamics of this pathology was: 0.11 in 1986-1990,
0.41 in 1991-1995, and 0.40 per 100,000 children in 1996-2000.
Status of haemopoetic system due to acute and chronic irradiation has been studied in 42,888 children
inhabiting the four contaminated regions of Ukraine during 15 years after the Chernobyl accident [42, 43].
Data analysis suggested absence of excess leukaemia and lymphoma incidence rate during 1980-1999 incomparison with spontaneous background. But, in a group of 3,840 exposed children with high risks ofoncohematological pathology [42], 11 cases of acute leukaemia were registered during the period of
observation of this cohort.
There was also performed a study of the incidence of acute childhood leukaemia during 1980-1996 in
12 large territories of Ukraine including 4 regions which were contaminated by the Chernobyl accident [44,45, 46]. This study has revealed an increase of acute childhood leukaemia incidence rate in most of theregions excluding Kiev city. Certain specificity of different types of leukaemia in children age groups of 0-4,
5-9, 10-14 was revealed. It should be pointed out that the incidence rate of acute leukaemia in 10-14 years
increased mainly in the contaminated regions. Acute myeloid leukaemia had a tendency to increase in 10-14
years. In the post-accidental period (1986-1996) there was also observed an increase of inherited leukaemia
in most of territories.
With relation to this finding there is a very interesting study of acute leukaemia occurrence among thechildren exposed in utero due to the Chernobyl accident [47]. To ascertain the effect of in utero radiation
exposure and the development of leukaemia a review was undertaken of leukaemia subtypes occurring
197

Table 5 Standardised incidence ratio (SIR) for cancer in children population (0-14) of the mostcontaminated districts in Zhytomyr and Kiev regions.
Site of tumours (codeNumber of
Observed
Expected
ICD-IX)
person-years
numbers
numbers of
SIR (%)
95% CIand years of observation of observationof casescases
All cancers (140-208)
1980-1985
33707644
36.48
120.6284.98 - 156.26
1986-1991
20933744
22.69
193.95
136.64 - 251.26
1992-1997
15017031
16.26
190.62123.51 - 257.72
1998-2000
80656
7
8.70
80.46
20.86 - 140.07
1998-2000 (age 10-29)
10762937
22.61
163.62110.90 - 216.34
Leukaemia and lymphoma (200-208)
1980-1985
33707621
17.28
121.5169.54 - 173.49
1986-1991
20933727
10.75
251.11156.39 - 345.84
1992-1997
15017011
7.72
142.4958.28 - 226.69
1998-2000
80656
2
4.13
48.47
(-18.71) - 115.66
1998-2000 (age 10-29)
10762910
7.58
131.8850.14 - 213.61
Leukaemia (204-208)
1980-1985
33707619
10.88
174.6896.13 - 253.22
1986-1991
20933722
6.78
324.35188.82 - 459.89
1992-1997
1501707
4.87
143.7037.25 - 250.15
1998-2000
80656
0
2.59
0.00
0.00 - 0.00
1998-2000 (age 10-29)
1076295
2.58
193.6323.91 - 363.35
Thyroid cancer (193)
1980-1985
3370760
1.13
0.00
0.00 - 0.00
1986-1991
2093372
0.69
289.84(-111.86) - 691.53
1992-1997
1501709
0.49
1824.77632.59 - 3016.95
1998-2000
80656
1
0.28
362.91(-348.40) - 1074.22
1998-2000 (age 10-29)
1076296
1.14
527.32105.38 - 949.27
All cancers except leukaemia and lymphoma, and thyroid cancer (140-208 less 200-208, 193)
1980-1985
33707623
18.07
127.2975.27 - 179.31
1986-1991
20933715
11.24
133.4065.89 - 200.91
1992-1997
15017011
8.05
136.6555.89 - 217.40
1998-2000
80656
4
4.30
93.06
1.86 - 184.26
1998-2000 (age 10-29)
10762921
13.89
151.1686.51 - 215.81

among the children born in the year of Chernobyl accident (1986) and followed 10 years of post-exposure in
the most affected region of the Ukraine (Zhytomir region). A comparison of leukaemia cumulative incidence
rates was made between the children from the exposed and the non-exposed (Poltava region) territories. For
all cell types of leukaemia there was observed a significantly increase of incidence in the exposed region.
The rate of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia was more than three times greater in the exposed region than in
the unexposed region. The results of this study suggest that the increased risk of acute leukaemia among
those children born in 1986 and reside in the radioactively contaminated territories may be associated with
exposure to radiation resulting from the Chernobyl accident.
4. Discussion and conclusion
The established system of follow-up, dispanserisation of sufferers by the Chernobyl accident allow tocollect annually data about health status of different groups of these people. In this context it should be
reminded that the health condition of sufferers by the Chernobyl accident as well as Ukrainian population asa whole are related not only with the consequences of Chernobyl, but with aggravation in the last years of
economic, social and environmental conditions in Ukraine. The Chernobyl accident has caused a heavy
impact on the environment of vast territories of Ukraine, significant worsening of the economic situation instate, disruption of social life in the contaminated areas, growing anxiety and fears among sufferers, as well198

as certain biomedical effects on the people.
From the other side the exposed population undergo much more intensive and active follow-up of theirstatus of health rather than do the general population. Implementation of modern screening procedures (forexample ultrasound devices) have improved the quality of diagnostic procedures. These could in somedegree influence on the registered figures of diseases. Meanwhile, these figures are basis for analysis andconclusions about long-term tendencies in health status of the population affected by the Chernobyl
accident.
Similar trends in incidence rates for cancer were apparent in the different Ukrainian population groups
directly affected by the Chernobyl accident (residents of the most contaminated districts, recovery operation
workers and evacuees). There is excess of thyroid cancer [21, 22, 23, 24, 29, 30, 41]. For female breast
cancer and some other solid cancers there are suggestions of increases. Further studies are required toconfirm these tendencies along with evaluation of the effects of screening and improved registration quality.
The small number of cases for certain types of cancer and the confounding effect due to out-migration meanthat cancer monitoring and surveillance should include not only the contaminated districts but outside
regions where such residents are relocated. The apparent increases at least in part may reflect differences incase ascertainment between the affected groups and the general population of Ukraine, not relating with aradiation-related effect [30, 48]. The existing data on cancer and leukaemia-lymphoma incidence after
Chernobyl are based on the two registries: Chernobyl registry (SRU) and national cancer registry (NCR).
This approach requires more comprehensive linkage between two registries.
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202

Intelligence and Brain Damage in Children Acutely Irradiated in Utero
As a Result of the Chernobyl Accident
Angelina I. NYAGU, Konstantin N. LOGANOVSKY, Tatiana K. LOGANOVSKAJA,
Viktor S. REPIN* and Stanislav Yu. NECHAEV*
Department of Neurology, Institute for Clinical Radiology, Research Centre for Radiation Medicine of
Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine, WHO Collaborative Centre: nyagu@vent.kiev.ua*
Department of Dosimetry and Radiation Hygiene, Institute for Epidemiology and Prophylaxis of Radiation
Injures, Research Centre for Radiation Medicine of Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine, WHO
Collaborative Centre. 53 Melnikov Street, Kiev, 04050, Ukraine

Abstract
The objective of the study was psychometric, neurophysiological and neuropsychiatriccharacterisation of acutely prenatally irradiated children. 100 randomly selected children who were inutero (born between April 26th, 1986 and February 26th, 1987) at the time of the Chernobyl accident andtheir mothers evacuated to Kiev as well as 100 classmates of the children were examined by theWechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), electroencephalography (EEG) and clinical methods
at the age of 10–12 years old. Foetal doses in the acutely exposed group were 11–92 mSv, in thecomparison group — 0–3 mSv; foetal thyroid doses — 0.2–2 Gy and 0–0.04 Gy, respectively. The
acutely exposed group showed a lower mean verbal IQ than in the comparison group (105.3±13.1 vs.
118.1±13; p < .001) and a lower mean full scale IQ (112.1±15.4 vs. 120.9±11.5; p < .001). In addition
the followings were observed in the acutely exposed group; WISC performance/verbal discrepancies
with verbal decrements; a higher frequency of low-voltage and epileptiformal EEG-patterns and left
hemisphere lateralised dysfunction; an increase (p < .001) of δ- and β-power and a decrease (p < .001)of θ- and α-power; an increased frequency of paroxysmal and organic mental disorders, somatoform
autonomic dysfunction, disorders of psychological development, and behavioural and emotional
disorders. Cerebral dysfunction was etiologically heterogeneous. This study suggests that prenatal
irradiation at a thyroid foetal dose range of 0.2–2 Gy and a foetal dose of 11–92 mSv can result in
detectable brain damage.

BackgroundConsiderable strides have been made in the recent past in the knowledge and understanding of theeffects of ionising radiation on the developing brain. A dose of 10 mSv is postulated to cause a reduction in
IQ (intellectual quotient) of 0.3 [1]. The developing human brain is substantially more susceptible toteratogenic insults than most other embryonic and foetal structures [2].
The brain develops in 4 overlapping stages. The main developmental event of the first stage (0–7 weeks
after fertilisation) is the commencement of neuronal mitosis during which the brain produces two to threetimes the full adult complement of neurones [3]. Impaired cell division presumably gives rise to fewer
neurones and may result in dysraphic abnormalities (at 3–4 weeks), cerebellar agenesis (at 4–10 weeks) andsmall head size (at 3–12 weeks) [2].
The second stage (8–15 weeks) is the first critical period of cerebrogenesis and corresponds to the most
rapid proliferation of neuronal elements and substantial migration of neurones to the neocortex from their
proliferative zones near the cerebral ventricles [4–6]. Disturbances in cell migration may result in ectopic
grey matter and dysplasia [2]. Learning disorders and some form of mental retardation may arise fromabnormal migration [3].
202The third stage (16–25 weeks) is the second critical period of cerebrogenesis. This stage corresponds tothe progress of neuronal differentiation and synaptogenesis, and the beginning of the formation of brainarchitecture [2]. The most striking neurobiological event at this stage is programmed cell death or apoptosis,
when more than 50% of migrated neurones are eliminated prior to birth [3]. The recently proposed
neurodevelopmental theory of the genesis of schizophrenia shows that the second trimester of pregnancy is
critical, and disturbed neuronal apoptosis is considered as a key neurobiological abnormality leading toschizophrenia [7]. Programmed cell death, essential to the development of the normal brain and its adnexa,
could be accelerated or otherwise altered by ionising radiation [2].
The fourth stage (26+ weeks) indicates cell differentiation, progressive growth of dendrites and axons,
further formation of synapses and cerebral cytoarchitecture [2,8]. Synaptic development is also characterisedby distinct waves of overproduction and elimination [3]. Possible damage of thalamocortical innervation (at24–33 weeks) is indicated by abnormal cortical differentiation, and by involution of subpial granular layer (at24–38 weeks) — so-called marginal heterotopias [2].
Over the years, the Atomic Bomb Causalty Commission (ABCC) and its successor, the Radiation
Effects Research Foundation (RERF), have established several overlapping samples of individuals prenatally
exposed to the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. According to the DS86 system of dosimetry
there are 1,544 clinical samples of prenatally exposed survivors from a sample of 1,599 (including 509
nonexposed persons) derived from the T65DR system of dosimetry. Severe mental retardation has beenclinically diagnosed in 30 (5 in nonexposed) children [2, 9]. Analysis of the Koga intelligence test scoresobtained in 1955 on the prenatally exposed survivors has revealed a progressive shift downwards in the
distribution of these scores with increasing exposure. There is an apparent dose-related reduction in mean IQ
for the groups irradiated in the periods 8–15 weeks and 16–25 weeks after fertilisation. This effect is stillapparent when the seriously retarded persons are excluded from the analysed population [10].
Data on the incidence of severe mental retardation as well as variation in intelligence quotient (IQ) andschool performance show significant effects on those survivors exposed 8−15 and 16−25 weeks after
ovulation. Studies of seizures also exhibit a radiation effect in survivors exposed 8−15 weeks after ovulation.
Magnetic resonance imaging of the brains of some mentally retarded survivors has revealed a large region ofabnormally situated grey matter, suggesting an abnormality in neuronal migration. Radiation-related smallhead size is related to a generalised growth retardation [11]. A recent reanalysis of the dosimetry data
indicated that the dose threshold for the development of mental retardation after intrauterine irradiation at
gestation terms of 8–15 weeks is 0.06–0.31 Gy. At gestation term of 16–25 weeks, it is 0.28 Gy [12].
The question of the increased lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia in survivors prenatally exposed toatomic bomb radiation is still open to discussion [13]. Among 1,867 prenatally exposed individuals, 18
subjects (0.96%) had developed schizophrenia later in life. The prevalence was significantly higher in thepeople exposed in the second trimester of pregnancy than in those exposed in the third trimester. The closer
they had been to the hypocentre, the higher was the prevalence. No statistically significant linear relationshipwas found [14].
Brain damage due to prenatal exposure was recognised by World Health Organisation (WHO) as apriority area in the assessment of the health consequences of the Chernobyl accident. Such acknowledgement
led to the establishment of the WHO Pilot Project «Brain Damage in Utero» of the International Programmeon the Health Effects of the Chernobyl Accident (IPHECA). Analysis of the results in three countries(Belarus, Russian and Ukraine) has shown the following:а) incidence of mild mental retardation in prenatally irradiated children is higher when compared withthe control group;b) an upward trend was detected in cases of behavioural disorders and in changes in the emotional
problems in children exposed in utero;c) incidence of borderline nervous and psychological disorders in the parents of prenatally irradiated203children is higher than that of controls.
On the basis of the investigations it was impossible to arrive at a final conclusion on the relationshipbetween an increase in the number of mentally retarded children and exposure to ionising radiation due to theChernobyl accident because of an absence of dosimetric support of the studies [15–17].
Recently some related studies have been published. Children irradiated in utero, living on theradioactively contaminated areas in Russian Federation (Tula Region, 137Cs deposition density 185–555
kBq•m-2) at the age of 1–7 years had the highest indices of mental morbidity and were more likely to display
borderline intelligence and mental retardation. This morbidity was linked by the authors to radiation [18].
In Belarussian prenatally irradiated children, especially those exposed in 8–15 weeks, there wererevealed more functional and organic disorders of central nervous system (CNS), borderline intelligencequotients (IQ) and abnormal EEG that were firstly linked to both radiation and psychosocial factors [19].
However, further these mental disorders among Belarussian children irradiated in utero were recognised as aresult of sociodemographic and socio-cultural factors only [20]. Among these children there were revealed anincreased prevalence of specific developmental speech-language and emotional disorders, as well as a lower
mean full scale IQ and more cases of borderline IQ, which did not show the existence of a dose-effectrelationships. No statistically significant distinctions in average IQ were found between the different
subgroups of children in relation to the gestational age at the time of the Chernobyl accident. The authors
attributed these disorders exclusively to unfavourable social-psychological and social-cultural factors [21]. At
the same time, the same authors concerning the same children recently reported that average IQ for the
subgroup of highly exposed children (thyroid doses more than 1 Gy) was lower in comparison with average
IQ for the whole exposed group (85.7±6.4 vs 89.6±10.2 at the age of 6–7 years, P=.014; 89.1±7.1 vs94.3±10.4 at age 10–12 years, P=.003) [22].
In contrast to the results of the WHO Pilot Project «Brain Damage in Utero» and another relevant
studies, there are three recently published papers [23–25] where the authors concluded that 1) the mental andphysical health of evacuee and non-evacuee children is similar and quite normal [23]; 2) the evacuee children(including irradiated in utero) were not different from their classmates based on data derived from objective
and on the majority of the subjective measures used to assess attention, memory, intelligence and school
performance [25]; 3) more evacuee mothers subjectively reported memory problems [25] and somatic
symptoms [23, 24] in their children than classmates’ mothers; 4) greater Chernobyl-focused anxiety is
associated with slightly poorer performance on measures of attention [25]; 5) the most important risk factors
were maternal somatization and Chernobyl-related stress [24]. However, as noted the authors, no dosimetricdata were available, and there were no normative data in Ukraine for the measures used in the study [24, 25].
In the frame of the WHO Pilot Project «Brain Damage in Utero» we have previously revealed asignificant increase of borderline and low range IQ, emotional and behavioural disorders, a decrease in high(IQ>110), as well as statistically significant higher prevalence of mental retardation (IQ<70) in Ukrainianprenatally irradiated children compared to the controls: 21 (3.9%) vs. 12 (1.6%) correspondingly (χ2=6.27;
df=1; P<.05) [16, 26]. Besides, we found that the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) level grows with foetal
thyroid dose increase with the 0.3 Sv threshold [27]. The radiation-induced malfunction of the thyroidpituitary system was proposed as one important biological mechanism in the genesis of mental disorders in
the prenatally irradiated children [16, 26]. It was hypothesised that the cerebral basis of mental disorders in
the prenatally irradiated children is the malfunction of the left hemisphere limbic-reticular structures,
particularly in those exposed at 16–25 weeks of gestation, which obviously reflects developmental
abnormalities of brain structure and function as a result of interaction of prenatal and post-natal factors,
including possible radiation effects on the developing brain. It was also proposed that the left hemisphere ismore vulnerable to prenatal irradiation than the right [28].
Thus, in the majority of studies an increased prevalence of cognitive, emotional and behavioural
impairments have been revealed in prenatally children exposed as a result of the Chernobyl accident. A point204

at issue remains the contribution of prenatal irradiation of a foetus and, especially, of the foetal thyroid glandto the genesis of brain damage in these children.
The objectives of the study was the psychometric, neurophysiological and neuropsychiatric (according
to the International Classification of Disease, 10th Revision (ICD-10) criteria) characterisation of acutely
prenatally irradiated children. This study involves acutely prenatally exposed children — born between April
26th, 1986 and February 26th 1987 from pregnant women at the time of the accident who had been evacuatedfrom the 30-kilometer zone surrounding the Chernobyl NPP to Kiev — and their classmates. This sample
seems to be optimal for examination of possible distinguished effects of exposure in different periods of
cerebrogenesis.
Subjects and Methods
Design and Sample
The design was a cross-sectional assessment of children who were in utero (born between April 26th,
1986 and February 26th, 1987) at the time of the Chernobyl accident (April 26th, 1986) and their mothers who
have been evacuated to Kiev. This group was acutely prenatally exposed to both radiation and non-radiation
factors at the time of explosion, being at the Chernobyl exclusion zone and evacuation route. Inhabitants ofthe town of Pripyat (n=49,360) and railway station Yanov (n=254) were evacuated on April 27th, 1986.
Residents of the 10-kilometre zone surrounding of the Chernoby NPP (n≈10,000) were on May 2nd — 3rd,
1986. Since May 4th, 1986 stepwise evacuation of population of the 30-kilometer zone surrounding of theChernobyl NPP was began. To the middle of August, 1986 there were evacuated 90,784 people from 81
settlements of Ukraine [29].
Obviously, these acutely prenatally exposed children-evacuees from Pripyat towards Kiev are the mostadequate subcohort for comparison with the Japanese cohort prenatally exposed to the atomic bombs in
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in view of 1) acute prenatal exposure, and 2) as much as possible urbanised sample.
The WHO Pilot Project «Brain Damage in Utero» International Advisory Board estimated the numberof births to be identified in the interval between April 26th, 1986 and February 26th, 1987 in the Ukrainian
radioactively contaminated areas (including the Chernobyl exclusion zone — 30-kilometer zone surrounding
the Chernobyl NPP) as 1,400. However, when in 1993–1994 we could indeed identify 1,021 (73%) of thesechildren, only 272 (27%) of them were evacuees from the Chernobyl exclusion zone. The reduced group of
the identified prenatally irradiated children could be explained by both medical and spontaneous abortions(miscarriages) and migration. In the course of the WHO Pilot Project «Brain Damage in Utero» in Ukraine
we have examined 544 (53%) prenatally irradiated children, only 115 (21%) of which were evacuees fromthe Chernobyl exclusion zone. The reduced number of the examined children irradiated in utero could be
explained by: 1) migration and «dispersion» across Ukraine and other countries, 2) incorrect registration as
prenatally irradiated children, 3) local organisational problems, and 4) refusals to be examined.
In 1997–1998, according to the database of the National Register of Ukraine, we identified the official
cohort of prenatally irradiated children in Ukraine that consisted of 733 children, including 278 (38%)
children born from mothers who had been evacuated from the Chernobyl exclusion zone in 1986. 145 (52%)
of them live in Kiev, 133 (48%) — in 26 regions of Ukraine (3–10 children per region). Besides, we haveidentified additional 69 prenatally irradiated children-evacuees living in Kiev according to the data of theSpecialised Clinical and Epidemiological Register (SCER) of the Research Centre for Radiation Medicine(RCRM) of Academy of Medical Sciences (AMS) of Ukraine. Thus, we have identified 347 prenatally
irradiated children-evacuees including 214 (62%) living in Kiev. Among the latest there is the subcohort
consisting of 182 (85%) children-evacuees from the town of Pripyat.
From the subcohort of 182 prenatally irradiated children-evacuees from the town of Pripyat living in
Kiev we randomly selected 100 (55%) children for the study (acutely exposed group). The comparison groupconsisted of 100 gender- and age-matched children selected from the classrooms of the children of the205acutely exposed group. Children of both groups were officially included to the SCER of the RCRM of AMS
of Ukraine and were profoundly medically examined by general paediatrist, paediatrist-psychoneurologist,
paediatrist-endocrinologist, paediatrist-Ear-Nose-Throat (ENT), paediatrist-ophtalmologist, paediatristcardiologist,
paediatrist-haematologists,
paediatrist-pulmonologists,
paediatrist-gastroenterologists,
paediatrist-surgeon, paediatrist-gynecologist (for girls), and genetics using general and biochemical blood
tests, immunological tests, urine tests, coprogram, thyroid and visceral ultrasonography, electrocardiogram(ECG), electroencephalogram (EEG), rheoencephalogram (RhEG) as well as fibrogastoscopy, cardiac
ultrasonography, and magnetoresonance imaging (MRI) for diagnostic reasons. These examinations havebeen carried out at the Children Department of the Out-Patients’ Clinic of the Radiation Register of the
RCRM of AMS of Ukraine.
It should be emphasised that neuropsychiatric assessments presented here are based on neurological andpsychiatric examinations, psychometry of both children and their mothers, and conventional andcomputerised EEG, which have been carried out by us and associates at the Neurology Department of the
RCRM of AMS of Ukraine. The assessments took place in 1997–1999 when the children were 10–12 years
old.
Estimation of Prenatal Age at Exposure
The most important single factor in determining the nature of the insult to the developing brain fromionising radiation exposure is gestational age. There are possible errors in the estimation of prenatal age at
exposure. Postovulatory age is usually estimated from the onset of the last menstrual period, and adjustment
is then made for the differences between that date and the probable date of fertilisation (usually taken to be 2
weeks later). Women with irregular menstrual cycles or who miss a menstrual period could erroneously
identify the onset of their last cycle [2].
In order to avoid the aforementioned uncertainties concerning the estimation of prenatal age at the timeof the Chernobyl accident we used the adapted formulas offered for estimation of prenatal age at atomic
bombing in Hiroshima and Nagasaki [30]:Days of pregnancy (Y) = 280 — (date of birth — April 26th, 1986),
where the day of birth was obtained by interview with the mothers of the children and the mean durationof pregnancy is taken to be 280 days.
Gestational weeks after fertilisation at the time of the accident were calculated by the following
equation:
Gestational weeks (G) = (Y — 14 days) / 7 days,
where G was taken to be zero if G<0.
Dosimetry
Individual reconstruction of foetal doses, foetal thyroid doses and foetal doses on the brain has been
carried out in the Department of Dosimetry and Radiation Hygiene (Chief — Prof. I.A. Likhtariev) of the
RCRM of AMS of Ukraine. It should be stressed that individual reconstruction has been carried out for all
children of both the acutely exposed group and the comparison group because the residents in Kiev were also
exposed to the Chernobyl accident fall-outs although significantly less than evacuees.
The main sources of irradiation of pregnant women were as follows: 1) external γ-irradiation of thewhole body; 2) irradiation of thyroid by radioactive iodine isotopes; 3) internal irradiation by inhaledradionuclides; 4) internal irradiation by radioactively contaminated food. The dose depended on thesettlement, the route of evacuation, and the places of intermediate and final evacuation. The estimation ofindividual doses was carried out by the methods of retrospective dosimetry that were elaborated on the baseof measurements of the dynamic of exposure dose rate (EDR) at the settlements, analysis of 30,000 «route
sheets» (information on clear address at the settlement, the date and the time of evacuation, the route of206

evacuation, the place of intermediate and final evacuation), direct measurements of radioactive iodine content
in 10,000 evacuees, 137Cs deposition density at the place of intermediate evacuation [31, 32].
Reconstruction of foetal doses was based on reconstruction of doses of pregnant women. For estimationof foetal dose due to external irradiation the screening properties of mother’s body were taking into account,and for estimation of thyroid foetal dose — mother’s thyroid dose. Shield factor of buildings in towns was
taken to be 10, in rural settlements — 3. Behavioural factor (time fraction outside houses) for pregnant
women was taken to be 0.4.
Summarised dose on the whole foetus was taken to be equal to the dose of pregnant woman. The tissueequivalent human phantom was exposed to real Chernobyl fall-outs in order to calculate the dose on the
foetal human brain. At the places of foetal organs in the phantom LiF detectors with sensitivity 0.01 mSv
were disposed. The transfer coefficient from EDR to equivalent dose on the foetal brain (Kdbrain = 0.57•10-2
mSv per 1 mR) was obtained considering the screening effect of foetal head by mother’s pelvic bones, which
does not depend on the prenatal age [32]. Finally, the dose on the foetal brain was calculated as thesummarised dose of mother’s external irradiation multiplied by Kdbrain.
In the earliest period after the Chernobyl accident (April 26th — May, 1986) internal irradiation byradioactive iodine had the most impact on the absorbed dose forming in population. Radioiodine frompregnant woman transfers to foetus quite rapidly. The rate of transfer increases in hundreds times inproportion to the term of pregnancy. Foetal thyroid begins its functioning at about the 8–12 weeks when it
absorbs 50–70% of the whole radioiodine transferred to foetus. The radioiodine transfer rate to foetal thyroid
is maximal at about the 20–25 weeks [33]. Consequently, foetal thyroid doses were reconstructed since the
8th week after fertilisation.
Foetal thyroid doses were calculated on the base of direct measurements of radioiodine contents in
mothers’ thyroid, taking into account age and other correction factors; ratio of radioactive iodine isotopes
release from the reactor, wind speed and direction. The mean standardised thyroid dose of the adult
population of Pripyat was taken to be 0.605 Gy (standard error 7%). Protective effect of stable iodine wastaken to be 0.75. At present there are no officially adapted model for calculation of foetal thyroid dose thatcan be by 1 to 10 times larger than mother’s thyroid dose [31, 32]. Assuming that the coefficient oftransplacentar transfer of iodine is 1 and iodine concentrations in maternal and foetal structures are equal,
maternal and foetal thyroid doses were taken to be equal and not dependant on the prenatal age.

Intelligence assessment
The intellectual ability of children was assessed by the adapted and normalised version for the Ukrainianchildren of the WISC [34], which was carried out by Prof. Yu.Z. Gilbukh and colleagues from the ResearchInstitute of Psychology of Academy of Pedagogic Sciences of Ukraine [35]. The child’s performance wassummarised in three composite scores, the verbal, performance and full scale IQs, which provide estimates of
the individual’s intellectual abilities.
Testing procedures were performed at standard conditions at the Neurology Department of the SCRM of
AMS of Ukraine in a quite, adequately lit, well-ventilated room without an accompanying adult, seating andmaterials arrangement corresponded to recommendations by [34, 35] together with co-operative relationships
between the child and the examiner. The entire test was administered in a single session.
Following subtests of the WISC were used: verbal scale — information, vocabulary, similarities, anddigit span; performance scale — picture completion, block design, object assembly, and coding. We usedeight subtests only of the WISC, as manuals permit it, to predict a possible fatigue of children due tofollowing testing and examinations. The sum of subtest scaled scores on the affected scale was prorated toobtain the verbal and performance score that was used to derive the IQ score. To prorate the child’s score on
four verbal and four performance subtests we multiplied the sum of the four scaled scores by 1.25. The sums207

of verbal and performance subtest scaled scores were prorated separately and the resulting verbal andperformance scores were summed to yield the full scale IQ score. Scaled score equivalents of raw scores,
standardised to age, and IQ equivalents of sums of scaled scores for verbal, performance, and full scales wereobtained from the norms and conversion tables for Ukrainian children [35].
Cerebral electrical activity assessment
Quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) is a set of non-invasive tools that are capable ofquantitatively assessing activity of the brain with sensitivity and temporal resolution superior to those of any
other imaging methods. The EEG power spectrum is quite stable and characteristic for healthy human beings.
At the same time many brain dysfunctions, including environmentally induced ones, can be distinguished by
QEEG with specificity of about 95% and sensitivity of 60–95% [36]. The level of sensitivity and specificity
of QEEG for brain injury (which is possible to expect in acutely prenatally irradiated children) meets thestandards of sensitivity and specificity maintained for MRI, sonograms, blood analysis, and other common
clinical diagnostic measures [37]. Thus, QEEG is one of the most adequate diagnostic technologies forassessment of radiation effects on the brain.
Neurophysiological investigations were carried out in the neurophysiological laboratory of the
Department of Neurology, RCRM of AMS of Ukraine in the first half of the day during the passive awake
state of a child. The children were nonmedicated for 3 and more days.
Brain electrical activity was recorded monopolarly using the International 10–20 System on 19 channels,
referenced to linked ears on a brain potential analyser «Brain Surveyor», SAICO, Italy. EEG were registeredat 1) passive awakeness, eyes closed — 1 min, 2) passive awakeness, eyes open — 30 s, 3) hyperventilation,eyes closed — 3 min, and 4) passive awakeness after hyperventilation, eyes closed — 1 min. Spectral
analysis of brain electrical activity was conducted. Epochs of analysis consisted of 60 seconds, and analysedfrequencies were in the 1−32 Hz range. Estimation and interpretation of conventional and QEEG activity
were performed according to Zhirmunskaya’s algorithm [38] together with paediatric EEG classic manuals[39–41].
Additional measurements
This paper focuses on intelligence and EEG assessment as well as clinical psychiatric and neurologicaldiagnostic in the children. At the same time the children were also measured by a number of psychologicaltests, analysis of which we hope to present further. For this paper these measures were used for verification ofclinical diagnosis.
Aiming to follow up the children who had been examined before, parents were asked to complete a
Russian translation of the Rutter A (2) Behaviour Rating Scale which was used in the WHO Pilot Project«Brain Damage in Utero» in 1993–1994. Parental rating assesses problems associated with health,hyperactivity, and behavioural and emotional disorders [42]. Russian translation of Achenbach’s Child
Behaviour Checklist (CBCL), the questionnaires for the children and the parents, was also used [43, 44].
Moreover, the Children Questionnaire of Neurosis (CQN) by V.V. Sednev [45], validated and standardisedfor Ukrainian children, was applied for revealing of depression, asthenia, behavioural disorders, autonomic
nervous system dysfunction, sleep disorders, anxiety, and sincerity.
Following the WHO Pilot Project «Brain Damage in Utero», mothers were also asked to complete theGeneral Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28), reflecting the level of her mental adaptation, the level of anxiety
and depression, and also social functions [46, 47]. The vocabulary subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scales (WAIS) was used to estimate the verbal intelligence of the mother. Moreover, posttraumatic stressdisorders (PTSD) in mothers were assessed by the Impact of Events Scale and Arousal Scale of PTSD [48],
as well as mother’s unmasking depression — by the Self-rating Depression Scale [49].
Finally, mothers were asked for demographic background, family history, educational level of the208family, social and economical status as well as they completed a standardised questionnaire on radiation
history. On the base of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM-IV)
Scale of Stress-Factors [50] we elaborated a standardised questionnaire on stress-factors related to theChernobyl accident that reflects a severity of real stress events (but not affective symptoms or Chernobylfocused anxiety) following the Chernobyl accident to the birth of the child. For instance, separation with thehusband and family during evacuation; absence information about the husband, participating in emergency
work at the Chernobyl NPP, and family; consumer problems at the places of evacuation; low level of medicalcare, etc.
Clinical Psychiatric and Neurological Assessment
The children of both the acutely prenatally exposed and the comparison groups were examined bystandardised clinical psychiatric interview and standardised clinical neurological examination at the
Department of Neurology, RCRM of AMS of Ukraine. The mental disorders and the diseases of the nervous
system were assessed according to the diagnostic criteria of ICD-10 (Chapter V: Mental and Behavioural
Disorders & Chapter VI: Diseases of the Nervous System). ICD-10 diagnostic was made on the base ofclinical psychatric and neurological examinations, psychometry, conventional and QEEG, taking into
account the results of the profound clinical, laboratory, and instrumental examination at the Children
Department of the Out-Patients’ Clinic of the Radiation Register of the RCRM of AMS of Ukraine, including
MRI of the brain for diagnostic reasons.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical processing included descriptive statistics, t test, Chi-square tests, relative risk (RR) assessment,
correlation and multiple regression analyses [51]. The paired t test was used to analyse data when a pair ofmeasurements was obtained on each individual [52]. The Bonferroni correction was used when multiple
statistical test were performed [53]. Statistical analysis was performed using STATISTICA 5.0 and MS
EXCEL 97 software.

