Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8241

Ecology of Sydney plant species
Part 8 Dicotyledon families Rutaceae to Zygophyllaceae
Doug Benson and Lyn McDougall
Benson, Doug and McDougall, Lyn (National Herbarium of New South Wales, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia 2001. Email: doug.benson@rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au) 2001
Ecology of Sydney plant species: Part 8 Dicotyledon families Rutaceae to Zygophyllaceae.
Cunninghamia 7(2) 241–462. Ecological data in tabular form are provided on 325
plant species of the families Rutaceae to Zygophyllaceae, 236 native and 89
exotics, occurring in the Sydney region, defined by the Central Coast andCentral Tablelands botanical subdivisions of New South Wales (approximately
bounded by Lake Macquarie, Orange, Crookwell and Nowra). Relevant Local
Government Areas are Auburn, Ashfield, Bankstown, Bathurst, Baulkham Hills,
Blacktown, Blayney, Blue Mountains, Botany, Burwood, Cabonne, Camden,
Campbelltown, Canterbury, Cessnock, Concord, Crookwell, Drummoyne, Evans,
Fairfield, Greater Lithgow, Gosford, Hawkesbury, Holroyd, Hornsby, Hunters
Hill, Hurstville, Kiama, Kogarah, Ku-Ring-Gai, Lake Macquarie, Lane Cove,
Leichhardt, Liverpool, Manly, Marrickville, Mosman, Mulwaree, North Sydney,
Oberon, Orange, Parramatta, Penrith, Pittwater, Randwick, Rockdale, Ryde,
Rylstone, Shellharbour, Shoalhaven, Singleton, South Sydney, Strathfield,
Sutherland, Sydney City, Warringah, Waverley, Willoughby, Wingecarribee,
Wollondilly, Wollongong, Woollahra and Wyong. The study area falls within
the Sydney Basin IBRA Bioregion.
Families are: Rutaceae, Salicaceae, Sambucaceae, Santalaceae, Sapindaceae,
Sapotaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Selaginaceae, Simaroubaceae, Solanaceae,
Stackhousiaceae, Sterculiaceae, Stylidiaceae, Symplocaceae, Thymelaeaceae,
Tremandraceae, Tropaeolaceae, Ulmaceae, Urticaceae, Valerianaceae,
Verbenaceae, Viburnaceae, Violaceae, Viscaceae, Vitaceae, Winteraceae,
Zygophyllaceae.
Data are derived from herbarium collections, literature and field observations. It
is hoped that the many, often alarming gaps in the information available will
stimulate much-needed research into the ecology of more of the species.
Information is provided so far as available to us for each plant species in thefollowing categories:
Life History: Growth form, vegetative spread, longevity, primary juvenile
period (time from germination to fruiting), reproduction, flowering and fruitingtimes, fruit/seed type, dispersal, establishment and growth, fire response,interaction with other organisms.
Distribution: Status/origin (native/naturalised), botanical subregions,distribution in Sydney area, selected locations.
Habitat: Habitat, altitude, annual rainfall, typical local abundance, vegetation,
substrate, exposure.
Conservation: Conservation status.

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

242

Introduction
The Ecology of Sydney plant species aims to provide ecological information on nativeand naturalised Sydney plants. Particular emphasis has been given to data that are
relevant for ecologists and natural area managers, for people involved in bushregeneration, land rehabilitation and landscape design, for researchers in many fields
and for a wide range of people who are interested in bushland and native plants.
Species-specific information is also relevant to environmental impact assessment andto studies involving changes in drainage, water movement, wind exposure, nutrient
conditions and fire regimes on plant species and plant communities. Information
included covers growth form, flowering and fruiting times, longevity and maturation
periods, pollination and seed dispersal data, distribution, habitat and plant community,
as well as responses to fire and disturbance where available and is complementary to
the descriptive texts in taxonomic handbooks such as the Flora of New South Wales(Harden 1990–93).
Part 8 of the Ecology of Sydney plant species covers the Dicotyledon families
alphabetically from Rutaceae to Zygophyllaceae.
Part 9, Monocotyledon families Argavaceae to Juncaginceae will be published in
2002. Part 10, Monoctyledon families Lemnaceae to Zosteraceae 2003, Part 11,
Monocotyledon family Poaceae 2004.

Methods
Part 8 follows the format used in Parts 1–7b (Benson & McDougall 1993, 1994, 1995,
1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000). The Sydney region is defined as the Central Coast andCentral Tablelands botanical subdivisions (i.e. approximately bounded by Lake
Macquarie, Orange, Crookwell and Nowra) (Fig. 1). This is the area broadly covered
by Flora of the Sydney Region (Carolin & Tindale 1993), with the exception that the
Hunter Valley is not included here since it lies within the North Coast and Central
Western Slopes subdivisions. Relevant Local Government Areas are Auburn, Ashfield,
Bankstown, Bathurst, Baulkham Hills, Blacktown, Blayney, Blue Mountains, Botany,
Burwood, Cabonne, Camden, Campbelltown, Canterbury, Cessnock, Concord,
Crookwell, Drummoyne, Evans, Fairfield, Greater Lithgow, Gosford, Hawkesbury,
Holroyd, Hornsby, Hunters Hill, Hurstville, Kiama, Kogarah, Ku-ring-gai, Lake
Macquarie, Lane Cove, Leichhardt, Liverpool, Manly, Marrickville, Mosman,
Mulwaree, North Sydney, Oberon, Orange, Parramatta, Penrith, Pittwater, Randwick,
Rockdale, Ryde, Rylstone, Shellharbour, Shoalhaven, Singleton, South Sydney,
Strathfield, Sutherland, Sydney City, Warringah, Waverley, Willoughby,
Wingecarribee, Wollondilly, Wollongong, Woollahra and Wyong. The study area falls
within the Sydney Basin IBRA bioregion.
The Sydney region, as defined here, includes approximately 3500 plant species, both
native and naturalised. To deal effectively with this number, the work has been
divided into parts each of approximately 350 species based on plant families
beginning with ferns, Cycads and Gymnosperms, and then Dicotyledon andMonocotyledon families. Within these groups, families, genera and species arearranged alphabetically:

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8243

Part 1:

Ferns, Fern allies, Cycads and Conifers, Dicotyledon families Acanthaceae
to Asclepiadaceae (Cunninghamia 3(2) 1993)

Part 2:Dicotyledon families Asteraceae to Buddlejaceae (Cunninghamia 3(4) 1994)

Part 3:

Cabombaceae to Eupomatiaceae (Cunninghamia 4(2) 1995)

Part 4:Fabaceae (Cunninghamia 4(4) 1996)

Part 5:

Flacourtiaceae to Myrsinaceae (Cunninghamia 5(2) 1997)

Part 6:

Myrtaceae (Cunninghamia 5(4) 1998)

Part 7a:Nyctaginaceae to Primulaceae (Cunninghamia 6(2) 1999)

Part 7b: Proteaceae to Rubiaceae (Cunninghamia 6(4) 2000)
Part 8:Rutaceae to Zygophyllaceae (Cunninghamia 7(2) 2001)

Part 9:

Monocotyledon families Agavaceae to Juncaginaceae

Part 10:

Monocotyledon families Lemnaceae to Zosteraceae

Part 11:

Monocotyledon family Poaceae

For each species (and generally for subspecies) a data sheet is prepared incorporating
life history, distribution and habitat data from specimens in the National Herbariumof New South Wales; this information is entered in a database together with datafrom literature sources both published and unpublished. References have been citedwhere appropriate but for unreferenced data responsibility has been assumed by theauthors. A provisional compilation sheet with the available information is thenprepared and distributed to interested persons for comments and additions/alterations.
This compilation is then published in parts in the summer issue of Cunninghamia,
with the subsequent long-term aim of producing a book at the completion of theeleven parts. This will allow the incorporation of new and additional material.
Part 9, Monocotyledon families Agavaceae to Juncaginceae, is planned for
publication in 2002, and any information that readers would like included should besent to the authors by 30 June 2002.
Ecological review papers may be appropriate for families in future issues,particularly the major families e.g. Cyperaceae, Poaceae, Orchidaceae, but papers
would also be welcomed for smaller families. Authors interested in contributing such
papers should contact the Scientific Editor.

Information categories
For each species or subspecies, information is presented under headings relating todifferent life-history aspects, each with further subdivisions. Emphasis has been
given to understanding the species in its wild habitat. For this reason data on
cultivation and artificial propagation, available in horticultural books, are generally
not included. Likewise information on weed control is not given. Generally, thecategories are broadly interpreted and since the project aims to stimulate further
investigation, we welcome the addition of extra data on any other aspects of theplant’s ecology.

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

244

A ‘comments’ section has been deliberately avoided — for all information retrieval
purposes, all ecological material should be attributable to some life history aspect ofthe plant or its habitat although even with our broad categories there have been
problems with ‘Vegetation‘ and ‘Substrate’ sections for specialised lifeforms such as
mistletoes. The main purpose of this information is to give a picture of the ecology ofparticular species as is currently known. It is not primarily for comparative purposes
although it can be used in this way. One of our original aims was to demonstrate thatclosely related species may have different ecologies and that to generalise within
genera for example rather than look at a particular species is an over simplification.
We have also included reference to individualistic information resulting from specificresearch that will not necessarily be available for all species.
Similarly where we have observations on the effects of factors such as drought onparticular species we have included these, though we have not included a categoryfor ‘drought’ because of difficulties in definition. One of our aims is to be openended, to point out that there are many gaps in the ecological knowledge and toindicate areas and species where future work may be particularly useful.

Botanical nomenclature
Family/Genus/Species: Names currently recognised at the National Herbarium of
NSW and mostly as used in Flora of New South Wales.
Common name: Names used in Flora of New South Wales.

Life history
Growth form: Brief description.
Source: Flora of New South Wales.
Vegetative spread: Indication of whether localised expansion or spread is possible
from an individual by rhizome, stolon, rootsucker etc. Important in determining
ability of species to colonise immediate local area. Does not include vegetative distancedispersal which is included under ‘Dispersal, establishment & growth’ (diaspore).
Source: Flora descriptions, Herbarium specimens, field observations.
Longevity: Average potential life-span under natural conditions — range in years
where possible, indefinite, where death is not a result of inherent growth e.g.
continued rhizomatous growth. Longevity may be shorter in cultivation. There arevery few references in the literature to the longevity of species or records ofindividual plants, particularly of the longer-lived species, yet this is an importantfactor in assessing importance of recruitment and changes in plant communities.
Most of the estimates given are based on the authors’ judgement, based on the shape,size and growth rates of individuals, and the authors’ experience in the field over 25
years, together with any historical data available. The figures given are conservativeand represent minimal average ages. The authors would not be surprised if muchgreater ages are achieved in many cases.
Source: literature, authors’ assessment from field observations.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

245

Primary juvenile period: time taken from germination to produce first fruits or spores.
Gill (1975) uses the term for the period from germination to flowering but the period
to fruit maturity is more significant ecologically. Secondary juvenile period is time
taken for an individual to recover to produce fruit after major damage e.g. from fire,
but applicable only if species regularly resprouts. The time required to accumulate aseedbank sufficient to ensure reasonable recruitment in the event of mass mortality isalso an important consideration. Primary and secondary juvenile periods should not
be considered as absolute and they may vary spatially as a function of habitat factors(moisture availability, nutrients etc.) and temporally (e.g. climatic variation).
Source: literature, field observations.
Reproduction: for Angiosperms, reproduction is separated into:
Flowers: predominant flower colour, flowering period — range of months and, where
possible, peak month based on frequency of herbarium collections. Pollination vectors.
Fruit: fruit shape and size, particularly with respect to potential dispersal agents.
Maturation period. Seed size and number.
Source: Herbarium specimens, field observations, Flora of New South Wales, literature.
Dispersal, establishment and growth: diaspore type (including vegetative), dispersal
agent. Germination requirements: seedbank presence, dormancy, growth rates, seasonality, deciduousness etc. [notes on propagation in cultivation may be given wherethese imply similar behaviour under natural field conditions e.g. insights into seedgermination inhibition].
Source: literature, field observations.
Fire response: general response of mature plant to fire, in particular whether it
generally resprouts or is killed (see also Gill 1981, Gill & Bradstock 1992). Seedlingrecruitment associated with fire is included under establishment and growth. Entries
such as ‘probably killed’ mean that a species has no obvious morphologicalcharacteristics likely to assist in surviving and resprouting following fire. Whilespecies that resprout after fire may be readily noted, the death of individuals may not
be observed unless the occurrence of the species in the area was well known prior to
the fire.
For a given species some populations may be capable of resprouting while otherpopulations may be killed. This may explain cases where contradictory evidence has
been given though response to fire in some species may depend on fire intensity.
In view of the limited information available for many species, the categories of Gill
and Bradstock (1992) have not been applied at this stage.
Source: field observations, literature.
Interaction with other organisms: symbiosis, predators, diseases etc.
Source: mainly literature.

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

246

Distribution
Status/origin: native or naturalised, region of origin, source and date of introduction/
naturalisation. Naturalised species indicated by an asterisk following the botanicalname.
Source: Flora of New South Wales, literature.
Botanical subregions: occurrence of species in botanical subdivisions of NSW, otherstates and countries.
Source: National Herbarium of New South Wales.
Distribution in Sydney region: main geographic regions occupied by species.
Source: Herbarium specimen records.
Selected locations: restricted to about 10 localities for each taxon reflecting naturalgeographical range of species in the Sydney area. Earliest collection dates are given
for some species, particularly exotic species. Recent collection sites indicated where
possible. Locality data must be interpreted carefully. The record may be based on an
old specimen or observation record and the species may no longer be present at thesite. However a knowledge of the original distribution may be important in showing
up particular habitat requirements of the species.
Source: Herbarium specimen records.

HabitatSpecific data refer to Sydney area unless stated otherwise.
Habitat: brief generalised description.
Source: Herbarium specimen records, field observations.
Altitude: approximate altitudinal range (m +/- 100 m) occupied by the species,
Source: Herbarium specimen records.
Annual rainfall: approximate annual rainfall range (mm +/- 100 mm) for sites
occupied by the species.
Source: Bureau of Meteorology (1979).
Typical local abundance: most frequent recordings (scale: dominant/frequent/occasional/rare)
Source: Herbarium specimen records.
Vegetation: main structural type with typical associated species where available.
Source: Herbarium specimen records, field observations, literature.
Substrate: geology, soil, moisture supply.
Soil nutrient rating scale: very fertile (high nutrient) (e.g. basalt soils)/ fertile(moderate nutrient)/ infertile (low nutrient)/ very infertile (very low nutrient) (e.g.
sands).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

247

Soil salinity scale: hypersaline/ saline/ brackish/ fresh.
Source: Herbarium specimen records, field observations, literature.
Exposure:
Exposure scale: exposed/ indifferent/ sheltered.
Shading scale: deep shade/ mid shade/ light shade/ no shade.
Source: Herbarium specimen records, field observations, literature.

Conservation
Conservation: listing as Endangered or Vulnerable, or as Endangered Population onschedules of the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995; national significancelisting (Briggs & Leigh 1996), Rare or Threatened Australian Plants (ROTAP) database;comments on regional significance and adequacy of conservation within Sydney area
are based on authors’ knowledge of the abundance of species and their primaryoccurrence in major conservation areas. These comments apply to the Sydney region;a species may be common or rare elsewhere. ‘Probably’ is used in many cases as it is
the authors’ views that a definite categorisation of ‘adequately conserved’ needs to be
based on a better knowledge of the species’ biology and distribution than we have atpresent for most species.
Source: Herbarium records, field observations, literature.

General comments on part 8Part 8 covers 325 plant species of the families Rutaceae to Zygophyllaceae, 236 nativeand 89 naturalised exotics.
Excluded from this work are a number of exotic species that do not appear to be truly
naturalised in the Sydney region (Kickxia commutata subsp. graeca, Nierembergia
hippomanica, Petunia axillaris, Physalis virginiana, Solanum erianthum, Veronica hederifolia,
Verbena aristigera).
General aspects of the ecology of the Rutaceae family are covered in theaccompanying paper by Auld (page 213). Other plant families in this part are
Salicaceae, Sambucaceae, Santalaceae, Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae, Scrophulariaceae,
Selaginaceae, Simaroubaceae, Solanaceae, Stackhousiaceae, Sterculiaceae, Stylidiaceae,
Symplocaceae, Thymelaeaceae, Tremandraceae, Tropaeolaceae, Ulmaceae, Urticaceae,
Valerianaceae, Verbenaceae, Viburnaceae, Violaceae, Viscaceae, Vitaceae, Winteraceae,
Zygophyllaceae. Very little ecological work has been done on these groups.

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

248

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Poul Kubiak who supplied his observations andpost-fire recordings, and especially Rod Roberts who devoted many hours recording
Herbarium data.
We also thank Tony Auld, Garry Chapple, Bill Conroy, Bob Coveny, Trevor Deane,
Ross Doig, Marco Duretto, Penny Farrant, Miguel Garcia, Gwen Harden, Jocelyn
Howell, Keith Ingram, Alan Leishman, Debby McGerty, Bob Makinson, Maria Matthes,
Kevin Mills, Robert Payne, Barbara Rice, Jennifer Talbot for assistance, advice andinformation.

References
Adam, P. & Williams, G. (2001) Dioecy, self-compatibility and vegetative reproduction inAustralian subtropical rainforest trees and shrubs. Cunninghamia 7(1): 89–100.
Agriculture & Natural Resources (1991) Growers weed identification handbook (University ofCalifornia: Oakland).
Anon (1991) Appendix 10. In Plant Invasions the incidence of environmental weeds in Australia.
Kowari 2 (Australian National Parks & Wildlife Service: Canberra).
ANPI Australian Native Produce Industries Pty Ltd (1997) Australian native food industry:
prosperity from Australia’s natural resources 2. Australian Plants 19(151): 131–134.
Archer, W.R. (1984) Thesium australe R. Brown (Santalaceae) — field notes and observations. The
Victorian Naturalist 101: 81–85.
Archer, W.R. (1987) Additional field notes and observations of Thesium australe R. Brown(Santalaceae). The Victorian Naturalist 104: 46–49.
Auld, T. D., Denham, A.J., Bradstock, R.A. & Keith, D.A. (1991) WWF Project P154: Germination ofrare plants in relation to fire (National Parks & Wildlife Service NSW: Hurstville).
Ayallew, D. & Brooks, J. (1992) Pimelea spicata. Conservation Research Statement Recovery Plan,NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service.
Barker, R.D. & Vestjens, W.J.M. (1989) The food of Australian birds. Vol. 1 (CSIRO Australia:
Melbourne).
Barker, R.D. & Vestjens, W.J.M. (1990) The food of Australian birds. Vol. 2 (CSIRO Australia:
Melbourne).
Barker, W.R. (1982) Taxonomic studies in Euphrasia L. (Scrophulariaceae). A revised infrageneric classification, and a revision of the genus in Australia. Journal of Adelaide Botanic
Gardens 5: 1–304.
Barratt, T. (1997) An investigation into the distribution and status of Zieria baeuerlenii, theBomaderry Zieria: a case for declaration of critical habitat. Prepared for the Australian
Conservation Foundation (Shoalhaven Branch).
Bass, D. (1987) Weeds and human health, unpublished report (Department of Allergy, RoyalNorth Shore Hospital: St Leonards).
Bass, D.A. & Bass, D.J. (1990) Parietaria judaica L. A cause of allergic disease in Sydney. A studyof habit and spread of the weed. Palaeobotany and Palynology 64: 97–101.
Bayly, M.J. (1998) Notes on the Eriostemon myoporoides (Rutaceae) species complex, including
new names and a new generic placement in Philotheca. Muelleria 11: 113–126.
Beadle, N.C.W., Evans, O.D., Carolin, R.C. & Tindale, Mary D. (1982) Flora of the Sydney Region.
Third Edition (Reed: Frenchs Forest).
Bean, A.R. (1999) A revision of Stylidium sect. Debilia Mildbr., S. sect. Floodia Mildbr. and S.
sect. Lanata A.R. Bean (Stylidiaceae). Austrobaileya 5: 427–455.
Beattie, A.J. (1982) Ants and gene dispersal in flowering plants. In Pollination and evolution Eds
J.A. Armstrong, J.M. Powell, & A.J. Richards (Royal Botanic Gardens: Sydney).
Bennett, (1972) A revision of the Australian species of Hybanthus Jacquin (Violaceae). Nuytsia 1:
218–241.
Benson, D.H. (1981) Vegetation at Agnes Banks sand deposit, Richmond, New South Wales.
Cunninghamia 1(3): 35–57.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8249

Benson, D.H. (1985) Maturation periods for fire-sensitive shrub species in Hawkesbury
Sandstone vegetation. Cunninghamia 1(3): 339–349.
Benson, D.H. & Howell, J. (1993) A strategy for the rehabilitation of the riparian vegetation of
the Hawkesbury-Nepean River (Royal Botanic Gardens: Sydney).
Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1993) Ecology of Sydney plant species part 1: Ferns, fern-allies,
cycads, conifers and dicotyledon families Acanthaceae to Asclepiadaceae. Cunninghamia
3(2): 257–422.
Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1994) Ecology of Sydney plant species part 2: dicotyledonfamilies Asteraceae to Buddlejaceae. Cunninghamia 3(4): 789–1004.
Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1995) Ecology of Sydney plant species part 3: dicotyledonfamilies Cabombaceae to Eupomatiaceae. Cunninghamia 4(2): 217–431.
Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1996) Ecology of Sydney plant species part 4: dicotyledonfamily Fabaceae. Cunninghamia 4(4): 553–752.
Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1997) Ecology of Sydney plant species part 5: dicotyledonfamilies Flacourtiaceae to Myrsinaceae. Cunninghamia 5(2): 330–544.
Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1998) Ecology of Sydney plant species part 6: dicotyledonfamily Myrtaceae. Cunninghamia 5(4): 808–987.
Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1999) Ecology of Sydney plant species part 7a: dicotyledonfamilies Nyctaginaceae to Primulaceae. Cunninghamia 6(2): 402–509.
Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (2000) Ecology of Sydney plant species part 7b: dicotyledonfamilies Proteaceae to Rubiaceae. Cunninghamia 6(4): 1017–1202.
Bernhardt, P. & Burns-Balogh, P. (1983) Pollination and pollinarium of Dipodium punctatum(Sm.) R.Br. The Victorian Naturalist 100: 197–199.
Binden, P. (1996) Useful bush plants (Western Australian Museum: Perth).
Briggs, J.D. & Leigh, J.H. (1996) Rare or threatened Australian plants (CSIRO: Canberra).
Brown, K. (2001) Patience yields secrets of seed longevity. Science 291: 1884–1885.
Buchanan, R.A. (1989a) Pied Currawongs (Strepera graculina): their diet and role in weed
dispersal in suburban Sydney, New South Wales. Proceedings of Linnean Society of New South
Wales 111: 241–255.
Buchanan, R.A. (1989b) Bush regeneration: recovering Australian landscapes (TAFE: Sydney).
Buckley, R.C. (ed.) (1982) Ant-plant interactions in Australia (Junk Publishers: The Hague).
Bureau of Meteorology (1979) Climatic survey Sydney, region 5, New South Wales (Australian
Govt. Pub. Service: Canberra).
Burns, M. (1996) Designing for Wally, a resident wombat. Native plants (NSW) 31(4).
Cambie, R.C. & Ash, J. (1994) Fijian medicinal plants (CSIRO Australia: Melbourne).
Carolin, R.C. & Clarke, P. (1991) Beach plants of south eastern Australia (Sainty & Associates: Potts
Point).
Carolin, R.C. & Tindale, M. D. (1993) Flora of the Sydney region. Fourth Edition (Reed: Chatswood).
Carr, G.W., Yugovic, J.V. & Robinson, K.E. (1992) Environmental weed invasions in Victoria:
conservation and management implications (Dept. of Conservation & Environment: East
Melbourne).
Chancellor, R.J. (1980) Garden weeds and their control (Inkata Press: Melbourne).
Ciba-Geigy (1968-) Weed tables (Ciba-Geigy: Basel).
Clemson, A. (1985) Honey and pollen flora (Inkata Press: Melbourne).
Cohn, J. (n.d.) Conservation research statement and recovery plans (research and management
for Phebalium lachnaeoides Cunn. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service
Endangered Species Program Project No. 251.
Cook, E. (2001) Comments about berries of Solanum nigrum. In Gumnuts 33. Website:www.farrer.riv.csu.edu./ASGAP/
Common, I.F.B. (1990) Moths of Australia (Melbourne University Press: Collingwood).
Common, I.F.B. & Waterhouse, D.F. (1981) Butterflies of Australia. Rev. ed. (Angus & Robertson:
Sydney).
Common, I.F.B. & Waterhouse, D.F. (1982) Butterflies of Australia: field edition (Angus & Robertson:
Sydney).
Cooper, W. & Cooper, W.T. (1994) Fruits of the rain forest, a guide to fruits in Australian tropicalrain forests (R D Press: Surrey Hills).
Coupar, P. & Coupar, M. (1992) Flying colours, common caterpillars, butterflies and moths of southeastern Australia (New South Wales University Press: Kensington).

250

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

Cremer, K., Van Krayenoord, C., Parker, N. & Streatfield, S. (1995) Willows spreading by seed
— implications for Australian river management. Australian Journal of Soil and Water
Conservation 8(4): 18–27.
Cremer, K.W. (1995) Willow identification for river management in Australia. Technical Paper
no. 3, CSIRO Division of Forestry.
Cribb, A.B. & Cribb, J.W. (1981) Useful wild plants in Australia (Collins: Sydney).
Cribb, A.B. & Cribb, J.W. (1984) Wild food in Australia (Collins, Sydney).
Cronk, W.C.B. & Fuller, J. (1995) Plant invaders: the threat to natural ecosystems (Chapman & Hall:
London).
Cross, J. & West, J. (1993) Dodonaea. Australian Native Plants 17(137): 191–224.
CSIRO Division of Entomology (1991) The insects of Australia (Melbourne University Press:
Melbourne).
Cunningham, G.M., Mulham, W.E., Milthorpe, P.L. & Leigh, J.H. (1981) Plants of western New
South Wales (Government Printer: Sydney).
Dann, P.R. (1986) Willow — a multi-purpose tree. Agfact P1.8.3, Department of Agriculture
NSW.
Downey, P. O. (1998) An inventory of host species for each aerial mistletoe species(Loranthaceae and Viscaceae) in Australia. Cunninghamia 5(3): 685–720.
Duretto, M.F. (1999) Systematics of Boronia section Valvatae sensu lato (Rutaceae). Muelleria 12:
1-131.
Eby, P. (1995) The biology and management of flying foxes in NSW (National Parks & Wildlife
Service: Hurstville).
Everist, S. L. (1974) Poisonous plants of Australia (Angus & Robertson: Sydney).
Fairley, A. & Moore, P. (1989) Native plants of the Sydney district: an identification guide(Kangaroo Press: Kenthurst).
Floyd, A.G. (1966) Effect of fire upon weed seeds in the wet sclerophyll forest of northern New
South Wales. Australian Journal of Botany 14: 243–256.
Floyd, A.G. (1989) Rainforest trees of mainland south-eastern Australia (Inkata Press: Sydney).
Floyd, A.G. (1990) Australian rainforests in New South Wales. Vols 1 & 2 (Surrey Beatty/NPWS:
Chipping Norton).
Fox, M.D. (1988) Understorey changes following fire at Myall Lakes, New South Wales.
Cunninghamia 2(1): 85–95.
French, K. (1991) Characteristics and abundance of vertebrate-dispersed fruits in temperate wetsclerophyll forest in south eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 16: 1–13.
French, K. & Westoby, M. (1996) Vertebrate-dispersed species in a fire-prone environment.
Australian Journal of Ecology 21: 379–385.
Fuller, L. & Badans, R. (1980) Wollongong’s native trees (Weston: Kiama).
Fuller, L. & Mills, K. (1985) Native trees of central Illawarra (Weston: Kiama).
Gilfedder, L. & Kirkpatrick, J.B. (1997) Observations on the ecology and conservation of Yellow
Eyebright Euphrasia scabra Scrophulariaceae, in Tasmania. The Victorian Naturalist 114: 67–73.
Gill, A.M. (1975) Fire and the Australian flora: a review. Australian Forestry 38: 4–25.
Gill, A.M. (1981) Adaptive responses of Australian vascular plant species to fires. Chapter 11 inFire and the Australian biota (A.M. Gill, R.H. Groves, I.R. Noble Eds) (Australian Academy of
Science: Canberra).
Gill, A.M. & Bradstock, R.A. (1992) A national register for the fire responses of plant species.
Cunninghamia 2 (4): 653–660.
Griffith, S.J. (1992) Thesium australe. Species Recovery Plan Australian National Parks andWildlife Service Endangered Species Program Project N. 196.
Harden, G.J. (2000) Supplement to flora of New South Wales. Vol. 1 (New South Wales University
Press: Kensington).
Harden, G.J. (Ed.) (1990-93) Flora of New South Wales Vols 1–4 (New South Wales University
Press: Kensington).
Hawkesbury Rainforest Newsletter (1997) Seed dispersion (bird droppings). Hawkesbury
Rainforest Newsletter no. 2.
Hawkeswood, T.J. (1981) A list and further notes on the butterflies from Glenbrook, New South
Wales. The Victorian Naturalist 98: 210–213.
Hawkeswood, T.J. (1983) Pollination and fruit production of Cupaniopsis anacardioides (A. Rich.)
Radlkf. (Sapindaceae) at Townsville, North Queensland. 1. pollination and floral biology.
Hawkeswood, T.J. (1987) Beetles of Australia (Angus & Robertson: North Ryde).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

251

Hawkeswood, T.J. (1993) Review of the biology, host plants and immature stages of theAustralian Cerambycidae. Part 2. Cerambycinae (Tribes Oemini, Cerambycini,
Hesperophanini, Callidiopini, Neostenini, Aphanasiini, Phlyctaenodini, Tessarommatini andPiesarthrini). Giornale Italiano Di Entomologia 6: 313–355.
Hawkeswood, T.J. & Dauber, D. (1991) Review of the biology and host plants of the Australian
longicorn beetle Agrianome spinicollis (Macleay) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). Bulletin and
Annals of the Royal Belgium Entomological Society 127: 141–146.
Humphries, S.E. (1993) Environmental impact of weeds. In: Proceedings II, 10th Australian Weed
Conference (Weed Society Queensland: Brisbane).
Hurst, E. (1942) The poison plants of New South Wales (The Poison Plants Committee of University ofSydney & the NSW Department of Agriculture).
James, T.A. (1996) New combinations in Viola (Violaceae). Muelleria 9: 35-36.
James, T.A., McDougall, L. & Benson, D.H. (1999) Rare Bushland Plants of Western Sydney (Royal
Botanic Gardens: Sydney).
Johnson, K.A. & Burchett, M. (1996) Native Australian Plants: horticulture and uses (University of
New South Wales Press: Sydney).
Jones, D. & Elliot, R. (1986) Pests diseases and ailments of Australian plants (Lothian: Port Melbourne).
Keith, D. (1994) Floristics, stucture and diversity of natural vegetation in the O’Hares Creek
catchment, south of Sydney. Cunninghamia 3(3): 543-594.
Keith, D. (1996) Fire-driven extinction of plant populations: a synthesis of theory and review of
evidence from Australian vegetation. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of NSW 116: 37–78.
Keith, D.A. & Benson, D.H. (1988) The natural vegetation of the Katoomba 1:100 000 map sheet.
Cunninghamia 2: 107–143.
Knox, G., Olbrich, D. & Kureen, D. (1994) City of Randwick Community Nursery Newsletter No. 6,
Winter.
Kodela, P. (1989) Vascular plant species list for Robertson Nature Reserve, Central Tablelands,
NSW. (unpublished, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney).
Kodela, P.G. & Foster, D.A. (1990) Common plants and soil salinity in the Lower Boro area,
Southern Tablelands, New South Wales. Cunninghamia 2(2): 217–222.
Kodela, P.G., James, T.A., Coveny, R.G. & Hind, P.D. (1992) Reconnaissance survey of thevegetation at Long Swamp, near Penrose, Central Tablelands, NSW. Unpub. (Royal Botanic
Gardens Sydney).
Kudo, K. & Kelly, W.R. (1985) Experimental poisoning of mice and sheep with Cestrum parqui
In: Plant toxicology: Proceedings of the Australia-USA Poisonous Plants Symposium, Brisbane,
Australia, May 14–18, 1984 (Animal Research Institute: Yeerongpilly, Qld).
Langkamp, P.J. (Ed.) (1987) Germination of Australian native plant seed (Inkata Press: Melbourne).
Leigh, J., Boden, R. and Briggs, J. (1984) Extinct and endangered plants of Australia (Macmillan:
South Melbourne).
Lepschi, B.J. (1993) Food of some birds in eastern New South Wales: additions to Barker &Vestjens. Emu 93: 195–199.
Lepschi, B.J. (1999) Taxonomic revision of Leptomeria (Santalaceae). Australian Systematic Botany 12:
55–100.
Low, T. (1988) Wild food plants of Australia (Angus & Robertson Publishers: North Ryde).
Low, T. (1990) Bush medicine, a pharmacopoeia of natural remedies (Angus & Robertson: Sydney).
Lowman, Margaret D. (1992) Leaf growth dynamics and herbivory in five species of Australianrain-forest canopy trees. Journal of Ecology 80: 433–447.
Maiden, J.H. (1889) The useful plants of Australia. Facsimile edition (1975) (Compendium: Sydney).
Maiden, J.H. (1909) Sir Joseph Banks, the ‘Father of Australia’ (Government Printer: Sydney).
Maiden, J.H. & Campbell, W.S. (1898) The flowering plants and ferns of New South Wales withspecial reference to their economic value. Parts 7 (Department of Mines and Agriculture:
NSW).
Maiden, J.H. & Campbell, W.S. (1895–8) The flowering plants and ferns of New South Waleswith special reference to their economic value. Parts 1–7 (Department of Mines andAgriculture: NSW).
McIntyre, S., Lavorel, S., & Tremont, R.M. (1995) Plant life-hisory attributes: their relationshipto disturbance response in herbaceous vegetation. Journal of Ecology 83: 31–44.
McLoughlin, L. & Rawling, J. (1990) Making your garden bush friendly: how to recognise and control
garden plants which invade Sydney’s bushland (McLoughlin-Rawling: Killara).
McRae, R.H.D. (1990) Vegetation of Bouddi Peninsula, New South Wales. Cunninghamia 2(2):261–293.

252

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

Michael, P. (1997) Weeds wet and wild: aquatic weeds workshop manual (Australian Turfgrass
Research Institute Ltd: Concord West).
Michael, P.W. (1995) A new name for a widespread and misunderstood species of Verbena(Verbenaceae). Telopea 6 (2–3): 181–183.
Michael, P.W. (1997a) Notes on Verbena officinalis sensu stricto and V. macrostachya (Verbenaceae)with new combinations in two closely related taxa. Telopea 7(3): 293–297.
Michael, P.W. (1997b) A putative hybrid in Verbena (Verbenaceae) and the application of thename V. brasiliensis. Telopea 7(3): 299–300.
Mills, K. (1988) Conservation of rainforest plant species, Illawarra region of NSW, inventory,
assessment and recommendations for management (NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service:
Hurstville).
Mills, K. (1996) Assessment of threatened plant species, Bomaderry Creek Link Road, City of
Shoalhaven. A report prepared for Shoalhaven City Council, Nowra NSW.
Morgan, J.W. & Lunt, I.D. (1994) Germination characteristics of eight common grassland andwoodland forbs. The Victorian Naturalist 111: 10–17.
Murphy, E.V.A. (1990) Indian uses of native plants (Meyerbooks: Illinois).
Muyt, A. (2001) Bush invaders of south-east Australia (McPherson’s Printing Group: Maryborough,Victoria )Nicholson, N. & Nicholson, H. (1994) Australian rainforest plants IV (Terania Rainforest: NSW).
Norton, A.E. (1994) Field observations into Tetratheca juncea Sm fire regeneration and its
distribution within Lake macquarie City Council (BHP Steel: Sydney).
Parsons, W.T. & Cuthbertson, E.G. (1992, 2001) Noxious weeds of Australia (Inkata Press:
Melbourne).
Payne, R.J. (1993) Prediction of the habitat for Tetratheca juncea in the Munmorah area, near
Wyong, New South Wales. Cunninghamia 3(1): 147–154.
Purdie, R.W. (1977) Early stages of regeneration after burning in dry sclerophyll vegetation: 1
Regeneration of the understorey by vegetative means. Australian Journal of Botany 25: 21–34.
Pyke, G. (1981) Leave it to the birds and bees. Australian Natural History 20: 217–218.
Reid, N. (1987) The Mistletoebird and Australian Mistletoes: Co-evolution or coincidence? Emu
87: 130–131.
Rice, B. & Westoby, M. (1981) Myrmecochory in sclerophyll vegetation of the West Head, NewSouth Wales. Australian Journal of Ecology 6: 291–298.
Scarlett, N., Bramwell, M. & Earl, G. (1994) Austral Toad-flax. Action Statement No. 56. (Floraand Fauna Branch, Dept. of Conservation & Natural Resources: East Melbourne).
Scarlett, N.H. & Parsons, R.F. (1992) Conservation of Victorian grassland species. In:
Conservation of rare of threatened plants in Australasia. Eds G. Butler, L. Meredith & M. Richardson (Australian National Botanic Gardens: Canberra).
Scott, J. (1994) Conservation research statement for Asterolasia elegans McDougall & Porteners.
Australian Nature Conservation Agency Endangered Species Program Project no. 297.
Scott, J.K. & Morrison, S.M. (1996) Variation in populations of Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae).
1. Burr morphology. Australian Journal of Botany 44: 175–190.
Seddon, G. & Cameron, D. (1985) Temperate rainforest. Landscape Australia 2:85, 141–151.
Semple, W.S. (1993) Native and naturalised plants of some saline sites in the central west of
NSW. Technical Report No. 31 (Department of Conservation & Land Management: Sydney).
Semple, W.S. (1997) Native and naturalised shrubs of the Bathurst granites: past and present.
Cunninghamia 5(1): 49–80.
Sheringham, P.R. & Sanders, J.M. (1993) Vegetation survey of Garigal National Park andsurrounding Crown Lands (NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service: Hurstville).
Smith, J. (1999) Australian driftseeds (University of New England Printery: Armidale).
Squires, V.R. (1969) Distribution and polymorphism of Tribulus terrestris sens. lat. in Australia.
The Victorian Naturalist 86: 328–334.
Steenbeeke, G. (2001) comments about Kurrajongs. In Gumnuts Part 2, 37(July). Website:www.farrer.riv.csu.edu.au/ASGAP/
Stockard, J., Nicholson, B. & Williams, G. (1985) An assessment of a rainforest regeneration
program at Wingham Brush, New South Wales. The Victorian Naturalist 103: 84–91.
Swarbrick, J.T. & Skarratt, D.B. (1994) The bushweed 2 database of environmental weeds in Australia(University of Queensland Gatton College: Lawes).
Symon, D.E. (1994) Kangaroo Apples (State Herbarium of South Australia: Adelaide).
Tanner, L. R. (Ed.) (1993) Proceedings of the seventh biennial noxious plants conference Vol. 1 (NSW
Agriculture: Tamworth).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

253

Thomas, J. & Benson, D.H. (1985) Vegetation survey of Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park (Royal
Botanic Gardens: Sydney).
Thomas, J., Burkitt, J. & Benson, D.H. (1984) Vegetation survey of Bents Basin State Recreation
Area. Unpublished (Royal Botanic Gardens: Sydney).
Thompson, B. (1992) Rough Eyebright Euphrasia scabra. Action Statement No. 10. (Departmentof Conservation and Environment: East Melbourne).
Threlfall, S. (1982) The genus Pimelea (Thymelaeaceae) in eastern mainland Australia. Brunonia
5: 113–201.
Trease, G.E. (1946) A text-book of pharmacognosy (Bailliere, Tindall & Cox: Covent Garden).
Trounce, R.B. (1990). Parietaria judaica — pellitory. Agnote DPI/19 (NSW Agriculture andFisheries).
Vaughan, P. (2001) In Gumnuts Newsletter No. 33. Website: www.farrer.riv.csu.edu.au/ASGAP/
Wace, N. (1977) Assessment of dispersal of plant species — the car-borne flora in Canberra.
Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 10: 167–186.
Wallace, J. (1997) A good drop. Native Plants (NSW) 32(1).
Webb, G.A. (1993) Plant associations of some Australian Jewel Beetles (Coleoptera: Buprestidae:
Agrilinae). The Victorian Naturalist 110: 160–162
West, J. (1993) Hopbushes on the wind. Australian Native Plants 17(137): 225–226.
Westoby, M., Rice, B. & Howell, J. (1990) Seed size and plant growth form as factors in dispersal
spectra. Ecology 71: 1307–1315.
Whittet, J.N. (1958) Weeds: a volume in the farmers’ handbook series (NSW Dept. Agriculture).
Williams, G.A. & Adam, P. (1997) The composition of the bee (Apoidea: Hymenoptera) fauna
visiting flowering trees in New South Wales lowland subtropical rainforest remnants.
Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 118: 69–95.
Williams, G.A. & Adam, P. (1998) Pollen loads collected from large insects in Australiansubtropical rainforests. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 120: 49–67.
Wilson, P.G. (1998a) Nomenclatural notes and new taxa in the genera Asterolasia, Drummondita
and Microcybe (Rutaceae: Boronieae). Nuytsia 12: 83–88.
Wilson, P.G. (1998b) A taxonomic review of the genera Eriostemon and Philotheca (Rutaceae:
Boronieae). Nuytsia 12: 239–265.
Wilson, P.G. (1998c) New species and nomenclatural changes in Phebalium and related genera(Rutaceae). Nuytsia 12: 267–288.

