〈Original Article〉International Origins of Walking〈 Original Article〉 International Origins of Walking
School Buses and Child Fatalities in Japan and Canada
School Buses and Child Fatalities in Japan and Canada
by Owen WAYGOOD, Ayako TANIGUCHI, Catherine CRAIGby Owen WAYGOOD, Ayako TANIGUCHI, Catherine
ST-LOUIS and Xin XU
CRAIG-ST-LOUIS and Xin XU

交通科学Vol.46,
No. 2No.?30～42（2015）
交通科学 Vol. ??,??～??（20??）

〈論
〈論 文〉
文〉

International
School Buses
BusesandandChild
Child
InternationalOrigins
Origins ofof Walking
Walking School
Fatalities
in JapanJapan andand Canada
CanadaFatalities in
要

E.O.D.
Waygood ＊A. Taniguchi ＊＊E.O.D.
Waygood*
A.，Taniguchi**＊＊＊
C. Craig-St-Louis X.
， X. XU ＊＊＊＊
C. Craig-St-Louis***XU****

旨

日本の小学校における集団登下校は，少なくとも半世紀以上前には存在していた．この集団登下校はアングロサクソンの国々では Walking School Bus(WSB：歩く通学バス)と呼ばれ，1990 年代に始まった新
しいコンセプトである．アングロサクソンの国々では，WSB は増加しつつある自動車通学を抑制できる
安全な手法であると見なされている．近年，日本では「集団登下校が通学時の安全性向上に資するのか」に関して議論されている．本研究では，カナダと日本における集団登下校(WSB)のシステムを比較するとともに，単独で通学するカナダと WSB が慣習として根付いている日本の交通事故データを比較する．
Abstract
The concept of a Walking School Bus (WSB) has existed in Japan for over half a century, but is a relatively new
concept in Anglo-Saxon countries, tracing its origins to the early 1990s. In Anglo-Saxon countries the WSB is seen
as a safe means of addressing the negative impacts of increased school trips by car. Recently in Japan, a discussion
as to the value and appropriateness of the shuudantōgekō (the Japanese WSB) has emerged as some suggest that it
could reduce safety. This paper introduces and compares the two WSB systems, and then uses traffic fatality datafrom Canada and Japan to compare travel-to-school in an open choice system with a country where WSB iscommon practice.
キーワード：
Keywords: walking school bus, shuudantōgekō, traffic fatalities, children, Canada, Japanand the Anglo-Saxon context is the safety of such systems.
In this paper, the two systems will be first introduced, and1．Introduction
Japan and Anglo-Saxon countries face different problems
with respect to travel to elementary (or primary or grammar)

then an examination of fatality data from Canada and Japan isconducted.

schools (in Japan, shōgakkō). In the Anglo-Saxon countries,
the problem relates primarily to an increasing use of private

2. Backgroundvehicles as this has been associated with a decrease in

In response to the growing dependence of children on car

physical activity, increased danger for children, and increased

travel in Anglo-Saxon countries, considerable research hascongestion (e.g. Gilbert and O’Brien, 2005). In Japan, thislooked at what explains active travel to elementary schools

problem was addressed many decades ago with the(e.g. Sirard and Slater, 2008). Recently, the exceptional caseintroduction of children walking together to school, calledof the independence of Japanese children has been highlighted

shuudantōgekō, which is known as a walking school bus inin research (Susilo and Waygood, 2012; Waygood, 2009a, b;

English literature. A common question in both the JapaneseWaygood and Kitamura, 2009; Waygood and Susilo, 2011)―――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――*Assistant Professor, Graduate School of Land Management
and Regional Planning, Laval University, Canada**Associate Professor, Department of Risk Engineering,
University of Tsukuba, Japan***MA, Graduate School of Land Management and Regional
Planning, Laval University, Canada**** Xin Xu, Student, Department of Risk Engineering,
University of Tsukuba, Japanand in the media (Rogers, 2015). A key component of the highrates of walking in Japan for young children is linked to thewalking school bus system, known as shuudantōgekō (集団登下校), or often just shuudantōkō (集団登校) which refers tojust the trip to school and not the return.
Walking school buses (WSBs) are used around the world
to promote healthy and safe travel to school. The origin of the─ 30 ─

- 1 -交通科学 Vol. 46 No. 2 （2015）

WSB is often attributed to the Australian transport activist

grown up using the WSB system, there is a very low injury

David Engwicht (e.g. Neuwelt and Kearns, 2006) in 1992. As

rate, though the percentage relative to transport was not givenof 2009, WSBs could be found in the USA, Canada, Greatfor individual countries. Overall, transport accounted for 41%

Britain, Australia, New Zealand and Denmark (Heelan et al.,of deaths by injury (ibid).