209

35
30
25
P< .01

P< .01%

20

Acutely exposed group

15

Comparison group

10
5
0
0–7

8–15

16–25

26+

Weeks after fertilisation

Figure 1. Distribution of children by prenatal age at the time of explosion(April 26th, 1986)

Results
Descriptive Characteristic
The age (M±SD) was 11.3±0.4 years for the children from the acutely exposed group and 11.48±0.82
for the classmates; 54% of the evacuee children and 56% of the comparison groups were male.
Distribution of children by prenatal age at the time of the Chernobyl accident is shown in Figure 1. In
spite of a randomised procedure of the children selection, a significant reduction is found in the number ofthe children irradiated at 0–7 weeks after fertilisation in the acutely exposed group in comparison with theclassmates (14% vs. 31%; χ2=8.29; P<.01), which could be explained as the result of abortions and/or
miscarriages among pregnant women-evacuees. However, it is difficult to explain why there is also asignificant reduction of the number of the children from Kiev at 16–25 weeks after fertilisation in comparison
with the acutely exposed group (32% vs. 15%; χ2=8.04; P<.01).
Mean, standard deviation, and range of the individual foetal doses (summarised foetal dose of external
irradiation, mSv; equivalent dose on the foetal brain, mSv; cumulated thyroid foetal dose (since the 8th weeks
after fertilisation), Gy) for the two groups of children are presented in Table 1. It is clear that the children of
the two groups correspond to the subgroups of the Japanese sample [2]: prenatally exposed survivors to
atomic bomb radiation of the foetal dose category less than 0.01 Gy (n=1,201) — to the Ukrainiancomparison group, and those of the dose category 0.01–0.09 Gy (n=322) — to the Ukrainian acutely exposedgroup.
Distribution of summarised foetal dose of external irradiation, equivalent dose on the foetal brain, mSv,
and cumulated thyroid foetal dose (since the 8th weeks after fertilisation) among the children of the acutely
Table 1. Individual foetal doses.
t-test

P

M±SD
Range
M±SD
Range

Acutely exposedgroup31.9±14.4(10.74 – 92.52)
20.7±9.43(6.98 – 60.12)

21.31

<.001

21.14

<.001

M±SD
Range

0.66±0.32(0.22 – 2.04)

17.52

<.001

Dose

Value

Summarised foetal dose of
external irradiation, mSv
Equivalent dose on the foetal
brain, mSv
Cumulated thyroid foetal
dose (since the 8th weeks
after fertilisation), Gy

210

Comparison
group1.2±0.5(0 – 2.67)
0.8±0.5(0 – 2.52)
0.04±0(0.041)

100
90

Acutely exposed group80
70

Comparison group

60
%

50
40
30
20
10
0

1

11

20

29

38

47

56

65

74

83

93
Dose, mSv

Figure 2. Distribution of summarised foetal dose of
external irradiation
100
90
80

Acutely exposed group70

Comparison group

%

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

1.0

7.0

12.9

18.8

24.7

30.6

36.5

42.4

48.3

54.2

Figure 3. Distribution of equivalent doses on the foetal
brain

60.1
Dose, mSv

100
90

Acutely exposed group80
70

Comparison group

%

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

0-0.040.2-0.3

0.31-0.5

0.51-11+Dose, Gy

Figure 4. Distribution of foetal thyroid doses

exposed group are shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4, correspondingly. These foetal doses did not differ dependingon the prenatal age at the time of the accident.
As seen in Figure 4, radiation exposure to foetal thyroid was quite significant: the permissible dose limitof 0.3 Gy on thyroid [54] was exceeded in 97% of the children of the acutely exposed group, moreover, thefoetal thyroid of 17% of them was exposed to 1 Gy and more.
Among the acutely exposed group there were 5% disabled children and their disability was officiallyrecognised to be caused by the consequences of the Chernobyl accident. Except one child with haemophilia,
the four another children had neuromental disorders: moderate mental retardation (1), epilepsy (1), andencephalopathy (2). The child with haemophilia attended the school programme at home, and the child withmoderate mental retardation was institutionalised into the special boarding school. Moreover, 7% of the
211

90
80
p < .001
70

Acu tely exp osed grou p

60
50
%

Com p arison grou p

40
30
p < .001
20
10
0
1st

2nd

3rd

4 th

5th
Health group

Figure 5. Distribution of children by the health groups

children-evacuee systematically missed school and attended the school programme at home due to different
medical reasons except flu (epilepsy, paroxysmal states, behavioural problems, fatigue, headache, lack ofconcentration, exhaustion, etc). The other children attended public schools.
General health of children in the countries of the former U.S.S.R. is assessed according to the five«health groups»: the 1st health group includes absolutely healthy children; the 2nd — practically healthy
children (no complaints, but there are some subclinical symptoms revealed by profound clinical, laboratory
and instrumental examination only); the 3rd — children with chronic disease(s) in remission; the 4th —handicapped children with chronic disease(s) in exacerbation demanding active therapeutical intervention
and/or institutialisation; the 5th — handicapped children with severe chronic disease(s) in decompensation
stage demanding hospitalisation with absence of learning and self-service. As seen in Figure 5, among thechildren-evacuees there were significantly less practically healthy children (the 2nd health group) (10% vs.
36%; χ2=19.09; P<.001) and significantly more children with chronic diseases in remission than inclassmates (87% vs. 64%; χ2=14.3; P<.001) (the 3rd health group). The 3rd health group in the both groups
was predominantly comprised by chronic decompensated tonsillitis and adenoids of the 2nd–3rd severity
degree; cardiomyopathy; chronic inflammatory diseases of stomach and intestine at the stage of exacerbation;diffusive thyroid hyperplasia of the 3rd degree, euthrosis (normal thyroid functions); moderate to severe
disorders of refraction (hypermetropia, myopia, astigmatism). The conclusion about the health groups is
given by the experts of the Children Department of the Out-Patient's Clinic of the Radiation Register of the
RCRM of AMS of Ukraine. No single child from the both groups was recognised as absolutely healthy.
The acutely exposed children in comparison with the classmates had more often moderate complicationsof postnatal period, paroxysmal states, including epileptical, enuresis/encopresis at the age more than 4 years.
The evacuated mothers had more often moderate abnormalities and toxicosis of pregnancy (63% vs. 32%
correspondingly, χ2=19.27; P<.001).
In the families of the acutely exposed children in comparison with the classmates living conditions were
better; families with 2 and more children were more often; 85% of the fathers took part in the Chernobyl
accident consequences clean up; 8% of the mothers were disabled and their disability was officiallyrecognised to be caused by the consequences of the Chernobyl accident; the fathers took more alcoholic
drinks and tobacco; less number of the parents graduated a university and more — had specialised secondary
education.
According to our questionnaire on stress-factors related to the Chernobyl accident, a severity of realstress events was dramatically more pronounced in the mothers-evacuees than in the classmate’s mothers:
14.9±6.1 vs. 3±5.3, t =10.56, P<.001. Although the mothers-Kyievers had not been apparently exposed toreal Chernobyl-related stress-events (extreme situations) such as evacuation, family separation etc., in
212

contrast to the mothers-evacuees, the mothers of the both groups have quite significant symptoms ofChernobyl-related PTSD, which were more pronounced in the mothers-evacuees. Mean score of the Impact
of Events Scale and Arousal Scale of PTSD in the mothers-evacuees was 18.8±10.6 and the mothersKyievers — 14.8±9.9, t = 2.02, P<.05.
Mother’s unmasking depression estimated by the Self-rating Depression Scale was higher in themothers-evacuees than in the classmate’s mothers: 56.3±10.4 vs. 42±12.5, t=5.22, P<.001.
The mothers-evacuees had also worse than the classmate’s mothers mental adaptation and social
functions as well as more symptoms of anxiety and depression estimated by the GHQ-28: 9.6±9.6 vs. 4.8±4.9,
t=3.71, P<.001.
The verbal intelligence of the mother measured by the vocabulary subtest of the WAIS was lower in themothers-evacuees than in the mothers-Kyievers: 43.2±10.9 vs. 52.4±8.4, t = –5.09, P<.001.

Intellectual ability of children
Distribution of verbal IQ, performance IQ and full scale IQ among the children of the both groups ispresented in Table 2. Among the children of the acutely exposed group in comparison with the classmates
there were significantly more children with an average verbal IQ of 91–110 (53% vs. 22%; χ2=20.5; P<.001)
as well as significantly less of children with an high-advanced verbal IQ of 121–> (9% vs. 45%; χ2=32.88;
P<.001) and an high-advanced full scale IQ of 121–> (27% vs. 55%; χ2=16.21; P<.001).
Mean values of all verbal subtests and performance subtest — picture completion of the WISC weresignificantly lower in the acutely exposed children in comparison with the classmates (Table 3). Although themean verbal IQ, performance IQ and full scale IQ in children of the both groups were in high range, theacutely exposed group had a significantly lower mean verbal IQ (105.3±13.1 vs. 118.1±13; t=–6.94; P<.001)
and mean full scale IQ (112.1±15.4 vs. 120.9±11.5; t=–4.58; P<.001). The mean performance IQ, however,
was not significantly different (117.3±18 vs. 119.2±10.2; t=–.92; P>.05).
In spite of a similar performance IQ in the both groups, significant WISC performance/verbal
Table 2. Distribution of verbal IQ, performance IQ and full scale IQ.
Acutely exposed
IQ rangePχ2
group
Verbal IQ:<70–80
3
3.05
>.05
81–90
9
3.19
>.05
91–110
53
20.50
<.001
111–120
26
.04
>.05
121–>
9
32.88
<.001
Performance IQ:<70–80
3
3.05
>.05
81–90
3
3.05
>.05
91–11020.03>.05
111–120
27
.6
>.05
121–>
47
.08
>.05
Full scale IQ:<70–80
3
3.05
>.05
81–90
3
3.05
>.05
91–11033
3.03>.05
111–120
34
2.97
>.05
121–>
27
16.21
<.001

213

Comparison
group
0
3
22
30
45
0
0
19
32
49
0
0
22
23
55

Table 3 WISC subtests, verbal IQ, performance IQ and full scale IQ.
Comparison group
Acutely exposedt-testP
Measure(M±SD)
group (M±SD)
Verbal scale:
9.8±2.5–4.53<.001
11.4±2.5
Information
Vocabulary12.3±3.4
–6.84
<.001
15.4±3
Similarities
11,4±2.5
–4.89
<.001
13.2±2.7
Digit span
9.7±2.6–3.6<.001
11±2.5
Performance scale:
14.8±3.4
–3.46
<.001
16.2±2.2
Picture completion
Block design
12.5±3.5–1.61>.05
13.2±2.6
Object assembly
10.9±3.3–.72>.05
11.2±2.5
Coding11.7±3.2
2.55<.05
10.6±2.9
105.3±13.1
–6.94
<.001
118.1±13
Verbal IQ
117.3±18–.92>.05119.2±10.2
Performance IQ
112.1±15.4
–4.58
<.001
120.9±11.5
Full scale IQ
Note: Bonferroni corrected α-level of <.004 was used to assess statistical significance (.05 divided by 11
comparisons within measures of intelligence)

discrepancies (IQP–V = performance IQ – verbal IQ) with verbal decrements were revealed in the acutely
exposed group in comparison with the classmates: 12.1±13.8 (paired t = 8.7, P<.001) vs. 1.2±11.8 (paired t =1, P>.05); t=6; P<.001.
WISC performance/verbal discrepancies take on clinical significance at the magnitude more than 25
points [55]. According to this criterion (IQP–V>25), among the acutely exposed group there were significantly
more children with disharmoniously developed intelligence due to verbal decrements than in the comparisongroup (17% vs. 4%; χ2= 8.99; P<.01), especially among those irradiated at 16–25 weeks after fertilisation.
Among the children irradiated at 16–25 weeks after fertilisation (from acutely exposed group) there were 9
children with IQP–V>25 out of all 17 (more than 1/2).
In Table 4 intellectual development of children of both groups corresponding to different periods of
cerebrogenesis at exposure is presented. There is a tendency towards a deterioration of full scale IQ andverbal IQ, as well as an increasing of intellectual disharmony (IQP–V) in children of the acutely exposed group
who were exposed at 16–25 weeks after fertilisation. Among those irradiated at 16–25 weeks, the full scale
IQ and verbal IQ were the lowest in the acutely exposed.
There were 155 children (86 in the acutely exposed group and 69 in the classmates) who were at the 8th
and more weeks after fertilisation at the time of the accident. For 154 (98%) of these children the foetal
thyroid dose was reconstructured. IQs of the children in proportion to the foetal thyroid dose is presented inTable 5 and Figure 6. All classmates and 4 children from the acutely exposed group had the prenatal thyroid
dose in the range of 0.04–0.3 Gy. It should be noted that the dose of 0.3 Gy on thyroid was the dose limit forthe children at the time of the Chernobyl accident [54]. As it is shown in Table 5 and Figure 6, full scale IQ
and, especially verbal IQ, were reduced in dependence to the foetal thyroid dose. Performance IQ wasslightly reduced above the foetal thyroid dose of >1 Gy only.
According to the results of regression analysis, the children’s intelligence is etiologically heterogeneous(Table 6). Higher educational, intellectual, and economical levels of a family, as well as older parents at thetime of childbirth (at the examined age ranges 18–35 years for the mothers and 19–42 — for the fathers) are
the contributors towards a higher child intelligence. Higher doses of prenatal irradiation, especially foetal
thyroid dose, more severe stressogenic events and additional mother’s hazards in the prenatal period, worse
mother’s mental health, as well as childbirth problems are the contributors towards a lower child intelligence.
Foetal thyroid dose seems to be the main predictor of verbal intelligence deterioration (regression
coefficient = –.34–(–.39); P<.001) nd WISC performance/verbal discrepancies with verbal decrements

214

Table 4. Intellectual development of children corresponding to different periods of
cerebrogenesis at exposure.
Age in weeks after fertilisation

Acutely exposed
group

Comparisongroupt-test

P

–4.58
–6.94
–.92
6

<.001
<.001
>.05
<.001

–2.73
–3.26
–1.47
2.28

<.01
<.01
>.05
<.05

–1.37
–2.59
.74
3.29

>.05
<.01
>.05
<.001

–2.28
–2.88
–.75
2.62

<.05
<.01
>.05
<.01

–2.01
–3.78
.3
3

>.05
<.001
>.05
<.01

Total
Subjects
Full IQ (M±SD)
Verbal IQ (M±SD)
Preformance IQ (M±SD)
Intellectual disharmony IQP-V (M±SD)
paired tP
0–7
Subjects
Full IQ (M±SD)
Verbal IQ (M±SD)
Preformance IQ (M±SD)
Intellectual disharmony IQP-V (M±SD)
paired tP
8–15
Subjects
Full IQ (M±SD)
Verbal IQ (M±SD)
Preformance IQ (M±SD)
Intellectual disharmony IQP-V (M±SD)
paired tP
16–25
Subjects
Full IQ (M±SD)
Verbal IQ (M±SD)
Preformance IQ (M±SD)
Intellectual disharmony IQP-V (M±SD)
paired tP
26–term
Subjects
Full IQ (M±SD)
Verbal IQ (M±SD)
Preformance IQ (M±SD)
Intellectual disharmony IQP-V (M±SD)
paired t
P

100
112.3±15.4105.3±13.1
117.3±1812.1±13.8
8.7
<.001
14
110±14.7
103.9±15.3
115±14.6
11.1±12.8
3.3
<.001
30
113.1±10.9106.3±10.5117.9±1211.6±10.9
5.8
<.001
32
109.2±20102.7±15.5
114.7±23.3
12±14
4.8
<.001
24
116±13.1
108.3±11.2
121.4±1813.1±17.6
3.7
<.001

100
120.9±11.5118.1±13119.2±10.2
1.2±11.8
1>.05
31122.2±11.9119.4±13.5121.4±10.7
2±11.41>.05
26
117.6±12.5114.9±13115.6±10.5.8±12.5.3>.05
15
120.5±13.5117.1±16.2
118.3±9.7
1.3±12.6.4>.05
31
122.3±9.1
119.6±10.7120.2±9.4.6±11.8.3>.05

Table 5 Full scale IQ, Verbal IQ and Performance IQ at prenatal exposure to different thyroid
dose.
Thyroid doetal dose,
Gy

Full scale IQ,
M±SD

Verbal scale IQ,
M±SD

Performance scale IQ,
M±SD

0.04–0.3 (n=76)
0.31–0.6 (n=31)
0.61–1.0 (n=33)
1.0+ (n=14)

119.6±10.8113.3±15.2
113.2±14.9108.4±18.9116.6±12.3
106.9±12.1
105.5±12.7102.3±15.2

118.0±9.5118.0±17.9119.3±19.2
112.9±20.7

215

14 0

Full Scale IQ

130

Verbal IQ

IQ score

120

Performance
IQ

110
100
90
80
70
0.04 -0.3

0.31-0.6

0.61-1.0

1.0+

Thyroid foetal dose, Gy

Figure 6. Children intelligence in proportion to the thyroid
foetal dose

Table 6 Regression analysis of the predictors of the children’s intellectual development.
Regression
coefficient
Information subtest of WISC
Mother’s intelligence (vocabulary subtest of WAIS).21
Father’s age.20
Father’s educational level.18
Mother’s age.18
Mother’s educational level.14
Vocabulary subtest of WISC
Thyroid foetal dose–.39
Mother’s intelligence (vocabulary subtest of WAIS).36
Foetal dose–.29
Dose on the foetal brain–.29
Stress-events after the accident during pregnancy–.15
Similarities subtest of WISC
Thyroid foetal dose–.24
Mother’s intelligence (vocabulary subtest of WAIS).22
Dose on the foetal brain–.21
Foetal dose–.20
Stress-events after the accident during pregnancy–.16
Economic level of family.16
Mother’s GHQ-28–.15
Digit Span subtest of WISC
Thyroid foetal dose–.26
Mother’s intelligence (vocabulary subtest of WAIS).24
Dose on the foetal brain–.24
Foetal dose–.23
Mother’s additional hazards during pregnancy–.15
Mother’s Self-rating Depression Scale (Zung)–.15
Father’s educational level.14
Verbal IQ
Thyroid foetal dose–.34
Mother’s intelligence (vocabulary subtest of WAIS).33
Dose on the foetal brain–.28
Foetal dose–.28
Father’s educational level.16
Economic level of family.15
Stress-events after the accident during pregnancy–.14
Mother’s educational level.14
Predictor

216

F(df1, df2)

P

9.2002(1,198)
8.1679(1, 198)
6.6469(1, 198)
6.3917(1, 198)
4.0504(1, 198)

.003
.005
.01
.01
.04

25.7159(1,152)
28.9968(1,198)
18.3566(1, 198)
17.6903(1, 198)
4.6808(1, 198)

.000001.000000.00003.00004.03

8.4675(1,152)
9.7155(1,198)
9.0083(1, 198)
8.5392(1, 198)
5.1838(1, 198)
5.0957(1, 198)
4.6937(1, 198)

.004
.002
.003
.004
.02
.02
.03

10.5202(1,152)
11.8890(1,198)
11.5737(1, 198)
11.0999(1, 198)
4.8516(1, 198)
4.3983(1, 198)
4.2379(1, 198)

.001
.0007
.0008
.001
.03
.04
.04

18.7662(1,152)
24.6009(1,198)
17.2540(1, 198)
17.1946(1, 198)
4.8868(1, 198)
4.5543(1, 198)
3.9069(1, 198)
3.9227(1, 198)

.00003.000002.00005.00005
.03
.03
.049
.049

(Table 6 continued)
Regression
F(df1, df2)
coefficient
Picture completion subtest of WISC
Economic level of family.26
14.2983(1, 198)
Mother’s intelligence (vocabulary subtest of WAIS).22
10.0078(1,198)
Dose on the foetal brain–.19
7.1427(1, 198)
Foetal dose–.18
6.4733(1, 198)
Father’s age.17
6.2598(1, 198)
Father’s educational level.16
5.0650(1, 198)
Mother’s GHQ-28–.16
5.1748(1, 198)
Mother’s educational level.15
4.7358(1, 198)
Childbirth abnormalities–.15
4.3178(1, 198)
Block design subtest of WISC
Mother’s educational level.18
6.9333(1, 198)
Economic level of family.17
6.0673(1, 198)
Mother’s PTSD–.14
4.1347(1,198)
Object assembly subtest of WISC
Father’s educational level.18
6.5096(1, 198)
Economic level of family.17
6.1768(1, 198)
Mother’s intelligence (vocabulary subtest of WAIS).14
4.0587(1,198)
Coding subtest of WISC
Economic level of family.28
17.1997(1, 198)
Father’s educational level.16
5.3818(1, 198)
Mother’s GHQ-28–.14
4.0682(1, 198)
Performance IQ
Economic level of family.32
22.9500(1, 198)
Mother’s intelligence (vocabulary subtest of WAIS).23
10.6177(1,198)
Father’s educational level.218.7027(1, 198)
Mother’s educational level.175.8003(1, 198)
Disharmony of intellectual development IQP–V
Thyroid foetal dose.31
15.8215(1,152)
Foetal dose
.23
11.5167(1, 198)
Dose on the foetal brain.22
10.5278(1, 198)
Economic level of family.19
7.1229(1, 198)
Mother’s Self-rating Depression Scale (Zung).16
4.9322(1, 198)
Full scale IQ
Mother’s intelligence (vocabulary subtest of WAIS).32
22.3837(1,198)
Economic level of family.26
14.4738(1, 198)
Dose on the foetal brain–.20
8.0329(1, 198)
Thyroid foetal dose–.20
5.8691(1,152)
Father’s educational level.20
7.9749(1, 198)
Foetal dose–.19
7.5897(1, 198)
Mother’s educational level.15
4.6695(1, 198)
Verbal IQ(children exposed at 16–25 weeks after fertilisation, n=47)
Thyroid foetal dose-.39
5.7221(1,45)
Mother’s intelligence (vocabulary subtest of WAIS).42
5.8961 (1,45)
Vocabulary sutest of WISC
(children exposed at 16–25 weeks after fertilisation, n=47)
Thyroid foetal dose-.51
11.0984(1,45)
Mother’s intelligence (vocabulary subtest of WAIS).42
6.0628(1,45)
Predictor

P
.0002
.002
.008
.01
.01
.02
.02
.03
.04
.009
.01
.04
.01
.01
.04
.00005.02.04.000003
.001
.004
.02
.0001
.0008
.001
.008
.03
.000004
.0002
.005
.02
.005
.006
.03

.022
.022

.002
.02

(regression coefficient = .31; P<.001) (Table 6), especially among the children irradiated at 16–25 weeks
after fertilisation (Figure 7).
Brain electrical activity of children
The children of the acutely exposed group had significantly less age normal patterns of brain electricalactivity in comparison with the classmates (16% vs. 54%, χ2 = 31.74, p < .001) (Table 7). There were four217

Foetal thyroid dose vs. Verbal IQ
Verbal IQ= 114.07 - 15.64 * Foetal thyroid dose
Correlation: r = -.3895; p = .023
140
130
120

Verbal IQ

110
100
90
80
70
60
1.6

2.0

Regression
95% confid.

1.6

2.0

Regression
95% confid.

50
0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

Foetal thyroid dose, Gy

Foetal thyroid dose vs. Vocabulary subtest of WISC
Vocabulary = 15.103 - 5.130 * Foetal thyroid dose
Correlation: r = -.5075; p = .002
20

16

Vocabulary

12

8

4

0
0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

Foetal thyroid dose, Gy

Figure 7. Relationships between Verbal IQ and Vocabulary subtest of WISC vs foetal
thyroid dose, in children of the both groups (n=47) exposed at 16–25 weeks after
fertilization.
abnormal EEG-patterns in the prenatally irradiated children as follows:(1) Low-voltage EEG (20–25 µV) with excess of slow (δ) and fast (β) activity together withdepression of α- and θ-activity with paroxysmal activity shifted to the left fronto-temporal region was one of
the most distinguished conventional EEG-pattern in the children of the acutely exposed group (31% vs. 8%,
χ2=16.85, P<.001).
(2) Disorganised slow EEG-pattern with δ-activity domination characterised by disorganised activityof moderate (40–55 µV) or high (70–80 µV) amplitude with a mainly δ-range slow activity domination andnon-regular α-activity where hyperventilation led to bilateral paroxysmal activity discharges, as well as 3)
disorganised EEG-pattern with paroxysmal activity, similar in general to the one described above, butcharacterised by generalised paroxysmal discharges and bursts of acute, θ- and δ-waves of high amplitude
where the hyperventilation led to the bilateral paroxysmal activity increase, were found equally in the bothgroups.
(4) Epileptiformal EEG with «spike» or «polyspike—wave» complexes in the fronto-temporal region,
218

Table 7 Conventional EEG-patterns.
Acutely
exposed
group
16
0
10
6
84
31
16
20
17
73
37
15
21

EEG-pattern
Age norm
Organised
Disorganised with predominance of α-activity
Hypersynchronous
Abnormal
Low-voltage
Disorganised slow
Disorganised with paroxysmal activity
Epileptiformal
Interhemispheric asymmetry
Left hemisphere lateralised dysfunction
Right hemisphere lateralised dysfunction
Cross-hemispherical dysfunction

χ2

PComparison
group

31.74
4.08
5.36
17.15
31.74
16.85
.16
.27
15.63
24.8
15.36
.87
11.32

<.001
<.05
<.05
<.001
<.001
<.001
>.05
>.05
<.001
<.001
<.001
>.05
>.001

54
4
22
28
46
8
14
23
1
38
13
20
5

mainly of the left hemisphere, and bilateral paroxysmal activity in the form of δ-waves of very highamplitude (higher than 100 µV) was another of the most distinguished conventional EEG-pattern among thechildren of the acutely exposed group (17% vs. 1%, χ2=15.63, P<.001).
Interhemispheric asymmetry of the EEG was revealed significantly more often in the acutely exposedchildren compared with the classmates (73% vs. 38%, χ2=24.8, P<.001) according to an asymmetry index>5%. An increase of the abnormal or/and a decrease of the normal EEG-signs in one hemisphere incomparison with another were the criteria adopted for the lateralised dysfunction detection (Table 7). Threetypes of interhemispheric asymmetry were found in the children of the both groups. A left hemisphere
lateralised dysfunction was characterised by slow and/or epileptiformal activity in the fronto-temporal region
together with α-activity depression in the left hemisphere. The left-hemispherical type of EEG-laterality was
found more often among the acutely exposed children in comparison with the classmates (37% vs. 13%,
χ2=15.36, P<.001). A right hemisphere lateralised dysfunction characterised by abnormal activity in the rightfronto-temporal region did not differentiate the acutely exposed children from the classmates (15% vs. 20%,
χ2=0.87, P>.05). We described a so-called cross-hemispherical dysfunction, which consisted of abnormal
activity simultaneously in the fronto-temporal region of one hemisphere and in the parieto-temporal region ofanother hemisphere. This was found in 21% of the children from the acutely exposed group and 5% of thechildren from the comparison group (χ2=11.32, P<.001).
According to the spectral EEG-analysis, a significant difference was found between the acutely exposed
and the comparison groups (Table 8). The acutely prenatally irradiated children were dramaticallydistinguished from the classmates by an increase (P<.001) of δ- and β-power and a decrease (P<.001) of θand α-power. However, the pattern of summarised EEG spectral power in the children of the both groups
exposed at 0–7 and 26+ weeks after fertilisation was statistically equal (except more δ-power among thoseacutely exposed at 26+ weeks). The children prenatally acutely exposed at 16–25 weeks of gestation had themost distinguished pattern of summarised EEG spectral power (increased δ- and β- and decreased θ- and αpower), as well as those exposed at 8–15 weeks (increased δ- and decreased θ-power) in comparison with theclassmates.
Obviously, children’s pattern of cerebral electrical activity is, like intelligence, etiologicallyheterogeneous. On the basis of correlation and regression analyses we found that the children’s EEG-pattern
was associated with age, current neuropsychiatric disorder, perinatal pathology, mother’s mental health, aswell as exposure to the disaster — both to stress and radiation. Foetal dose was the predictor for an increase219

Table 8 EEG spectral analysis.
Age in weeks after
fertilsation

Acutely exposed
p
t
group
Summarised δ (1–4 Hz)-power (%)
All
47.65±12.54
8.65
<.001
0–7
44.99±10.71
3.2
=.001
8–15
48.53±15.03
4.25
<.001
16–25
49.81±13.10
5.46
<.001
26–term
45.05±8.41
4.01
<.001
Summarised θ (4–7) –power (%)
All
15.96±5.61
–8.9
<.001
0–7
16.75±6.08
–3.05
<.01
8–15
17.76±7.04
–4.99
<.001
16–25
14.01±4.05
–8.47
<.001
26–term
15.89±4.68
–3.12
<.01
Summarised α (7–12) –power (%)
All
26.62±10.24
–5.5
<.001
0–7
29.79±12.77
–1.07
>.05
8–15
24.55±7.88
–3.12
<.01
16–25
25.25±11.63
–3.36
<.001
26–term
29.31±8.37
–2.55
<.01
Summarised β (12–32) –power (%)
All
16.49±6.42
4.28
<.001
0–7
15.86±7.13
1
>.05
8–15
14.97±7.72
1.48
>.05
16–25
17.76±5.8
3.7<.001
26–term
17.09±7.06
2.27
<.01
Note: Bonferroni corrected α-level of <.001 was used to assess statistical significance.

Comparison group33.59±10.34
33.36±12.51
32.98±12.34
34.05±8.1733.99±10.12
23.32±6.07
23.12±7.2726.35±5.84
23±3.79
21.09±6.4233.50±7.17
33.7±8.28
30.93±7.3933.74±6.95
35.42±7.85
13.33±3.63
13.94±2.75
12.75±2.59
13.2±3.1
13.92±4.63

of summarised δ-power (regression coefficient =.46; P<.001) and β- power (regression coefficient =.22;
P=.002), and for a decrease of θ- power (regression coefficient =–.48; P<.001) and α-power (regression
coefficient =–.35; P<.001) (Table 9). This dose-effect relationship was the most pronounced in the children
exposed at 8–25 weeks, especially at 16–25 weeks after fertilisation. Thyroid foetal dose was also thepredictor for an increase of summarised δ-power (regression coefficient =.49; P<.001) and for a decrease of
θ- power (regression coefficient =–.5; P<.001) and α-power (regression coefficient =–.32; P<.001). This
dose-effect relationship was the most pronounced in the children exposed at 16–25 weeks after fertilisation(Figure 8).
The correlations between intelligence and spectral power of EEG were revealed as follows. Full scale IQ
deterioration was associated with an increase of δ-power (r=.25–.35; P<.001), especially at the left frontal
region (r=.31–.35; P<.001), a decrease of α-power (r=.27–.36; P<.001), especially at the left parieto-occipitalregion (r=.33–.36; P<.001), as well as a lateralisation of β-power to the left fronto-temporal region (r =.2;
P=.02).
Verbal IQ deterioration was associated with an increase of δ-power (r=.25–.41; P<.001), mainly in theleft hemisphere, especially at the left frontal region (r=.38–.41; P<.001), a decrease of α-power (r=.22–.38;
P<.001), also mainly in the left hemisphere, especially at the left frontal region (r=.34–.38; P<.001), as wellas an increase of β-power (r=.27; P<.001). Performance IQ deterioration was associated with an increase of
δ-power (r=.15–.28; P<.001), mainly in the right hemisphere, especially at the right parietal region (r=.21–.28; P<.001), a decrease of α-power (r=.17–.26; P<.001), also especially at the right parietal region (r=.23–.26; P<.001), as well as an increase of β-power (r=.21–27; P<.001) at the right temporal region. WISC
performance/verbal discrepancies with verbal decrements were associated with lateralisation of δ-power
towards the left parietal region (r=.24; P=.04), a decrease of θ-power in the left fronto-temporal region
220

Table 9 Relationships between EEG and doses of prenatal irradiation.
Age in weeks after
fertilsation
All
0–7
8–15
16–25
26–term

All
0–7
8–15
16–25
26–term

All
0–7
8–15
16–25
26–term

All
0–7
8–15
16–25
26–term

Regression
F(df1, df2)
coefficient
Summarised δ (1–4 Hz)-power (%)
Thyroid foetal.49
61.2214(1,152)
Foetal.4654.5663(1,198)
Foetal.4512.7301(1, 43)
Thyroid foetal.43
11.3462(1,54)
Foetal.4210.7512(1,54)
Thyroid foetal.49
15.6218(1,45)
Foetal.46
13.3483(1,45)
Thyroid foetal.54
18.6339(1,53)
Foetal dose.49
13.91842(1,53)
Summarised θ (4–7) –power (%)
Thyroid foetal–.564.3190(1,152)
Foetal–.48
60.3387(1,198)
Foetal–.34
6.9570(1, 43)
Thyroid foetal–.51
17.2614(1,54)
Foetal–.53
19.1616(1,54)
Thyroid foetal–.63
32.0500 (1,45)
Foetal–.5926.8140(1,45)
Thyroid foetal–.43
10.2321(1,53)
Foetal dose–.44
11.0047(1,53)
Summarised α (7–12) –power (%)
Thyroid foetal–.32
22.9415(1,152)
Foetal–.35
27.0970(1,198)
Foetal–.26
3.6292(1, 43)
Thyroid foetal–.26
3.5650(1,54)
Foetal–.31
5.3726(1,54)
Thyroid foetal–.35
6.7276(1,45)
Foetal–.39
8.6232(1,45)
Thyroid foetal–.39
8.2347(1,53)
Foetal dose–.3
4.4584(1,53)
Summarised β (12–32) –power (%)
Thyroid foetal.14
3.7750(1,152)
Foetal.229.9334(1,198)
Foetal.09
0.4783(1, 43)
Thyroid foetal.110.6035(1,54)
Foetal.232.8587(1,54)
Thyroid foetal.14
0.944(1,45)
Foetal.446.6197(1,45)
Thyroid foetal.17
1.3397(1,53)
Foetal dose
.11
0.5989(1,53)Dosep.000000.000000
.0008
.001
.002
.0002
.0006
.00009.0005.000000.000000.01.0001.00006.000001.000004.002.002.000003.000000
.06
.06
.02
.01
.005
.006
.04
.05
.002
.5
.4
.1
.3
.01
.2
.4

(r=.27–31; P<.001), as well as an increase of β-power (r=.2–.27; P<.001).
Although intelligence is an integrative function of the human brain, full scale IQ and, especially, verbal
IQ are closer associated with the left hemisphere functions, whereas performance IQ — with the righthemisphere ones. According to the data obtained a possible cerebral basis of full scale IQ and verbal IQ
deterioration as well as WISC performance/verbal discrepancies with verbal decrements in the prenatally
irradiated children is dysfunction of the left frontal, temporal and parietal lobes. This dysfunction apparently
involves the cortico-limbic system, prefrontal cortex (frontal associative area), the secondary cortical receptor
fields (temporal associative area), and the tertiary parietal associative area at the left, dominating, hemisphere[56, 57].
It seems to be possible to attribute this central nervous system dysfunction to prenatal exposure toionising radiation, especially at the second critical period of cerebrogenesis (16–25 weeks after fertilisation)
221

Thyroid foetal dose vs. Summarised Delta-power (%)
Delta-power = 38.689 + 14.172 * Thyroid foetal dose
Correlation: r = .49167, p = .00000
80
70

Delta-power, %

60
50
40
30

2.0

Regression
95% confid.

2.0

Regression
95% confid.

20
0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

Thyroid foetal dose, Gy

Thyroid foetal dose vs. Summarised Theta-power (%)
Theta-power = 20.457 - 7.417 * Thyroid foetal dose
Correlation: r = -.6288; p = .00000
28
24

Theta-power, %

20
16
12
8
4
0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

Thyroid foetal dose, Gy

Figure 8. Relationships between summarised δ (1–4 Hz)-power (%) and summarised θ (4–7) –power (%) vs. foetal thyroid dose, in children of the both groups (n=47) exposed at 16–25
weeks after fertilization.
— the time of the most sophisticated events of brain creation, as well as limbic system, brain asymmetry andhemisphere dominating forming [58–60]. Moreover, radiation-induced malfunction of the foetal thyroidpituitary system cannot be excluded.
ICD-10 diagnosis
According to the ICD-10 clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines, neurological disorders wererevealed in 65 of the children of the acutely exposed group and in 25 of the classmates (χ2=27.85; P<.001)(Table 10). The overwhelming majority of this pathology were episodic and paroxysmal disorders, whichwere revealed significantly more often in the acutely exposed group than in the comparison group (61% vs.
29%; χ2=20.69; P<.001). The children-evacuee had significantly more epilepsy (G40) and migraine (G43)
than the classmates. Epilepsy and other paroxysmal disorders were verified by clinical EEG, when clinicalpattern of episodic or paroxysmal disorder corresponded to paroxysmal brain electrical activity (spikes,
spike-waves, acute and slow waves of high amplitude >100 mkV).