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

254

iver
quarie Rac
M

Rylstone
Coricudgy

Range

CC

Bathurst

Lithgow

Nepean–Hawkesbur

at

ive

R

Ab e rGreCT

C o xsOberonr

cr o mbie
Riv

PictonWindsorPenrithParramatta

SydneyLiverpool
Botany Bay
Camden

iv

W
ollon
dilly

R

er

e

r

Gosford

Mt TomahR.
yBlayney

Wyong

Dividing

OrangeWollongong

N

Berry
Nowra

NSW

Sydney050kilometres

Map of the Sydney region
For the Ecology of Sydney Plant Species the Sydney region is defined as the Central
Coast and Central Tablelands botanical subdivisions.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

255

Dicotyledon families Rutaceae to Zygophyllaceae

Acronychia oblongifolia

RUTACEAE

Common Acronychia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or medium-sized tree to 27 m high; leaves 4–12 cm long, witha bump at base of leaf blade.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Creamy white, bisexual, February–March.
Fruit/seed: White, edible fleshy 4-lobed fruit, 13 mm diam., with a tuft of hairs,
mature summer. Fruit 3 500 per kilogram, seeds 170 000 per kilogram (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, both vertebrate and ant-adaptedfor dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Germination slow and difficult, with only 5%
germination after 175 days (Floyd 1989).
Fire response: Resprouts from base (Adam & Williams 2001).
Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Green Catbird, Pied Currawong,
Regent Bowerbird, Satin Bowerbird, Topknot Pigeon and Wompoo Fruit-dove (Floyd1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast and coastal ranges.
Select locations: CC: North Entrance,Yarramalong, Gosford, Newport, Kogarah,
Razorback, Bola Creek, Otford, Mt Keira, Minnamurra Falls, Berry, Cambewarra
Range.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Steep slopes, gullies, creeks.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Littoral rainforest e.g. with Glochidion ferdinandi, Acmena smithii,
Cupaniopsis anacardioides, Livistona australis, Dendrochnide excelsa; gully rainforest
e.g. with Glochidion ferdinandi.
Substrate: Alluvial and clayey soils, medium nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation statuselsewhere unknown. Reported in Dharug NP, Sydney Harbour NP.

256

Acronychia wilcoxiana

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE

Silver Aspen_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small tree to 9 m high; leaves with scattered oil dots.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Whitish, January–May (Floyd 1989).
Fruit/seed: White fleshy fruit 8–20 mm diam., with black seeds. Fruit mature March–May,
1 270 per kilogram, seeds 125 000 per kilogram (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Difficult to germinate (Floyd 1989).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Wompoo Fruit-dove (Floyd 1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Gosford–Wyong area.
Select locations: CC: Ourimbah, Strickland SF, Matcham, Gosford.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creek banks, gullies.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Gully rainforest (warm temperate) e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, Glochidion
ferdinandi, Archontophoenix cunninghamiana, Ripogonum fawcettianum, Smilax australis, Cissus
hypoglauca.
Substrate: Alluvium, brown clay over shale, high nutrients.
Exposure: Sheltered.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Gosford is southern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown.

Asterolasia asteriscophora

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub 1–2 m high, with grey–brown hairy covering on young branches.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow, August–November, peak October.
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, segmented fruit with dull black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC NT CT ?ST; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Tablelands, sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Buxton, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Towac, Canobolas, Medway, Penrose.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky outcrops.
Altitude: 300–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Eucalypt open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, E. sclerophylla.
Substrate: Rock outcrops e.g. trachyte, sandstone, shallow sandy soil, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Uncommon, conservation status unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Asterolasia buxifolia

257

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 2 m high, similar to Asterolasia asteriscophora.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Probably about 20–40 years (B. Makinson pers. comm.).
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow, probably insect-pollinated, October.
Fruit/seed:
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Probably killed.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Western Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CT: River Lett, Hartley.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riverbanks.
Altitude: 700–800 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Shrubland e.g. with Acacia buxifolia, Calytrix tetragona, Hakea microcarpa,
Lomatia myricoides, Callistemon, Leptospermum.
Substrate: Sandy soils on granite and alluvium within flood zone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, collected during 1830s and 1840s by Allan and Richard
Cunningham (Wilson 1998a). Recently recorded by Bob Makinson (pers. comm.
10/2001). Conservation of the population will be critical.

258

Asterolasia correifolia

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub 1–2 m high, with short, white to brown hairy covering on
branches; leaves 3–9 cm long, with covering of star-like hairs on lower surface.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to cream, August–December, peak September–October.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, segmented fruit with dull black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically. Seed has
deciduous membranous flap that may function as an ant-attracting food body for dispersal(J. Howell pers. comm.).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Martinsville, Glen Davis, Ourimbah, Wheeney Creek, Kincumber,
Spencer, Mooney Mooney Creek, Cowan, Deep Creek (Narrabeen), Erskine Creek,
Flemington (1898). CT: Burrawang.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist gullies.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist eucalypt open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus deanei, E. saligna, Syncarpia
glomulifera, Allocasuarina torulosa, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita.
Substrate: Sandy soils on Narrabeen shale, volcanic rocks, medium nutrients, welldrained.
Exposure: Light shade, sheltered.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation statuselsewhere unknown. Reported in Dharug NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NP,
Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP.

Asterolasia elegans

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Slender, erect shrub 1–3 m high, with hairy covering on young branches;leaves 4–13 cm long with covering of rusty star-like hairs on both surfaces.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, July–September.
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, segmented fruit, with dull black seeds, mature November–
December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically and has antattracting food body (J. Howell pers. comm.). Seed dormancy variable; seedbank is shortlived, with seedlings emerging regularly but probably not surviving in undisturbed
community (Scott 1994). Germinates after 2 months of watering in the lab, with up to 80%
success. Seed viability is 80–90% (Maria Matthes pers. comm.).
Fire response: Killed, with best seedling recruitment after fires of moderate to highintensity (Scott 1994).
Interaction with other organisms:

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8259____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Lower Hawkesbury River.
Select locations: CC: Leets Vale, Maroota.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Lower slopes above creek.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Moist eucalypt open-forest e.g with Eucalytus piperita, Angophoracostata, Syncarpia glomulifera; riparian forest e.g. with Acmena smithii, Trochocarpa
laurina, Ceratopetalum apetalum.
Substrate: Sandy to yellow clay soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure: Light shade, sheltered.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Restricted local endemic, listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) NSW
Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995. Coded 2ECa on national rare species list
(Briggs & Leigh 1996). May be threatened by too frequent fire, rubbish dumping,roadworks, nutrient run-off from changed landuse (Scott 1994). Reported in
Marramarra NP.

Asterolasia rivularis

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub 1.5 m high (Wilson 1998a).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow, rusty–stellate–hairy outside (Wilson 1998a), July–September.
Fruit/seed: Not seen.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Avon Dam to Buxton.
Select locations: CC: Avon Dam, Buxton.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creek banks.
Altitude: 300–500 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Moist alluvial soil.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Restricted local endemic, conservation status unknown.

260

Boronia algida

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, much-branched shrub to 1 m high, young branchlets red.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink or white, October–December.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds 2 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: SC NT CT ST SWS; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Tablelands, sporadic.
Select locations: CT: Winburndale, Katoomba, Mittagong, Penrose.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges.
Altitude: 600–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Heath, eucalypt open-forest.
Substrate: Sandy soil over granite or sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare in the area, conservation status unknown.

Boronia anemonifolia var. anemonifolia

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 2 m high, with glandular-warty leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pale pink, August–January, peak September–October.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response: Resprouts from base.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Tablelands with restricted distribution atlower elevations.
Select locations: CC: Piles Creek (Hawkesbury River), Maroota (L.McD.), Grose
Vale, Five Dock. CT: Currant Mountain Gap, Kandos, Blackheath, Hampton,
Yerranderie, Hill Top, Mittagong, Fitzroy Falls, Belmore Falls, Tallong.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Among rocks.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–rare.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi; woodland e.g. with
Eucalyptus sparsifolia, E. rossii; heath e.g. with Banksia spinulosa, Hakea dactyloides.
Substrate: Shallow sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure: Light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Marramarra NP, Blue
Mountains NP, Morton NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Boronia anethifolia

261

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 1 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pale pink, June–September.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 4-lobed, with black seeds, November.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response: Probably killed.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Colo area, lower Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: Central Colo, Maroota, Springwood, Tahmoor. CT: Glen Davis.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Sandstone ridges, rocky slopes.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Eucalypt forest and woodland e.g. with Angophora bakeri, Corymbia eximia.
Substrate: Low nutrient sandy soils on sandstone, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Uncommon, conservation status unknown.

Boronia barkeriana

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 1 m high; branchlets often reddish.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Bright mauve to pink, August–December.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC NT CT ST; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Upper Blue Mountains, Budderoo.
Select locations: CC: Little Sirius Cove. CT: Blackheath, Carrington Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Heath, rock faces, moist places.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Moist heath e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, Corymbia gummifera, Leptospermum
trinervium, Banksia spinulosa, Allocasuarina nana, rock faces with ferns.
Substrate: Shallow peaty soil over sandstone, poorly-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Recorded for Little Sirius Cove (Mosman) in 1891 but now likely to be
extinct there. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Budderoo NP.

262

Boronia deanei

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, strong smelling shrub to 0.2 m–1.5 m high, with glandular-warty
branchlets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to bright pink, September–December, peak October–November.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds, December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response: Resprouts from base. Most conspicuous when flowering after fire.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT ST.
Distribution Sydney area: Newnes Plateau, Kanangra-Boyd, Southern Highlands.
Select locations: CT: Carne Creek, Newnes SF, Clarence, Farmers Creek, Whalania Heights,
Carringon Falls, Fitzroy Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Shrub swamps in valleys.
Altitude: 600–1200 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Wet heath and sedge shrub swamp e.g. with Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus,
Grevillea acanthifolia, Lepidosperma limicola, Baeckea utilis, Leptospermum lanigerum.
Substrate: Low nutrient peaty soils on sandstone, granite, poorly-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic, listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species
Conservation Act 1995. Coded 3VCa on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Newnes
Plateau is northern geographical limit. Reported in Kanangra-Boyd NP, Morton NP, BudderooNP.

Boronia floribunda

RUTACEAE

Pale-pink Boronia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub generally 0.5 to 1 m high; leaves pinnate with 5–9 leaflets. ‘Nearly
10 feet high’ in Royal NP (Maiden & Campbell 1897).
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pale pink, fragrant, September–January, peak October.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response: Resprouts from base (St Ives–Garigal NP 1995 L.McD.)
Interaction with other organisms: Reported by Maiden and Campbell (1897) that enormous
quantities were sold in Sydney during spring, reputed to be ‘one of the most beautiful of ourindigenous plants’, not as well known as Boronia serrulata.
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread but uncommon, Hornsby Plateau, Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: St Ives, West Pennant Hills, Frenchs Forest, Bargo. CT: Mount Tomah,
Wentworth Falls, Bonnum Pic, Bundanoon.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8263_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridgetops, rocky outcrops.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera,
Eucalyptus sclerophylla; heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Allocasuarina distyla, Hakea dactyloides,
Eucalyptus stricta.
Substrate: Sandy loam soils on sandstone, low nutrient.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Now localised, conservation status unknown, small populations in
Garigal NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP. Also reported in Blue Mountains NP, Nattai NP.

Boronia fraseri

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 2 m high, with stellate hairs on branchlets; leaves pinnate with
3–7 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Usually bright pink, August–November, peak September–November.
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds. Mature October–November(Duretto 1999).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically, also
myrmecochorous (Rice & Westoby 1981).
Fire response: Probably killed, only seedlings found in 2 year old burnt site at Jerusalem
Bay (J. Thomas).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Hornsby Plateau, lower Blue Mountains
Select locations: CC: Somersby Falls, Wondabyne, Marramarra Creek (L.McD.), Jerusalem
Bay, Cowan Creek, Bobbin Head, Oxford Falls, Lapstone Hill, Glenbrook Creek, Menangle.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies.
Altitude: 0–500 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–frequent.
Vegetation: Moist eucalypt open-forest e.g. with Acacia elata; margins of gallery rainforest
e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, Tristaniopsis laurina.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low to medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic species, coded 2RCa on national rare species list (Briggs &Leigh 1996). Most known populations already within Conservation Reserves. Reported in
Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Blue Mountains NP.

264

Boronia ledifolia

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE

Sydney Boronia, Ledum Boronia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, much branched shrub to 2.5 m high; leaves 1-foliate or pinnate with
3–11 leaflets. Leaflet number per leaf increases along branches (Duretto 1999).
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: 10–15 years.
Primary juvenile period: 4–5 years (Benson 1985).
Flowers: Pale to bright pink, or rarely white, July –November, peak August–September.
Probably pollinated by Honeybees, native bees, and flies (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds 4 mm long. Mature October–
December (Duretto 1999).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically; ant-adapted fordispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Dormancy mechanism, needs leaching for 3 weeks, main
recruitment after fire.
Fire response: Killed. Re-establish from soil-stored seed, in first year, generally with nosubsequent recruitment.
Interaction with other organisms: Roots possibly eaten by rabbits, shoot damaged by
rabbits but not eaten (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC NT CT ST CWS; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Howes Valley, Putty, Mangrove Mountain, Kulnura, Wondabyne,
Glenorie, Arcadia, Berowra, Lindfield, Bents Basin, Glenbrook, Bundeena, Douglas Park,
Bargo, Hill Top. CT: Bell, Mt Banks, Mt Victoria, Leura, Wanganderry Tableland, Bundanoon,
Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges, rocky outcrops.
Altitude: 0–1100 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, C. eximia, Angophora bakeri, A. costata,
Eucalyptus piperita, E. punctata.
Substrate: Sandy soil over Hawkesbury Sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure: Full sun to light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread and probably adequately conserved. Reported in Brisbane
Water NP, Dharug NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP,
Lane Cove NP, Sydney Harbour NP, Royal NP, Morton NP.

Boronia microphylla

RUTACEAE

Small-leaved Boronia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 30–90 cm high; leaves pinnate with 5–15 small leaflets.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: medium–long.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Bright pink to rose purple, October–December, peak November.
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response: Stems killed, resprouts from base.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC SC NT CT CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Upper Blue Mountains, Southern Highlands.
Select locations: CT: Kandos Weir, Newnes Plateau, Mt Wilson, Mount Tomah, Blackheath,
Leura, Medway, Mittagong, Bullio.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8265_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky ridges and slopes.
Altitude: 600–1200 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sclerophylla; heath e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrient soils, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably adequately, conserved. Reported in Blue Mountains NP,
Wollemi NP.

Boronia mollis

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, much branched shrub to 2 m high; leaves pinnate with 3–9 hairy
leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale to bright pink, August–November, peak September.
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds. Mature October–December(Duretto 1999).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Pittwater, Warragamba area.
Select locations: CC: Palm Beach, Bayview, Terrey Hills, Narrabeen, Erskine Creek, Nortons
Basin, Warragamba River.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist gullies.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest e.g. with Syncarpia glomulifera, Backhousia myrtifolia,
Elaeocarpus reticulatus, Livistona australis.
Substrate: Sandy alluvial soil, low nutrients.
Exposure: Light to mid-shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Warragamba is southern geographical limit. Conservation status 2R(Duretto 1999). Reported in Wollemi NP, Blue Mountains NP. Frequent in Katandra Bushland
Sanctuary, which does not have NP or NR status (L.McD.).

266

Boronia nana var. hyssopifolia

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Dwarf shrub 8–25 cm high, with hairy branches; leaves 1-foliate.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pale pink, January.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 4-lobed, with black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT ST SWS; Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Newnes Plateau.
Select locations: CT: Newnes Plateau, Bungleboori picnic area.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Upper slopes.
Altitude: 1000–1200 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1100 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus pauciflora, E. dives, E. sieberi.
Substrate: Sandy soil, sometimes with shale influence, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Newnes Plateau is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown.

Boronia parviflora

RUTACEAE

Swamp Boronia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb or low shrub to 1 m high; leaves 1-foliate.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: 25–60 years (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Primary juvenile period: More than 5 years (Keith 1996).
Flowers: Pale to bright pink, mainly August–March, peak March, September.
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically and ant-adaptedfor dispersal (Rice & Westoby 1981). Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Fire response: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (Keith 1996).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly coastal.
Select locations: CC: Bateau Bay, Springwood, Gosford, Duffys Forest, Rose Bay, Maroubra,
La Perouse, Kogarah, Bargo, Wollongong.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Coastal swamp.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Peaty swamp and wet heath e.g. with Viminaria juncea, Banksia robur, Goodenia
stelligera, Callistemon citrinus, Drosera binata.
Substrate: Peaty soils and deep sandy swamps, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown though wetland habitats susceptible todisturbance. Reported in Brisbane Water NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Boronia pinnata

267

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 0.5–1.5 m high, with leaves and flowers strongly aromatic; leaves
pinnate with 5–11 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Bright to purplish pink, July–November, peak September–October. Probably
pollinated mainly by Honeybees Apis mellifera and native bees, with flies playing aminor role (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore seed, dispersal both ballistic and antadapted (Westoby et al. 1990), also myrmecochore (Rice & Westoby 1981). Soil-stored
seedbank (Fox 1988).
Fire response: Resprouts from base.
Interaction with other organisms: Larvae of fine longicorn beetle Uracanthus
triangularis feeds on stem (Maiden & Campbell 1898). The first Boronia exported from
Australia, grown in glasshouses in UK since 1830s (Johnson & Burchett 1996).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT; ?Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Hornsby Plateau and northern Sydney.
Select locations: CC: Somersby, Calga, Gosford, Cowan, Berowra, South Maroota,
Arcadia, Terrey Hills, Hornsby, Thornleigh, Deep Creek, Frenchs Forest, Epping, Rose
Bay, Waterfall, Helensburg. CT: Olinda, Mount Tomah.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges and plateaus.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Eucalypt forest e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus
haemastoma; heath e.g. with Angophora hispida, Banksia ericifolia.
Substrate: Deep earthy soils often with ironstone influence, on sandstone, lownutrients.
Exposure: Frost-tolerant, light shade (Johnson & Burchett 1996).
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably adequately conserved. Reported in Wollemi NP, Dharug NP,
Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP,
Royal NP.

268

Boronia polygalifolia

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or herb 8-60 cm high; leaves 1-foliate.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale to bright pink, mainly October–June.
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response: May be apparent after fire, presumably from resprouts (D. Blaxell pers. comm.).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Cumberland Plain and Hornsby Plateau.
Select locations: CC: Howes Valley, Morisset, Culoul Range, Maroota, Llandilo, St Marys,
Glenbrook, Ryde, Duck River, Kogarah, Cronulla Beach, Thirlmere Lakes. CT: Barbers Creek.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Periodically wet places.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. eugenioides, E. parramattensis, E. sideroxylon,
Angophora bakeri, Melaleuca decora; open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Syncarpia glomulifera.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale e.g. Wianamatta Shale, or shale layers over sandstone, also sandy
loam, medium nutrients, sometimes poorly drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation statuselsewhere unknown, last reported from Barbers Creek in 1898. Reported in Wollemi NP.

Boronia rigens

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub generally less than 40 cm high; leaves mostly 3-foliate.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pale pink, July–October.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 4-lobed, with black seeds, November.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC CT ST SWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast and Blue Mountains, sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Kekeelbon Mountains, Maroota, Belrose (L.McD.), Maroubra, Botany,
Bargo. CT: Newnes Plateau, Mt Wilson.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky ridges, creekbanks.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Heath and eucalypt forest e.g. with Eucalyptus sclerophylla, E. sieberi.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients, sometimes periodically wet. Ironstone
gravel over clay (at Belrose, L.McD.).
Exposure: Full sun to light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP,
Muogamarra NR.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Boronia rubiginosa

269

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 2 m high; branchlets with star-like hairs, leaves pinnate with
1–5 (–7) leaflets (Duretto 1999).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink, July–November, peak September.
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit 4–6 mm long; seeds 3–4 mm long, October–
December (Duretto 1999).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response: Probably resprouts.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC CT CWS.
Distribution Sydney area: Colo area, western Blue Mountains, Southern Highlands.
Select locations: CC: Wisemans Ferry, Sackville, Kenthurst, East Kurrajong. CT: Dunns
Swamp, Tayan Pic, Glen Davis, Genowlan Mountain, Berrima, Joadja.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Cliffs, rocky slopes, gully heads.
Altitude: 0–900 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera,
C. eximia.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Southern geographical limit is Berrima, conservation status 3RC(Duretto 1999).

270

Boronia serrulata

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE

Native Rose, Rose Boronia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 0.5–1.5 m high; leaves strongly aromatic, broad, toothed, crowded
and flattened over the stem.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Medium (15–20 years).
Primary juvenile period: Flowering maturity at 5 years (Benson 1985), bears an increasing
number of flowers for another 5 years.
Flowers: Bright pink, August–October, peak September. Small diurnal moths may be pollinators(P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Dispersal: both ballistic and ant-adapted (Westoby et al.
1990, Rice & Westoby, 1981). Soil-stored seedbank.
Fire response: Killed, re-established from soil-stored seed, germinating within 2 years of fire.
Interaction with other organisms: Larvae of fine longicorn beetle Uracanthus triangularis feeds
on stem, egg-shaped pink galls on branches caused by wasp (Maiden & Campbell 1898).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Wondabyne–Manly, Loftus–O’Hares Creek.
Select locations: CC: Scopas Peak (Wondabyne), Arcadia, Hornsby, Duffys Forest, Belrose,
Frenchs Forest, Loftus, Bundeena, O’Hares Creek.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rock outcrops and platforms.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 1100–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist heath and low woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus
haemastoma, Banksia ericifolia, Leptospermum trinervium, Angophora hispida, Banksia serrata.
Substrate: Sandy soil associated with rock outcrops and ironstone gravels on Hawkesbury
Sandstone.
Exposure: Full sun to light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic species, originally reasonably common on North Shore
but now mostly destroyed by urban development. Main populations are now in Brisbane Water
NP and Ku-ring-gai Chase NP. Survey work after 1994 fires indicate species abundant inlocalised populations (T. Auld pers. comm.). Also reported in Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR.
O’Hares Creek is southern limit (Keith 1994). Coded 2RC- on national rare species list (Briggs &Leigh 1996)

Boronia thujona

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or small tree 1–4 m high; leaves aromatic, pinnate with 3–15 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Bright pink, August–November, peak October.
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent, 4-lobed fruit, with black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response: Killed after high intensity fire (at Katandra 1/1994), re-established from seedlings
appearing within 5 months of fire (L.McD.).
Interaction with other organisms:

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8271____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly coast and Southen Highlands.
Select locations: CC: Coal and Candle Creek, Bayview, Mona Vale, Oxford Falls,
Balgowlah, Flat Rock Creek (RNP), Wattamolla, Bulli Pass, Minnamurra Falls
Reserve, Mount Jamberoo. CT: Wentworth Falls, Wildes Meadow, Carrington
Falls, Bundanoon, Barrengarry Pass.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies, creekbanks, clifflines, near waterfalls.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–frequent.
Vegetation: Moist eucalypt open-forest e.g. Eucalyptus sieberi, E. piperita,
Tristaniopsis laurina.
Substrate: Moist sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure: Sheltered, medium shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Garigal NP, Royal NP,
Morton NP, Budderoo NP. Frequent in Katandra Bushland Sanctuary, which does
not have NR or NP status (L.McD.).

Correa alba var. alba

RUTACEAE

White Correa_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 1.5 m high, with rusty-hairy stems.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or rarely pale pink, cup-shaped, mainly April–June.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 1–4-lobed, with dull brown seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Leaves and roots eaten by wombat (Burns
1996).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastline.
Select locations: CC: Swansea, Barrenjoey, Maroubra Bay, Lady Robinsons
Beach, La Perouse, Kurnell, Cronulla, Port Kembla, Five Islands, Windang Island,
Shellharbour.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Beaches and headlands, coastal islands.
Altitude: 0–50 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Coastal heath e.g. with Westringia fruticosa, Melaleuca armillaris,
Aotus ericoides; dune scrub e.g. with Acacia longifolia.
Substrate: Sandy soil on dunes, sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure: Exposed to salt spray.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Sydney Harbour NP.

272

Correa lawrenciana var. macrocalyx

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or small tree 0.6–9 m high, with rusty-floccose stems.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish–yellow, tubular, May–December.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 1–4-lobed, to 9 mm long, with dull brown seeds, December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Patonga (1929), Minnamurra Falls (1954).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Moist forest?
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare and poorly known. Most recent collection Minnamurra (1954) is
at southern geographical limit. Reported in Brisbane Water NP.

Correa reflexa var. reflexa

RUTACEAE

Common Correa, Native Fuchsia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Decumbent or erect shrub 0.5–1.5 m high, with rusty-floccose stems.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Green or red and green, tubular, March–October, peak July–August.
Pollen eaten by Red Wattlebird Anthochaera carunculata, Crescent Honeyeater Phylidonyris
pyrrhoptera, New Holland Honeyeater Phylidonyris novaehollandiae, Tawny-crowned
Honeyeater Phylidonyris melanops, Eastern Spinebill Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris (Barker &Vestjens 1989).
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 1–4-lobed, 6–9 mm long, with dull brown seeds, October–November.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically, also ant-adaptedfor dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Soil-stored seedbank (Fox 1988).
Fire response: Killed by fire (Fox 1988).
Interaction with other organisms: Leaves and roots eaten by wombat (Burns 1996).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on coast, also Tablelands.
Select locations: CC: Olney, Patonga Creek, Kurrajong Heights, Springwood, Turramurra,
Manly, Gladesville, Nortons Basin, Rookwood, Maroubra Bay, Oatley, Sutherland, Otford,
Wedderburn, Douglas Park, Thirlmere Lakes, Hill Top. CT: Kandos Weir, Glen Davis,
Katoomba Falls, Abercrombie Caves, Mt Jellore, Bundanoon.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8273_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides, gullies.
Altitude: 0–800 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus punctata, E. sparsifolia,
E. pilularis, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus sieberi, E. muelleriana.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, clay soil on shale, occasionally basalt.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably adequately conserved. Reported in Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP,
Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP,
Sydney Harbour NP.

Crowea exalata

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 1 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink to pale mauve, sporadically, October–August.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 1–5-lobed fruit, with shiny brown seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC NT CT ST NWS SWS; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Glenorie, Grose Wold, Glenbrook, Woolwash, Woronora River,Tahmoor. CT: Mullion Creek, Blackheath, Hill Top.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky hillsides, ledges, cliffs.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest and woodland e.g. with Corymbia eximia.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

274

Crowea saligna

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Slender shrub to 1.5 m high,
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink to purple or rarely white. December–October, peaks February–April, July.
Probably pollinated by native bees and small butterflies; the barricade of flower filaments
may prevent nectar theft by small ants (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Dry dehiscent fruit, 1–5-lobed, with shiny brown seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically and ant-adaptedfor dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990, Rice & Westoby 1981). Soil-stored seedbank.
Fire response: Probably killed. Frequent seedlings within 5 months of high intensity fire (1/1994 at Katandra), in an area previously unburnt for more than 50 years (L.McD.).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast, Gosford–Yerrinbool.
Select locations: CC: Killcare, Kariong, Woy Woy, Bobbin Head, Hornsby, Oxford Falls,
Frenchs Forest, Cremorne, Hunters Hill, Nielsen Park, La Perouse, Sutherland, Glenbrook,
Yerrinbool, Springwood.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides, often rocky.
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita, Corymbia gummifera.
Substrate: Sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure: Sheltered.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic species, conservation status unknown. Reported in Bouddi
NP, Brisbane Water NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Sydney Harbour NP.

Eriostemon australasius

RUTACEAE

Pink Wax Flower_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect bushy shrub 1–2 m high.
Vegetative spread: Limited root-suckering noted for some populations.
Longevity: Medium, probably more than 30 years (Lion Island).
Primary juvenile period: 4 years (Benson 1985).
Flowers: Pink, June–December, peak August–October. Probably pollinated by honeybees,
native bees; wasps, small butterflies and beetles may have a lesser role in pollination; large
ants fed on nectar through a gap in the filaments, possibly created by chewing (P. Kubiak
pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 1–5-lobed fruit, with dull–shiny, dark brown–black seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, both ballistic and ant-adapted
dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990, Rice & Westoby 1981). Soil-stored seedbank (Fox 1988).
Requires rupturing of seed coat as well as leaching to induce germination (Langkamp 1987).
Fire response: Variable. Populations on dune sand (e.g. at Eastlakes) can resprout or root
sucker, possibly aided by sand movement; resprouted at Wheeny Creek (P. Hind specimen1987). Probably killed in some situations on sandstone. Killed by fire at Myall Lakes (Fox
1988). Prolific seedling recruitment after high intensity fire (1/1994) at West Head andMuogamarra NR (L.McD.).
Interaction with other organisms: Seeds eaten by Superb Lyrebird Menura novaehollandiae(Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). Larvae of fine longicorn beetle Uracanthus triangularis feeds onstem (Maiden & Campbell 1898).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8275____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on coast.
Select locations: CC: Norah Head, Woy Woy, Maroota, Cowan, Terrey Hills, Pennant Hills,
Rose Bay, La Perouse, Engadine, Kentlyn, Burragorang, Helensburgh, Appin, Maldon,
Darkes Forest, Buxton, Bargo, Bulli, Hill Top. CT: Bell.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Well-drained rocky outcrops and stable dunes.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Angophora bakeri, Banksia serrata,
Eucalyptus piperita, E. sieberi, E. sclerophylla, E. sparsifolia, E. punctata; heath e.g with
Angophora hispida.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone or sand, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread on coast but only 1 record for Blue Mountains at Bell in 1909.
Conservation status unknown. Reported in Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP, Dharug NP,
Lion Island NR, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP,
Dalrymple Hay NR, Sydney Harbour NP, Georges River NR, Royal NP.

Geijera salicifolia var. latifolia (Geijera latifolia)

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tree to 27 m high; leaves glossy green, paler undersurface, with raised
midrib on both surfaces, more so below.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, November–April. Not automatically self-pollinated (Adam & Williams
2001).
Fruit/seed: Fruit globose 6 mm diam., with shiny blue-black seeds, held for a time after
dehiscence of fruit. Seeds 6650 per kilogram (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Germination unpredictable (Floyd 1989).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Host to parasitic plant Korthasella rubra (Downey 1998).
Fruit eaten by Australian King Parrot, Brown Cuckoo-dove, Lewins Honeyeater and Scrub
Turkey (Floyd 1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld, N.G.
Distribution Sydney area: Illawarra, Camden area.
Select locations: CC: Cobbitty, Orchard Hills, Berkley, Calderwood, Albion Park,
Minnamurra Falls, Whispering Gallery.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Dry rainforest e.g. with Alectryon subcinereus, Planchonella australis, Streblus
brunonianus, Citriobatus pauciflora.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, latite, alluvium, medium to high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Minnamurra is southern geographical limit. Vulnerable in Western Sydney(James et al. 1999) and probably now extinct at Cobbitty. Threatened by weed invasion anddegradation of habitat.

276

Leionema dentatum (Phebalium dentatum)

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE

Toothed Phebalium_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or small tree to 6 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale yellow to white, August–October, peak September. Probably pollinatedby honeybees, native bees and flies (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Lobed fruit, segment 3.5 mm long; seeds 3 mm long, October–December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: White scale on stems, possibly Gascardia destructor,
Coccidae, Hemiptera (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly coast.
Select locations: CC: Boorai Creek, Mooney Mooney, Galston Gorge, Pennant Hills,
Narrabeen, Frenchs Forest, Manly Dam, Woronora River, Kentlyn, Macquarie Fields,
Campbelltown, Grose Vale, Springwood, Tahmoor, Shoalhaven Gorge. CT: Bowens
Creek.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creekbanks, hillsides.
Altitude: 0–500 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Riparian scrub e.g. with Tristaniopsis laurina, Austromyrtus tenuifolia,
Syncarpia glomulifera, Callicoma serratifolia; open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata,
Backhousia myrtifolia, Eucalyptus piperita, E. pilularis, Ceratopetalum apetalum, Eucalyptus
agglomerata.
Substrate: Rocky and sandy alluvium, sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Brisbane Water
NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP, Georges RiverNR.

Leionema diosmeum (Phebalium diosmeum)

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 2 m high, with hairy stems and leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Creamy yellow, late June–October, peak September.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit; single segment 4 mm long
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT ST.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast south of Port Hacking, Southern Highlands.
Select locations: CC: Sutherland, Waterfall, Mt Keira, Bulli, Maddens Plains, Barren
Grounds. CT: Carrington Falls, Wingello.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8277_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges, cliffs.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1800 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–occasional.
Vegetation: Wet heath e.g. with Hakea teretifolia, Aotus ericoides, Pultenaea elliptica.
Substrate: Shallow to deep sandy soil over sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Sutherland is northern geographical limit (Harden 1991),
conservation status unknown. Reported in Macquarie Pass NP.

Leionema lachnaeoides (Phebalium lachnaeoides)

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tall shrub, with whitish stem.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pinkish to pale yellow, August–October, peak August. Flowering October–
November (Cohn n.d.).
Fruit/seed: August.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Katoomba area.
Select locations: CT: Nellies Glen, Bonnie Doon, Katoomba, Narrow Neck.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Clifftop rocks and rock platforms.
Altitude: 800–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Low shrubland e.g. with Allocasuarina nana, Leptospermum trinervium,
Baeckea ericifolia; low woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta, Allocasuarina nana, Banksia
marginata.
Substrate: Shallow sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients, with moisture available,
well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic, listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) NSW Threatened Species
Conservation Act 1995. Coded 2ECi on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996).
Threatened by human interference, with potential for disturbance from run-off,sedimentation and erosion; reported in Blue Mountains NP at one site (Cohn, undated).

278

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

Leionema lamprophyllum subsp. orbiculare(Phebalium lamprophyllum)

RUTACEAE

Leionema sp. Hungryway Creek

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Compact shrub to 2 m high; stems prominently warty.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White with pink tips, August–October.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit; segments 3 mm long, October–December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT ST; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Western Blue Mountains, Rylstone–Lithgow.
Select locations: CT: Mt Coricudgy, Kandos Weir, Wolgan Pinnacle, Newnes Plateau,
Clarence.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: ‘Pagoda’ rock outcrops.
Altitude: 600–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–900 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, B. spinulosa, Calytrix tetragona, Brachyloma
daphnoides.
Substrate: Skeletal sandy soil over sandstone outcrops, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rylstone district is northern geographical limit (Harden 1991), conservation
status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP.

_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub, with glandular-warty stems that are covered with star-like hairs.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellowish, May.
Fruit/seed:
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Colo River.
Select locations: CC: Hungryway Creek.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riparian zone.
Altitude: 0–10 m
Annual rainfall: 800–900 mm
Typical local abundance: Dominant.
Vegetation: Riparian scrub e.g. with Tristaniopsis laurina, Stenocarpus salignus, Lomatia
myricoides, Backhousia myrtifolia.
Substrate: Alluvial sand amongst sandstone boulders, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Poorly known local endemic, conservation status unknown. Reported in
Wollemi NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8279

Leionema sympetalum (Phebalium sympetalum)

RUTACEAE

Rylstone Bell_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 2–3 m high; stems covered with star-like hairs.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish yellow, June–December.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit; single segment 4 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Coricudgy to Gospers Mountain.
Select locations: CT: Currant Mountain Gap, Cooroogoba Creek, Gospers Mountain.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky outcrops.
Altitude: 600–900 m
Annual rainfall: 650–700 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus laophila, E. bensonii; heath e.g. with
Allocasuarina distyla, Caustis pentandra, Acacia suaveolens.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure: Exposed to wind.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic, listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species
Conservation Act 1995. Coded 2VC- on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996).
Reported in Wollemi NP.

280

Melicope micrococca (Euodia microcca)

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE

Hairy-leaved Doughwood_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or slender tree to 27 m high, young growth often softly hairy; leaves
divided with 3 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, summer–early autumn.
Fruit/seed: Grey to black segmented fruit, with shiny black seeds, March–May.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically. Ant-adapted fordispersal (Westoby et al. 1990).
Fire response: Resprouts from base (Adam & Williams 2001).
Interaction with other organisms: Beetle Trichaulax trichopyga feeds on flowers January–
February (Hawkeswood 1987).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Hungryway Creek, Colo, Yarramalong, Lower Portland, Wheeny
Creek, Eastwood, Menangle, Razorback, Albion Park, Gerringong, Minnamurra.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Sheltered gullies, creeks.
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–rare.
Vegetation: Riverflat forest e.g. with Eupomatia laurina, Streblus brunonianus, Ehretia
acuminata, Tristaniopsis laurina; rainforest e.g. with Backhousia myrtifolia, Hymenanthera dentata,
Melaleuca styphelioides, Streblus brunonianus.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, medium nutrients.
Exposure: Mid-shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status
unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP.

Nematolepis squamea subsp. squamea

RUTACEAE(Phebalium squameum subsp. squameum)
Satinwood_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or tree to 12 m high, with smooth stems and strongly aromatic leaves,with silvery undersurface.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, mainly September–October. September–December (Floyd 1989).
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit; single segment 3 mm long, October–November. Fruit ripe
December–February (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically. Easily raised fromseed (Floyd 1989).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT; Qld, Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Epping, Lane Cove River, Kurrajong Heights, Springwood, Thirlmere,
Kangaroo Valley. CT: Currant Mountain Gap, Mt Wilson, Bowens Creek, Wentworth Falls,
Carrington Falls, Robertson.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8281_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist gullies.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita, Ceratopetalum
apetalum, Callicoma serratifolia.
Substrate: Sandy soils on alluvium, sandstone, also shale-influenced, low to medium
nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP.

Phebalium squamulosum subsp. argenteum

RUTACEAE

Scaly Phebalium_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to slender tree 1–7 m high, stems covered with rusty scales; leaves
3–10 mm wide, lower surface silvery, scaly.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Bright yellow inside, covered with rusty or silvery scales outside, August–October.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, individual segment 3.5 mm long, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Wattamolla. CT: Bundanoon Creek.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Coastal headlands, creeks.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Coastal heath e.g. with Westringia fruticosa, Melaleuca armillaris.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, only two records, conservation status unknown.

