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Mountain Tourism and Hazards: A Proposal for a New Direction of
Mountain Tourism in Nepal
Dhananjay REGMI*, Kabindra BHATTA and Sitaram DAHAL
Nepal Tourism Board
Exhibition Road Bhrikutimandap, P.O. Box 11018, Kathmandu, Nepal*E-mail: dj.regmi@gmail.com

Abstract
Tourism is one of the major contributors to Nepal’s Gross Domestic Product. The history of tourism in
Nepal dates back to the 1950s when foreign mountaineers started to visit the country for its summits. As aresult, Nepal gradually established itself as a mountain tourism destination. Therefore, mountains became
inseparable from tourism in the country. However, these mountains are now severely affected by glacial
melting and other unprecedented and unpredictable extreme hazardous events, which are mostly related tohigher temperatures and changes in precipitation, and which pose threats not only to mountains but also tomountain communities and the tourists visiting the mountains. There is an urgent need to assess and understandthe processes and components of mountain ecosystems to make these area safe and sound eventually for thevisitors and local communities. Also, there is an urgent need for recommendations that can be implemented tominimize risks in mountainous regions and ensure the safety of visitors and local communities. For this, first
we review major hazard incidents during the last few decades in the mountainous regions of Nepal. Then wesuggest possible modalities for sustainable land-use planning and sustainable trekking-trail planning to themajor stakeholders, including policy makers and the scientific community. In addition, we discuss the need forjoint efforts toward preparedness for glacial and mountain hazards to ensure the safety of everyone in themountain tourism community. We also discuss the importance of introducing a geopark system for Nepal’s
hazard and disaster sites to offer educational tourism.
Key words: geoparks, geotourism, hazards, mountain science, mountain tourism, tourism zoning

1. Introduction
Over the years, many researchers and organizations
have had a variety of definitions of tourism. For example,
Mathieson and Wall (1982) defined it as the temporary
movement of people to destinations outside their normal
places of work and residence, the activities undertaken
during their stay at those destinations and the facilities
created to cater to their needs. Globally, tourism accounts
for 10% of the global GDP and provides around one in 10
jobs worldwide (UNWTO, 2019). Mountains as tourist
destinations are also among the most fragile ecosystems,
and are under threat from climate change andoverexploitation. According to Batliwala et al. (2013), asof 2017, mountains were home to about 1.1 billion people,
representing around 15% of the global population.
Mountain tourism is estimated to represent between nineand 16% of total international tourist arrivals, which isequivalent to between 195 and 375 million international
Global Environmental Research
27/2023 133-138
printed in Japan

arrivals, based on 2019 figures (FAO and UNWTO,
2023).
The mountain tourism industry is sensitive andvulnerable. It is a highly climate-sensitive sector that isstrongly influenced by multiple climate and geologicalhazards. Disasters have the potential to discourage visitorsfrom travelling to the affected destinations (Bhati et al.,2016). Mountain disasters and unexpected events aretraumatic experiences for residents and tourists and may
cause lasting damage to destination infrastructure.
Therefore, adequate, adaptive management is required in
mountain tourism as well as in other tourism (Hystad andKeller, 2008).
The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, which
has tremendous potential for mountain tourism, canprovide employment opportunities for local communities
and a positive socio-economic contribution. However, theHKH region is geologically fragile and vulnerable toerosion and landslides as well as snow and ice avalanches©2023 AIRIES134

D. REGMI et al.

(Acharya et al., 2023). The South Asian mountains areundergoing rapid change driven by stressors such as
climate change and anthropogenic changes, i.e,
globalization, infrastructure development and migration(Wester et al., 2019), which are often related to tourism
development.
The history of tourism in Nepal dates back to the1950s, when foreign mountaineers started visiting thecountry for its summits. As a result, Nepal gradually
established itself as a mountain tourism destination. The
mountains became inseparable from tourism in thiscountry. These mountains, however, are now severely
affected by unprecedented and unpredictable extreme
hazardous events, which pose threats not only to themountains but also to the mountain communities and thetourists visiting the mountains (e.g., Byers et al., 2022;
Acharya et al., 2023).
This paper aims to (1) describe the characteristics ofmountain tourism and mountain hazards in Nepal and (2)examine new directions for Nepal’s mountain tourism inrelation to hazards.