222

Mental and behavioural disorders according to the ICD-10 criteria were revealed in 90 of the children of
the acutely exposed group and in 52 of the classmates (χ2=35.97; P<.001) (Table 10). Organic, including
symptomatic, mental disorders (F06, F07), somatoform autonomic dysfunction (F45.3), disorders of
psychological development (F80–F89), and behavioural and emotional disorders with onset usually occurringin childhood and adolescence (F90–F98) were diagnosed significantly more often in the acutely exposedgroup than in the comparison group. Mental comorbidity was 24% in the acutely exposed group and 7% in
the comparison group (χ2=11.03; P<.001).
Organic mental disorders were verified by Brain Mapping of QEEG and Visual Evoked Potentials(VEP) and in a number of cases by MRI and CT. Two cases of F07 (Personality and behavioural disorders
due to brain disease, damage and dysfunction) and 6 cases of F06 (Other mental disorders due to brain
damage and dysfunction and to physical disease) from the acutely exposed group were due to epilepsy (G40),
while 1 of F06 from the comparison group was due to epilepsy. Two cases of F07 from the acutely exposedgroup were linked to mental retardation (F70 and F71). One case of F07 and 14 cases of F06 from the acutely
exposed group, as well as 5 cases of F06 from the comparison group were attributed to the evidences ofperinatal, predominantly pre- and intrenatal, pathology, i.e. pathology during in utero period and delivery,such as moderate to severe toxicosis of pregnancy, uterine haemorrhage during pregnancy, risk of
miscarriage, waterless period during delivery, too short- or too long-time period of delivery, hypoxia of
foetus and asphyxia of newborn.
The more severe neuropsychiatric disorders — mental retardation, epilepsy, and organic mental
Table 10 Diseases of the nervous system, mental and behavioural disorders according to the ICD10 criteria.
Acutely
exposedχ2
group
Diseases of the nervous system (G00—G99)
Without neuropathology
38
27.85
Episodic and paroxysmal disorders (G40—G47):
61
20.69
G40 Epilepsy
8
5.7
G43 Migraine
88.33
G44 Other headache syndromes
36
3.43
G47 Sleep disorders
92.06
G90.8 Other disorders of autonomic nervous system
5
5.13
Mental and behavioural disorders (F00—F99)
Without psychopathology
10
35.07
Organic, including symptomatic, mental disorders (F00–F09):25
13.78
F06 Other mental disorders due to brain damage and20
8.66
dysfunction and to physical disease
F07 Personality and behavioural disorders due to
5
5.13
brain disease, damage and dysfunction
F12 Mental and behavioural disorders due to use of1
1.01
cannabinoids
Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform disorders (F40–F48):36
0.56
F45.3 Somatoform autonomic dysfunction
23
10.04
F48.0 Neurasthenia
13
4.01
F51 Nonorganic sleep disorders
6
2.08
Mental retardation (F70—F79):2
2.02
F70 Mild mental retardation
1
1.01
F71 Moderate mental retardation
1
1.01
Disorders of psychological development (F80–F89)
12
12.77
Behavioural and emotional disorders with onset usually33
4.34
occurring in childhood and adolescence (F90–F98)
Mental comorbidity24
11.03
ICD-10 code

223

P

Comparison group

<.001
<.001
<.05
<.05
>.05
>.05
<.05

75
29
1
0
24
4
0

<.001
<.001

48
6

<.01

6

<.05

0

>.05

0

>.05
<.01
<.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
>.05
<.001

31
7
24
2
0
0
0
0

<.05

20

<.001

7

disorders — were diagnosed in 25 acutely exposed children and in 6 classmates (χ2=13.78; P<.001). The
majority (16) of the acutely exposed children with these disorders (including 2 cases of mental retardation)
were irradiated at 8–15 and 16–25 weeks after fertilisation. Thyroid foetal dose of these children with severe
neuropsychiatric disorders was significantly higher than in other children of the acutely exposed group(.78±.31 vs. .59±.28, t = 2.79, P<.01).
It is clear that the children’s neuromental disorders are etiologically heterogeneous. Higher economicallevel of a family, better somatic health of a child, better mental health of parents are the contributors towards
a better children’s neuromental health. Higher doses of prenatal irradiation, especially foetal thyroid dose,more severe stress events, and additional mother’s hazards in the prenatal period, worse mother’s mental
health, as well as problems of the perinatal period are the contributors towards children’s neurological andmental health deterioration.
Discussion and Conclusions
The UNSCEAR Report-2000, Annex J: Exposure and Effects of the Chernobyl Accident [61] touched
the problem of the psychological development of the children who were exposed to radiation from the
Chernobyl accident in utero basing on one publication only [21] where cognitive, emotional and behaviouraldisorders in prenatally irradiated children were attributed exclusively to unfavourable social-psychologicaland social-cultural factors.
The WHO Pilot Project «Brain Damage in Utero» International Advisory Board assumes that prenatal
exposure to the Chernobyl disaster can give rise to a dysfunctional child, either because of organic damage tothe developing brain or because of the disturbed psychosocial milieu. Indeed, intelligence peculiarities,
neurophysiological abnormalities, and neuromental health deterioration in the children acutely prenatally
exposed to both radiation and stress are etiologically multifactorial. Although the children were affected bymultiple exposure including prenatal stress and current social, economical and medical problems in theirfamilies, the «dose—effects» relationships concerning both intelligence and EEG-parameters, which are themost marked at the critical periods of cerebrogenesis, testify to significant contribution of prenatal irradiation
into the brain damage.
This study confirms and develops the results of the WHO Pilot Project «Brain Damage in Utero» [15,17] and relevant studies [18–22] concerning mental health and intelligence deterioration in children exposed
in utero as a result of the Chernobyl disaster. Unlike to the study [21] where the authors did not findevidences of the contribution of prenatal irradiation on the children’s intelligence deterioration, we have done
it. The differences between the results of the study [21] and ours we can explain by the followings: 1)
different sample: we examined acutely exposed in 1986 children, but they — those resettled in 5–7 years
after the disaster, and 2) different measures: they analysed full scale IQ only, but we — verbal IQ (including
subtests), performance IQ (including subtests), WISC performance/verbal discrepancies, and full scale IQ.
Exactly deterioration of verbal IQ and WISC performance/verbal discrepancies with verbal decrements, werein proportion to the foetal thyroid dose.
Our data do not confirm the results of the studies [23–25] concerning similarity and normality of mental
and physical health, intelligence similarity of acutely prenatally exposed children in the Chernobyl exclusionzone evacuated to Kiev and children-classmates living in Kiev, as well as that the most important risk factors
were maternal somatization and Chernobyl-related stress. A possible explanation of the differences between
the results of the studies [23–25] and ours study seems to be as follows: 1) Restricted neuropsychologicalbattery for children’s intelligence assessment allowed them [25] to measure spatial intelligence only, which
indeed looks likely to be intact; 2) An absence of clinical neuropsychiatric examination by ICD-10 or DSMIV criteria and screening-like physical examination in the works [23, 24] resulted their conclusion concerning
evacuee children’s mental and physical welfare to be the point at issue. 3) Inadequate using of gestation
months for analysis, but not periods of cerebrogenesis (0–7, 8–15, 16–25, and 26+ weeks after fertilisation),224

and possible uncertainties in the gestation term estimation did not enable in the studies [23–25] to estimate
the most important factor in determining the nature of the insult to the developing brain from ionisingradiation [2] — exposure in critical and «non-critical» periods of prenatal development. 4) An absence of
dosimetric data for both children-evacuee and non-evacuee did not enable them [23–25] to study a possible
dose-effect relationship and to estimate the contribution of ionising radiation towards intelligence andpsychological development of the children. However, the most important reason of the differences between
their and our studies seems to be the different paradigms of the researches: psychosocial model of the studies[23–25], and neuropsychiatric or neurobilogical — in us.
It should be noted limitations and uncertainties of this study. First of all, there is a problem ofrepresentativeness of the sample: a possible bias towards «improving selection» where some disabledchildren due to neuropsychiatric problems could be dropped out from the study, or «deteriorating selection»
when for instance prodigy infants attending special advanced schools were also out of the sample. Ideally, allparentally exposed children, or at least all those who had been evacuated from the Chermobyl exclusion zone,
should be involved in the study. However, our sample — evacuee in Kiev and non-evacuee classmates living
in Kiev — looks quite good from the point of view of similarity about informational and urban saturation
environment, providing as much as possible in Ukraine. It should be also stressed that the uncertainties ofindividual doses estimation are due to an absence at present of generally accepted methodology concerningmodel of foetal dose assessment. Probably, like in Japan, there will be further new dosimetric systems andreassessment of psychometrical, neurophysiological and other data.
As it was mentioned above, our sample corresponds to subgroups of the Japanese sample [2]: prenatally
exposed survivors to atomic bomb radiation of the foetal dose category less than 0.01 Gy (n=1,201) — to the
Ukrainian comparison group, and those of the dose category 0.01–0.09 Gy (n=322) — to the Ukrainian
acutely exposed group. However, there is an extremely important radiological difference between theJapanese and Ukrainian samples — prenatal exposure to radioactive isotopes of iodine. The prenatally
exposed to atomic bomb radiation had not been irradiated by radioiodine, but the prenatally exposed children
as a result of the Chernobyl disaster received quite significant foetal thyroid doses. This fact makes difficult
to extrapolate all data (risks, thresholds of the effects, etc.) from the Japanese sample on the Chernobyl one. It
seems that the acutely prenatally exposed children at the Chernoby exclusion zone is a unique sample thatshould be used for reassessment of risks of prenatal irradiation at radiation accidents on nuclear reactors.
The results of this study agree with the Japanese studies concerning 1) dose related full scale IQ
reduction [10], 2) an increase of paroxysmal disorders [62], 3) critical periods of cerebrogenesis — 8–15 and,especially, 16–25 weeks after fertilisation [2]. The highest vulnerability of the brain under exposure at 16–25,
but not 8–15 weeks after fertilisation as in the Japanese sample, we can explain by 1) maximal radioiodinetransfer rate in foetal thyroid at about 20–25 weeks [33], 2) more «delicate» examination of intelligencedisturbances that corresponds exactly to the events of the brain creation at 16–25 weeks after fertilisation(neuronal differentiation, limbic system and brain asymmetry forming, apoptosis beginning etc. [58–60]). An
absence of dramatic increase of mental retardation, especially its severe form, as well as microcephalia
obviously can be explained by significantly lower foetal doses of irradiation than that in the atomic bomb
survivors.
Following recommendations of Shull & Otake [63] concerning future studies of the prenatally exposed
survivors and the WHO Pilot Project «Brain Damage in Utero» International Advisory Board for the second
phase of the project, we used QEEG and WISC. This resulted in interesting findings of verbal IQ reduction
and WISC performance/verbal discrepancies with verbal decrements, which were in proportion to the foetal
thyroid dose, especially among those children exposed at 16–25 weeks after fertilisation. Previously wereported [16, 26, 27] about TSH level grows with foetal thyroid dose increase with a 0.3 Sv threshold.
Probably, these children had been affected by intrauterine hypothyroidism that resulted in intelligencedisturbances during their life. Obviously, an international psychoendocrine study should be organised for225exploration of functions of the pituitary-thyroid system as a possible biological basis of mental healthproblem in children irradiated in utero as a result of the Chernobyl disaster.
The prenatally acutely exposed children have quite distinguished pattern of summarised EEG spectral
power (increased δ- and β- and decreased θ- and α-power), in comparison with both the classmates andliterature normative data [41, 55]. Foetal dose and thyroid foetal dose were the predictors of this QEEGpattern, especially among the children irradiated at 16–25 weeks after fertilisation.
Neurophysiological abnormalities together with intelligence disturbances, both dose-related, especiallyat 16–25 weeks after fertilisation, as well as a «concentration» of the most severe neuropsychiatric disorders
among the children exposed at the critical periods of cerebrogenesis, can testify to the developing brain
abnormalities due to multiple factors including the effects of prenatal irradiation.
Verbal IQ deterioration together with lateralisation of abnormal electrical activity to the left hemisphere
supports our previous report about the predominance of the left hemisphere dysfunction in prenatally
irradiated children [28]. Association of verbal IQ and left hemisphere is well-known [64], and full scale IQ iscloser related to the left than to the right hemisphere [56]. It seems that the left hemisphere is more vulnerable
to exogenous impacts including ionising radiation than the right hemisphere, probably due to dominating of
the left brain and, consequently, its more functional activity.
A possible cerebral basis of intelligence disturbances in prenatally irradiated children is dysfunction of
the left frontal, temporal and parietal lobes, involving the cortico-limbic system, prefrontal cortex, temporal
associative area, and the tertiary parietal associative area at the left dominating hemisphere [56, 57]. However,the predominance of the left hemisphere dysfunction is leading towards higher risk of schizophrenia
spectrum disorders in prenatally irradiated children, which is why the long-term follow up study of thiscohort is of great importance for clinical medicine and neuroscience.
Thus, the neuromental health of the acutely prenatally irradiated children at the Chernobyl exclusionzone is deteriorated in comparison with the non-evacuee classmates living in Kiev due to more frequent
occurrences of episodic and paroxysmal disorders, organic, including symptomatic, mental disorders,somatoform autonomic dysfunction, disorders of psychological development, and behavioural and emotional
disorders with onset usually occurring in childhood and adolescence. Obviously, their neuromental healthdisorders are etiologically heterogeneous including psycho-social and economic factors, medical problems intheir families. The effect of real stress events (but not only their perception) during pregnancy together withprenatal irradiation cannot be excluded.
Intelligence of the acutely prenatally irradiated children is deteriorated due to reduction of full scale andverbal IQ, as well as WISC performance/verbal discrepancies with verbal decrements. Although thechildren’s intelligence is multifactorial, the contribution of prenatal irradiation was revealed.
Characteristic neurophysiological changes of the acutely prenatally irradiated children are also
etiologically heterogeneous, but the dose-effect relationship, especially at critical periods of cerebrogenesis,
testifies the impact of prenatal irradiation.
This study suggests that prenatal exposure to ionising radiation at thyroid foetal dose 0.2–2 Gy andfoetal dose 11–92 mSv can result in detectable brain damage.
The data obtained reflect great importance, interdisciplinarity, and complexity of such problem as brain
damage in utero following radioecological disaster and a necessity to integrate international efforts to its
solving.
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229

Health State of Belarusian Children Suffering from the Chernobyl Accident:
Sixteen Years after the Catastrophe
Alexander N. ARYNCHYN, Tatiana V. AVHACHEVA, Nika A. GRES,
Ekaterina I. SLOBOZHANINA*
Research Clinical Institute for Radiation Medicine and Endocrinology; Aksakovschina, 223032 Minsk,
Belarus: arynchyn@hotmail.com*Institute of Photobiology, AMS: Kuprevich str. 2, 220141 Minsk, Belarus

Abstract
A prospective cohort study was carried out to investigate the health state of Belarusianchildren suffering from the Chernobyl accident. The main group consisted of 133 children
permanently residing in the radioactively contaminated territories, while the control group was 186
children permanently residing in the territories with natural radiation background. During the periodof observation the constantly increased level of the annual summary effective dose of radiation(0.13-2.24 mSv) were revealed in the children of the main group. All members of both groups wereclinically examined at least two times during the follow-up of 1990 - 2001. Heavy metals burden of
Pb, Cd and Hg were also measured in urine excretion. The results of clinical examination clearly
indicate that the frequency of complaints, as well as the frequency of major clinical syndromes anddiagnoses, was increasing in both groups. A growth of the gastrointestinal pathology, as well as anincrease in cardiovascular manifestations of the vegetative dysfunction syndrome, was the mostimportant. It should be noted that practically all forms of studied nosology were more prevalent in
the main group than in the control both at the first and the second examination. High values ofrelative risk (RR) of the main group were obtained for arterial hypotension (RR=2.21 and 3.73 at
the first and the second examination, respectively) and cardiac metabolic dysfunction (RR=4.66 and3.33). Aggravating situation of the health state of Belarusian children requires urgent
prophylaxis measures for pathologies that are enhanced by environmental factors.

Introduction
Sixteen years passed after the Chernobyl accident, but the problem of radioactive contamination in
Belarus is still actual. During the first months after the accident, radioactive iodine was the main doseforming radionuclide. At present, radioactive cesium-137 holds this place [1-5]. Chronic radiation
exposure by this radionuclide presents a great danger for the population living in the contaminated areas.
In the formation of exposure doses to the population, a considerable role belongs to the type of soils,
which determines the rate of cesium radionuclide migration through the biological (food) chain. Peaty andswampy soils of Belarusian woodlands are typical in the territory of radiation control. These soils arecharacterized with high speed of migration in the biological chain [6]. As a consequence, increased
radiocesium activity in milk is observed, as well as high radionuclide body burden. Residing in theradioactively contaminated territories leads to the formation of accumulated exposure dose of 80 mSv andgreater in separate settlements of Gomel region during the whole period after the accident.
In addition to radioactive contamination, chemical contaminations with heavy metals such as lead(Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) etc. due to various social activities are also playing important roles in
the appearance and development of diseases. Increase of lead burden in human body leads to brain
malformation, embryonic development disorders, atrophy of mucous membrane of gastrointestinal tract,and impairment of structural and functional properties of erythrocyte membranes [7-10]. Cadmium effects
231the state of cell immunity damaging the activity of polymorph nuclear leucocytes and inhibiting theprocesses of clonal differentiation and activation of mature lymphocytes [7]. Chronic mercury intoxication
leads to an increase of goiter prevalence, disturbance of endocrine function of thyroid gland, membranous
proteins SH-groups, oxidation, inhibition of activity of a number of enzymes [7,9].
In the territory of Belarus, a considerable amount of xenobiotics penetrates the organism of children.
The response of children’s organism to the effect of anthropogenic factors differs considerably from thatof adult. Intensity of metabolic processes in children is higher than in adults, but the rate of xenobiotics’
metabolism is lower. With an increase of concentration of chemical substances in the biosphere, thenumber of children with deviations of reactivity is growing [11]. The younger the child, the less manifest
are specific features of toxic effect [12].
According to our studies, in rural districts of Brest and Gomel regions where the territories were
contaminated by the Chernobyl accident, the proportion of the children found to be “contaminated” withlead are 41.1 and 56.7 %, respectively. While, a more favorable situation (15.2%) is observed in rural
districts of Vitebsk region (control) where the technogenic effect is rather less.
Considering the aggravated environmental situation in Belarus, it is urgent to study the combined
effects of radionuclide and several chemicals in their small concentrations, which are most frequent under
the real condition. It should be noted that these effects are not manifested by typical signs of damage withclear-cut clinical pictures, but exist in the form of nonspecific reactions or syndromes of different degreeof manifestation [13-18].
This report presents the results of a prospective cohort study we are continuing to investigate thehealth state of the children suffering from the combined effects of the long-term low-dose radiation andchemical exposure.
Material and Methods
Cohort selection
At the Pediatric Department of the Research Clinical Institute for Radiation Medicine andEndocrinology, during 1990 – 2001, a cohort prospective examination of children (individual examinationin age dynamics) residing in the territory of the Republic of Belarus has been conducted. All the randomly
selected children were divided into 2 groups: the main and the control. The main group included 133
children (73 boys and 60 girls) permanently residing in the radioactively contaminated territories ofGomel (Yelsk, Narovlya, Bragin districts), Mogilev (Cherikov) and Brest (Stolin, Luninets) regions. The
control group consisted of 186 children (101 boys and 85 girls) permanently residing in the territories withnatural radiation background (Braslav district of Vitebsk region).
Medical examination
Standardized protocol of clinical examination included the children’s complaints and case history,
pediatric examination, laboratory findings, ECG, ultrasound examination, fibrogastroscopy with gastricbiopsy and morphological examination of gastric biopsies.
Clinical examinations of the selected children were performed at least two times: the firstexamination was 1995 - 1998 and the second - in 1998 – 2001. Average time interval between theexaminations in the main group was 2.1 years (within the range from 1.5 to 2.5 years) and in the control
group – 2.5 years (from 2 year to 3 years). Mean age of the children at the time of the first examination
was 10.6 years (6 - 15 years) in the main group and in the control group – 9.5 years (6 - 14 years).
Dose assessment and heavy metals determination
Annual summary effective dose of radiation (ASED) was calculated as a result of both individual
whole body counting for internal dose and gamma rate measurements on the ground for external dose [19].
All children underwent whole-body counting based on registration of gamma quantum in a scintillation
detector with a sodium iodine crystal activated with thallium. The whole body counters used in this study232were permanently located at the regional centres and calibrated on a regular basis as part of a national
programme for calculating annual internal dose to the population of Belarus. The calculation of external
dose was based on the annual gamma rate measurements in the villages of Belarus and performed by the
Belarus state committee for the control of radiological situation.
The urine level of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg) was determined with the method ofroentgen spectral analysis, using a roentgen fluorescent spectrofluorimeter “Spectrace-5000” (“Trackor Xray”, Netherlands).
Erythrocyte membranes statePhysical-chemical state in membrane lipids were estimated using luminescence of lipophylic
fluorescent probe 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH) and coefficient of pyren excimerization (CEP),
included into the erythrocytes ghosts. Fluorescent parameters of erythrocytes membranes were measured
using luminescent spectrophotometer LSF 222 (“Solar”, Belarus).
Data processing
Results of examination were input into a database (Paradox 4.0) and processed with methods ofparametric and nonparametric statistics using SPSS 9.0 statistical package. Epidemiological analysis ofdata was performed with the help of EPIINFO6 (version 6.04 b). Relative risk (RR) with confidential
intervals (CI) was calculated and relationships of two variables were determined using χ2-criteria. Resultsof the first and the second clinical and laboratory examination of children are analyzed in this article.
Results and discussion
Radio-ecological status
Radio-ecological parameters of both examined groups are shown in Table 1. The data given in Table
1 testify to a non-significant increase in ASED in the children of the main group during the time period of
two observations. ASED in the exposed children (main group) is characterized with a permanently higher
values compared to the unexposed group (control). Lead, cadmium and mercury urine levels weresignificantly lower in the control group compared to the main at the time of the first examination. Further,changes in heavy metals urine contents were characterized by a decrease of lead, cadmium and mercury
levels in urine in the children of the main group and by an increase of urine lead concentration in thechildren from the control group (Table 1).

Table 1. Radio-ecological parameters in children of observed groups.
GroupsParameters
Main
Control
1st examination
2nd examination
1st examination 2nd examination
a

b

c

d

ASED, mSv

0.770
(0.13-1.297)

0.810(0.13-2.24)

0.024**(0.017-0.037)

0.034***(0.017-0.320)

Pb urine excretion, mg/l

0.040
(0-0.359)

0.020*(0-0.076)

0.0172**(0-0.069)

0.028*(0-0.082)

Cd urine excretion, mg/l

0.035
(0-0.159)

0.025(0-0.053)

0.02**(0-0.08)0.015(0-0.041)

Hg urine excretion, mg/l

0.031
(0-0.078)

0.021*(0-0.063)

0.022**(0-0.102)0.019(0-0.069)

Note: Minimal and maximal values are shown in brackets.

*- b-a; d-c (P<0.05) **- c-a (Р<0.05)***- d-b (Р<0.05)
233Clinical findings
Complaints of the examined children
Contents of complaints observed in the examined children are shown in Table 2. The frequency ofthe children with some kinds of complaints is larger in the main group than in the control both at the first
and the second examinations. There is observed a growing tendency of complaints for both groups
between the first and the second examinations.
The frequency of astenoneurotic complaints was significantly higher in the main group than in thecontrol during the first examination. In the children of the main group a growing tendency of suchcomplaints was observed with time. In the control group an increased incidence of astenoneurotic
complaints was also ascertained at the moment of the second investigation, though it did not get the values
observed in the main group.
It should be noted that there were high frequencies of complaints of headaches among the examinedchildren. A Significantly higher prevalence with this complaint in the main group was observed ascompared with the control, while the incidence of headaches increased in both groups with time.
The number of complaints of heart disturbance significantly increased at the second examination inboth groups with a higher prevalence in the main group.
Gastroenterological complaints prevailed among the total structure of complaints. At the time of thesecond examination, significant increases were observed in the frequency complaints such as belch,heartburn and decreased appetite in both groups. Stomachache was the most frequent complaint.
Clinical syndromes and diagnoses
The data shown in Table 3 give the distribution of major clinical syndromes and diagnoses in theexamined children during the both periods of observation.
Table 2. Frequency of complaints in examined children, (%).
GroupsMain
Control
Complaints
1st examination 2nd examination
1st examination
2nd examination
Complaints present
Complaints absent
Weakness
Dizziness
Headache
SyncopeNasal bleeding
Fatigability
Irritability
Troubled sleep
Uracrasia
HeartacheHeart disturbance(arrhythmia)
Stomachache
Belching
HeartburnDecreased appetite
Diarrhea
Constipation
Allergic eruptions
Note :*- b-a; d-c (P<0.05)

a

b

c

d

72.2
27.8
31.6
12.8
37.6
0.8
2.3
27.1
3.0
3.0
0.8
6.8
1.5

78.9
21.1
28.6
17.3
45.1
2.3
3.8
23.3
4.5
1.5
1.5
9.0
18.8*

45.7**
54.3**
11.9**
4.9**
20.7**
0
0.5
8.2**
1.1
0.5
0.5
13.0
0

66.1*,***
33.9*,***
24.7*
5.8***
25.9***
0
1.2
17.2*
2.9
0
1.7
11.5
5.8*,***

64.7*
21.2**
15.8
2.2**
7.5*
1.6
14.3
1.1**
0.8
0.5
0.8
1.1
3.0
0.5
***- d-b (Р<0.05)

44.3*,***
12.6*
5.8*
10.3*
0
0.6
5.8*

51.9
9.8
1.5
9.0
2.3
0.8
1.5
**- c-a (Р<0.05)

234

In the structure of diseases and clinical syndromes, the most prevalent were cardiovascular
manifestation of the vegetative dysfunction (vegetovascular syndrome), chronic pathology of thegastrointestinal tract (chronic gastritis, duodenitis and gastroduodenitis), caries, asthenoneurotic syndrome,
tonsilla hypertrophy and chronic tonsillitis. A significant increase in the incidence of the combined formof chronic gastrointestinal pathology (chronic gastrodoudenitis) was observed in both groups with its
higher prevalence in the main group.
Cardiovascular syndromes and diagnoses are presented in the form of mitral valve prolapse andvegetovascular syndrome including arterial hypertension, arterial hypotension and cardiac syndrome(arrhythmia, metabolic dysfunction, isolated heart murmur). For the arterial hypertension syndrome, thechildren of both groups were distributed approximately equally. A special attention should be paid to the
distribution of children with the arterial hypotension syndrome: during the first examination, thefrequency of hypotension in the main group exceeded significantly than in the control group; later on,
with age a tendency to a decreased frequency of hypotension was observed only in the control group. An
opposite picture was revealed in the main group: the arterial hypotension syndrome increased at thesecond examination.
In the children suffering from the combined radio-chemical influence the main hemodynamic
mechanism of arterial pressure decrease is the insufficiency of the arterial blood vessels tonus. The socalled syndrome of arterial hypotension is caused by the disturbances in the mechanisms ofneurohormonal regulation of vascular tonus as a decrease in the catecholamine activity combined with adecrease in the hormonal activity of thyroid gland as a result of iodine deficiency observed in Belarus [20]and the impact of radioiodine released after the Chernobyl accident. Besides, a decrease of serum cAPM
level as well as predominance in prostacyclin depressive activity was revealed in the children with
Table 3. Frequency of clinical syndromes and diagnoses in examined children (%).
Clinical syndromes and diagnosis
GroupsMain
Control
1st
2nd
1st
2nd
examination examination examination
examinationaChronic gastritis
44.2
Chronic duodenitis
6.2
Chronic gastroduodenitis
17.1
Bilious dyskinesia
43.4
Mitral valve prolapse
2.9
Vegetovascular and cardiac syndrome
67.9(total):incl. arterial hypertension
5.9
arterial hypotension
14.2
metabolic cardiac dysfunction
14.9
arrhythmia
2.2
isolated heart murmur
40.4
Asthenoneurotic syndrome
20.2
Uracrasia
3.2
Tonsilla hypertrophy
19.8
Chronic sinusitis
0
Adenoiditis
2.4
Chronic tonsillitis
11.1
Caries58.9
Chronic periodontitis
6.8
Iron deficient anemia
6.6
Allergic eruptions
2.5
Note*- b-a; d-c (P<0.05)**- c-a (Р<0.05)

235

b

c

d

36.4
4.7
39.5*
34.1
4.5
73.7

31.9
1.5
11.6
17.4**
5.4
40.3**

32.9
1.4
28.7*
12.6***
4.8
52.2*,***

5.9
6.5**
3.2**
0.5
23.1**
7.5**
1.2
21.2
0
0
13.6
42.6**
0**
6.9
4.6

3.2
4.8***
6.9***
0.5
35.5*
11.3
4.2
16.7
0.6
3.5
17.2***
37.3***
0.6
3.5
1.8

3.8
18.1
23.3
2.3
33.8
16.9
1.5
20.0
1.5
0
9.2
59.4
2.4
3.2
0.8
***- d-b (Р<0.05)

hypotension of the main group [21]. Study of the blood vessels functional reactivity in the sufferingchildren confirms a significant decrease of arterial blood vessels tonus and shows the insufficiency in thenormal arterial pressure supply. Also significant disturbance of peripheral, cerebral and systemic tonus ofarterial vessels has been ascertained on the level of intra systemic relations [22].
During the first examination, the frequency of children with vegetative dysfunction manifestations in
the form of cardiac syndrome was significantly lower in the control group as compared with the main one.
During clinical follow-up this syndrome increased in both groups, which caused an increased number ofcomplaints of heart disturbances. It should be noted that this increase was mainly due to metabolic cardiac
dysfunction both in the main and control groups, as well as due to the isolated systolic murmur in thecontrol group. Metabolic cardiac dysfunction is characterized by a disorder in the phase of ventricle
myocardium repolarization of different degree of manifestation [23].
Distribution of the psycho neurological syndromes and diagnoses was characterized by the fact that
asthenoneurotic syndrome prevailed in the main group both during the first and second examination, thedistinctions being statistically significant in the first case (Table 3).
Relative risk analysis
Epidemiological analysis of the obtained data with the calculation of the relative risk (RR) of thedevelopment of the diseases is performed in Table 4.
The obtained data show that both during the first and second examination, the RR values of thedevelopment of the diseases were higher in the children from the main group as compared with the control.
It mostly concerns arterial hypotension and metabolic form of cardiac syndrome. An increase in the RR ofthe development of arterial hypotension points the relationship between the observed pathology and its
age dynamics, on the one hand, and environmental impact on the children’s organism, on the other hand.
Chronic small doses radiation and chemical exposure causes nonspecific disorders in the organism(changes in oxidative processes, decrease in cell membrane stability, attenuation of protective andadaptive mechanisms). The effect of some of them leads to the development of ecological disadaptation
syndrome [24] and appearance of clinically signed syndromes and diseases.
According to published data, the effect of environmental pollutants on the health of children makes
about 20%, therefore, the health of the population is considered at present as an integral index of thequality of the environment [3-5].
Erythrocyte membranes structural and functional state
Cell membranes are considered to be the initial target of the environmental exposure and pathologic
effect of xenobiotics is mediated, first of all, by membranous effects. Universal property of biological
Table 4. Relative risk (RR) of some clinical syndromes and diseases in observed children.
Clinical syndrome and diagnosis

1st examination

2nd examination

Chronic gastroduodenitis

1.46 (0.85-2.51)
χ2 =1.49, P<0.223

1.40 (1.03-1.90)
χ2 = 4.01, P<0.045

Arterial hypotension

2.21 (1.11-4.40)
χ2 = 4.57, P<0.03

3.73 (1.79-7.76)
χ2 = 13.19, P<0.0002

Cardiac metabolic dysfunction

4.66 (1.92-11.92)
χ2 = 12.92, P<0.0003

3.33 (1.82-6.13)
χ2 = 16.02, P<0.00006

Vegetovascular syndrome

1.68 (1.36-2.07)
χ = 22.14, P<0.000003

1.41 (1.19-1.68)
χ = 14.24, P<0.0002

2

Note: Confidential Interval (CI) is shown in brackets.

236

2membranes is their high sensitivity to the environmental influences. Structural changes in erythrocyte
membranes may be indicated both in the lipid bilayer and proteins. At present, it has been ascertained that
proteins and lipids jointly participate in structural reformation of biological membranes. Investigation of
membranes with the help of lipophilic fluorescent probes makes it possible to judge about the changes in
micro viscosity of membrane lipids.
While studying the changes of physical-chemical state of erythrocyte membranes with the help of
lipophilic fluorescent probes, it has been shown that fluorescent intensity of the lipophilic probe DPH
included into the erythrocyte ghosts was 0.84 ± 0.07 relative units in the children of the main group, which
was significantly higher than in the control one (0.66±0.02) (P<0.05) (Figure 1).
A decrease by 18.5% in the value of pyren excimerization coefficient (CEP) included into theerythrocytes ghosts of the children from the main group has been ascertained as compared with the groupof children living in the Vitebsk region (control group) (Figure 1).
Stability and rheological properties of plasmatic erythrocyte membranes and parameters ofhemoglobin reactions determine the supply of body tissue with oxygen. Erythrocyte membrane provides
integration and conformation of red blood cell, controls the flow of metabolites inside the cell and outside,and participates in different intercellular interactions and reactions of the erythrocyte cytoplasm to theoutside effects. There exist a large number of biochemical and biophysical mechanisms which determine
the relation between the state of plasmatic membranes and components of cytoplasm, and regulate thetransmission of signal lengthwise through membrane. Changes in the structural organization, properties
and stability of erythrocyte membrane in response to environmental effects plays a regulatory role
controlling the state of intra erythrocyte components and acting as a means of erythrocyte adaptation to
the changing situation in serum. The obtained data show that physical and chemical state of erythrocyte
membranes in children from the main group was characterized by changes in micro viscosity ofmembranous lipids, which may result from the effect of environmental impact. These changes could be
estimated as general biological response of cell membranes of all types for the environmental exposure
and play significant unified role in development of disadaptation syndrome and different health disorders
and diseases.
Conclusions

Relative
unit 0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
DP
Main

CE
Control group

Figure 1. Mean values of lipophilic fluorescent probe 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH) andcoefficient of excimerization of pyren (CEP) in examined children.
237

Clinical follow-up of two groups of Belarusian children (the main and the control) clearly indicatesan aggravating situation of their health state by both the number of complaints and the number of majorclinical syndromes and diagnoses. The most important is the growth of the gastrointestinal pathology, as
well as an increase in cardiovascular manifestations of the vegetative dysfunction syndrome.
Practically all forms of studied nosology are more prevalent in the main group compared to thecontrol both at the first and the second examinations. High values of relative risk (RR) are obtained forarterial hypotension (RR=2.21 and 3.73 at the first and the second examination, respectively) and cardiac
metabolic dysfunction (RR=4.66 and 3.33).
The present situation requires that measures for correction and prophylaxis of environmental
depending pathology should be conducted. These measures should cover all aspects of etiopathogenesis
and be directed to restoration of the impaired resistance of the children’s organisms using first of all,medication free (medicines free or non medicament) means and methods.
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2. Erzinkyan KL Anthropogenic factors of the environment and health. Vestnik of the USSR Academy of Medical
Sciences. 1989, N8, P.59-68. (Russian)
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population. In “Modern technologies and human health. Minsk, 1991, P.28-29 (Russian)
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Chernobyl accident”. Minsk, 1996, P.86-89. (Russian)
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International Congress, St. Petersburg, 1998, P.99-101. (Russian)
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18. IPCS.Priciples for evaluating chemical effects on the aged population. Environmental health criteria 144. WHO,
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after the Chernobyl accident”. Minsk, 1995, P.107-165. (Russian)239

Chernobyl Radiation-induced Thyroid Cancers in Belarus
Mikhail V. MALKO
Joint Institute of Power and Nuclear Research, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus
Krasin Str. 99, Minsk, Sosny, 220109, Republic of Belarus: mvmalko@malkom.belpak.minsk.by

Abstract
Assessment of incidence and mortality for thyroid cancers carried out for the Belarusian
population is described in the present report. It is found that in the period of 1987-2000 about 4,400
radiation-induced thyroid cancers appeared in Belarus: 692 cancers among children and 3,709
cancers among adolescents and adults. The number of lethal thyroid cancers in this period of timein Belarus was assessed as about 350 cases. The excessive absolute risk, EAR, of thyroid cancer
incidence assessed for the period of 1987-2000 on the basis of given data on the morbidity and theassessed collective thyroid dose of irradiation is (2.5 – 5.0) per 104 PYGy. The EAR value of
thyroid cancer mortality is assessed as (0.20 - 0.40) per 104 PYGy. The excessive relative risk, ERR,of thyroid cancer incidence is assessed as (11.2 – 22.4)/Gy. The radiation risks of thyroid cancers
found in the present report are higher than the risk coefficients established for atomic bomb
survivors that were irradiated with dose rates some thousand times higher than populations ofBelarus affected by the Chernobyl accident. The absence of marked latency period is anotherfeature of radiation-induced thyroid cancers caused in Belarus as a result of this accident.

INTRODUCTION
As a result of the Chernobyl accident a large amount of radioactive substances escaped from thedestroyed reactor. Especially high release was in case of volatile radionuclides. According to the existingassessments about 50% of the 131I isotope inventory came into the environment [1]. This caused theradioactive contamination of many countries of the Northern Hemisphere [2]. However, the main fractionof radioactive materials released by the accident deposited in Belarus. The total amount of the 131I
deposited in Belarus is assessed as approximately 3.3⋅1017 Bq or about 18.5% of the total amount of 131I
that escaped from the Chernobyl reactor [3]. Practically the whole territory of Belarus was contaminatedwith this and other iodine isotopes. This resulted in very high doses delivered to thyroid gland of a large
amount of people in Belarus. It is well known that the highest thyroid doses in Belarus were received by
the inhabitants of the south districts of the Gomel region and of the southeast districts of the Brest region[4]. According to the data of Yu.Gavrilin et al.[4], the arithmetic mean thyroid dose in the age group 0-6
years of the children living in settlements of the Khoiniki district settled in the 30-km zone was about 4.7
Gy and maximal doses were about 50 Gy. Very high thyroid doses were received also by the inhabitantsof Brest and Mogilev regions. This is the reason for a very high increase in the thyroid cancer incidence inBelarus after the Chernobyl accident, especially among the children of Gomel and Brest regions.
V.Kazakov, E.Demidchik and L.N.Astakhova [5] published the first reliable data on the significant
increase in the thyroid cancer morbidity among the children of Belarus after the Chernobyl accident.
However, specialists met these data with a big skepticism. There were serious reasons for this skepticism.
At first, the data of [5] have shown an unusual short latent period of about 2-3 years. At second, no similar
data about the increase in the incidence of thyroid cancer among the children of the affected areas of the
Ukraine and Russia were known at the time of publication [5]. This was very strange because all
specialists believed that the Ukraine was affected by the Chernobyl accident more significantly than
Belarus. It is now clear that such assumption was fully incorrect.