282

Phebalium squamulosum subsp. ozothamnoides

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE

Alpine Phebalium_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to slender tree 1–7 m high, stems covered with rusty scales; leaves
3–7 mm wide, roundish, lower surface smooth.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Bright yellow inside, covered with rusty or silvery scales outside, September–
December.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, individual segment 3.5 mm long, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: ?CC NT CT ST; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Lithgow area.
Select locations: CT: Portland, Clandulla, Cullen Bullen, Lithgow, Mt York, Blackheath.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Exposed upper slopes.
Altitude: 600–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Heath e.g. with Calytrix tetragona, Allocasuarina nana, Leptospermum parvifolium.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, tuff, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. An unlikely CC record (Berowra to Peats
Ferry, collected by J.H. Maiden, Oct 1895) needs field confirmation.

Phebalium squamulosum subsp. squamulosum

RUTACEAE

Scaly Phebalium_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to slender tree 1–7 m high, stems covered with rusty scales; leaves
2–10 mm wide, upper surface smooth, lower surface with rusty scales.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Bright yellow inside, covered with rusty or silvery scales outside, August–October.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, individual segment 3.5 mm long, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically. Ant-adapted fordispersal (Westoby et al. 1990, Rice & Westoby 1981).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on coast.
Select locations: CC: Howes Valley, Mt White, Central Colo, East Kurrajong, Patonga,
Oxford Falls, Frenchs Forest, Castlecrag, Manly, Cronulla, Waterfall, Bents Basin, Glenfield,
Douglas Park, Buxton, Bomaderry. CT: Katoomba, Kings Tableland.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8283_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges, hillsides.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Heath e.g. with Allocasuarina nana, Allocasuarina distyla, Banksia ericifolia; lowwoodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, C. eximia, Angophora hispida; open-forest e.g. with
Eucalyptus deanei, Ceratopetalum apetalum.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Mainly on coast, rare in Blue Mountains, conservation status unknown.
Reported in Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP,
Garigal NP.

Philotheca buxifolia subsp. buxifolia(Eriostemon buxifolius subsp. buxifolius)

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small shrub to 1.3 m high; leaves roundish, thick, with lower surface
keeled. Around Botany Bay and Port Hacking P. buxifolia subsp. buxifolia grades into
P. scaber subsp. scaber (Harden 1991).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, pinkish in bud, August–October.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, single segment 7 mm long, dehiscing at maturity, October–
December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically. Ant-adaptedfor dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990).
Fire response: Killed and re-established from soil-stored seed.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast and foreshores, mainly S of Port Jackson.
Select locations: CC: Mona Vale, North Head, Vaucluse, Balgowlah, Dobroyd Point,
La Perouse, Cape Solander, Kurnell, Wattamolla.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Coast and adjacent plateaus.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Coastal heath e.g. with Westringia fruticosa, Melaleuca armillaris; heath e.g.
with Calytrix tetragona, Banksia ericifolia, Allocasuarina distyla.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic taxon restricted to coastline between Mona Vale andWattamolla. Conservation status unknown.

284

Philotheca buxifolia subsp. obovata

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE(Eriostemon buxifolius subsp. obovatus)_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small shrub to 1.3 m high; leaves roundish, thick, with lower surface keeled.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period: 5 years (Benson 1985).
Flowers: White, pinkish in bud, mainly August–October. Honeybees Apis mellifera feed on
nectar (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, single segment 7 mm long, dehiscing at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically. Ant-adapted fordispersal (Westoby et al. 1990).
Fire response: Resprouted from base after high intensity fire 1/1994 at West Head (L.McD.)
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC.
Distribution Sydney area: North of Port Jackson, Mangrove Mountain to Manly.
Select locations: CC: Mangrove Mountain, Peats Ridge, Somersby, Calga, Wondabyne,
Warrah, West Head, Frenchs Forest, Manly.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Coast and adjacent plateaus.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera,with shrubby understorey.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: In the Sydney area Philotheca buxifolia subsp. obovatus occurs north of Port
Jackson although it occurs on SC. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Brisbane Water
NP, Lion Island NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Sydney Harbour NP.

Philotheca hispidula (Eriostemon hispidulus)

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small shrub to about 1 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pale pink, August–November, peak October. Honeybees Apis mellifera andflies (Diptera) feed on nectar (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, single segment 7 mm long, dehiscing at maturity, October–
December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response: Resprouts from base (Herb. specimen).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Blue Mountains, Colo area.
Select locations: CC: Mellong Range, Wisemans Ferry, Laughtondale Gully, East Kurrajong,
Kenthurst, Berowra, Yarramundi, Glenbrook, Springwood, Werombi, Thirlmere. CT: Mt
Boonbourwa, Wentworth Falls, Woodford.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8285_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges, hillsides.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Corymbia eximia, E. punctata, Corymbia gummifera,
Angophora bakeri; Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Syncarpia glomulifera, Angophoracostata; heath e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta, Lambertia formosa, Banksia ericifolia.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Reported in Wollemi NP, Bouddi NP, Dharug NP, Marramarra NP,
Muogamarra NR, Blue Mountains NP, Wollemi NP.

Philotheca myoporoides subsp. myoporoides(Eriostemon myoporoides)

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 2 m high, stems moderately to faintly warty; leaves variable
6–22 mm wide.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, August–November, peak September.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, single segment 7 mm long, dehiscing at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Food plant of butterfly larvae Papilio aegeus aegeus(Common & Waterhouse 1981).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT ST CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Colo River, Grose Vale, Yarramundi, Agnes Banks, Glenbrook,
Nortons Basin, Bents Basin, La Perouse, Menangle, Maldon, Tahmoor, Bargo River. CT:
Genowlan Mountain, Lithgow, Mt Blaxland, Kanangra.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky hillsides, creekbanks, waterfalls.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Riparian scrub e.g. with Backhousia myrtifolia, Acacia floribunda, Ceratopetalum
apetalum, Casuarina cunninghamiana, Tristaniopsis laurina, Acacia binervia; woodland e.g. with
Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus punctata, E. crebra.
Substrate: Shallow soils on sandy alluvium, sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Blue Mountains
NP, Kanangra Boyd NP, Morton NP.

286

Philotheca obovalis (Eriostemon obovalis)Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small shrub to 1 m high, stems slightly hairy.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: Probably medium.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, tinged with pink, September–March, peak November, January.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, single segment 4.5 mm long, dehiscing at maturity, February.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response: Resprouts from base.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Upper Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CT: Mt Coricudgy, Pantoneys Crown, Wolgan Gap, Newnes Plateau,
Clarence, Mt Wilson, Mt Victoria, Blackheath, Mt Hay, Katoomba.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky outcrops, ridges.
Altitude: 900–1100 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–frequent.
Vegetation: Heath e.g. with Allocasuarina nana, E. stricta, Banksia ericifolia; open-forest e.g.
with Eucalyptus sclerophylla, E. sparsifolia.
Substrate: Shallow sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrient soils.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic, coded 3RCa on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh1996). Reported in Wollemi NP, Blue Mountains NP.

Philotheca salsolifolia subsp. salsolifolia

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect heath-like shrub to 2 m high, with thick, glabrous leaves, 1–2 mm wide.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period: 5 years (Benson 1985).
Flowers: Pink to purple, August–February, peak September–October. Probably pollinatedmainly by Honeybees Apis mellifera and native bees, with small butterflies may play a minor
role; bugs (Hemiptera) may feed on nectar without pollinating (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, segment 5–6 mm long, with dull dark brown seed, fruit
dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically. Ant-adapted fordispersal (Westoby et al. 1990, Rice & Westoby 1981).
Fire response: Resprouts from base (at Agnes Banks, Benson 1981).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST NWS CWS NWP.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Brooklyn, West head, Agnes Banks, Oxford Falls, Nortons Basin,
Coogee, La Perouse, Kurnell, Loftus, Bargo. CT: Mullions Range, Kanangra Walls,
Blackheath, Berrima, Mittagong, Wombeyan Caves.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8287_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky or sandy sites.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Heath e.g. with Allocasuarina distyla, Banksia ericifolia, Angophora hispida,
Calytrix tetragona; woodland e.g. with Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus punctata, E.
parramattensis, Angophora bakeri; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, E. globoidea.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, sometimes lateritic soil, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Reported in Brisbane Water NP, Dharug NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai
Chase NP, Garigal, Lane Cove NP, Sydney Harbour NP.

Philotheca scabra subsp. latifolia(Eriostemon scaber subsp. latifolius)

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small shrub to 0.6 m high, with markedly warty stems; leaves 1–5 mmwide, lower surface warty.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pink,
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, segment 7 mm long, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: SC CT ST.
Distribution Sydney area: Bundanoon.
Select locations: CT: Bundanoon, Penrose.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Exposed rocky ridges.
Altitude: 700–800 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Open-forest; heath
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Bundanoon is northern geographical limit, conservation status unknown.

288

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

Philotheca scabra subsp. scabra (Eriostemon scaber subsp. scaber)

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small shrub to 0.6 m high, with leaves 1–5 mm wide, lower surface warty.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pink, August–October.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, segment 7 mm long, dehiscent at maturity, September–
December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC.
Distribution Sydney area: Sydney to Nowra.
Select locations: CC: Manly, Oatley, Menai, Heathcote Creek, Campbelltown, O’Hares
Creek, Bargo.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Slopes above creeks.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus pilularis,
Allocasuarina littoralis; woodland e.g. with Angophora bakeri, Eucalyptus haemastoma.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Manly is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown.
Reported in Heathcote NP.

Philotheca trachyphylla (Eriostemon trachyphyllus)

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or small tree 2–7 m high, with warty stems.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, January.
Fruit/seed: Dehiscent, 1–5-lobed, with dull–shiny, dark brown–black seeds, October.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT ST CWS; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Darkey Creek, Botany Bay. CT: Tarana.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus viminalis, Angophora floribunda (at Tarana).
Substrate: Granite soils, also probably sandy soils, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, recorded from three localities, Darkey Creek (Putty Creek) thenorthern geographical limit; Tarana (on 1/47 granite sites in Semple 1997) and Botany Bay(collected 1899 and probably extinct there). Conservation status unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Sarcomelicope simplicifolia subsp. simplicifolia(Acronychia simplicifolia)

289

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or small tree to 18 m high, with opposite leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male and female flowers on separate plants, autumn–winter.
Fruit/seed: Yellowish to whitish fleshy fruit 10–15 mm diam., 1200 per kilogram (Floyd1989). Fruit ripe mainly March–July.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit. Fresh seeds germinate after removalof the pulp, but germination is erratic (Floyd 1989).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Green Catbird and White-headed Pigeon(Floyd 1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; LHI, Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast, mainly Illawarra.
Select locations: CC: Belmont, Gooseberry Island, Bass Point, Albion Park, Kiama,
Minnamurra Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Coastal rainforest.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Margins of warmer rainforest.
Substrate: Sandy soils.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

290

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

Zieria arborescens subsp. arborescens (Z. arborescens subsp. A)

RUTACEAE

Stinkwood_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tall robust shrub or small tree to 10 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, August–October.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit dotted with oil glands, with dull black seed; fruit dehiscent atmaturity, November–December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically. Reported
regrowing on cleared land (Herb. specimen).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Mogo Creek, Wyong, Bilpin, Kiama, Minnamurra Falls. CT: Mt
Wilson, Mount Tomah, Blackheath, Woodford, Robertson.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies, sheltered sites.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus deanei, Syncarpia glomulifera, Dicksonia
antarctica; margins of rainforest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, Doryphora sassafras, Acaciamelanoxylon.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, basalt, medium to high nutrients; occasionally on sandy soilon sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Dharug NP.

Zieria aspalathoides

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 1 m high, with leaves appearing simple, whorled, to 3 mm wide.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale to deep pink, hairy, September–October.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, with dull black seed; fruit dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NT CT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Western Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CT: Widdin Valley, Ben Bullen SF, Gardiners Gap, Glen Davis.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Pagoda rock outcrops.
Altitude: 600–1100 m
Annual rainfall: 650–700 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Heath e.g. with Calytrix tetragona, Callitris rhomboidea; open-forest e.g. with
Eucalyptus piperita, Acacia terminalis, Isopogon dawsonii.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Localised, conservation status unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Zieria baeuerlenii (Zieria sp. M )291

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small straggly, erect, ascending or decumbent shrub often more than 1 mhigh, with main stems often prostrate, and hairy, grey-green trifoliate leaves; Stems ofplants in area not burnt for 29 years may attain diameter 25 cm (Barratt 1997).
Vegetative spread: Layering reported by Mills (1996) but examination by Barratt (1997)
failed to confirm this.
Longevity: ?indefinite.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pink, July–November.
Fruit/seed: Fruit unknown, no seed production detected to date (Barratt 1997).
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Resprouts from base, possibly from rhizome (Barratt 1997).
Interaction with other organisms: Shoots probably eaten by rabbits (Barratt 1997).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Nowra.
Select locations: CC: Bomaderry Creek.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Level to gently sloping sites often among rock outcrops.
Altitude: 0–10 m
Annual rainfall: 1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Open-forest–woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus punctata,
Corymbia maculata, Eucalyptus agglomerata, Syncarpia glomulifera, Eucalyptus imitans; closed
scrub e.g. with Leptospermum sejunctum (Barratt 1997).
Substrate: Shallow to moderately deep sandy soils over sandstone (Nowra Sandstone)
with loose rocks, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic restricted to an area of about 0.5 km2 at Bomaderry Creeknear Nowra. Listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) under NSW Threatened Species Conservation
Act 1995. Coded 2E on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Habitat in
Bomaderry Creek Bushland threatened by road proposals and possible expansion of
adjacent urban areas, as well as recreational use and vandalism (Barratt 1997).

292

Zieria caducibracteata

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tall shrub or small tree to 6 m high; branches covered with star-like hairs
and oil glands, leaves divided wth 3 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White,
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC ST.
Distribution Sydney area: Colo River.
Select locations: CC: Boorai Ridge.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Escarpment ranges.
Altitude: 400–500 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest; rainforest margins.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, low to medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Colo River has localised disjunct population at northern geographical limit.
Conservation status unknown.

Zieria covenyi

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 2 m high; leaves divided with 3 leaflets.
Vegetative spread: Root suckers.
Longevity: ?indefinite.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pale pink, October–November.
Fruit/seed: Fruit not known.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Katoomba area.
Select locations: CT: Narrow Neck.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridgetops.
Altitude: 1000–1100 m
Annual rainfall: 1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, Leptospermum trinervium, Banksia
serrata, Telopea speciosissima, Brachyloma daphnoides, Lambertia formosa, Allocasuarina littoralis,
Banksia cunninghamii.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic known only from Narrow Neck Peninsula in the Blue
Mountains. Coded 2VCi on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Reported in Blue
Mountains NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Zieria cytisoides

293

RUTACEAE

Downy Zieria_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Bushy shrub to 3 m high; branches velvety with star-like hairs; leaves
aromatic, divided, with three leaflets. Multi-stemmed plants have been found in the
Rylstone district.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Deep to pale pink or white, May–October, peak September.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, with dull black seed; fruit dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Drews Creek, Colo Gorge, Nortons Basin, Leumeah, Menangle,
Burragorang, Yerranderie, Bomaderry Creek. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Kandos Weir, Currant
Mountain Gap, Gardiners Gap, Capertee, Wolgan Gap, Georges Plains, Mt Jellore, Tallong.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky hillsides, pagoda rock formations, ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 650–800 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Syncarpia glomulifera, Allocasuarina
torulosa, Backhousia mytifolia; woodland e.g. with Corymbia eximia, E. punctata.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, granite, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Yengo NP, Wollemi NP.

294

Zieria fraseri subsp. compacta (Z. fraseri subsp. B)

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, bushy shrub to 1.5 m high; branches dotted with oil glands.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale pink, June–October, peak September.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, with dull black seed; fruit dehiscent at maturity, October–
December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT NWS CWS SWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Mountain Lagoon, Nortons Basin, Erskine Creek, Maldon Bridge,
Thirlmere, Burragorang Lookout, Hill Top. CT: Currant Mountain Gap, Genowlan Mountain,
Mt Gundangaroo, Glen Davis, Mt Canobla, Mt York, Church Creek, Mt Jellore, Berrima.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Steep rocky outcrops, ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 650–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus pilularis,
Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus agglomerata; riparian scrub e.g. with Allocasuarina littoralis, Acacia
longifolia, Daviesia corymbosa.
Substrate: Skeletal soils on granite, sandstone, slate, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP.

Zieria furfuracea

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Medium to tall shrub, with warty, velvety branches; leaves divided with 3
leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, hairy, September.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, with dull black seed; fruit dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Olney SF.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Open-forest; rainforest.
Substrate:
Exposure: Exposed.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Olney SF near Wyong is southern geographical limit. Conservation status
unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Zieria granulata

295

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tall bushy shrub to 3 m high; leaves divided with 3 narrow leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, July–October, peak October.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Illawarra area.
Select locations: CC: Killalea SRA, Shellharbour, Whispering Gallery, Kiama, Saddleback
Mountain Lookout, Jerrara Dam, Jamberoo, Fox Ground.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky outcrops, roadsides, near subtropical rainforest (Mills 1988).
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest; rainforest margins e.g. with Syncarpia glomulifera, Eucalyptus saligna,
E. quadrangulata.
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt, latite, high nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic restricted to Illawarra region. Listed as Endangered (Schedule 1)
NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995. Rare, coded 2VCi on national rare species list
(Briggs & Leigh 1996). Threatened by roadside mowing and clearing for hobby farms (Mills 1988).

Zieria involucrata

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tall erect shrub covered with star-like hairs; leaves divided with 1–3 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, mainly August–October.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, dehiscent at maturity, October–November.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread but sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Womerah Range, Howes Range, Wheelbarrow Ridge, Leets Vale, Lower
Portland, Upper Marramarra Creek, Little Cattai Creek (L.McD.), Kurrajong, Spingwood, Valley
Heights. CT: Katoomba.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Steep sandy slopes, creeks, ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Syncarpia glomulifera, Eucalyptus
punctata, E. piperita, Allocasuarina torulosa, E. oreades.
Substrate: Sandy loam on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995.
Coded 2VCa on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Reported in Wollemi NP, Parr NP,
Marramarra NP.

296

Zieria laevigata

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Glabrous shrub 30–100 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, July–October, peak August–September. Honeybees Apis mellifera and flies(Diptera) feed on nectar (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically. Ant-adapted fordispersal (Rice & Westoby 1981, Westoby et al. 1990).
Fire response: Probably killed.
Interaction with other organisms: Food plant of butterfly larvae Papilio aegeus aegeus(Common & Waterhouse 1981).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Kulnura, Maroota, Belrose, Pennant Hills, Collaroy, North Head, Botany
Bay, Como, Lucas Heights, Austinmer, Berambing. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Rylstone, Glen Davis,
Mt Wilson, Mt Banks, Wentworth Falls, Kanangra, Wanganderry.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges, plateaus, cliffs.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Epacris microphylla, Angophora hispida, Boronia
ledifolia, Grevillea buxifolia; low forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Angophora costata, A. bakeri,
Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus haemastoma, E. racemosa.
Substrate: Skeletal soils on sandstone or granitic outcrops, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure: Full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably adequately conserved, reported in Brisbane Water NP, Dharug NP,
Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Sydney Harbour NP,
Blue Mountains NP.

Zieria laxiflora

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 1.2 m high, with leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or pale pink, with a dense covering of hair, September.
Fruit/seed: Fruit of 4 segments.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Swansea.
Select locations: CC: Swansea.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8297_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Sandy, swampy areas.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Sand dunes.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Swansea is southern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown.

Zieria murphyi

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Slender shrub 1–2 m high; divided leaves with 1–3 leaflets.
Vegetative spread: No vegetative spread.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White–pale pink, September–October.
Fruit/seed: Segmented capsule, with 1–4 segments, releasing seeds forcibly when dehiscing,seeds black.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed explosively.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Mt Tomah, Bundanoon/Penrose.
Select locations: CT: Mount Tomah, Bundanoon, Penrose.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist gullies.
Altitude: 700–900 m
Annual rainfall: 1100–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Moist eucalypt forest
Substrate: Sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure: Sheltered situations.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local restricted endemic, listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened
Species Conservation Act 1995, coded 2VC- on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996).
Reported in Blue Mountains NP.

298

Zieria obcordata

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Divaricate shrub to 0.5 m high, with warty, hairy branches; leaves divided,with 3 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or pale pink, September–October.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Browsed by Wallabies (Herb. specimen).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT CWS.
Distribution Sydney area: Bathurst area.
Select locations: CT: Crackerjack Rock.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky hillsides.
Altitude: 800 m
Annual rainfall: 600 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Callitris endlicheri, Eucalyptus macrorhyncha, E. goniocalyx,
Acacia vestita, Stypandra glauca.
Substrate: Skeletal gritty sand on granite.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare and localised, listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) NSW Threatened
Species Conservation Act 1995. Coded 3E on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996).

Zieria pilosa

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 1 m high, with hairy branches; leaves divided with 3 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pale pink, May–November, peak September.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically. Ant-adapted fordispersal (Westoby et al. 1990).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Laughtondale, Cowan, Collaroy, Arncliffe, Woodford, Heathcote,
Menai, Buxton, Dapto, Cambewarra, Shoalhaven River. CT: Mt Wilson, Bundanoon.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides.
Altitude: 0–800 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus piperita,
E. pilularis, Angophora costata, Syncarpia glomulifera.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure: Full sun to mid-shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Dharug NP, Muogamarra NR,
Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP, Royal NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Zieria robusta

299

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect compact bushy shrub 2.5 m high; leaves divided with mostly
3 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pink, September –December.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT NWS CWS; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Kanangra area.
Select locations: CT: Winburndale NR, Kanangra Walls, Kowmung River,
Mt Werong.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky outcrops, canyons, valleys.
Altitude: 800–1200 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus radiata, E. rossii, E. goniocalyx,
E. viminalis.
Substrate: Shallow soil on shale, conglomerate, granite, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Kanangra Boyd NP,
Winburndale NR.

300

Zieria smithii

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

RUTACEAE

Sandfly Zieria, Stinkwood_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, robust shrub to 2 m high; leaves divided with 3 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, July–March, peak August–October. Probably pollinated by native bees, flies(Diptera) and honeybees Apis mellifera, with small butterflies, wasps and bugs (Hemiptera)
playing a lessor role (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically. Ant-adapted fordispersal (Westoby et al. 1990).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Food plant of butterfly larvae Papilio aegeus aegeus(Common & Waterhouse 1981). May be an important source of nectar for a variety insects inspring in Lane Cove River area; white wax scale may be Gascardia destructor, Coccidae,
Hemiptera (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Wyong, Mooney Mooney Creek, Sackville, Grose Vale, Glenbrook,
Barrenjoey, Gordon, Lane Cove, Balls Head, Ashfield, Newington, Rookwood, Audley,
Stanwell Park, Picton, Clifton, Macquarie Pass, Yerranderie, Minnamurra Falls, Shellharbour,
Cambewarra. CT: Blackheath, Bundanoon.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus pilularis, Syncarpia
glomulifera, Eucalyptus deanei, Angophora floribunda, Eucalyptus piperita, E. oreades; margins ofrainforest e.g. with Backhousia myrtifolia, Eleocarpus reticulatus, Tristaniopsis laurina.
Substrate: Loam on sandstone, sometimes with shale enrichment, medium nutrients.
Exposure: Light to medium shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP,
Dharug NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Dalrymple Hay NR, Lane Cove NP.

Zieria tuberculata (Zieria sp. C sensu)

RUTACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Bushy shrub to 3.5 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, November.
Fruit/seed: Segmented fruit, dehiscent at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, released ballistically.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC.
Distribution Sydney area: Cambewarra Range.
Select locations: CC: Cambewarra Range.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8301_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Edges of rainforest.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 1400–1600 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act
1995. Coded 2VCi on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Cambewarra Range
is northern geographical limit (Mills 1988). Not conserved.

Populus alba *SALICACEAEWhite Poplar_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tree to 20 m with an erect habit; leaves lobed, toothed, deciduous.
Vegetative spread: Suckering from roots particularly in poorly drained ground (Harden
1990).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Purplish, male and female flowers on separate plants.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 3 mm long packed with cotton-like hairs, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Leaves of Populus sp. eaten by Grey-headed Flying
Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to temperate Eurasia and N Africa. Introduced as
ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC; Qld, Vic., W.A., N Afr.
Distribution Sydney area: Sydney suburbs.
Select locations: CC: Roseville (1951), Forestville, Manly (1950).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: River edges, old plantings.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clayey soils.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cultivated and occasionally locally naturalised by suckering from oldplantings.

302

Populus nigra *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SALICACEAE

Lombardy Poplar_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tree to 30 m with a columnar habit; buds very sticky.
Vegetative spread: Suckers from roots if parent tree is cut down.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Female flowers not known for this cultivar (Harden 1990).
Fruit/seed:
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Leaves of Populus sp. eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox
Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). Host to rust fungi Melampsora medusae and M. larici-populina(Harden 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Eurasia. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Manly (1950).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Old plantings.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cultivated and suckers freely, though probably not truly naturalised.
Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP.

Salix alba *SALICACEAEWhite Willow_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tree to 12 m high with spreading crown; hybridizes freely with related
species, especially with S. fragilis (Harden 1990). True S. alba is rare in Australia, most areprobably S. X rubens (Cremer 1995).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period: More than 4 years (Cremer et al. 1995).
Flowers: Male and female flowers on separate plants, September–October. Pollination
mainly by insects (Cremer et al. 1995).
Fruit/seed: Seed 1 mm long, surrounded by loose hairy material; although not previously
thought to regenerated from seed in Australia, abundant viable seed and seedlings have now
been found (Cremer et al. 1995).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, viable for a few days only, germinating within one or two days on moist blotting paper in light (Cremer et al. 1995). Spreadingby seed and rooted branches; seed collected more than 10 days after release is likely to bedead from old age (Cremer 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to temperate Eurasia.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT ST.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast south of Sydney and Tablelands.
Select locations: CC: Richmond. CT: Berrima.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8303_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riverbanks.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1000 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Riverine alluvium.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Often abundant along rivers on the tablelands and coast south of Sydney
but further north confined to tablelands (Harden 1991). To avoid spread by seed remove
female plants (Cremer 1995).

Salix babylonica *SALICACEAE

Weeping Willow_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tree to 20 m high with spreading crown and very weeping branches.
Vegetative spread: Occasional limited spread by rooting of detached branches.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Only female plants in Australia, flowers appearing with leaves, September–
October.
Fruit/seed: Seed rarely produced (Cremer 1995).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Viable seed found, though no seedlings found sofar; seed collected more than 10 days after release is likely to be dead from old age(Cremer 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to China. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: NC CC ST CWS SWS; Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Glenfield, Coxs River, Carcoar.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riverbanks, dams.
Altitude: 0–800 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Riverine alluvium.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably the most widely planted and recognised willow in Australia;
although there is no current evidence for spread by seed, the potential seems to exist(Cremer et al. 1995). Not truly naturalised. To avoid spread by seed, remove female
plants; some ‘weeping willows’ are fertile hybrids of S. babylonica with S. fragilis or S. alba
and do poduce viable seed (Cremer 1995).

304

Salix fragilis *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SALICACEAE

Crack Willow_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Spreading tree to 25 m high; mostly hybrids with S. alba (Harden 1990).
Stem divides into major branches at ground level; base of branches breaks easily with an
audible crack; never with weeping habit; breeds with S. alba var. vitellina (Cremer 1995).
Vegetative spread: Disperses and multiplies readily from broken branches (Cremer et al.
1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male only, in Australia.
Fruit/seed:
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Eurasia. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST SWS.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on Tablelands.
Select locations: CT: Meadow Flat, Oberon, Blayney, Bowenfels, Orange, Hartley, Sodwalls(1955).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Low lying areas.
Altitude: 800–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 600–800 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Amongst the three most common willows in Australia and has spreadaggressively in many rivers especially in Tasmania (Cremer et al. 1995).

Salix nigra *SALICACEAE

Black Willow_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Spreading shrub or tree to 20 m high, usually with a single prominent trunk;
male and female trees equally common. Hybrids S. nigra X S. fragilis uncommon (Harden
2000). May breed with S. babylonica (Cremer 1995).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period: 3–8 years (Cremer et al. 1995).
Flowers: Male and female catkins on separate plants. Pollination mainly by insects (Cremer
et al. 1995).
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5 mm long; seeds with silky hairs.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, water-dispersed; spread vegetatively
by rooting branches (Harden 2000). Seed collected more than 10 days after release is likely to
be dead from old age (Cremer 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to N. America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC ST SWS; Vic., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Colo–Macdonald River area.
Select locations: CC: Macdonald River, Colo River, Wrights Creek, Mogo Creek (H-NCMT
1996).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8305_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 800–900 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Introduced as seed in 1960s and spreading aggressively by seed androoted branches in rivers and roadside ditches; to avoid spread by seed remove female
plants (Cremer 1995).

Sambucus australasica

SAMBUCACEAE

Native Elderberry_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Evergreen shub or small tree to 4 m high; leaves divided with 3 or 5
leaflets, one is terminal.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, January–April.
Fruit/seed: Yellow, succulent, roundish fruit 5 mm diam., May.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Sweet fleshy fruit eaten by Aboriginal people(Maiden 1889, Cribb & Cribb 1984).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Culoul Range, Gosford, Bulli Pass, Shellharbour, Minnamurra Falls,
Cambewarra Range. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Mount Tomah, Burrawang, Moss Vale.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rainforest.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1800 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Cool temperate rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras; warm temperate
rainforest e.g. with Dendrocnide excelsa, Cassine australe, Diospyros australis, Cryptocaryaglaucescens.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, basalt, medium–high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Royal NP,
Robertson NR.

306

Sambucus gaudichaudiana

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SAMBUCACEAEWhite Elderberry_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Evergreen shrub to 2 m high, with herbaceous stems from a perennial,
tuberous rootstock.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, November–January.
Fruit/seed: Succulent, pale yellow or whitish, edible fruit (drupe), 5 mm long, weight 86 mg,
with c. 3 seeds per fruit (extra data on seed & pulp characteristics in French 1991).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, probably animal-dispersed.
Fire response: Probably resprouts.
Interaction with other organisms: Sweet, fleshy fruit eaten by Aboriginal people (Maiden
1889, Cribb & Cribb 1984).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Culoul Range, Lower Portland, Cobbitty, Kowmung River.
CT: Abercrombie Caves, Junction Reefs.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Locally moist sites in drier country, cliffs and footslopes.
Altitude: 0–800 m
Annual rainfall: above 700 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Moist forest e.g. with Syncarpia glomulifera, Acacia parramattensis; riverflat forest.
Substrate: Clay soils from basalt, slaty metamorphics, alluvium, medium nutrients.
Exposure: Sheltered, light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation statuselsewhere unknown.

Sambucus nigra *SAMBUCACEAE

Elderberry_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Deciduous shrub 2–5 m high; leaves divided with 3 or 5 leaflets, one isterminal.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, October–December.
Fruit/seed: Black, succulent, roundish 5 mm long
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, probably bird-dispersed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit edible but not palatable, used for making
elderberry wine, wood used for skewers and in hand-made shoes; flowers eaten andused in fritters, drinks, and to give flavour to jam (Cribb & Cribb 1984).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe and W Asia. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: NC SC CT ST; Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Bathurst–Orange area.
Select locations: CT: Canobolas SF, Carcoar.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8307_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 700–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–frequent.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus dives.
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cutivated as ornamental, occasionally locally naturalised in Bathurst–
Orange area.

Choretrum candollei

SANTALACEAEWhite Sour Bush_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub 1–5 m high, with very small leaves, usually on young branches.
Hemi-parasite on roots of other plants. Probably hybridizes with C. pauciflora.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or cream, very small, at any time of year, with peaks in August–November
and May.
Fruit/seed: Greenish, roundish fruit 3–6 mm diam., succulent at first then dry, with one
seed, matures in summer.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit
Fire response: Resprouts from base, reaching flowering maturity within 4 years of highintensity fire (Fox 1988).
Interaction with other organisms: Foodplant of moth caterpillar Chelepteryx chelepteryx(Coupar & Coupar 1992).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS SWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast and ranges.
Select locations: CC: Morisset, Willoughby, Helensburgh, Springwood, Barren Grounds.
CT: Nullo Mountain, Mt Coricudgy, Portland, Mt Wilson, Mount Banks, Blackheath,Wentworth Falls, Lawson, Hill Top, Carrington Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Sandstone ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, Angophora costata, Allocasuarina
littoralis, Syncarpia glomulifera, Eucalyptus piperita, E. sideroxylon.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Royal NP,
Buderoo NP, Morton NP.

308

Choretrum pauciflorum

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SANTALACEAE

Dwarf Sour Bush_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Spreading to ascending shrub or undershrub to 2 m high, with very small
leaves. Probably hybridizes with C. candollei (Harden 1992). Hemi-parasite on roots of other plants.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to cream, very small, June–January, peak October.
Fruit/seed: Roundish fruit 4–6 mm diam., with one seed, succulent at first then dry,
November–January.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC NT CT ST; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Tablelands.
Select locations: CC: Appin. CT: Hill End, Portland, Sunny Corner, Clarence, Blackheath,Wentworth Falls, Kanangra Walls, Mt Werong, Wombeyan, Hill Top, Mittagong, Fitzroy Falls,
Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies.
Altitude: 0–1200 m
Annual rainfall: 750–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus dalrypleana, E. pauciflora; woodland e.g. with
Eucalyptus sclerophylla.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, quartzite, shale, granite, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Choretrum sp. A

SANTALACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, yellowish green shrub or small tree to 5 m high, with very small leaves
on young stems and growing tips
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or cream, very small, April.
Fruit/seed: Succulent at first, roundish 3–7 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CT CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread but sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Drews Creek, Wollombi. CT: Newnes Plateau, Wentworth Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides, ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, E. radiata, E. dives.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstones.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Wentworth Falls is southern geographical limit, conservation status unknown.
Reported in Yengo NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Exocarpos cupressiformis

309

SANTALACEAE

Cherry Ballart, Native Cherry_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to small tree to 8 m high, with cypress-like appearance, branchlets
often drooping and graceful; leaves very small, scale-like on new growth. Hemi-parasite
upon roots of other plants, commonly eucalypts but also other species.
Vegetative spread: Limited root suckering.
Longevity: Indefinite.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Very small, in short spikes or clusters, July–March, peak March. Small fly(Diptera) apparently feeds on flowers (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Succulent, roundish fruit 4–6 mm long with one seed, resting on a yellow tored, edible, succulent pedicel. Fruit weight 282 mg (extra data on seed & pulp
characteristics in French 1991). Berries eaten by Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike Coracina
novaehollandiae (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). Seed eaten by Australian King Parrot
Alisterus scapularis, Crimson Rosella Platycercus elegans (Lepschi 1993). Mature August–January.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit. Hard seed is difficult to germinate.
Fire response: Resprouts with numerous suckers from lateral roots and from rootstock,seedlings recorded less than 1 year after fire (Purdie 1977).
Interaction with other organisms: Host to parasitic shrub Viscum articulatum (Downey
1998). Foodplant of moth caterpillars Chelepteryx chalepteryx, Genduara punctigera, Teia
anartoides, Ctenomeristis almella and Digglesia australasiae; Xanthodule ombrophanes feeds onlichens and algae often found on the branches (Common 1990). Foodplant of butterfly
larvae Delius aganippe (Common & Waterhouse 1981). Host plant of Cerambycid
beetle Coptopterus cretifer (Hawkeswood 1993).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Tuggerah, Wyong, Avalon, Epping, Castlereagh NR, Glenbrook, St
Marys, Kurnell, Liverpool, Razorback, Berry CT: Blackheath, Oberon, Katoomba,
Abercrombie Caves.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Flat areas to rocky hillsides.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. crebra, E. sclerophylla; scrub e.g. with
Banksia integrifolia, Allocasuarina littoralis.
Substrate: Various, dune sand, sandy soils on sandstone, shale–sandstone transition, slate,clay soils on shale, basalt, low to high nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably adequately conserved. Reported in Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water
NP, Lion Island NR, Castlereagh NR, Dharug NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR,
Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Dalrymple Hay NR, Lane Cove NP, Sydney Harbour NP.

310

Exocarpos strictus

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SANTALACEAE

Pale-fruit Ballart, Dwarf Cherry_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 3.5 m high, light green, bronzy, blue-green or greyish, may
have many stems. Hemi-parasite on roots of other plants.
Vegetative spread: Often forming dense thickets, presumably from root suckers.
Longevity: Indefinite.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Very small, in short clusters, July–November, peak September.
Fruit/seed: Succulent, roundish, shiny, green to purplish black fruit, 4 mm long, with seedresting on succulent pedicel which is whitish or reddish at fruiting stage; one seed. Mature
September–January.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Resprouts from base.
Interaction with other organisms: Host to parasitic shrub Viscum articulatum (Downey
1998). Foodplant of butterfly larvae Delius aganippe (Common & Waterhouse 1981).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS SWP SFWP; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Kindarun Mountain, Maroota, Glenbrook, Bents Basin, Ingleburn,Kentlyn, Helensburgh, Appin, Thirlmere. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Kandos, Mt Vincent, Clarence,
Kanangra, Mt Werong, Hill Top, Bundanoon.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges and rocky slopes.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia eximia, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus blakelyi.
Substrate: Variable, sandy soil on sandstone, clay soil on shale, basalt, low to high nutrients,
well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Dharug NP.

Leptomeria acida

SANTALACEAE

Native Currant, Sour Currant Bush_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub 1–3 m high, with very small leaves that are soon shed.
Hemi-parasite on roots of other plants.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: 25–60 years (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Primary juvenile period: 7 years (R. Lembit pers. comm.).
Flowers: Very small greenish-brown, December–May, peak January.
Fruit/seed: Succulent, roundish, greenish sometimes purplish, acid, edible, 7 mm long, with
one seed about 3 mm diam. Fruit mature May–November depending on aspect, altitude etc.
(R. Lembit pers. comm.). Seeds may be prone to predation by ants (French & Westoby 1996).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, possibly dispersed by birds, seed very
difficult to germinate.
Fire response: Killed, recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith pers. comm.). Seedlings notobserved on one site previously inhabited by this species five years after fire; at another site(near Deep Pass), flowering and fruit set occurs 7 years after fire (R. Lembit pers. comm.).
Reported to resprout from above ground at Myall Lakes (Fox 1988).
Interaction with other organisms: Host plant of Jewel Beetle Cisseis vicina (Webb 1993). Fruitcontains moderate amount of vitamin C, 21 mg/100 gm, eaten by Aboriginal people andEuropean settlers (Low 1988). Sour to taste (E.J. McBarron Herb. note).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8311____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Mount White, Bowen Mountain, Cheltenham, Hunters Hill, Rose
Bay, Abbotsford, Kurnell, Loftus, Helensburgh, Bulli. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Glen Davis,
Marrangaroo, Mount Wilson, Blackheath, Hill Top, Moss Vale, Carrington Falls, Sutton
Forest, Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Sheltered situations.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, E. radiata, E. sieberi, E. haemastoma,
Angophora costata, Eucalyptus mannifera; shrubby understorey.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure: Sheltered.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Brisbane Water
NP, Dharug NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP, RoyalNP, Blue Mountains NP, Budderoo NP, Nattai NP.

Leptomeria drupacea

SANTALACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, broom-like shrub to 3 m high, with very small leaves that aresoon shed.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Very small, white, late spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Fleshy, oval, 3–6 mm long, January.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC NT CT ST; Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Orange area.
Select locations: CT: Ophir.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 800 m
Annual rainfall: 800–900 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Open-forest
Substrate: Shallow rocky soil
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, only one record for the area, on Orange–Ophir road in 1961.
Conservation status unknown.

