東北地域災害科学研究39

第56巻（2020）

ேᕤ⾨ᫍ࡜ᩘ್ᆅᅗ᝟ሗࢆ⏝࠸ࡓࣃࢼ࣐㐠ἙὶᇦࡢỈ཰ᨭゎᯒ᪥ᮏ኱ᏛᕤᏛ㒊ᅵᮌᕤᏛ⛉ ⚄ᡞᬛᚿ
᪥ᮏ኱ᏛᕤᏛ㒊ᅵᮌᕤᏛ⛉ ᮅᒸⰋᾈ
7HFKQRORJLFDO8QLYHUVLW\RI3DQDPD /XFDV&DOYRࡣࡌࡵ࡟ ࣃࢼ࣐㐠Ἑ㸦ᅗ1㸧ࡣ1914ᖺ࡟ᘓタࡉࢀࡓኴᖹὒ࡜኱すὒࢆ⤖ࡪ࢖ࣥࣇ࡛ࣛ࠶ࡿࠋࣃࢼ࣐ඹ࿴ᅜࡢ⤒῭཰┈ࡢ኱㒊ศࢆ༨ࡵࡿࡔࡅ࡛࡞ࡃ㸪ୡ⏺ࡢ㈠᫆࡟
࠾࠸࡚ࡶ㔜せࢆᢸ࠺ࠋ㐠Ἑࡢ⯟㊰ࡣ80km㸪᭱㧗Ⅼࡣᾏᢤ26m࡜࠸࠺ᆅᙧ᮲௳ࡼࡾ㸪Ỉ㊰ࡢỈ఩ࢆẁ㝵ᘧ࡟ኚ໬ࡉࡏࡿ㛮㛛ᘧ㐠Ἑࡀ㐺⏝ࡉࢀࡓࠋ㐠Ἑࡢ⏝Ỉࡣ࢞ࢺࢗࣥ†࠿ࡽ౪⤥ࡉࢀ㸪ࡲࡓ࢞ࢺࢗࣥ†ࡣࣃࢼ࣐ᕷ࡬ࡢ⏕ά⏝Ỉ㸪℺₅⏝Ỉ㸪ỈຊⓎ㟁࡟ࡶ฼⏝ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ㏆ᖺ㸪࢞ࢺࢗࣥ†࡟࠾࠸࡚ῬỈ࣭ὥỈࡀ
Ⓨ⏕ࡋࡓࠋ㏻ᖖ㸪஝Ꮨࡣ1᭶࠿ࡽ4᭶ࡢ4ࣨ᭶࡟ࢃࡓࡿࡀ㸪2019ᖺࡣ5ࣨ᭶࡟ࢃࡓࡗ࡚㝆㞵ࡀ࡯ࡰほ ࡉࢀ
ᅗ 1 䝟䝘䝬㐠Ἑὶᇦࡎ㸪1914ᖺࡢ㐠Ἑ㛤㏻௨᮶㸪஝ᮇࡢ㝆㞵ࡀ᭱ᑠࢆグ㘓ࡋࡓࠋ㐠Ἑࡢ฼⏝ไ㝈࡟క࠸㏻⾜ᩱ࡟ࡼࡿ཰ධࡀᩘⓒ୓ࢻࣝῶᑡࡋࡓࠋ୍᪉࡛㸪2010ᖺ12᭶࡟ࡣ1972ᖺ௨㝆࡟グ㘓ࡉࢀࡓ24᫬㛫㞵㔞ࡢ᭱኱್ࡢ2ಸ࡟┦ᙜࡍࡿ㞵㔞ࡀグ㘓ࡉࢀ㸪ᴟ್ゎᯒ࡟ࡼࡿ෌⌧ᮇ㛫㸦ࣜࢱ࣮ࣥࣆࣜ࢜ࢻ㸧ࡣ2000ᖺ௨ୖ࡜ሗ࿌ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿ1), 2)ࠋ
ࣃࢼ࣐㐠Ἑὶᇦ࡛ࡣ1990ᖺ௨㝆ࡢ↝⏿㎰ᴗࡢᣑ኱࡟క࠸᳃ᯘ㠃✚ࡀῶᑡࡋࡓࡀ㸪2000ᖺ௨㝆࡟ᨻᗓ࡟ࡼࡿ᳃ᯘಖㆤᨻ⟇ࡀ࡜ࡽࢀ㸪᳜ᯘᆅࡀቑຍഴྥ࡟࠶ࡿࠋࡑࡢࡓࡵ㸪ᅵᆅ฼⏝ࡢኚ໬࡟క࠺Ỉᩥ㐣⛬ࡢ㑄⛣࡟╔┠ࡋࡓ◊✲ࡀᐇ᪋ࡉࢀ࡚ࡁࡓࠋJustin et al. (2012) ࡣὶᇦෆࡢ⇕ᖏ㞵ᯘᖏ࡟࠾࠸࡚Ỉᩥほ ࢆᐇ᪋ࡋ㸪ᑠὶᇦࡢ㝆㞵㸪ᯘෆ㞵㸪ᶞᖿὶ㸪⵨Ⓨᩓ㸪Ἑᕝὶ㸪Ỉ཰ᨭࢆホ౯ࡋࡓࠋOgden et al. (2013) ࡣ㸪஧ḟᯘ㸪∾ⲡᆅ㸪㎰ᴗᆅᖏ࡜࠸ࡗࡓ