tourists visited for holidays and pleasure, 16.5% fortrekking and mountaineering, 14.5% for pilgrimage andthe remainder for other purposes.
Revenue generation in the form of foreign exchangeearnings from tourism in 2019 came to 75,374.1 million
Nepali Rupees, about 2.2% of the total GDP (Fig. 2).
After the pandemic, however, Nepal experienced asignificant decrease in tourist arrivals (Fig. 1). Therefore,
the entire tourism industry came to a standstill, risking
jobs and investments in the tourism sector.

2.1 Characteristics of Nepal’s Mountain Tourism
In the context of Nepal’s economy, tourism is one of
the major contributors to the gross domestic product(GDP). The Government of Nepal reports that direct
earnings from tourism amounted to the equivalent of
67.09 billion Nepali Rupees (US$590 million) in
FY2017/18, representing 2.2% of the GDP (Governmentof Nepal, 2019).
Similarly, the World Travel and Tourism Council(WTTC, 2018) revealed that the total employment
generated by the tourism sector was 1,027,000 Nepali
Rupees, and the total percentage of employment by that
sector came to around 6.7% in Nepal. Nepal welcomedabout 1.2 million international visitors in 2019 (Fig. 1),
having crossed the milestone of 1 million tourists in 2018
(MoCTCA, 2019). There was a surprising growth intourist arrivals in Nepal after the 2015 earthquake, withmore than 25% growth for three consecutive years after
that. Out of the 1.2 million arrivals in 2019, 65.0% of the

2.2 Proposal for New Tourism Destination Zoning in
Nepal
Nature-based tourism has been recognized as the
major pillar of the tourism sector in Nepal. The seasonal
and regional imbalance here, however, has been identified
as a challenge for development of Nepal’s tourism. The
Nepal Himalayas offer lifetime experiences for global
tourism enthusiasts, with world-class trekking trails,
numerous hard and soft adventure activities andmountaineering options. The mid-hills, on the other hand,
have less tourism development although they have apotential for it, with numerous hill stations and cultural
trails connected with socio-cultural and landscapediversity, an integrated farming system andwell-developed terraced agricultural field (Ives andMesserli, 1989), all of which can be offered throughout
the year. Furthermore, the lowland plain of Terai in thesouthern part of the country has immense potential for
cultural and nature-based tourism, with maximum market
potential for cross-border Indian tourists especially for
religious purposes, entertainment and visiting friends andrelatives.
The targeted tourist age group, as derived from theglobal tourism pyramid of 2020, shows that 46.2% of the
global population in the 25–60 age group could bedirectly or indirectly targeted for Nepal. However,children, youth and millennials together with the older
population have been less prioritized in Nepal. Similarly,
tourists have been densely concentrated in specificmountain destinations such as the Annapurna
Conservation Area and Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National
Park (Watanabe, 2016). Hence, the Nepal Tourism Board

Fig. 1 Relationship between annual total tourist arrivals andmajor disaster and disruptive events in Nepal from1991 to 2022. (Sources: MoCTCA, 2021; Nepal
Tourism Board, 2022)

Fig. 2 Total foreign exchange earnings from tourism and theirpercentage contribution to the GDP. (Source: Nepal
Tourism Board, 2022)

2. Tourism

Mountain tourism and hazards(2022) has proposed a specific geographical model for thediversification of mountain tourism destinations including
the lowland area (Fig. 3): (1) the high Himalayan regions
as an adventure zone, (2) the mid-hills as a hill station
zone, and (3) the lowlands as a nature and entertainmentzone, which can support product diversification andall-season engagement for all age groups of tourists.