312

Omphacomeria acerba

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SANTALACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect to divaricate shrub about 1.3 m high, with very small scale-likeleaves that are soon shed. Hemi-parasite on roots of other plants; Eucalyptus piperita is apossible host.
Vegetative spread: Strongly rhizomatous (M. Gray pers. comm.).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male flowers in short spikes, with yellowish, solitary female flowers on different
plants. Local populations may include both male and female plants.
Fruit/seed: Succulent, green to purplish, acidic, edible 6–12 mm long, with one seed, June–
November.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit.
Fire response: Possibly resprouts. No seedlings recorded more than 1 year after fire (Purdie
1977).
Interaction with other organisms: Stems often infested with insect galls.
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT ST CWS; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Marsden Park, Castlereagh NR, Cheltenham, Bankstown, Kogarah,
Kurnell, Springwood, Campbelltown, Bargo. CT: Gospers Mountain, Mullion Creek, SunnyCorner, Yetholme, Clarence, Blackheath, Wentworth Falls, Mt Werong, Hill Top, Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges, rocky outcrops of sandstone or flatter country.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 650–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora costata, Allocasuarina
torulosa, Eucalyptus consideniana, E. sieberi, E. rossii; Castlereagh Woodland e.g. with
Eucalyptus fibrosa, Melaleuca decora, Eucalyptus parramattensis.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, granite, Tertiary alluvium, metamorphics, low to
medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Santalum obtusifolium

313

SANTALACEAE

Santalwood_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect glaucous shrub to 2.5 m high, with leaves 2–6 cm long.
Hemi-parasitic on roots of other plants.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Small , whitish, September–February.
Fruit/seed: Succulent, roundish, purple fruit 10 mm long, with one seed, November–
February.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Kurrajong, Springwood, Wallacia, Casula, Ingleburn, Audley,
Douglas Park, Albion Park, Bulli, Minnamurra. CT: Megalong Valley, Hill Top, Mt
Jellore, Mittagong.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riverbanks, gullies, hillsides.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus quadrangulata, E. muelleriana, E.
saligna, E. piperita, E. globoidea, Angophora floribunda.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, granite, alluvium, also on basalt, low to highnutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation statuselsewhere unknown.

314

Thesium australe

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SANTALACEAE

Australian Toadflax_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect herb to 40 cm high with slender wiry stems. Hemi-parasite on
roots of other plants.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity: 2–3 years (Scarlett et al. 1994), less than 2 years (Griffith 1992).
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year (Archer 1987).
Flowers: Small, greenish-yellow, October–January.
Fruit/seed: Fleshy, dry, nut-like, roundish 2 mm diam., with one seed, summer.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: No particular morphology for dispersal(McIntyre et al. 1995). Seed can remain dormant for at least 12 months (Archer 1987).
Exposure to heat of fire or hot summers may stimulate mass germination, with land
use and weather conditions in following summer critical to survival; sub-zerotemperature does not stimulate germination (Archer 1987).
Germination facilitated by immersion in 1 MHCl for 24 hours, cold treatment at 5°C
for 2–3 months, then 20–25°C; germinates when planted with Themeda australis hosts inpotting mix and natural soil (1:1)(Scarlett & Parsons 1992). Although Thesium australe
has good reproductive vigour, germination is very erratic in the wild; on coastal
headlands growth continues during coolest months (Griffith 1992). Variable growthrate possibly reflected health and vigor of host plant (Archer 1987).
Fire response: Probably killed. Germination stimulated by fire (Archer 1984), but may
germinate in absence of fire (Scarlett et al. 1994). Favoured by medium-term absence offire, depleteted by late-season burning (Griffith 1992).
Interaction with other organisms: Parasitic on roots of other plants, not selective ofhosts, attaches by cup-like appendages to the roots (Archer 1984), e.g. Themeda australis(in Victoria); severely grazed by cattle, horses, rabbits, kangaroos and wombats, aswell as grasshoppers; eaten by slugs and possibly Common Garden Snails Helix
aspersa (Scarlett et al. 1994), heavily grazed by sheep, trampling by pedestrians andmotor vehicles (Griffith 1992), main threat to survival by grazing cattle (in Victoria,
Archer 1987).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., E Asia.
Distribution Sydney area: Originally western Sydney.
Select locations: CC: Camden ‘Cow Pastures’ (1803).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Often in damp sites.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 750 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. crebra; grassland e.g.
Themeda australis. Absent from areas of dense shrub or tree cover (in Victoria, Scarlett
et al. 1994).
Substrate: Clay soils on Wianamatta Shale, medium nutrients. Salt-tolerant on coastal
headlands (Griffith 1992).
Exposure: Full sun, grows under extreme conditions, high salt levels on coastal
headlands, survives periodic drought on the tablelands and winter snow in subalpine
areas (Griffith 1992).
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species Conservation
Act 1995. Coded 3VCi+ on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996), species isapparently declining in New South Wales due to intensive grazing, cultivation andpasture improvement (Leigh, Boden & Briggs, 1984), declining in Victoria for similarreasons (Scarlett et al. 1994).
May be out-competed by Bitou Bush Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. rotundata, andintroduced grasses e.g. Axonopus affinis, Chloris gayana, Paspalum dilatatum, P. urvillei,
Sporobolus indicus, Stenotaphrum secundatum (Griffith 1992). Only Sydney record is‘Cow Pastures’ at Camden (1803) and now regarded as extinct in Western Sydney
probably due to grazing (James et al. 1999).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Alectryon subcinereus

315

SAPINDACEAE

Wild Quince_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small tree or shrub, with branchlets and inflorescences finely hairy;
leaves with 2–8 leaflets.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Minute, pink, December–January (Floyd 1989).
Fruit/seed: 2-lobed capsule 8–10 mm long; seed black with a red aril. Mature
September–February. April–August or October, seeds 9600 per kilogram (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, vertebrate-adapted for dispersal(Westoby et al. 1990). Germinates readily after removal of the aril (Floyd 1989).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Food plant of butterfly Eastern Flat Netrocoryne
repandra repandra (Common & Waterhouse 1982). Fruit eaten by Green Catbird (Floyd1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Mt Yengo, Wyong, Woy Woy, Kurrajong, Newport, Cobbitty,
Razorback, Cambewarra, Mt Kembla. CT: Kanangra, Goodmans Ford, Robertson NR.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Warmer rainforest in gullies, gorges.
Altitude: 0–900 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras; dry rainforest e.g. with Streblus
brunonianus, Ehretia acuminata, Melaleuca styphelioides, Brachychiton populneum, Cassine
australis.
Substrate: Clay soil on shale, basalt, medium–high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in Yengo NP,
Brisbane Water NP, Royal NP, Robertson NR.

316

Cardiospermum grandiflorum *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SAPINDACEAE

Balloon Vine_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herbaceous climber with hairy stems to c. 10 m long; leaves divided withtoothed leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, March–May. Possibly pollinated by honeybees (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Papery, balloon-like capsule 5–6 cm long, seeds 7 mm diam., globose with basil
aril, January–September.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: balloon-like capsule, gravity-dispersed,
short-distance wind-dispersed and water-dispersed near waterways. Whole fruit can beblown across water surface. Heavy seed tends to fall within a few metres of plant (Buchanan
1989b). Seeds are buoyant on water; after flooding rain seeds are washed to the sea and on
to beaches sometimes in large numbers but do not appear to retain viability for long;establishment on riverbanks after floatation is common (Smith 1999). Seeds readily
germinate in moist ground (Harden 1992).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Shoots apparently eaten by rabbits (P. Kubiak pers.
comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to tropical America, Africa, W Indies.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NWS CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread at lower elevations.
Select locations: CC: Richmond, Wahroonga, Beecroft, Lane Cove, Northbridge, BellevueHill, Oatley, Glenfield, Fairfield, Liverpool, Campbelltown, Picton, Albion Park, Jamberoo.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creekbanks, gullies, wetland.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Disturbed eucalypt woodland, riparian scrub.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, alluvium, low–medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Serious weed of disturbed bushland areas, with ability to occupy anddominate the canopy resulting in significant crown disturbance and individual treemortality.

Cardiospermum halicacabum var. halicacabum *SAPINDACEAE

Small Balloon Vine_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herbaceous climber with hairy stems to c. 10 m long, smaller in all its parts
than C. grandiflorum and less hairy; leaves divided with toothed leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White,
Fruit/seed: Papery, balloon-like capsule 3–4 cm long, seeds 3–5 mm diam., globose withbasil aril.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, gravity-dispersed, short-distancewind-dispersed and water-dispersed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to tropical America, Africa, Asia.
Botanical subregions: CC NWP; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Hornsby (1914).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8317_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Reported from one site at Hornsby in 1914.

Cupaniopsis anacardioides

SAPINDACEAE

Tuckeroo_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small to medium-sized tree, with hairy new growth; compound leaves
15–25 cm long with 4–11 leaflets.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellowish, June–August. Separate male and female flowers on same plant or
separate plants (Harden 1991). Insects attracted by nectar and prolific pollen, visited by small
native bee Trigona carbonaria for nectar and pollen, probably effecting a high level of selfpollination and a low level of cross-pollination; flies Stomorhina discolor, Baccha sp., fruit fly
Dacus murrayi, green bee Palaeorhiza sp. carried small amounts of pollen and probably play alesser role in pollination (Hawkeswood 1983).
Fruit/seed: 3-lobed dehiscent capsule 15–30 mm long, with an reddish aril; seed black,
November. Seeds 2 725 per kilogram (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Fresh seed begins to germinate after 14–25 days, with
71–84% germination after 20–48 days; seed is difficult to store either at room temperature orin cold storage (Floyd 1989), easily germinated after treatment with hot water (Carolin &Clarke 1991).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Food plant of butterfly larvae Nacaduba berenice bereniceattended by small black ants, probably Prolasius sp. and Prosotas felderi, which feeds on buds
and flowers (Common & Waterhouse 1981). Host to larvae of moth Macadamia Nutborer
Cryptophlebia ombrodelta and moth Peritornenta circulatella in joined leaves (Common 1990).
Fruit eaten by Figbird, Olive-backed Oriole and Pied Currawongs; seed often eaten by insect
larvae (Floyd 1989). Orange-red tissue surrounding seeds eaten by Aboriginal people(Carolin & Clarke 1991).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast and foreshores.
Select locations: CC: Tuggerah, Botany Bay, Cronulla, Weeney Bay, Kurnell, Bundeena,
Coalcliff.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Near the sea, along estuaries.
Altitude: 0–50 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Littoral rainforest; dune scrub e.g. with Leptospermum laevigatum, Banksia
integrifolia, Guioa semiglauca; estuarine woodland e.g. with Casuarina glauca, Banksia
integrifolia.
Substrate: Sandy to loamy soils on sands, medium–low nutrients.
Exposure: Can withstand average wind and heavy saltspray (Hawkeswood 1983).
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Gerroa is southern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown.
Reported in Sydney Harbour NP, Royal NP.

318

Diploglottis australis

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SAPINDACEAE

Native Tamarind_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tree to 30 m high, with rusty-hairy new growth; compound leaves 40–120 cm
long, with 6–12 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female and bisexual flowers on the same plant, creamy-brown, October.
Fruit/seed: 2–3-lobed, brown-hairy capsule 10–15 mm diam., with an orange-yellow aril,ripe November–December. Fruit eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus(Eby 1995). Seed weight with aril 515 per kilogram, without aril 1660 per kilogram (Floyd1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Fresh seed germinates rapidly (Floyd 1989).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Host to larvae of Ghost Moth/Swift Moth Aenetus
ramsayi (Common 1990). Fruit eaten by birds and bats, Brown Cuckoo-dove, Crimson
Rosella, Figbird, Green Catbird, Regent Bowerbird, Rose-crowned Fruit-dove, Topknot
Pigeon and Wompoo Fruit-dove (Floyd 1989). The acidic fruits have been used for drinks andmaking jam (Harden 1991).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native. Occasionally planted as ornamental or shade trees (Harden 1991).
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastal ranges.
Select locations: CC: Gosford, Calga, Waterfall, Bulli Pass, Mt Kembla, West Dapto,
Macquarie Pass, Cambewarra.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies, slopes.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Rainforest e.g. with Toona ciliata, Dendrochnide excelsa, Elaeocarpus kirtonii.
Substrate: Clay soil on basalt, or sandstone with basalt enrichment, high nutrients, welldrained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Dodonaea boroniifolia

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Spreading or erect shrub to 2 m high, with divided leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female or bisexual, May–October.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 10–18 mm wide, with 4 membranous wings, seeds 2 mm, black, mature
October–January.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: capsule segment.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: Culoul Range, East Kurrajong, Burralow Creek, Shellharbour. CT:
Kandos Weir, Capertee, Ben Bullen, Katoomba, Tallong .

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8319_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Lower slopes.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–frequent.
Vegetation: Dry sclerophyll forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora costata;woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, quartzite, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown, but many early coastal records e.g. Como
(1899), Shellharbour (1899), Tallong (1811), Katoomba (1902), Bathurst (1822), have notbeen reconfirmed. Probably now restricted to Wollemi and Blue Mountains NP.

Dodonaea camfieldii

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Spreading, often prostrate shrub 0.2-0.5 m high, with simple leaves
1–3.5 cm long, sometimes toothed.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female or bisexual, November–February.
Fruit/seed: Capsule12 mm wide, with 4 leathery wings, seeds 2 mm, dark brown or
black, mature October–November.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsule. Colonising disturbed
roadsides and forming dense soil-binding, multi-stemmed mats (West 1993).
Fire response: Probably killed.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Hornsby Plateau.
Select locations: CC: Kulnura, Mount White, Maroota, Glenbrook, Como, Waterfall,
Cataract Dam.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky sites, ridges.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Open-forest or woodland e.g. with Corymbia eximia, C. gummifera, Eucalyptus
sparsifolia, E. haemastoma, E. punctata, E. racemosa.
Substrate: Small pockets of soil on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure: Exposed rocky sites___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, conservation status unknown. Kulnura is northern geographicallimit. Reported in Popran NP, Brisbane Water NP.

320

Dodonaea falcata

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 2 m high, with simple leaves 2.5–5 cm long.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female or bisexual, early Spring.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 11–14 mm wide, with 4 membranous wings, mature February –March.
Seeds 2 mm, black
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsuleFire response: Probably killed.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT NWS NWP; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Western Sydney and Hornsby Plateau.
Select locations: CC: Howes Valley, Putty, Cattai, Berkshire Park, Castlereagh, Bondi.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges, hillsides.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Castlereagh woodlands e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. sclerophylla, Angophorabakeri, Eucalyptus parramattensis; sandstone woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Angophorabakeri, Angophora hispida.
Substrate: Sandy soil on Tertiary gravels, red gravely soil or sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Once found on ‘low ground between Bondi and Rose Bay’, now restricted toCastlereagh area and isolated occurrences further north. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (Jameset al. 1999). Conservation status elsewhere unknown. Reported from Castlereagh NP, Yengo
NP.

Dodonaea heteromorpha

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 3 m high, with simple leaves 3–8 cm long, sometimes divided.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female, or bisexual,
Fruit/seed: 4-winged capsule 15–25 mm wide.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsuleFire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT CWS NWP SWP; Qld,Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Orange area.
Select locations: CT: Cudal.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 600 m
Annual rainfall: 900 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, only one record for Sydney area, at Cudal in 1969. Conservation
status unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Dodonaea megazyga

321

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub or small tree to 5 m high, with divided leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female, or bisexual, September–March.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 13–22 mm wide, with 3 membranous wings. Take 10-12 months to matureand plants often bear flowers and fruits simultaneously, August.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsule.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Glen Davis, Olney SF.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Slope below cliffs.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Dry sclerophyll forests or on margins of rainforest
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, known from only two locations in Sydney area. Locations arevery different from each other. Conservation status unknown.

Dodonaea multijuga

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 1.5 m high, with divided leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female, or bisexual, January–April.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 15–20 mm wide, with 3 leathery wings, seeds 3 mm black, mature October–
December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsule, possibly dispersed by water.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Centennial Park, Casula, Erskine Creek, Woronora River, Bargo River. CT:
Kandos Weir, Capertee, Glen Davis, Newnes SF, Clarence, Mt Wilson, Hazelbrook, Berrima,
Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creeks, riverbanks.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus mannifera, E. ovata, E. cypellocarpa, E. piperita,
Casuarina cunninghamiana; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, E. rossii.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, conglomerate, alluvium, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread but uncommon. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999),
earlier this century it was common near the Georges River but has suffered from the urban sprawl.
Conservation status elsewhere unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Blue Mountains NP.

322

Dodonaea pinnata

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 1.5 m high, with divided leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period: 5 years (at Dharug).
Flowers: Red–brown, male, female, or bisexual, August–October.
Fruit/seed: 4-winged capsule 15–18 mm wide, seeds 3 mm long, black, mature November–
February.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsuleFire response: Probably killed, localised group of small plants, some flowering, recorded 3 years
after fire at Ku-ring-gai.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Lower Blue Mountains, Colo River, lower Hawkesbury River.
Select locations: CC: Colo Heights, Wisemans Ferry, Wilberforce, Glenorie, Patonga, Church
Point, Bobbin Head, Narrabeen Lake, Mt Irvine, Springwood.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky outcrops, riverbanks.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus punctata, E. piperita, Angophoracostata, Eucalyptus agglomerata, E. deanei.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone (West 1993).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Uncommon local endemic species. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James etal. 1999). Conservation status elsewhere unknown. Reported in Brisbane Water NP, Dharug NP,
Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP.

Dodonaea triangularis

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 3 m high, with simple leaves 1–3 cm long. Density of hairs andleaf shape quite variable — no evident correlation with geographical or ecological distribution(West 1984).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female, or bisexual.
Fruit/seed: 3–4-angled capsule, mature September–December. Seeds 2.5 mm, black.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsule.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT NWS CWS NWP; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Howes Mountain. CT: North of Bathurst (1823).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky hillside.
Altitude: 300–
Annual rainfall: 900 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus trachyphloia, Callitris sp.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare in Sydney area, conservation status elsewhere unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Dodonaea triquetra

323

SAPINDACEAE

Native Hop Bush_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub 1–3 m high, with simple leaves.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: 30 years.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Separate male and female flowers, usually on different plants, January–
March.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 9–16 mm long, with 3 membranous wings, mature September–
January. Seeds 3 mm long, black.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsule. Ant-adapted fordispersal (Rice & Westoby 1981), wind, water-dispersed. Seeds germinate without
treatment. Abundant regrowth followed cessation of mowing and absence of fire (atSilverwater). Will germinate vigorously in absence of fire. Growth rate rapid (Floyd
1966). Coloniser.
Fire response: Killed and re-establish from soil stored seed (Fox 1988). Following a
hot burn and consequent high germination percentage, D. triquetra is likely to become
a dominant species of the regenerating wet sclerophyll forest understorey (West, 1984).
In laboratory studies 100% germination followed pretreatment at the optimum
temperature of 90°C for 10–50 min. (Floyd 1966).
In field observations (Floyd 1966) found that D. triquetra seeds can emerge from amaximum depth of approx. 5 cm. A high intensity fire, with increased soil
temperatures penetrating to greater depths in the soil profile, could result ingermination of a large proportion of the soil reservoir of stored seed which may be theproduct of several years successful fruiting.
Interaction with other organisms: Seed eaten by Rosella Platycercus eximius (Barker& Vestjens 1989, 1990). Food plant of butterfly larvae Hypochrysops ignitus ignitus(Common & Waterhouse 1981). Host to several species of vividly marked bugs
(Hemiptera, including one species in family Scutelleridae); seedlings eaten by rabbits;
white wax scale common on stems, possibly Gascardia destructor, heavy infestations
appear to be detrimental (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT NWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly coast, Lower Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: Ourimbah, Hornsby, Cheltenham, Manly, Waverly, Kurnell,
Oatley, Duck River, Long Bay, Waterfall, Casula, Springwood, Glenbrook, Oakdale,
Yerrinbool, Cambewarra, Bomaderry. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Blackheath, Hill Top, Bowral,
Bundanoon.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides and gullies.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora costata,
Eucalyptus botryoides, Corymbia gummifera, shrubby understorey.
Substrate: Clay soil, often on shale/sandstone transition, also on alluvium, medium
nutrients. Also common on sandstone (T. Auld pers. comm.).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread and probably adequately conserved. Reported in Bouddi
NP, Brisbane Water NP, Lion Island NR, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR,
Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Dalrymple Hay NR, Lane Cove NP, Sydney
Harbour NP.

324

Dodonaea truncatiales

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 3 m high, with simple leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female, or bisexual, yellow-green, September–November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 17–25 mm wide, with 3–4 membranous wings, green–reddish, seeds
2.5 mm, black, September–December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsule.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT CWS; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread but scattered.
Select locations: CC: Putty, Upper Colo, Mount Yengo, St Albans, Wilberforce, Nortons
Basin, Douglas Park. CT: Mount Coricudgy, Newnes Plateau, Joadja.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillslopes.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucayptus crebra, E. siderophloia, E. cypellocarpa, Corymia
gummifera, C. eximia.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone often with local enrichment from basalt or shale.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustifolia

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Compact shrub to 5 m high, with simple leaves 6–13 cm long.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female, or bisexual, May–December.
Fruit/seed: 3–4-winged capsule 10–30 mm wide, September–October.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsuleFire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP; Qld, Vic., Amer., Afr., Asia,
Pac.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread but sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Colo Heights, Calga, Lansdowne, Albion Park, Dapto. CT: Hargraves,
Hill End, Kanangra Walls, Kowmung Valley.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky hillsides.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus tereticornis, E. globoidea, E. bosistoana, E.
moluccana; occasional in remnant rainforest.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, basalt, metamorphics, limestone, medium nutrients, welldrained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima

325

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 4 m high, with simple narrow leaves 3–9.5 cm long.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female, or bisexual, August–November.
Fruit/seed: 3–4-winged capsule 10–30 mm wide, November–January.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsuleFire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NT CT ST NWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A.,
W.A.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CT: Olinda, Limekilns, Wattle Flat, Tarana, Coxs River, Bowral, Paddys
River, Abercrombie Caves, Tuena, Wombeyan Caves.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky hillsides.
Altitude: 700–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, basalt, limestone, low to medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Dodonaea viscosa subsp. cuneata

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Compact spreading shrub to 3 m high, with simple leaves 1–3 cm long.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female, or bisexual, spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: 3–4-winged capsule 10–30 mm wide, brownish red, takes 10–11 months tomature and often present during flowering, September–November. Seed 2–3 mm, black.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsuleFire response: Probably killed.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CT CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Cumberland Plain, Capertee Valley.
Select locations: CC: Wisemans Ferry, St Marys, Greystanes, Liverpool, Bents Basin,
Bringelly, Mount Annan, Camden, Wedderburn. CT: Glen Alice, Capertee Valley.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillslopes.
Altitude: 0–800 m
Annual rainfall: 700–900 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–frequent.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, E. crebra, with shrubby
understorey.
Substrate: Clay soils in Wianamatta Shale, medium nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation statuselsewhere unknown.

326

Dodonaea viscosa subsp. spatulata

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Spreading to erect shrub 1.5–4 m high, with simple leaves 2.3–7.5 cm long.
Leaf characters intergrade with D. viscosa subsp. angustissima, subsp. cuneata, and subsp.
mucronata.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Male, female, or bisexual, January–February.
Fruit/seed: 3–4-winged capsule 10–30 mm wide, tawny brown, sticky, September–
December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of capsule.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NT CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas.,
S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Tablelands, western Sydney.
Select locations: CC: St Marys, Wallacia. CT: Hargreaves, Winburndale, Yetholme,
Clarence.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: High rainfall areas.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Guioa semiglauca

SAPINDACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tree to 6 m high, with smooth, often spotted barkand hairy new growth;compound leaves 8–15 cm long, with 2–6 leaflets.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, separate male and female flowers on same plant, September–November.
Pollination both automatic and open (Adam & Williams 2001). Pollination by honeybee Apis
mellifera, and native bees Leioproctus cristatus, Amphylaeus nubilosellus, Heterapoides sp.,
Homolictus flindersi (Williams & Adam 1997). Pollen carried by Jewel Beetles Castiarina
acuminata, C. producta and Flower Wasp Dimorphothynnus dimidiatus (Williams & Adam
1998).
Fruit/seed: Reddish capsule 10–14 mm diam., with 2–3 spreading lobes and a yellow aril
enclosing the seed, ripe December–February. Seed weight 31 000 per kilogram (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: vertebrate-adapted fleshy fruit (Westoby etal. 1990). Germinates from fresh seed (Floyd 1989).
Fire response: Resprouts from base (Adam & Williams 2001).
Interaction with other organisms: Eaten by Australian King Parrot, Eastern Rosella,Figbird, Lewins honeyeater, Olive-backed Oriole, Pied Currawong and Varied Triller (Floyd1989).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8327____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastal ranges.
Select locations: CC: Calga, Barrenjoey, Grose Vale, Eastwood, Nortons Basin,
Razorback, Mount Keira, Bass Point, Saddleback Mountain, Minnamurra Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Seacoast, rocky gulllies.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occurrence.
Vegetation: Dry rainforest, littoral rainforest e.g. with Cassine australis, Glochidion
ferdinandi, Syzygium, Acmena smithii, Eucalyptus botryoides; warmer rainforest.
Substrate: Clayey soils on sandstone, shale, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Bouddi NP, Brisbane
Water NP.

Planchonella australis

SAPOTACEAE

Black Apple_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Medium to tall tree, with milky latex sap; simple leaves 8–16 cm long,thick and leathery, with shiny upper surface.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, December–January.
Fruit/seed: Purplish or black berry 20–50 mm long; seeds 3–5 brown and shiny, with along narrow whitish scar. Mature September–January, fresh seed 570 per kilogram, dried
seed 780 per kilogram (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, probably animal-dispersed. Fruit
eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995) and Green Catbird(Floyd 1989). Fresh seed may begin to germinate after 9–22 days, with germination of
80% after 16–70 days; seed cold-stored at 2°C gave 80% germination; scarification found
not to accelerate germination (Floyd 1989).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Seeds were eaten by Aboriginal people in the
Gosford area; the fruit is edible but often infested with maggots; suitable for jam (Floyd1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastal ranges.
Select locations: CC: Ourimbah, Wamberal, Bass Point, Albion Park, Gerringong,
Kiama, Jamberoo, Saddleback Mountain.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rainforest.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Warmer rainforest; widespread stunted coastal rainforest, littoral
rainforest.
Substrate: Clay soils on shales, basalt, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP.

328

Bacopa monnieri

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Prostrate perennial herb, with more or less succulent leaves.
Vegetative spread: Rooting at nodes and often forming dense mats.
Longevity: Indefinite.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or pale blue, November–January.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 4 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld, cosmop.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast, north from Port Hacking.
Select locations: CC: Mona Vale, Narrabeen, Manly, Port Hacking, Royal NP.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Edge of freshwater or brackish pools, streams, sometimes submerged. Southernsites on wet flushes below sea cliffs (P. Adam pers. comm.).
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Damp sandy soils, low nutrients. In poorly drained, brackish soils (P. Adam pers.
comm.).
Exposure: Full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, Royal NP is southern geographical limit. Mostly old records withmost recent record at Royal NP in 1975. Other sites probably destroyed by development. In
2000, observed at Coogee (Lurline Bay) and in some abundance at Long Bay (P. Adam pers.
comm.).

Bartsia trixago *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Yellow Bartsia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, sticky herb 10–70 cm high, with narrow, opposite, coarsely-toothedleaves, hemi parasitic.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Purple to pink and whitish, summer.
Fruit/seed: Ribbed capsule 10–12 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore; seed, possibly animal and wind-dispersed(Carr et al. 1992).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Partially parasitic, eaten by stock (Herb. note).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Mediterranean.
Botanical subregions: CT CWS SWS ; Vic., S.A., W.A., native of Medit region.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CT: Carcoar (1955).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed sites, in crops.
Altitude: 800 m
Annual rainfall: 700–800 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Sandy soil
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: One record for Carcoar in 1955. Current extent in Sydney area unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Calceolaria tripartita *329

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Lady’s Slipper_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Decumbent or erect hairy herb 20–40 cm high, with opposite, divided leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Yellow, July–September.
Fruit/seed: Hairy 4-valved capsule 6–9 mm long, with numerous tiny seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to America from S Mexico to Bolivia. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Nowra.
Select locations: CC: Meroo (1973).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Often cultivated. Only naturalised record for Sydney area is Nowra in 1973,
where reported to be confined to a small area for many years, remaining constant. Situation
since 1973 unknown.

Cymbalaria muralis *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Ivy-leaved Toadflax_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Procumbent, often reddish perennial herb; leaves simple, roundish,ivy-shaped 5–35 mm wide.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Purple and white, September–April.
Fruit/seed: Flattish capsule 4 mm wide, with many tuberculate-wrinkled seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe and NW Africa.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Suburban areas.
Select locations: CC: Hornsby, Paddington, Glebe point, Dundas, Georges River. CT:
Abercrombie Caves.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Crevices in walls, moist sites in gardens and glasshouses.
Altitude: 0–800 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Rock walls, brick rubble, moist rock crevices on sandstone, limestone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Locally naturalised in gardens and suburban areas. Potential to invade
bushland unknown.

330

Derwentia blakelyi

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small glaucous, glabrous shrub or woody herb to 50 cm high, with simple,
shallowly-toothed, opposite leaves 2.5–5.5 cm long.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Bright blue-violet, October–December.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 4–6.5 mm long, December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Appears to resprout (D. Binns pers. comm.).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Western Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CT: Nullo Mountain, Mt Horrible, Limekilns, Peel, Lidsdale, Newnes SF,
Wolgan Gap, Clarence.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Slopes with southerly aspect, edge of swamps.
Altitude: 900–1100 mm
Annual rainfall: 800–1100 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest and woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus dives, E. rossii, E. mannifera,
E. dalrympleana, E. pauciflora; heath e.g. with Eucalyptus gregsoniana.
Substrate: Sandy loam on shales, slates, sandstones, alluvium, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species Conservation
Act 1995. Coded 2K on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Reported inBlue Mountains NP.

Derwentia derwentiana subsp. subglauca

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Woody herb to 140 cm high, with many stems from large woody rootstock; leaves
simple, opposite, toothed, 5–20 cm long.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, pale lilac, or pale blue, November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 3–6 mm long, November–March.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, appears to colonise open areas (Herb. note).
Fire response: Resprouts (Herb. note).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Mt Canobolas to Taralga.
Select locations: CT: Mt Canobolas, Lithgow, Hassans Walls, Hampton, Oberon, Ginkin,
Kanangra Plateau, Mt Werong, Wombeyan Caves, Taralga.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky slopes, gullies.
Altitude: 780–1380 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus fastigata, E. cypellocarpa, E. viminalis; woodlande.g. with Eucalyptus pauciflora.
Substrate: Loams on granite, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Derwentia perfoliata

331

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Digger’s Speedwell_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect or decumbent woody, glaucous herb or shrub to 120 cm high, withseveral stems from woody rootstock; forms shortly rhizomatous clumps; roundish leaves
opposite, toothed, 15–40 mm wide. Great variation in leaf shape with narrow-leaved plants
in drier areas; broad-leaved plants in moister cooler sites (Harden 1992).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue or purplish blue, mostly summer.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 4–8 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed. Grows in drier sites than Derwentia
derwentiana.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: SC CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on Tablelands.
Select locations: CT: Browns Gap, Wolgan Gap, Mt Werong, Mittagong, Lidsdale, Mt
Victoria, Katoomba, Edith, Wombeyan Caves, Taralga, Berrima, Ilford, Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creekbanks.
Altitude: 800–1200 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus fastigata, E. cypellocarpa, E. radiata,
E. viminalis, Acacia falciformis; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus dives, E. sieberi.
Substrate: Sandy or gravelly clay soils on quartzite, sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rylstone is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown.

Digitalis purpurea *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Foxglove_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect biennial or perennial, densely hairy herb 120–150 cm high, with simple,
basal leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, purple or pink, late spring–early summer.
Fruit/seed: Hairy, egg-shaped capsule 10 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seedFire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to W Europe. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Bargo (1953).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Garden areas.
Altitude: 500–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Frequently cultivated and semi naturalised in gardens in Blue Mountains.
One record, possibly naturalised, at Bargo in 1953.

332

Euphrasia arguta

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect densely hairy herb 20–35 cm high, with opposite deeply-lobed leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: White to lilac with yellow markings, October–January.
Fruit/seed: Ribbed, bristly capsule 4–7 mm long, with many seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Partially parasitic with haustoria connecting it to otherplants (Harden 1992).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC NT CT NWS CWS.
Distribution Sydney area: ?Bathurst.
Select locations:_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Grassy areas near rivers.
Altitude: 700 m
Annual rainfall: 600 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Coded 3X on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). No collections
for at least 75 years and probably extinct (Barker 1982).

Euphrasia bowdeniae

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb 7–20 cm high
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Mauve to violet,
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Upper Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CT: Blackheath, Wentworth Falls, Mt Solitary.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Shallow soil on ledges of sandstone cliffs.
Altitude: 750–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: e.g. with Epacris reclinata, Dracophyllum secundum, Sprengelia sp.
Substrate: Damp shallow soil on sandstone rock faces and ledges, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Coded 2RCit on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996).
Reported in Blue Mountains NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8Euphrasia collina subsp. paludosa333

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb or subshrub 5–60 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or pale to dark blue to purple or pink, August–February.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 4–15 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP; Vic., S.A. (extinct).
Distribution Sydney area: Botany Bay and Eastern Suburbs, Western Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: Rose Bay, Botany, La Perouse. CT: Rylstone, Currant Mountain Gap,
Orange, Newnes Plateau, Bell, Blackheath, Wentworth Falls, Little River, Jenolan Caves,
Mt Werong.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus obliqua, E. dives, E. fastigata, E. punctata; in sandy
swamps in the Eastern Suburbs e.g. with Cyperaceae.
Substrate: Sandy or clayey soils on sandstone, metamorphics, limestone, granite.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Eastern Suburbs population last collected in 1900, now extinct.
Conservation status elsewhere unknown.

Euphrasia collina subsp. speciosa

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, perennial herb or subshrub 5–60 cm high, variable habit.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Bluish–purple, August–October, peak October.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5–14 mm long, with many seeds 0.4–0.9 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seeds.
Fire response: Not known, noted flowering in season after fire (Herb. specimen).
Interaction with other organisms: Parasitic on the roots of other plants (Beadle et al. 1982)____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT ST.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast, Western Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: Doyalson, Chain Valley Bay, Wyong, Heathcote, Helensburgh, Bulli
Pass Lookout. CT: Mullions Range SF, Portland, Glanmire, Newnes Plateau, Clarence,
Wombeyan, Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides, ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest, woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus haemastoma, Corymbia gummifera,
Angophora costata; heath e.g. with Ricinocarpos pinifolius, Acacia longifolia, Dillwynia retorta.
Substrate: Infertile soils. Water table mostly high, non-saline.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Apparently rare, Woronora Plateau last collected 1945, though collected
at Chain Valley Bay (1999). Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP.

334

Euphrasia orthocheila subsp. orthocheila

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect annual herb 18–60 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow, November–December.
Fruit/seed:
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: ?NC NT CT; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Orange district.
Select locations: CT: No confirmed material for Sydney area.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 600–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1100 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare in Sydney area. Coded 3RC- on national rare species list (Briggs& Leigh 1996). Known only from a few old collections and possibly extinct in the area.

Euphrasia scabra

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect annual herb 8–50 cm high. Semi-parasitic (Thompson 1992).
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Yellow, hairy, October–February. Probably self-pollinated, but native bees reported on
flowers (Thompson 1992).
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5–9 mm long, with many small seeds. Probably has soil-stored seedbank(Gilfedder & Kirkpatrick 1997), sets abundant seed but reproduction is strongly influenced byseasonal factors (Thompson 1992).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: small seed without appendages for dispersal.
Germination in laboratory facilitated by cold treatment at 5°C in darkness for 48 days, then
20°C with 16 hours light then 8 hours darkness; for germination in shadehouse or field,
broadcast seed on bare soil early autumn, germinates after cold nights in late autumn–winter;seed directly into natural soil with herbaceous hosts (Scarlett & Parsons 1992).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Wide variety of host plants (Thompson 1992).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT ST; Vic., Tas., S.A. (extinct), W.A., (possiby extinct in NSW).
Distribution Sydney area: Tablelands.
Select locations: CT: Bathurst Plains (1817), Jenolan Caves (1899).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Damp, grassy areas.
Altitude: 600–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1100 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8335___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) NSW Threatened Species
Conservation Act 1995. Coded 3KCa on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996).
Rare, known only from a few old collections and probably extinct in area now. Barker(1982) reports that although apparently widespread and common in Australia in thenineteenth century it has seldom been collected since and is probably threatened withextinction over its range.
Decline of Tasmanian populations may relate to increasing shrub cover (Gilfedder &Kirkpatrick 1997). Victorian populations threatened by grazing of stock and feral
animals, competition from introduced shrubs and grasses, as well as altered burningand hydrological regimes (Thompson 1992).

Glossostigma elatinoides

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Aquatic or terrestrial mat-forming perennial herb, rooting at nodes.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue, December–May.
Fruit/seed: Capsule with many seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: ?NC CC SC NT CT ST SWS SWP; S.A., Vic., Tas., N.Z.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Hoxton Park (1998). CT: Oberon (1979).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riverflats or beside freshwater swamps.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1100 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Drying mud of riverbank, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, known from two records in Sydney region.

336

Gratiola pedunculata

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb 13–50 cm high, with creeping rootstock rooting at nodes.
Vegetative spread: Rooting at nodes.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pink with yellow, spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 3–5 mm long, with small, numerous seeds, mature in Autumn.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: probably wind-dispersed. Coloniser.
Fire response: Probably rarely burnt.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast.
Select locations: CC: Colo Gorge, Richmond, Warrimoo, Cowan Creek, Belmore, Doonside,
Toongabbie, Campbelltown, Bomaderry. CT: Bungonia Lookout.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: River or lagoon banks and other damp places.
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–occasional.
Vegetation: Aquatic or swamp vegetation.
Substrate: Poorly drained sites on clayey alluvium, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Now restricted due to destruction of habitat. Vulnerable in Western
Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conserved in Dharug NP.

Gratiola peruviana

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Decumbent to erect perennial herb usually 10–30 cm high, with toothed stemclasping leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink with red-purple stripes, spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 4–7 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., N.Z., S Amer.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Tablelands.
Select locations: CC: Yarramundi, Hornsby, Beecroft, Campbelltown. CT: Ilford, Glanmire,
Lidsdale, Hartley Vale, Tuglow Caves, Boyd Plateau, Mt Werong, Wombeyan Caves, Hanging
Rock Swamp, Bundanoon, Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Edges of creeks, swamps.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Plateau swamp e.g. with Sphagnum sp., Isolepis sp., Myriophyllum sp., Eleocharis
lepidosperma; wet meadow e.g. with Eucalyptus bridgesiana, E. macrorhyncha, E. viminalis.
Substrate: Moist silt and mud on alluvium, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Mainly on Tablelands, rare on coast. Conservation status not known but
swamp margin habitats vulnerable to disturbance. Reported in Kanangra Boyd NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Gratiola pubescens

337

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect to procumbent perennial herb 2–20 cm high, with stem-clasping,
toothed leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or pink-purple, October–March.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 3–4 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seedFire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC ST; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast.
Select locations: CC: Morisset, Lake Woodford, Manly Dam, Maroubra, Bundeena, Marley
Lagoon, Thirlmere.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Coastal lagoon, lake margins.
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Sedgeland e.g. with Leptocarpus tenax, Schoenus brevifolius, Goodenia paniculata,
Philydrum lanuginosum.
Substrate: Sandy soils on hind dunes, low nutrients, poorly-drained to moist.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status not known. Reported in Royal NP.

Kickxia elatine subsp. crinita *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Twining Toadflax_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Prostrate, spreading perennial hairy herb.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, January–April, June.
Fruit/seed: Brown-white, thin-walled capsule 3–4 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S Europe.
Botanical subregions: CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP NFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Wondabyne, Clyde, Doonside. CT: Orange, Mandurama, Clarence
Siding (1900).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gardens, roadsides, creekbeds.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1000 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Minor weed.