2009). The lack of Japan’s system in such documents perhaps

One problem that is avoided through the WSB that exists

shows a Western bias, or simply that the Japanese system isfor travel alone is the incidence of criminal activity (though at

not well documented in English, although it has been briefly

rates much lower than fatalities in and by cars). Between 2004

described (e.g. Schoppa, 2009; Susilo and Waygood, 2012),

and 2005 there were four cases in Japan where a 1st grade girlbut has not been well detailed.

was abducted and killed. This prompted the Ministry of

In Japan the practice dates back to at least 1962 when the

Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology toformer Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andre-emphasize the importance of the WSB in preventing such

Technology directed that the system be applied across thecrime. As will be discussed below, in one system of thecountry (MEXT, 2009a). Evidence exists of a WSB in 1963 inwalking school bus, children independently walk to theJapan when a documentary highlighted its success atmeeting point, and thus are alone for some portion of their

1. In 1968, a notice wasmorning trip, which some people point out as a potential risk.

made by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science

The proposal that the walking school bus may not be safe

and Technology relating to application of the shuudantōkō

is hard to study in a country where it is still the common(MEXT, 2009b). Thus, it would appear that the practice of apractice. In this paper we will first introduce the WSB

walking school bus has existed for many more decades inpractice in Japan and in Anglo-Saxon countries then present

Japan than in Anglo-Saxon countries.

crash statistics related from each country.

Kemigawa elementary school in Chiba

Recently in Japan some people have begun to question
whether the WSB is safe and its application is on the decline.

3. Anglo-Saxon context

The system was developed in order to address the problem ofIn this research Anglo-Saxon countries are: Australia, Canada,traffic danger towards children, but if there is an accident,

New Zealand, the United Kingdom (UK), and the United

more children are involved. This was evident in the six

States of America (USA). In its simplest definition from

accidents that happened over 2011 to 2013 where twelve

Anglo-Saxon literature, a Walking School Bus (WSB) is apeople died. Some suggest that a long line creates more“group of children who walk to and from school with one or

danger as there is a larger target, but children walking alone

more adults” (Kong et al., 2009). This system (adult lead) canwould create multiple targets without the same visibility that

also be found in South Korea since 2010, which may be

the larger group gives. However, one study in Tokyo foundrelated to the establishment of Safe Kids Korea with thethat children in the WSB were 1.6 times more likely to be in a

assistance of U.S. Safe Kids (KOTI, 2015, p. 31).

crash than children going individually to school (Kōya City
Research Lab, 2015). The crash rate for the return trip was

3.1 Origins

equal. It did not specify injury or fatality rates.

Australian transport activist David Engwicht is often given

As in most countries, transport is a leading cause of deathcredit for inventing the WSB system in the 1990s (Neuwelt

for children and youth in Japan (McNicoll, 2001; Shinsugi etand Kearns, 2006). In Canada, one of the earliest accounts ofal., 2015; Toroyan and Peden, 2007). In a report examining

a WSB was in 1996 (Kingham and Ussher, 2007)). That may

the death rates from injury between 1991 and 1995 (McNicoll,

have been the first application of this system. In New Zealand,2001), Sweden was held up as an example for other countries

Christchurch was possibly the first city to adopt a WSB

with a death rate from injuries of 5.2 per 100,000 for children(Collins and Kearns, 2010), but those authors point to St.

aged 1 to 14. Japan had a death rate of 8.4 and Canada a death

Alban, England, for the origins of the concept in 1998

rate of 9.7 per 100,000. For children aged 10 to 14, Japan had(Collins and Kearns, 2005). Still others retrace the origin of

the lowest rate with 4.8 per 100,000, while Sweden had a rate

the first WSB program to Brisbane, Australia though no dateof 5.5 and Canada a rate of 10.2. Thus, for children who have

was given (Kong et al., 2009).

1

3.2 How are Walking School Buses organized in thehttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0WMY91uJekA- 2 ─ 31 ─International Origins of Walking School Buses and Child Fatalities in Japan and Canada
Anglo-Saxon context?

community leaders to help them launch a WSB program (i.e.

A WSB group can be informal and comprised of only a few

National Center for Safe Routes to School website).

families, or part of a structured program with predefined

For Canada as a whole, there is the Active and Safe

routes and schedules, resembling an actual school bus

Routes to School organization that proposes on its old website(Kingham and Ussher, 2007). In most cases the supervision ofa toolkit to set up a WSB. The toolkit is made up of aan adult and the determination of specific routes and pick-up

checklist, sample letters and flyers for promotion, a leaflet

times are key concepts of a WSB (Collins and Kearns, 2005;

destined to parents with information, and stories of WSB

Heelan et al., 2009; Neuwelt and Kearns, 2006).

successes (Green Communities, 2011).