240

In order to explain an unusually high incidence of thyroid cancer among the children of Belarus somespecialists proposed an idea that this increase was caused by the improved screening in Belarus [6].
This situation changed only after the First International Conference on the RadiologicalConsequences of the Chernobyl Accident held in Mink in 1996 from 18 to 22 March. At the conference
new data on the thyroid cancer incidence in Belarus [7] as well as similar data on the increase of the
thyroid cancer incidence among the children of the Ukraine [8] and Russia [9] were presented. Data on the
thyroid cancer morbidity in these two countries differed only quantitative from the Belarusian data.
Analysis of the data on the thyroid cancer morbidity in three countries has shown that the highest
increase in the thyroid cancer incidence was registered in Belarus and the lowest in Russia. Such
difference was explained later on the basis of thyroid doses delivered to inhabitants of the affected areas ofBelarus, the Ukraine and Russia. It was shown that the highest irradiation doses of thyroid glands werereceived in Belarus and the lowest in Russia [3].
At the Minsk conference a number of evidences were given that indicated the association between theincrease in the incidence in thyroid cancer among the children of Belarus, the Ukraine and Russia andionizing origin. For example, it was shown that in Belarus thyroid cancer has mainly appeared in thechildren irradiated as a result of the Chernobyl accident. It was established that out of the total number of
390 thyroid cancers registered among the children of Belarus in 1986-1994 and the first 7 months of 1995
380 cases were diagnosed for the children born before the Chernobyl accident, 6 cases for the children
born at the time of the accident and only 4 cases for the children born after full disintegration ofradioiodine [7].
Other very important finding relates to the histological types of thyroid cancers in countries affectedby the Chernobyl accident. For instance, more than 90% of thyroid cancer in Belarus and the Ukraine
were papillary carcinoma as compared to 68% of the England and Wales tumors [10]. Within the papillarycarcinoma over 70% of thyroid cancers in the countries affected by the Chernobyl accident were of thesolid follicular type compared to only 40% in England and Wales [10].
At present, practically nobody doubts in the manifestation of radiation-induced thyroid cancers
among the children of the affected areas of the former USSR [11]. However, up to the present time
nobody recognizes the manifestation of radiation-induced thyroid cancers among adolescents and adults
despite of the existence of reliable data indicating the presence of radiation-induced thyroid cancers forother age categories than children [12].
The existence of such controversies requires careful studies of incidences of thyroid cancers bydifferent age categories in order to establish evidences on a link between radiation and the increased
morbidity of thyroid cancer. The present report describes the results of an analysis of incidences in thyroid
cancers among children, adolescents and adults of Belarus. The excessive absolute risk, EAR, and theexcessive relative risk, ERR, were also assessed in the report. Only data established for Belarus wereconsidered because the population of Belarus received the highest thyroid dose [3]. Due to this fact a moreclear manifestation of irradiation effects may be expected in Belarus. It is also important that the
epidemiological data established in Belarus are more comprehensive and accurate than in Russia and the
Ukraine. The present report is practically the further development of our previous studies [13,14].
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Data established by specialists of the Thyroid Surgery Registry of the Scientific and Practical Centre
for Thyroid Tumors of the Institute of Medical Radiology and Endocrinology of the Ministry for HealthCare of the Republic of Belarus [5,7,15-19] as well as data of the Belarusian Cancer Registry [20-28] andother official data [29-34] were used in the present report for an assessment of radiation-induced thyroid
cancer in Belarus. Results given in the present report were assessed for the mixed populations of children,
adolescents and adults of Belarus. In case of adults no separate consideration of persons involved in241mitigation work of the Chernobyl accident or so-called liquidators was performed. No separate assessment
for males and females was also conducted.
Monitoring of malignant neoplasms in Belarus began in 1950s [20-29]. Therefore, quite accurate data
exist at least from 1960s. However, until 1994 only sparse information on the incidence and mortality inseparate malignant neoplasms was published in the country. These were data on crude incidence andmortality in malignant neoplasms combined together and given for Belarus in total. Beginning from 1994
the Belarusian Cancer Registry publishes annually their statistical books that contain more detailed
information on the incidence and mortality in malignant neoplasms. This information is given for Belarus
in total as well as for separate administrative units of the country. Belarus is divided in 7 administrative
units: 6 regions (Brest, Vitebsk, Gomel, Grodno, Minsk, Mogilev) and the Minsk city which is the capitalof the country [29-34]. The smallest administrative unit is the Mogilev region with 1.2 million of people.
The largest unit is the Minsk city with the number of inhabitants about 1.7 million [29-34].
The excessive absolute risk, EAR, was estimated with the simplified expression:

EAR = (O − E ) / N PYSv .

(1)

Here O – observed number of thyroid cancer; E – expected number of thyroid cancer; NPYSv – number of
person⋅year⋅sievert under risk.
The value of NPYSv was assessed on the basis of equation:coll
N PYSv = H Th
⋅Y .

(2)

Here H Th − collective thyroid equivalent dose delivered in 1986; Y − number of years under risk after thecollaccident.
The excessive relative risk, ERR, was calculated by using of the expression:

ERR = (O / E − 1) / H ind .

(3)

Here H ind − average individual dose of irradiation.
The value of H ind can be determined with the formula:coll
H ind = H Th
/N .

(4)

Here N is the number of people with irradiated thyroid glands.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Morbidity of thyroid cancers among children of Belarus
Thyroid cancer is a quite rare disease for children. According to the data of the Thyroid Surgery
Registry [15] in 1966-1985 (or during 20 years) only 21 cases of thyroid cancers were registered in thechildren of Belarus. This gives 1 case of thyroid cancer per year as a spontaneous morbidity of thyroid
cancer for the Belarusian children. The average number of children (less than 15 years old) in Belarus in
the pre-accidental period was about 2.37 million [29-34]. As can be calculated from this figures, thespontaneous morbidity of thyroid cancer for the children of Belarus before the Chernobyl accident wasapproximately 0.4 cases per million. This value is very close to the spontaneous morbidity of thyroid
cancer in the children of England and Wales [10] equal to approximately 0.5 cases per million. Data in
Table 1 taken from [17] demonstrate that before the Chernobyl accident only 3 possibilities wereregistered as the number of thyroid cancer incidence among the children. They were 0, 1 and 2 cases per
year. This means that the highest number of spontaneous thyroid cancers among the children of Belarus isequal to 2 cases in a year and the spontaneous incidence rate in thyroid cancers for the children of Belarus
is 1 ± 1 cases in a year.
The situation changed after the Chernobyl accident. Table 2 contains the numbers of thyroid cancers
registered annually in 1986-1997 [16]. Already in 1987, 4 cases of thyroid cancers were registered in the242Belarusian children. This number is by a factor of 2 higher than the maximal possible number of
spontaneous cases that can realize annually. The data in Table 2 demonstrate practically an absence of thelatency period for radiation-induced thyroid cancers among the children of Belarus. The first radiationinduced thyroid cancers among them, according to Table 2, manifested already in 1987 or 1 year after the
Chernobyl accident. This finding was unexpected for the majority of scientists because the believing in theexistence of the latency, at least 5 years long, was the common wisdom of radiation biology.
As can be seen from Table 2, the highest increase in the incidence of thyroid cancers among children
manifested in Gomel (53.1%) and Brest (23.5) regions and the lowest in Vitebsk region. These findings
correlate with the level of contamination of different Belarusian regions with iodine isotopes discharged tothe environment by the Chernobyl accident [35].
Our assessment demonstrates that 692 additional thyroid cancers in the children of Belarus wereregistered in 1987-2000 (see Table 3). The numbers of observed thyroid cancers in children in 1987-1997
were taken from the last row of the previous table.
The numbers of observed thyroid cancers in children in 1998-2000 were established by [19].
Data given in Tables 2 and 3 as well as in Fig. 1 show that the incidence in thyroid cancers among
the children of Belarus increased monotonously from 4 cases in 1987 to 91 cases in 1995, and thendecreased also monotonously to 31 cases in 2000.
The reason for the decline in thyroid cancers incidence after 1995 is very easy. It is caused simply by
the medical statistics used in Belarus [13,14]. All official data on cancer morbidity in Belarus are given for
two groups. The first group includes the data for those persons for which cancers as well as thyroid cancer
are diagnosed when they are less than 15 years old. The second group includes all persons that are older
than 15 years. Thus, when a person reaches 15 years at the time of the thyroid cancer diagnose, this person
will be considered as a person belonging to the group of adolescents and adults. This means that there is apermanent transition from the subgroup of children to the subgroup of adolescents and adults. As a resultof this transition, the children that received thyroid doses by the Chernobyl accident are being lost
Table 1. Incidence of thyroid cancer among children of Belarus before the Chernobyl accident.
Year

Male

1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978

0
0
1
0
0
2
1
0

Femal
e
0
0
1
2
1
0
1
1

Both

Year

Male

Female

Both

0
0
2
2
1
2
2
1

1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986

0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1

0
0
1
0
0
0
2
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
2
2

Table 2. Thyroid cancer among children of Belarus after the Chernobyl accident [16].
Region/Year
Brest
Vitebsk
Gomel
GrodnoMinsk
Mogilev
Minsk-city
Belarus total

86
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
2

87
0
0
2
1
1
0
0
4

88
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
5

89
1
0
3
2
1
0
0
7

90
7
1
14
0
1
2
4
29

91
5
3
43
2
1
3
2
59
243

92
17
2
34
4
4
1
4
66

93
24
0
36
3
4
7
5
79

94
21
1
44
5
6
4
1
82

95
21
0
48
5
1
6
10
91

96
25
0
42
5
5
3
4
84

97
13
0
37
3
6
4
3
66

Total
135
7
305
32
31
30
34
574

Table 3. Incidence of thyroid cancers among children of Belarus after the Chernobyl accident.
Year

Observed

Expected

1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
1987-2000

4
5
7
29
59
66
79
82
91
84
66
54
49
31
706

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Observed Expected
3
4
6
28
58
65
78
81
90
83
65
53
48
30
692

SIR
4
5
7
29
59
66
79
82
91
84
66
54
49
31
50.4

permanently from the children’s subgroup. This transition causes the decrease in the incidence in thyroid
cancers among the children of Belarus with the time.
Thus, in order to establish real incidence rates of thyroid cancers for the children of Belarus one
needs to determine the number of irradiated children in the children’s subgroup. Such data are given in thethird column of Table 4. It is seen from this table that the number of irradiated children in Belarus
decreased from 2.303 million in 1986 down to 0.223 million in 2000.
The last group of the children with thyroid doses caused by iodine isotopes will move to thesubgroup of adolescents and adults in the first 3 months of 2001. This group will include only the childrenthat were irradiated in utero. It means that beginning from 2002 the incidence of thyroid cancers among
the children of Belarus will be the same level as before the Chernobyl accident, or 1 case annually.
For forecasting the number of thyroid cancers for 2001, the simplified procedure described in ourprevious publication [14] was used. It is based on a linear extrapolation between 2000 and 2002. The data
100

Number of cases

80

60

40

20

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

0

Years

Fig. 1. Number of thyroid cancer incidence among the children of Belarus.
244

Table 4. Assessment of the incidence rates of thyroid cancers among children of Belarus after the
Chernobyl accident.
Amounts ofTotal amounts
Incidence rateirradiatedObservedYearof children
Observed(per 100,000
children (inExpected(in millions)children)millions)
1986
2.303
2.303
2
1
0.0434
1987
2.315
2.152
4
3
0.1394
1988
2.325
1.999
5
4
0.2001
1989
2.337
1.858
7
6
0.3229
1990
2.337
1.715
29
28
1.6327
1991
2.335
1.581
59
58
3.6686
1992
2.328
1.446
66
65
4.4951
1993
2.327
1.328
79
78
5.8735
1994
2.307
1.198
82
81
6.7669
1995
2.273
1.062
91
90
8.4746
1996
2.217
0.910
84
83
9.1209
1997
2.154
0.758
66
65
8.5752
1998
2.086
0.597
54
53
8.8777
1999
1.961
0.379
49
48
12.6649
2000
1.898
0.223
31
30
13.4529
given in [28] shows that 31 cases of thyroid cancers were registered in 2000. Linear extrapolation between
31cases in 2000 and 1 case in 2002 gives 16 thyroid cancers in 2001 for the children of Belarus. Thisvalue is used in constructing Fig. 2.
The total number of thyroid cancers in the Belarusian children that can manifest in the period from1986 up to 2002 will be then equal to 722 cases. Subtraction from this number of the number of
spontaneous thyroid cancers that have to appear in 1987-2001 (15 cases) will give the number of radiation– induced thyroid cancers among the children of Belarus equal to 707 cases.
At the same time, we have to expect some contribution to the additional thyroid cancers that werecaused as a result of irradiation of their thyroid glands by other isotopes than isotopes of iodine. Thiseffect can give in reality some higher numbers of thyroid cancers in the children of Belarus after 2001 than
14

Incidence in 100,000

12
10
8
6
4
2
2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

0

Years

Fig. 2. Incidence rates of thyroid cancer among irradiated children of Belarus.

245the spontaneous incidence before the accident. However, this number can not differ very strong from theforecasted number of 707 cases.
As can be seen from Fig. 2, the incidence rate of thyroid cancers in the children of Belarus increases
practically linearly after the Chernobyl accident. It increased from 0.0434 cases per 100,000 children in
1987 up to 13.5 cases per 100,000 children in 2000 or by a factor of 310 (see the last column of Table 4).
For calculation of incidence rates of thyroid cancers given in the last column of Table 4, the numbers ofchildren in the third column and the numbers of additional thyroid cancers in the fifth column were used.
Assessment of the incidence rate of thyroid cancers in the children of Belarus carried out on the
population data presented in the second column of Table 4 gives for 2000 1.58 cases per 100,000 children.
This number is 8.5 times less than the real incidence rate of thyroid cancers in 2000 among the children
affected by the Chernobyl accident. It is clear that the method of medical statistics used in Belarus gives
an apparent decrease of thyroid cancers manifested in children after 1995. This apparent decrease iscaused by the transition of persons that reach 15 years to the sub-population of adolescents and adults. We
assessed that in 1996-2000 approximately 400 cases of thyroid cancers manifested in persons that wereless than 15 years at the time of the Chernobyl accident went to the sub-population of adolescents andadults of Belarus. We assessed this number of thyroid cancers (400 cases) by use of the following
expression:
Y=13.5•T – 26,833(5)
It was developed on the basis of incidences of thyroid cancers in the children of Belarus in 19891996 by using of the least square method.
Addition of 400 cases to 706 cases (see the last value in the second column of Table 3) gives theapproximate total number of thyroid cancers manifested in Belarus in 1987-2000 in those persons thatwere children at the time of the Chernobyl accident. It is equal to 1106 cases instead of 706 cases
considered by specialists. This simplified analysis demonstrates what incorrect conclusions can be drawn
about the development of the morbidity of thyroid cancers in the children of Belarus.
Morbidity in thyroid cancers among adolescents and adults of Belarus
The described above transition of the children with thyroid doses from the children’s subgroup into
subgroup of adolescents and adults decreases the number of radiation-induced thyroid cancers among thepersons that are considered as children according to rules of the medical accounting. At the same time thistransition causes an additional increase in the incidence in thyroid cancers by adolescents and adults ofBelarus after the accident. However, the transition between different subgroups can not explain a very
high increase in the incidence of thyroid cancers among adolescents and adults of Belarus after the
Chernobyl accident (see Fig.3). The upper curve in Fig.3 presents the registered number of thyroid cancers
in adolescents and adults. Here the data for 1977 –1997 were taken from [7,16]. The observed numbers of
thyroid cancers in 1998-2000 were estimated on the basis of the data of the Belarusian Cancer Registry[26-28].
According to [26] the incidence of thyroid cancer among the Belarusian population was 7.5 cases per
100,000 persons in 1998 and the total number of people in Belarus was 10.2 million. By using these data
one can calculate the number of thyroid cancers registered in Belarus in 1998 equal to 765 cases. This
number is a sum of thyroid cancers in children and in adolescents and adults. Subtraction of the number ofchildren’s cancers (54 cases in 1998 [17]) from the total numbers of thyroid cancers gives the number ofthyroid cancers in adolescents and adults equal to 711 cases. This value is shown in the second column ofTable 6. The similar method was used for assessment of number of thyroid cancers registered byadolescents and adults of Belarus in 1999 and 2000.
Two other curves in Fig.3 give assessed spontaneous or expected cases in the group of adolescentsand adults of Belarus.
246

Observed

Expression (7)Expression (6)1000

Number of cases

800

600

400

200

1999

1997

1995

1993

1991

1989

1987

1985

1983

1981

1979

1977

0

Years

Fig. 3. Incidence of thyroid cancers among adolescents and adults of Belarus in 19772000 (absolute numbers).
The expected numbers of thyroid cancers in adolescents and adults of Belarus combined together canbe assessed by using of the formula [13]:(6)
Ej=E0·(1+a)j,
Where E0 = spontaneous morbidity of adolescents and adults in 1977;
a = is a constant showing the annual increase in the incidence of the thyroid cancer, it is about
0.02 (2% increase annually);j = is the number of the consequent year beginning with j =0 for 1977 (j = 1 for 1978 and so on);
Ej = spontaneous morbidity of adolescents and adults in the year j.
Data calculated with this expression are presented in Fig.3 (the lower line in figure).
The last expression was established in [13] on the basis of data on thyroid cancer incidences inadolescents and adults of Belarus [7] that were registered before the Chernobyl accident. It was used for
calculation of the expected numbers of thyroid cancers among adolescents and adults of Belarus that arealso shown in the third column of the Table 5.
Comparison of the data calculated by using of the expression (6) with the observed data presented in
the second column of Table 5 demonstrates a very good agreement for 1977-1985 and a quite significant
disagreement for 1986 and 1987. We believe that inefficient screening of thyroid cancers among
adolescents and adults before the Chernobyl accident causes this disagreement. The following arguments
support this idea.
As can be seen from Table 5, the number of registered thyroid cancers in adolescents and adults
abruptly increased in 1986 and 1987, and then changed only very insignificant from 1987 to 1988. The
probable reason for such change in the incidence in thyroid cancers among adolescents and adults ofBelarus can be a more careful investigation of this category of people by specialists or an improved
screening.
Table 3 demonstrates that in case of children a clear manifestation of additional thyroid cancers
began in 1987 and a marked increase in the incidence occurred only from 1990 or 3 years after the
Chernobyl accident. It is difficult to believe that in a case of adolescents and adults a significant
manifestation of radiation-induced thyroid cancers began already in 1986. In order to correct the possible
effect of inefficient screening in a case of adolescents and adults we modified the expression (6) byinserting of the coefficient c that takes into account the screening effect. This modified expression is given247

below:
Ej=E0·c·(1+a)j,(7)

We determined the coefficient c by dividing of the observed number in 1987 of thyroid cancers inadolescents and adults by the number calculated with the expression (6). By correcting this way the
expected incidences of thyroid cancers in adolescents and adults are shown in the fourth column of Table
5. The middle curve in Fig. 3 presents values calculated with the last expression.
We applied the same method for the possible screening effect to assessment of spontaneous
morbidity of thyroid cancers in adolescents and adults of Belarus for the whole period after the Chernobyl
accident. The corrected numbers of expected thyroid cancers among this category of the Belarusian
population are given in the third column of Table 6.
Data on numbers of thyroid cancers registered by adolescents and adults of Belarus in 1986 – 1997
given in the second column of Table 6 were taken from the report of [16]. The number of thyroid cancers
in this column for 1998-2000 were calculated on the basis of the morbidity rate in thyroid cancer of thewhole Belarusian population and a number of people in the country that are presented in the reports of theTable 5. Incidence of thyroid cancers among adolescents and adults of Belarus in 1977-1988.
Year

Observed

1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
984
1985
1986
1987
1988

121
97
101
127
132
131
136
139
148
162
202
207

Calculated values
Expression (6)Expression (7)
121
166
123
169
126
172
128
176
131
179
134
183
136
187
139
190
142
194
145
198
147
202
160
206

Table 6. Incidence of thyroid cancers among adolescents and adults of Belarus after the Chernobyl
accident.
ObservedYear
Observed
Expected
SIR
Expected
1987
202
202
0
1
1988
207
206
1
1.005
1989
226
210
16
1.076
1990
289
214
75
1.350
1991
340
219
121
1.552
1992
416
223
193
1.865
1993
512
227
285
2.256
1994
553
232
321
2.384
1995
531
237
294
2.241
1996
568
241
327
2.357
1997
641
246
395
2.606
1998
711
251
460
2.833
1999
847
256
591
3.309
2000
891
261
630
3.414
1987-2000
6934
3225
3709
2.150

248

Table 7.Additional incidence of thyroid cancers in Belarus in 1987-2000.
Year

Children

1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
1987-2000

3
4
6
28
58
65
78
81
90
83
65
53
48
30
692

Adolescents andadults
0
1
16
75
121
193
285
321
294
327
395
460
591
630
3709

All ages
3
5
22
103
179
258
363
402
384
410
460
513
639
660
4401

Belarusian Cancer Registry [26-28].
As can be seen from Table 6, the first radiation-induced thyroid cancer in the group of adolescentsand adults of Belarus, according to our assessment, manifested already in 1988 or 2 years after the
Chernobyl accident. This means that the minimal latency period of radiation-induced thyroid cancers by
this category is about 2 years and not 10 years later as could be expected on the basis of an experience
accumulated previously.
The early manifestation of radiation-induced thyroid cancers in Belarus shows clear an absence of thesignificant latent period in radiation-induced thyroid cancer in Belarus. This is not surprising. Such
possibility was forecasted a long time ago by J.Gofman [36]. He stated in his book “Radiation and Human
Health” [36] that the latent period of some cancers can depend on the number of persons in the group
under study. In a case of a small group it can be required very long time in order to get provable differencewith a control group. On the contrary, in a case of very large group of irradiated persons the provabledifference can be reached in a very short time. Such situation had the place in Belarus where about
10,000,000 persons were irradiated.
The total number of additional thyroid cancers among adolescents and adults manifested in Belarus
in 1987 - 2000 calculated by using the method described here is equal to 3,709 cases (see Table 6).
Assessment of additional thyroid cancers in Belarus
Table 7 contains the numbers of additional thyroid cancers manifested in Belarus in 1987-2000
estimated in previous sections of the present report. The total number of additional thyroid cancers
appeared in the country after the Chernobyl accident is 4,401: 692 cases in children and 3,907 cases inadolescents and adults.
Mortality from radiation-induced thyroid cancers in Belarus
The similar procedure as used by assessment of the thyroid cancer incidence can be used forassessment of the number of people in Belarus that died from thyroid cancer caused by the Chernobyl
accident.
Fig. 4 shows the dynamic in the crude mortality rate resulted from the morbidity in thyroid cancers.
The data shown in this figure were taken from the reports of the Belarusian Cancer Registry [20-28]. They
give the mortality of thyroid cancers for the whole Belarusian population (children, adolescents and249

Mortality rates (per 100,000 persons)Observed

Expected

1.2

1

0.8

0.6

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

0.4
Years
Fig. 4. Mortality rates of thyroid cancers in the Belarusian population.
adults) determined as a number of cases in 100,000 persons. The upper (solid) line gives the observedmortality rates. The lower (dotted) line shows the “spontaneous” mortality rates determined by us. We
assessed the “spontaneous” mortality assuming that the mortality rate in 1987 did not differ from thespontaneous mortality and that the annual increase in the spontaneous mortality was in 1987-2000
approximately 2%. Using these data as well as the data on the number of people in Belarus in 1986-2000[29-34] we assessed the additional number of fatal thyroid cancers in 1987-2000 as approximately 351
cases.
Radiation risks
Excess absolute risk (EAR) for thyroid cancer incidence:coll
equal to 127⋅104 man⋅Gy was given as the total collective thyroid dose for the
The value of H Th
Belarusian population in our previous report [3] The assessment of the collective equivalent thyroid dosein the report [3] was carried out assuming the ratio of activities of 131I to 137Cs (recalculated on the 26
April of 1986) in Belarus equal to 20. This is derived from the data on the total discharge of 131I and 137Cs
collequal to 121⋅104 man⋅Gy.
in the environment [3]. In present report we used the corrected value of H Th

However, new experimental data [36] established on the basis of the isotope 129I demonstrates apossibility of incorrectness of the data on release of the isotope 131I accepted in the report [3]. The authors[37] give a value of the ratio of activities of 131I to 137Cs (recalculated on the 26 April of 1986) equal to 10±3.1. The collective equivalent thyroid dose assessed using this value is equal to 60.5⋅104 man⋅Gy. The
coll
can be considered as the lower limit of the collective equivalent thyroid dose of thelast value of H Th
coll
Belarusian population caused by the Chernobyl accident. It is by a factor of 2 less than the value of H Th

equal to 121⋅104 man⋅Gy, which can be considered as the upper limit of the collective equivalent thyroidcolldoses of the Belarusian population. The real value of H Th
can be between these two assessments.

Inserting these values and the number of additional thyroid cancers that was assessed in this work
(4,401 cases) into the expression (1) gives the value of EAR for the incidence of additional thyroid
cancers in Belarus in 1987-2000 to be (2.5-5.0)/104 PYGy.
This value of the excessive absolute risk agrees quite well with EARs established in other studies.
250

For example, according to [37], the value of EAR for inhabitants of the Marshall Islands, which had astrong internal irradiation of thyroid gland, is estimated as 1.1 per 104 PYGy [38]. In the study ofconsequences of the Utah 131I fallout [39] the value of EAR equal to 3.3 per 104 PYGy was evaluated.
According to [40], the excessive absolute risk of radiation-induced thyroid cancers established for mixed
population of atomic bomb survivors is 1.1 per 104 PYGy (95% CI=0.55-1.75).
The last value is by factor 2-4 less than the excessive absolute risk of radiation thyroid cancers
assessed in this report for the Belarusian population. This discrepancy can not arise from anoverestimation of the number of additional thyroid cancers or from an underestimation of the collective
dose of thyroid gland irradiation used in the present report. We draw this conclusion because our value ofthe excessive absolute risk is in a qualitative agreement with the value of EAR established for Russianliquidators [12]. According to Ivanov et al [12], the excessive absolute risk of radiation-induced thyroid
cancers estimated for this category of irradiated people for period of 1986-1995 is 1.31 per 104 PYGy
(95% CI=0.55-1.75). The last value is by factor 1.8-3.6 less than our values of the EAR and close to thevalue established for atomic bomb survivors. However, Russian liquidators form a special group of people,
93 % of which consist of males that were in average 33.4 years old during their period of duty in the 30km zone [12]. Therefore, the excessive absolute risk of a mixed population that contains approximately
equal fractions of males and females has to be at least 2 times higher than the excessive absolute risk
established by Ivanov et al [12] for Russian liquidators.
Thus the high value of the EAR assessed in the present report for the Belarusian population is quite
reasonable. This is an unexpected result because it is generally accepted that radiation risks of cancers
decline with decrease of dose rates. The hypothesis about existence of such dependence between radiation
risks and dose rates was proposed in 1980 by the USA National Council on Radiation Protection andMeasurements (NCRP) [41]. In order to take into account this effect the NCRP introduced a special doserate-effectiveness factor (DREF). According to the NCRP assessment, values of DREF vary from 2 to 10
for different types of cancers. The United Nations Scientific Commission on Effects of Radiation(UNSCEAR) [42] and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) [43] also
recognize reduction in a carcinogenic efficiency of ionizing radiation by decrease of a dose rate ofirradiation. As an evidence of this effect in case of radiation-induced thyroid cancers, the ICRP considers
the findings of Holm [44]. This author showed that a chronic irradiation of thyroid gland with 131I is 4
times less effective than acute irradiation with x-rays.
The irradiation of thyroid gland of atomic bomb survivors occurred in approximately 1 minute. Incase of liquidators of the Chernobyl accident as well as populations of the former USSR that were affectedby this accident the irradiation of thyroid gland lasted at least 1 month or 43,000 minutes. This means thatdose rates of the thyroid gland irradiation of liquidators and affected populations of the Soviet Union wereabout 40,000 times less than dose rates in case of atomic bomb survivors. It is clear that in case ofcorrectness of the NCRP hypothesis the values of EAR for the Belarusian population and liquidators haveto be less than the EAR value for atomic bomb survivors. Our data and the data of [12], however,demonstrate a fully disagreement with this expectation. Such disagreement is not the unique feature ofradiation-induced thyroid cancers in Belarus. Ivanov et al [45,46] found that radiation risks of solidcancers other than thyroid cancers for Russian liquidators are also by some factors higher than in case of
atomic bomb survivors. The authors [45,46] carried out their study by using the cohort method similar to
the method used by specialists of the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) and are quite
reasonable. Similar findings were also found in the report [47].
Excess relative risk (ERR) for thyroid cancer:
By using the data on observed and expected incidences of thyroid cancers in children, adolescentsand adults, the averaged value of the excessive relative risk, ERR, was also assessed on the basis of251expression (3). The values of O and E were obtained from the data shown in Tables 3 and 6. The value of

H ind was calculated by inserting the collective equivalent dose of the thyroid cancer irradiation of thecollequal to (60.5-121)⋅104 man⋅Gy into expression (4) and the number ofBelarusian population H Th

population in Belarus equal to 10 millions of people. Thus, the ERR value of (11.2-22.4)/Gy was obtained
for the mixed population in Belarus.
The assessed value of ERR is one order in magnitude higher than the value 0.84/Gy established foratomic bomb survivors [40]. However, it agrees very well with the excessive relative risk found forchildren and adolescents of the affected areas of Belarus, the Ukraine and Russia in the report [48].
According to authors [48], the excess relative risk per unit dose in the study area is equal to 90/Gy. One
needs to remember that the ERR value for children and adolescents is by some factors higher than for themixed population. Therefore, we can state that the excess relative risk assessed in our report for the mixed
Belarusian population agree quite well with the data of authors [48]. This allow us to conclude that ourvalue of the ERR for the incidence of radiation-induced thyroid cancers in Belarusian population is quite
accurate.
Excess absolute risk (EAR) for thyroid cancer mortality:
The excessive absolute risk of mortality resulting from the radiation-induced thyroid cancers was also
assessed. The same method as in case of the incidence in radiation thyroid cancers was used for thispurpose. It was found that the excessive absolute risk of mortality in radiation-induced thyroid cancers for
the Belarusian population is equal to (0.20-0.40) per 104 PYGy.
This value agrees quite well with the excessive absolute risk of the death from radiation-induced
thyroid cancer assessed by E.Gilbert [49]. The EAR of this author is about 0.125 - 0.25 per 104 PYGy.
However, the quality of our assessed data on mortality from radiation-induced thyroid cancers is not sogood as in case of data on the incidence in thyroid cancers. Therefore, we consider our assessment on themortality for radiation thyroid cancers in Belarus as a qualitative assessment.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The morbidity and the mortality from radiation-induced cancers in Belarus as a result of theChernobyl accident have been assessed for the period of time 1987-2000. According to our assessment,
692 radiation-induced thyroid cancers among the children of Belarus appeared in 1987-2000. The total
number of children's thyroid cancers that will manifest in 1987-2001 can be about 707 cases. The
number of the radiation-induced thyroid cancers manifested among adolescents and adults of Belarus
in 1987-2000 as a result of the Chernobyl accident was assessed as 3,709 cases. The total number ofradiation-induced thyroid cancers appeared in this period of time is about 4,401 cases. The number ofthe people that died in Belarus in 1987-2000 from radiation-induced cancer was assessed as 351 cases.
2. The low latency period of radiation-induced thyroid cancers among the Belarusian population was
found: about 1 year in case of children and about 2 years in case of adolescents and adults.
3. The excessive absolute risk, EAR, of the radiation-induced thyroid cancers manifested in Belarus after
the Chernobyl accident is assessed as (2.4 – 4.8) per 104 PYGy. This value is higher than the excessive
absolute risk established for atomic bomb survivors that were irradiated with dose rates many
thousands times higher than dose rates of the Belarusian population.
4. The excessive relative risk, ERR, of the incidence in radiation-induced thyroid cancers manifested in
Belarus after the Chernobyl accident is assessed as (11.2-22.4)/Gy. These values are one order higher
than the excessive relative risk established for atomic bomb survivors.
5. The high value of the radiation risks of the thyroid cancers incidence as well as the absence ofsignificant latency of radiation-induced thyroid cancers by the Belarusian population indicate an252

irrelevancy of radiation risks established from atomic bomb survivors for the Belarusian population.
6. The excessive absolute risk of the mortality in Belarus in 1987-2000 from the radiation-induced
thyroid cancers was assessed as (0.20 - 0.40) per 104 PYGy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author of the paper expresses his acknowledgment to Dr. Nadya Ryabakon for the assistance inpreparing of the manuscript.
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255

Analysis of Chromosome Aberrations in Human Lymphocytes after
Accidental Exposure to Ionizing Radiation
Galina SNIGIRYOVA and Vladimir SHEVCHENKO*
Russian Scientific Center of Roentgeno-Radiology, MOH RF,
Profsoyuznaya st. 86, GSP-7, 117997 Moscow, Russia: snigiryova@mrids.rssi.ru*N.I. Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, RAS,
Gubkin st. 3, 117809 Moscow, Russia: Shevchenko@vigg.ru

Abstract
Aim: Analysis of the results of cytogenetic examination and reconstruction of irradiation doses by thefrequency of chromosome aberrations in the liquidators of the consequences of the Chernobyl NPP
accident.
Materials and methods: Over 1500 people who worked in the zone of the accident predominantly in1986 and in 1987 have been examined since 1986. All of them were examined by means of theclassical cytogenetic method which makes it possible to assess the level of unstable chromosome
aberrations. 64 patients (including 12 professional workers of the Kurchatov Institute) were examinedby the FISH method which permits the estimation of the level of symmetrical translocations.
Results: The cytogenetic examination performed in 1986 revealed a high level of cells with dicentrics(exceeding 16-fold the control level) in the group of liquidators. In succeeding years this levelsignificantly decreased. However even in 15 years after the works in the zone of the accident werecompleted the frequency of cells with dicentrics in the group of liquidators significantly exceeds thecontrol level. Using the frequency of cells with dicentrics and the calibration dose-response curve, thedose of irradiation was determined for the group of liquidators examined in 1986. The average dose ofirradiation made up 0.14 Gy. The frequency of translocations was used to estimate the exposure dose
for the group of 52 liquidators. The average dose for the whole group was estimated to be 0.16 Gy.
For 18 patients in whom the frequency of translocations significantly differed from the control level
the individual doses of exposure were determined. The scatter in the doses was from 0.22 to 1.0 Gy.
In 1996, 22 workers of the Kurchatov Institute were examined. In most of them (13 patients) the
frequency of dicentrics in peripheral blood lymphocytes was significantly higher than the control
values. In five patients, cells with multiple chromosome aberrations were discovered. Three examined
workers were exposed to super-high doses. The frequency of dicentrics in peripheral blood
lymphocytes of these patients was 100 and even 1000 times higher than the control level. The dosesof irradiation estimated for five workers of the Kurchatov Institute by the frequency of translocations
using the calibration curve were in the range between 0.21 and 2.51 Gy. These doses were calculated
without correction coefficients, i.e. without taking into account the fact that those workers were forseveral years exposed to multiple irradiations at different dose rates. Consideration of these conditions
will lead to an increase of the estimated absorbed doses.
Conclusion: The cytogenetic methods are sufficiently sensitive for assessing the condition of the cellhereditary structures. Analysis of unstable chromosome aberrations is a decisive method inmonitoring of large groups of people exposed to radiation as a result of nuclear accidents. The data ofcytogenetic examination can be one of the criteria in the formation of groups with an increased risk ofdevelopment of different diseases. One of the most promising cytogenetic methods of biologicaldosimetry is the analysis of stable translocations by the FISH method. The lower limit of dose
estimation by the frequency of translocations is 20-25 cGy.