338

Kickxia elatine subsp. elatine *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Woolly Toadflax_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Prostrate, spreading perennial hairy herb.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, March–June.
Fruit/seed: Brown-white, thin-walled capsule 3–4 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe and W Asia.
Botanical subregions: CC; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Greystanes (1993), Picnic Point (1986), Casula (1993). CT: Katoomba(1997).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gardens, creeks.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, alluvium.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of gardens, occasionally naturalised in wet places, recently recorded.

Kickxia spuria subsp. integrifolia *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Round-leaved Toadflax_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Spreading herb to 25 cm high, with stems to 100 cm long.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Purple and yellow, November–April.
Fruit/seed: Light-brown, thin-walled capsule 3–4 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, probably dispersed by wind and water.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Probably eaten by stock.
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe and W Asia. Probably introduced as weed.
Botanical subregions: CC NWS CWS; Vic., ?Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Campbelltown (1903).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 700–800 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay soils.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of cultivated paddocks on Western Slopes e.g. near Tamworth.
Only one record for Sydney area at Campbelltown in 1903.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Limosella australis

339

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Australian Mudwort_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Semi–aquatic perennial herb, often stoloniferous.
Vegetative spread: Stolons form plants 1–2 cm apart.
Longevity: Indefinite.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, flowering when exposed, sometimes when lower parts are inundated bywater, August–April.
Fruit/seed: Dark brown capsule 2–3 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., N.Z., ?Eur.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Lane Cove, Prestons. CT: Oberon (1959), Clarence (1901), Carcoar(1907), Edith (1966).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Swamps, mudflats, creeks.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1100 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Sedgeland e.g. with Juncus usitatus, Cyperus flaccidus.
Substrate: Fine silt to clay soils on shales, alluvium, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Old collections for Central Tablelands but first collected on coast in 1992.
Possibly introduced at Lane Cove (council nursery) in potplants from other areas. Status at
Prestons unknown.

Linaria incarnata *SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect annual herb 15–60 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Reddish purple to pink with yellow, winter–spring.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 4–5 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Portugal & Spain. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC NWP SFWP.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Cambelltown (1966), Nowra (1933).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed areas.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: There are a couple of records for this species from the Sydney area but
it is not clear whether the species is truly naturalised.

340

Linaria pelisseriana *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Pelisser’s Toadflax_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Slender erect herb 20–70 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Purple-violet, spring.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 2 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: No particular morphology for dispersal (McIntyre etal. 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S Europe.
Botanical subregions: CC ?SC NT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Morisset.
Select locations: CC: Morisset (1926).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed areas along roadsides and railway lines.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Minor weed, only recorded for Morisset in Sydney.

Linaria vulgaris *SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect perennial herb 2–60 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow, spring–autumn.
Fruit/seed: Mature capsule not seen.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe.
Botanical subregions: NC CC ?ST; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Nowra area.
Select locations: CC: Kangaroo Valley, Nowra.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Minor weed.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Mimulus gracilis

341

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Slender Monkey-flower_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect to ascending stoloniferous perennial or annual herb 4–35 cm high.
Vegetative spread: Roots from stolons.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue, purple or lilac, with yellow, May–September.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5–6 mm long, with many seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC SC NT CT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A.,
W.A., India, southern Afr.
Distribution Sydney area: Tablelands.
Select locations: CT: Mudgee (1850), Blue Mountains (old record, undated).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Swamps, creeks (Harden 1992).
Altitude:Annual rainfall:
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, probably extinct.

Mimulus moschatus *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Musk Monkey-flower_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Procumbent or ascending, sticky, hairy musk-scented perennial herb.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow, November–February.
Fruit/seed: Egg-shaped capsule 5–6 mm long, with many seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to N America.
Botanical subregions: CC CT ST; Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Kedumba River, Macquarie Rivulet. CT: Orange, Katoomba Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist sites, creekbanks, waterfalls.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Riparian forest e.g. with Casuarina cunninghamiana and sedges.
Substrate: Sandy alluvium, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Minor weed.

342

Mimulus repens

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Terrestrial or occasionally aquatic annual or perennial herb, forming mats.
Vegetative spread: Stoloniferous.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue, purple or pink, with yellow or white, September–April.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5 mm long, with many seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., N.Z.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Avoca (1971), Wollongong (1911). CT: Kings Tableland (1887).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Swampy sites, edges of lakes, watercourses, ephemerally wet areas.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Wet sand, saline.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, only one recent record, Avoca (1971) .

Misopates orontium *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Lesser Snapdragon_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form:
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: White with blue, purple or pink, September–February.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 7–9 mm long, with many seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native of Mediterranean region.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NWS CWS NWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast.
Select locations: CC: Richmond, Carlingford, Pennant Hills, Lindfield, Meadowbank,
Leichhardt, Bunnerong, Warrimoo.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Roadsides, railways, embankments.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Grassy areas.
Substrate: Sandy to clay soil on sands, shale low–medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of cultivation and disturbed sites, minor weed.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Nemesia strumosa *343

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb 15–40 cm high
Vegetative spread:Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Orange with pale yellow, and bluish, purplish markings, October.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 12–15 mm long, with many seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S Africa. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Woy Woy, Picnic Point.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist sites.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: There are a couple of records of this species from the Sydney area
although it is not clear whether the species is truly naturalised.

Orobanche minor *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Broomrape_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect herb 10–40 cm high, apparently tuberous. Root parasite e.g. on
Glechoma hederacea causing patchy dieback in host, also on Trifolium sp., Tropaeolium
pentaphyllum.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale blue to whitish,
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5–8 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Parasitic on the roots of garden and pasture plants(Harden 1992).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Vic., Tas., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Concord (1910), Foxground, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Mt Canobolas,
Kelso, Mittagong.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gardens, pastures, orchards.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay loam on shale, granite, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Occasionally naturalised, localised.

344

Parahebe lithophila

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Trailing perennial, with stems 50 cm long, more or less woody at the base,rooting at the nodes.
Vegetative spread: By rooting from nodes of stems.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale violet, September–October.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 3–5 mm long, February.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Southern Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CT: Yerranderie, McMahons Lookout, Kanangra Walls, Mt Colong,_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Cliffs or rock exposures.
Altitude: 650–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Cliff face plants e.g. with Pyrrosia rupestris, Dendrobium striolatum, Liparis reflexa,
Crassula sp., Hymenophyllum cupressiforme; in forest e.g. with Eucalyptus deanei, E. sieberi, E.
piperita, E. agglomerata.
Substrate: Sandstone or quartzite cliffs, shallow humus soil, low nutrients.
Exposure: Sheltered, south-facing slopes.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic coded 2RC- on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996).
Reported from Blue Mountains National Park.

Parentucellia latifolia *SCROPHULARIACEAERed Bartsia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Slender erect hairy herb 5–30 cm high, partly parasitic; leaves opposite,
simple, toothed.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Red-purple or rarely white, with a tubular, ribbed calyx, September–December, peak
October.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 6 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Vic., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Epping, Ashfield, Peakhurst, Glenfield, Marayong, Liverpool. CT: Orange,
Carcoar, Blayney.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed areas, roadsides, pastures.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Grasslands, native pastures.
Substrate: Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Minor weed.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Parentucellia viscosa *345

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Yellow Bartsia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Slender erect, sticky, hairy herb 5–30 cm high, partly parasitic; leaves
opposite, simple, toothed.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Yellow, with a tubular, finely ribbed calyx, November–January.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 11–18 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region.
Botanical subregions: CC CT SWS; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Marayong. CT: Wentworth Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Roadsides.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Known from only a couple of records in the Sydney area.

Scrophularia nodosa *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Figwort_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with erect stems 30–80 cm high, with a nodular rhizome.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Green and purplish brown, summer.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5 mm long, with numerous seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe.
Botanical subregions: CC CT;
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Mangrove Mountain, Macquarie Falls, Albion Park (1963). CT:
Robertson.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Damp or shady places, pastures, roadsides, wasteland, creek flats.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Edge of rainforest e.g. with Austrocynoglossum latifolium.
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Minor weed.

346

Verbascum blattaria *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Moth Mullein_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Biennial herb 0.5–1.2 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: 2 years.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 2 years.
Flowers: Pale pink, white or yellow, December–April. Moths feed on flowers (Brown 2001).
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 8 mm long, with numerous seeds, December–April. Stored seedviable after 120 years (Brown 2001).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Eurasia.
Botanical subregions: CC NT CT ST SWS; Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Macquarie Fields, Douglas Park, Broughton Vale, Cambewarra.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed ground, pastures.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Sandy to clayey soils.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Minor weed.

Verbascum thapsus subsp. thapsus *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Great Mullein, Aarons Rod_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Biennial herb, occasionally annual, 0.5–2 m high, with greyish or whitish
covering of hairs; taproot stout and deep.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity: 1–2 years.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 2 years.
Flowers: Yellow, January–March, maturing along the stalk from the base upwards, opening
early morning and closing by mid-afternoon; flowers self-pollinate if cross-pollination does
not occur (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Fruit/seed: Hairy 2-celled capsule 7–10 mm diam., with several hundred fruit per plant,
splitting into 2 segments at maturity; seeds reddish brown, less than 1 mm long, with up to 600
seeds per fruit (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: very small seed, most falling within 1.5 m ofparent plant; no special mechanism for dispersal but dispersed by contamination of materials
and objects; seed viable after storage for a long time 35 years by experiment, 650 years(reported in Denmark); seeds germinate in autumn and spring, with a rosette of leaves and astout taproot formed by summer (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: The woolly leaves were used by the ancient Greeks aslamp wicks, Romans dipped the flowering stems in oil and tallow for use as torches, and there
was wide medicinal use for gout, toothache, warts, diarrhoea, stomach cramps, chest pains,
coughs, asthma and as a sedative (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Eurasia. Introduced as ornmental, with seed listed in nursery
catalogues from 1845, naturalised in Victoria 1887, possibly earlier in other states (Parsons &Cuthbertson 1992).
Botanical subregions: CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWP NFWP; Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic
Select locations: CC: Mascot. CT: Mt Towinhingy, Capertee.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8347_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed ground, pastures, roadsides, wasteland.
Altitude: 0–900 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1100 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Woodland.
Substrate: Sandy soils, also clay soils on basalt. Grows well on dry, well-drained soils of
low fertility and high pH (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Sporadic records for Sydney area. Control by removing taproot;
biological control was attempted in America in 1930s by use of a weevil which destroys
the seed (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).

Verbascum virgatum *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Twiggy Mullein, Green Mullein_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Biennial herb 1–2 m high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity: 2 years.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 2 years.
Flowers: Yellow, with purple centre, November–March.
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 5–8 mm long, with numerous seeds, November–March.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed. No particular morphology fordispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to W Europe.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; LHI, Qld, Vic.,
Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Llandilo, Wahroonga, Royal Botanic Gardens (1902),
Meadowbank, Flemington Saleyards, Mount Annan. CT: Orange, Eglinton (1895),
Glanmire, Wombeyan Caves, Bundanoon.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed ground, roadsides, near habitation, pastures.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Grassland e.g. with Themeda australis.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, clay soils on shale, basalt.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Minor weed of disturbed ground.

348

Veronica anagallis-aquatica *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Blue Water Speedwell_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb to 80 cm high, with stout, hollow stems and stout rhizomes.
Vegetative spread: Rhizomatous.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue or lilac, September–January.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 2–4 mm long, November–March.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT ST SWS SWP; Vic., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Kellyville, Yarramundi, Regentville, Mt Ousley, Unanderra,
Goodmans Ford. CT: Bathurst, Carcoar, Mt Canobolas, Wombeyan Caves.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Banks of streams, drainage channels.
Altitude: 0–800 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1600 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Creekline vegetation e.g. with Ranunculus repens; grassy woodland e.g. with
Scutellaria humilis, Geranium solanderi, Cynoglossum suaveolens.
Substrate: Mud on alluvium, sometimes inundated.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread weed of watercourses.

Veronica arvensis *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Wall Speedwell_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Annual herb with hairy stems to 10 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: 2 months.
Flowers: Pale blue or lilac, September–November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 1–3 mm long, September–November.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, soil-stored seedbank, germinating ingardens in spring, possibly in response to cultivation.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe and W Asia.
Botanical subregions: CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; LHI, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Wisemans Ferry, Glenorie, Cheltenham, Roseville, Balgowlah,
Glenfield, Mt Kembla, Albion Park. CT: Orange, Mt Canobolas, Jenolan Caves, Robertson.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Grassy areas, disturbed sites, lawns and gardens.
Altitude: 0–1350 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Eucalypt woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus pauciflora.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, basalt, limestone, alluvium, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of gardens and disturbed sites. Not likely to invade bushland.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Veronica brownii

349

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with arching or prostrate stolons to 50 cm or more long,rooting at nodes; flowering stems 10–25 cm high.
Vegetative spread: Local spread by stolons.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale lilac, November–December.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 2–4 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: Grose Valley. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Mt Victoria, Blackheath, Katoomba.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Slopes.
Altitude: 350–1100 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Eucalypt forest e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, E. piperita, E. cypellocarpa.
Substrate: Clay loams on sandstones, shales, medium nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic species, conservation status unknown.

Veronica calycina

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Hairy Speedwell_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with stolons to 50 cm long, rooting at nodes.
Vegetative spread: Stolons rooting at nodes.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale blue or lilac, spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 3–6 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed. No particular morphology for dispersal(McIntyre et al. 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Helensburgh. CT: Hargraves, Mt Coricudgy, Mullion Range, SunnyCorner, Bell, Mt Wilson, Mount Tomah, Oberon, Jenolan Caves, Mt Werong, Mt Colong.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Wide range of habitats.
Altitude: 0–1100 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Eucalypt forest
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

350

Veronica gracilis

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with slender rhizomes to 60 cm long; flowering stems to
25 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale lilac or blue, November–December, peak November.
Fruit/seed: Glossy capsule 4 mm long, with hairs.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NT CT ST; Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Tablelands.
Select locations: CT: Hargraves, Orange, Mt Piper, Hampton, Oberon, Mt Werong, Bindook
Swamp, Robertson, Wingecarribee Swamp.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Swampy sites.
Altitude: 600–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Grassland, woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus pauciflora, E. dalrympleana.
Substrate: Clay soils on alluvium, basalt, medium–high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Veronica notabilis

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial stoloniferous herb with flowering stems to 40 cm high.
Vegetative spread: Stoloniferous.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Lavender or white, October–December.
Fruit/seed: Glossy capsule 5 mm long, October–December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed. No particular morphology fordispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Illawarra area.
Select locations: CC: Clifton, Mt Kembla, Macquarie Pass. CT: Fitzroy Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist cleft in rocks.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1600 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Rainforest, moist forest
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Appears to be rare, last collected in 1948 at Macquarie Pass.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Veronica peregrina *351

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Wandering Speedwell_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Annual herb with erect hairy stems to 20 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Pale lavender or white, October–November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 3 mm long, October–November.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, possibly spread over golfcourse bymowers (Herb. note).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to America.
Botanical subregions: CC CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP SFWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Lane Cove, Nortons Basin. CT: Oberon.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Pastures, disturbed sites, creekbanks.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Riparian scrub e.g. with Casuarina cunninghamiana, Tristaniopsis laurina,
Backhousia myrtifolia; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus viminalis, E. pauciflora.
Substrate: Clay soils on alluvium.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare weed in Sydney area though widespread in inland districts.

Veronica persica *SCROPHULARIACEAE

Creeping Speedwell_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb with sprawling or erect hairy stems to 30 cm long.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue or bluish white, July–November. Probably pollinated by hoverflies(Syrphidae), native bee (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5 mm long, with hairs on margin, July–November.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed. Diaspore mobile (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Small black ants observed probably feeding on nectar(P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Llandilo, Pennant Hills, Cheltenham, Castle Hill, Glenfield,
Campbelltown, Albion Park. CT: Bathurst, Orange, Carcoar.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Pasture, disturbed sites, gardens, footpaths.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay soils on Wianamatta Shale, alluvium.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of gardens.

352

Veronica plebeia

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Trailing Speedwell_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with stolons to 50 cm long.
Vegetative spread: Stolons rooting at nodes.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale blue or lilac, September–June, peak October–January, April. Probably
pollinated by native bees, with flies (Diptera) also involved (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Capsule 3–6 mm long. Seed weight: 16 950 seeds per gram (Morgan & Lunt
1994).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed. No particular morphology fordispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). By experiment, germination 84% with exposure to light at
20°C; darkness suppressed germination (Morgan & Lunt 1994).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Heavily cropped by rabbits; black ants probably feed on
nectar (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., *W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Howes Valley, Culoul Range, Kurrajong, Avoca Beach, Dennistone,
Wahroonga, Balgowlah, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kogarah, Homebush, Lady Carrington
Drive, Campbelltown, Albion Park, Cambewarra Range. CT: Mt Towinhingy, Glen Davis,
Wolgan Gap, Lithgow, Blackheath, Yerranderie, Mt Colong, Mt Gibraltar.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Eucalypt forest
Altitude: 0–1100 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist forest e.g. with Eucalyptus viminalis, E. fastigata, E. pilularis; dry forest e.g.
with Eucalyptus puncata, E. fibrosa; woodland e.g. with Angophora bakeri, Eucalyptus
sclerophylla, Melaleuca decora, Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, Eucalyptus tereticornis.
Grassy woodland (Morgan & Lunt 1994).
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, basalt.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread and probably adequately conserved. Reported in Yengo NP,
Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Garigal NP, Dalrymple Hay NR, Lane
Cove NP, Sydney Harbour NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Veronica serpyllifolia *353

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb, with stems prostrate or erect to 10 cm high.
Vegetative spread: Stolons rooting at nodes.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue, spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 2–4 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe and W Asia.
Botanical subregions: CC NT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Suburban areas.
Select locations: CC: Lane Cove River, Manly, Croydon, Minnamurra Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist sites, lawns, paths.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of lawns in suburban areas.

Veronica sp. A sensu

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with slender stems 10–25 cm high; rhizomes to 25 cm long.
Vegetative spread: Rhizomatous.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Lilac or pale blue, November–December.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 3 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT ST; Vic., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Lithgow to Robertson.
Select locations: CT: Lithgow, Mt Werong, Tomat Swamp, Wingecarribee Swamp.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Swamps.
Altitude: 600–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Peaty swamp e.g. with Leptospermum lanigera, L. juniperinum, Eucalyptus ovata.
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Lithgow is northern geographical limit, conservation status unknown.

354

Veronica sp. C

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SCROPHULARIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with flowering stems to 30 cm high.
Vegetative spread: Stoloniferous.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Lavender or white, spring–autumn.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC NT CT CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Upper Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CT: Mt Wilson, Katoomba.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 700–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Moist eucalypt forest; edge of rainforest.
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt or shale, medium–high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, conservation status unknown.

Selago corymbosa *SELAGINACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial shrub 30–60 cm high; branches covered with fine hairs.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, September–November.
Fruit/seed: Fruit 1 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S Africa. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Camden.
Select locations: CC: Camden.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Slopes, cemetery.
Altitude: 70 m
Annual rainfall: 750 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Pasture.
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cultivated as ornamental. Reported naturalised in Camden Cemetery(originally planted) and adjacent Cawdor Road (1965, 1966, 1983, 1993). Capacity to spreadfurther unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Selago thunbergii *355

SELAGINACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial much-branched shrub 30–60 cm high; branches coveredwithfine hairs.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Whitish, turning blue on drying, winter.
Fruit/seed: Fruit 1 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S Africa. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: NT CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Berala. CT: Wentworth Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Railway cutting.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay soils on shale.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cultivated as ornamental, sometimes naturalised. Naturalised at
Berala (1984) not clear whether naturalised at Wentworth Falls.

356

Ailanthus altissima *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SIMAROUBACEAE

Tree of Heaven_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tree to 8 m high, deciduous.
Vegetative spread: Suckers to form dense thickets.
Longevity: Indefinite.
Primary juvenile period: More than 2 years (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Flowers: White or greenish, summer; male flowers emit an offensive odour which attracts
insects (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Fruit/seed: Dry, indehiscent winged fruit (samara), yellowish, 3.5–5 cm long. Mature latesummer and autumn (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, bird, water and wind-dispersed(Carr et al. 1992), vegetative dispersal by root pieces and cuttings (Parsons & Cuthbertson
1992).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Can cause contact dermatitis when plants in flower;
suspected of causing death in sheep (Whittet 1958). Listed 1871 in Victoria as a plant ofpotential importance to the silk industry as a food for silkworms; cultivated in China to
feed the larvae of silk moth Attacus cynthia, used for production of shantung silk;allelopathic substances in leaves adversely affect the growth of other plants (Parsons &Cuthbertson 1992).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to China. Introduced as ornamental, known to be at Camden
Park in 1845; recognised as a potential weed by 1930 (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST NWS CWS SWS SFWP; Qld, Vic., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Castlereagh, Wisemans Ferry, Blacktown. CT: Orange, Blayney.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: River edges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay or loam soils, withstanding harsh environments (Parsons & Cuthbertson
1992).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Often cultivated. May be locally naturalised due to its suckering habit,
which makes eradication difficult (Harden 1991).

Cestrum aurantiacum *SOLANACEAE

Orange Cestrum_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Hairy shrub to 4 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Orange-yellow, tubular, May–July, November.
Fruit/seed: White berry 10 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Poisonous to stock (Whittet 1958).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to tropical America. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Kurrajong (1985), Upper Cordeaux Dam (1957), Gerringong (1952).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8357_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creeks, disturbed sites.
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Edge of rainforest.
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Garden escape, occasionally locally naturalised.

Cestrum parqui *SOLANACEAE

Green Cestrum, Green Poisonberry_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Woody shrub to 3 m high, with unpleasant odour from crushed leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period: More than 2 years (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Flowers: Greenish to yellow, through summer and autumn, with an unpleasant odour
by day, fragrant at night (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992). Flowers visited by honeybees
and hoverfly (Syphidae) fed on pollen (P. Kubiak pers. comm.) they may be involved
with pollination.
Fruit/seed: Purplish black berry 10–15 mm long, with 1–2 seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, dispersed by birds, water. Seed
dormancy in soil for many years (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Attractive to animals, toxic to stock including
cattle, sheep, horses, pigs, poultry causing death, also reported toxic to birds and bees
(Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992). Protective clothing should be used when removing
plants to avoid skin reactions (Muyt 2001).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America (Chile). Introduced as ornamental or hedge
plant (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Botanical subregions: NC CC CS NWS SWS NWP; Qld, Vic., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Suburban areas.
Select locations: CC: Barrenjoey, Forestville Park (L.McD.), Manly West, Mascot(1965), Granville, Lansvale, Minnamurra.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gardens, headlands, river flats.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Sandy to clay soils.
Exposure: Full sun to light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Garden escape, naturalised and with potential to invade bushland.
Control by removal of roots, use of herbicide, and follow-up treatment of seedlings(Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).

358

Cyphanthera albicans subsp. albicans

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE

Grey Ray Flower_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 3 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to creamy white, August–December, peak September.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 2–8 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC NT CT ST CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread, but sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Douglas Park (1910, 1966, 1978, 1984). CT: Rylstone, Glen Davis, South
Bowenfels, Berrima (1902).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky hillsides, riverbanks.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–900 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Eucalypt forest; shrubland e.g. with Acacia binervia, Banksia spinulosa, Exocarpos
cupressiformis.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone hillslopes, riverine alluvium, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, known from only a few locations. Conservation status unknown.

Cyphanthera scabrella

SOLANACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect or scrambling shrub to 1.3 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Creamy-white, often tinged with yellowish green, September–October, peak
September.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 2–8 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: Bowens Creek, Erskine Creek.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky slopes.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Eucalypt forest bordering creekside rainforest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum,
Doryphora sassafras.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Coded 2RC- on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Bowens
Creek population reported recently but Erskine Creek, Nepean River population not reported
since 1888–1899. Reported in Blue Mountains NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Cyphomandra betacea *359

SOLANACEAE

Tree Tomato, Tamarillo_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small foul-smelling tree.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink, fleshy, throughout the year.
Fruit/seed: Dark red, dull berry, 5–7 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America. Introduced as food plant.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Springwood 1977.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies.
Altitude: 400 m
Annual rainfall: 1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Edge of gully rainforest.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cultivated for its edible fruits. Only record, Springwood 1977.

360

Datura ferox *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE

Fierce Thornapple, Longspine Thornapple_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Stout herb.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: White or pale lavender, trumpet-shaped, summer–autumn, open for only a shorttime, possibly one day (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Fruit/seed: Capsule 2–4 cm long, with up to 60 stout sharp spines 10–15 mm long; seedblack or grey, very numerous in each fruit (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seeds and capsules, dispersed by water oron machinery or vehicles, in mud; vegetative dispersal by pieces of root; seed dormancy bya chemical inhibitor in the seedcoat must be leached out or broken down before germination; seeds require an after-ripening period of 5–11 months before germination; germination
throughout the year, mainly in warmer months, within 3 days of exposure to water;alternating temperatures 20–35°C for optimum germination and germination stimulated bycultivation, possibly by exposure to light (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Plants in Qld defoliated by introduced Three-lined
Potato Beetle Lema trilineata; all parts of the plant are poisonous to humans, particularly
seeds, and leaves may cause headaches, nausea and dermatitis; stock may be poisoned bycontamination of hay with seed; grown commercially in some European countries and India
for medicinal purposes; used in genetic studies, useful as indicator plants in virologicalresearch (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to China.
Botanical subregions: CC CT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Flemington, Campbelltown (1966), Menangle Park. CT: Newnes.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Wasteland.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 700–900 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Wasteland weeds.
Substrate: Sandy soils.
Exposure: Full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Occasional weed of wasteland. Control by hand removal of isolated
plants before fruiting, herbicide treatment of seedlings, possible biological control in future(Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Datura stramonium *361

SOLANACEAE

Common Thornapple_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Stout herb.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: White or pale lavender, trumpet-shaped, summer–autumn, open for only a shorttime, possibly one day (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Fruit/seed: Capsule 2–5 mm long, splitting into 4 segments, with more than 100 large, erectspines; seed black or grey, 600–700 in each fruit, 30 000 seed per plant, throughout summer(Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seeds and capsules, dispersed by water or in
mud on machinery or vehicles; vegetative dispersal by pieces of root; seed dormancy controlled
by a chemical inhibitor in the seedcoat that must be leached out or broken down before
germination; seeds require an after-ripening period of 5–11 months before germination (Parsons& Cuthbertson 1992).
Optimum germination with alternating temperatures 20–35°C, throughout the year, mainly inwarmer months, within 3 days of exposure to water; germination stimulated by cultivation,
possibly by exposure to light, seed buried 15 cm does not germinate; 91% seed viable after
burial for 39 years, by experiment (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: All parts of the plant are poisonous to humans, leaves may
cause headaches, nausea and dermatitis; stock may be poisoned by contamination of hay withseed; grown commercially in some European countries and India for medicinal purposes; usedin genetic studies, useful as indicator plants in virological research; plants in Qld defoliated byintroduced Three-lined Potato Beetle Lema trilineata discovered in 1970s (Parsons &Cuthbertson 1992).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, probably native of N America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas.,
S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Wahroonga, Cheltenham, Centennial Park (1913), Rockdale (1901),
Cooks River, Bents Basin. CT: Sofala, Coxs River.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: River flats, roadsides.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: With other weeds e.g. Cirsium vulgare, Bidens pilosa, Conium maculatum.
Substrate: Sandy or stony soils, medium nutrients.
Exposure: Full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Occasional weed of disturbed sites. Control by hand removal of isolated
plants before fruiting, herbicide treatment of seedlings, possible biological control in future(Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).

362

Duboisia myoporoides

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE

Corkwood_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tall erect shrub or small tree to 20 m high, with thick, corky bark.
Vegetative spread: Root suckers after flood damage (Colo R).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, September–December, peak October.
Fruit/seed: Purple-black, globose berry, 4–8 mm diam., mature November–December.
Mature October–January, seed weight 656 000 per kilogram (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, probably bird-dispersed. Fresh seedgerminates readily, with pulp removed (Floyd 1989).
Fire response: Resprouts from base (Adam & Williams 2001).
Interaction with other organisms: Reported to be toxic to cattle, horses and humans;chemicals in branches used by Aboriginal people to stun eels; source of hyoscine for
medicinal drugs; fruit eaten by Figbird, Green Catbird, Lewins Honeyeater and Topknot
Pigeon (Floyd 1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT; Qld, N. Caledonia.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast and Hawkesbury–Nepean River.
Select locations: CC: Boorai Creek, Ourimbah, Gunderman, Marramarra Creek (L.McD.),
Narrabeen, Blakehurst, Liverpool, Audley, Douglas Park, Bargo, Macquarie Pass,
Minnamurra Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riverbanks, margins of rainforest.
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: above 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Riverbank scrub e.g. with Backhousia myrtifolia, Casuarina cunninghamiana,
Angophora subvelutina, and margins of rainforest.
Substrate: Deep sandy alluvial soils, along levee banks and in gullies, also occasionally on
rocky hillsides on sandstone, medium-high nutrient.
Exposure: Mid shade–full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation statuselsewhere unknown. Reported in Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP,
Garigal NP,

Hyoscyamus niger *SOLANACEAE

Black Henbane_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Foetid annual or biennial herb to 50 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: 1–2 years.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale yellow, summer.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 25 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region.
Botanical subregions: CC; Vic., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Glenbrook.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8363_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably not naturalised in Sydney area. Only known from one
collection in Glenbrook area in 1906.

Lycium barbarum *SOLANACEAE

Chinese Boxthorn_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 2.5 m high
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Mauve, summer–autumn.
Fruit/seed: Red berry 4 mm diam., with about 20 seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to China. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Wilberforce, Watsons Bay (1914), Leumeah, Campbelltown.
CT: Cullen Bullen.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riverbanks, rubbish dumps, old gardens.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Garden escape, occasionally naturalised in Sydney area.

364

Lycium ferocissimum *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE

African Boxthorn_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Intricately branched shrub to 4 m high, with long rigid branches; lateralbranches end in stout spines. Unchecked plants can grow much larger; extensive deep,
branched taproot, produces new growth when broken (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Plants can lose leaves and become virtually dormant during extended dry spells or over
winter in some districts (Muyt 2001).
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period: More than 2 years (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Flowers: Pale lilac or white, January–May. Produces flowers on old wood (Parsons &Cuthbertson 1992).
Fruit/seed: Dull orange-red berry, with 35–70 seeds, January–May.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed by birds, foxes, skinks,
viable when excreted; seeds spread as contaminate of agricultural produce, and in gravelor mud (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992), dispersed by skinks, water, machinery; broken
stem and root pieces, dispersed by floods, machinery and during removal can remain
viable for several months before taking root; often establishes under trees as a result of
birds dispersing fruits; germination at any time of year (Muyt 2001).
Fire response: Probably reprouts from base.
Interaction with other organisms: Foodplant of Stubble Quail Coturnix pectoralis, berries
eaten by Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike Coracina novaehollandiae, seeds eaten by Eastern
Bristlebird Dasyornis brachypterus; flowers eaten by Tawny-crowned Honeyeater
Phylidonyris melanops (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). Berries suspected poisonous toanimals; berries attractive to birds (Whittet 1958). Fruit provides a breeding place for fruit
fly , beetles, tomato fly, house fly (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992). Thickets commonly
harbour rabbits so there is often little other vegetation around infestations (Muyt 2001).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S Africa. Used as a hedge plant throughout Australia(Whittet 1958). Reported at Camden Park in 1850.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP SFWP; LHI,
Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Lady Robinsons Beach (1913), Blacktown, Towra Point, Cronulla,
Liverpool, Campbelltown, Five Is. CT: Bathurst.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Urban and agricultural wasteland. Coastal sand dunes (Carolin & Clarke 1991).
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale.
Exposure: Partial shade to full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: A tough weed of disturbed areas surviving under a range of conditionsinduring in poor, shallow or rocky soils, salt-laden winds, exposed locations and droughts(Muyt 2001). Declared noxious weed for whole NSW. Control by physical removal andburning, with follow-up for several years to treat seedlings or regrowth (Parsons &Cuthbertson 1992).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Lycopersicon esculentum *365

SOLANACEAE

Tomato_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Short-lived perennial herb 0.5–1.5 high, often densely hairy.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: 3 months.
Flowers: Yellow, late spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Red berry 10–20 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977).
Fire response: Probably killed.
Interaction with other organisms: Foodplant of Grey Teal Anas gibberifrons (Barker &Vestjens 1989, 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America. Introduced as food plant.
Botanical subregions: CC; Qld,.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Roseville, Domain, Randwick, Lower Cataract River.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Commonly cultivated garden plant, possibly occasionally naturalised.

Nicandra physalodes *SOLANACEAE

Apple-of-Peru_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb to 2 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Pale blue to mauve, summer–autumn.
Fruit/seed: Pale yellow, dryish berry 10–22 mm diam., January–May.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Peru. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CWS NWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Richmond, Cowan, Lane Cove River, Elizabeth Bay, Penrith.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riverbanks.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–occasional.
Vegetation: Weedy sites e.g. with Ricinus communis, Tagetes minuta, Foeniculum vulgare.
Substrate: Sandy to loamy alluvium, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cultivated as ornamental, occasionally naturalised.

366

Nicotiana forsteri

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb to 1.5 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Tubular, March–April.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5–11 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; LHI, Qld, N Cal.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastal ranges.
Select locations: CC: Grose Valley, Burning Palms, Jamberoo, Cambewarra Range.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: On rocks in caves.
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Moist eucalypt forest.
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt, shale.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Appears to be rare. Kiama is southern geographical limit. Conservation
status unknown.

Nicotiana glauca *SOLANACEAE

Tree Tobacco_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, often spindly, tree-like shrub to 6 m high.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Tubular, mainly spring.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 7–13 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Argentina.
Botanical subregions: NC CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, N.T., Vic.,
S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Nortons Basin. CT: Bathurst, Turondale, Coxs River.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed areas.
Altitude: 0–800 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1100 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–occasional.
Vegetation: Riverine forest e.g. with Casuarina cunninghamiana, Tristaniopsis laurina,
Backhousia myrtifolia, Melaleuca styphelioides.
Substrate: Sandy loam on alluvium, sediments, low to medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Occasionally naturalised.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Nicotiana suaveolens

367

SOLANACEAE

Native Tobacco_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb to 1.5 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Tubular, spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 7–12 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Culoul Range, Lake Macquarie, Freemans Reach, Bar Is(Hawkesbury River), Albion Park. CT: Bathurst, Jenolan Caves, Wombeyan Caves,
Abercrombie Caves.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creek banks, rocky slopes.
Altitude: 0–800 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora floribunda.
Substrate: Clay soils on limestone, basalt, shell middens, medium to high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Uncommon, conservation status unknown.

Physalis ixocarpa *SOLANACEAE

Ground Cherry_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Hairy herb to 50 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Pale yellow, summer.
Fruit/seed: Berry 11–14 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Mexico.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT NWS CWS NWP SWP; LHI, Qld, S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Richmond, Riverstone, Glenfield, Albion Park.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Cultivated areas, pastures.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1000 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay soils in shale, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Occasional weed of cultivated areas.

368

Physalis minima

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE

Wild Gooseberry_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Bushy herb to 50 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Pale creamy-yellow, summer.
Fruit/seed: Berry 8–14 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Probably native to Australia.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NWS; Qld, N.T., W.A., Amer., Asia, Afr.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Riverstone (1984), Penshurst (1911).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Weedy areas.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Sydney is southern geographical limit, rare, conservation status unknown.

Physalis peruviana *SOLANACEAE

Cape Gooseberry_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Short-lived, densely hairy shrub to 100 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Dull yellow with purple-brown spots, summer.
Fruit/seed: Pale yellow-green to gold, aromatic berry, 10–20 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Yellow-faced Honeyeater Lichenostomus
chrysops (Barker & Vestjens 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on coast.
Select locations: CC: Mt Warrawalong, Wondabyne, Wisemans Ferry, Grose Vale, Pennant
Hills, Manly, Nortons Basin, Audley, Port Hacking, Wollongong, Burragorang, Cambewarra.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed sites, creekbanks.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of disturbed sites.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Salpichroa origanifolia *369

SOLANACEAE

Pampas Lily-of-the-valley_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Scrambling hairy herb, with stout rootstock and rhizomes.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or cream, September–March. Probably pollinated by honeybees (P. Kubiak
pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: White to pale yellow berry 13–18 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Shoots apparently eaten by rabbits; beetles, possibly
Epil-achna dormca, feed on leaves (Coccinellidae) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to N America. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT ST CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Suburban areas.
Select locations: CC: North Ryde, Hunters Hill, Balgowlah, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Vaucluse, Centennial Park. CT: Orange, Bathurst.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Wasteland, footpaths, stonewalls.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Common in urban wasteland, widely distributed and naturalised inmany parts of the world.

370

Solanum americanum

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE

Glossy Nightshade_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Spreading herb or short-lived shrub to 1.3 m high. Considered to be more than
one species by some workers, or sometimes subspecies are distinguished (Harden 1992).
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Short-lived.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or with purple and yellow-green, at any time of year, peak January–May.
Fruit/seed: Shiny purple-black berry 6–9 mm diam., with more than 40 seeds per fruit,
1–1.5 mm long, at any time of year.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, seeds.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT NWS CWS SWP; LHI, Qld, *Vic., *N.T., *W.A., cosmop.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastal, riverine.
Select locations: CC: Norah Head, Wisemans Ferry, Brooklyn, Cowan, Barrenjoey, Epping,
Penrith, Maroubra, La Perouse, Mount Annan, Bulli, Cambewarra. CT: Hill Top.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riverbanks, coastal headlands, roadside.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Dry rainforest e.g. with Aphanopetalum resinosum; riparian forest e.g. with
Casuarina cunninghamiana; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana; margins of wetlands e.g.
with Phragmites; coastal grassland e.g. with Themeda australis.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, sandstone colluvium, medium nutrients, sometimes
poorly-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread plant of disturbed habitats. Conservation status unknown.
Reported in Brisbane Water NP, Lion Island NR, Marramarra NP.

Solanum aviculare

SOLANACEAE

Kangaroo Apple_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 4 m high; leaves entire or lobed.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue-violet, August–December. Probably pollinated by native bees and honeybees(P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Orange-red to scarlet berry 10–15 mm diam., December–April.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit. Coloniser of disturbed sites.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Edible when completely ripe, but not palatable toeveryone (Cribb & Cribb 1984).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., S.A.,
W.A., N.G., N.I., N. Cal., N.Z.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Culoul Range, Mt Keira, Saddleback Mountain. CT: Mount Tomah,
Mandurama, Kanangra, Fitzroy Falls, Meryla SF, Robertson.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8371_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rainforest margins.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras, Acacia melanoxylon, Acmena smithii;
moist forest e.g. with Eucalyptus fastigata, Syncarpia glomulifera.
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt, slates.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Robertson NR.

Solanum brownii

SOLANACEAE

Violet Nightshade_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 2 m high, with prickles.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale blue, July–October.
Fruit/seed: Berry 15-20 mm diam, yellow, greenish or white; seeds 2–3 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Probably bird-dispersed.
Fire response: Probably killed. Dramatic increase in population after wildfire (inVictoria) (Seddon & Cameron 1985).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast and ranges.
Select locations: CC: Mt Kindarun, Mt Wareng, Mt Yengo, Matcham, Gosford, Mt
Kembla, Albion Park, Macquarie Pass, Barrengarry Pass, Kangaroo Valley Bungonia
Lookdown. CT: Mt Towinhingy, Genowlan Mountain, Mt Armour.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides, creekbanks.
Altitude: 0–900 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Rainforest, moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus smithii, E. quadrangulata,
E. fastigata, E. saligna; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus tereticornis, Angophora floribunda,
Brachychiton populneus.
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt, alluvium, high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

372

Solanum campanulatum

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Short-lived perennial shrub to 1 m high, with abundant prickles.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Short-lived.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Lavender-purple, at any time of year.
Fruit/seed: Berry 20–25 mm diam., green-yellow when young, changing to whitish at
maturity, later becoming dark brown and wrinkled, persisting on bush.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread but sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Howes Valley, Glen Davis, Culoul Range, Jilliby Jilliby, Kurrajong
Heights, West Head, Homebush, Mulgoa, Nortons Basin, Douglas Park, Bargo.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky hillsides.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Moist forest e.g. with Syncarpia glomulifera, Allocasuarina torulosa, Angophoracostata, Eucalyptus piperita; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus eximia.
Substrate: Sandy loam on sandstone, sometimes with clay influence, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Bargo is southern geographical limit.
Brisbane Water NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP.