ᅵᆅ฼⏝ࡀ␗࡞ࡿ3✀㢮ࡢ㞟Ỉᇦࡢὶฟ≉ᛶࢆẚ㍑ࡋ࡚㸪஧ḟᯘࡢ㞟Ỉᇦࡣ௚ࡢᅵᆅ฼⏝ࡀᨭ㓄ⓗ࡞㞟ỈᇦࡼࡾࡶὥỈ᫬ࡢࣆ࣮ࢡὶ㔞ࢆῶᑡࡋ㸪஝Ꮨࡢᇶᗏὶ㔞ࡀ㇏ᐩ࡟࡞ࡿࡇ࡜ࢆ♧ࡋࡓࠋPark and Cameron (2008) ࡣ㐠Ἑὶᇦෆࡢ᳜ᯘᆅ࡟᳜᱂ࡉࢀࡓ4✀㢮ࡢᅾ᮶ᶞ✀࡜1✀㢮ࡢእ᮶ᶞ✀ࡢᶞᖿ㐽᩿㸪ᯘෆ㞵㸪ᶞᖿὶ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ẚ㍑ࡋ㸪㞵⁲࡟ࡼࡿᅵተᾐ㣗ࢆ⦆࿴ࡍࡿྍ⬟ᛶࢆᣦ᦬ࡋࡓࠋẼೃኚື࡟㛵ࡍࡿᨻᗓ㛫ࣃࢿࣝࡢሗ࿌᭩6)ࡣ㸪Ẽೃኚືࡢ㢧ᅾ໬࡟క࠸ῬỈ࣭ὥỈ㢖ᗘࡀ㧗ࡃ࡞ࡿᆅᇦࡀࡇ࡜ࢆᣦ᦬ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࣃࢼ࣐㐠Ἑ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡶẼೃኚືࡢ㐺ᛂ⟇ࢆ᳨ウࡍࡿࡓࡵ࡟㸪௒ᚋࡢẼೃኚືࢆ⪃៖ࡋࡓῬỈ࣭ὥỈ㢖ᗘࡢ᥎ィࡀᚲせ࡜ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡇࡢⅬ࡟ຍ࠼࡚㸪㐠Ἑࡢὶᇦ࡛ࡣୖ㏙ࡢᅵᆅ฼⏝ኚ໬࡟㛵ࡍࡿỈᩥ㐣⛬ࡢ㑄⛣㸪ὶᇦ࠿ࡽࡢᅵ◁⏕⏘࡟ࡼࡿ㈓Ỉụෆࡢሁ◁࡟క࠺᭷ຠ㈓Ỉ㔞ࡢపୗ࡜࠸ࡗࡓၥ㢟ࢆᢪ࠼࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡇࢀࡽࡢၥ㢟࡟ᑐࡋ࡚ໟᣓⓗ࡟ᑐᛂࡍࡿࡓࡵ࡟ࡶ㸪ὶᇦෆࡢἙᕝὶ㔞ࢆ᥎ᐃࡍࡿὶฟࣔࢹࣝࡢ㛤Ⓨࡀᚲせ࡜ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋᮏ:DWHU EDODQFH DQDO\VLV LQ WKH 3DQDPD &DQDO FDWFKPHQW ZLWK VDWHOOLWH UHPRWH VHQVLQJ DQGJHRJUDSKLFLQIRUPDWLRQGDWHE\6DWRVKL*RGR<RVKLKLUR$VDRNDDQG/XFDV&DOYR㻌40