256

1. Introduction
It is already over several decades that the analysis of chromosome aberrations in peripheral blood
lymphocytes has been successfully used to examine people exposed to radiation during various accidents[1-9]. The results of cytogenetic analysis serve as a basis for estimating absorbed radiation doses and forpredicting possible negative effects of irradiation.
The traditional procedure in biodosimetric studies is the analysis of the frequency of chromosome
aberrations, namely, dicentrics or symmetrical translocations. The radiobiological basis for applying
cytogenetic indices in dosimetric studies is the existence of a relationship between the dose and the yieldof chromosome aberrations as well as the coincidence of dose-effect curves upon irradiation of blood cells
in vitro and in vivo. It is customary to assume (and it was corroborated in some investigations) [10,11] thatthe frequencies of dicentrics and translocations immediately after irradiation are practically the same.
Cells with dicentrics are good indicators of irradiation within short periods after radiation exposure.
With post exposure time such cells are eliminated from peripheral blood because their passage throughmitosis is impeded [12]. In connection with this, the analysis of the frequency of dicentrics is of low
efficiency for retrospective estimation of radiation doses. After a long time following the radiation
exposure as well as under conditions of long-term chronic or prolonged irradiation the accumulated doseis estimated using the analysis of stable chromosome aberrations – symmetrical translocations. In theopinion of some authors [5,6,13-15] the frequency of cells with translocations remains constant for a longtime after irradiation or, as other researchers [16,17] suppose, it may decrease, but with a considerablyslower tempo as compared to cells with dicentrics. The latter fact imposes some limits on the assessmentof radiation doses by the frequency of translocations but the importance of using cytogenetic methods inbiodosimetric studies does not become less. In emergency situations, when reliable methods of physicaldosimetry are often absent, the analysis of chromosome aberrations permits the degree of radiation
damage of the organism to be determined taking into account its specific individual features and, in thefirst turn, its individual radiosensitivity. Information on “biological dose” is of great prognostic value forassessing the remote effects of irradiation and for choosing adequate methods of therapy and prophylaxis.
In the case of large-scale cytogenetic monitoring in groups of people exposed to radiation as a resultsof radiation accidents the analysis of unstable chromosome aberrations assumes particular importance. It
allows sufficiently large contingents of exposed people to be examined without special financial
expenditures and without employing sophisticated techniques. The results of such monitoring make itpossible to obtain information on the effects of the radiation factors on the organism, on the degree ofgenome damage, and finally they can be used as criteria in the formation of groups of people with a highrisk of occurrence of different diseases, including oncological ones [18,19].
2. Subjects, materials and methods
2.1. Case reports of examined patients
The Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident is the most dramatic ecological disaster of the 20th
century. One of the largest categories of the population that has suffered most as a result of thiscatastrophe are the clean-up workers (liquidators). Beginning in 1986, the Russian Research Center ofRoentgeno-Radiology and N.I. Vavilov Institute of General Genetics have been carrying out joint
cytogenetic examinations of the liquidators [20,21]. Over 1500 persons have been examined by the present
time. All examined liquidators participated in the restoration works within the 30 km zone in 1986 and1987. Some of the liquidators came to work in Chernobyl in succeeding years, too, up to 1995. The total
term of working in the zone of the accident was from 2 weeks to 13 months. The works made by theliquidators were highly diversified. Among the examined patients there were specialists in the field of
dosimetry and decontamination, scientific workers, physicians, drivers, erectors, “sarcophagus” builders,helicopter pilots and unskilled labourers. Most of the liquidators were exposed to doses up to 1 Gy.
257

Official data on irradiation doses are available for approximately 60% of the examined patients. It should
be noted that during the work in the zone of the accident the liquidators were exposed to additional factorsof the non-radiation nature, including acute and chronic psychoemotional overloads, changes in the
habitual stereotype of life and in the dietary regimen determined by the forced staying on the contaminatedterritory [22].
All people who participated in the restoration works were examined by the classical cytogenetic
method permitting us to estimate the level of unstable chromosome [23]. Part of the patients (52 persons)was cytogenetically analyzed by the FISH method which allowed estimating the level of stable
chromosome aberrations [24].
The obtained cytogenetic data were compared with the results of examination of the control groupcomposed of quite healthy people of analogous age having no occupational contacts with ionizing
radiation sources (118 persons for classical analysis and 15 persons for FISH analysis).
2.2. Lymphocyte culture and slide preparation
The venous blood was collected in sterile test-tubes with lithium heparinate. Lymphocyte enriched
plasma was obtained by centrifugation of whole blood for 40-50 min at 1000 rpm. After that, 0.5 ml of theblood plasma was mixed with 4.5 ml of RPMI-164 medium containing 15% fetal calf serum. 2,5% ofphytohaemagglutinin, 2 mM glutamine, antibiotics and 10 mM BrdU. The cultures were incubated at 370C
for 48 hours. Chromosome preparations were obtained according to standard procedures [23].
Slides used for analysis of unstable chromosome aberrations were kept for 5 days at room
temperature and then subjected to special fluorescence plus Giemsa (FPG-) staining. For analysis of stable
chromosome aberrations the slides were kept in a nitrogen atmosphere at –200C until the moment offurther treatment. A cocktail of probes was used for investigation with the FISH method: biotin-labelled
DNA probes for chromosome 1, 4 and 12 in combination with a digoxigenin-labelled pancentromericprobe. DNA probes for our work were kindly provided by the Laboratory of Cytogenetics of the Instituteof Radiobiology (GSF, Munich). Hybridization in situ with DNA probes was carried out by the method of[24]. Probes for chromosomes were identified using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) – labelledstreptavidin and pancentromeric probes and 7-amino-4-methylcoumarin-3-acetic acid (AMCA) – labelled
antibodies. Propidium iodide (PI) was used as a counterstain in antifade solution. The analysis was
performed using a set of filters permitting a simultaneous observation of the fluorescence of FITC and PI
as well as AMCA and PI.
Genomic frequencies (FG) for symmetrical translocations were calculated from the frequencies ofpainted translocations (FP) for target chromosomes by inversion of the equation FP=2.05×fP(1- fP)×FG,
where fP=0.192 is the fraction of the DNA contained in the painted chromosomes.
2.3. Dose-response curves
The doses of irradiation received by the liquidators in the course of the restoration works in the zoneof the accident were determined, depending on the situation, either by the frequency of dicentrics or by thefrequency of translocations using the calibration dose-response curves obtained by us earlier [25].
An extensive experimental material was analyzed to construct calibration dose-response curves –blood samples from 5 donors were examined in the dose range from 0 to 4 Gy (dose rate – 0.1 Gy/min).
55007 cells were analyzed by the classical method (dicentrics) and 15561 cells were analyzed by the FISH
method (translocations). The calibration curve for the frequency of stable chromosome aberrations was
based on the frequency of translocations involving chromosomes 1, 4 and 12. Complete and incomplete
translocations were taken into account.
The data of cytogenetic analysis of dicentrics and translocations served as a basis for regression
equations characterized by a high degree of significance. α and β coefficients for dicentrics made up 0.015
258

± 0.04 Gy-1 and 0.063 ± 0.003 Gy-2, respectively, and for translocations – 0.007 ± 0.003 Gy-1 and 0.017 ±0.002 Gy-2, respectively.
3. Results
3.1. Analysis of chromosome aberrations in the group of liquidators
3.1.1. Dicentrics
Table 1 presents the results of analysis of the frequency of unstable chromosome aberrations(dicentrics) in the group of liquidators for the period from 1986 to 2001. In the first year of examination
the average frequency of cells with dicentrics in the group of liquidators was 0.33 per 100 cells andexceeded 16-fold the analogous index in the control group (control – 0.02 per 100 cells). In a year thefrequency of cells with dicentrics in the examined group of liquidators decreased more than 2-fold andconstituted 0.14 per 100 cells. Further on, the frequency of cells with dicentrics continued decreasing but
not so sharply as in the first year after the accident. Through the whole period of observation, this index
remained to be significantly higher as compared to the control level. The frequency of cells with dicentrics
varied from 0.06 to 0.18 per 100 cells throughout the whole period of examination. Even 15 years after the
Chernobyl accident the level of this index exceeds the control. Thus, despite a very long period after theend of the clean-up works in the zone of the accident, we can observe a radiation-induced effect which ismost likely determined by the radiation damage of hematopoietic tissue stem cells leading to a gradualintroduction in peripheral blood of lymphocytes carrying chromosome aberrations.
For the group of liquidators cytogenetically examined in 1986 the dose of irradiation was estimatedusing the calibration dose-response curve for dicentrics. The average dose for the group made up 0.14 Gy.
3.1.2. Translocations
Table 2 presents the results of cytogenetic examination of 52 liquidators. They were examined
between November 1992 and July 1995. The average frequency of translocations (1.2 ± 0.16 per 100
cells) in the group of liquidators significantly (2.5-fold) exceeds the control level (0.47 ± 0.09 per 100
cells). In the subgroup of liquidators who worked several times in Chernobyl in the period from 1986 to
1995 the frequency of translocations exceeds 2-fold that in the subgroup of liquidators who worked only
in 1986. The differences between these subgroups of examined liquidators are statistically significant.
There were no differences in the frequency of translocations between the subgroup of liquidators (35patients) for whom we had official data on the irradiation dose (1.2 ± 0.19 per 100 cells) and the subgroup
Table 1. Cytogenetic results (classical method), pooled data for groups of liquidators.
Year ofexamination

Numberof subjects

Number of cells
scoreddic per 100
cells ± SEM

1986
443
41927
0.33 ± 0.03
1987
280
44268
0.14 ± 0.02
1990
23
4268
0.10 ± 0.05
1991
110
20077
0.09 ± 0.02
1992
136
32000
0.14 ± 0.02
1993
75
18581
0.09 ± 0.02
1994
69
20879
0.16 ± 0.03
1995
110
30012
0.06 ± 0.01
1996
53
17960
0.07 ± 0.02
1997
126
63462
0.09 ± 0.01
1998
77
39426
0.09 ± 0.01
1999
41
22524
0.12 ± 0.02
2000-2001
28
14000
0.09 ± 0.02
Controls
118
48124
0.02 ± 0.01
dic, dicentric chromosomes; SEM, standard error of the mean.

259

Table 2. Cytogenetic results (FISH method), pooled data for the total group and for subgroupsof liquidators.
Number ofTranslocations
Estimated dose
cells
(95% c.l.), Gy
FG ± SEM per 100 cells
scored
Total
52
44283
0.16 (0.11-0.21)
1.20 ± 0.16
Working only in 1986
35
28767
0.06 (0 – 0.14)
0.86 ± 0.13
Working 1986-1995 (several times)
17
15516
0.29 (0.25-0.34)
1.81 ± 0.35
With documented dose
35
29614
0.16 (0.11-0.21)
1.20 ± 0.19
Without documented dose
17
14669
0.16 (0.11-0.21)
1.20 ± 0.31
Controls
15
21953
0.47 ± 0.09
FG, genomic translocation frequency; SEM, standard error of the mean; c.l., confidence limits.
Group

Numberof subjectsof liquidators (17 patients) for whom such data were missing (1.2 ± 0.31 per 100 cells).
Using the frequency of translocations and the dose-response calibration curve, we calculated theirradiation doses for the group of examined liquidators. The average value of the calculated dose for thewhole examined group constituted 0.16 Gy. For the subgroup of liquidators who worked only in 1986 thevalue of the “biological dose” made up 0.06 Gy, and for the liquidators who worked in Chernobyl several
times for the period from 1986 to 1995 the value of the “biological dose” was 5 times higher – 0.29 Gy. It
is important to note that the obtained dose values are equivalent to the dose of a single acute exposure.
In 18 out of 52 examined liquidators the frequency of translocations significantly differed from thecontrol level. The individual data of cytogenetic analysis for these liquidators are presented in Table 3. It
also demonstrates the individual doses of irradiation calculated using the calibration dose-response curve.
For three examined liquidators the dose values were rather high. The dose calculated for patient L31 was 1
Gy. The dose recorded for this patient in the documents was 1.36 Sv. Patient L53 did not have official dataon the irradiation dose although he worked in Chernobyl several times during 1986-1995. The“biological” dose of irradiation for this patient made up 0.68 Gy. The dose of 0.5 Gy was also calculated
for liquidator L51 who worked at the reactor in 1986. Official data on the dose absorbed by him were also
Table 3. Cytogenetic results and biodosimetry estimates for 18 liquidators.
St per 100
NumberEstimated dosecells
of cells(95% c.l.), Gy
scoredFG ± SEM
L17
March, 1994
1297
0.31 (0.16-0.46)
1.9 ± 0.7
L19May, 1995
570
0.26 (0.05-0.47)
1.7 ± 1.0
L20
March, 1994
1314
0.43 (0.29-0.57)
2.4 ± 0.8
L23May, 1995
857
0.36 (0.17-0.54)
2.2 ± 0.9
L25
April, 1994
1161
0.40 (0.26-0.54)
2.4 ± 0.8
L27June, 1995
1688
0.34 (0.20-0.48)
2.0 ± 0.6
L28
June, 1995
395
0.39 (0.14-0.64)
2.4 ± 1.4
L30
June, 1996
797
0.25 (0.04-0.46)
1.6 ± 0.8
L31
April, 1994
473
1.00 (0.40-1.40)
7.3 ± 2.2
L33
June, 1995
1157
0.26 (0.11-0.41)
1.6 ± 0.7
L34
July, 1995
1097
0.22 (0.07-0.37)
1.4 ± 0.6
L41
March, 1994756
0.17 (0.00-0.40)
1.2 ± 0.7
L45
April, 1993
410
0.38 (0.13-0.64)
2.3 ± 1.3
L46
May, 1995
1459
0.23 (0.08-0.38)
1.5 ± 0.6
L47
February, 1993859
0.30 (0.10-0.50)
1.8 ± 0.8
L51
January, 1994
583
0.50 (0.31-0.69)
3.2 ± 1.3
L52
June, 1995
1209
0.29 (0.14-0.44)
1.8 ± 0.7
L53
February, 1994
1016
0.68 (0.55-0.81)
4.6 ± 1.2
St; symmetrical translocation, FG; genomic translocation frequency,
SEM; standard error of the mean, c.l.; confidence limits.
Case
no.

Blood sampling

260

Documented
dose, Sv
0.14
0.02
0.17
0.29
0.11
0.80
0.25
0.50
1.36
0.60
0.26
-

Working time(months)
1986
1987 >1987
1.3
2.0
1.3
1.5
2.5
2.5
4.5
2.0
0.5
4.8
1.0
3.0
1.0
1.0
3.0
1.0
1.2
3.0
1.9
6.5
2.0
6.0
1.0
2.0
0.3
1.4
1.0
1.5
1.5
3.0
3.0
2.5

missing.
For most of the examined liquidators (15 patients) the individual doses were estimated in the range
from 0.22 to 0.43 Gy. For those liquidators whose irradiation dose was recorded in official documents the“biological doses” were in agreement to the data of physical dosimetry (L23, L28, L34). However, it
should be kept in mind that in certain cases the obtained doses might be slightly underestimated (L27, L30,
L31, L33) because the doses were calculated on the basis of the calibration curve generated for irradiation
at a dose rate of 0.1 Gy/min under conditions of an acute single exposure. In fact, many of the clean-up
workers could be exposed to prolonged irradiation at a lower dose rate. An illustrative example isliquidator L27 who himself is a specialist in the field of dosimetry and used an individual dosimeter for
the whole period of working in Chernobyl. By his measurements, his irradiation dose is 0.83 Sv. The dose
calculated by the frequency of translocations made up 0.34 Gy.
The results obtained clearly demonstrate that the analysis of translocations by means of the FISH
method is a sufficiently sensitive technique for retrospective assessment of the radiation effect in theliquidators participating in the clean-up works after the Chernobyl accident. Unfortunately, it is difficult tofind a scientific meaning in comparing the data of physical and biological dosimetry since it is known thatin many cases the data of physical dosimetry (from the point of view of official dosimetry) did notcorrespond to the real doses that might be received by the liquidators during their work in the zone of theaccident. In connection with this, the results obtained by means of biological dosimetry acquire particularimportance and, namely, they help in assessing possible unfavorable impacts of radiation on the humanorganism.
3.2. Cytogenetic examination of the workers of I.V.Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Power participating in
the liquidation of the consequences of the Chernobyl NPP accident
In 1996 a group of 22 workers of the Kurchatov Institute was subjected to cytogenetic examination.
In the first days after the accident they began research work in the zone of the accident. The main tasks ofthis work were to establish the causes of the accident, to examine the condition of the reactor, nuclear fuel,structural constructions of the 4th block and to study the radioactive conditions in the zone of theChernobyl NPP and on the controlled territory. All of the examined patients were exposed to low-dose
chronic irradiation in the course of their professional activity due to contacts with different sources ofradiation. Most of them started working under unhealthy occupational conditions in the early 60ies. The
official annual dose up to 1986 did not exceed 0.05 Gy. 18 persons from the examined group worked in
Chernobyl in 1986 and in 1987. Four out of the examined patients carried out research works at thenuclear plant till the middle 90ies. For 19 persons the official doses of irradiation ranged from 0.08 to 0.52
Table 4. Personal data for the examined group from the Kurchatov Institute.
Case
Number ofWorking time atDocumentedNo.
cells scored
Chernobyl
dose (cSv)*
K3
65
1986; 1981-1991
8.57
K4
57
May, 1986
24.85
K6
56
November, 1986
27.27
K8
49
June, 1986
24.45
K9
44
September, 1986
12.60
K12
48
October, 1986
10.71
K13
64
July, 1986
1.55
K14
51
October, 1986
4.63
K15
56
October, 1986
41.69
K20
49
1986-1996
1710**
K21
63
1986-1994
360**
K28
44
1986-1996
1160*** Doses accumulated during working in Chernobyl.
** This dose was obtained from the paper of A.V. Sevan’kaev et.al., 1995.

261

Sv. The values of these doses were obtained from the dosimetric register of the Kurchatov Institute. Three
persons (K20, K21, K28) from the examined group were exposed to super-high doses. The individual
characteristics of the examined group are presented in Table 4. The publication about these persons was in
the journal Radiation Protection Dosimetry [26].
Table 5 presents the individual data of cytogenetic examination by means of the classical method(analysis of the frequency of unstable chromosome aberrations). The values of the frequencies ofdicentrics and centric rings (markers of radiation exposure) in 13 examined workers of the Kurchatov
Institute significantly exceed the control level. In 5 patients (K4, K5, K20, K21, K28) the blood contained
cells with multiple chromosome aberrations (with dicentric chromosomes). Taking into consideration thatthe examined persons could be irradiated from different radiation sources, it can be suggested that theappearance of such cells in their blood is the result of the action on the organism of high-LET ionizing
radiation
In three patients from the examined group who were exposed to super-high doses (K20, K21, K28)
the frequency of dicentrics and centric rings was 100 and even 1000 times higher than the control level.
These workers were subjected to cytogenetic examination several times in the period from 1996 to 2001.
Here we present only the results of cytogenetic analysis obtained in 1996. It should be noted that by the
moment of examination there were no health complaints from these patients.
Table 6 presents the individual results of cytogenetic analysis performed with the use of the FISH
Table 5. Cytogenetic results (classical method) for the workers from the Kurchatov Institute.
Case No.

Number ofcells scoreddic+ Rc per 100
cells ± SEM

Cdr per 100
cells ± SEM

K2
871
0.69 ± 0.28 *0.69 ± 0.28 *
K3
1300
0.08
0.08
*
K4
1200
0.42 ± 0.28
0.25 ± 0.14 **K5600
0.33 ± 0.24
0.33 ± 0.24 *K6
1004
0.40 ± 0.24 *0.30 ± 0.17 *
K7
500
0
0
K8
1300
0.08
0.08
K9
550
0
0
K10
1300
0.08
0.08
*
K12
800
0.38 ± 0.22
0.38 ± 0.22 *
K13
800
0
0
*
K14
1000
0.20 ± 0.14
0.20 ± 0.14 *K151000
0.30 ± 0.17 *0.30 ± 0.17 *
K16
1000
0
0
*
K17
1000
0.20 ± 0.14
0.20 ± 0.14 *K18
1000
0.30 ± 0.17 *0.30 ± 0.17 *
K22
1133
0
0
*
K25
1000
0.50 ± 0.22
0.50 ± 0.22 *
K27
1000
0.10
0.10
K20
279
20.50 ± 2.70 *18.00 ± 2.50 *K21830
2.80 ± 0.60 *2.80 ± 0.60 *K28
500
20.40 ± 2.00 *19.20 ± 1.90 **Control
48124
0.02 ± 0.01
0.02 ± 0.01 *dic; dicentric chromosomes, Rc; centric rings, Cdr; cells containing dic+Rc,
SEM; standard error of the mean (only for cases with more than one aberration),* significantly different from control (p<0.05).

262

method among 12 workers of the Kurchatov Institute. The frequency of symmetrical translocations in fivecases significantly exceeds the control level (0.47 per 100 cells). The table also gives the values ofindividual doses calculated on the basis of cytogenetic indices. The dose values for patients K4 and K14
turned out to be higher than those presented in Table 4. One of the causes seems to be the fact that before
starting working in the zone of the accident at the Chernobyl NPP these persons worked for a long time
under unhealthy occupational conditions. For instance, patient K4 worked with the sources of ionizing
radiation since 1962. By 1986 his total accumulated dose constituted 29 cSv. Patient K14 worked withfluorine-containing substances for more than 10 years.
For three workers of the Kurchatov Institute (K20, K21, K28) exposed to super-high doses of ionizing
radiation the biological doses calculated by the frequency of translocations significantly differ from thosepresented in Table 4. The causes of such discrepancy can be summarized as follows. First, the doses were
determined using the calibration curve obtained under conditions of acute single irradiation. In reality,
these specialists worked in the zone of the accident for several months almost every year over 10 years. In
addition, they were repeatedly exposed to high-dose radiation. The total irradiation dose for these patientswas accumulated under conditions of fractionated exposure. Taking into account the character ofirradiation, it is more desirable to use the linear dose-response relationship for dose calculations [8]. In thiscase the irradiation dose can be determined by the following formula:D = (Y – Y0) / α,where Y is the frequency of measured translocations, Y0 – the frequency of spontaneous translocations, α- the linear coefficient.
The doses calculated according to this formula for the examined patients K20, K21 and K28 made up
10.3, 3.1 and 19.1 Gy, respectively. The values of these doses are already quite comparable with the doses
presented in Table 4. It should be noted, however, that such estimates are rather rough. A more precise
assessment of doses needs a detailed analysis of the history of irradiation of these persons during theirwork in the zone of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.
Another important point to be mentioned is that the cytogenetic examination was carried out 10 years
after the beginning of exposure. During that time two opposite processes took place in the blood of theirradiated patients: gradual elimination of cells with unstable chromosome aberrations (dicentrics, centricrings) in which stable translocations were also detected, and a simultaneous accumulation in peripheral
blood of cells with chromosome aberrations due to additional irradiation. There is no doubt that this fact
Table 6. Cytogenetic results (FISH method) for the workers from the Kurchatov Institute.
Number of
Estimated dose
FG ± SEM
cells scored(95% c.l.), Gy(ST per 100 cells)
K3
1135
NS
0.57 ± 0.38
K41134
0.54 (0.40-0.68)
3.32 ± 0.94*
K6
1043
NS
0.91 ± 0.53
K8
1062
NS
0.88 ± 0.50
K9
843
NS
1.13 ± 0.66
K12
1271
NS
0.50 ± 0.35
K13
1000
0.33
NS
K14
1350
0.21 (0.06-0.36)
1.38 ± 0.57*
K15
1571
NS
1.00 ± 0.44
K20
2169
1.78 (1.69-1.87)
22.20 ± 1.00*
K21
2031
0.88 (0.78-0.98)
6.96 ± 0.60*
K28
9502.51 (2.38-2.64)
40.90 ± 2.10*
Control
21953
0.47 ± 0.09
FG; genomic translocation frequency, ST; symmetrical translocations,
SEM; standard error of the mean (only for cases with more than one aberration),c.l.; confidence limits, * significantly different from control (p<0.05).

Case No.

263

considerably impedes obtaining reliable information on irradiation doses. However, a rough estimation ofabsorbed radiation doses, and, what is more important, with regard to the individual peculiarities of an
irradiated organism, can be made.
The data obtained by the frequency of translocations (Table 6) permitted us to analyze thedependence between the level of individual values and the documented dose for the examined persons.
These data are presented in Fig. 1. The results of examination of patients K20, K21 and K28 are omitted
here. The dotted line indicates the linear-quadratic curve and the unbroken line indicates its linear
component. It should be noted that for all patients (except one) a good correlation between the frequencyof translocations and the officially registered irradiation dose is observed. The values of translocation
frequencies for two patients lie higher than the linear-quadratic calibration curve. It can thus be suggested
that those workers could be exposed to higher doses than those recorded in the documents. In three of theexamined workers with documented dose larger than 0.2 Sv, the value of the translocation frequency lies
considerably below our linear-quadratic calibration curve but in the range of its linear part. Assuming thatthe official dose in this worker is close to the real one, this fact, as has been mentioned above, shows anevidence that irradiation with rather low dose rates or fractionated exposures produce cytogenetic damages
less effective than single acute irradiation.
It is important to mention that the dependence of the translocation frequency on the exposure dose isalso observed for persons in whom the dose values were not determined because of insignificant
differences between the cytogenetic indices and the control. With a low level of translocations inperipheral blood lymphocytes an analysis of extensive material (a large number of cells) is required inorder to obtain reliable data. Unfortunately, it is often impossible in connection with large expenses. The
lower limit of dose estimation by the frequency of translocations, as shown by our studies, is 20-25 cGywith 1000 – 1500 cells analyzed. To estimate a dose below this threshold it is necessary to significantly
increase the number of cells to be analyzed. The data presented in Table 6 and in Fig. 1 support thisconclusion.
3.00

Fp ( translocations per 100 cells)

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

Documented dose, Sv

Figure 1. Dose-response relationship of translocation frequencies (Fp) with
documented doses (explanatory notes are in the text).
2644. Conclusion
The results of cytogenetic examination of the “liquidators” permit the following conclusions to be
made.
The cytogenetic methods (classical and FISH methods) are sufficiently sensitive for assessing thecondition of the cell hereditary structures.
It was found that the level of cells with dicentrics in the examined liquidators in the first year after thework in the zone of the accident significantly exceeded the control level. With time, years after theradiation exposure, this level gradually decreased but it did not reach the control level even within 15
years after the accident. The average frequency of cells with dicentrics in the recently examined group ofliquidators made up 0.09 % exceeding 5-fold the control values.
Using the frequency of cells with dicentrics, an average dose for the group of liquidators examined in1986 was determined. The calculated dose constituted 0.14 Gy. Retrospective estimation of irradiation
doses (both individual and for the groups) on the basis of analysis of cells with dicentrics does not seem
possible. It is first of all due to the elimination of such cells from the peripheral blood of the examinedpatients.
However, in the course of large-scale monitoring in groups of people who suffered after accidents or
emergency situations, analysis of unstable chromosome aberrations by means of the classical cytogenetic
method is decisive as it does not require large funds and technical resources. During retrospective
examination of the liquidators the analysis of cells with unstable chromosome aberrations (dicentrics andcentric rings) can be used predominantly for bioindication of the mutagenic action of ionizing radiation.
The results of such analysis can be considered as a criterion in the formation of groups at risk with regard
to the development of different diseases and primarily oncological ones
The FISH method is the most promising cytogenetic method in biological dosimetry. It allows one toanalyze the frequency of cells with stable chromosome aberrations – symmetrical translocations. The
data presented here suggest that this method can be used rather extensively for estimating radiation doses.
In most cases the doses calculated by the frequency of translocations are in good agreement with the dataof physical dosimetry. Some underestimation of biological doses is primarily due to the fact that thecalibration dose response curves for the frequency of translocations were obtained under definite
conditions – single acute irradiation. Under real conditions the liquidators were, as a rule, exposed tochronic or prolonged radiation. In connection with this, in determining irradiation doses it is necessary to
introduce the correction coefficient which makes it possible to take into account the real conditions of
exposure.
The results of cytogenetic examination by means of the FISH method presented in this work suggest
the existence of irradiation levels below which the dose estimation by the frequency of translocations
seems to be unlikely. The causes of such limitation can be quite diverse: interindividual variability of thetranslocation frequency, ability to repair radiation damage, the volume of analyzed material (the numberof analyzed cells). According to our data, the real lower threshold of dose estimation by the frequency oftranslocations is about 20-25 cGy. It seems reasonable in future to carry out cytogenetic examinations
among the liquidators of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant using not only the classicaland FISH methods but also new molecular-genetic methods permitting the estimation of remote genetic
effects of radiation and their comparison with detected structural damage of the cell genome.
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267

The Follow-up Study of Chromosomal aberrations in Chernobyl Clean-up
Workers
Natalia M. SLOZINA and Elizaveta G. NERONOVA
All-Russian Center of Emergency and Radiation Medicine, EMERCOM of Russia,
Lebedeva 4/2, 194044, St.Petersburg, Russia: cytogen@ARCEM.spb.ru

Abstract
A cytogenetic study was carried out on 359 clean-up workers who worked at the Chernobyl
station in 1986-1989. The investigation was performed 6-12 years after irradiation. Chromosome
type damages, i.e. double fragments, dicentrics and rings were significantly increased in the cleanup workers compared to the control. Chromatid exchanges were found only in the clean-up workers.
A temporal change of radiation makers was also investigated based on the data of 243 persons who
worked at Chernobyl in 1986. The temporal variation of dicentric frequency shows an inexplicabletendency towards the increase of dicentrics rate for the period of 8-12 years after irradiation. The
association between the frequency of different types of chromosomal aberrations and such variables
as smoking habits, coffee, tea, alcohol consumption, etc. was also analysed using a stepwise
multiple regression analysis. A statistically significant association was only observed between
smoking and chromatid exchanges. This type of aberrations was significantly higher in the smoking
subgroup than in the non-smoking subgroup of the clean-up workers. The fact of an increased levelof unstable chromosomal aberrations in a remote period after irradiation allows us to suppose that
other pathways of genomic burden may exist in addition to straight radiation action at the time ofirradiation.

Introduction
Chromosome damage induced in human lymphocytes is often considered a sensitive indicator ofradiation exposure [1-3]. An increased level of structural chromosomal aberrations in the clean-up workers
soon after the Chernobyl accident has been reported [4,5]. It is known that the frequency of radiation
markers (dicentric and ring chromosomes) decreases in time [6,7]. So, it is expected that the frequency ofchromosomal aberrations (CA) in the clean-up workers, who suffered from low doses of radiation, would
become as low as the control level some years after the accident. However, increased rate of chromosomal
aberrations in the clean-up workers was demonstrated 4-6 years after the Chernobyl accident [8-11]. A
follow-up study of Chernobyl clean-up workers has been carried out at All-Russian Centre of Emergency
and Radiation Medicine Emercom of Russia (ARCERM) since 1992 in order to assess the consequencesof low doses of ionising radiation on their health. Cytogenetical investigation was carried out
simultaneously with clinical examination.
The goal of this paper is to present the results of the follow-up study of cytogenetical damage in the
peripheral blood lymphocytes from the clean-up workers in a remote period (6-12 years) after the
Chernobyl accident.
Materials and methods
A cytogenetic study was carried out on 359 clean-up workers who worked at the Chernobyl station in
1986-1989. The investigation was performed 6-12 years after irradiation. 281 persons had official dose ofirradiation, estimated by dosimetric service at Chernobyl. Most of them received up to 25 cGy, but 30
persons received from 25.1 cGy to 100 cGy. Thus, the mean dose of irradiation for clean-up workers who
268

worked at the station in 1986 was 20.3±1.01 cGy; 13.4±1.71 cGy for clean-up workers of 1987 and
5.2±0.88 cGy for clean-up workers, who worked at the station in 1988-89.
The control group comprised 48 persons matched for similarity of age and health status, with nohistory of irradiation.
Lymphocyte cultures (48 h) were set up. Culture medium consisted of RPMI 1640 (Sigma)
supplemented with 15% fetal bovine serum (Sigma), phytogaemaaglutinin P (Difco ), antibiotic. 5Bromdeoxyuridine was added 24 h from the beginning of cultivation at a final concentration of 10 µg/ml
to permit fluorescence plus Gimsa staining so that cells could be scored at the first in vitro metaphase.
Chromosome preparation was stained by standard procedures. At the beginning of our investigations weanalyzed no less than 100 metaphases per individual. Later the number of metaphases was increased to200-500. Cells with 45-46 chromosomes were analyzed. All types of unstable chromosome aberrations(CA) were analysed: chromatid breaks (discontinuities more than the weight of a chromatid and without
visible connecting material), chromatid exchanges (tri- and quadriradials), acentric fragments, dicentrics
and rings were registered.
For micronucleus test cytochalasin B (Sigma), at the final concentration of 6 µg/ml, was added within
the last 28 h to the cultures to be harvested for micronuclei, and the total cultivation time was 72 h. At
least 500 cytokinesis-blocked binucleated cells for each individual were scored in the micronucleus test.
For all subjects, modified questionnaires, based on the method proposed by Carrano and Natarajan[12], were filled in.
During the 6-yr period of observation the same microscopists performed cytogenetic investigations.
All slides were coded and distributed between two microscopists.
For each group dicentrics and rings yields from each individual were tested for homogenity using thechi-squared test. Mean yields and their standard errors were calculated taking into account any lack ofhomogeneity. Average values were weighted taking into account different number of cells per person.
Various statistical methods (ANOVA test, chi-squared test, stepwise multiple regression analysis,
Spearman Rank correlation test) were used according to the nature of data and type of analysis needed.
Calculations were performed with a software package, Statistics for Windows.
The frequencies of various types of chromosome aberrations in the clean-up workers
The main frequencies of various types of chromosome aberrations are given in Table 1 along with
Table 1. Frequencies of chromosomal aberrations in the clean-up workers and the control
individuals (1992-1998).
Clean-up workers

Control

Number of individuals

359

48

Total number of cells scored

50771

7175

Aberrant cells (%)

2.71 ± 0.13

2.08 ± 0.25

Chromatid breaks (%)

1.36 ± 0.09

1.59 ± 0.23

Chromatid exchanges (%)

0.15 ± 0.03

a

0.00 ± 0.02

Chromosome breaks (%)

0.84 ± 0.06 a

0.42 ± 0.11

Dicentrics, rings (%)

0.25 ±0.03 b

0.03 ± 0.02

Atypical chromosomes (%)

0.12±0.02

0.03 ± 0.03aSignificantly greater frequency than in control at the 0.05 level of significance. b at the 0.01 level ofsignificance.

269

Clean-up worker

31%
52%

6%

Control group
singlefragments
chromatid
exchanges
doublefragments
dicentrics,
rings

20%

2%

78%

Figure 1. The spectrum of chromosomal aberrations in the clean-up workers and control
group.
their standard errors. These data was obtained from blood taken 6-12 years after irradiation. The totalfrequency of chromosomal damage in the clean-up workers, whilst being higher than the controls, was not
so high as at the 5% criterion for significance. The total damage was dominated in both groups by single
or chromatid breaks, which, whilst being higher in the controls, were again not significantly in excess.
Chromosome type damages, i.e. double fragments, dicentrics and rings significantly increased in theclean-up workers. Chromatid exchanges were found only in the clean-up workers. The ratios of various
types of chromosomal aberrations in two groups are given in Figure 1.
It is possible to see in Fig 1 that the predominant type of damage in the controls is chromatidaberrations (78%), whilst double fragments comprise 20% and dicentrics and rings 2%. The relative
proportion of chromatid aberrations in the clean-up workers is lower at 58 %. The chromosome types arehigher at 42% of which 11% are dicentrics and rings.
Table 2 indicates a significantly larger proportion of individuals with dicentrics and rings, and withchromatid exchanges in the clean-up workers than in the controls.