Solanum capsicoides *SOLANACEAE

Devil’s Apple_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Annual or short-lived shrub to 1 m high, with yellowish prickles onmost parts.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, spring-summer.
Fruit/seed: Bright orange-scarlet, berry 20–35 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to C America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Dapto (1940).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Only one record, Dapto 1940.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Solanum chenopodioides *373

SOLANACEAEWhitetip Nightshade_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Sprawling perennial herb to 1 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, October–April, peak March–April. Probably pollinated by native bees
(P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Black berry 5–9 mm diam., with deflexed peduncle, December–June, peakMarch.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Argentina.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Putty Road, Kurrajong Heights, Glenorie, Castle Hill, Centennial Park,
Blacktown, Liverpool, Audley, Mount Annan. CT: Glen Davis, Bowenfels, Mount Tomah,
Robertson, Barrengarry.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies, creeks, riverbanks, roadsides.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Rainforest, riparian forest e.g. with Casuarina cunninghamiana; woodland e.g.
with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, basalt, medium–high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of disturbed sites.

Solanum cinereum

SOLANACEAE

Narrawa Burr_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect or bushy, hairy shrub to 1 m high, with prickles on most parts.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Mauve-purple, July–May.
Fruit/seed: Dark brown berry 15–20 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Probably killed.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; Qld, Vic., *S.A.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Putty, Gosford, Penshurst, Marsden Park, The Oaks, Mount Annan,
Picton, Mt Armour. CT: Gospers Mountain, Winburndale, Wallerawang.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Grassland and grassy woodland.
Altitude: 0–900 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus viminalis; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus
tereticornis, E. moluccana, E. crebra; grassland e.g. with Themeda australis.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, basalt, quartzite, medum nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation statuselsewhere unknown.

374

Solanum elegans

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE

Spiny Kangaroo Apple_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, hairy, shrub to 1 m high, with prickles scattered on branches andleaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Purple, September–October.
Fruit/seed: Red berry 10–15 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Western Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CT: Lithgow, Wiagdon, Mt Armour, Yerranderie.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky hillsides.
Altitude: 0–900 m
Annual rainfall: 700–900 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest.
Substrate: Sandy clay loam on sandstone, skeletal slaty soils, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Solanum jasminoides *SOLANACEAE

Potato Climber, Jasmine Nightshade_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial climber; leaves with hairy domatia on lower surface.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or pale blue, summer–autumn.
Fruit/seed: Dark blue to shiny black berry 7–9 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Minnamurra (1954).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 1400–1600 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure: Full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Garden plant occasionally naturalised. Only record is Minnamurra
Falls 1954.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Solanum linearifolium

375

SOLANACEAE

Mountain Kangaroo Apple_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 4 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Purple violet, September–May.
Fruit/seed: Deep yellow and reddish purple berry 15–20 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Culoul Range, Yarramundi, Burragorang, Wollongong, . CT:
Winburndale, Tarana, Kanangra, Mt Wilson, Jenolan Caves, Abercrombie Caves, Joadja.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed or open areas.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Syncarpia glomulifera, Backhousia myrtifolia, Acacia elata,
Eucalyptus punctata.
Substrate: Sandy skeletal soil on basalt, limestone, granite, shale-enriched sandstone,
medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status not known.

Solanum linnaeanum *SOLANACEAE

Apple of Sodom_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Hairy shrub to 1 m high, with yellowish prickles scattered on most parts.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale purple-blue, at any time of year.
Fruit/seed: Yellow berry 20–30 mm diam., turning brown or black.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S Africa & Meditteranean region. Reported by Robert
Brown to be introduced to Sydney by 1804 (Maiden 1909).
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC SWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast.
Select locations: CC: Gosford, Coogee (1891), La Perouse, Kurnell, Cooks River, Oatley,
Stanwell Park, Mount Annan.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Sandy soils on dunes, also on volcanic soil and clay.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Occasionally naturalised in Sydney suburban areas, though most records
are pre 1950.

376

Solanum mauritianum *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE

Wild Tobacco Bush_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or small tree to 4 m high, grey-green, with a covering of star-like hairs.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Probably 30 years (M. Clarke pers. comm.).
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Violet. Synchronous flowering, March–October, peak October. Possibly pollinatedby honeybees (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Dull yellow, hairy berry 10–15 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, seed. Bird-dispersed (Floyd 1966).
Soil-stored seed viable up to 30 years (M. Clarke pers. comm.).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus
poliocephalus (Eby 1995). Ripe fruit eaten by Red-whiskered Bulbulls Pycnonotus jocosus (P.
Kubiak pers. comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC SWS; LHI, Qld, S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on coast.
Select locations: CC: Dora Creek, Yarramalong, Yarramundi, Cheltenham, Eastwood,
Wahroonga (1911), Rose Bay (1890), Nortons Basin, Kembla Grange, Liverpool.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed areas, riverbanks.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, Angophora floribunda; riverine
forest e.g. with Casuarina cunninghamiana, Tristaniopsis laurina, Backhousia myrtifolia; estuarine
forest e.g. with Casuarina glauca.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of disturbed sites, particularly in rainforest regrowth north of Sydney.

Solanum nigrum *SOLANACEAE

Black-berry Nightshade_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb or short-lived perennial shrub to 1 m high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity: Short-lived perennial.
Primary juvenile period: 4 months after high-intensity fire.
Flowers: White, March–September.
Fruit/seed: Dull black berry, with 20–35 seeds, 1.8–2.2 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, with morphology for dispersal byingestion (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). Seed soil-stored
possibly with dormancy mechnism possibly recruiting after high intensity fire but not after
other disturbance.
Fire response: Vigorous recruitment from soil-stored seed after high intensity fire 1/1994 at
Narrabeen, though not common pre-fire.
Interaction with other organisms: Foodplant of Stubble Quail Coturnix pectoralis (Barker &Vestjens 1989, 1990), fruit eaten by Lewin’s Honeyeater Meliphaga lewinii (Barker & Vestjens
1990). Ripe berries eaten by Red Mistletoe Bird (Cook 2001).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8377____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP
SFWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Woy Woy (1916), Cheltenham, Northbridge, Ashfield, La
Perouse, Penshurst (1911), Mount Annan, Cobbitty, Goodmans Ford. CT: Bathurst,
Mount Tomah, Medlow, Abercrombie Caves, Hill Top (1916), Robertson.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed sites, edge of moist areas.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana; grassland, wetland margins.
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt, shale, alluvium, also on sandy soils, medium to low
nutrients.
Exposure: Full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread weed especially near habitation or in horticultural crops.
Capable of invading bushland (McRae 1990).

Solanum opacum

SOLANACEAE

Green-berry Nightshade_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Sprawling, almost prostrate annual herb to 1 m diameter.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, March–July.
Fruit/seed: Berry 8–10 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Bird-dispersed (Floyd 1966).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Seed eaten by Crimson Rosella Platycercus elegans(Lepschi 1993).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas.,
S.A., N.G.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Mooney Mooney, Kurnell, Vineyard Creek. CT: Mount Tomah,
Jenolan Caves, Kanangra.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Wet areas along creeks, disturbed sites.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, basalt, sometimes poorly-drained, medium to highnutrients. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (Benson & McDougall 1991).
Conservation status elsewhere unknown. Reported in Garigal NP, Sydney Harbour NP.

378

Solanum parvifolium

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect woody shrub to 1 m high, with prickles.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale blue or white, mainly winter–spring.
Fruit/seed: Bright red berry 5–8 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NT CT NWS NWP SWP; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CT: Berrima (1906).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 600 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1000 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Woodland.
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Mainly north from Tooraweenah. Isolated record for Berrima in 1906.

Solanum physalifolium var. nitidibaccatum *SOLANACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Sprawling annual herb to 0.5 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, mainly summer.
Fruit/seed: Green to purplish green berry 5–8 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to America and Europe.
Botanical subregions: CC CT CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Tablelands.
Select locations: CC: Kogarah (1898). CT: Bathurst, Blayney (1951), Canyonleigh.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Cultivated areas.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Sandy soils, alluvium.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare weed of cultivation.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Solanum prinophyllum

379

SOLANACEAE

Forest Nightshade_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Sprawling herb to 0.5 m high, with prickles on most parts.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Annual or short-lived perennial.
Primary juvenile period: 5–6 months (L.McD.).
Flowers: Lilac-blue, September–October.
Fruit/seed: Green or purple berry, 15–20 mm diam., December–May.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit.
Fire response: Killed, vigorous growth of seedlings after high intensity fire (1/1994), andfruiting within 5 months (at Mona Vale, L. McD.).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Bouddi, Wisemans Ferry, Grose Vale, Penshurst, Homebush, Cobbitty,
Douglas Park. CT: Rylstone, Bilpin, Mt Wilson, Glen Davis.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creeks, rocky hillsides.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus viminalis, E. radiata, Angophora floribunda;
dry rainforest with Streblus brunonianus.
Substrate: Sandy loams, clay loam along creek, and on rocky hillsides, on shale, basalt,
volcanic necks, medium–high nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure: Light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Brisbane
Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP.

Solanum pseudocapsicum *SOLANACEAE

Madeira Winter, Jerusalem Cherry_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 2 m high.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, October–January.
Fruit/seed: Bright orange-red berry 10–15 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, dispersed by Pied Currawong Strepera
graculina, with maximum number of seed per pellet 300, average 60 (Buchanan 1989a).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on coast.
Select locations: CC: Kurrajong Heights, Springwood, Cherrybrook, Eastwood, Douglas
Park, Menangle, Thirroul, Mt Keira, Sublime Point, Albion Park, Burragorang, Foxground.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed moist sites, creekbanks.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Rainforest, moist open-forest e.g. with Syncarpia glomulifera.
Substrate: Clay soil on basalt, shale alluvium, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of moist sites e.g. in rainforest regrowth.

380

Solanum pungetium

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE

Eastern Nightshade_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Sprawling, annual or short-lived perennial herb to 1.5 m high, with star-likehairs and scattered prickles on branches and leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale purple, mainly September–November.
Fruit/seed: Yellow berry 25–30 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Vertebrate-adapted fleshy fruit for dispersal (Westoby
et al. 1990).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Rockdale, Kogarah, Cronulla, Waterfall, Austinmer, Albion Park,
Macquarie Pass, Saddleback Mountain, Foxground, Kangaroo Valley, Cambewarra.
CT: Hampton, Jenolan Caves, Moss Vale, Robertson.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Variable, disturbed sites in forest.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Rainforest, moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, E. quadrangulata,
Syncarpia glomulifera.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, basalt, also sand dunes, medium–high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation statuselsewhere unknown. Reported in Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Robertson NR.

Solanum radicans *SOLANACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Sprawling annual or perennial herb with branches to 2 m long, frequently
rooting at nodes.
Vegetative spread: Stoloniferous.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, February–March.
Fruit/seed: Dull yellow-green berry 4–5 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Argentina.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CT ST CWS.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Kurrajong Heights, Richmond, Campbelltown, Burragorang Valley,
Bullio, Goodmans Ford. CT: Wombeyan Caves.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creekbanks.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: With other weeds e.g. Solanum nigrum, Chondrilla juncea.
Substrate: Sandy to clayey soils on alluvium.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of cultivation.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Solanum seaforthianum *381

SOLANACEAE

Brazilian Nightshade_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial climber.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Mauve-blue, mainly spring and autumn.
Fruit/seed: Bright red berry 8–12 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to W Indes. Introduced as an ornamental climber.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Sydney suburbs.
Select locations: CC: Bellevue Hill.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Sandy soil.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cultivated as ornamental. Reported from Cooper Park, Bellevue Hill in
1989 but it is not known whether it is a naturalised population or a garden escape.

Solanum simile

SOLANACEAE

Oondoroo_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub to 2 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Violet, mainly spring.
Fruit/seed: Greenish or purplish berry 10–15 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Abundant after fire (Harden 1992).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT CWS SWS SWP SFWP; Vic., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CT: Wallerawang (1917).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 900–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–900 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, only Sydney area collection is from Wallerawang in 1917.

382

Solanum sisymbriifolium *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

SOLANACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect annual or short-lived perennial herb to 1.5 m high, with prickles onmost parts.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or pale blue, spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Bright red berry, 15–20 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America.
Botanical subregions: CC NWP; Qld, W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sydney suburban areas.
Select locations: CC: Toongabbie Creek, Ermington, Rydalmere, Rosehill, Springwood(1936), Revesby.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed sites.
Altitude: 0–500 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1100 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: With weedy species e.g. Foeniculum vulgare, Verbena bonariensis.
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Localised weed of several disturbed sites in suburban areas; Ermington–
Rydalmere–Toongabbie (collected 1971–73), Revesby (1992) and Springwood (1936–37).

Solanum stelligerum

SOLANACEAE

Devil’s Needles_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect woody shrub to 2 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Lilac–white, September–April.
Fruit/seed: Bright red berry, 5–10 mm diam., December–March.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT ST CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastal ranges.
Select locations: CC: Mt Yengo, Avoca, Church Point, Grose Vale, Cobbitty, Razorback, Bulli,
Mt Keira, Lake Illawarra, Macquarie Pass.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Dry rainforest e.g. with Streblus brunonianus, and eucalypt forest e.g. with
Eucalyptus tereticornis.
Substrate: Clay loams on rocky sites from shale, basalt, medium–high nutrients, welldrained.
Exposure: Sheltered sites.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Solanum trifolium *383

SOLANACEAE

Three-flowered Nightshade_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Sprawling annual herb, with stems to 1 m long, sometimes rooting at nodes.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or rarely pale lavender, February–March.
Fruit/seed: Whitish green, marbelled berry 8–12 mm diam., February–March.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to N America.
Botanical subregions: CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Penrith, Glenfield (1932). CT: Winburndale (1955).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed areas.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 600–800 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: With other weeds e.g. Paspalum dilatatum, Sida rhombifolia.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Uncommon weed of disturbed areas.

Solanum vescum

SOLANACEAE

Kangaroo Apple_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect or spreading shrub to 2 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Violet, August–January. June, after high intensity fire (1/1994) at Katandra
Bushland Sanctuary (L.McD.)
Fruit/seed: Greenish berry, 20–25 mm diam. September–November. Seed probably soilstored, with long viability.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Probably killed. Seen after high intensity fire (1/94) in Katandra, in area
previously unburnt for more than 50 years; not listed for Katandra by R. Coveny 1967
(L. McD.).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP; Qld, Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly coast.
Select locations: CC: Wyrrabalong, Mona Vale (L.McD.), Bayview, Towra Point, Cronulla,
Waterfall, Douglas Park, Macquarie Pass. CT: Coricudgy, Mount Tomah, Mittagong.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed sites.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest, hind-dune forest, coastal scrub e.g. with Leptospermum laevigatum.
Substrate: Various coastal sands, clay soils on basalt.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wyrrabalong NP.

384

Stackhousia monogyna

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

STACKHOUSIACEAE

Creamy Candles, Creamy Stackhousia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb to 70 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to deep yellow, September–December.
Fruit/seed: Dry fruit, usually of 3 nutlets.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: No particular morphology for dispersal (McIntyre et al.
1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas.,
S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Tablelands.
Select locations: CC: Gosford. CT: Rylstone, Mullion Range, Lithgow, Blackheath (1910),
Boyd Plateau, Mt Werong, Mt Jellore (1912), Fitzroy Falls (1900).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–1100 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalytpus fastigata, E. dalrympleana, E. viminalis; woodlande.g. with Eucalyptus pauciflora, E. albens, E. goniocalyx, E. macrorhycha with grass understorey.
Substrate: Sandy loam to gravelly clay on sandstone, quartzite, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Mainly restricted to Tablelands with one record from Gosford (1926).
Conservation status unknown. Reported in Kanangra Boyd NP.

Stackhousia muricata

STACKHOUSIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial or annual herb to 60 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow-green, pale or dark yellow, September–November.
Fruit/seed: Dry fruit, of 1–3 nutlets, November.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Regrows after burning off, though not known whether from seed or resprout(Herb. specimen).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP; Qld, S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Western Sydney.
Select locations: CC: Glenfield, Minto, Camden.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 700–900 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Woodland and grassland e.g. with Themeda australis, Aristida ramosa (Cumberland
Plain Woodland).
Substrate: Loamy soils on Wianamatta Shale, medium nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney, localised population not conserved(James et al. 1999).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Stackhousia nuda

385

STACKHOUSIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb to 100 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: 25–60 years (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow to yellow-green, December.
Fruit/seed: Dry fruit of 1–3 nutlets.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Fire response: Resprouts (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly coast.
Select locations: CC: Brisbane Water NP, Cronulla, Maddens Plains, Bulli Pass,
Minnamurra. CT: Carrington Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Swamp margins, coastal flats.
Altitude: 0–500 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Wet heath e.g. with Banksia robur, Sprengelia incarnata, Empodisma minus,
Lepyrodia scariosa.
Substrate: Moist sand, often peaty sites on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare in Sydney area, conservation status unknown. Reported in Brisbane
Water NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP.

Stackhousia spathulata

STACKHOUSIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb to 50 cm high, with thick stock usually buried by drifting
sand.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, small tubular, grouped together at top of stems, early spring to summer.
Fruit/seed: Dry fruit of nutlets, breaking into 3 segments at maturity.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: segment of fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastline.
Select locations: CC: Wamberal Beach, Cronulla Beach.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Sandy areas near beaches and lagoons.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Open-forest, heath.
Substrate: Beach sand of foredunes.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare in Sydney area, conservation status unknown, beach habitat
vulnerable to disturbance.

386

Stackhousia viminea

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

STACKHOUSIACEAE

Slender Stackhousia_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb to 70 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish to yellow, tubular, September–February, peak October–December. Hoverfly(Syrphidae) visited flowers, apparently feeding (P. Kubiak pers. comm.), may be involved inpollination.
Fruit/seed: Dry fruit, of 1–3 nutlets, November–February.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: No special morphology for dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Possibly eaten by rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Somersby, Pitt Town, Jerusalem Bay, Hornsby, Ingleside, Manly, La
Perouse, Oatley, Como, Doonside, Liverpool, Glenmore Park, Mt Ousley, Darkes Forest,
Thirlmere. CT: Clarence, Mount Tomah, Blackheath, Boyd Plateau, Bowral, Bundanoon, Penrose.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Woodland.
Altitude: 0–1100 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–frequent.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. crebra, E. tereticornis, E. moluccana,E. sclerophylla, E. piperita, Angophora costata.
Substrate: Clay soils on Wianamatta Shale, alluvium, occasionally on sandstone, low–medium
nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown — many old collections — may havebeen more conspicuously abundant than now. Reported in Wollemi NP, Blue Mountains NP,
Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane
Cove NP, Royal NP.

Brachychiton acerifolius

STERCULIACEAE

Flame Tree, Illawarra Flame Tree_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Deciduous tree to 35 m high.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Long.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Red flowers produced on leafless branches attract Rainbow Loriqueets (L.McD.)
Fruit/seed: Dry capsule 10 cm long, with numerous seeds embedded by interlocking of star-likehairs. Seeds oval, 1 cm long enclosed in a yellow hairy covering; 2600–2770 fresh seeds per
kilogram; germination 5–140 days for germination of 90%; seed stored at room temperature for2.5 years giving germination of 71% declining to 9% after 4.5 years; mature February–August(Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed by birds , fruit reported frompellets of Currawongs (Buchanan 1989a).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Larvae of the yellow peach moth Conogethes punctiferalis feed
on seed capsules and leaves in northern NSW (Common 1990). Food plant of butterfly larvae
Polyura pyrrhus sempronius, Candalides absimilis (Common & Waterhouse 1981).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Gosford, Illawarra.
Select locations: CC: Narara Creek, Peats Ridge, Albion Park, Whispering Gallery.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8387_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Steep slopes.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: above 1400 mm.
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Sub-tropical rainforest e.g. with Dendrocnide.
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt, high nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure: Sheltered situations.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Native in rainforest at Gosford and Illawarra but planted widely in Sydneyarea. Seedlings establish in Sydney urban bushland from seed of garden plants but are
unlikely to reach maturity.

Brachychiton populneus subsp. populneus

STERCULIACEAE

Kurrajong_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Evergreen tree to 20 m high, deep-rooting.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: More than 100 years.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Creamy-white, November.
Fruit/seed: Dry capsule 4–7 cm long, splitting at maturity to release 8–18 seeds. Lower
surface of seeds covered with irritant hairs, ripen May–June. Seeds yellow, July–October(Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, fresh seeds germinate without
treatment. Probably no soil-stored seedbank. Large seed size favours recruitment incompetition with eucalypts, grasses and herbs (Steenbeeke 2001).
Fire response: Resprouted from base, St Albans 1994 (E. Ashby pers. comm.).
Interaction with other organisms: Host to parasitic shrub Notothixos subaureus (Downey
1998). Currawongs digest yellow part of fruit and void black seed (Vaughan 2001). Host to
Longicorn Beetle Agrianome spinicollis (Hawkeswood & Dauber 1991), Auger Beetle
Bostrychopsis jesuita (Jones & Elliot 1986). Food plant of butterfly Eastern Flat Netrocoryne
repandra repandra, Polyura pyrrhus sempronius (Common & Waterhouse 1981) and Deliasargenthona argenthona (Common & Waterhouse 1981).
Seeds are nutritious, 18% protein, 25% fat, with high levels of zinc and magnesium, popularwith Aboriginal people, eaten raw or roasted after removal of irritating hairs; tubers fromyoung trees eaten (Low 1988). Bark fibre used by Aboriginal people for cords and nets (Cribb& Cribb 1981). Seeds used as a coffee substitute (Cribb & Cribb 1984). Kurrajongs probably
allowed to persist in agricultural lands because they provide dense shade for stock andfodder during drought (Steenbeeke 2001). Aboriginal people tapped roots for water (Cribb &Cribb 1984).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native, cultivated for shade and fodder (Harden 1990).
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Watagan, McMasters Beach, Newport, Newington, Campbelltown,
Razorback, Jamberoo, Kowmung River. CT: Glen Davis, Bathurst, Wombeyan Caves.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides, riverflats.
Altitude: 0–800 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–to occasional.
Vegetation: Forest e.g. with Eucalyptus acmenoides on coast, and woodland e.g. with
Eucalyptus crebra, E. tereticornis.
Substrate: Clay soils from conglomerate, shales, occasionally sandstones, medium nutrients.
Kurrajongs are related to deep soils that stay damp, volcanic sediments and limestone withhigh clay content, derived from alkaline matierials, and granite soils that are relatively highin moisture-holding clays (Steenbeeke 2001).
Exposure: Full sun–light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), status elsewhere unknown.

388

Commersonia fraseri

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

STERCULIACEAE

Brush Kurrajong_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small tree or shrub; leaves irregularly toothed, with the lower surface hairy,
pale whitish grey.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Small, September–November, peak September. Flowers visited by large wasp (P.
Kubiak pers. comm.), may be involved in pollination.
Fruit/seed: Bristly capsule 15–25 mm diam., November–January. Seeds 2 mm long, 800 000
per kilogram (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Coloniser, quick growth rate.
Fire response: Resprouts at ground level (Herb. record).
Interaction with other organisms: Leaves with many holes probably due to insects feeding(P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Gosford, Illawarra.
Select locations: CC: Mt Yengo, Mandalong, Erskine Creek, Douglas Park, Shellharbour,
Albion Park, Macquarie Pass, Broughton Vale. CT: Carrington Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riverbanks
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: above 700 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest e.g. with Angophora floribunda, Syncarpia glomulifera, Eucalyptus
saligna.
Substrate: Sandy-loam, alluvial, also rarely on basalt, high nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure: Sheltered situations.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation statuselsewhere unknown.

Keraudrenia corollata var. denticulata

STERCULIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 1–2 m high, rusty-hairy; simple leaves prominently toothed.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Petals absent, calyx white to pinkish, March, August–September.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 10 mm diam., very hairy.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Colo River.
Select locations: CC: Colo River.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Edge of floodplain.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus deanei, Tristaniopsis laurina, Backhousia myrtifolia,
Commersonia fraseri, Rulingia dasyphylla, Hibiscus heterophyllus.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone banks or edge of floodplain, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8389___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, local population confined to Colo River between Lower Portland
and Gees Lagoon, southern geographical limit. Listed as an Endangered Population in
Hawkesbury Local Government area under NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act
1995. Threats include weed invasion, road maintenance, fragmentation, grazing andrural land clearing. Not known to occur in a conservation area.

Lasiopetalum ferrugineum var. cordatum

STERCULIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 1 m high, with a covering of rusty hairs; leaves ovate-lanceolate,more than 10 mm wide.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Hairy, with prominent calyx and minute petals. Buds present for many months
before flowers open July–December, peak September–October.
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 3–5 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Probably killed.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CT ST NWS.
Distribution Sydney area: Blue Mountains, Hornsby Plateau.
Select locations: CC: Gospers Creek, Blaxland, West Pennant Hills, Euroka Creek,
Nortons Basin, Thirlmere. CT: Mt Wilson, Blackheath, Wentworth Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia eximia, C. gummifera, Allocasuarina torulosa,
Eucalyptus punctata, E. crebra.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, sometimes with local clay influence, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Yengo NP.

390

Lasiopetalum ferrugineum var. ferrugineum

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

STERCULIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 1 m high, with a covering of rusty hairs; leaves narrow-elliptic
to lanceolate less than 10 mm wide.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Cream and brown, hairy, with prominent calyx and minute petals. Buds present for
many months before flowers open (L.McD.). Some flowers open anytime, peak August–October.
Insects attracted to flowers include small weevil feeding on pollen, bugs feeding on buds, andnative bee (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 3–5 mm diam., September–December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Ant-adapted food body for dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990,
Rice & Westoby 1981). Soil-stored seedbank (Fox 1988), possibly viable more than 50 years (atKatandra Bushland Sanctuary, L.McD.).
Fire response: Killed by fire (Fox 1988), may also resprout (T. Auld pers. comm.). Seedlingrecruitment probably fire related (at Gordon). Seedlings prolific after high intensity fire 1/1994 at
Katandra Bushland Sanctuary, in an area previously unburnt for more than 50 years (L.McD.).
Interaction with other organisms: Larvae of unidentified weevil feed on developing
seeds in fruit (T. Auld pers. comm.).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on coast.
Select locations: CC: Narara, Woy Woy, South Maroota, Berowra, Annangrove, Hornsby,
Blaxland, Dee Why Lagoon, Frenchs Forest, Lindfield, Willoughby, North Head, The Spit,
Kedumba Valley, Bondi, Rose Bay, Long Bay, Oatley, Bundeena, Waterfall, Appin, Buxton,
Bargo, Nortons Basin, Hill Top. CT: Glen Davis, Hill Top, Penrose.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, E. resinifera; heath e.g. with
Banksia ericifolia, Grevillea buxifolia.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably adequately conserved. Reported in Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water
NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Dalrymple Hay NR,
Sydney Harbour NP.

Lasiopetalum joyceae

STERCULIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect or straggling shrub to 2 m high, with narrow leaves.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period: 2 years (R. Doig pers. comm.).
Flowers: Pinkish to reddish brown, or yellowish, hairy, with prominent calyx and minute petals,
March–October, peak October. Buds present for many months before flowers open (L.McD.)
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 3–5 mm diam., October. Ripe November–January (R. Doig pers.
comm.).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, drops to soil surface below plant and may
be dispersed by water to lower ground; germinated readily after prescribed fire (at Mt Colah)
with subsequent seedling survival rate of less than 10% (R. Doig pers. comm.).
Fire response: Killed by fire (Herb. specimen).
Interaction with other organisms:

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8391____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Hornsby Plateau.
Select locations: CC: Berrilee, Berowra, Annangrove, Mt Ku-ring-gai, Mt Colah, Coaland Candle Creek.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky slopes, rock platforms, clifftops.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: ? 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–occasional.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus haemastoma, Angophoracostata, E. squamosa, Banksia serrata, Banksia ericifolia, Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora
floribunda, Allocasuarina littoralis. Common in moss beds on rock platforms (R. Doig pers.
comm.).
Substrate: Shallow sandy soil on sandstone, sometimes with clay influence, lownutrients.
Exposure: Full sun to light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic, listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species
Conservation Act 1995. Coded 2RC- on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996).
Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP.
Populations at edge of urban areas threatened by frequent fire (R. Doig pers. comm.).

Lasiopetalum macrophyllum

STERCULIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect shrub 1–2 m high, with broad leaves 10–40 mm wide.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Prominent calyx and minute petals, hairy on outer surface, August–November,peak September. Buds present for many months before flowers open (L.McD.)
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 3–5 mm diam., November–December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST CWS; Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Olney State Forest, Narrara, Wondabyne, Mooney Mooney,
Brooklyn, Marramarra Creek (L.McD.), West Head, Towlers Bay (L.McD.), Bankstown,
Ingleburn, Thirlmere. CT: Grose River, Yerranderie.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Shore and lower slopes of waterways, creekbanks.
Altitude: 0–500 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus botryoides, Allocasuarina torulosa, Angophora
floribunda, Tristaniopsis laurina.
Substrate: Sandy loam on sandstone, sometimes with shale influence, alluvium,
volcanic neck, low to medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Uncommon, localised in Northern areas of Sydney. Conservaton status
unknown. Reported in Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP.

392

Lasiopetalum parviflorum

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

STERCULIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 0.5–1 m high, with narrow leaves.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Prominent calyx and minute petals, whitish-hairy on outer surface, August–November. Buds present for many months before flowers open (L.McD.). Pollen eaten by small
weevil (Curcillionidae) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 3–5 mm diam., September–November.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Sydney, Southern Highlands.
Select locations: CC: Cheltenham, West Pennant Hills, Lane Cove, Concord, Newington,
Chester Hill, Oatley, Rookwood, Granville, Liverpool, Bents Basin, Douglas Park, Buxton,
Cambewarra, Bomaderry. CT: Hill Top, Mt Jellore.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Open-forest or cleared areas.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus paniculata, E. resinifera, E. punctata, Melaleuca
decora; Scribbly Gum Forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora costata.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale (e.g. Wianamatta Shale), occasionally on sandstones, medium
nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation statuselsewhere unknown. Reported in Dalrymple Hay NR, Morton NP.

Lasiopetalum rufum

STERCULIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect or diffuse shrub 0.5–1 m high, with narrow leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Prominent calyx and minute petals, hairy, July–November, peak September. Buds
present for many months before flowers open (L.McD.)
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 3–5 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Woy Woy to Menai.
Select locations: CC: Putty, Kulnura, Mill Creek, Maroota, Kenthurst, Annangrove,
Springwood, Cowan, Frenchs Forest, Castlecrag, Fairfield, Menai, Heathcote, Waterfall,
Maldon, Cataract Dam.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8393_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges, rocky ledges, creekbanks.
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–frequent.
Vegetation: Heath to woodland e.g. with Angophora bakeri, A. hispida, Corymbia
gummifera, Eucalyptus haemastoma, Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus piperita, E. punctata.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic species. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999),
conservation status elsewhere unknown. Reported in Dharug NP, Marramarra NP,
Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Royal NP.

Rulingia dasyphylla

STERCULIACEAE

Kerrawang_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 1–4 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pinkish, often flowering while young, July–November, peak September.
Probably pollinated by flies (Diptera), with native bees, beetles (Coleoptera), and diurnal
moths playing a role (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5–7 mm diam, with rigid bristles, October–March.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Killed, recruitment from seed, fruit within a year (Deepwater Creek).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT NWS CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Widden Valley, Culoul Range, Springwood, Lower Portland, Pearl
Beach, Wondabyne, Mooney Mooney, Maroota, Roseville, Northbridge, Manly, Oatley,
Rookwood, Nortons Basin, Douglas Park, Thirlmere. CT: Kandos, Capertee, Mount
Tomah, Yerranderie, Mt Jellore.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–occasional.
Vegetation: Heath to woodland e.g. with Corymbia eximia, C. gummifera, Eucalyptus
sparsifolia, E. sqamosa; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus deanei, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus
botryoides; swamp forest margins e.g. with Eucalyptus robusta, Melaleuca linariifolia.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstones, volcanic necks, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservationelsewhere unknown. Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP,
Royal NP.

394

Rulingia hermanniifolia

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

STERCULIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Prostrate or trailing shrub with stems to 1 m long. Distinctive juvenile
foliage. Growth rapid where nutrients and light are available. No vegetative spread or
rooting from nodes.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: 5–10 years. [In cultivation, 2–3 year growth spurt after germination followed by
gradual decline (Knox et al. 1994). ]Primary juvenile period: 2–2.5 years (Herb. specimen).
Flowers: Pinkish, August–October, peak September.
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 4–6 mm diam., with bristles. Seed small.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, probably wind-dispersed.
Soil-stored seedbank with dormancy period up to 30 years in soil. In nursery situation,
easily propagated from seed, with no pre-treatment, within 3 weeks.
Fire response: Killed, re-established from soil-stored seed (Herb. specimen). Not present inbushland unburnt for 30 years but appeared after fire, evidently from soil-stored seed (atMosman). Germinates within a year of fire.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly coastal.
Select locations: CC: Bouddi, Newport, Manly, Botany Bay, Long Bay, La Perouse, Cronulla,
Jibbon Hill, Darkes Forest. CT: Bundanoon, Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Sandstone cliffs, edges.
Altitude: 0–500 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Heath/scrub e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Allocasuarina distyla, Melaleuca nodosa,
Calytrix tetragona.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure: Full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Restricted populations. Coded 3RCa on national rare species list (Briggs& Leigh 1996). Reported in Bouddi NP, Sydney Harbour NP, Royal NP.

Rulingia prostrata

STERCULIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Prostrate shrub forming dense mats 30–50 cm across and up to 5 cm high,sparsely covered with star-like hairs.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pinkish, October–December.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 8–10 mm diam, with bristles covered with star-like hairs, October–March.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC CT; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Southern Highlands.
Select locations: CC: Thirlmere Lakes. CT: Penrose SF, Wingello.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8395_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies, near swamps.
Altitude: 400–700 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus mannifera, Dillwynia ramoisissima.
Substrate: Sandy soil.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) NSW Threatened Species Conservation
Act 1995. Coded 2ECi on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Thirlmere Lakes
is northern geographical limit.

Rulingia rugosa

STERCULIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 1–2 m high, with leaf margins coarsely toothed.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 8–15 mm diam., with bristles, summer to autumn.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC ?NT CWS.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: St Albans.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 900 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Open-forest
Substrate: Sandy soil.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, with only one record for Sydney area at St Albans (1970).

396

Seringia arborescens

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

STERCULIACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tall shrub to 8 m high, with rusty-hairy branches; leaves simple, toothed.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish white.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 10 mm diam., October.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; Qld, N.G.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Wyee, Nortons Basin, Byrnes Gap.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges, hillsides, gullies.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1100 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera; moist open-forest e.g. with
Eucalyptus deanei, Syncarpia glomulifera, Allocasuarina torulosa.
Substrate: Sandy loam to gravelly clay on sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP.

Levenhookia dubia

STYLIDIACEAE

Hairy Stylewort_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect herb 2–6 cm high, with hairy red stems.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than one year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than one year.
Flowers: Whitish with yellow, spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 1–2 mm long
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC NWS CWS SWS NWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Richmond.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Damp ground.
Altitude: 0–30 m
Annual rainfall: 800 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Reported once at Richmond in 1910, growing plentifully but overrun bycouch grass. Possibly introduced from western NSW with stock. Probably extinct in thearea now.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Stylidium debile397

STYLIDIACEAE

Frail Triggerplant_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb 15–30 cm high, with leaves scattered along stem (Bean 1999).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink, March. Adapted for pollination by insects.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 3–5 mm long, with brown seeds 0.5 mm long (Bean 1999).
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Probably killed.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Botany Bay, Tuggerah Lakes.
Select locations: CC: Gosford State Nursery (1917), Tuggerah Lakes (1903), Alexandra
Swamp (1888).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creekbanks, swampy ground.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Probably in swampy areas with Melaleuca quinquenervia.
Substrate: Sand to pale silty clay (Bean 1999), low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably extinct in the greater Sydney region (Bean 1999), most recent
record Gosford State Nursery (1917). Alexandria is southern geographical limit.

Stylidium despectum

STYLIDIACEAE

Dwarf Triggerplant_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect herb to 15 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Whitish to pale pink, October–December. Adapted for pollination by insects.
Fruit/seed: Very narrow capsule 5–7 mm long, with many dull brown, smooth seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC NT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Cooks River.
Select locations: CC: Tempe.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Drying swamp flats and watercourses.
Altitude: 0–50 m
Annual rainfall: 1100 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Probably on mudflats of the Cooks River.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Recorded from Illawarra Road, Tempe in 1891. Not recorded in Sydneyarea since and now presumably extinct.

398

Stylidium graminifolium

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

STYLIDIACEAE

Grass Triggerplant_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with short stems and grass-like basal leaves. Short, thick,tuberous roots, and longer thin roots (at Penrose).
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale to bright pink, October–August, peak October–December, column sensitive,
with a trigger-like action when touched during pollination. Probably pollinated by native
bees (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Probably pollinated by native bee Chalicodoma derelicta(Bernhardt & Burns-Balogh 1983).
Fruit/seed: Egg-shaped capsule 5–12 mm long, with tawny coloured seeds, December–
February. Seeds small, difficult to germinate.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seeds, no particular morphology for dispersal(McIntyre et al. 1995).
Fire response: Stems killed. Resprouted at Agnes Banks (Benson 1981). Regrowth only fromsurviving rootstocks, seedlings recorded less than 1 year after fire and reached sexual maturity
during first growing season (Purdie 1977).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Melong Swamps, Berowra, Ages Banks, Berkshire Park, Pennant Hills,
Glenbrook, Silverwater, Rookwood, Kogarah, Lucas Heights, Thirlmere Lakes. CT: Newnes
Plateau, Yetholme, Mount Tomah, Mt Victoria, Katoomba, Mittagong, Joadja Creek, Bundanoon,
Penrose.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Swampy hollows, steep slopes, cliff faces.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, E. pilularis, Angophora floribunda;
woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sclerophylla, E. mannifera, Corymbia gummifera; sedgeswamp
e.g. with Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus, Empodisma sp.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, sands, peaty sand.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Stylidium laricifolium

STYLIDIACEAE

Tree Triggerplant_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small shrub to 30–150 cm high, with linear leaves..
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale pink, September–December, peak September–October. Adapted forpollination by insects.
Fruit/seed: Oblong capsule 8–12 mm long, with numerous dark brown seeds, October–
December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Kindarun Mountain, Putty, Pearl Beach, Grose Vale, Glenbrook, Oatley,
Macquarie Pass. CT: Olinda, Wentworth Falls, Kanangra, Mt Jellore, Mittagong, Robertson.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8399_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky sites, clifftops, ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus aggomerata, E. piperita,
Angophora bakeri.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, conglomerate, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status not known.