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ࣃࢼ࣐㐠Ἑὶᇦ(ᅗ1)ࡢὶᇦ㠃✚ࡣ3319km2࡛࠶ࡿࠋὶᇦෆࡢ࢞ࢺࢗࣥ†ࡣ」ᩘࡢἙᕝࢆሖࡁṆࡵ࡚ᘓタࡉࢀࡓே㐀ࢲ࣒†࡛࠶ࡿࠋ㈓Ỉụࡢ㠃✚ࡣ425km2㸪Rio Chagres㸪Rio Gatun㸪Rio Cir Grande㸪Quebrade Lobracitaࡀ࢞ࢺࢗࣥ†࡟ὶධࡍࡿࠋ࢞ࢺࢗࣥ†ࡢୖὶ࡟ࡣ࢔ࣛࣇ࢚ࣛ†ࡀ࠶ࡾ㸪㈓Ỉụࡢ㠃✚ࡣ50.2km2࡛࠶ࡿࠋ࢔ࣛࣛࣇ࢚ࣛ†ࡶே㐀ࢲ࣒†࡛࠶ࡾ㸪ࣃࢼ࣐㐠Ἑࡢ⏝Ỉ࡟฼⏝ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋMODIS⾨ᫍࡢᅵᆅ฼⏝ࣉࣟࢲࢡࢺMCD12Q1㸦✵㛫ศゎࡢ500m㸧࡟ࡼࡿ࡜㸪2001ᖺ࠿ࡽ2010ᖺࡢ10ᖺ㛫ࡢᅵᆅ฼⏝㸦ᅗ2㸧ࡢኚ໬ࡣ㝈ᐃⓗ࡛㸪ᐦᯘ࡜␯ᯘࡀὶᇦ㠃✚ࡢ⣙88%ࢆ༨ࡵࡿࠋ㸬◊✲ᡭἲཬࡧࢹ࣮ࢱࢭࢵࢺ  ◊✲ᡭἲ ࣃࢼ࣐㐠Ἑὶᇦࡢὶฟ⋡ࢆ  ᘧࢆ⏝࠸࡚⟬ฟࡋࡓࠋὶฟ⋡ ሺΨሻ 㸻ὶฟ㔞㝆㞵㔞ൈ ὶᇦ㠃✚ൈ ͳͲͲሺͳሻ  ࢹ࣮ࢱࢭࢵࢺ ᑐ㇟ᆅᇦࡢὶᇦ⏺࡜Ἑᕝࢹ࣮ࢱࢆHydroSHEDS࠿ࡽᢳฟࡋࡓࠋHydroSHEDSࡣୡ⏺⮬↛ಖㆤᇶ㔠(WorldWide Fund for Nature, WWF)ࡀබ㛤ࡍࡿ඲⌫つᶍࡢỈᩥᆅᙧࢹ࣮ࢱ࡛࠶ࡿࠋὶᇦ⏺ࣉࣟࢲࢡࢺ
㸦ca_bas_15s_beta_ud㸧࡜Ἑᕝࣉࣟࢲࢡࢺ㸦ca_riv_15s㸧ࡣࣛࢫࢱ࣮ᙧᘧ࡛ᩚഛࡉࢀ㸪✵㛫ศゎ⬟ࡣ15⛊࡛࠶ࡿࠋ㝆㞵㔞ࡣJST-CRESTࡸJAXA㝆Ỉほ ࢧ࢖࢚ࣥࢫࢳ࣮࣒࡟ࡼࡗ࡚㛤Ⓨࡉࢀ㸪JAXA/EORC࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ᥦ౪ࡉࢀࡓ⾨ᫍ඲⌫㝆Ỉ࣐ࢵࣉ(Global Satellite Mapping of Precipitation, GSMaP) 8)ࡢᶆ‽∧ࣉࣟࢲࢡࢺ㸦GsMAP MVK㸧ࢆ౑⏝ࡋࡓࠋGSMaPࡣ᫬㛫ศゎ⬟1᫬㛫㸪✵㛫ศゎ⬟0.1ᗘ࡛࠶ࡿࠋࡲࡓ㸪GSMaPࡢࢹ࣮ࢱࢆ⿵ṇࡍࡿࡓࡵࣃࢼ࣐
ඹ࿴ᅜࡢ㟁ຊ఍♫ETESA㸦Empresa de Transmisión Eléctrica㸧ࡀබ㛤ࡍࡿTocumenほ Ⅼ㸦ᅗ1㸧ࡢᆅୖほ㞵㔞ࢆ཰㞟ࡋࡓࠋ2011ᖺ࡟࠾ࡅࡿTocumenほ Ⅼࡢᖺ㛫㞵㔞2166mm࡜GSMaPࡢTocumenほ Ⅼࢆྵࡴࢢࣜࢵ