The micronucleus (MN) test in the clean-up workers
The MN test were performed simultaneously with CA investigations. For 22 clean-up workers and
14 controls (presented in Table 1) MN and CA assays were used in parallel on peripheral blood
lymphocyte cultures.
Table 3 presents the frequency of MN and CA in the clean-up workers and in the controls. Analysis
of Table 3 shows that the clean-up workers and the controls do not differ in terms of MN test, while theTable 2. Frequency of individuals with exchange aberrations.

aType of exchangeaberrations

359 clean-up workers
Number of subjects (%)

48 controls
Number of subjects (%)

Dicentrics + rings

95 (26.4) a

3 (6.2)a0 (0)Chromatid exchanges
58 (14.7)
Significantly exceeds the control value at the 0.01 level of significance.
Table 3. Results of the analysis of MN and CA assay in parallel cultures.
Clean-up workers

Control

Number of individuals

22

14

MN frequency (%)

1.23 ± 0.12

1.06 ± 0.17

CA frequency (%)

2.18 ± 0.31a

1.00 ± 0.23aSignificantly exceeds the control value at the 0.01 level of significance.

270rate of CA is significantly higher in the clean-up workers.
The results of micronucleus test did not demonstrate significantly higher damage in the clean-up
workers than in the controls. Kolubaeva et al. [13] and Wuttke et al. [14] also could not find an increase in
micronucleus frequency 5 years after the Chernobyl accident. So these data could be provided as anargument for that the application of the micronucleus test as a cytogenetic monitor of radiation effects in aremote period is not effective. The chromosomal aberration test was found to be more sensitive than the
MN assay as a cytogenetic monitor of the remote radiation effects.
The temporal changes of radiation markers in the clean-up workers
A total of 243 persons who worked at Chernobyl in 1986 were selected from database in order toconsider the temporal changes of radiation markers. Clean-up workers were divided into 6 groups
according to time of blood sampling. The data is presented in Table 4.
As it can be seen from the data presented in Table 4, frequency of dicentrics and rings did notdecrease during the 6 year period of observation and exceeded the control level even 12 years after
irradiation.
There is a commonly held opinion that the frequency of unstable chromosomal aberrations inlymphocytes decreases with the time from irradiation. There are some publications devoted to theestimation of lifespan of human lymphocytes and temporal changes in the yield of chromosomal
aberrations [7,15-17]. The most common opinion is that the half-life of lymphocytes is about 3 years [18].
If so, it means that the initial frequency of chromosomal aberrations decreases by half in 3 years.
Schevchenko and co-authors [19] have published that the initial yield of chromosomal aberrations in the
Chernobyl clean-up workers estimated in 1986 soon after the irradiation in different groups was:
0.27±0.10 dicentrics per 100 cells in a group of medical personnel, 0.32±0.08 in drivers, 0.44±0.09 inbuilders of sarcophagus and 0.48±0.17 in dosemetrists. Therefore, taking into account the suggested halflife of lymphocytes, one would suppose the frequency of dicentrics and rings of 12 years, ie. four halflives, after irradiation has returned to essentially the control level.
However, the results of our investigation lead to a conclusion that 6-12 years after the irradiation theyield of dicentrics and rings did not decrease to the control value. The existence of a residual level of
induced dicentrics and rings at long times, ie. decades, after irradiation has been reported although thesehave generally been observed in persons exposed to high doses of radiation [7, 20-25]. Few data havebeen reported on exposure to low doses. Thus a particular interest is imposed on our own investigations
Table 4. Dicentrics and rings frequency in clean-up workers by the years after the accident andhomogenity testing on individuals within the year bands
Years
after theaccident

Number of
subjects

Number ofcells

Number of
Dic+Rings(Rings)

6

14

1573

8

100

9

Chisquared

DF

Yield ± SE(per 100 cells)

2 (0)

8.23

13

0.13±0.0710180

25 (1)

146.1399

0.25±0.05*

63

11869

29 (7)

80.1162

0.24±0.04**

10

35

5821

26 (4)

35.89

350.45±0.10***

11

12

2125

10 (1)

14.42

110.47±0.15***

12

19

3711

14 (3)

20.52

18

0.38±0.12***

control

48

7175

3 (0)

41.55

47

0.04±0.02

Difference of the yield of dicentrics and rings between the clean-up workers and the control group issignificant at * - p<0.05, ** - p<0.01 and *** - p<0.001 levels.

271

dicentrics and rings per 100 cells

0.6
0.5

1
2

0.4

3
4

0.3

5

0.2

6
7

0.1
0
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11

12

Numberes of elapsed years following the accident

Figure 2. The yield of dicentrics and rings determined in clean-up workers in elapsed different
years after the accident (the data of literature).
1.Semov et al., 1994 [4]2. Schevchenko et al., 1995 [19]3.Snigireva et al., 1994 [28]4. Pilinskaya et al., 1994 [26] 5.Lazutka, 1996 [29]6.Komar et al., 1997 30]
7. Slozina et al, present paper

frequency of chromosomal
aberrations (%)

which were carried out on a large group of such persons. Analysis of our data and the values reported byother laboratories who also examined the frequency of unstable chromosomal aberrations in the clean-up
workers at different times after the Chernobyl accident [26-31] suggest that the levels of dicentrics foundlong afterwards is close to the initial levels reported in the studies carried out immediately after theaccident. This is depicted in Figure 2, showing that the yields of dicentrics in the post-irradiation period do
not become lower than the initial value (with only one exception; a point determined by Shevchenko et al.
[19]. Later, an increased level of dicentrics was again found by this research group (personalcommunication).
In our investigation we found some temporal variation of dicentric frequency, which shows an
inexplicable tendency towards the increase of dicentrics rate, 8-12 years after irradiation (Table 4 andFig.2). No differences are seen in the scenario of irradiation, health status or the life style factors among
the groups of people in different years of observation.

3.5

one year after theaccident
six and more years
after the accident

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
single fragments

double fragments

dicentrics, rings

Figure 3. Frequency of chromosomal fragments and dicentrics + rings 1 year and 6-10 years after
the Chernobyl accident.
272

We analysed temporal changes of chromosomal and chromatid fragments, the initial data of which
had been obtained 1 year after the Chernobyl accident [32].(Fig 3). The frequencies both of single
fragments and double fragments have clearly decreased 6-10 years after the accident.
It could be possible to put forward some suppositions about the persistence of dicentrics in the cleanup workers:
Long-life lymphocytes
Most lymphocytes have a half-life of about 3 years; however, some lymphocytes have a life span ofseveral decades [6]. So it is possible to suppose that some asymmetrical exchanges have been found inlong-life lymphocytes.
Stem cells
Although the clean-up workers were exposed to relatively low doses of ionising radiation, blood stem
cells were also exposed to external -γ-irradiation. Some stem cells may survive many decades without
undergoing proliferation and start to divide several years after irradiation. So it is possible that a part ofdicentrics arises from these cells. It is also known that some dicentric chromosomes are able to passthrough mitosis successfully and persist through cell divisions [33]. We cannot exclude that a certain
fraction of the dicentrics is permanently produced by blood stem cells.
Radionuclides deposited
Several studies have shown that radioisotopes may cause chromosomal damage in peripheral
lymphocytes after incorporation in man [34,35]. Radionuclides might have been incorporated by theclean-up workers during the accident. Some radioactive compounds have long physical half-lives and areretained in the body for a long period of time. So we cannot rule out the possible effects of internallydeposited radioactive materials on chromosome aberrations in a remote period after the Chernobyl
accident.
Chromosomal instability
It is also possible to assume that chromosomal instability could be induced by ionising radiation [36].
Association between the frequency of different types of chromosomal aberrations and thequestionnaire information
The association between the frequency of different types of chromosomal aberrations and suchvariables as smoking habits, coffee, tea, alcohol consumption, history of current chronic illnesses, use of
medicines and diagnostic X-rays was also analysed using stepwise multiple regression analysis in a groupof clean-up workers. On the occasion to collect blood sample and fill out the questionnaire, we had theopportunity to inquire the doner whether he had specific anamnestic or environmental factors responsible
for the existence of cytogenetic markers No statistically significant associations were observed due to anyof these parameters except smoking. We have found the association of smoking with chromatid exchanges.
Table 5. Comparison of smoking and non-smoking liquidators.
Smokers
Number. of individuals
Total number. of cell scored
Aberrant cells (%)
Chromatid breaks (%)
Chromatid exchanges (%)
Chromosome breaks (%)
Dicentrics, rings (%)
Atypical chromosomes (%)
a°Significant at the 0.001 level.

60
10071
2.97 ± 0.31
1.13±0.19
0.29 ± 0.07 a
0.92 ±0.12
0.52 ± 0.09
0.08 ± 0.03

273

Non-smokers
396726
2.28 ± 0.34
0.96±0.21
0.03 ± 0.02
0.70 ± 0.12
0.31 ± 0.09
0.28 ± 0.13

This type of aberrations was significantly higher in the smoking subgroup than in the non-smoking
subgroup of the clean-up workers (Table 5).
Although most chemical agents induce chromatid-type aberrations, the frequencies of chromatid
exchanges are reported to be rare even in the smokers [37,38]. Concerning the high frequency ofchromatid exchanges observed among the smokers in the Chernobyl clean-up workers, we cannot rule out
the possible synergistic effects of smoking and previous radiation exposure.
The persistence of dicentrics and reconstructing doses
The long time persistence of dicentrics and rings should be considered in relation to the possibility to
use the data for retrospective dose reconstruction. As an illustration, we have attempted to reconstruct theradiation doses using the yields of dicentrics and rings per cell obtained 6, 9, 12 years after irradiation.
Assuming the half-life of lymphocytes 3 years [18] and taking account of the time between the irradiation
and blood sampling we calculated what the initial frequency of dicentrics and rings could have been.
Doses were then calculated using an in vitro calibration curve; Y=0.0005+1.64*10-4*D+4.92*10-6*D2
taken from IAEA, 1986 [39]. The dose calculated 6 years after irradiation (~160mGy) is in a good
agreement with the dose estimated in a similar group of clean-up workers soon after irradiation [40]. The
dose derived 9 years after irradiation (~480mGy) seems a little overestimated, whilst the data derived 12
years after radiation exposure (~980mGy) is quite unrealistic for this cohort.
Conclusion
Results of these long-term investigations of so-called unstable chromosomal aberrations in the cleanup workers who suffered from low doses of ionizing radiation at Chernobyl suggest that the yield ofdicentrics and rings does not change significantly over a long period of time following irradiation. This isan unexpected finding because it is at variance with the commonly accepted view of the persistence ofdicentrics.
The results reported here demonstrate the presence of elevated chromosomal disturbances inlymphocytes of the clean-up workers in a remote period after the Chernobyl accident. Follow-up studies
on individuals exposed to genotoxic agents have clearly demonstrated the predictive value of highchromosomal damage for subsequent cancer risk [41,42]. The fact of an increased level of unstable
chromosomal aberrations in a remote period after irradiation allows us to suppose that other pathways ofgenomic burden may exist in addition to straight radiation action at the time of irradiation.
Considering the results of our investigations, we can conclude that the clean-up workers represent ahigh risk group that deserves special medical monitoring.
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276

Chromosomal Aberrations in Blood Lymphocytes of the Residents of 30-km
Chornobyl NPP Exclusion Zone
Larysa BEZDROBNA, Tetyana TSYGANOK, Olena ROMANOVA, Larysa TARASENKO,
Volodymyr TRYSHYN, Ludmila KLIMKINA
Institute for Nuclear Research, National Academy of Science of Ukraine,
Prospekt Nauki, 47, Kyiv-28, 03680, Ukraine: tel.+380 –44-265-47-36, interdep@kinr.kiev.ua

Abstract
A comparative сytogenetic examination of 33 self-settlers in the 30 km ChNPP Exclusion Zone
and 31 residents in villages of Yahotyn district, Kyiv region was carried out in 1998-99. The levels ofsoil contamination of their residential areas with 137Cs, 90Sr and 238,239+240Pu were 74–477 kBq/m2,
33–288 kBq/m2and 1.5-10.0 kBq/m2, respectively for the former, and 1.9–5.8 kBq/m2, 0.6–2.8
kBq/m2 and 0.01-0.05 kBq/m2, respectively for the latter. Using various data about the radiation
situation in the Exclusion Zone, the effective doses on whole-body of the self-settlers were estimatedto be 30–333 mSv for the whole residing period after the accident. The mean frequencies of aberrant
cells and chromosomal aberrations for the Zone self-settlers were significantly higher than those forthe residents in Yahotyn district, while the values of the latter group were found to be above thespontaneous levels reported in literatures. The individual variability in the distribution of the same
indices was significantly larger for the self-settlers than for the Yahotyn residents. The comparedgroups also differ in the distribution of aberrations in cells. A repeated examination of 20 Zone selfsettlers was conducted in 2001. A significant decrease in chromosome type aberration frequency was
found at the expense of fragments frequency decrease. However, the total frequency of chromosomal
aberrations didn’t differ in 1998-99 and in 2001.

INTRODUCTION
After the Chornobyl accident on 26th of April 1986, the territory within a 30-km radius from ChNPP
was separated as Exclusion Zone. The people residing in this area were evacuated during 4-7th of May.
However, right from the first days and weeks after the evacuation some people have been returning to theZone villages without permission. In addition, nearly 100 people were not evacuated at all. They are called“self-settlers”. The number of them was about 500 people in 1986 in the Ukrainian part of the Exclusion
Zone territory, 1200 – in 1988, 660 – in the end 1998 and 477 – in 2001. Up to 80 % of them are old age
pensioners. They lead relatively isolated life, farm and consume mostly food products grown in Zone,
which determines their permanent external and internal irradiation.
It is a well-known fact that one of the most significant effects of radiation is destabilization of genetic
structures of somatic cells leading to an increase in the risk of somatic diseases, first of all, of cancers. In
order to investigate the efficiency of long-term permanent suprabackground radiation in the conditions of
Exclusion Zone we have been conducting periodically cytogenetic examinations of self-settler groups
from 1995. The first examination was carried out using micronucleus test on cultures of peripheral blood
lymphocytes. A significant increase was revealed in the micronuclei frequency in cells of the Zone selfsettlers of the age up to 55, compared to that of Kyiv residents of the same age [1,2]. These findings
pointed out an expediency of further investigations. In this work we present the results of chromosomal
aberration frequency in blood lymphocytes of ChNPP Exclusion Zone residents investigated in the end of
1998 – beginning of 1999, and in 2001.

277

SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF STUDY
The subjects of examination
In 1998-1999 we examined 33 people residing in the villages in Exclusion Zone, locatednorthwestward (Stari Shepelychi, Rudnya Illinetska, Lubyanka) and southeastward (Opachychi, Kupovate,
Horodyshche, Paryshiv) of ChNPP. These people returned to their homes in Exclusion Zone mostly inJune 1986 - April 1987 after the evacuation. For comparison we have simultaneously examined 31 people(control group) from the inhabitants of the villages in Yahotyn district, Kyiv region. The climatic andsocioeconomic conditions as well as health care of both examined groups were analogous. Table 1
represents the data on the radionuclide contamination in soil of residing areas of the people observed. The
group of comparison was formed to match age, sex and smoking status of the ChNPP Exclusion Zone selfsettlers (Table 2). None of the persons of the control group had had any conscious contact with radiation
factor except for routine medical radiological diagnostic procedures and had not been exposed tochemotherapy. In 2001 20 people among the 33 Zone self-settlers observed in 1998-1999 were repeatedly
examined. At the moment of obtaining of blood samples no one from those examined had any acute illness
or exacerbation of chronic diseases. The participation in examination was voluntary. A special
questionnaire was offered to the examined persons and all data obtained were entered into a database.
The cytogenetic protoco
Venous blood samples were obtained in field conditions, either in the places of residence of theTable 1. Density of radionuclide contamination in soil in ChNPP Exclusion Zone and villages in
Yahotyn district, Kyiv region, kBq/m2.
13790
238.239+240
Cs
Sr
Pu
RegionInhabited locality

ChNPP Exclusion
Zone

Yahotyn district,
Kyiv region

Rudnya Illinetska

129.5±25.9

70.3±22.2

1.5

Lubyanka

407.0±101.7

144.3±31.7

5.9Stari Shepelychi

477.3±118.9

288.6±85.1

10.0

Paryshiv

115.4±22.0

54.0±11.3

2.2

Opachychi

214.6±59.2

133.2±25.9

5.6

Kupovate

107.0±22.2

44.4±14.8

3.0

Horodyshche

74.0±14.2

33.3±6.3

2.6

Sulymivka, Chernyakhivka

1.9 – 2.9

0.64

0.01

Lozovyi Yar, Chervone

2.6

0.96

0.04

Panfily

5.0

0.8

0.04 – 0.1

Kapustyntsi

5.0

0.8

0.02 – 0.04

Yahotyn

2.9 – 5.8

0.9 – 2.8

0.03 – 0.05

Sex

Smoking status

Table 2. Characteristics of examined groups.
Group
ChNPP
Exclusion
Zone
Yahotyndistrict,
Kyiv region

Range of effective equivalentdoses, mSv
Red bone
Whole bodymarrow

NumberofpersonsAge(range,mean),
in yearsF

M

Nonsmokers

Smokers

30 – 333

13 - 630

33

24 – 6853.9±1.7

17

16

28

5

-

-

31

23 – 7251.5±2.2

18

13

26

5

278

examined people or in rural outpatient clinics. All samples were drawn into vacutainers containing heparinas antocoagulant. Samples were transported within eight hours in Kyiv to Laboratory of Radiobiology ofInstitute for Nuclear Research, National Academy of Science of Ukraine.
Lymphocytes culture and cytogenetic slide preparation were conducted according to [3]. 0.25 ml ofwhole-blood have been cultivated in 3 ml of RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with 15% fetal bovine
serum with 1.5 % phytohaemagglutinin-Р (Sigma, USA) for 48 h at 37°С in darkness. Colchicine in final
concentration of 7.5mg/ml was added to the culture 3 hours prior to fixation. The slides were preparedfollowing a standard technique, using for hypotonia - 75mМ solution of КCl and for fixation – ethanolacetic acid (3:1), for chromosome staining - Giemsa stain (2 % solution). All slides were encoded. The
slides were studied with oil immersion using x900 magnification. On the average 380 metaphases meeting
the required standards from every person were studied. Analysis was conducted by means of visual partial
karyotype determining. We counted all chromatid type aberrations including chromatid fragments andchromatid exchanges, and all chromosome type ones, such as paired acentric fragments (including
isochromatid deletions), interstitial deletions, dicentric chromosomes (dic.) and centric rings (c.r.),abnormal monocentrics, which could emerge as the result of terminal and interstitial deletions, reciprocaltranslocations and insertions. The blank gaps were not taken into account.
Doses estimation
Individual effective equivalent irradiation doses (both external and internal on whole body and redbone marrow) of the Zone self-settlers were determined by calculational methods. Dose reconstructing
was based on the data of the mean density of soil contamination of residential areas with radionuclides of
137
Cs, 90Sr, 238,239,240Pu and 241Am together with the time and duration of personal residence in Zone in the
post-accident period. Also the data were used from representative measurements of exposure dose rate inhouses and homesteads; 137Cs and 90Sr content in nutritional products of local origin; individual 137Cs
content in the bodies of examined people measured by a whole body counter.
Statistical Analysis
Characteristic distribution of chromosomal aberrations among the examined persons was determinedby means of χ2 test. Significance of the differences between the groups was estimated with χ2-test,
Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test, Students t-criterion and Fisher test. Age-relation was estimated bymeans of the Spearman ranks correlation coefficient [4,5].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Cytogenetic examination in 1998-1999
Frequency of aberrant cells and chromosomal aberrations:
Distribution of the examined persons by the number of chromosomal aberrations per 100 analyzed
lymphocytes is shown in Fig. 1. The obtained distributions fit the normal type in both of the Zone selfsettlers and the village residents of Yahotyn district: for the Yahotyn district group – χ2<χ20.01 and for theZone group – χ2<χ2 0.05. As is seen from the bar chart (Fig. 1), one third of the Zone self-settlers showed
the frequency of chromosomal aberrations exceeding the maximum value of this parameter in thecomparison group. The comparison of individual distributions by the number of aberrant cells andchromosomal aberrations per 100 cells showed a significant difference between two groups (χ2>χ20.01).
However, the comparison utilizing the U-criterion revealed that the distribution of persons by thechromosomal aberrations frequency statistically significantly differs in two groups only when the resultsof persons younger than 60 years old were compared (р < 0.001). The inter-individual variation(dispersion) and the mean group frequency of aberrant cells and chromosomal aberrations in peripheral
blood lymphocytes were significantly higher for the Zone self-settlers than for the Yahotyn district
inhabitants (Table 3). V.Yu. Nugis [6] observed that the increase of individual variation in frequencies of
279

45
40
Subjects, %

35
30
25
20

ChNPP exclusion zone

15

Yahotyn district

10
5
0

1

3

5

7

9

11

CA per 100 cells

Fig. 1. Distribution of examined persons by the number of chromosomal aberrations (CA) per
100 cells.
chromosomal damages in the population signals chronic exposure to genotoxic factors. It is noteworthy
that higher levels of aberrant cells (3.20±0.15 %) (mean±SEM, here and below) and chromosomal
aberrations (3.51 ±0.17 %) than those usually reported for the "clean" regions were found in the
inhabitants of the Yahotyn district. According to a generalized data on the spontaneous level ofmutagenesis for the year 2000 reported by our Russian colleagues, the frequencies of aberrant cells andchromosomal aberrations in blood lymphocytes are 2.13±0.08 % and 2.21±0.14 %, respectively [7]. The
data of the same authors also indicates that the mean frequency of chromosomal aberrations in the early
70-th was 1.19±0.06 % [8]. A generalized cytogenetic monitoring of healthy population of Ukraine up to1986 testifies that before the Chornobyl accident the frequency of aberrant cells and chromosomal
aberrations in peripheral blood lymphocytes of the Ukrainian population were 1.43±0.16 % and1.47±0.19 %, respectively [9]. The above allows us to assume that the registered parameters ofmutagenesis in Yahotyn district are caused not only by the age of the examined persons (65% of themwere 50+ according to Zone self-settlers group age structure), but also by general deterioration of theenvironment during the period after 1986.
Two persons from the Exclusion Zone and one Yahotyn district resident had one multiaberrant celleach (we referred cells having more then 7 aberrations to multiaberrant).
Age dependency of chromosomal aberrations:
Age dependency of chromosomal aberrations frequency in blood lymphocytes was analyzed by themethod of the Spearman ranks correlation coefficients. A strong age dependency was observed in thegroup of Yahotyn district: the Spearman ranks correlation coefficient was 0.71 (р < 0.0005), while it was
Table 3. Frequency of aberrant cells and chromosomal aberrations per 100 lymphocytes from
ChNPP Exclusion Zone and Yahotyn district residents.
(individual range; mean ±SD).
NumberNumber of
Chromosome
Multiaberrant
Group
Aberrant cellsofanalyzedaberrations
cells
personscells
ChNPP Exclusion
Zone

33

11789

1.92 – 10.20
5.02±1.95

2.24 – 10.80
5.32±2.10

0.017±0.066

Yahotyn district,
Kiev region

31

12273

1.82 – 5.50
3.20±0.84

1.82 – 6.00
3.51±0.97

0.009±0.25

280Table 4. Frequency of various types of chromosomal aberrations per 100 cells in the Exclusion
Zone self-settlers and the residents in Yahotyn district.
(individual range, M±SEM )Chromatid type
Chromosome type
Group

ChNPP
Exclusion
Zone
Yahotyndistrict,
Kyiv
regionfragments

dicentrics + centric rings
Interwithsticial.
without
total
deletions fragment fragment

abnormalmonocentrics

total

0-1.3

0 - 1.4

0.3-5.6

0.10
±0.03

0.33
±0.06

0.23
±0.05

2.16
±0.24

0 - 0.5

0 - 0.25

0 - 0.5

0 - 0.8

0.3- 2.5

0.08
±0.03

0.05
±0.02

0.13
±0.03

0.12
±0.03

1.18
±0.13

breaksexchanges

total

0.6-5.6

0-1.0

1.0-6.6 0.3-4.9

0-0.5

0-1.0

0- 0.9

3.01
±0.24

0.13
±0.04

3.14
±0.24

1.59
±0.20

0.02
±0.02

0.22
±0.05

1.0- 4.0

0 - 3.0

1.0-4.0

0 - 2.2

0 - 0.5

2.31
±0.12

0.02
±0.01

2.33
±0.12

0.89
±0.12

0.04
±0.02

–0.23 (р> 0.05) for the Zone group, i.e. in the latter group even some tendency to an inverse relationshipwith age is observed. It might be caused by the influence of additional factors in ChNPP Exclusion Zone,in particular, by the influence of radiation factor and perhaps by lower sensitivity of the elderly people(60+) to it. The similar results were obtained in our previous studies in which micronucleus test was
utilized [2].
Ratio of chromosomal aberration types:
Table 4 shows the results of the analysis of frequency of various types of chromosomal aberrations inperipheral blood lymphocytes. Correlation between chromatid type and chromosome type aberrations inboth groups corresponds to the ratio reported in the literature for spontaneous mutagenesis (2:1 – 1.5:1)[8]. The proportion of chromosome type aberrations in self-settlers’ lymphocytes does not significantly
differ from that of the control group; 39.2±2.8 % and 33.6±2.9 %, respectively (t=1.4, р=0.16).
The induction of chromosome type aberrations is known to be characteristic for radiation exposure.
Their mean group frequency in lymphocytes of the self-settlers was increased 1.8-fold compared with thatof the Yahotyn residents, but at the same time there was a 1.3- fold increase in the frequency of chromatid
type aberrations.
Chromosome type aberrations:Exchange rearrangements are the most specific markers of radiation exposure. Unstable chromosome
exchanges (dic. and c.r.) were detected in 60 % of the Zone self-settlers and in 45 % of the Yahotyn
district inhabitants. In the Zone self-settlers’ cells unstable exchanges occurred on the average 2.5 times
more often than in the control group of Yahotyn district. In both groups the majority of unstableexchanges were accompanied by fragments. Routine staining of stable chromosome exchanges (abnormal
monocentrics) also revealed a significant increase of mean group frequency in the Zone self-settlers (1.9fold) with one third of the examined self-settlers and 16 % of Yahotyn district residents simultaneously
revealing both stable, and unstable aberrations.
Reported spontaneous levels of unstable chromosome exchanges vary within the range of 0.03 % and
0.3 % [7, 10-12]. According to [11,13] the mean population frequency of the total dic. and c.r. is taken as
0.13 % – 0.16 %. Up to 1986 these damages were registered in the rural population of Ukraine with thefrequency of 0.05 per 100 metaphases [9]. In our research we have revealed dic. and c.r. in the control
area residents with the frequency of 0.13±0.03 %, i.e. 2.6 times exceeding the pre-Chornobyl accident
level for agricultural regions of Ukraine, but comparable with the mean population one.
The frequency of paired fragments per 100 metaphases was 1.59 ±0.20 in lymphocytes of the Zone
self-settlers versus 0.89±0.12 in lymphocytes of the control group, while the mean pre-Chornobyl accident281

level for the rural population of Ukraine was 0.47 [9]. Reported spontaneous levels of paired fragments are
0.25 – 0.65 per 100 cells [7, 10, 14]. It should be noted that in our research the increase of frequency ofpaired fragments in the Zone self-settlers is caused to a great extent by the excess of the number ofisochromatid deletions. In addition in the course of analysis attention was paid to the fact that in cells of
the Zone self-settlers some paired fragments were shown to be much longer than those usually observed.
Chromatid type aberrations:
As seen in Table 4, a significant increase of chromatid type aberrations per 100 metaphases of
3.14±0.24 was registered in the Zone self-settlers compared with the value of 2.33±0.12 in Yahotyn
district residents. The pre-accident level for the rural population and the currently reported spontaneouslevels of this indices were 1.05 [9] and 0.6 –1.5 [7, 10, 14], respectively.
Thus, in the conditions of chronic irradiation the frequency both of chromosome type (at the accountof single- and two-hit damages) and chromatid type aberrations increased in lymphocytes of the Zone
self-settlers. The elevated frequency of single-hit acentrics in the presence of two-hit dic and c.r. ischaracteristic for continuous exposure to low dose rates of low-LET radiation [15]. Increase of theacentrics frequency was revealed in cells of persons having been exposed to occupational irradiation for
20 years [10].
It is difficult to interpret the causes of the increase of chromatid type aberrations, which ischaracteristic for non-radiation mutagenesis, in the Zone self-settlers. Probably, the influence of chemicalmutagenes in places of the Zone self-settlers’ residence is not worse than in the Yahotyn district villages.
Since the time of the accident no pesticides or other fertilizers have been utilized in the Exclusion Zone,
while traces of the pre-accident soil contamination are still found. As for the salts of heavy metals wedetermined the elevated content of zinc and cadmium (in comparison with standard index) in crops grownin the self-settlers’ homesteads. The levels of air contamination in the villages by nitrogen and carbon
oxides, ozone and heavy metals aerosols do not exceed maximum allowable concentration [16]. It is
unlikely that the self-settlers use more medications in comparison with the Yahotyn district residents.
The following assumptions were made in the literature concerning the increase of chromatid typedamages due to prolonged irradiation: a) reparation of chromosome damages in conditions of low dose
rate irradiation results in partial transition of chromosome type aberrations to the class of chromatid typeaberrations [17]; b) the low doses of radiation cause instability of the chromosome system, which
increases sensitivity to other forms of mutagenes, such as viruses, chemical factors [18]. Data are available,according to which radionuclides in low doses affect cells more likely as chemical mutagenes, toxins than
2.5

0.5

0.3

2

0.4

0.25

1.5

0.3

1

0.2

0.5

0.1

0.2
0.15

0

0

1

2

3

0.1
0.05
1

2

3

0

1

2

Fig. 2. Distribution of aberrant cells by the number of aberrations per cell in lymphocytes of thegroups of ChNPP Exclusion Zone self-settlers (■) and the residents of Yahotyn district(□). % of the total number of examined cells.
-Left: total chromosome type aberrations-Center: total chromosome type exchanges-Right: unstable chromosome type exchanges282

as radiation sources [19].
Distribution of aberrations in cells:
The important information for finding out the type, dose and uniformity of mutagenic exposure is the
distribution of aberrations in cells. In both groups of the Zone self-settlers and the Yahotyn district
residents we have found persons having cells with two and three chromosome type aberrations. Somepersons had even two or three such cells (two self-settlers and four persons from Yahotyn district ).
In such cells of the Yahotyn district residents aberrations are represented mainly by acentrics, whichmight be caused by the past viral infection [20] without clinical manifestations. Among the Zone selfsettlers’ cells with several chromosome type aberrations, cells prevail with 2-3 chromosome exchanges.
Six self-settlers had such cells, and in five of them cells with 2 unstable exchanges were revealed, which ischaracteristic for exposure to radiation factor. One cell with two unstable exchanges with accompanying
fragments was also found in one of Yahotyn district residents (27 years old), which probably testifies tothe fact of some unaccounted irradiation in the region considered “radiation clean”.
The comparison of the distributions of aberrant cells by the number of aberrations per cell is shownin Fig.2 for all chromosome type aberrations, all chromosome type exchanges and unstable chromosome
type exchanges. A significant inter-group differences was revealed by χ2 criterion (χ2>χ20.01 ) between the
Yahotyn district residents and the Zone self-settlers.
Cytogenetic examination in 2001
Time trend of chromosome aberration:
In order to investigate the dynamics of cytogenetic effects in the Zone self-settlers, 20 people from33 already examined in 1998-99 were repeatedly analyzed in 2001. As it is seen in Table 5 this analysis
has not revealed any changes in the mean group frequency not only of quantitative aberrations(metaphases with 47 chromosomes and tetraploids) but also of the total qualitative chromosome damages;
the frequencies of aberrant cells and the number of aberrations per aberrant cell.
Table 5. Dynamics of cytogenetic effects in the peripheral blood lymphocytes of the ChNPP Exclusion
Zone residents. (Number of examined persons - 20 )Number of
Frequency per 100 cells (individual range, M±SEM )NumberNumber ofYear ofpersonsofaberrations
Metaphases
examinawith
Aberrant“Rogue” Chromosome per aberrant
analyzedwith 47
Tetraploids
tion“rogue”
cells
cells
aberrations
cells
cell
chromosome
cells
2.2–10.8
1.9–10.2
1.06
7
0.14
1998-996978
0.73±0.14
0.48±0.10
5.79±0.55
5.44±0.52
2.2–10.4
2.2–9.5
1.08
4
0.09
2001
7923
0.75±0.10
0.39±0.07
5.41±0.49
4.99±0.41

Table 6. Dynamics of frequency of different type chromosomal aberrations in the blood
lymphocytes of the ChNPP Exclusion Zone residents. (Number of examined persons - 20)
Frequency per 100 cells ( individual range, M±SEM )Year ofexamination

19981999
2001

Chromatid type

Chromosome typebreaksexchanges

total

fragments

inerstitialdeletions

1.0–5.6
3.0±0.33
1.2–8.1
3.53
±0.40

0–1.0
0.16
±0.07
0–0.9
0.29
±0.07

1.0–6.6 0.3–4.9
3.17
1.77
±0.33 ±0.30
1.2–9.0 0–2.0
0.79*
3.82
±0.45 ±0.14

0–0.5
0.025
±0.025
0–0.4
0.07
±0.03

* P<0.05

283

dicentrics + centric rings
withwithout
fragment fragment
0–0.9
0–0.5
0.29
0.10
±0.081
±0.04
0–1.0
0–0.8
0.18
0.27
±0.06
±0.06

total
0–1.3
0.39
±0.09
0–1.4
0.45
±0.09

abnormaltotal
monocentrics
0–1.4 0.3–5.9
0.32
2.58
±0.08
±0.35
0–0.9 0.2–2.8
1.63*
0.25
±0.16
±0.06

Studying the dynamics of different types of chromosome damage showed a significant decrease in
the mean group frequency of chromosome type aberrations at the expense of a decrease in the yield offragments, i. e. single-hit lesions. No alteration was found in the mean group frequencies of two-hit
chromosome exchanges induction (Table 6).
“Rogue” cells:
We also analyzed the dynamics of “rogue” cell incidence, using the conventional definition of“rogue” cell proposed by M. A. Pilinskaya [21]. It has been proposed to refer to the cell as “rogue”, whencontaining more than one lesion with at least one of them being chromosome type exchange aberration.
Table 7 shows an aberration spectrum seen in “rogue” cells. “Rouge” cells of the Zone residents contained
mostly 2-3 chromosome exchanges. Some self-settlers were indicated to have several “rogue” cells. There
were also “rogue” cells similar to those described by Awa and Neel [22] that contain policentrics and“double minutes”. It is important to note that two individuals (encoded #15 and #29) were shown to have“rogue” cells in 1998 as well as in 2001. Individuals encoded #1 and #2 belonged to the same family. Oneof them exhibited “rogue” cells in 1998 and the other in 2001. In the inhabitants of the control Yahotyn
district “rogue” lymphocytes mostly contained one chromosome exchange per cell.
The mean frequency of “rogue” cell incidence among analyzed lymphocytes in the first and second
examinations of groups involving 20 individuals were 0.14 and 0.09 per 100 cells, respectively (Table 6).
The frequency of these cells among lymphocytes analyzed in 1998-99 from the whole group of selfsettlers consisting of 33 individuals was 0.10 per 100 cells. Therefore, this value was generally similar to
Table 7. Aberration spectrum in “rogue” peripheral blood lymphocytes of Exclusion Zone
self-settlers and residents of Yahotyn district, Kyiv region.
238,239,240

Group

Pu,
Am,
kBq/m2
241

Coded No.
1

1-2

Year of examination
1998 – 1999 (n=33)
2(dic+ace);tr, dic+ace
tr, del, ace;
2tr, cr, dic+ace, 2min;tric, dic+ace, min

2

ChNPP
Exclusion
Zone

1–2

8

dic+ace, tr, del

1– 4

19*

dic, del29

tr, 2(dic+ace)

15
12

tr, acedic, del62(dic+ace)

21

dic+ace, del2–4

2 – 10
4 – 10
10 – 40

32
30*
18

1y
Yahotyn
11ydistrict,
12y
Kyiv region
0.02 – 0.1
18y
20y
n=31
26y
27y
* - individuals examinated in 1998-99 only.