3. Mountain Hazards and Tourism
3.1 Mountain Hazards
The Department of Hydrology and Meteorology(DHM, 2017) reported that there was 0.056ºC/year of
temperature rise in the Nepal Himalayas based on the
maximum temperature trend of the preceding 57 years(1947–2014). On the basis of the general and regional
circulation method in the National Adaptation Programmeof Action to Climate, the Ministry of Environment (2010)
projected scenarios of mean annual temperature increaseof 1.4ºC by 2030, 2.8ºC by 2060 and 4.9ºC by 2090,
indicating that the temperature rise in the mountains of
Nepal will be higher than that of the global average.
Climate change impacts will very likely increase due toincreased frequency and intensity of extreme weather
events (IPCC, 2007). Variability in temperature andprecipitation results in disastrous events, i.e., rockfalls,
floods and avalanches. Glacial lakes in Nepal have grown
dramatically since the 1960s (e.g., Bajracharya and Mool,
2009; Watanabe et al., 2009; Ives et al., 2010).
The following are some recent examples of mountainhazards in Nepal.
(1) Avalanche in the Everest Region, 2015:
In April 2015, a devastating earthquake in Nepal
caused snow avalanches at about 7,000 m in the Mt.
Everest region (Swann et al., 2016). More than 17
people died and 61 were injured. Another avalanche
and icefall had killed 16 Sherpas in the region prior
to that in 2014.
(2) Avalanche in the Langtang Region, 2015:
The 2015 earthquake caused avalanches in theLangtang region as well (Fujita et al., 2017; Nagai

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram showing the proposed tourist
destination zoning for a better connectivity of thehighland-lowland and of the east-west of Nepal. (Source:
Nepal Tourism Board, 2022)

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et al., 2017). These buried 116 houses, killed 308
people (176 locals, 80 foreigners and 10 army
personnel) (Callaghan and Thapa, 2015).
(3) Avalanche in the Annapurna Region, 2020:
In January 2020, a snow avalanche occurred. Afterthe avalanche, 200 people were rescued, but sevenare still missing (including four Korean visitors).
(4) Snowstorm in the Annapurna Circuit, 2014:
This snowstorm, caused by Cyclone Hudhud, killed
more than 40 people of various nationalities inThorong-La Pass (5,416 m).
3.2 Mountain Hazards and Tourism
With approximately 85% of its total land above
1500 m a.s.l., Nepal is a country with hills and mountainsof young geological structure. The diverse geography ofthis country provides immense opportunities amidst
threats of hazards. Mountain tourism and adventure
tourism are comparatively more vulnerable to mountaindisasters. This hazard is more pronounced in the context
of climate change, especially with temperatures rising,which intensifies the frequency of mountain hazards,
including snow/ice avalanches, glacial lake outburst
floods (GLOFs), flash floods, landslides, debris flows,
rockfalls and rock detachments (Fig. 4). As mentioned
earlier, numerous studies have shown that the temperature

Fig. 4 Saldim Peak, Makalu-Barun National Park, after theJune 17, 2017 separation of rock (in circle) from thenorth face. (Photo courtesy of A.C. Byers)

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D. REGMI et al.