In Auckland, New Zealand, the Regional Transport

In Ottawa, a pilot project was put into place with routes

Authority hires a coordinator for the program and grants

being mapped by the Ottawa Student Transportation

financial support. For each route, a parent coordinator

Authority’s software using information provided by schoolschedules two volunteers to supervise up to 30 children over aboards. The goal was to include as many students located in a

20-minute walk. In order to maintain control over the group, it

predetermined zone as possible, and have them walk no more

is sometimes necessary for the adults to have the boys in one

than 30 minutes. Registration of a child was completed online

line, and the girls in another. In 2006, almost all routes (85%)(Beaton, 2015).

in Auckland operated in the morning, whereas it was only half

In British Columbia, Canada the Hub for Active School(53%) for the afternoon (Collins and Kearns, 2010). In places

Travel, or HASTe, also offers a toolkit and a step-by-step ofsuch as Christchurch, New Zealand, the government also

how to organize a WSB (HASTe, 2012). Three models aresupports such efforts (Kingham and Ussher, 2007). While

proposed: one that uses a single location as departure pointanyone who wishes to volunteer on the WSB will be acceptedwith no stops along the way (e.g. from a park to the school),in Auckland, police will run background checks on

one that runs through a neighborhood with pick-up points

individuals in the UK (Collins and Kearns, 2005). In the USA,

along the way, and another one that runs through aliability waivers might have to be signed by volunteers

neighborhood but picks up every child at his or her home. It

operating in more structured WSBs (National Center for Safe

also lists minimum requirements, such as: the approval of theRoutes to School, nd) and in both the USA and in Canada, theparents for the registration of their children, a written

WSB leaders can be insured (Beaton, 2015).

agreement on the part of adult volunteers, basic traffic safety

In the USA, researchers have emphasized the need tosecure stakeholders’ investments early in the process (Kong etconcerns addressed (visibility, for one), one best route
identified, and a list of emergency contacts.

al., 2009). In that study, the research group started by handing

In Canada and the USA, there are also a few references

out flyers, setting up posters, making presentations andmade to an alternative to the WSB, the bicycle train (HASTe,

offering training for parents up to three months prior to start2012).

up. Children in the study were from kindergarten throughfifth-grade and police officers approved of the routes chosen

3.2 Are WSB successful in the Anglo-Saxon context?

for the WSB. Children even had health-related themes

In Auckland, NZ 42% of schools with a School Travel Plan

presented to them during the walk every other week (Kong et(STP) have incorporated a WSB, and many schools withoutal., 2009).

such a plan also have a WSB (Collins and Kearns, 2010). The

In Nebraska, a study was conducted on two schools with

STPs have primarily been implemented in Auckland, NZ as

WSB programs where the routes were limited to a 1-mile

opposed to other cities in that country (Hinckson and Hannah,radius of the school. The WSB was operated every weekday,2011). In the USA, one study reported that 6.2% of public

but was cancelled when the weather was unpleasant (e.g. coldelementary schools nationally use WSBs (Turner et al., 2013).

or raining/snowing). Children usually walked four out of five

The number of routes and participants are on the rise intimes over a week with the WSB, walking on average 0.65

Auckland, though not much more than half of the children

miles (1km) each time they took part in the WSB (Heelan etregistered actually join the WSB every morning. In 2005, 77

al., 2009).

schools, 156 WSB routes, and 2,400 children were involved

For the USA in general, there are online training modules

in WSBs in Auckland (Neuwelt and Kearns, 2006). Collins

aimed for parents, teachers, school administrators andand Kearns (2010) also state that “the longer a route endures,- 3 ─ 32 ─

交通科学 Vol. 46 No. 2 （2015）

the more embedded it becomes in the routines of families andWhile walking, accompaniment by an adult is said to

the tradition of the school community.” The evidence they

reduce risk of injury for children (Kingham and Ussher, 2007).

give remains sparse: they explain that of half the schools

Safety rules have sometimes been implemented to limit

surveyed, one or more WSB route is 1-year old or older.

aggressive play between children and safety vests have been

Volunteer recruitment and retention determines the WSB’s

added to ensure visibility (Collins and Kearns, 2010). The

likelihood of success; school involvement then appears as

involvement of police officers to determine routes and theessential for continuity, because in Auckland almost no school

addition of a crossing guard where needed as a guarantee ofever dropped the project entirely (Collins and Kearns, 2010).

increased safety.