2001 (n=20)

tetrac, min, 2ace;
2tr in tetraploid;
dic+ace, tr

2dic, dic+ace
2dic, del, 10ace;
2dic
2(dic+ace)
dic+ace, 2ace
dic+ace, deldic, ace
dic+ace, ace
cr+ace, dic+ace
dic, 2deltr, ace284the values of both investigation periods for 22 self-settlers, and 1.5-fold higher than that for Yahotyn
district residents' lymphocytes (0.06 per 100 cells).
Cells containing multiple chromosome exchanges had been also found in residents of Belarus andRussia [23, 24]. According to [21] no “rogue” cells had been found in course of the examination of rural
population of Ukraine before the Chornobyl accident.
According to the reported data, cells with two unstable exchanges are observed in acute general
irradiation starting from a dose of 100 cGy onward [25]. Effective whole body doses of irradiation for the
self-settlers due to external and internal irradiation, reconstructed by us till the beginning of 1999, did notexceed 33 cSv and on red bone marrow - 63 cSv. Probably, emerging of cells with multiple chromosomal
aberrations under low dose radiation exposure could be connected with the presence of hypersensitive
lymphocyte subpopulation [26]. In the case of the Zone self-settlers we intend most probably to assume
that the incidence in blood of extremely “rouge” cells is due to non-uniform internal irradiation owing togetting into the body of α- emitting transuranium elements. It is likely that 238,239,240Pu and 241Am get into
the body first of all with aerosols and probably with vegetative nutrition products. 241Am content isaccumulating on the Zone territory following β-decay of 241Pu. During the post-accident years its amountincreased from 0.003 to 0.04 PBq [27]. At the period of our investigations the level of soil contamination
by 241Am in the Zone appeared to coincide with the contamination level by all Pu-isotopes. Taking thissituation into account, researches connected with transuranium elements content, particularly 241Am, as
the most available of thosein nutrition products of the Zone residents are very important.
CONCLUSION
The results of our examination of ChNPP Exclusion zone self-settlers testify to the destabilizing
effect of continuous low dose rate irradiation on genetic structures of somatic cells in conditions of livingin the areas contaminated with radionuclides and to the expediency of cytogenetic monitoring of the
population. The data obtained from studying of cytogenetic effects dynamics show that 12-15 years after
the accident the level of chromosome damages in ChNPP Exclusion Zone self-settlers’ lymphocytes
comes to a plateau. The comparison of the results of cytogenetic examination of Yahotyn district
inhabitants with the reported data on spontaneous levels of chromosomal damage allows us to assume theactivation of mutagenesis in this region.
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286

Cytogenetic Effects of Radiation on Agricultural Plants Observed in the
Chernobyl region during the First Years after the Accident
Stanislav A. GERASKIN, Vladimir G. DIKAREV, Yevgenia Ya. ZYABLITSKAYA,
Alla A. OUDALOVA, Yevgeniy V. SPIRIN
Russian Institute of Agricultural Radiology and Agroecology,
249020, Obninsk, Kaluga Region, Russia: riar@obninsk.org

Abstract
The cytogenetic consequences of radioactive contamination by the fallout after the accident at
the Chernobyl NPP in 1986 to agricultural crops have been studied. In the acute period after theaccident (1986), when the absorbed dose was mostly provided with external β- and γ-radiation, theradiation injury of agricultural crops resembled the effect produced by acute γ-radiation atcomparable doses as basic cytogenetic tests testify. The yield of cytogenetic damage in leaf meristemof plants grown in the 10-km zone of the ChNPP in 1987-1989 (the period of chronic, lower level
radiation exposure) was shown to be enhanced and dependent on the level of radioactive
contamination. The rate of decline with time in cytogenetic damage induced by chronic exposure
lagged considerably behind that of the radiation exposure. Analysis of genetic variability in three
sequential generations of rye and wheat revealed increased cytogenetic damage in plants exposed tochronic radiation during the 2nd and the 3rd years.

Introduction
The accident at the Chernobyl NPP in 1986 is unique in both the extent of radioactive contaminationand the values of the doses absorbed by living organisms. An estimation of total release of fission products(without noble gases) amounted to 1.85⋅1018 Bq [1]. The areas most heavily exposed to radiation were
natural and agricultural ecosystems within the 30-km ChNPP zone, with radioactive contamination
reaching several thousands of MBq m-2 in 1986. The Chernobyl accident happened in late April - early
May, i.e., the period of accelerated growth and formation of reproductive organs of plants, when theirradiosensitivity is high. The maximum impact to living organisms was caused during 10-20 days after theaccident when short-lived isotopes made a considerable contribution to the absorbed dose. During thesummer and early autumn of 1986 the dose rate on the soil surface dropped to 20-25% of the initial value[2]. Since the autumn of 1986, the radiological situation in the exclusion zone has been stabilised; theacute irradiation at relatively high dose rates was replaced with low dose rate chronic exposure thatpersists up to the present time.
Cytogenetic and biological effects have been studied in rye seeds collected from agricultural fields inthe 30-km ChNPP zone in 1986, and on intercalary leaf meristem of winter and spring crops grown on
experimental plots in the 10-km ChNPP zone in 1987-1989.
Description of experimental plots
Seeds of winter rye of the “Belta” cultivar (from 50-100 main ears per plot) were collected on 4-6
August, 1986 from 5 m2 plots in five fields with different dose rates of γ-radiation in the 30-km ChNPP
zone. Seeds from a granary were used as control. The radiological characteristics of the experimental plotsat the time of seed sampling are presented in Table 1.
The experimental plots in 1987-1989 were chosen with regard to the level of radioactive
contamination of the territory, landscape and economic use of the land prior to the accident. Two pairs of287

Table 1. Radiological characteristics of farm fields in the 30-km zone of the ChNPP.
Plotσ, (MBq.m-2)
Dγ, (Gy)Dβ, (Gy)
1. Kozhushki
19.6
0.18
1.15
2. Chamkov
58.1
0.33
2.80
3. Radin
61.1
0.58
3.40
4. Borzhshevka
129.5
1.20
6.50
5. Krasno
263.8
1.15
10.80
σ - total contamination density within 0-2 cm soil layer in August, 1986;
Dγ, Dβ, Dβ+γ - doses absorbed over the vegetative period by plant critical organs.

Dβ+γ, (Gy)
1.33
3.13
3.98
7.70
11.95

Table 2. Radionuclide composition and contamination density on experimental plots in the 10-km
zone of the ChNPP (May 15, 1988).
Plot
1
2

Radionuclide composition, (%)

Location

Type of soil

Contamination
density,(MBq.m-2)

90

Meadow behind
Chistogalovka
Meadow before
Chistogalovka

soddy
podzolic

11.7

11.2

15.3

4.3

18.1

51.1

sandy loam

106.0

8.1

13.7

5.3

25.0

47.9

65.8

2.8

20.0

4.6

20.4

52.2

454.0

9.1

13.1

4.6

20.7

52.5

3

ABZ

4

Red forest

peaty humus
gley
peaty humus
gley

Sr

106

Ru

134

Cs

137

Cs

144

Ce

plots were chosen to obtain comparative results. The plots in each pair were similar in soil type, but had
diverse levels of radioactive contamination (Table 2). All four plots are situated 5-10 km west of the
ChNPP along the Yanov-Chistogalovka road. The soils are typical for the Ukrainian Polesie, i.e. soddy
podzolic, sandy and sandy loam, with different degrees of cultivation, a low availability of mineral
nutrition and low sorption capacity for the most radionuclides. The arable layer has a low content oforganic matter, available phosphorus and potassium, and a relatively high content of readily hydrolysable
nitrogen. The soil solution reaction is acid (pH=4.4 - 4.6) and sub-acid (pH=5.1 - 5.3). A detailed
description of plots was given in [3]. Winter (rye and wheat) and spring (barley and oats) crops were
sowed using appropriate agricultural practices. The area of the experimental plots varied from 5 to 25 m2.
Samples of the leaf intercalary meristem of spring barley and oats were collected when the rudimentaryears reached 5 cm above the ground (at 2-3 weeks after sowing). Samples of winter rye and wheat were
picked 2 times per year, at 3-4 weeks after sowing in the autumn and on the 10th day after thecommencement of growth in spring
Materials and methods
Experiment in 1986
Seeds of winter rye collected in 1986 were allowed to germinate at 25-26° C. 15-30 seedlings were
fixed at 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 40, 48 and 72 hours of growth. Temporary squash slides prepared from the root
apical meristem of each seedling were stained with aceto-orcein. In each slide, the mitotic index was
calculated per 1000 cells, all ana-telophase cells were scored for aberrations; the aberration spectrum
consisted of chromatid (single) and chromosome (double) bridges and fragments, as well as lagging
chromosomes. 20-40 seedlings were simultaneously measured to determine the main root length. The
laboratory germination rate was studied using the accelerated method of Stepanov [4].
To estimate the total density of radioactive contamination and the doses absorbed by the plants, soil
was sampled by “envelop” method (taking samples from four corners and from the centre of the plot andcalculating the density as an average) on each of the five fields. The samples were analysed by γ288

spectrometry of the upper layer (0-2 cm) samples.
The estimation of the total dose for rye over the vegetative period in 1986 was based on theradionuclide composition of the fallout and models describing both the growth of cereal plants and theradionuclide migration in the soil profile. The absorbed dose of γ-radiation was calculated by summing up
the contributions from all lines of the spectrum obtained by γ-spectrometry on May 8, 1986 at assumptionof a uniform radionuclide distribution in the soil to a depth of 1 cm. In calculations of the absorbed dosefrom β-radiation, the total β-radioactivity was assumed to consist of two parts. The first one is distributed
over the soil surface and decreases from 100 % to 0 during the whole vegetative period (100 days) and thesecond one is distributed uniformly within the surface 1 cm soil layer and increases from 0 to 100 %. The
absorbed doses of β-radiation were calculated by integrating the point source dose attenuation function foreach radionuclide as described by [5]. The absorption coefficient for tissues covering the critical organ
was set equal to 0.5.
Experiments in 1987-1989
Samples of the leaf intercalary meristem collected from the crop plants in 1987-1989 were fixed inacetic alcohol (1:3), stained with aceto-orcein and examined for aberrations (bridges and fragments) in
ana-telophase. Five replicates were made for each plot at every sampling. Then, 100 ana-telophases werescored for each replicate.
An estimate of doses absorbed by the leaf meristem of plants in 1987-1989 was based on the data on
soil radioactivity level and composition of the radionuclide contamination. Models of the infinite uniform
source and of the infinite 20-cm thick layer source were used to calculate doses from β- and γ-radiation,
respectively. The duration of the radiation exposure before sampling leaf meristem in spring crops was
taken to be 30 days; in winter crops - 35 days for the autumn sampling and 210 days for sampling in thespring of the next year. When doses absorbed by a growing point over the whole vegetative period were
estimated, the time between appearance of the growth point above the soil surface and harvesting was
assumed to be equal to 100 days. γ-Radiation made the main contribution to absorbed dose during thistime.
The radiometric analysis showed that the contamination density of soil varied considerably even
within the area of one plot although the relative contents of radionuclides in all samples were similar(Table 2). Therefore, an average value for the density of radioactive contamination was calculated fromthe data on the absorbed dose rate in air. The ratio between the contamination density of soil and theabsorbed dose rate in air was determined experimentally at the plot, which had the least variability in themeasured levels of radioactive contamination. The dose rate of γ-radiation in air was measured withlithium fluoride thermoluminiscent dosimeters (TLD-100). Prior to measurements, the dosimeters were
calibrated in a γ-radiation field of 137Cs against the reference dosimeter 27012. To record γ-radiation only,
the detectors were exposed in a 3 mm thick protective aluminium capsule. Changes in the dose rate of γrays with time were registered by DRG-01T dosimeter.
Optimum sample sizes needed for the estimation of examined values with a certain relative probableerror at a given confidence level were determined by a method of statistical analysis of empirical
distribution [6]. Student’s test and confidence intervals were used to confirm statistical significance.
Results and Discussion
Winter rye, 1986
The experimental plots differed in the radioactive contamination of the soil surface layer and the doseabsorbed by plant critical organs over the vegetative period by almost an order of magnitude (Table 1).
According to the classification of zones of chronic radiation exposure of natural populations [7], the289Table 3. Aberrant cells in seedlings root meristems of winter rye seeds collected in the 30 km
ChNPP zone (mean ± SE).
Plot Dose, (Gy)

Cells in ana-telophase

Aberrant cells

Control
952
40
1
1.3
749
33
2
3.1
1402
101
3
4.0
787
51
4
7.7
447
49
5
12.0
668
95
Significance of variation from control: * - p<5%, ** - p<1%, *** p<0.1%;

Aberrant cell frequency,(%)
4.20 ± 0.65
4.41 ± 0.75
7.20 ± 0.69*
6.48 ± 0.88
10.96 ± 1.48**
14.22 ± 1.35***

Table 4. Damage distribution and severity of damage to aberrant cells in winter rye.
Number of cells with the
Severity of damage,MD,
following quantity ofPlot
AC ACc(aberrations per damaged(%)
aberrations
cell)
1
2
3 4
5
Control 40
4
27
5
4 0 0
32.5
1.36 ± 0.11
1
1.3
33
3
29
1
0 0 0
12.1
1.03 ± 0.10
2
3.1
101
9
64
23
3 1 1
36.6
1.39 ± 0.07
3
4.0
51
5
31
11
2 1 1
39.2
1.48 ± 0.19
4
7.7
49
5
29
9
4 2 0
40.8
1.52 ± 0.13
5
12.0
95
11
43
30
5 4
2
54.7
1.71 ± 0.12
Cells with complex indistinguishable damage were excluded from calculation of severity of damage.
AC - total number of aberrant cells; ACc - number of cells with complex damage; MD is a percent of cellswith multiple and complex damages.
Dose,
(Gy)

radiation-induced biological effects should dominate over those of other ecological factors at least on thetwo experimental plots with the highest levels of radioactive contamination. The contribution of βradiation to the total absorbed dose is different for each plot, but in all cases it is 6-9 times higher than thatof γ-radiation.
Table 3 presents the results of the cytogenetic analysis of seedlings root meristems of winter ryeseeds collected on contaminated plots. Even a dose of 3.1 Gy absorbed by plants results in a significant
increase in the yield of aberrant cells. It is pertinent to note that significant increase in the aberrant cells
rate in the root meristem of other agricultural crops was observed after exposure of seeds to γ-rays atcomparable doses [8, 9].
Data on the damage distribution per cell are given in Table 4. To calculate the severity of damage in
the aberrant cells, we used information on biological variability of this value among seedlings. The
analysis of changes in the severity versus the absorbed dose showed a significant growth in the degree ofcell damage along with radiation exposure. Overall, the severity of damage at chronic irradiation is within
the limits registered in our previous experiments on exposure of seeds of agricultural crops to γ-rays atcomparable doses [8,9].
Analysis of data on specific types of structural aberrations and their partial frequency (Table 5) has
shown that there are no essential changes in the aberration spectrum with dose. The prevalent types ofcytogenetic disturbance in the variety of rye examined, both for control and at chronic irradiation, arechromatid mutations followed by lagging chromosomes and chromosome aberrations. The low relative
contribution of chromosome aberrations is supposed to be a specific feature of the biological material
used. In our previous investigations [8,9] of structural mutations induction in root meristems of wheat andbarley seeds exposed to ionising radiation, the contribution of chromosome aberrations was also small.
290

Table 5. Structural mutations spectrum in winter rye exposed to radioactive contamination.
Different type aberrations
m’
f’’
m’’
g
f’
m’
f’’
m’’
Number%control
49
5
27
13
1
3
10.2
55.1
26.5
2.0
6.1
1
1.3
31
4
18
9
0
0
12.9
58.1
29.0
0
0
2
3.1
128 9
63
41
5
10
7.1
49.2
32.0
3.9
7.8
3
4.0
68 13
32
18
0
5
19.1
47.0
26.5
0
7.4
4
7.7
67
7
34
23
0
3
10.4
50.8
34.3
0
4.5
5
12.0
144 19
59
55
4
7
13.2
41.0
38.2
2.8
4.9
Cells with complex indistinguishable damage are excluded.
TA - total number of aberrations; g - lagging chromosomes (genome mutations); f’, m’ - chromatid (single)
fragments and bridges with associated fragments; f'”, m” - chromosome (double) fragments and bridges
with associated fragments.
Plot

Dose,
(Gy)

TA

g

f’

Table 6. Some viability indicators of seeds collected in the 30 km ChNPP zone (mean ± SE).
Mitotic index, (%)
Main root length, (mm)GerminaDose,Plottion,(%)(Gy)
16-24 h40-48 h72 h16-24 h40-48 h72 h-Control

1.69 ± 0.25

3.83 ± 0.26

3.09 ± 0.17

1.96 ± 0.19 22.95 ± 1.19 34.21 ± 3.42

62.0 ± 2.4

1

1.3

1.16 ± 0.23

2.64 ± 0.23*

3.24 ± 0.79

2.22 ± 0.20 12.85 ± 1.13 34.46 ± 2.17

87.5 ± 1.7*

2

3.1

1.73 ± 0.22

2.29 ± 0.17*

3.95 ± 0.35

2.27 ± 0.17 17.75 ± 0.97 37.97 ± 2.93

74.5 ± 2.2*

3

4.0

1.25 ± 0.18

2.54 ± 0.18*

3.79 ± 0.26

1.83 ± 0.14 13.35 ± 0.93 45.29 ± 3.33

88.8 ± 1.6*

4

7.7

0.83 ± 0.17

2.75 ± 0.16*

3.99 ± 0.25

1.64 ± 0.11 12.70 ± 0.77 36.06 ± 3.21

70.8 ± 2.3

5

12.0

1.11 ± 0.20

2.61 ± 0.27*

2.98 ± 0.32

1.93 ± 0.24 13.80 ± 0.73 25.48 ± 3.49

31.2 ± 2.3*

Mean values over the first (16-24 h) and the second (40-48 h) mitosis are presented.
Significance: * - p<5%.
Such an unusual result may be due to the possible induction at G1 stage, of long-lived potential damage
that is later realised as genuine mutations at S and G2 stages. Dubinin & Nemtsova [10] have obtained
similar results analysing aberration spectrum in root meristems of irradiated seeds of agricultural plants.
Table 6 presents data on some viability indicators of seeds collected on the plots in the 30 km ChNPP
zone. The mitotic indices determined at 8 time points (16-72 hours after germination) show that there is an
insignificant tendency for mitotic activity to decline with the increase in the dose absorbed. A significant
radiation depression of mitotic activity was observed only in 40-48-hours seedlings. However, at this time
point, the mitotic indices don’t correlate with dose. Seed germinating power shows statistically significant
stimulation effects at doses of 1.3-4.0 Gy, and considerable, statistically significant inhibition at the doseof 12 Gy. Attention should be paid to the fact that some of the morphological indices illustrating theviability of germs at early stages of ontogenesis depend on dose. It should also be noted thatmorphological stimulation (Table 6) was accompanied by high and significant increment of cytogenetic
disturbances. This result appears a good illustration of the ambiguous nature of “stimulation” and indicatesthat the term should not be considered as a synonym for “benefit” or even harmlessness of exposure,because this outcome, assumed to be positive in terms of economic efficacy, may simply be a small part ofa wider biological phenomenon that is negative overall.
Thus, in the first acute period after the Chernobyl accident, when the absorbed dose was primarily
formed by external β- and γ-radiation, the radiation injury to agricultural crops, according to the basic
cytogenetic tests, resembled the effect produced by acute γ-irradiation at comparable doses.

291

Table 7. Aberrant cell frequency in the leaf meristem of spring crops grown on experimental
plots in the 10-km ChNPP zone.
Barley
Oats
Dose,
Plot
(cGy)
Number of AC Frequency of AC, (%) Number of AC Frequency of AC, (%)
1
2.05
142
203
28.4 ± 2.0
40.6 ± 2.2
3
12.09
181
161
36.2 ± 2.1
32.2 ± 2.1
2
17.90
156
274
31.2 ± 2.2
54.8 ± 2.2∗
4
78.46
261
271
52.2 ± 2.2∗
54.2 ± 2.2∗
AC is aberrant cells. Significance of variation from plot 1: * - p<5%.
Spring barley and oats, 1988
Experiments with spring crops (barley and oats) were only carried out in 1988. Table 7 gives the dataon the frequency of aberrant cells in the leaf meristem of barley and oats grown on plots with a nearly 40fold difference in radioactive contamination density. The yield of aberrant cells trends to rise with theabsorbed dose, indicating the radiation-induced nature of the observed changes. The levels ofcytogenetical damage in oats generally exceed those in barley at the same absorbed doses, which is thereverse of the relationship for values of LD50 reported by [11].
In this study there are unexpectedly high levels of cytogenetic disturbances in comparison with ourprevious experiments on acute [12,13] and chronic γ-irradiation of barley plants [14]. According to [1214], the spontaneous level of aberrant cells in the leaf meristem of barley was 10-14%. In the present
study, the yield of cytogenetic disturbances was 2-3 times higher than the spontaneous occurrence
expected from our works on acute γ-irradiation of barley plants even at plots with the lowest levels ofradioactive contamination. Such an apparent discrepancy between the level of genetic effects expectedfrom the dosimetric data and the level observed in the experiment has also been reported by other authors
who had carried out investigations in the 30-km Chernobyl zone [15,16].
Winter wheat and rye, 1987-1989
An estimation of consequences of radioactive contamination should take into consideration that wintercrops are subjected to radiation for a longer time and their leaf meristem lies within the upper, mostdensely contaminated soil layer during the winter dormancy period. Experiments with winter crops (wheat
and rye) were carried out from the autumn of 1987 till the autumn of 1989. Therefore, from the data
available, conclusions can be drawn not only about dose dependence of cytogenetic damage rate but also
about how the plant response to radiation changed as the absorbed dose decreased with time due to both
radioactive decay and the migration of radionuclides in soil.
Frequencies of aberrant cells in the leaf meristem of winter rye and wheat grown on plots with diverselevels of radioactive contamination are given in Table 8. For winter wheat, there is a significant decreasein the yield of cytogenetic disturbances with time from the accident at all plots except plot 3. For winterrye, such a decrease is observed at plots 2 and 4. At the same time, the yields of the aberrant cells per dose
unit rise with time in all autumn samplings (Table 8). This means that the rate of decline in the cytogenetic
damage to plants lags behind that of radiation exposure. This phenomenon was also reported by [17].
The regression analysis for each year and for each sampling time has shown a general significant
development in the frequency of aberrant cells with increase in the dose absorbed by plants, indicating
thereby the role of radiation exposure in the observed alterations. However, no significant dose
dependence was revealed: a) in the autumn of 1989, in rye (p<0.07), when the absorbed dose decreased by
2.6 times compared with 1987 and b) in the spring of 1988, in wheat (p<0.22) and rye (p<0.06), whendoses absorbed by plants were maximal over the investigated period and one could expect an apparent
dose-effect relationship. If we distinguish two sets of the data for peaty humus gley (plots 3 and 4) and forsoddy podzolic sandy loam (plots 1 and 2) soils, there is the expected dose dependence, as seen in the case292

Table 8. Aberrant cells frequency in leaf meristem cells of winter crops grown in the 10-km
ChNPP zone.
Rye
Wheat
Sampling time
Dose, (cGy)AC, %AC per 1 cGyAC, %AC per 1 cGy
Plot 1 (soddy podzolic soil)
Autumn 1987
3.88
19.0 ± 1.8
4.90 ± 0.97
32.4 ± 2.1
8.35 ± 1.24
aAutumn 1988
1.99
21.4 ± 1.8
10.75 ± 1.39
23.0 ± 1.9
11.56 ± 1.43
Autumn 1989
1.03
17.48 ± 1.70
20.2 ± 1.8
19.61 ± 1.78
18.0 ± 1.7 a
Spring 1988
17.94
26.0 ± 2.0
1.45 ± 0.53
53.2 ± 2.2
2.97 ± 0.76
Spring 1989
10.26
20.4 ± 1.8
1.99 ± 0.62
23.2 ± 1.9 b
2.26 ± 0.66
Plot 3 (peaty humus gley soil)
Autumn 1987
23.15
1.04 ± 0.45
20.2 ± 1.8
0.87 ± 0.42
24.0 ± 1.9
Autumn 1988
11.67
25.4 ± 1.9
2.18 ± 0.65
24.8 ± 1.9
2.13 ± 0.64
Autumn 1989
5.81
23.4 ± 1.9
4.03 ± 0.88a
21.2 ± 1.8
3.65 ± 0.84a
Spring 1988
106.5032.8 ± 2.1
0.31 ± 0.25
34.6 ± 2.1
0.32 ± 0.25
Spring 1989
59.74
0.37 ± 0.27
24.0 ± 1.9 b
0.40 ± 0.28
22.0 ± 1.9 b
Plot 2 (sandy loam soil)
Autumn 1987
33.50
32.4 ± 2.1
0.97 ± 0.44
33.4 ± 2.1
1.00 ± 0.44aAutumn 1988
17.48
24.2 ± 1.9
1.38 ± 0.52
25.6 ± 2.0
1.46 ± 0.54
Autumn 1989
9.36
2.20 ± 0.66
20.6 ± 1.8 a
2.20 ± 0.66
20.6 ± 1.8 a
Spring 1988
155.7559.6 ± 2.2
0.38 ± 0.28
68.6 ± 2.1
0.44 ± 0.30
Spring 1989
90.63
24.6 ± 1.9 b
0.27 ± 0.23
24.6 ± 1.9 b
0.27 ± 0.23
Plot 4 (peaty humus gley soil)
Autumn 1987
148.780.30 ± 0.25
39.6 ± 2.2
0.27 ± 0.23
45.2 ± 2.2aaAutumn 1988
76.14
26.6 ± 2.0
0.35 ± 0.26
27.6 ± 2.0
0.36 ± 0.27
Autumn 1989
39.60
22.8 ± 1.9 a
0.58 ± 0.34
25.8 ± 2.0 a
0.65 ± 0.36
Spring 1988
687.2047.4 ± 2.2
0.07 ± 0.12
42.8 ± 2.2
0.06 ± 0.11
Spring 1989
392.490.08 ± 0.12
29.8 ± 2.0b
0.08 ± 0.12
29.8 ± 2.0 b
AC – frequency of aberrant cells;aand b – difference from the level of the autumn 1987 and the spring 1988, correspondingly, is significant,p<0.05.
of the spring crops. Attention is drawn to the abnormally low level of cytogenetic disturbances in wheat at
plot 3 in the autumn of 1987 and spring of 1988, which differ significantly from that at plot 1 with thelowest level of radioactive contamination. The reason for this abnormal observation is not clear yet.
It is interesting that slopes of fitted linear dose curves in autumn are considerably higher than in springof the following year for both cereals. So, the yield of aberrant cells in autumn has closer correlation withdose absorbed by plants than that in spring. Dose was accumulated over a prolonged time in spring
samples, so cytogenetic damage probably depends not as much on radiation as on other factors.
Variability in the plant generations
Over the entire period of investigations (autumn of 1987 - autumn of 1989), a part of the seeds
collected was planted again on the same plots, allowing study of genetic variability in three successive
generations of winter rye and wheat. The doses absorbed by a growing point of plant over the wholevegetative periods from planting to harvesting of 1987-1988 and 1988-1989 were in the range of 18 - 717
cGy and 11 - 418 cGy, respectively. Each of these doses accumulated during vegetation is a sum of twovalues, i.e. the dose absorbed from planting in autumn to the time of spring sampling (Table 8) and a doseabsorbed from spring sampling to seed harvesting. The last value is comparatively small because the mostpart of dose is delivered to plants with β-radiation while the growing point is under or near the soil surface
prior to the spring sampling.
In rye, in the autumn of 1989, at plots 2 and 4 with the highest level of radioactive contamination, the293frequencies of aberrant cells in the leaf meristem in plants growing on contaminated sites in the second
year (marked as the X2 generation) and the third year (the X3 generation) significantly exceed the values
for those growing only in the first year (the X1 generation) (Table 9).
In contrast to the results obtained by [18], the level of genetic variability in the X3 generation in thepresent study does not decline and even somewhat increases (Figure 1), though there is no statisticallysignificant difference between the yields of aberrant cells in the X2 and X3 generations. The results of ourstudy correspond well with the data reported by [15] who observed a rise in mutation load in the
Arabidopsis thaliana populations at all levels of radioactive contamination during the first 2-3 years after
the accident. In wheat, this tendency is more pronounced. In the autumn of 1989, a significant increase in
the frequencies of aberrant cells in the X2 and X3 generations, compared with X1, was recorded at 3 out of
4 plots (Table 9). Differences between the numbers of aberrant cells in the X2 and X3 generations are smalland statistically insignificant for both crops (Figure 1).
One of the possible explanations of the observed phenomenon is related to genome destabilisation inplants grown from seeds affected by radiation. Results from numerous experiments carried out withrepresentatives of different kingdoms of the living world [17,19] indicate that chronic irradiation inregions affected as a result of the accident at the Chernobyl NPP can cause heritable destabilisation ofgenetic structures that appears, in particular, as an increased yield of cytogenetic disturbances andkariotypic variability in the offspring of irradiated organisms. From these viewpoints, the phenomenon
observed in this study may be a reflection of the first stage in cytogenetic adaptation [20,21], that is,Table 9. Aberrant cells frequency in leaf meristem of winter rye and winter wheat in 3 subsequent plant generations grown on the plots in the 10-km ChNPP zone (sampling time is autumn 1989).
Rye
Wheat
D87-88,
D88-89,D,
Plot
Number of
Aberrant cell
Number of
Aberrant cell
(cGy)
(cGy)
(cGy)
aberrant cells frequency, (%) aberrant cells frequency, (%)
X1-generation (first year of planting on contaminated plots)
1
1.03
101
20.2 ± 1.8
9018.0 ± 1.7
3
5.81
117
23.4 ± 1.9
10621.2 ± 1.8
2
9.36
103
20.6 ± 1.8
10320.6 ± 1.8
4
39.60
114
22.8 ± 1.9
12925.8 ± 2.0
X2-generation (second year of planting on contaminated plots)
1
10.68
1.03
119
23.8 ± 1.9
13026.0 ± 2.0*
3
63.54
5.81
144
28.8 ± 2.0
13527.0 ± 2.0
2
95.93
9.36
155
31.0 ± 2.1*
146
29.2 ± 2.0*4
417.49 39.60
165
33.0 ± 2.1*
170
34.0 ± 2.1*
X3-generation (third year of planting on contaminated plots)
1
18.45
10.68
1.03
136
27.2 ± 2.0
13226.4 ± 2.0*
3
111.1
63.54
5.81
150
30.0 ± 2.0
15731.4 ± 2.1*
2162.05
95.93
9.36
179
35.8 ± 2.1*
150
30.0 ± 2.0*
4
717.2
417.49 39.60
163
32.6 ± 2.1*
167
33.4 ± 2.1
D – dose, accumulated from planting in autumn 1989 to the sampling time;
D87-88, D88-89 – doses, accumulated by parent plants during the whole vegetative period from planting up to
harvesting in 1987-1988 and 1988-1989 years, respectively
X1-generation – plants grown from intact seeds and accumulated dose D from planting in autumn 1989 to
the sampling time;
X2-generation – parent plants were sown in 1988, harvested in summer 1989 and planted again on the sameplots in autumn 1989. Genetical effects are the result of both the ancestral dose D88-89 and current exposure D;
X3-generation - parent plants grew on the same plots in 1987-1988 and in 1988-1989 and accumulated doses
D87-88 and D88-89, correspondingly. Seeds harvested in 1989 were sown again in autumn 1989 andplants of the X3 generation got dose D.
Significance of variation from the level of cytogenetic disturbances in the X1 generation: * - p<5%.
294

R YE

40
30

A b e rra n t ce lls, %

20
10
0
40

W HEA T30
20
X 1 g e n e ra tio n

10

X 2 g e n e ra tio n
X 3 g e n e ra tio n

0
0

10

20

30

40

D o se , cG y
Figure 1. Yield of aberrant cells in three successive generations of winter rye and wheat, grown on
contaminated plots.
chronic exposure to low-level radiation possibly alters the genetic structure of population. Response to an
external impact, such as an expansion of the gene pool variability providing a potential basis for thesubsequent selection of the most adaptable forms, is a reflection of the fundamental mechanisms(grounding the basis for life) [22] that ensure resistance of living systems and their possible adaptation tovarying conditions of the environment.
References
1. Alexakhin R.M., Buldakov L.A., Gubanov V.A., et al. Heavy radiation accidents: consequences andcountermeasures (in Russian). IzdAT Publishers, Moscow, 2001. 752p.
2. Kozubov G.M., Taskaev A.J. Radiobiology and radioecology investigation of tree plants (in the region of theChernobyl accident) (in Russian). Nauka Publishers, St.Petersburg, 1994. 256 p.
3. Krouglov S.V., Filipas A.S., Alexakhin R.M., Arkhipov N.P. Long-term study on the transfer of 137Cs and 90Sr
from Chernobyl-contaminated soils to grain crops. J. Environ. Radioactivity. 1997. V. 34. N 3. p. 267-286.
4. Stepanov V.N. Handbook on agronomy basis (in Russian). Kolos Publishers, Moscow, 1969. pp. 119-122.
5. Spirin Ye.V. Formation of absorbed doses in critical organs of cereals on the territory contaminated due to the
ChNPP accident (in Russian). Radiation Biology. Radioecology. 1997. V. 37. N 3. p. 445-452.
6. Geraskin S.A., Fesenko S.V., Chernyaeva L.G., Sanzharova N.I. Statistical method of empirical distribution
analysis of coefficient of radionuclides accumulation in plants (in Russian). Agricultural Biology. 1994. N 1. p.
130-137.
7. Polikarpov G.G., Tsytsugina V.G. Consequences of the Kyshtym and Chernobyl accidents for hydrobionts (inRussian). Radiation Biology. Radioecology. 1995. V. 35. N 4. p. 536-549.
8. Geraskin S.A., Zyablitskaya Ye.Ya., Oudalova A.A. Radiation-induced structural mutations in root meristem of γ-295

irradiated hexaploid wheat seeds (in Russian). Radiation Biology. Radioecology. 1995 V. 35. N 2. p. 137-149.
9. Geraskin S.A., Zyablitzkaya Ye.Ya., Oudalova A.A. Structural mutations in root meristem of irradiated barleyseeds (in Russian). Radiation Biology. Radioecology. 1997. V. 37. N 1. p. 82-90.
10. Dubinin N.P., Nemtsova L.S. Chromosome and chromatid alterations as a result of radiation effect on phase G1
in cells of Allium cepa seeds (in Russian). Cytology and Genetics. 1972. V. 6. N 2. p. 99-102.
11. Sarapultzev B.I., Geraskin S.A. Genetic basis of radioresistance and evolution (in Russian). Energoatomizdat
Publishers, Moscow, 1993. 208 p.
12. Geraskin S.A., Dikarev V.G., Dikareva N.S., Melnikov B.P., Arysheva S.P. Induction of chromosome
aberrations in leaf meristem by combined influence of irradiation and heavy metals. Study of results of multifactor
experiment (in Russian). Radiation Biology. Radioecology. 1993. V. 33. N 6. p. 890-899.
13. Geraskin S.A., Dikarev V.G., Dikareva N.S., Oudalova A.A. Effect of ionising irradiation or heavy metals on thefrequency of chromosome aberrations in spring barley leaf meristem. Russian Journal of Genetics. 1996. V. 32. N
2. p. 240-245.
14. Geraskin S.A., Dikarev V.G., Nesterov Ye.B., Dikareva N.S. Regularities of cytogenetic effects induced by low
doses of ionizing radiation and other technogenous pollutants. In: Proceedings of regional contest of research
proposals in natural sciences. Kaluga, 2001. N 2. pp. 318-332.
15. Abramov V.I., Dineva S.V., Rubanovich A.V., Shevchenko V.A. Genetical consequences of radioactive
contamination of Arabidopsis thaliana populations from the 30-km ChNPP zone (in Russian). Radiation Biology.
Radioecology. 1995. V. 35(5), 676-689.
16. Al′ferovich A.A., Gotlib V.Ya., Pelevina I.I. Appearance of micronuclei in generations of HeLa cells irradiated at
low doses (in Russian). News of RAS. Biological series. 1996. N. 3. p. 261-264.
17. Shevchenko V.V., Grinikh L.I., Shevchenko V.A. Cytogenetical effects in natural populations of Crepis tectorum
exposed to chronic irradiation in the Chernobyl NPP region (in Russian). Radiation Biology. Radioecology. 1995.
V. 35. N 5. p. 695-701.
18. Kalchenco V.A., Shevchenko V.A., Fedotov I.S. Changes in barley plants radioresistance caused by chronic
irradiation (in Russian). Genetics. 1981. V. 17. N 1. p. 137-141.
19. Pelevina I.I., Gotlib V.Ya., Kudryashova O.V., Serebryani A.M., Afanasyev G.G. Genomic instability after low
level irradiation (in the zone of Chernobyl disaster and in laboratory conditions) (in Russian). Radiation Biology.
Radioecology. 1996. V. 36. N 4. p. 546-560.
20. Cherezhanova L.V., Alexakhin R.M., Smirnov E.G. About cytogenetic adaptation of plants under chronic
ionising radiation conditions (in Russian). Genetics. 1971. V. 7. N 4. p. 30-37.
21. Shevchenko V.A., Pechkurenkov V.L., Abramov V.I. Radiation genetics of natural populations (in Russian).
Nauka Publishers, Moscow, 1992. 221 p.
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Radioecology. 1995. V. 35. N 5. p. 571-580.