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ᅗ 4㻌 ᖺ༢఩䛾㝆㞵㔞䛸ὶฟ㔞

䠄Toccumen ᆅⅬ䠈2011 ᖺ䠅ࢻࡢᖺ㛫㞵㔞1726mmࡢẚ㍑(ᅗ3)࠿ࡽ⿵ṇ್1.26ࢆᚓࡓࠋࡲࡓTocumenほ Ⅼࢆྵࡴࢢࣜࢵࢻࡢ⿵ṇ್ࢆ
GsMAPࡢ඲ࢢࣜࢵࢻ࡟㐺⏝ࡋࡓࠋὶฟ㔞ࢹ࣮ࢱࡣLucas (2018)ࡢゎᯒࢹ࣮ࢱࢆ౑⏝ࡋࡓࠋ⤖ᯝཬࡧ⪃ᐹ ࣃࢼ࣐㐠Ἑὶᇦ࡟࠾ࡅࡿ2001ᖺ࠿ࡽ2010ᖺࡢᖺ༢఩ࡢ㝆㞵㔞࡜ὶฟ㔞ࢆᅗ4㸪㞵㔞ศᕸᅗࢆᅗ5࡟♧ࡍࠋὶᇦᖹ
ᆒࡢᖺ㛫㞵㔞ࡣ2116 mm/year㸦ᶆ‽೫ᕪ㸸435 mm/year㸧㸪᭱ᑠࡣ2003ᖺࡢ1388mm/year㸪᭱኱ࡣ2010ᖺࡢ
3092mm/year࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋ2010ᖺࡣ11᭶࡜12᭶ࡢ㝆Ỉ㔞ࡀከࡃ㸪11᭶564mm/month㸪12᭶442mm/month ࡛ᖺ㝆㞵㔞ࡢ⣙32%ࢆ༨ࡵࡓࠋࡲࡓᖺ㝆㞵㔞ࡢศᕸ࡟㛵ࡋ࡚ࡣ㸪ὶᇦ୰ኸ㒊ࡢ࢞ࢺࢗࣥ†௜㏆ࡢ㝆㞵㔞ࡀከ࠸ഴྥ࡟
࠶ࡿࠋᖺὶฟ㔞ࡢᖹᆒࡣ5.56×109 m3/year㸦ᶆ‽೫ᕪ㸸1.08×109m3/year㸧㸪᭱ᑠࡀ2001ᖺࡢ4.2×109m3/year㸪᭱኱ࡣ2010ᖺࡢ8.20×109m3/year࠶ࡗࡓࠋ11᭶࡜12᭶ࡢከ㞵࡟ࡼࡾ㸪ࡇࡢ㸰࠿᭶ࡢὶฟ㔞ࡣ11᭶1.26×109m3/month㸪
12᭶3.29×109m3/month࡛㸪ᖺ㛫ὶฟ㔞ࡢ⣙55%ࢆ༨ࡵࡓࠋ
2001ᖺ࠿ࡽ2010ᖺࡲ࡛ࡢ10ᖺ㛫ࡢ᭶༢఩ࡢ㝆㞵㔞࡜ὶฟ㔞ࢆᅗ6࡟♧ࡍࠋ1᭶࠿ࡽ3᭶ࡣ㝆Ỉ㔞ࡀ20mm/month௨ୗ࡜࡞ࡾ㸪஝Ꮨ࡟ヱᙜࡍࡿࠋ4᭶௨㝆࡟㞵Ꮨࡀጞࡲࡾ㸪12᭶ࡲ࡛⥆ࡃࠋ᭱኱ࡣ11᭶ࡢ᭶㝆㞵㔞318mm/month࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋྛ᭶ࡢᶆ‽೫ᕪࡶ஝Ꮨࡣᑠࡉࡃ20mm/monthᮍ‶㸪㞵Ꮨࡣ11᭶࡟ᶆ‽೫ᕪ152mm/month࡜࡞ࡿࠋ௨ୖ
ࡼࡾ㸪㞵Ꮨࡣᖺࡈ࡜ࡢ㝆Ỉ㔞ࡢኚືࡀ኱ࡁ࠸࡜⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋὶฟ㔞ࡶ1᭶࠿ࡽ4᭶ࡣపỈ≧ែࡀ⥆ࡁ㸪ᴫࡡ
2.00×108m3/month௨ୗ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ5᭶௨㝆ࡣὶฟ㔞ࡀᚎࠎ࡟ቑຍࡍࡿࠋ᭶ὶฟ㔞ࡢ᭱኱ࡣ11᭶ࡢ1.14×109m3/month࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋࡲࡓ㸪12᭶ࡢὶฟ㔞ࡢᶆ‽೫ᕪࡀ᭱ࡶ㧗ࡃ㸪8.57×108m3/s࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋ௨ୖࡼࡾ㸪᭶㝆㞵㔞࡜᭶ὶฟ㔞ࡢഴྥࡣᴫࡡ୍⮴ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࢆ☜ㄆࡋࡓࠋᖺ༢఩ࡢὶฟ⋡ࢆᅗ7㸪᭶༢఩ࡢᖹᆒὶฟ⋡ࢆᅗ8࡟♧ࡍࠋᖺ㛫ࡢὶฟ⋡ࡣᖹᆒ77%㸪ᶆ‽೫ᕪࡣ18%࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋ
᭱኱ࡣ2003ᖺࡢ124%㸪᭱ᑠࡣ2008ᖺࡢ62%࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋୖ㏙ࡢ࡜࠾ࡾ2003ᖺࡢᖺ㛫㝆Ỉ㔞ࡣᑐ㇟ᮇ㛫ࡢ10ᖺ㛫࡛᭱ࡶᑡ࡞࠸ࠋࡇࡢࡇ࡜࠿ࡽ㸪ᆅୗỈὶฟࡢࡼ࠺࡞㐜࠸ὶฟᡂศࡢᐤ୚⋡ࡀ㧗ࡃ࡞ࡾ㸪㏫࡟㝆㞵࡟ᑐࡍࡿᛂ⟅ࡀ᪩࠸⾲㠃ὶࡢࡼ࠺࡞ὶฟᡂศࡢᐤ୚ࡀపࡃ㸪ࡇࢀࡽࡢせᅉ࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ὶฟ⋡ࡀ㧗ࡃ࡞ࡗࡓ࡜⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋ᭶༢఩ࡢὶฟ⋡࡟㛵ࡋ࡚ࡣ12᭶࠿ࡽ3᭶ࡢ᭶༢఩ࡢὶฟ⋡ࡣ100%ࢆ㉺࠼㸪12᭶㸪1᭶㸪2᭶㸪3᭶ࡢὶฟ⋡ࡣࡑࢀࡒࢀ183%㸪
425%㸪136%㸪105%࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋ୍᪉࡛4᭶ࡢὶฟ⋡ࡣ37%࡜᭱ࡶప࠸ࠋ஝Ꮨ࡟ヱᙜࡍࡿ1᭶࠿ࡽ3᭶ࡢపỈᮇ㛫ࡣᆅୗỈὶฟࡢᐤ୚⋡ࡀ㧗ࡃ㸪ὶฟ⋡ࡀ100%ࢆ㉸࠼ࡿせᅉ࡜⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋ
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ᅗ 5 ࣃࢼ࣐㐠Ἑὶᇦࡢᖺ㝆Ỉ㔞ศᕸࡲ࡜ࡵ ᮏ◊✲ࡣỈᩥᆅᙧ࡟㛵ࡍࡿᩘ್ᆅᅗ᝟ሗHydroSHEDS࠾ࡼࡧ⾨ᫍ㞵㔞ࢹ࣮ࢱGsMAPࢆ⏝࠸࡚㸪ࣃࢼ࣐㐠Ἑὶᇦ࡟࠾ࡅࡿὶฟ⋡ࢆ⟬ฟࡋ࡚㸪ὶฟ≉ᛶࢆ⪃ᐹࡋࡓࠋ᭶༢఩ࡢὶฟ⋡ࡣ஝Ꮨ࡟100%ࢆ㉸࠼ࡿࡀ㸪ᖺ༢఩ࡢὶฟ⋡ࡣ77%࡟࡞ࡿࠋ஝Ꮨࡢὶฟ⋡ࡀ㧗࠸せᅉ࡜ࡋ࡚㸪ᆅୗỈὶฟࡢࡼ࠺࡞㝆㞵࡟ᑐࡋ࡚཯ᛂࡀ㐜࠸ὶฟᡂศࡢᐤ୚ࡀ㧗࠸ࡇ࡜ࡀ♧၀ࡉࢀࡓࠋࡇࢀࡽࡢⅬࢆ㋃ࡲ࠼࡚㸪௒ᚋࡣࣃࢼ࣐㐠Ἑࡢὶฟ≉ᛶ࡟༶ࡋࡓὶฟࣔࢹࣝࢆᵓ⠏ࡋ࡚㸪ࣔࢹࣝࡢ᳨ドࢆ㐍ࡵࡿࠋ㻌43߳ӏྖླྀड़ྖླྀड़ྖ;ŵϯͬŵŽŶƚŚͿϭϬϬϮ͘нϬϵϮϬϬϯϬϬϭ͘нϬϵϰϬϬϱ͘нϬϴϱϬϬϬ͘нϬϬ߳ӏྖ;ŵŵͬŵŽŶƚŚͿϬϮ͘нϬϵϲϬϬϭ Ϯ ϯ ϰ ϱ ϲ ϳ ϴ ϵ ϭϬ ϭϭ ϭϮᅗ 6 ᭶༢఩䛾㝆㞵㔞䛚䜘䜃ὶฟ㔞