Stylidium lineare

STYLIDIACEAE

Narrow-leaved Triggerplant_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small perennial herb, with very narrow basal leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: 5–20 years (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink to deep red, October–June, October, peak November–December, column
with a trigger-like action when touched during pollination. Adapted for pollination by
insects.
Fruit/seed: Oblong capsule 5–10 mm long, with dark brown seeds, January–April.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: No special morphology for dispersal (Westoby et al.
1990). Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Fire response: Stems killed, basal sprouts from rhizome. Secondary juvenile period 2 years(D. Keith pers. comm.).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT ST.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on sandstone plateaus.
Select locations: CC: Somersby, Bowen Mountain, Hornsby, Bantry Bay, Ryde, Mosman,Long Bay, Como, Waterfall, Maddens Plains, Barren Grounds, Loddon Falls. CT: Gospers
Mountain, Clarence, Katoomba, Wentworth Falls, Hill Top, Robertson.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Poorly-drained plateaus, ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus
punctata, E. sieberi; heath e.g. with Banksia robur, Xyris, Restio complanatus; mallee.
Substrate: Moist sandy, or gravelly soils on sandstone.
Exposure: Full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Brisbane Water
NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP, Sydney Harbour
NP, Royal NP.

400

Stylidium productum

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

STYLIDIACEAE

Triggerplant_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with sprawling and elongating stems to 50 cm long.
Vegetative spread: Adventitious roots develop along stems and form new plants.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink, November–January, peak December. Probably pollinated by native bees andhoneybees (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Egg-shaped capsule 5–10 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Stems killed, resprouts from rhizome.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Culoul Range, Kulnura, Kurrajong Heights, Grose Vale, Springwood,
Asquith, Terrey Hills, O’Hares Creek, Waterfall, Stanwell Park. CT: Kandos, Blackheath,
Katoomba, Wentworth Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges, rocky hillsides, gullies.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita,
E. sclerophylla, E. sieberi, E. punctata; woodland e.g. with Corymbia eximia, C. gummifera.
Substrate: Shallow sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrient soils, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Brisbane Water NP, Lion Island
NR, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP.

Symplocos stawellii

SYMPLOCACEAEWhite Hazelwood_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or small tree to 17 m high, with hairy branchlets and alternate,simple leaves.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Whitish, April–August.
Fruit/seed: Blue to black fleshy fruit 8–12 mm long. Seeds brown, pear-shaped 8 mm long,
mature October–April (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Germination from fresh seed (Floyd 1989).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Rose-crowned Fruit-dove and Superb
Fruit-dove (Floyd 1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Lisarow, Gosford, Cattai, Hacking River.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8401_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Usually along creeks (Floyd 1989).
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Rainforest e.g. with Acmena smithii, Ceratopetalum apetalum, Cryptocaryaglaucescens, Schizomeria ovata.
Substrate: Clay soils on shales, claystones, alluvium, medium–high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Royal National Park is southern
geographical limit.

Symplocos thwaitesii

SYMPLOCACEAE

Buff Hazelwood_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or small tree to 15 m high,
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, September–December.
Fruit/seed: Purple to black fleshy fruit 5–12 mm long. Fuit mature January–March(Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Germination from fresh seed (Floyd 1989).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Green Catbird (Floyd 1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Ourimbah, Gosford, Bola Creek, Mt Keira, Gerringong.
CT: Robertson NR.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Usually along creeks (Floyd 1989).
Altitude: 0–760 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1800 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Sub-tropical and warm-temperate rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras,
Ceratopetalum apetalum, Acacia melanoxylon, Acmena smithii, Guioa semiglauca,
Cryptocarya glaucescens.
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Brisbane Water NP,
Robertson NR.

402

Gnidia squarrosa *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect bushy shrub 0.4–1.2 m high, with hairy stems.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Petals scale-like.
Fruit/seed: Small dry fruit.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Africa.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: South Head. CT: no information.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude:Annual rainfall:
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Banksia integrifolia.
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Sometimes cultivated, occasionally naturalised.

Pimelea curviflora var. curviflora

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Subshrub or shrub 20–150 cm high, with hairy stems.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow, October–May, peaks March, December.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 2–4 mm long,
Dispersal, establishment & growth: No particular morphology for dispersal (McIntyre etal. 1995). Declines in absence of fire — out-competed by other shrubs (L.McD.).
Fire response: Seedlings appeared after fire where previously not known (Lane Cove) (Van
Klaphke pers. comm.).
Interaction with other organisms: Fruit toxic to stock (Harden 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Hornsby Plateau.
Select locations: CC: South Maroota, Glenorie, Kellyville, Cheltenham, Cottage Point,
Tumbledown Dick Hill, Wheeler Heights, Manly (1899), Five Dock (1907), Bellevue Hill
(1895), Gladesville (1884), Northmead.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridgetops, upper slopes.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus capitellata, E. sieberi, E. punctata;open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus
sieberi.
Substrate: Shaley/lateritic soils over sandstone, shale/sandstone transition, low nutrients.
Exposure: Full sun to light shade.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8403___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Restricted local endemic. Listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened
Species Conservation Act 1995. The number of collections before 1900, suggests it was
originally common. Many old collection sites have now been built on. Reported in Wollemi
NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP.

Pimelea curviflora var. divergens

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tufted subshrub 20–50 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish yellow, hairy, in heads.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 2–4 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: No particular morphology for dispersal (McIntyre etal. 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Toxic to stock (Harden 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CT NT NWS NWP; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CT: Leura.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 900 m
Annual rainfall: 1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, Leura is southern geographical limit, last collected 1908.
Conservation status unknown.

404

Pimelea curviflora var. gracilis

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Subshrub 50–150 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish yellow, hairy, in heads, October–December.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 2–4 mm long, occasionally curved.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: No particular morphology for dispersal (McIntyre etal. 1995). Some records for disturbed sites e.g. confined to old tracks (at Glenorie) and may
be a colonising species.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Toxic to stock (Harden 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC NT CT ST SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread but sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Glenorie, Dapto. CT: Orange, Mt Canobolas, Carcoar, Hill Top.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 750–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Allocasuarina torulosa, Acacia fimbriata.
Substrate: Loam on basalt, sandy clay loam on sandstone, medium to high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Muogamarra NR.

Pimelea curviflora var. sericea

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Subshrub 15–30 cm high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish yellow, hairy, in heads, November–January.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 2–4 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: No particular morphology for dispersal (McIntyre etal. 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Toxic to stock (Harden 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Tablelands.
Select locations: CT: Mt Canobolas, Bathurst, Rydal, Lithgow, Carcoar, Berrima, Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides.
Altitude: 700–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus albens; grassland.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, basalt.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown, few collections, 13/18 specimens
collected pre– 1950.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Pimelea glauca

405

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Much-branched shrub to 1 m high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Creamy-white, in heads.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 4 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: No particular morphology for dispersal (McIntyre etal. 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Toxic to stock (Harden 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP NWP; Qld, Vic., Tas.,
S.A.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Liverpool (1818), Cobbitty, Camden (1990). CT: Bathurst, Portland,
Wallerawang, Rydal, Carcoar, Mt Werong, Wombeyan Caves, Bowral.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1000 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Grassland e.g. with Themeda australis.
Substrate: Clay loam on shale, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), last collected inCentral Tablelands in 1962 (at Wombeyan Caves).

Pimelea humilis

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect or straggling shrub to 50 cm high, with hairy stems. Similar to P.
linifolia subsp. linifolia but differing with hairs on stems (Threlfall 1982).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Bisexual or female, hairy, whitish, in heads.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 4 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: SC CT ST; Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Robertson.
Select locations: CT: Robertson.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 600 m
Annual rainfall: 1600 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Open-forest, heath.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare in Sydney area, only record Robertson (1967), its northern
geographical limit. Not common in NSW (Harden 1990).

406

Pimelea latifolia subsp. elliptifolia

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 10–50 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish yellow to white, hairy, in heads, October–December.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 2 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CT CWS.
Distribution Sydney area: Rylstone to Capertee.
Select locations: CT: Rylstone, Mt Gundangaroo, Glen Davis.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Steep rocky slopes, creek banks.
Altitude: 400–800 m
Annual rainfall: 600–650 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Eucalypt woodland with Leptospermum understorey.
Substrate: Sandy alluvium, sandy soil on sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, few records, conservation status unknown.

Pimelea latifolia subsp. hirsuta

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Spreading shrub 10–50 cm high, with hairy stems and leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish yellow to white.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 4 mm long
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, ant-adapted food body for dispersal(Westoby et al. 1990).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread but sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Wyong, Colo Heights, Gosford, Mooney Mooney, Kurrajong Heights,
Lovett Bay, Newport, Narrabeen (L.McD.) CT: Glen Davis, Wentworth Falls, Barbers Creek.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia maculata, Eucalyptus paniculata.
Substrate: Sandy loam on shales.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Sporadic occurrences, conservation status unknown, reported in Brisbane
Water NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Pimelea ligustrina subsp. hypericina

407

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 1–3 m high
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Whitish, hairy, in heads, September–November, peak October.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 3–5 mm long, October.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Illawarra.
Select locations: CC: Cessnock, Waterfall, Otford, Bulli, Mt Kembla, Macquarie Pass,
Minnamurra Falls. CT: Burrawang.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Moist eucalypt forest.
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt, shale.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, many old collections, conservation status unknown.
Reported in Wollemi NP.

Pimelea ligustrina subsp. ligustrina

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 2 m high
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Whitish, hairy, in heads, September–December.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 3–5 mm long, November–December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Food plant of butterfly larvae Candalides xanthospilos
which feed at night, sheltering under leaf litter during the day (Common & Waterhouse1981).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Tablelands.
Select locations: CC: Otford, Albion Park. CT: Coricudgy, Winburndale Creek, Bathurst,
Mt Canobolas, Blackheath, Jenolan Caves, Mt Werong, Wombeyan Caves, Bundanoon.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 600–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Rainforest e.g. with Acmena smithii, Cassine australe, Wilkiea huegeliana (on the
coast); moist forest to woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus viminalis, E. blaxlandii (onTablelands).
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt, high nutrients, though also on sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP.

408

Pimelea linifolia subsp. caesia

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Prostrate or clump-forming shrub to 50 cm high, with bluish leaves. Similar
to P. glauca (Threlfall 1982).
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or occasionally pink, hairy, in heads, November–December.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 3–5 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, with food body adapted for antdispersal (Westoby et al. 1990).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Toxic to stock (Harden 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Tablelands.
Select locations: CT: Towac (Orange), Springside, Mt Werong.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 900–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1000 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Open-forest.
Substrate: Well-drained, but not rocky soil.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, last collected 1958, conservation status unknown.

Pimelea linifolia subsp. collina

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 1 m high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or occasionally pink, usually silky-hairy, in heads, November–January.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 3–5 mm long, November–January.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, with food body adapted for antdispersal (Westoby et al. 1990).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Toxic to stock (Harden 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Upper Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: Como (1916), Coolangatta (Berry). CT: Clarence, Katoomba, Leura,
Wentworth Falls, Bundanoon.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1100–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest; heath
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, also basalt (at Coolangatta).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare on coast, probably extinct at Como. Last collected on Central
Tablelands 1966. Conservation status unknown.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Pimelea linifolia subsp. linifolia

409

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect, prostrate or occasionally clump-forming shrub to 1.5 m high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity: 5–20 years (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Primary juvenile period: 4 years (Benson 1985), 2–6 years (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Flowers: White or occasionally pink, hairy, in heads. Flowering at any time, peakAugust–October, pollinated by moths e.g. Pollanisus sp. (Pyke 1981), butterflies,
honeybees, native bees and flies (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 3–5 mm long, at any time.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Food body ant-adapted for dispersal (Westoby etal. 1990). Soil-stored seedbank (Fox 1988). Often prolific germination after fire.
Fire response: Killed and re-established from soil-stored seed. Killed by fire (D. Keithpers. comm., Fox 1988). Killed, seedlings recorded less than 1 year after fire (Purdie
1977). Seedlings 5 months after high-intensity fire at Katandra Bushland Sanctuary
1994, in an area previously unburnt for more than 50 years (L.McD.).
Interaction with other organisms: Food plant of butterfly larvae Candalides
xanthospilos which feed at night, sheltering under leaf litter during the day (Common &Waterhouse 1981).Toxic to stock (Harden 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic.,
Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Howes Valley, Norah Head, North Entrance, Kulnura, Maroota,
Berkshire Park, Glenbrook, Wahroonga, Avalon, Frenchs Forest, Willoughby, Mosman,
Auburn, Coogee, Oatley, Kurnell, Long Bay, Liverpool, Waterfall, Camden, Maldon,
Bargo, Cambewarra. CT: Kandos, Clandulla, Capertee, Orange, Katoomba, Wentworth
Falls, Wombeyan Caves, Moss Vale, Barren Grounds, Bundanoon, Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides, sandhills, cliffs.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open- forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus sclerophylla,
E. piperita, Angophora costata; heath e.g. with Angophora hispida, Banksia ericifolia; seacliff scrub.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, sandhills, occasionally on clay soils on shale, very
low to low-nutrient soils, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread and probably adequately conserved. Reported in Wollemi
NP, Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal
NP, Dalrymple Hay NR, Lane Cove NP, Sydney Harbour NP, Royal NP.

410

Pimelea linifolia subsp. linoides

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 2.5 m high.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White or occasionally pink, hairy, in heads, September–November, peak
November.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 3–5 mm long, September–December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Food body ant-adapted for dispersal (Westoby et al.
1990).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Food plant of butterfly larvae Candalides xanthospilos
which feed at night, sheltering under leaf litter during the day (Common & Waterhouse1981). Toxic to stock (Harden 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CT CWS; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Upper Blue Mountains, Nepean River.
Select locations: CC: Burragorang, Cobbitty, Yerranderie. CT: Currant Mountain Gap,
Blackheath, Katoomba, Wentworth Falls, Kings Tableland.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky areas, ridgetops, cliffs.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus oreades, E. sparsifolia, E. rossii; heath e.g. with
Allocasuarina nana.
Substrate: Clayey to sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure: Exposed conditions in Blue Mountains (Harden 1990).
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare on Nepean River, conservation status in Blue Mountains not known.
Reported in Wollemi NP.

Pimelea spicata

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Slender, erect to decumbent shrub up to 50 cm high, with carrot-like taproot.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White often tinged with pink, in heads, flowers at any time, peak March–April.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 3 mm long. Seed tiny black, collected June, some germination without treatment (P. Hind).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, possibly ant-dispersed (NPWS 2000).
Fire response: Resprouts from a carrot-like tap root after fire. Requires fire-free period of
more than 3 years to develop a fire-resistant taproot (NPWS 2000).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Western Sydney, Illawarra coastline.
Select locations: CC: Greystanes, Horsley Park, Bass Hill, Marayong, Lansdowne, Casula,Denham Court, Narellan, Mount Annan, Mt Warrigal, Shellharbour, Kiama, Minnamurra
Headland.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8411_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gentle rises, coastal headland.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Woodland with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis (Cumberland Plain
Woodland); grassland and coastal scrub e.g. with Banksia integrifolia, Westringia fruticosa.
Substrate: Clay loam on Wianamatta Shale, Bumbo latite, medium nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic, listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) NSW Threatened Species
Conservation Act 1995. Coded 3ECi on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996).
Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), in view of now limited distribution. It is
now known from only a few sites including Mount Annan Botanic Gardens near
Campbelltown, private property and Commonwealth-owned land at Narellan and small
populations at Georges River and Maryong.
On the Illawarra it occurs on the Minnamurra Headland and another small population
occurs on Crown land at Shellharbour. While the population at Mount Annan is protected
in a botanical garden no populations are formally protected in conservation reserves. The
best population of the species is at Narellan, where it is not conserved. Threatened by theweed Bridal Creeper at some sites. Threatening processes include frequent fire, clearing,mowing, grazing, rubbish dumping (NPWS 2000).

Pimelea treyvaudii

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect or sprawling shrub to 60 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, hairy, in heads, December.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded green nut 3–5 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT ST CWS; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Orange area.
Select locations: CT: Lewis Ponds, Orange.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 800–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 750–1000 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Open-forest
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, few collections, last collected 1969. Conservation status unknown.

412

Wikstroemia indica

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

THYMELAEACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub usually to 1.5 m high, with opposite leaves and reddish-brown tough‘bootlace’ bark that strips very readily. Crushed leaves with unpleasant odour (Low 1988).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish yellow to white, sporadic throughout the year.
Fruit/seed: 1-seeded fleshy fruit, red when ripe, December–January.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit palatable but poisonous (Low 1988, Everist 1974). Bark
used for string in Asia.
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld, Asia to Pac Is.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastal.
Select locations: CC: Parnell, Avoca, Brooklyn, Barrenjoey, Long Reef, Narrabeen, Clontarf,
Mosman, Forest Island (RNP)_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Slopes near the sea.
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Rainforest; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, Syncarpia glomulifera, Livistonaaustralis; scrub–woodland e.g. with Lomandra longifolia.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, dune sand, low–medium nutrients.
Exposure: Light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Illawarra is southern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown.
Reported in Yengo NP, Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP, Lion Island NR, Sydney Harbour NP,
Royal NP.

Tetratheca bauerifolia

TREMANDRACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Compact shrub to 30 cm high, with small leaves in whorls.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Deep lilac-pink, October–December, peak October.
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule; seeds not seen.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CT ST; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Tablelands.
Select locations: CT: Winburndale NR, Mullion Creek, Portland, Kanangra, Gerringong Falls,
Taralga.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Exposed rocky areas.
Altitude: 600–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus macrorhyncha, E. goniocalyx; heath e.g. with
Eucalyptus stricta, Allocasuarina nana, Banksia marginata.
Substrate: Clay soils to sandy soils on sandstone, quartzite, granite, shale, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Winburndale is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown,no collections from Central Tablelands since 1978. Reported in Budderoo NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Tetratheca decora

413

TREMANDRACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 30–40 cm high, with densely hairy, ridged stems.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Deep lilac-pink, September–November.
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 4–5 mm long; seeds brown 4 mm long, with an appendage, October.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT NWS.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread but sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Howes Valley, Putty, Ingleside. CT: Kedumba Valley, Narrow Neck
Peninsula, Mt Dingo, Mt Mouin, Jamieson Valley.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creeks, ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus deanei, E. benthamii; woodland e.g. with
Angophora bakeri; heath.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Tetratheca ericifolia

TREMANDRACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub 15–40 cm high, with small leaves in whorls, with rhizomes (Herb.
specimen).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period: 3 years (Benson 1985).
Flowers: Deep lilac-pink, at any time, with peak August–October.
Fruit/seed: Hairy capsule 6–8 mm long; seeds brown 2–3 mm long, with an appendage.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Food body ant-adapted for dispersal (Rice & Westoby
1981, Westoby et al. 1990).
Fire response: Probably resprouts from rhizome.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CT ST.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Wondabyne, Glenorie, Cowan, Hornsby, Terrey Hills, Duffys Forest,
Allambie Heights, Bantry Bay, Manly, Bondi, Wedderburn, Springwood. CT: Mount Tomah,
Wentworth Falls, Mittagong.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus sieberi, E. punctata, Corymbia
gummifera, Eucalyptus piperita; heath e.g. with Banksia serrata, Acacia suaveolens, Actinotus minor.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure: Full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably adequately conserved. Reported in Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP,
Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP.

414

Tetratheca glandulosa

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

TREMANDRACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: A low-growing spreading shrub about 20 cm high, with woody rootstock.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: Possibly medium.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink, March–December, peak August–November. Pollination possibly by small
native bee (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: 3–7 mm long, seeds less than 3 mm long, probably January.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Resprouted after fire at Marramarra NP (L.McD.).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Hornsby Plateau.
Select locations: CC: Sackville, Kulnura, Mangrove Mountain, Wisemans Ferry, Maroota,
Glenorie, Arcadia, Cowan, Ingleside, Duffys Forest, Mt Colah, North Wahroonga, Thornleigh,Belrose, Frenchs Forest, Allambie Heights, Brookvale, Manly, The Spit, Balmain, Auburn.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Edge of plateau, hillsides.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Heath e.g. with Grevillea speciosa, Grevillea buxifolia, Eucalyptus luehmanniana;
scrub e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Allocasuarina distyla; sclerophyll woodland e.g. with
Eucalyptus haemastoma, Banksia serrata, Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus capitellata.
Substrate: Clayey sand on sandstone or shale sandstone transition, low nutrients.
Exposure: Full sun to light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species Conservation
Act 1995. Endemic to Central Coast, coded 2VC- on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh1996). Reported in Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Dalrymple Hay
NR, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP.

Tetratheca juncea

TREMANDRACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: A prostrate, usually leafless, shrub with stems to 1 m long. Juvenile plants
with alternate narrow lanceolate leaves (Norton 1994).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Deep lilac-pink, July–December, peak September. Possibly pollinated by sonicating
bee Lestio sp. (R. Payne pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Capsule 6–8 mm long, with seeds 4 mm long, September–December, peak
October.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, short-distance ballistic dispersal(R. Payne pers. comm.).
Fire response: Resprouts from rootstock after high intensity, fast fire, but slow fires withhigh fuel loads may kill rootstock (Norton 1994).
Interaction with other organisms: Mycorrhiza-dependent, making it difficult to translocate(R. Payne pers. comm.).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8415____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Helensburgh to Port Jackson, North from Lake Macquarie.
Select locations: CC: Swansea , Catherine Hill Bay, Lake Munmorah, Charmhaven, Five
Dock (1884), Cooks River (1905), Carlton, Kogarah (1893), Bexley (1913), Undercliff (1889),
Tempe (1891), Helensburgh (1893).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–occasional.
Vegetation: Restricted to open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus haemastoma,
E. globoidea, Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus capitellata, E. globoidea (R. Payne pers. comm.).
Substrate: Sandy skeletal soil on sandstone, sandy-loam soils, low nutrients. Clayey soil
from conglomerates, pH-neutral (Norton 1994). Moisture requirement is critical, neither
too wet nor too dry (R. Payne pers. comm.).
Exposure: East to south aspects (Norton 1992).
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act
1995. Coded 3VCa on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Only old records forPort Jackson to Helensburgh (1885–1905), where it is presumed extinct. Poorly conserved
elsewhere. Reported in Awabakal NR (Payne 1993).

Tetratheca neglecta

TREMANDRACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: A compact or occasionally diffuse shrub 15-60 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Deep lilac-pink, September–November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 6 mm long, seed not seen.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Botany Bay to Barren Grounds.
Select locations: CC: Arncliffe to Canterbury (1886), Oatley Park, Menai, Gymea,
Waterfall, Helensburgh, West Dapto. CT: Byrnes Gap, Barren Grounds, Carrington Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridgetops, plateaus.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Heath e.g. with Banksia paludosa, Melaleuca squarrosa, Empodisma minus,
Eucalyptus camfieldii, E. luehmanniana; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, Corymbia
gummifera, E. haemastoma, E. punctata, E. fibrosa.
Substrate: Sandy loam soils on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic species. Main populations conserved but outliers such asWest Dapto not conserved. Coded 3RC- on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh1996). Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Budderoo NP, Heathcote NP, Royal NP.

416

Tetratheca rubioides

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

TREMANDRACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Compact shrub 30–60 cm high, with erect or ascending branches and densely
hairy stems. Hybridizes with T. thymifolia (Harden 1992).
Vegetative spread: Rhizomatous (Herb. specimen).
Longevity: Indefinite.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Deep lilac-pink, September–December, peak October–November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5 mm long; seeds brown, 3 mm long, with an appendage.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Resprouts from rootstock (Herb. specimen).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CT ST.
Distribution Sydney area: Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: Bilpin, Burralow Swamp, Bowen Mountain. CT: Rylstone, Kekeelbon
Mountains, Clarence, Bell, Blackheath, Wentworth Falls, Mt Wilson.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Plateau, slopes.
Altitude: 400–1100 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Heath e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta, Allocasuarina nana, Banksia ericifolia, Epacris
microphylla; open-forest e.g. with Eucalytus sieberi, E. macrorhyncha.
Substrate: Shallow sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure: Full sun to light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Blue Mountains NP.

Tetratheca rupicola

TREMANDRACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Compact or diffuse shrub 20–40 cm high, with small leaves in whorls.
Superficially similar to T. ericifolia, T. neglecta, and T. rubioides (Harden 1992).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Deep lilac-pink, mainly September–December, peak October–November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5–7 mm long; brown seeds 4 mm long, with an appendage, November–
December.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Resprouts from woody rootstock (Herb. note).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: Berambing, Springwood, Nepean Dam. CT: Bungleboori Creek, Mt
Wilson, Blackheath, , Katoomba, Wentworth Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Ridges, plateaus.
Altitude: 200–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, E. sieberi, E. sclerophylla, Corymbia
gummifera, Eucalyptus radiata; heath e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta, Lambertia formosa.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Tetratheca shiressii

417

TREMANDRACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Undershrub 30–75 cm high, with opposite linear leaves on glabrous
branches and broader, whorled leaves on hairy branches; multiple stems arising fromwoody base.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period: 3–4 years (Benson 1985).
Flowers: Deep lilac-pink, mainly July–October, peak August–September.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 7 mm long; seeds not seen.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Food body ant-adapted for dispersal (Westoby etal. 1990).
Fire response: Probably resprouts.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Gosford area, Port Hacking to Bulli.
Select locations: CC: Mangrove Mountain, Wondabyne, Kariong, Port Hacking,Waterfall, Wattamolla, O’Hares Creek, Helensburgh, Bulli Pass.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky, sandy or swampy sites.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Heath e.g. with Angophora hispida, Banksia ericifolia, Eucalyptus camfieldii,
E. luehmanniana; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus capitellata, E. sieberi, Angophora costata,
Corymbia gummifera.
Substrate: Sandy soil on Hawkesbury sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure: Full sun to light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Local endemic species, conservation status unknown. Reported in
Brisbane Water NP, Royal NP.

418

Tetratheca thymifolia

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

TREMANDRACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect straggling shrub 20–100 cm high, with whorled leaves; stems withbristly ridges. Hybridizes with T. rubioides (Harden 1992).
Vegetative spread: Stoloniferous and suckering (Herb. specimen) possibly allowing spread.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Deep lilac-pink, August–December, peak September–November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 4–6 mm long; brown seeds 3 mm long, with an appendage.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, soil-stored seedbank (Fox 1988).
Fire response: Probably killed — seedlings reported at Brisbane Water (Benson 1985). Killed
by fire at Myall Lakes (Fox 1988). Probably resprouts at Kurrajong heights, Mittagong (Herb.
specimen). May flower within two years of fire.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Hornsby Plateau and Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CC: Putty, Mt White, Colo Heights, Bilpin, Kurrajong Heights, Galston,
Asquith, Wahroonga, Duffys Forest, Narrabeen, Botany Bay, Picton, Thirlmere, Colo Vale,
Jamberoo, Berry, Kangaroo Valley, Cambewarra. CT: Mt Wilson, Wombeyan Caves, Bowral,
Moss Vale, Belmore Falls, Bundanoon, Wingello.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillslopes, rocky outcrops.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus blaxlandii,
E. piperita, Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus punctata; heath e.g. with Angophora hispida.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstones, possibly clay influenced at (Deep Creek).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably adequately conserved. Reported in Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP,
Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP.

Tropaeolum majus *TROPAEOLACEAE

Nasturtium_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb with more or less succulent branches to 50 cm long and circular leaves.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Red, yellow and orange, spring–autumn. Honeybees visiting flowers (P. Kubiak pers.
comm.) may be involved in pollination.
Fruit/seed: Comprised of 3 nutlets 10 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Attractive fleshy edible fruits or seeds dispersed byanimals; gravity or water (Anon 1991).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC; S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Suburban areas.
Select locations: CC: Northbridge (1965), Curl Curl, Manly, La Perouse, Audley (1975).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8419_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Roadsides, moist gullies.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Disturbed sites.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, alluvium, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widely cultivated, minor localised weed in coastal suburbs.

Celtis occidentalis *ULMACEAE

Hackberry_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Medium-sized deciduous tree, generally 6–10 m high, leaf margins
coarsely toothed, upper surface of leaves scabrous.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Clustered, unisexual and/or bisexual.
Fruit/seed: Round fleshy fruit 10 mm diam., purple or nearly black.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fleshy fruit probably bird-dispersed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to North America. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Nepean River.
Select locations: CC: Cobbitty, Mount Annan, Camden (1947), Razorback.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Riverbanks, floodplains.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 700–800 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Weedy sites e.g. with Ligustrum, Gleditsia, Olea europea subsp. africana.
Substrate: Sandy loam on alluvium, shale, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably originated from cultivation in Camden area. Now
naturalised along Nepean River, Camden–Cobbitty floodplain and Penrith, Richmond–Windsor floodplain (Benson & Howell 1993). Also spreading in Cumberland Plain
Woodland remnants on shale hills in Camden area.

420

Celtis paniculata

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

ULMACEAE

Native Celtis_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small to medium evergreen tree to 10 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Clustered, with male and female flowers in separate inflorescences.
Fruit/seed: Black egg-shaped fleshy fruit 10 mm diam., August–March. Fruit with one seed 5mm diam. (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Chrysomelid beetle Menippus fugitivus (listed as
Endangered, TSC Act) appears to be dependent on this foodplant at Grays Point Reserve,
Sutherland (NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995). Food plant of butterfly larvae Polyura
pyrrhus sempronius (Common & Waterhouse 1981).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld, Malesia, Pac Is.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastline, sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Narrabeen, Grays Point, Port Hacking, Bass Point, Shellharbour.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Coastal sand.
Altitude: 0–50 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Littoral rainforest e.g. with Elaeodendron, Bauerella, Ficus obliqua.
Substrate: Sands or sandy soils over basalt.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare plant in remnant of the Endangered Ecological Community
Sutherland Shire Littoral Rainforest (TSC Act 1995) at Grays Point Reserve, with a population of
10–15 trees. Only other recent records are from Bass Point.

Trema aspera

ULMACEAE

Native Peach, Poison Peach_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or small tree, with hairy young branches.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Small, greenish, November.
Fruit/seed: Fleshy fruit 4 mm diam., shiny black, matures January–June. Some green and black
fruit all year (L. Parkinson pers. comm.).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: drupe, bird-dispersed e.g. Currawongs (Wallace1997). Soil-stored seedbank (Floyd 1966). Coloniser. Grew from seedling to 3–4 m high in 3 years(at Beecroft).
Fire response: Killed by high-intensity fire, recruits from soil-stored seed. Frequent seedlings
after high-intensity fire at Katandra Bushland Sanctuary 1994 (L.McD.).
Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Brown Cuckoo-dove, Figbird, Lewins
Honeyeater, Olive-backed Oriole (Floyd 1989), Brown Pigeon, King Parrot at Stanwell Park (T.
Auld pers. comm.). Recorded as being toxic to stock but is not usually eaten except in dry
periods. Larvae of moth Aenetus splendens on plant (Common 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP; Vic., Qld, N.T.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Ourimbah, Mooney Mooney, Grose Vale, Dennistone, Narrabeen,
Kogarah, Nortons Basin, Elderslie, Razorback, Mt Ousley, Minnamurra Falls. CT: Mt Armour,
Meryla Pass.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8421_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Levee banks.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–frequent.
Vegetation: Moist open-forest and open rocky areas e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, E. paniculata
in regrowth and margins of rainforest. Rainforest regrowth, along tracks (Floyd 1989).
Substrate: Soils from shale, slates, volcanic necks, medium nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure: Sheltered.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Brisbane
Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane CoveNP.

Australina pusilla

URTICACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Separate male and female flowers on the same plant, October–January.
Fruit/seed:
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Illawarra and Southern Highlands.
Select locations: CC: Mt Keira, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Kanangra, Robertson, Belmore Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist, rocks near waterfalls.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1100–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist forest.
Substrate: Moist rocks, sandstone.
Exposure: Mid shade to full shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Regionally rare in Illawarra region (Mills 1988). Reported in Robertson NR.

422

Dendrocnide excelsa

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

URTICACEAE

Giant Stinging Tree_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tree to 40 m high with fluted trunks, with stinging hairs that cause an intense
persistent sting, on the leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Small, in unisexual inflorescences, summer. Male and female flowers on separate
plants (Harden 1990).
Fruit/seed: Dry fruit 2 mm long, whitish, pink to purplish, with fleshy stalk, April–
September.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Fruit eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus
poliocephalus (Eby 1995). Common in disturbed areas where it may establish quickly.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Green Catbird and Regent Bowerbird;
leaves often riddled with holes from feeding of chrysomelid beetle Hoplostines viridipennis;
Known to cause immediate, very painful rash and swelling due to plant chemicals (Bass 1987)
so although the fruit is edible, the stinging hairs make this inadvisable for humans (Floyd1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT NWS CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Calga, Barrenjoey, Royal NP, Albion Park, Minnamurra Falls, Kanangra
Walls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed areas.
Altitude: 0–500 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Dry subropical rainforest e.g. with Streblus brunonianus, Elaeocarpus kirtonii,
Brachychiton acerifolius, Cassine australis.
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt, shale, medium to high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Elatostema reticulatum var. reticulatum

423

URTICACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Coarse straggling herb to 50 cm high, with succulent stems occasionallysetting roots.
Vegetative spread: Localised, suckering spread.
Longevity: Indefinite.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Very small, white or yellowish flowers in dense heads, male and female flowers
separate, September–March, peak January–February.
Fruit/seed:
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Illawarra and Southern Highlands.
Select locations: CC: Macquarie Pass, Yellow Rock, Saddleback Mountain,
Bellawongarah, Cambewarra Mountain. CT: Moss Vale, Carrington Falls, Fitzroy Falls,
Belmore Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Along streams or on moist, shaded rock faces below waterfalls.
Altitude: 0–500 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Rainforest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, Streblus brunonianus, Callicoma
serratifolia, Tristaniopsis laurina.
Substrate: Moist rock faces e.g. on sandstone, basalt.
Exposure: Sheltered.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported Macquarie Pass NP.

424

Parietaria debilis

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

URTICACEAE

Native Pellitory_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Weak herb to 30 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: Less than one year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than one year.
Flowers: Tiny bisexual and unisexual flowers on the same plant. Few flowers and low pollen
density (Bass & Bass 1990).
Fruit/seed: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded fruit (achene).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Not known to cause allergic reactions in Australia (Bass& Bass 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP SFWP;
LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A., trop
Distribution Sydney area: Razorback, Orange areas.
Select locations: CC: Razorback Mountain, Douglas Park. CT: Junction Reefs.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Shady clefts in rocky cliffs, under overhangs.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 700–800 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–occasional.
Vegetation: Associated with Casuarina cunninghamiana along river edges.
Substrate: Rocky clefts on calcareous sandstone, slaty metamorphics, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, likely to be inadequately conserved in area, last reported atRazorback in 1969.

Parietaria judaica *URTICACEAE

Pellitory_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with reddish, wiry stems to 40 cm long, with fine irritanthairs on both sides of leaves. Underground root system is extensive and becomes woody
with age (Trounce 1990).
Vegetative spread: Roots from buried nodes (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992, Bass & Bass
1990).
Longevity: Perennial.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Tiny, numerous. Flowers throughout the year with main pollen peak September–
December with secondary lower peak in February; masses of pollen released by explosive
dehiscence of anthers (Bass 1987), predominantly in morning, closely related to fluctuations intemperature and humidity (Bass & Bass 1990).
Fruit/seed: Small, black seed. Large soil-stored seedbank, one square metre of plants
produces 250 000 seeds; 90 000 seeds/m2 in dense shade (Bass & Bass 1990).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, water and wind-dispersed, plantfragments with flowerheads carrying seeds stick to clothing and animals, dispersed in soil on
machinery, footwear and in turf; vegetative spread from root fragments (Trounce 1990).
Disturbance stimulates mass germination (Blood 2001). Germination over wide range oftemperatures (4–35°C) optimum 21°C, more than 60% germination at 10°C–27°C, germination
more than 75% at 20°C ± 0/5°C in light and dark (Bass & Bass 1990). Seeds germinate
10°C–27°C, optimum 21°C; major growth period from mid-winter until following autumn(Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992, 2001). Very little seed dormancy at 20°C so despite the high seedproduction, it can be eradicated within 3 months; rapidly re-colonises areas of bare soil after
removal and there may be massive regeneration from woody rootstock after application ofherbicide (Trounce 1990).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8425Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Known to cause immediate, very painful rash andswelling due to plant chemicals; people have developed asthma for the first time due toexposure to pollen after pulling out the plant — most exposure is to plants growing nearhomes (Bass 1987), pollen causes allergic rhinitis, asthma, conjunctivitis (Trounce 1990).
Protect face and wear protective clothing when removing this weed.
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic. First sighted at Woolloomooloo 1901, the seed probably arrived in
shipload of Italian marble, colonised at North Sydney, spread quickly (Bass 1990).
Botanical subregions: CC NWS; Vic., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Palm Beach to Otford and west to Nepean River (Trounce 1990).
Select locations: CC: Mona Vale (L.McD.), Harbord, Lane Cove, Woolloomooloo,
Paddington, Tamarama, Balmain, Dawes Point, Meadowbank, Mt Druitt.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Waste areas and crevices of stone walls and footpaths, rocky foreshores; flourishes
in a Mediterranean-type climate (Trounce 1990).
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–dominant.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Disturbed ground on sandstone and shale.
Exposure: Full sun to dense shade. Tolerant of frost, extremely tolerant of desiccation (Blood
2001).
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Restricted to inner Sydney suburbs before 1980 but now much morewidespread. Spread through soil disturbance in urban development e.g. recent spread (since1983) at Taronga Zoo after soil disturbance during upgrading (Bass 1987). Common in
Sydney gardens, roadsides, wall crevices, and footpaths. Invades urban bushland (Trounce1990). Declared noxious weed.

Pilea microphylla *URTICACEAE

Artillery Plant_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb to 30 cm high, without stinging hairs.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Very small, December.
Fruit/seed:
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Soil-stored seedbank (Fox 1988).
Fire response: Killed by fire (Fox 1988).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to tropical America.
Botanical subregions: CC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Kulnura, Swansea (1940).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1100–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Sometimes localised, reported naturalised around Lake Macquarie(Harden 1990).

426

Soleirolia soleirolii *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

URTICACEAE

Corsican Carpet, Baby’s Tears_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Slender creeping herb with more or less succulent stems, rooting at thenodes and forming dense mats; leaves small and roundish.
Vegetative spread: Stoloniferous.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Very small; separate male and female flowers on same plant, October.
Fruit/seed: Dry fruit.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to W Mediterranean area, Corsica, Sardinia and Balearic Is.
Botanical subregions: CC; Vic., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sydney suburbs, localised.
Select locations: CC: Narrabeen (1984), Cremorne (1956).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Shady gullies.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Moist gully vegetation e.g. with Acmena smithii, Callicoma serratifolia,
Ceratopetalum apetalum.
Substrate: Sandy alluvial soil.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Not widely naturalised. Potential to spread unknown.

Urtica dioica *URTICACEAE

Stinging Nettle, Giant Nettle_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb 30–150 cm high, with stinging hairs; rhizome woody,much-branched (Ciba-Geigy 1968–).
Vegetative spread: Rhizomatous, tendency to form dense clumps (Ciba-Geigy 1968–).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Small, green or white, unisexual.
Fruit/seed: Dry fruit. Dispersed long distance by water, animals, birds and man — shortdistance spread by wind (Ciba-Geigy 1968–).
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Sometimes consumed as a spinach-like vegetable, used
for preparation of hair lotion (Ciba-Geigy 1968–).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native of Mediterranean and America.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Waterloo (1912).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–50 m
Annual rainfall: 1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Very fertile soils rich in humus, nitrogen and moisture indicator (Ciba-Geigy
1968–).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Known only from one old collection, Waterloo (1912).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Urtica incisa

427

URTICACEAE

Stinging Nettle, Scrub Nettle_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb to 100 cm high, erect or trailing, roots at nodes, leaves
covered with stinging hairs, dioecious.
Vegetative spread: Capable of vegetative spread up to 1 m. (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Small, green or white, separate male and female flowers on the same plant,
at any time of year, peak September–October.
Fruit/seed: Dry, indehiscent.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: No particular morphology for dispersal(McIntyre et al. 1995).
Fire response: Stems killed, resprouts from roots.
Interaction with other organisms: Foodplant of butterfly larvae Vanessa itea, thelarvae feed at night (Common & Waterhouse 1981). Beetle Hoplostines viridipennis
mates and feeds on the leaves, seen during summer (Hawkeswood 1987). Known tocause immediate, very painful rash and swelling due to plant chemicals (Bass 1987).
Aboriginal people reportedly boiled scrub nettles to make poultices (Low 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; LHI, Qld,
Vic., Tas., S.A., NZ, N Cal.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Wyong, Grose Vale, Wahroonga, Kogarah, Ingleburn, Bents
Basin, Razorback, Mt Kembla, Albion Park, Berry. CT: Rylstone, Wattle Flat, Capertee,
Newnes, Glen Davis, Mt Wilson, Edith, Jenolan Caves, Mt Jellore, Robertson,
Bundanoon.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creeks, mountain gullies, stock camps, waste places.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1800 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras; dry rainforest e.g. with Aphitonia
excelsa, Brachychiton populifolius; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus blakelyi, E. tereticornis;
riparian forest e.g. with Eucalyptus benthamii, Leptospermum sp.
Substrate: Soils on basalt and alluvium, slates, shales, high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation statuselsewhere unknown. Reported in Robertson NR.