296

＜1. p.1‑10＞

チェルノブイリ原発事故による放射能影響に関する最近のトピックス
今中哲二

京都大学原子炉実験所
チェルノブイリ事故に関し、放射能放出量、汚染面積、被曝量、被曝リスクといった放射
能影響に関連する基本的な事項をまとめた。おおざっぱに見積もって、原子炉内にあったヨウ素 131 の 50〜60％、セシウム 137 の 30〜50％が環境中に放出された。事故発生時の放射能量で表すと、それぞれ 4000〜5000 万 Ci と 200〜400 万 Ci に相当する。ヨーロッパの 13
カ国における、１平方 km 当り 1Ci 以上のセシウム 137 汚染地域の総面積は、19 万平方 kmに達している。もっとも大きな汚染を受けた３カ国（ベラルーシ、ウクライナ、ロシア）の総人口に対する集団甲状腺被曝量は 160 万人・Gy と推定されている。また、３カ国の主な汚染地域に居住している 516 万人に対する事故後 10 年間の集団実効線量は 4 万 2600 人・
Sv と推定されている。これらの集団被曝量の値と ICRP1990 年勧告に示されている放射線
リスク係数を用いると、１万 3000 件の甲状腺ガンと 2100 件のその他のガン死が、それぞれの集団において予測される。
本レポートの他の論文では以下のようなことが示されている。ベラルーシでは 2000 年末
までにすでに約 4400 件の放射線誘発甲状腺ガンが観察された。また、汚染地域住民や事故処理作業従事者の間で他のガンの増加傾向が認められた。汚染地域の子どもや胎内被曝を受けた子どもにおいて、健康悪化や精神発達障害が観察された。こうした知見のすべては、チェルノブイリ事故による健康影響の大きさや ICRP のリスク係数の適用性について結論する
ためには、十分に組織された疫学研究が必要なことを示している。
1986 年６月１日段階でのチェルノブイリ周辺での放射線量率を示す地図を紹介する。その放射線量率を用いて事故直後避難住民の被曝量を推定したところ、30km 圏内のいくつかの村では、かなりの割合の住民において急性放射線症状があった可能性を確認した。
＜2. p.11‑27＞

チェルノブイリ型原発：その特徴と事故原因
Mikhail V. MALKO
ベラルーシ科学アカデミー・原子力合同研究所
本報告では、チェルノブイリ型原発の主要な特徴と 1986 年 4 月 26 日に発生した事故の原因について報告する。事故後に行われた科学的調査結果は、炉心設計の欠陥、安全設計規則の無視、ならびに原子炉運転マニュアルの不備がチェルノブイリ事故の主要な原因であったことを示している。さまざまな事故シナリオについて検討した結果、チェルノブイリ４号
炉では核爆発が起きた可能性が大きく、その爆発力はＴＮＴ火薬 200 トン分と考えられる。
＜3. p.28‑44＞

チェルノブイリ原発事故の原因とシナリオ、ならびに敷地周辺への放射能放出
Boris I. GORBACHEV
ウクライナ科学アカデミー・学際科学技術センター「シェルター」
チェルノブイリ事故の原因に関して、新旧データの検討に基づいて現実的なシナリオを考案した。従来の公式見解と違って、新しいシナリオに基づくと、これまでうまく説明されなかった事故時の状況や事故プロセスについて合理的な説明が可能となる。４号炉の運転員が297

緊急停止ボタン AZ-5 を押したのは、炉心で最初の爆発が起きた後であった。それから、もっと強力な第２の爆発があり、その振動がチェルノブイリ原発から 100〜180km 離れた３カ所の地震計に記録された。また、これまでほとんど知られていない、４号炉建屋周辺への燃料飛散データについても報告する。
＜4. p.45‑58＞

崩壊したチェルノブイリ４号炉内の核燃料
Volodymyr M. PAVLOVYCH
ウクライナ科学アカデミー・核科学研究所
本報告では、崩壊したチェルノブイリ原発４号炉の核的安全性の問題と、「石棺」内の核燃料の分布・存在量の問題とを検討する。石棺内に存在する核燃料の量と放出された量を決定する方法を詳細に検討した。核燃料の存在に関連しては、炉心直下の 305/2 室が核的にもっとも危険な場所であり、そこに特別の注意を払った。これらの知見と核燃料含有物質サンプルの分析結果を基に、核的安全性の計算を行い、仮想的条件下での事故連鎖反応のシナリオを検討した。そうした計算結果の一部を紹介する。
＜5. p.59‑73＞

チェルノブイリ原発周辺地域における放射能汚染の解析
Alexander GAYDAR and Oleg NASVIT*
ウクライナ科学アカデミー・核科学研究所、*イノベーション研究実施企業 Stroom
チェルノブイリ事故により大量の放射性物質が環境中に放出され、広大な地域に拡散した。
放射性物質の沈着がもっとも大きかったのは、チェルノブイリ原発に隣接する地域である。
本報告では、最新の技術を用いたサンプリングならびに測定が実施され、放射能汚染レベルとその組成について信頼できるデータが膨大に得られているチェルノブイリ原発隣接地域の放射能汚染調査について、これまでの調査の概要と最近の状況を紹介する。地形学統計解
析を用いたデータ処理によって、汚染レベルと組成の地域的傾向を明らかにし、セシウム 137、
ストロンチウム 90、アメリシウム 241 およびプルトニウム同位体といった核種について詳
細な汚染地図を編集することが可能となった。超ウラン元素に対しては、核実験にともなう地球規模汚染とチェルノブイリ由来の汚染を分別し、アメリシウム 241 による将来の汚染地図を予測した。
著者らによって開発された新しい地形情報技術は、放射能汚染の形成における地形学的要因の解明を可能にしている。こうした地形学的アプローチを基に、高汚染地域の場所や形状の特殊性を説明する試みを行った。
＜6. p.74‑85＞

チェルノブイリ原発冷却池における放射能生態系の現状
Oleg NASVIT
イノベーション研究実施企業 Stroom
チェルノブイリ原発冷却池における水中放射能モニタリングデータの解析結果は、セシウ
ム 137 濃度の定期的な季節変動を示している。一方、ストロンチウム 90 についてはそのよ
うな傾向は認められなかった。セシウム 137 のこの変動現象は、微生物活動によって支配される、湖底土から水中へのセシウム 137 移行の季節変化によるものであることが強く示唆された。水深の大きな湖底における汚泥中でのセシウム 137 の深度分布分析もこの推測を支持298

している。
2001 年 8 月に実施した調査によって得られたデータは、供用停止間近である冷却池が、放射能生態学的に安定した段階にあることを示している。冷却池の湖底土に蓄積されている
放射能量は、セシウム 137、ストロンチウム 90、アメリシウム 241 について、それぞれ 4,400、
650、18 Ci と推定されている。供用停止にともなって湖水面が自然レベルまで低下した場
合、セシウム 137 の 70％、ストロンチウム 90 の 50％、アメリシウム 241 の 80％が、水面下にとどまるであろうと評価されている。冷却池に生息するさまざまな魚類、水生植物、貝類の汚染データも紹介する。
＜7. p.86‑96＞

ロシアの汚染地域におけるヨウ素 131 汚染、甲状腺被曝量、甲状腺ガン
Valery F. STEPANENKO, Evgeny M. PARSHKOV, Viktor A. SOKOLOV, Mark Yu. ORLOV,
Alexander I. IVANNIKOV, Valery G. SKVORTSOV, Elena K. IASKOVA,
Timofey V. KOLIZSHENKOV, Irina G. KRYUKOVA, Anatoly F. TSYB
ロシア医学アカデミー・医学放射能研究センター
チェルノブイリ事故により約 1,800PBq のヨウ素 131 が環境中に沈着した。ロシアで最も汚染が大きかったのは、ブリャンスク州、ツーラ州ならびにオリョール州であった。ヨウ素
131 の約 80％は事故後の最初の一週間で沈着した。この放射能の崩壊は早い（半減期約 8日）ので、沈着量の直接的な測定データは限られている。一方、長半減期であるセシウム 137
については広汎な測定が実施されている。その結果、甲状腺被曝量を推定するために、ヨウ素 131 とセシウム 137 の放射能比を用いて、ヨウ素 131 の土壌沈着量を推定した。甲状腺中のヨウ素 131 を直接測定したデータと、土壌中のヨウ素 131 とセシウム 137 測定データを組み合わせて、甲状腺被曝量を評価するための経験式を考案し、1986 年にヨウ素 131 が測定されていない地域について適用した。
甲状腺中ヨウ素 131 の直接測定結果に基づく被曝量評価によると、甲状腺被曝量のメディ
アン値は、カルーガ州（7 地区）については子供で 30mGy、大人で 8mGy であった。ブリャンスク州 5 地区の大人に対するメディアン値は、30mGy から 140mGy であった。セシウ
ム 137 の汚染レベルが 3.7 kBq/m2（0.1 Ci/km2）以上の地域における集団甲状腺被曝量は、
ブリャンスク、オリョール、ツーラ、カルーガの各州について、72,600、16,900、13,400
および 3400 人・Gy であった。
最も汚染されたブリャンスク州で、事故のときに 0 歳から 50 歳であった住民の 1986 年〜2000 年における甲状腺ガン発生率データを紹介する。事故後の最初の５年（1986-1990）
は、年齢グループ別（0-4 歳、5-9 歳…）の甲状腺ガン発生率は安定していた。調査されたすべての年齢グループで 1991 年から甲状腺ガンの着実な増加が始まった。ブリャンスク州の最汚染 4 地区での甲状腺ガン例（事故時 0-18 歳）26 件について、半経験モデルを基に個人線量を評価したところ、甲状腺ガン発生の被曝量への依存性が認められた。
＜8. p.97‑102＞

ウクライナ・ジトーミル州ステパニフカ村の食品放射能汚染：1992 年と 2001 年
Volodymyr TYKHYY
ウクライナ科学アカデミー・サイバネティックス研究所
チェルノブイリ事故よって汚染されたある村で、食品サンプルの放射能汚染測定を 1992
年と 2001 年に実施した。
そのステパニフカ村はチェルノブイリ原発の西方 120km にあり、

299

セシウム 137 による地表汚染はその地域での典型的な値（3〜5 Ci/km2）である。調査を行ったのは、ウクライナの NGO「緑の世界」と国際ルネッサンス基金とによって設立された、
キエフ独立環境ラボである。
調査の結果、2001 年の牛乳中のセシウム 137 濃度は、1992 年に比べ 9 分の 1 となっていたが、野生のキノコやベリーの汚染は同じレベルにとどまっていた。食品と飲料水を通してのステパニフカ村の人々の年間セシウム 137 摂取量は、1992 年に比べ 2001 年は約 3 分の 1に減少していた。一方、セシウム 137 の減少傾向と異なり、牛乳や乾燥ベリー中のストロンチウム 90 濃度は、1992 年に比べ 2001 年は有意に大きかった。
＜9. p.103‑111＞

ベラルーシ食品中のチェルノブイリ事故由来の放射性物質濃度
Vladimir P. MATSKO and Tetsuji IMANAKA*
ベラルーシ科学アカデミー・放射線生物学研究所、*京都大学原子炉実験所
ベラルーシの食品と飲料水について、チェルノブイリ事故由来の放射能汚染に関する最近のデータをレビューした。ストロンチウム 90 とセシウム 137 が人々に内部被曝をもたらす
主要な核種である。公営農業部門（コルホーズ、農業組合）からの農産品の汚染レベルは、
内部被曝量が年間 1mSv 以下になるよう定められた現行の法的基準 RAL-99 を概して下回っている。一方、個人的農業部門における農産品では、RAL-99 を上まわる汚染がしばしば認められ、なかでも、もっとも深刻な汚染をうけたゴメリ州の集落において顕著である。汚染地域における畑以外からの食品、すなわちキノコ、ベリー、魚、野獣の肉については特別な注意が必要である。たとえば、ゴメリ州のある集落では生キノコ１kg 当り約 37,000Bq というセシウム 137 汚染が記録されており、この値は RAL-99 基準値の 100 倍である。飲料水についてはきわめて良好な状況にあり、この 10 年間、RAL-99 を越える値は記録されていない。
＜10. p.112‑122＞

チェルノブイリ周辺における魚の放射能汚染の長期的観察
Igor N. RYABOV
ロシア科学アカデミー・エコロジー進化問題研究所
チェルノブイリ事故によって放射能汚染を受けたさまざまな水系に生息する漁獲対象魚種について、セシウム 137 蓄積量の変動を調査した。最も大きなセシウム 137 濃度は、1986
年にチェルノブイリ原発冷却池の魚に記録された、生重量 1kg 当り 500kBq であった。この15 年間すべての水系において魚の放射能レベルは低下しているが、その低下速度はさまざまである。食物連鎖の階層に依存した、セシウム 137 蓄積の特性が観察されている。事故後数ヶ月間は、キエフ貯水湖の非肉食魚種のセシウム 137 濃度は、カワカマスの 10 倍であった。1987 年以降は、捕食魚種の濃度が非捕食魚種の 2〜3 倍となった。カワカマスやパーチといった魚が高濃度を示している。2001 年までに、魚のセシウム 137 濃度は、冷却池で生重量１kg 当り 5kBq 以下に、テテレフ川で 0.09kBq 以下に、キエフ貯水湖で 0.5kBq 以下となった。一方、チェルノブイリ原発から 100〜200km も離れているものの、ロシア・ブリ
ャンスク州やベラルーシ・モギリョフ州にあって、カリウムイオン濃度が低くよどんだ閉塞性の湖では、高濃度のセシウム 137 が継続している。生殖臓器の異常が捕食性魚種において最も多く観察されている。

300

＜11. p.123‑141＞

チェルノブイリ事故処理作業従事者の EPR による被曝量評価
Vadim CHUMAK
ウクライナ医学アカデミー・放射線医学研究センター
本報告では、歯エナメルの EPR を用いた被曝量評価に関して、ウクライナでの研究開発と応用の現状を紹介する。ここで述べる EPR 被曝量評価の手順は、SCRM（放射線医学科学センター）によって開発され、チェルノブイリ事故処理作業者（リクビダートル）の被曝量を遡って評価するために実際に応用されている。SCRM では、オリジナルな ESR 被曝量
評価手順をあみ出すとともに、見せかけ誤差要因の究明とその排除のために精力的に実験研究を実施した。そうして考案された EPR 被曝量評価手順は、高精度、高感度でかつ再現性をもち、技術的実用性を備えている。SCRM の EPR 被曝量評価手順の高い品質は、一連の国際比較測定を含めた品質保証プログラムによって証明されている。恒常的で全国的なネッ
トワークを確立して歯を収集することが、ウクライナにおいて EPR 被曝量評価を成功させるもうひとつのキーポイントとなっている。
チェルノブイリ被災者への医療支援において、EPR 被曝量評価を応用するための最適な方法について述べる。ウクライナにおける主要な用途は、事故処理作業者の被曝量を高精度で評価することと、EPR によって得られた値を他の被曝量評価方法によって得られた値の基準値として用いることである。後者は、チェルノブイリ事故に対する EPR 被曝量評価手法のもっとも効果的な活用である。EPR 線量評価は、FISH、ADR、SEAD、RADRUE といった遡及的被曝量評価方法の確かさを検証するために使われている。EPR 被曝量評価は
現在、チェルノブイリ被災者の医学的追跡において必須の役割を果たしている。
＜12. p.142‑151＞

ロシアの放射能汚染地域住民の歯エナメル EPR 測定を用いた遡及的被曝量評価
Alexandre I. IVANNIKOV, Valeri G. SKVORTSOV, Valeri F. STEPANENKO
ロシア医学アカデミー・医学放射能研究センター
ロシア・ブリャンスク州の放射能汚染地域住民を対象に、歯エナメルの EPR スペクトル測定を用いて実施した大規模な被曝量評価結果を報告する。対照グループには、隣接するカルーガ州の非汚染地域住民を選んだ。放射能汚染にともなう過剰な放射線被曝量は、自然放射線バックグランドによる歯の年齢分の EPR シグナルへの寄与を差し引いて決定した。汚染地域ごとに住民の平均被曝量を求めた。平均被曝量の誤差は、検査対象人数と個人的な結果のバラツキに応じて、4 から 25mGy であった。平均被曝量は地域によって大きく変動し、最大で 70mGy であった。歯エナメル EPR スペクトルによる平均外部被曝量の値は、直接的な被曝量測定値や他の遡及的被曝量評価値と概して一致した。グループ内の何人かには、
平均被曝量を大きく上回る被曝が認められた。このことは、歯エナメルの EPR 測定を用いて、大きな被曝をうけた住民を見出し、放射線リスクの大きい医学的モニタリング対象グループに含めることが可能であることを示している。
＜13. p.152‑159＞

ベラルーシの汚染地域住民に対する放射線リスクの評価
Vladimir A. KNATKO, Mikail M. KOMOCHKOV*, Alla E. YANUSH
ベラルーシ科学アカデミー・放射線生物学研究所、*ロシア合同核研究所

301

ベラルーシの汚染地域に居住する大人について、チェルノブイリ事故後の異なる期間の集積被曝量を評価した。1986 年から 2001 年の間の平均集積被曝量は、南部汚染地域と東部汚染地域でそれぞれ 50mSv と 39mSv と評価された。得られた被曝量データを用いて、最近の放射線生物学の研究に基づいて考案された２重防護モデル（TDR）によって、汚染地域の大人に対するガン死の相対過剰リスクを求めた。その結果、チェルノブイリ事故によるガン死の相対過剰リスクは生涯で５−６％となった。この値を、国際放射線防護委員会 1990 年
勧告に基づく値と比較してみると、TDR モデルの値の方が約 6 倍大きかった。
＜14. p.160‑167＞

ヨウ素 131 吸入によるベラルーシ汚染地域住民の甲状腺被曝量
Vladimir A. KNATKO and Inga N. DOROZHOKベラルーシ科学アカデミー・放射線生物学研究所
土壌サンプルにおける 131I と 137Cs の関係と、各集落における 137Cs 汚染データとを用いて、ベラルーシの東部汚染地域と南部汚染地域の各集落（1,079 カ所と 316 カ所）での 131Iの沈着密度を推定した。その結果によると、131I 沈着密度の 90％範囲は、東部汚染地域で500〜2,300 kBq/m2、南部汚染地域で 700〜3,500 kBq/m2 であった。131I の沈着密度を用いて、それぞれの地域での放射能沈着の時期と特徴を考慮しながら、131I 吸入にともなう甲状腺被曝量を求めた。吸入にともなう大人の平均甲状腺被曝量は、東部汚染地域で 3 から
80mSv、南部汚染地域で 40 から 370mSv となり、それぞれの中央値は、20mSv と 130mSvとなった。評価手法にともなう甲状腺被曝量の不確かさについても考察した。
＜15. p.168‑187＞

ロシア全国医学被曝登録に基づく疫学研究：チェルノブイリ事故処理作業者に観察されたガン影響と非ガン影響
Marat M. MAKSIOUTOV
ロシア医学アカデミー・医学放射能研究センター、国家放射線疫学登録
1986 年 6 月、ソ連保健省は放射線被曝者全ソ登録という大規模なプログラムを開始した。
オブニンスク市のロシア医学アカデミー・医学放射能研究所（現在のロシア医学アカデミ
ー・医学放射能研究センター）が、登録プログラムの創設と管理を行う中心組織に指定された。国家登録の課題は２つであった。第１に、チェルノブイリ事故にともなう健康影響を評価し、その影響を緩和するための最適な戦略を考案すること、第２に、放射線被曝にともなう実際のリスクを評価するための長期的な疫学研究を組織することであった。2001 年 12 月
現在、ロシア全国医学被曝登録（RNMDR）は、ロシア領内に居住するチェルノブイリ事故
被災者 58 万 5121 人の医療ならびに被曝データをもっている。そのうち、事故処理作業者
は 18 万 7596 人（登録の 32.1％）である。
本論文では、RNMDR に含まれる事故処理作業者集団の医学的および被曝量データを解析した結果を示す。放射線被曝にともなうガン影響と非ガン影響についてとくに留意した。
ICRP によって勧告されている放射線被曝リスクは主として 1945 年の広島・長崎の被爆生存者集団（LSS コホート）の疫学調査に基づいている。統計的に有意な日本の被爆者集団の被曝リスク係数は、0.3Sv 以上の個人被曝量範囲から得られている。低被曝量域（0.2Sv まで）については、外挿に基づいているだけで、疫学的に直接的に確認されたものではない。
したがって、RNMDR は、事故処理作業者集団に対する医学的ならびに被曝の情報を基に、低被曝量のリスクを明らかにできる最初の研究である。

302

本報告は、以下の５つの章で構成される。第１章は、RNMDR の組織と概要を述べ、事故処理作業者集団の特徴を述べる。第２章から第４章では、国家登録の実際のデータに基づいて、放射線リスクを推定するための研究を示す。白血病と固形ガン、ならびに非ガン疾病について、事故処理作業者での発生率に基づく放射線リスクについて議論する。最後の第５章
では、事故処理作業者の死亡率を扱い、放射線被曝との関係を示す。本報告の内容は、国家登録の専門家によってまとめられ、これまでに著名なロシアと国際的科学雑誌に発表された論文に基づいている。
＜16. p.188‑201＞

チェルノブイリ事故によるウクライナ住民への医学的影響研究によって得られた疫学的知見
Anatoly Ye. PRYSYAZHNYUK, Volodymir G. GRISHTSHENKO, Zoya P. FEDORENKO*,
Ludmila O. GULAK*, Mykola M. FUZIKウクライナ医学アカデミー・放射線医学研究センター*ウクライナ医学アカデミー・腫瘍研究所
チェルノブイリ事故による被害をうけた、さまざまなウクライナ人集団の健康状況を明らかにすることは、事故被害低減にあたってもっとも重要な問題のひとつである。健康影響やチェルノブイリ被災者の登録データに基づく多くの科学的研究が、事故処理作業従事者、プ
リリャチ市や 30km 圏からの避難住民、放射能汚染地域住民といった被災者集団の健康悪化を示している。チェルノブイリ事故によるもっとも顕著な確率的影響は、これらのウクライナ人集団での甲状腺ガン増加として現われている。また、女性の乳ガンと、その他のいくつかの固形ガンについても増加が示唆されている。確率的ならびに非確率的影響について今後の長期的な調査が必要である。
＜17. p.202‑230＞

チェルノブイリ事故によって胎内で急性被曝をうけた子供たちの知性と脳障害Angelina I. NYAGU, Konstantin N. LOGANOVSKY, Tatiana K. LOGANOVSKAJA,
Viktor S. REPIN*, Stanislav Yu. NECHAEV*ウクライナ医学アカデミー・放射線医学研究センター、放射能臨床研*ウクライナ医学アカデミー・放射線医学研究センター、放射能障害予防疫学研
本研究の目的は、胎内において急性的な被曝をうけた子供たちの精神的、神経生理的、神経精神的状態を明らかにすることである。チェルノブイリ事故の際に胎内被曝をうけて母親とともにキエフへ移住してきた子供 100 人（1986 年 4 月 26 日から 1987 年 2 月 26 日の間に出生）をランダムに選び、彼らのクラスメート 100 人を対照グループに選んで調査した。調査項目
は、Wechsler 子供知能指数（WISC）、脳電流グラフ（EEG）、ならびに臨床検査である。被曝グループの胎児被曝量は 11-92mSv で、対照グループでは 0-3mSv であった。また甲状腺被曝量はそれぞれ、0.2−2Gy と 0−0.04Gy であった。被曝グループの平均言語的 IQ はコント
ロールグループより低く(105.3±13.1 対 118.1±13; p < .001) 、平均全スケール IQ もコント
ロールより低かった (112.1±15.4 対 120.9±11.5; p < .001)。被曝グループではさらに、次のようなことが観測された。言語能力低下をともなう WISC 実行・言語指数の不一致、低電圧・高周波の EEG パターンと左脳機能低下の頻度増加、δ波とβ波の増加（p<0.001）とθ波とα波の低下（p<0.001）、発作的で器質的な精神障害頻度の増加、身体的自律神経異常、精神303

の発達障害、挙動および情緒障害である。大脳の機能障害は病因的にさまざまであった。本研
究は、0.2〜2Gy の胎内甲状腺被曝ならびに 11〜92mSv の胎児被曝が検出可能な大脳障害をもたらすことを示している。
＜18. p.231‑239＞

チェルノブイリ事故に被災したベラルーシの子供たちの健康状態：事故から１６年
Alexander N. ARYNCHYN, Tatiana V. AVHACHEVA, Nika A. GRES,
Ekaterina I. SLOBOZHANINA*
ベラルーシ保健省・放射線医学内分泌学臨床研究所*ベラルーシ科学アカデミー・光生物学研究所
チェルノブイリ事故により被災したベラルーシの子供たちの健康状態を調査するため、前向きの固定集団調査を実施した。被曝グループは放射能汚染地域にずっと居住している 133
人の子供で、対照グループは自然放射線だけの地域に住んでいる 186 人の子供である。調査
期間中、被曝グループが余分に受けた年間実効線量は 0.13〜2.24mSv であった。両グループのすべての子供は、1990 年〜2001 年の間に少なくとも２回の臨床検査をうけた。鉛、カドミウム、水銀といった重金属の尿中濃度も測定した。臨床検査の結果は、両グループにおいて、自覚症状や臨床的症状が時間とともに増加していることを示している。自律神経系失調症にともなう心臓循環器系疾患と消化器系疾患の増加がもっとも顕著であった。１回目と２回目の両方の臨床検査において、すべての病理症状で、被曝グループでの頻度が対照グループよりも大きかった。被曝グループにおける大きな相対リスクが、低血圧症（１回目と２回目でそれぞれ RR＝2.21 と 3.73）ならびに心臓疾患（RR＝4.66 と 3.33）で認められた。
ベラルーシの子供たちの健康悪化は、環境要因によって増加している病気に対して緊急の予防対策を行う必要性を示している。
＜19. p.240‑255＞

チェルノブイリ事故によるベラルーシでの甲状腺ガン
Mikhail V. MALKO
ベラルーシ科学アカデミー・原子力合同研究所
ベラルーシにおける甲状腺ガンの発生率と死亡率の評価を行った。1987 年から 2000 年の間にベラルーシでは放射線被曝によって約 4400 件の甲状腺ガンが発生し、そのうち 692 件が子供の甲状腺ガンで、3709 件が青年・大人の甲状腺ガンであった。そのうち致死的な甲状腺ガンは約 350 件であった。甲状腺ガン発生率と集団甲状腺被曝量から求めた、甲状腺ガ
ン発生の絶対過剰リスク（EAR）は、１万人・年・Gy 当り 2.5〜5.0 件となった。甲状腺ガ
ン死の EAR は、１万人・年・Gy 当り 0.20〜0.40 件であった。一方、甲状腺ガン発生の相対過剰リスク（ERR）は、１Gy 当り 11.2〜22.4 となった。本報告で明らかとなった甲状腺ガンリスクは、チェルノブイリ事故被災者に比べ数 1000 倍も大きな被曝量率で放射線をうけた原爆被爆生存者を基に得られた値より大きい。顕著な潜伏期間が認められていないことも、チェルノブイリ事故によるベラルーシの甲状腺ガンのもうひとつの特徴である。
＜20. p.256‑267＞

放射線被曝事故によるヒトリンパ球染色体異常の解析
Galina SNIGIRYOVA and Vladimir SHEVCHENKO*
ロシア保健省・レントゲン放射能学科学センター,304

*ロシア科学アカデミー・一般遺伝学研究所
目的：チェルノブイリ事故処理作業従事者（リクビダートル）の細胞遺伝学的検査を行い、染色体異常の頻度に基づいて被曝量を遡及的に評価すること。
材料と方法：主として 1986 年と 1987 年にチェルノブイリ事故ゾーンで作業にあたった 1500
人以上のリクビダートルを対象に 1986 年から検査を行った。すべての対象者を、不安定型
染色体異常を調べる従来の細胞遺伝学的手法を用いて検査した。また、クルチャトフ研の専門家 12 人を含む 64 人については、対称転座を調べることが可能な FISH 法で検査した。
結果：1986 年の検査結果では、リクビダートル集団における２動原体頻度が対照集団に比べ 16 倍も大きかった。その後、その頻度は顕著に減少した。しかしながら、事故から 15年後においても、リクビダートル集団の２動原体染色体異常頻度は対照集団に比べ有意に大きかった。２動原体の頻度と被曝量・効果関係の校正曲線データを用いて、1986 年に検査したリクビダートルの被曝量を推定した。平均被曝量は 0.14Gy であった。転座を調べた 52
人のリクビダートルでの平均被曝量は 0.16Gy であった。対照集団に比べ大きな転座頻度を示した 18 人の個人被曝量推定値は、0.22Gy から 1.0Gy の間であった。
1996 年に、22 人のクルチャトフ研究所の専門家を検査した。大部分（13 人）において、末梢血液中リンパ球の２動原体頻度が対照集団値に比べ有意に増加していた。５人の被検査者では、複数の染色体異常を含む細胞が認められた。３人は、とりわけ大きな被曝を受けており、その２動原体染色体頻度は、対照集団の 100〜1000 倍であった。転座データに基づ
く、５人のクルチャトフ研専門家の被曝量は 0.21〜2.51Gy であった。これらの被曝量推定
値には、さまざまな被曝量率で数年間にわたって被曝を受けたことに対する修正を考慮に入れていない。これらのことを考慮に入れるならば、推定被曝量はもっと大きくなるであろう。

結論：細胞遺伝学的手法は、細胞の遺伝的構造を明らかにするのに十分な感度を備えている。不安定型染色体異常の分析は、原子力事故にともなう多数の放射線被曝者をモニタリングするにあたって不可欠な方法である。細胞遺伝学的検査データは、さまざまな疾病に対するリスク増加集団を決定する上で重要な指標となりうる。FISH 法による安定的転座の分析は、生物学的被曝量評価において、今後もっとも期待される手法のひとつである。転座頻度に基づく被曝量の検出限界値は、20〜25cGy である。
＜21. p.268‑276＞

チェルノブイリ事故処理作業者における染色体異常の追跡調査
Natalia M. SLOZINA and Elizaveta G. NERONOVA
ロシア緊急事態省・全ロ緊急放射線医療センター
1986 年から 1989 年にかけてチェルノブイリ事故処理作業に従事した 359 人を対象に
細胞遺伝学的検査を実施した。検査時期は被曝をうけてから６年から 12 年後にわたっている。事故処理作業従事者において、断片対、２動原体、環状染色体といった染色体型異常の頻度が、対照グループに比べ有意に増加していた。染色分体型交換は、事故処理作業従事者にのみ認められた。1986 年に作業に従事した 243 人を対象に、被曝マー
カーの経年的変化を調べた。２動原体頻度の経年変化は、被曝後８年から 12 年にかけて増加を示すという、説明しがたい傾向を示した。さまざまなタイプの染色体異常頻度と、喫煙、コーヒー、アルコール消費量などといった生活習慣要因との相関性を、ステップ型多重因子回帰法で解析した。統計的に有意な相関性は、喫煙と染色分体型異常にのみ認められ、事故処理作業従事者のうち、喫煙者サブグループでの頻度が非喫煙サブ
305

グループより大きかった。被曝からかなり後の時期においても不安定型染色体異常の頻度が増加していることは、被曝の直接的作用に加えて、別の遺伝学的負荷の存在を想定させるものである。
＜22. p.277‑286＞

チェルノブイリ原発 30km 圏無人ゾーン居住者の血液リンパ球染色体異常
Larysa BEZDROBNA, Tetyana TSYGANOK, Olena ROMANOVA, Larysa TARASENKO,
Volodymyr TRYSHYN, Ludmila KLIMKINAウクライナ科学アカデミー・核研究所
1998 年から 1999 年にかけて、チェルノブイリ原発 30km 圏無人ゾーンの自発的居住者
33 人と、キエフ州ヤホティン地区の住民 31 人を対象に、細胞遺伝学的比較調査を実施した。
それぞれの居住区域におけるセシウム 137、ストロンチウム 90、プルトニウム 238,239+240の地面汚染密度は、前者においてそれぞれ 74–477 kBq/m2 、33–288 kBq/m2 、1.5–10.0
kBq/m2 で、後者においてそれぞれ 1.9–5.8 kBq/m2、0.6–2.8 kBq/m2、0.01–0.05 kBq/m2であった。無人ゾーンの放射線状況に関するさまざまなデータに基づいて、事故後の居住期
間全体にわたる自発的居住者の全身実効線量は 30−333mSv と評価された。無人ゾーン自発的居住者の染色体異常細胞頻度と染色体異常頻度の平均値は、ヤホティン地区住民にくらべ有意に大きかった。同時に、ヤホティン地区住民の値は、文献に示されている自然発生レ
ベルよりも大きかった。染色体異常の個人的バラツキは、無人ゾーン居住者の方がヤホティン地区住民に比べ有意に大きかった。両グループは、細胞当り染色体異常数の分布においても異なっていた。無人ゾーン居住者 20 人について 2001 年に再検査を実施したところ、染色体型染色体異常の有意な減少が認められたが、それは主として染色体断片頻度の減少によるものであった。しかしながら、染色体異常全体の頻度は 1998-99 年と 2001 年では変化は認められなかった。
＜23. p.287‑296＞

事故後の数年においてチェルノブイリ地域で観察された農作物に対する放射線の細胞遺伝学的影響
Stanislav A. GERASKIN, Vladimir G. DIKAREV, Yevgenia Ya. ZYABLITSKAYA,
Alla A. OUDALOVA, Yevgeniy V. SPIRIN
ロシア農学アカデミー・農業放射能学農業生態学センター
1986 年のチェルノブイリ原発事故にともなう放射能汚染の農作物への細胞遺伝学的影響を調査した。外部からのβ線とγ線が中心であった事故後の急性期（1986 年）には、細胞遺伝学の基礎実験が示すのと同様な、急性γ線照射にともなう効果が認められた。（被曝線量が低く慢性的となった）1987 年〜1989 年には、チェルノブイリ原発周辺 10km の植物の葉の分裂組織での細胞遺伝学的異常が、汚染レベルに依存して増加した。細胞遺伝学的損傷の減少は、放射線被曝の減少よりかなり遅れて現われた。３世代にわたるライ麦と小麦を観察して遺伝的な影響を調べたところ、第２世代と第３世代において慢性的放射線照射に対する細胞遺伝学的損傷の感受性が増加した。

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