rise in the Himalayas is more pronounced and higher than
the global average, and will ultimately lead to an increasein mountain hazard occurrences. In this context, Nepal
needs detailed studies to ensure adventurous activities
such as mountaineering and trekking are safe and secure.
New perspectives have emerged on mountain hazards
and tourism, which we can develop with scientists. Every
mountain disaster has a story. The story can be effectively
communicated by trained guides to tourists to increase
their interest. Geopark systems, common in many
countries worldwide, are regarded as an opportunity foreducational tourism, i.e., geotourism. We would like topropose introducing a geopark system to Nepal as ameans for that. When geotourism destinations aredeveloped, the new concept of destination zoning, shownin Fig. 3, will help to augment the sustainability of
Nepal’s future tourism.
We also emphasize the need for joint efforts for
preparedness regarding glacier and mountain hazards toensure the safety of the visitors and the entire mountaintourism community. Here is one example of a newperspective on glacial lakes. We believe that glacial lakes,
which have been treated as a “nuisance” and negative
entity, can be utilized as a source of hydroelectric power
generation. Figure 5 shows a cross-section of the Thulagi
Glacial Lake (locally known as Dona Lake, 4,044 m) andits surrounding mountain slope in the Manang District.
This glacial lake is one with a high risk of outburst (e.g.,
ICIMOD, 2011): about 12.8 km2 of land cover isestimated to be exposed to a possible GLOF extending as
far as 100 km downstream from the lake (Maskey et al.,2020). However, if tunnels are dug in the mountain massif
and if water from the glacial lake is channeled through thetunnels to generate hydroelectric power, the water level ofthis lake can be kept low, thereby reducing the risk of a
GLOF. This would provide electricity to the local

Fig. 5 Proposed tunnels for a hydropower generation systemusing water from the Thulagi Glacial Lake (or Dona
Lake, 4,044 m) in Manang District.

community and allow the mountain community andtourists to learn about these disaster preparedness efforts
by taking them on study tours (geotours). It is important
to develop new ideas for the possibility of hydroelectric
power generation from glacial lakes. Similarly, it isimportant to promote geotourism on frozen glacial lakes,
and that will require detailed research.
The followings are the examples of GLOF-related
concerns and issues to be addressed.
(1) We cannot stop natural calamities, but now it is time
to rethink how we can find appropriate solutions to
the threats that we have in Nepal.
(2) Glacial lakes have been growing rapidly and theresultant threats are increasing day-by-day. Updated
knowledge on the present status of these lakes isalways needed, and more numerous and detailed
studies are required.
(3) Areas downstream of certain dangerous glacial lakes
require immediate attention before disasters happen.
(4) Research results on glacial lake development andpast GLOFs can be used to develop geostories that
help promote mountain tourism.
3.3 Sustainable Land-use and Trekking-trail Planning
Modalities
Based on the characteristics of Nepal’s mountaintourism and natural hazards, the major stakeholders are
identified as the local communities, scientific communityand policy makers. We posed questions to major
stakeholders, including policy makers and the scientificcommunity regarding possible modalities for sustainableland-use planning and sustainable trekking-trail planning.
Sustainable land management has been explored as aknowledge-based procedure that helps integrate land,
water, biodiversity and environmental management tomeet rising food and fiber requirements while sustaining
ecosystem services and livelihoods (World Bank, 2006;
ADB, 2017). Since the Nepal Himalayas are a hotspot forwater- and climate-induced hazards as well as
geo-hazards, developing a strong knowledge base on
extreme weather events and seismic activities in theregion is vital to an understanding of how to increase
resilience. Wester et al. (2019) suggested preparation of
hazard maps and real-time hazard information systems forcommunities, that could substantially reduce vulnerability
to potential hazards. For this, not only early warning
systems but also prudent land-use planning is vital. Hence,
integrated risk-sensitive land-use planning should be
developed in the mountainous regions of Nepal.
To realize the proposed trekking networks between
high mountain destinations and lowland destinations,
between western and eastern high mountain destinations
and between western and eastern mid-hill destinations(Fig. 3), sustainable trekking trail planning will be needed.
Trekking tourism is a major attribute of a mountaineconomy. When sustainable trekking trails are planned,

Mountain tourism and hazards
Table 1 Items to be prioritized in trekking-trail risk assessment.
Itemsa) Identification of risk-prone areasb) Risk mapping and awareness (local people/guides/tourists)c) Systematic rescue operations in coordination with local
governmentsd) Establishment of trekker tracking systemse) Trail auditing and signage systems