ᅗ 7 ᭶༢఩ࡢὶฟ⋡䠄2000 ᖺ䛛䜙 2010 ᖺ䛾ᖹᆒ್䠅

㸦2000 ᖺ࠿ࡽ 2010 ᖺࡢᖹᆒ್㸧ㅰ㎡ᮏ◊✲ࡢ୍㒊ࡣ᪥ᮏ኱ᏛᕤᏛ㒊 ᖹᡂᖺᗘᕤᏛ㛗ᣦᐃ◊✲㸦≉ู◊✲㸧ࡢຓᡂࢆཷࡅࡓࠋࡇࡇ࡟グࡋ࡚ㅰពࢆ⾲ࡍࡿࠋཧ⪃ᩥ⊩1) Murphy Jr. M.J., Georgakakos K.P. and ShamirE. (2014): Climatological analysis of December
rainfallinthePanamaCanalWatershed,

International Journal of Climatology, 34, 403-415.

ᅗ 8 ὶฟ⋡2) Shamir, E., Georgakakos, K. P. and Murphy, M.J. (2013): Frequency analysis of the 7-8 December 2010
extreme precipitation in the Panama Canal Watershed, Journal of Hydrology, 480, 136-148.
3) Justin M.N. and Ogden F.L. (2012): First-order catchment mass balance during the wet season in thePanama Canal Watershed, Journal of Hydrology, 462-463,77-86.
4) Ogden F.L., Crouch T.D., Stallard R.F., Hall J.S. (2013): Effect of land cover and use on dry season river
runoff, runoff efficiency, and peak storm runoff in the seasonal tropics of Central Panama. Water Resources
Research, 49, 8443-8462.
5) Park A. and Cameron J. L. (2008): The influence of canopy traits on throughfall and streamflow in fivetropical trees growing in a Panamania Plantation, Forest Ecology and Management, 255, 1915-1925.
6) IPCC㸦2014㸧: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability: Part A: Global and Sectoral
Aspects, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
7) Lehner, B., Verdin, K., and Jarvis, A. (2006): HydroSHEDS technical documentation, version 1.0. World
Wildlife Fund US, Washington, DC, 1-27.
8) Okamoto, K., Iguchi, T., Takahashi, N., Iwatani, K. and Ushio, T. (2005): The Global Satellite Mapping ofPrecipitation (GSMap) project, 25th IGRASS Proceedings, pp. 3414-3416.

44㻌9) Lucas Calvo (2018): Application of HEC-ResSim® in the study of new water sources in the Panama Canal,Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research, Vol.6, pp.236-250.

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