The success of the pilot operation in New Mexico, USA is

In some cases, WSB initiatives are linked with changes toalso said to be attributed to the inclusion of parents and school

the infrastructure that would aid pedestrians. In Auckland, NZ,

staff in the WSB (Kong et al., 2009).

minor improvements such as upgrading footpaths were

A next key to success then seems to be the desire of the

documented (Collins and Kearns, 2010). An initiative inparticipants to take part in a WSB. But sometimes, it isn’t

South Carolina, USA, reported changes made to theenough: in New Mexico, a lack of funding did not permit the

infrastructures (streetlights, sidewalks, etc.) once the WSB

initiative to continue past the length of the initial study

program was put in place. There was also a suggestion thatexperiment (Kong et al., 2009). In terms of participants, it

traffic had slowed (National Center for Safe Routes to School,

isn’t always volunteers that are hard to keep: WSBs can2010).

eventually fail when children get older and acquire the

WBS

are

often

concentrated

in

low

deprivationnecessary independence and skills to walk to school byneighborhoods (e.g. better-off neighborhoods), but collisions

themselves (Kingham and Ussher, 2007), which may be

involving pedestrian are disproportionately found in areas oflinked to a lack of diversity in the ages of households in ahigh deprivation (e.g. Pabayo et al., 2012), thus it is possibleneighborhood.

to wonder whether WSBs have an actual impact matching that

Related to encouraging children to use the WSB, Southof their true potential (Collins and Kearns, 2005).

Korea (which began piloting the Anglo-Saxon WSB system in2010) uses a reward system where children who participate in

3.4 Other benefits associated with WSB

the WSB for the entire month are given prizes (KOTI, 2015, p.

Most of the WSB benefits are hard to quantify (Kingham and180).

Ussher, 2007). Beyond safety, suggested benefits would also
include: “reduced level of parental chauffeuring, less traffic

3.3. Is there evidence of improving safety?

congestion in the vicinity of primary schools at peak times

Safety issues raised by parents go from stranger danger toand increased routine physical activity” (Collins and Kearns,

children’s lack of street knowledge. Walking in a group with2010). Kingham and Ussher (2007) indeed speak of WSBs

responsible individuals reduces these concerns. Neuwelt andencouraging “children’s independent mobility” because they

Kearns (2006) noted that parents felt that their children learn

are not always chauffeured by their own parents anymore, butmore about safety measures through the WSB process.

sometimes walked to school lead by other adults (though this

Perceived benefits also include the improvement of safety,

does not correspond with definitions of independent mobility

though hard data is difficult to come across. More walkers andas the child is still supervised, thus dependent on an adult).

cyclists on the street would likely raise the awareness towards

The creation of a long-term habit and norm regarding physicalsuch users and result in fewer collisions with motorized

activity is sometimes given (e.g. Active and Safe Routes tovehicles (Collins and Kearns, 2010; Ewing and Dumbaugh,

School, Canada).

2009). Although it is said that an increase in traffic volume

Some authors, without giving numbers or explaining

has been linked to an increased threat to child safety, it is notfurther, will write about the possibility of reduced airnecessarily true that reducing traffic will result in increased

pollution exposure for children in WBSs, as their participation

child safety. In fact, it might only be because fewer and fewer

in it ensures that fewer cars gather around the school at peakchildren have been exposed to traffic in recent years that thehours (Kingham and Ussher, 2007). In Auckland, it was

number of injuries has come down (Hillman et al., 1990;

calculated that 429 vehicle journeys had been saved by 22

Kingham and Ussher, 2007).

schools on approximately 23 WSB routes in operation,- 4 ─ 33 ─International Origins of Walking School Buses and Child Fatalities in Japan and Canada
contributing to reducing congestion and threats of injuries

団登校) which refers to just the trip to school and not thearound schools (Collins and Kearns, 2005). A WSB inreturn. It was created fundamentally as a safety measure andAuckland was reported to have saved 19.5 car journeys ongroups children to walk safely together to and from school.

average per day (Collins and Kearns, 2010).

Although the total number of participating schools is
declining, over 65% of the Japan’s elementary schools and

It is often proposed that children would also get to school

still practice shuudantōgekō (MEXT, 2013).

more ready to learn and more alert, show better academic
results, better moods and reduced anxiety (Kingham andUssher, 2007), however it is difficult to find published4.1 Fundamentals of the system

literature related to these assertions. Research has found that

The exact application of the shuudantōgekō varies by location

children who are active, for example those who have justand school. In its most general description it is a small group

walked 20 minutes, have shown more neural activity thanof roughly ten children who are lead to school by a child inchildren who have been sedentary, as would be the case in

the fifth or sixth grade (ages roughly ten to twelve) who

passive modes such as cars (Castelli et al., 2015). In New

carries a yellow flag. As well, it is common for the children to

Zealand, principals at schools also reported having thehave yellow caps. Walking in a group with the yellow flag

impression that their children got to school more ready to

and caps is intended to increase their visibility to vehicles

learn and calmer if they walked (Neuwelt and Kearns, 2006).