Table 2 Items to be considered for trail infrastructureenhancement and management during the process of
trekking-trail risk assessment.
Itemsa) Suspension bridges, cantilever bridgesb) Tunnels and shed-way constructionc) Alternative trails (if feasible)d) Bioengineering techniques for slope stabilitye) Early warning system installationf) Weather stations and communication channeling(application based)

policy makers should prioritize aspects of trekking-trail
risk assessment (Table 1) along with the enhancement andmanagement of trail infrastructure (Table 2).
Policy recommendations based on policy gap
assessments can provide suggestions for an approach totrekking trail risk assessment. Joint efforts toward
preparedness for glacier and mountain hazards to ensure
the safety of the entire mountain tourism community are
required. Trail auditing and a signage system are basic
approaches to trekking-trail risk assessment. Similarly,
trail infrastructure enhancement through the application of
bioengineering techniques for slope stability andinstallation of communications channeling (e.g., early
warning systems and weather information channels) could
be a successful intervention to enhance sustainableinfrastructure for trail planning.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations
Mountain scientists need to work with the tourism
sector to develop mountain tourism programs that attract
many people while providing opportunities for them tolearn about mountain hazards and disasters. Every
mountain disaster has a story that can be effectively
communicated to tourists to increase their interest. We
would like to propose the introduction of a geopark
system for Nepal’s mountain-hazard and disaster sites.
To tell the stories of mountain hazards and disasters
to tourists effectively and attractively, it will be importantto accumulate scientific evidence. For example, howshould the geological, topographical and meteorologicalcharacteristics of past avalanche disaster sites be
explained to show tourists that an avalanche disaster ofthe same scale could occur at any time? How should weshow tourists the hydroelectric power generation facilities

137

that utilize the water of potentially dangerous glaciallakes? Detailed studies on these aspects will be necessary.
Mountain tourism in Nepal is highly asymmetrical,
both seasonally and spatially. This characteristic calls forstrengthening the linkage among the Himalayas (highmountain region), mid-hills region and lowland tourist
destinations, as well as linkages between the east and thewest to dramatically increase the mobility of mountaintourists. To this end, sustainable development plans fortrekking trails and land use need to be discussed among
all stakeholders including researchers.

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Dhananjay REGMI
Dr. Dhananjay Regmi is chief executive officer(CEO) of the Nepal Tourism Board. Born in1975 in Nepal, he obtained his PhD in
Environmental
Sciencefrom
Hokkaido
University, Japan in 2006. Then he served as a
post-doctoral research fellow for the Global
Land Project (GLP) Japan Nodal Office. He completed a three-month
post-doctoral course on dendrochronological research at Arizona
University, USA as a Haury Fellow.

Kabindra BHATTA
Mr. Kabindra Bhatta has been an officer at the
Research Planning and Monitoring Departmentof the Nepal Tourism Board for six years. His
academic background includes a Masters inEnvironmental Science from the Central
DepartmentofEnvironmental
Science,
Tribhuvan University, Nepal, with a specialization in sustainable
mountain development and disaster risk reduction. Previously he worked
as a soil conservation and watershed management expert at the National
Reconstruction Authority with the support of the United Nations Office ofProject Support (UNOPS) and as an environmentalist in the Environment
Friendly Local Governance Project (EFLGP) of the Government of Nepal.

Sitaram DAHAL
Mr. Sitaram Dahal is an officer on the Nepal
Tourism Board. He is an enthusiastic student andpractitioner of sustainability, leader of the Nepal
Chapter of Climate Friendly Travel, a trained
trainer for sustainable tourism and a UBUNTU
leader. With more than a decade of experience inthe fields of tourism, DRR and project management and education
systems, Mr. Dahal seeks to learn, practice and share different practicalinterventions that can help achieve sustainability.

(Received 24 November 2023, Accepted 31 December 2023)