(thus reducing their vulnerability to traffic danger) and

Other perceived benefits include social connections madeprevent criminal acts such as abduction. In participating
schools, all children are involved.

by the children and adults participating in the WSB, thepromotion of community spirit, the increased fitness level, theThe groups may be organized by the school, the safety

influence it has on the entire family, the time saving forcommittee of the local parent-teachers’ association (PTA inparents who do not need to accompany their children to

Japanese as well), or a combination of the two. As well, there

school everyday, the enjoyment of the walk, and theis an adult who is responsible for the group and this may be adevelopment of traffic skills (Neuwelt and Kearns, 2006;

teacher or a PTA member.
The grouping of the children varies, but has two key

Kingham and Ussher, 2007; Collins and Kearns, 2010).
Health benefits were rated higher than all other benefits

components. The first is geographic proximity. Depending onby parents of children using the WSB; 5% of children’s daily

the density of children, it may only be one apartment building

physical activity can be attained simply by walking to school

and its immediate surroundings, or perhaps a couple of(Neuwelt and Kearns, 2006). As demonstration of physicalblocks.

activity benefits, in the USA, a study reported that over

The second component is the age of the children. There is

two-thirds of children in schools where a WSB had been

typically a mix of ages, but it must include an older child

implemented walk to school at least 50% of the time, versus(grade five or six) to lead the younger children on the route.

only one out of four children in schools where no WSB had

The meeting location may be a park, in front of a home or

been implemented achieved that same goal (Heelan et al.,business, in the lobby of an apartment building, or other such2009).

(semi-) public space. In some systems, the children go to the

Not only would WSB initiatives help increase the level ofmeeting point on their own, in others, the children are

fitness in children, but it would potentially help reduce obesity,

escorted by a guardian to the meeting point. In the latteras children who where part of one WSB study had a bodysystem, a child is thus never alone. In the system where

mass index (BMI) that “did not increase over the trial” (Kongchildren are not escorted to the meeting point, a member of

et al., 2009).

the local PTA will keep surveillance on the group when it
starts up at the beginning of the school year. Recently, a

4. The Japanese Context

teacher might be assigned by the school to be present along

Japan has had an institutionalized form of a WSB since at

the route. In some areas where this is not the case, a local PTA

least 1962 when the former Ministry of Education, Culture,member will be present at some point along the route and thisSports, Science and Technology directed that the system be

responsibility rotates amongst the members.

applied across the country. The system is known as
shuudantōgekō (集団登下校), or often just shuudantōkō (集4.2 Operational issues- 5 ─ 34 ─

交通科学 Vol. 46 No. 2 （2015）

As in most situations that involve organizing a wide range of9) A parent’s schedule may not allow for participation. Parents

individuals, there are various problems. A list of thoseare expected to help in some fashion, but if their work

potential problems is given here with potential solutions

obligations prevent them from helping, other parents who

following:must take their place may feel resentment. In some cases the1) A child is late to the meeting point. The lead child may

parent who is unable to help with the walking school bus may

have difficulty deciding when to leave, which can lead to thehelp in other ways such as cleaning.

group being late. If it is uncommon for that child to be late,10) The parent is not good at disciplining the children. In thethe lead child may swing by the tardy child’s home and callcase where children are too excited and a dangerous situation

out “we’re off!” to prompt the child to come quickly. If the

may arise, the adult who is responsible for the group mustchild is chronically late, they may be dropped from the group.

control the group. However, some parents are not good at this,2) A child is absent/unable to go to school. In such cases, theand they may then feel stressed, as they would be heldparent may inform the school, but no message is sent to the

responsible if something were to happen.

group of children who remain at the meeting point, waiting

Many of those problems have possible solutions. Here arefor the absent child.

some potential ones (numbers correspond to the problems):

3) The meeting time is considered too early. Even though1) As mentioned, choosing an earlier meeting point would

schools will typically start at around 8:30 AM, the meetingallow for a “cushion” with the time, but it may cause othertime may be considerably earlier such as 7:45 AM for a

problems such as parents feeling that the meeting time is too

10-minute walk. This may be a result of trying to allow forearly. To handle the problem of the lead child having

children who are late (no matter the time) and thus giving

difficulty knowing when to leave, an adult could give aample “cushion” time; it may also be the result of anticipating

definitive time to leave that could be set as an alarm on aslow or leisurely walking speeds by the children.

watch.

4) A child is very early. Some children may want to get to the2) A message could be passed to anyone in the group to shareschool in order to play. Others may come from homes wherethat one of the members is absent.

the parents must work early. In such cases, the child may not3) The meeting time could be reviewed by the school by

wait around for the others and simply go to the school directly.

anonymous vote.

This can cause the same problem as above (1) with the group

4) This could be a problem, as it might be difficult for a

waiting for the non-present child.

message to be given to the walking group. However, with

5) The meeting location is problematic. In some cases, themodern technology and the ownership rates of cellular

meeting point may be further from the school than the child’s

telephones, mailing lists that send a text message to thehome. In others, it may be located at a point where there isparents could facilitate an available adult to go and inform theconsiderable traffic such as by a convenience store parking lot.

group.

In still others, the children may be waiting at a point that

5) Meeting points should be considered with respect toinconveniences other people such as in the lobby of ancontext. Although some locations are “easy”, as they areapartment.

familiar to everyone, consideration to the potential danger or6) The lead child is not responsible enough. The lead childinconvenience to others should be made.

may see a friend in another WSB and begin chatting,6) As it is not clear whether this is a real problem, or just aforgetting their responsibilities. However, it is not clear

potential one, it is not necessary to deal with it currently.

whether this has ever happened.

7) This problem has two sides to it. One is the “problem” of7) The children get excited. As happens when children get

children having fun. The other is the traffic. As far as possible,

together, they may begin to have fun. Although we do not

the traffic speed along such routes should be kept under 30

want to suggest that children should not have fun, this can

km/h to reduce the danger caused by the traffic (the risk ofresult in dangerous situations if the child suddenly darts out ofdeath significantly increases at 50 km/h (Rosen et al., 2011)).

the group into traffic.

The burden of safety should not lie only on children (Hillman8) Trailing line and limited vision. As the children cross roads,

et al., 1990; Parusel and McLaren, 2010), or as the Director ofthey may not be aware that the lights have changed because of

Korea Transportation Safety Authority, KANG Dong Su

limited vision due to walking closely behind another child.

wrote, “children should be able to freely walk and play
- 6 ─ 35 ─International Origins of Walking School Buses and Child Fatalities in Japan and Canada
anytime and anywhere, while adults have the duty to protect

withchildren no matter what transport mode they use” (KOTI,

WSB.

STPs

using

2015; p. 57). The individual creating the danger should carryStudent

Optional,

the majority of the burden, which requires the state to set safe

participation

percentage unknown

schooltraffic speeds. On more major routes such as arterials,

Distances≤1.6 km (1 mile)

Unknown

separated walkways (whether that is a sidewalk or a level areaTime< 30 minutes

Unknownwith barriers) should be used with the children staying away

Longevity

More than 50% of

Has continued forfrom the edge that separates the modes.

schools with a WSB

decades.

8) There are several potential solutions that come to mind forhave operated one forthis problem. One is that the children do not walk so closeat least one year (NZ)

exact

All

students

inthat they cannot see the traffic light. A second would be thatthe lead child must wait at an intersection for all of the

A key difference in the systems is that in the Japanese system,

children to be ready to cross in a tighter group (e.g. 2 lines)

parents or volunteers do not lead the groups. However,that would take less time to cross the road. A third solution

parents are involved in various aspects of the system.

would be a technological one where the traffic light would

As described by the literature from Western countries, it ishave a sensor or button that allows for more time to cross.

not only danger that one hopes to avoid with WSBs. In

This would also help elderly or others with mobility

situations where parents are left to arrange travel for theirproblems.

children, the car has become the most common means of9) As society changes, some adjustment is necessary. Theretransport in many Anglo-Saxon countries (Gilbert andare more households now where there is not a parent available

O’Brien, 2005). The parents give numerous reasons for thisdue to work obligations. Consideration must be made to such

such as distance, climate, stranger danger, and traffic danger

contexts.

(McDonald and Aalborg, 2009). This final point is important10) Not all people are equally able to control children. A

as often the traffic danger is caused by the parents themselves

guidebook and examples of how to handle such situations

rushing to drop children off. So, in such a system, parents are

could help.

rushed, but rather than rushing on foot to a meeting point,
they are rushing in cars to a place where all of the children

5. Differences in the Systems

attending a school are congregating.

If the two systems are compared (Table 1), numerous

Although it is more common for children who live withindifferences can be observed. In terms of success, the Japanesea reasonable walking distance of school to go by foot, evensystem has shown greater longevity, school participation rates,

children at distances of less than 800m may be driven in theand child participation rates.

Anglo-Saxon countries (e.g. McDonald and Aalborg, 2009;

Table 1. Comparison of the two systems

Waygood and Susilo, 2015). As these are often additional trips,

Anglo-Saxon

Japanese

1992 and after

Likely before 1955,

these trips also reduce the child’s physical activity, reduce air

implementati

butquality in the area around the school, produce moreondocumentation

Date origin or

Organized by

Local

organizeror

it follows that along with increased danger to other children,

first

official
isgreenhouse gases, create greater congestion, and likely

1962.

consume more of the parents’ time (this is certainly the case

School or the PTA

for the walking school bus system where the child walks tovolunteer

the meeting point). Further, although given as a potential

SafetyMay

Yellow flag; yellow

source of danger, children who walk have more opportunity toequipment

vests

use

reflective

caps commonsocially engage with their friends (Kirby and Inchley, 2013;

Size of group

Up to 30

Roughly 10

Panter et al., 2008; Westman et al., 2015; Zwerts et al., 2010)

SchoolUnclear.

participation

NZ reports the highest

elementary

participation

nationally.

Auckland,withover 50% of schools

Over

65%

of

and their community (Waygood and Friman, 2015).

schools

6. Fatalities in individual versus walking school bus
systems- 7 ─ 36 ─

交通科学 Vol. 46 No. 2 （2015）

As mentioned in the introduction, one analysis found thatchildren in Tokyo who were not in WSBs had a lower crashrate than children in WSBs on the trip to school.

It was notclear from that study, which was not peer reviewed, what themodes of the children were for the individual trips, nor
whether the injury or fatality rates were different, simply thatthe crash rates were different.
In this study, a comparison will be made between Canada
and Japan’s fatality rates.
Of the Anglo-Saxon countries, according to a UNICEF
report, traffic deaths for children aged 1 to 14 over the years

Figure 1. Fatalities per 100,000 children aged 15 and under by

1991-1995, the UK had the lowest deaths per 100,000 withtransport for Canada and Japan between 2002 and 2007. (Data

2.9, followed by Canada with 4.3, then Australia with 4.4, thefrom (Statistics Canada, 2015) for Canada and (IATSS, 2008)

USA with 5.8, and finally New Zealand with 6.9 (UNICEF,

for Japan).

2001). According to Statistics Canada, accidental injuries are
the leading cause of death for children aged 1 to 14 in Canada,

If only pedestrian deaths for children aged 15 and under arewith the majority of those being transport (Statistics Canada,examined (Figure 2), the rates are similar, though Canada is2015). The average for children aged 1 to 14 between 2000

still higher. Keeping in mind that most children are driven to

and 2011 was 6.5, suggesting an increase (compared withschool and to their activities in Canada (Gilbert and O’Brien,

UNICEF, 2001).

2005) that would suggest the rate should be lower thanIn Canada, as in most countries around the world,

Japan’s.

transport is one of the leading causes of death for children andyouth. Based on statistics from Statistics Canada on cause ofdeath, from 2001-2011 transport deaths were on average
responsible for 1.85 deaths per 100,000 for five to nine year
olds (2nd most common after malignant neoplasms), and 2.6
deaths per 100,000 for ten to fourteen year olds (mostcommon, representing 20%). Motorised vehicle crashes were
attributed to 92% (5 to 9 year olds) and 94% (10 to 14 yearolds) of those deaths. Unfortunately, national statistics on themodal share of children’s travel in Canada is not available,

Figure 2. Pedestrian fatalities per 100,000 children aged 15

but studies on children’s travel do not find that over 90% of

and under by transport for Canada and Japan between 2002

trips are by motor vehicle. Considering that likely most deaths

and 2007. (Data from (Transport Canada, 2015) for Canada

for pedestrians and cyclists are caused by motor vehicles, theand (IATSS, 2008) for Japan).

question might be how to better tame traffic rather than topotentially encourage more (if parents were allowed to start

If we examine modal share for fatalities (Figures 3 & 4), in

driving their children to school).

both countries it is travel by motorised vehicle that is the mostComparing available data from Japan and Canada for

associated in Canada.

children fifteen and under (Figure 1), it can be seen that Japan
has a much lower rate of fatalities by transport than Canada.

- 8 ─ 37 ─International Origins of Walking School Buses and Child Fatalities in Japan and Canada
children between the ages of seven and twelve (e.g. thoselikely in elementary school; Figure 6), it can be seen that oneof the lowest points for the Japanese children is the morning
commute when the WSB is practiced, whereas in Canada,
where most children go individually (i.e. not in groups or on
buses), the fatality rate is considerably higher. The same result
as that was found for Canada exists in South Korea (KOTI,
2015) where children generally go independently to school,
Figure 3. Fatalities per 100,000 children aged 15 and under bywhich suggests that it is not an “Asian” phenomenon.

transport for Japan between 2002 and 2007. (Data from
(IATSS, 2008))

Figure 6. Fatalities per 100,000 children aged 7 to 12 by timeof day for Canada and Japan (data from (Transport Canada,
Figure 4. Fatalities per 100,000 children aged 15 and under by2015) for Canada, and (IATSS, 2008) for Japan).

transport for Japan between 2002 and 2007(Transport Canada,2015).

As the amount of energy contained in a crash is related to the

For fatalities by mode during the week (Figure 5), the total formass and velocity (kinetic energy = ½ * mass * velocity^2),

Canada is much higher, and the most common mode related tothe difference in impact between walking and traveling by

fatalities is different. In Canada, where travel by car

motorized vehicle is considerable. This brings us to the point

represents the majority of trips, it represents

2/3rdsof allabout the study in Tokyo that found that crash rates were

fatalities. In Japan, it represents 1/5th, but car travel during thehigher for children in walking school buses. As mentioned, itweek for children aged seven to twelve is likely low (e.g.

is not known what modes were used by the children not in(Susilo and Waygood, 2012; Waygood and Kitamura, 2009).

WSBs. Although Japan has a lower fatality rate, it does have ahigher injury rate (341/100,000) than Canada (153/100,000)
for children aged seven to twelve. What this suggests is thatcrashes are more severe in Canada, as they are more likely tolead to death. For the overall population, it can be seen thatindeed Canada has a higher fatality (8.9/100,000 in 2005) andserious injury rate (53.5/100,000 in 2005) versus Japan (4.5
fatalities per 100,000 in 2007 and 47.4 serious injuries per
100,000 in 2007). Unfortunately, it was not possible to findthe number of crashes for Canada. In Japan, the rate hasremained at roughly 1.2 injuries per crash for decades, thougha small increase (less than 0.1% per year) can be seen.

Figure 5. Fatalities per 100,000 children aged 7 to 12 in JapanA further important point is that in Japan the injuries per

and Canada by mode (Data from (Transport Canada, 2015)

capita increase with total vehicle kilometers traveled (VKMT;for Canada, and (IATSS, 2008) for Japan).

Figure 7). As the progression of VKMT with time is almost
exact, the impact of cars on Japan’s society increases with

Now, if we look at the time of day (over the entire week) andeach year.
- 9 ─ 38 ─

交通科学 Vol. 46 No. 2 （2015）

in motor vehicles) is associated with lower fatalities (e.g.
Ewing and Dumbaugh, 2009; Welle et al., 2016). This is thecase for the Japanese children as compared to the Canadianchildren. If the WSB can effectively reduce use of motorized
vehicles, it can increase safety. The second key component is
speed (Ewing and Dumbaugh, 2009; Welle et al., 2016; Tefft,
2013; Rosen et al., 2011) as discussed above. Speeds are
generally reduced in built-up areas where streets are “lessforgiving” (for the driver, but not necessarily for pedestrians)
Figure 7. Injuries per capita in Japan for the generalby engineering street design guidelines. However, Canadian

population by vehicle kilometers travelled (VKMT; Data fromstreets tend to follow guidelines for design speed that

(IATSS, 1977, 1982, 1987, 1992, 1997, 2002).

recommend designing for speeds higher than the legal speed.
Even residential streets in Canada are quite wide and straight.

The link with fatalities is less clear (Figure 8). Here,

This supports and may encourage higher speeds, thus

traditional measures of transport safety (fatalities per distanceincreasing the distance required to stop and the energy in an

travelled) would show that driving is getting safer. However,

impact, thus making it more dangerous for pedestrians.

the overall impact on society remains nearly constant.

Narrow streets, more common in Japan, especially inresidential, built-up areas, do not encourage high speeds. Thismay be an additional explanatory factor in the differences
observed.

8. Conclusions
The Japanese system of WSBs was found to have been
formed at a much earlier date than the Anglo-Saxon systemand continues to have high rates of participation. In
comparison to Canada, it can be seen that the fatality rates in
Figure 8. Fatalities per capita in Japan for the general

Japan are much lower for elementary school-aged children.

population by vehicle kilometers travelled (VKMT; Data from

Although a spike occurs in Canada in the morning (likely(IATSS, 1977, 1982, 1987, 1992, 1997, 2002).

associated with the trip to school), no such spike exists forJapan where the majority of elementary aged children

Considering that leaving parents the responsibility to get their

participated in WSBs. In both countries, it is travel afterchildren to school would likely lead to an increase inschool that is associated with more deaths, when WSBs are

distances travelled by car, the comparison with Canada would

less commonly used. For Japan, an increase in VKMT issuggest a likely increase in fatalities. The trends in Japan,

associated with an increase in the per capita injury rate, butwould suggest that at the very least, more injuries would bevery little influence is seen for fatalities. If a reduction in

expected for the population. In much of Japan, public

WSB was to lead to more car use in Japan, than one could

transport could offer an alternative to walking or using a car,reasonably expect an increase in injuries. If the trend was toand the potential impact on safety would be an importantfollow the Canadian one, than fatalities may also increase for

addition to this area of research. However, public transport isthe trip to school.

not typically an option for short trips, as is typical forelementary schools.

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