428

Urtica urens *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

URTICACEAE

Small Nettle_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb to 60 cm high, with stinging hairs on stems and leaves.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Separate male and female flowers on same plant at any time of year.
Fruit/seed: Dry, indehiscent.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Foodplant of butterfly caterpillar Vanessa itea (Coupar &Coupar 1992), the larvae feed at night (Common & Waterhouse 1981). Foodplant of Stubble
Quail Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). Known to cause immediate, very
painful rash and swelling due to plant chemicals (Bass 1987). Leaves and young stems used
as a vegetable after boiling for a few minutes to remove formic acid (Binden 1996).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe. Reported by Robert Brown to be introduced to
Sydney by 1804 (Maiden 1909).
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC ST NWS CWS NWP SWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A.,
W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Cheltenham, Woolloomooloo Bay (1902), Vaucluse, Llandilo,
Glenfield, Albion Park. CT: Moss Vale.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Weedy areas, sheep pens, septic drains.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Weedy areas.
Substrate: Locally moist sites on clay soils.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread relatively uncommon weed, not invasive of bushland.

Centranthus ruber subsp. ruber *VALERIANACEAERed Valerian, Kiss-me-Quick_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb to 70 cm high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pink to rose-red, rarely white, mainly August–December.
Fruit/seed: Dry, indehiscent.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe and W Asia. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC CT ST NWS; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread but sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Lidcombe (1964). CT: Sofala, Blackheath, Jenolan Caves (1978).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rockfaces, embankments, retaining walls.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Rockfaces, sandstone, metamorphics.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cultivated and sometimes naturalised locally. Dense patches (up to 1000
plants) may form over 10 years (Herb. record).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Clerodendrum tomentosum

429

VERBENACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub or small tree 1–10 m high, usually velvety.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, October–December, peak November. Pollination both automatic and open
(Adam & Williams 2001). Butterfly visiting flowers (P. Kubiak pers. comm.) may be apollinator.
Fruit/seed: Succulent, black fruit (drupe), 8–10 mm long, seated in an enlarged red fleshy
calyx, mature January–February. Seeds 4750 per kilogram (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fleshy fruit, vertebrate-adapted dispersal(Westoby et al. 1990). Germination from fresh seed (Floyd 1989).
Fire response: Stems killed, resprouts from base.
Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Satin Bowerbird (Floyd 1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT CWS; Qld, W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast and western Sydney.
Select locations: CC: Mangrove Creek, Avalon, Eastwood, Newington, Cronulla, Penrith,
Liverpool, Burragorang, Berry. CT: Bilpin, Murdering Gully.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creek banks.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: above 700 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare–occasional.
Vegetation: Wet eucalypt forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, but often persisting in cleared
places; also dry ‘rainforest-type’ scrub e.g. Razorback.
Substrate: Alluvial soils, clay soils from shale, basalt, volcanic necks, medium nutrient soils.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Bouddi
NP, Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP,
Dalrymple Hay NR, Lane Cove NP, Sydney Harbour NP.

430

Gmelina leichhardtii

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VERBENACEAEWhite Beech_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Tree to 30 m high, often semi-deciduous
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Creamy white with yellow and purple markings, November–January.
Fruit/seed: Succulent, 15–20 mm diam., bluish purple when ripe. Fruit 148 per kilogram,mature February–May (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Germination very slow e.g. 37% after 5 months,
facilitated by removal of flesh then soaking seed for 2 months before drying in sun for 1 day,followed by further soaking before sowing (Floyd 1989).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Topknot Pidgeon and Wompoo Fruit-dove(Floyd 1989).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Wyong, Illawarra.
Select locations: CC: Yarramalong, Wheeny Creek, Broughton Mill Creek, Minnamurra Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rainforest.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Rainforest
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt, shale, high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Regionally rare in Illawarra region (Mills 1988), last collected in Wyong
area in 1916.

Lantana camara *VERBENACEAE

Lantana_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Aromatic shrub to 3 m high, with long weak branches and 4-angled stems
with numerous prickles and robust rootstock.
Vegetative spread: Sprawling stems root at nodes (L.McD.), new canes produced on thecrown and from lateral roots in early spring, roots sucker if damaged or broken (Parsons &Cuthbertson 1992).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, yellow, orange, red or pink in various combinations, in heads, at any time ofyear. Probably pollinated by butterflies, honeybees, and large native bees, with flies playing aminor role (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Black, fleshy, 5 mm diam., with one black seed (Buchanan 1989). Fruit in clustersof 1–20 (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, vertebrate-adapted for dispersal(Westoby et al. 1990). Dispersed by Pied Currawong Strepera graculina, with maximum numberof seed per pellet 131, average 42 (Buchanan 1989), Seeds germinate at any time of year if there
is sufficient moisture, growth is slow at first as rootstock and laterals are established, thenstems of adjacent plants intertwine forming thickets; germination of Lantana seeds inhibited byleachates from Crofton weed (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Fire response: Resprouts.
Interaction with other organisms: Rainbow Lorikeet Tricholglossus haematodus feeds on
berries (Barker & Vestjens 1989). Fruit eaten by Crimson Rosella Platycercus elegans, Redwhiskered Bulbull Pycnonotus jocosus; shoots eaten by rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Host
plant of Cerambycid beetles Ceresium australe, Phlyctaenodes pustulatus (Hawkeswood 1993).

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

431

Provides sheltered habitat for Paralysis Tick Ixodes holocyclus (B. Conroy pers. comm.). Larvaeof moth Epinotia lantana feed on flowers and developing fruit; it was introduced to Australia
from Mexico in 1914 to asist control of Lantana (Common 1990). Allelopathic substances
increase competitive ability with native species (Cronk & Fuller 1995), leachates from all partsof the plants known to inhibit germination and growth of other plants and organisms
including human cholera pathogen Vibrio cholerae; toxic to sheep and cattle, causing
photosensitisation and other symptoms leading to death (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to tropical S America. Grown by Macarthur at Camden Park in
1843 (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992), introduced as a hedge plant.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; LHI, Qld., N.T.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread at lower elevations.
Select locations: CC: Gosford, Lion Is (L.McD.), Barrenjoey, Brooklyn, Kurmond,
Cheltenham, Woolloomooloo Bay, Oatley, Casula, La Perouse, The Oaks, Cobbitty, Albion
Park, Bass Point, Berry, Bomaderry.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies, ridges, disturbed areas.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Disturbed and undisturbed forests, Casuarina woodland, coastal scrub andheath.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sand dunes, sandstone, clay soil on shale, alluvium, low to
medium nutrients, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Established weed since 1902. Declared noxious weed in 50 council areas(Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001).

Lantana montevidensis *VERBENACEAE

Creeping Lantana_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Decumbent shrub less than 30 cm high, often forming low, dense thickets.
Vegetative spread: Trailing stems may root at nodes (Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Purplish, at any time of year.
Fruit/seed: Reddish brown, fleshy berry, 8 mm diam., seeds 4 mm long (Parsons &Cuthbertson 2001).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, dispersed by fruit-eating animals andbirds, also water-dispersed during heavy rain and in mud; seeds germinate at any time ofyear, when moisture is available, growth rate is slow until rootstock is established (Parsons &Cuthbertson 2001). Fruiting rarely reported in Sydney area.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Toxic to cattle (Everist 1974).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Uruguay and southern Brazil, introduced as ornamental(Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001).
Botanical subregions: NC CC NWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Sydney suburbs.
Select locations: CC: Northbridge (1967), Concord (1952), Garden Island Naval Depot,
Penrith (1964), Casula.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Wasteland, rocky areas.
Altitude: 0–50 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Eucalypt woodland.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, shale, low nutrients.
Exposure: Full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cultivated in gardens and landscaping, occasionally naturalised locally.

432

Oncinocalyx betchei

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VERBENACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb, with numerous erect branches arising near the base of theplant.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, mainly summer.
Fruit/seed: Dry, separating into 4 segments.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CT NWS CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CT: Hargraves.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed sites.
Altitude: 800 m
Annual rainfall: 700 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Woodland.
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare in the area, only known from one collection in 1961.

Phyla nodiflora *VERBENACEAE

Lippia, Carpet Weed_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb 30–90 cm long, with trailing or ascending stems, often rooting
at nodes.
Vegetative spread: Stoloniferous.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Purple or pink to white, mainly October–April.
Fruit/seed: Small, dry, 2 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CWS NWP SWP SFWP; Qld, S.A., N.T., W.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Tuggerah Lakes (1900), Richmond (1910), Flemington (1969), Kurnell(1906).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist or wet areas.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Variable, sandy and clay soils.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Not common, last recorded in 1969 at Flemington and now probably
extinct there.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Verbena bonariensis *433

VERBENACEAE

Purpletop_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb 0.6–2 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue, dark violet-purple or lavender-pink, mainly October–June, peaks March,
October. Probably pollinated by honeybees, native bees and butterflies (P. Kubiak pers.
comm.).
Fruit/seed: Dry, separating at maturity into 4, 1-seeded segments.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: a 1-seeded segment of the fruit. No
particular morphology for dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars
(Wace 1977).
Fire response: Resprouts from rootstock (at Shellharbour).
Interaction with other organisms: Food plant of butterfly larvae Junonia villida calybe(Common & Waterhouse 1981). Heavily cropped by rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Suspected of causing illness, death and abortion in cattle (Everist 1974).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Maraylya, Hornsby, Cheltenham, Gladesville, Port Jackson (1881),
La Perouse, Heathcote, Liverpool, Campbelltown, Menangle, Bargo, Jamberoo Mountain.
CT: Wentworth Falls, Paddys River.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Wasteland and cultivated areas, roadsides, creeks, swamp margins.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Grassland, woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus tereticornis, E. moluccana, E. crebra,
E. longifolia.
Substrate: Clay soils and on shale, basalt, alluvium, medium to high nutrients. Recorded on
saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993).
Exposure: Full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread weed of rural areas.

434

Verbena caracasana *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VERBENACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb, usually 1–1.5 m high, or to 2 or 3 m high, with toothed,lanceolate leaves and condensed rootstock (Michael 1997).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Lilac.
Fruit/seed: Dry, separating at maturity into 4, 1-seeded segments; produces abundant seed(Michael 1997).
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Central and S America.
Botanical subregions: CC NT ST NWS NFWP;Distribution Sydney area: Sydney area.
Select locations: CC: Maraylya, North Richmond, Cockle Creek, Epping, Flemington (1969),
Liverpool (1968), Heathcote.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Along watercourses (Michael 1997), disturbed sites, paddocks.
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay soils on shale.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Occasional weed of suburban and rural areas.

Verbena gaudichaudii *VERBENACEAE

Common Verbena_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb 0.3–1 m high.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Up to 25 years (Herb. note).
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale pink or lilac, mainly October–January.
Fruit/seed: Dry, separating at maturity into 4, 1-seeded segments.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: a 1-seeded segment of the fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Rev. Woolls, in 1867, noted its use as a tonic. Suspected of
causing illness, death and abortion in cattle (Everist 1974).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld,
Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Wondabyne, Casula, Cobbitty, Mount Annan, Menangle, Thirlmere(1891); CT: Kanangra, Wombeyan Caves, Barbers Creek (1898).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed areas and wasteland, roadsides.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Grassland e.g. with Themeda australis; dry rainforest.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, basalt, medium to high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of rural areas.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Verbena hispida *435

VERBENACEAE

Rough Verbena_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Spreading or decumbent perennial herb 0.4–1 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Purple, at any time of year.
Fruit/seed: Dry, separating at maturity into 4, 1-seeded segments.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: a 1-seeded segment of the fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NWS CWS NWP SWP SFWP.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Wisemans Ferry (1969), Pennant Hills, Emu Plains (1912), Flemington
Saleyards (1969).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed areas.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Rainforest gully e.g. with Livistona australis.
Substrate:
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Occasional weed of disturbed sites.

Verbena incompta sp. nov. *VERBENACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect perennial herb 0.5–1.5 m high, with 4-angled stems and prominent
long hairs; similar to V. bonariensis but with smaller flowers arranged in a circle below the
top of the spikes (Michael 1995).
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue to reddish-purple.
Fruit/seed: Dry, separating at maturity into 4, 1-seeded segments, each 1.5 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: a 1-seeded segment of the fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, probably native to S America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST SWP; LHI, Qld, S.A., N.T., Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Somersby, Lower Portland, Windsor, Hornsby, Cheltenham, Prospect,
Glenbrook, Government House (1902), Flemington, Heathcote, Kangaroo Valley, Berry(1925). CT: Capertee, Mount Tomah, Bullaburra, Woodstock, Robertson, Paddys River,
Barrengarry.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist, disturbed places, creeks, roadsides, drains, pastures.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, Angophora floribunda, Eucalyptus
puncata, E. moluccana.
Substrate: Variable, clay soil on shale, diatremes, also on sands, sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread weed of disturbed sites.

436

Verbena litoralis *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VERBENACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb to 1 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue to purple, at any time, peak March–May. Probably pollinated by honeybees,
native bees, and to a lesser extent, butterflies (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Dry, separating at maturity into 4, 1-seeded segments.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: a 1-seeded segment of the fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native of S America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC ST; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Dural, Hornsby, Pennant Hills, Epping, Northbridge, Mosman,
Concord, Auburn, The Domain (1902), Cooks River (1912), Liverpool, La Perouse, Camden,
Tahmoor.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Walking tracks, roadsides, disturbed areas.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, edge of mangroves.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread weed of disturbed sites.

Verbena quadrangularis *VERBENACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb 1–2 m high, with erect 4-angled branches.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue to reddish-purple, January–April.
Fruit/seed: Dry, separating at maturity into 4, 1-seeded segments.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, introduced from S America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Pennant Hills, Cheltenham, Prestons, Camden (1972), Woronora River.
CT: Paddys River.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creekbanks.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay soil on alluvium and shale, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Relatively recently recorded weed.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Verbena rigida *437

VERBENACEAE

Veined Verbena_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb 0.2–0.5 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Reddish purple, pale lilac, or blue-violet, at any time of year, peaks March,
October–December.
Fruit/seed: Dry, separating at maturity into 4, 1-seeded segments.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: a 1-seeded segment of the fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Suspected of causing constipation and fever in cattle(Everist 1974).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT NWS SWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Eraring, Morisset, Woy Woy, Richmond (1910), Eastwood, Colyton,
Mulgoa, Domain (1899), Mount Annan, Mt Kembla, Bass Point, Gerringong, Minnamurra
Falls. CT: Carcoar.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Wasteland, pastures.
Altitude: 0–860 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Grassland e.g. with Themeda australis.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, diatremes, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Weed of disturbed sites.

Verbena x brasiliensis *VERBENACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb 1–2 m high, with coarsely toothed leaves.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Purple, at any time of year.
Fruit/seed: Dry, separating at maturity into 4, 1-seeded segments.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: a 1-seeded segment of the fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to S America.
Botanical subregions: NC CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Nothern Sydney suburbs.
Select locations: CC: Newport (1994), Epping (1994), Gladesville (1995).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Wasteland and cultivated areas.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Occasional weed in suburban areas, only recently recorded.

438

Viburnum suspensum *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VIBURNACEAE *_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Bushy shrub to 2 m high, with conspicuous lenticels appearing warty.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, sometimes tinged with pink, spring.
Fruit/seed: Red, fleshy 6–8 mm long, with one seed.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Japan. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Middle Head (1974).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–100 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Headland scrubland.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cultivated as an ornamental with one record, possibly naturalised nearold gun emplacements at Middle Head.

Hybanthus monopetalus

VIOLACEAE

Slender Violet-bush_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb to 60 cm, with narrow
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blue-mauve, at any time, peak October–February. Probably pollinated by native beesand possibly small butterfly (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Thick-walled, distinctly 3-sided capsule (Bennett 1972) 3–6 mm long, with 3–6 pitted
seeds, October–March.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, with food body adapted for ant dispersal(Westoby et al. 1990). Soil-stored seedbank (Fox 1988).
Fire response: Killed by fire (Fox 1988).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Culoul Range, Pearl Beach, Springwood, Kowmung, Ingleside, Bobbin
Head, North Head, La Perouse, Auburn, Douglas Park, Oakdale. CT: Mt Coricudgy,
Wallerawang, Clarence, Mt Tomah, Blackheath, Hill Top, Penrose, Fitzroy Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Dry hillsides, ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, E. sclerophylla, E. macrorhyncha, Angophora
floribunda, Eucalyptus piperita; woodland e.g. with Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus punctata, Corymbia
gummifera; heath e.g. with Allocasuarina nana, Leptospermum trinervium.
Substrate: Sandy soils on sandstone, granite, quartzite, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP,
Lion Island NR, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Lane Cove NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Hybanthus stellarioides

439

VIOLACEAE

Spade Flower_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb or small shrub to 60 cm high, with stems and narrow leaves
usually hairy.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow, solitary, summer
Fruit/seed: Thick-walled, distinctly 3-sided capsule (Bennett 1972) 4–9 mm long, with 5–12
pitted seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically (Bennett 1972).
Probably with ant-adapted food body for further dispersal.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Food plant of butterfly Acraea andromacha andromacha(Common & Waterhouse 1981).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Cumberland Plain.
Select locations: CC: Cattai, Prospect.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Dry rocky slopes or along creeks.
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 700–900 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus tereticornis, E. moluccana, Indigofera australis.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney, recorded from Cattai and Prospect, thesouthern geographical limit (James et al. 1999).

Hybanthus vernonii subsp. scaber

VIOLACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb to 1 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Mauve, solitary, spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Thick-walled, distinctly 3-sided capsule (Bennett 1972) 6–8 mm long, with 3–6
smooth seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically (Bennett 1972),
probably with ant-adapted food body for further dispersal.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC SC CT.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast and ranges.
Select locations: CT: Bundanoon.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 600 m
Annual rainfall: 1100 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Eucalypt open-forest.
Substrate: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown, only collection for Sydney area is Bundanoon
in 1957.

440

Hybanthus vernonii subsp. vernonii

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VIOLACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb to 1 m high.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Mauve, solitary, July–February, peak September.
Fruit/seed: Thick-walled, distinctly 3-sided capsule (Bennett 1972) 6–8 mm long, with 3–6
smooth seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, dispersed ballistically (Bennett 1972),with ant-adapted food body for dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990, Rice & Westoby 1981).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST; Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastal ranges.
Select locations: CC: Springwood, Boorai Ridge, East Kurrajong, Windsor, Berowra, Mona
Vale, Frenchs Forest, Manly, Waterfall, Bomaderry.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–500 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Heath to woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, C. eximia, Angophora costata, A.
hispida, Boronia ledifolia, Lasiopetalum ferrugineum, grasses.
Substrate: Sandy soil mostly on Hawkesbury Sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure: Full sun to light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in Marramarra
NP, Muogamarra NR, Garigal NP, Royal NP.

Hymenanthera dentata

VIOLACEAE

Tree Violet_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Rigid much branched shrub to 4 m high, often spinescent.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale yellow, August–October.
Fruit/seed: Purplish, globose berry, 4–5 mm diam., matures December–April.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: berry, adapted for dispersal by ingestion(McIntyre et al. 1995).
Fire response: Stems killed, resprouts from base within 6 months.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Cattai NP, Bents Basin, Razorback, Douglas Park, Wollongong, Albion
Park, Macquarie Pass, Kangaroo Valley, Berry. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Jenolan Caves, Mount
Tomah, Mt Colong, Robertson.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8441_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Often along creeks, riverbanks, and rocky slopes.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Near rainforest e.g. with Acacia melanoxylon, or dry rainforest; floodplain forest
e.g. with Tristaniopsis laurina, Eucalyptus benthamii, E. elata.
Substrate: Clay soils on basalt, limestone, riverbanks with sandy alluvium, medium to highnutrient soils, well-drained. Possibly indicative of calcareous influence.
Exposure: Light shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread and probably adequately conserved. Reported in Robertson NR.

Viola arvensis *VIOLACEAE

Field Pansy_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Annual or biennial herb, with decumbent stems.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: 1–2 years.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Creamy-white with yellow-orange base, November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 5–9 mm long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to N Africa, Europe, W Asia.
Botanical subregions: NC CT ST: Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CT: Robertson (1905), Kowmung River (1976).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Pastures, disturbed, moist sites, riverflats.
Altitude: 600–900 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Sandy alluvium.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, only a couple of reports for Sydney area. Unlikely to invade
bushland.

442

Viola betonicifolia

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VIOLACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with triangular leaves and short erect stems.
Vegetative spread: No (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Violet to whitish, August–November, peak October–November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 7–13 mm long,
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed 2.5 mm long with elaiosome, ant-dispersed(J. Howell pers. comm.). No particular morphology for dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Ourimbah, Berkshire Park, Hornsby, Manly, Rookwood, Lane Cove,
Unanderra. CT: Orange, Mullion Range, Mt Werong, Tuglow Caves, Abercrombie Caves, Wildes
Meadow, Penrose.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Hillsides, ridges.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus pauciflora, E. macrorhyncha, E. goniocalyx;
grassland.
Substrate: Various, on basalt, quartzite, granite, alluvium, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Previously more common around Sydney on better soils but now rare.
Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in Bouddi NP.

Viola caleyana

VIOLACEAE

Swamp Violet_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with stems to 30 cm long and leaves heart-shaped.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White to pale violet, October–March, peak November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 7–9 mm long,
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Mogo Creek, Avoca North, Coomonderry Swamp. CT: Cudgegong River,
Hampton, Tuglow Caves, Wingecarribee Swamp, Long Swamp (Kodela 1992), Penrose.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Swamps, wet meadows, creeks.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Upland peat swamp e.g. with Chorizandra cymbaria, Phragmites australis; shrublande.g. with Melaleuca ericifolia; riparian scrub e.g. with Casuarina cunninghamiana, Tristaniopsis
laurina, Backhousia myrtifolia.
Substrate: Peaty to alluvial soils, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status not known.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Viola fuscoviolacea

443

VIOLACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb with short stems, mat-forming.
Vegetative spread: Stoloniferous (James 1996).
Longevity: Indefinite.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Blackish violet, inconspicuous, November–January.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 4–7 mm long,
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NT CT ST; Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Newnes Plateau, Southern Highlands.
Select locations: CT: Ben Bullen SF, Murrays Swamp (Newnes SF), Wingecarribee
Swamp.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Swamp edges.
Altitude: 600–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Peatland e.g. with Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus, Leptospermum sp., Baeckea
sp., Sphagnum sp.
Substrate: Peaty sediments, low nutrients, poorly-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Few records, conservation status unknown.

444

Viola hederacea

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VIOLACEAE

Ivy-leaved Violet_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with short erect stems; fleshy taproot. Variable complex withseveral forms recognised base mainly on leaf shape (Harden 1990).
Vegetative spread: Spreads by stolons several metres at least, mat-forming.
Longevity: Indefinite.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Mauve and white, August–May, peak October, February. Flowers visited by hoverfly,
probably feeding (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).
Fruit/seed: Capsule, 4–6 mm long, seeds c. 1.5 mm long, mature November–June.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, ant-adapted food body (Westoby et al.
1990). Soil-stored seedbank (Fox 1988).
Fire response: Probably resprouts from fleshy taproot (L.McD.). Possibly resprouts after highintensity fire at Narrabeen 1994, flowering within 4 months of fire (Kubiak pers. comm.).
Killed by fire (Fox 1988).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT ST CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Putty, Wheeny Creek, Windsor, Yarramundi, Ourimbah, Wyong,
Mangrove Creek, Wisemans Ferry, St Ives, Auburn, Kurnell, Menangle, Orangeville,
Helensburgh, Appin, Albion Park, Bargo, Nowra. CT: Coricudgy, Newnes Plateau, Mt Hay,
Blackheath, Wentworth Falls, Boyd Range, Mittagong, Wildes Meadow, Mt Werong, ,Bundanoon, Penrose SF.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Sheltered moist places, creekbanks.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Moist eucalypt forest or floodplain forest e.g. with Eucalyptus deanei, E. saligna,
E. pilularis, Syncarpia glomulifera, Backhousia, Ceratopetalum apetalum, Casuarina glauca; peaty
swamp e.g. with Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus, Leptospermum sp., Baeckea sp.; riparian scrube.g. with Melaleuca linariifolia.
Substrate: Sandy or clay soils on sandstone, shale, alluvium, medium nutrients. Water table
mostly high, moisture supply continuous, fresh.
Exposure: Mid shade to full sun.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread and probably adequately conserved. Reported in Blue Mountains
NP, Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP,
Dalrymple Hay NR, Lane Cove NP, Sydney Harbour NP, Robertson NR.

Viola odorata *VIOLACEAE

Sweet Violet_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with short erect stems; stolons hairy.
Vegetative spread: Stoloniferous spread over several square metres.
Longevity: Indefinite.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Deep violet to white, June–September.
Fruit/seed: Capsule with tiny seed.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: seed, with elaiosome containing diglyceride
which attracts ants (Beattie 1982).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8445____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Europe, N Africa, and Middle East. Introduced as
ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC CT NWS; Vic., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Cheltenham, Menangle. CT: Robertson (1951).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Watercourses, wet places.
Altitude: 0–700 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1600 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Alluvium.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Occasionally naturalised garden escape (Harden 1990). Potential to invade
bushland unknown.

Viola sieberiana

VIOLACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Perennial herb with short erect stems forming rosettes. Hybrids between
V. hederacea and V. sieberiana (Harden 1990).
Vegetative spread: Stoloniferous.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Pale mauve to white, August–March, peak September–November.
Fruit/seed: Capsule 4–5 mm long, September–March.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Fire response: Resprouts (D. Keith pers. comm.).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: CC SC CT; Vic., Tas., S.A.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread.
Select locations: CC: Gosford, Cronulla, Waterfall, Stanwell Park. CT: Newnes Plateau,
Mount Tomah, Bilpin, Jamieson Valley, Robertson, Bundanoon.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Moist ground, moist rocky crevices.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Syncarpia glomulifera, Acacia elata,
Eucalyptus sieberi; open moist sites e.g. with Chorizandra sphaerocephala, Baumea rubiginosa,
Epacris obtusifolia.
Substrate: Moist soil on sandstone, or shaly sandstone, low nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Muogamarra NR, Garigal
NP, Royal NP.

446

Korthalsella rubra subsp. rubra

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VISCACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Small erect stem-parasitic perennial to 16 cm high, with flattened branches
forming cladodes.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Very small, separate male and female flowers, July–September.
Fruit/seed: Berry-like, pear-shaped fruit less than 2 mm long, with one disc-shaped seed 1 mm
long.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Parasitic on wide range of trees in rainforest and moist
eucalypt forest (Harden 1992).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST; LHI, Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Mainly Illawarra.
Select locations: CC: Mt Keira, Mt Kembla, Kiama, Cambewarra. CT: Colong Caves.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Stem parasite.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 800–1600 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras; moist open-forest.
Substrate: Parasitic on Alyxia ruscifolia, Cassine australis, Sloanea australis, Trochocarpa laurina,
Doryphora sassafras, Acmena smithii, Tristaniopsis laurina, Melaleuca ericifolia, Syzygium oleosum,
Geijera salicifolia, peach tree (Downey 1998).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Regionally rare in Illawarra region (Mills 1988). Conservation statuselsewhere unknown.

Notothixos cornifolius

VISCACEAE

Kurrajong Mistletoe_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Spreading or hanging stem-parasitic shrub, with stems to 1 m long, and acovering of white or tawny short hairs.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Small separate male and female flowers, August.
Fruit/seed: Berry-like, egg-shaped 7 mm long, with a single sticky seed.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus
poliocephalus (Eby 1995).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS.
Distribution Sydney area:
Select locations: CC: Bulga. CT: Capertee Valley.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8447_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Parasitic, almost exclusively, on stems of plants in the Sterculiaceae family(Harden 1992).
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: 700–800 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent.
Vegetation: Open-forest.
Substrate: Parasitic on Brachychiton populneus, many infestations on one tree, othertrees unaffected (Herb. note).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

Notothixos subaureus

VISCACEAE

Golden Mistletoe_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Erect or spreading stem-parasitic shrub to 0.6 m diam., with a coveringof bright golden short hairs, sometimes grey or silvery.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Small separate male and female flowers, at any time of year.
Fruit/seed: Berry-like, egg-shaped 7 mm long, with a single sticky seed.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: High population densities in coastal Casuarina glauca open-forest (inQld) ascribed to cessation of annual burning for a period of 12 years (Reid 1987).
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC CT NWS CWS; Qld, Vic.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on coast.
Select locations: CC: Gosford, Mt White, Wisemans Ferry, Mt Colah, Hornsby,
Dee Why, Rose Bay, Carlton, Lady Carrington Drive, Waterfall, Blaxland.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Parasitic, usually on plants in the Loranthaceae family (Harden 1992).
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation: Open-forest, woodland. Host trees include: Allocasuarina littoralis,
Casuarina cunninghamiana, C. glauca, Angophora subvelutina, Eucalyptus pilularis, Grevillea
robusta, Brachychiton populneus (Downey 1998).
Substrate: Parasitic on Amyema cambagei, A. congener, A. miquelii, A. pendula,
Dendrophthoe vitellina, Muellerina celastroides, M. eucalyptoides, Viscum articulatum(Downey 1998).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown.

448

Viscum articulatum

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VISCACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Slender, hanging stem-parasitic shrub to 1 m long, with a covering of brightgolden short hairs, sometimes grey or silvery; leaves minute.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Small separate male and female flowers, at any time of year.
Fruit/seed: White, yellowish or pink, roundish, berry-like 4–6 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC; Qld, N.T., W.A., Asia, Pac Is.
Distribution Sydney area: Coastal.
Select locations: CC: Glenbrook, Kiama.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Parasitic on the stems of Loranthaceae, other species of Viscaceae and Exocarpos(Harden 1992).
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1400 mm
Typical local abundance:
Vegetation:
Substrate: Parasitic on species of Allocasuarina littoralis, Casuarina cunninghamiana, C. glauca,
Amyema bifurcata, A. cambagei, A. congener, A. miquelii, Amylotheca dictyophleba, Dendrohthoe
vitellina, Angophora costata, Lophostemon confertus, Exocarpos cupressiformis (Downey 1998).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Kiama is southern geographical limit.

Cayratia clematidea

VITACEAE

Slender Grape_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Weak climber with stems to 2 m long and compound leaves with 5 leaflets
and tendrils; underground stem forming small tubers.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish, February–March.
Fruit/seed: Black berry, 5–7 mm diam., with 2–4 seeds, March–September, peak May.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fleshy fruit, vertebrate-adapted dispersal(Westoby et al. 1990). Quick growth rate. Coloniser. Partial die-back in winter (D. Ondinea
pers. comm.).
Fire response: Resprouts from rootstock.
Interaction with other organisms: Larval food plant of moths Agarista agricola, Gnathothlibus
eras, Hippotion celerio, and Hawk Moth Acosmeryx anceus (Common 1990). Tubers roasted andeaten by Aboriginal people (Cribb 1984).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT NWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: North from Nowra district.
Select locations: CC: Mt Yengo, Calga, West Head (L.McD.), Eastwood, Newington,
Prospect, Razorback, Audley, Bulli, Kiama. CT: Kowmung River, Wollondilly River, Meryla
Pass.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8449_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Levee banks, margin of rainforest.
Altitude: 0–600 m
Annual rainfall: above 700 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Moist eucalypt forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, E. paniculata; dry rainforest
e.g. with Alectryon subcinereus, Aphanopetalum resinosum, Streblus brunonianus; estuarine
creekside woodland e.g. with Casuarina glauca, Melaleuca styphelioides, Glochidion ferdinandi.
Substrate: Clay loam from shale, basalt, quartzite, medium–high nutrients.
Exposure: Sheltered, mid-shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in Bouddi NP,
Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Royal NP.

Cissus antarctica

VITACEAE

Native Grape, Water Vine_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Vigorous woody climber; leaves simple, toothed, with tendrils and domatia.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: ? long.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellowish, November–January.
Fruit/seed: Purplish–black berry, 15 mm diameter, with 1–2 seeds, mainly March–May.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, dispersed by birds.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus
poliocephalus (Eby 1995), Satin Bowerbird (Vaughan 2001). Host plant of Cerambycid beetles
Notoceresium setistriatum, Tessaromma nanum (Hawkeswood 1993). Larval food plant of
noctuid moth Cruria donowani and sphingid moth Acosmeryx anceus (Common 1990).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread on coastal ranges.
Select locations: CC: Wyong, Calga, Pearl Beach, Grose Vale, Barrenjoey, Eastwood, Manly,
Kurnell, Cronulla, Otford, Mt Keira, Kiama, Cobbitty, Cambewarra, Kurrajong, Razorback.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rainforest and sheltered places.
Altitude: 0–500 m
Annual rainfall: above 700 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional. Often dominant, excluding other plant
species.
Vegetation: Dry rainforest e.g. with Glochidion ferdinandi, Alectryon subcinereus, Streblus
brunonianus, Ficus rubiginosa, Dendrocnide excelsa.
Substrate: Dry sheltered gullies with some nutrient enrichment from shale, basalt, medium
to high-nutrient soils. Saline-tolerant, grows just above shore e.g. at West Head, Lion Island(L.McD.).
Exposure: Sheltered sites.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), probably
adequately conserved elsewhere. Reported in Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP, Lion Island
NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Sydney Harbour NP.

450

Cissus hypoglauca

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VITACEAE

Giant Water Vine_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Large woody climber, with rusty-pubescent new growth, tendrils anddivided leaves of 5 leaflets.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Long.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow, September–December.
Fruit/seed: Globular, bluish-black berry 1–2 cm diam., may be held on vine until following
Spring, though probably mature by May. Mature April (L. Parkinson pers. comm.). Fruit isedible, though rather astringent and irritant. Seeds c. 4 mm diam.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit. Probably mainly bird-dispersed ( bothvertebrate and ant-adapted, Westoby et al 1990). Difficult to germinate. Growth rate medium.
Fire response: Stems killed by high intensity fire, resprouts from base.
Interaction with other organisms: Fruit eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus
poliocephalus (Eby 1995).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT CWS; Qld, Vic., N.G.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread. Chiefly coastal, inland to Rylstone district.
Select locations: CC: Kincumber, Narrabeen, Beecroft, Oatley, Waterfall, Razorback, Mt Keira,Cambewarra. CT: Rylstone, Blackheath, Kanangra, Hill Top.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rainforest and sheltered places.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: above 700 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent. Often dominant in vegetation, excluding other species.
Vegetation: Rainforest and moist gullies e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, Callicoma serratifolia.
Substrate: Soil from basalt, shale and enriched sandstone, fertile–very fertile. Watertable
mostly low, intermittent, fresh.
Exposure: Light–mid shade.
___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Widespread and probably adequately conserved. Reported in Wollemi NP,
Blue Mountains NP, Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR,
Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP, Sydney Harbour NP, Royal NP.

Cissus opaca

VITACEAE

Small-leaved Water Vine_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Slender scrambling climber, with large underground tubers; leaves usuallydivided with 3–5 leaflets.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellowish, summer.
Fruit/seed: Roundish, purplish berry 12 mm diam., usually with 1 seed.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response: Probably resprouts.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT NWS CWS NWP; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Camden–Yerranderie area.
Select locations: CC: Mount Annan, Razorback Range, Scotts Main Range.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8451_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Often on rocky outcrops.
Altitude: 0–400 m
Annual rainfall: 700–900 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation: Dry rainforest scrub or shrubby woodland e.g. with Clerodendrum tomentosum,
Cayratia clematidea.
Substrate: Dry, rocky loose scree on shale with ?calcareous influence, medium
nutrient soils, well-drained.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, a north coast species with southern limit in Sydney area. Vulnerable inWestern Sydney (James et al. 1999). Razorback population is not conserved. Scotts Main
Range is within Warragamba Catchment area.

Cissus sterculifolia

VITACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Woody climber, with tendrils and divided leaves, usually with 5 leaflets andprominent domatia.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Purplish berry 15 mm diam., usually with 1 seed.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC; Qld, N.G.
Distribution Sydney area: Coast.
Select locations: CC: Ourimbah, Mt Keira, Minnamurra Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rainforest.
Altitude: 0–300 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Subtropical and littoral rainforest e.g. with Sloanea woollsii, Archontophoenix
cunninghamiana.
Substrate: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Rare, conservation status unknown.

452

Parthenocissus quinquefolia *Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

VITACEAE

Virginia Creeper_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Woody climber with tendrils.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish, spring–summer.
Fruit/seed: Bluish berry 3–5 mm diam., with 1–4 seeds.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Fruit reported from pellets of Currawongs (Buchanan
1989a).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to N America. Introduced as ornamental.
Botanical subregions: CC.
Distribution Sydney area: Gosford, Georges River.
Select locations: CC: Gosford (1987), Casula (1967).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat:
Altitude: 0–200 m
Annual rainfall: 900–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Growing with Loncera japonica.
Substrate: Sandy soil on alluvium.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Cultivated as ornamental, occasionally recorded as garden escape or
naturalised. Potential to invade bushland unknown.

Tetrastigma nitens

VITACEAE_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Glabrous woody climber, with tendrils and divided leaves of 3 leaflets mostly.
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Greenish, November.
Fruit/seed: Blackish berry 15–20 mm long, with 1–4 wrinkled seeds
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC CWS; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Wyong to Gosford area.
Select locations: CC: Broken Back, Mount Warrawolong, Martinsville, Avoca, Matcham,Green Point.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Gullies, creeks.
Altitude: 0–500 m
Annual rainfall: 1200–1400 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional–frequent.
Vegetation: Gully rainforest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, Sloanea australis, Glochidion
ferdinandi, Eucalyptus deanei.
Substrate: Sandy loam on alluvium, Narrabeen sandstone, basalt, medium–high nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Gosford is southern geographical limit, conservation status not known.
Reported in Yengo NP.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Tasmannia insipida

453

WINTERACEAE

Brush Pepperbush_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 1–3 m high, with simple leaves, green and glossy on both surfaces;
crushed leaves have a peppery taste.
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, September–November. Male and female flowers usually on separate plants(Harden 1990). Pollination both automatic and open (Adam & Williams 2001).
Fruit/seed: Purplish berry, sometimes white mottled with red 12–20 mm long, matures,
January–August, peak April. Small seed.
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: fruit, probably bird-dispersed.
Fire response: Probably killed.
Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Widespread
Select locations: CC: Wamberal, Olney, Somersby Falls, McCarrs Creek, Bola Creek,
Belambie Creek, Minnamurra. CT: Coricudgy, Mt Wilson, Bowens Creek, Blackheath,Wentworth Falls, Woodford, Robertson, Fitzroy Falls.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Creek lines, shady gullies.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1600 mm
Typical local abundance: Frequent–occasional.
Vegetation: Rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras, Ceratopetalum apetalum, Hedycaryaangustifolia, Acmena smithii, Backhousia myrtifolia.
Substrate: Sandy alluvium, basalt, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Blue Mountains NP,
Brisbane Water NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Robertson NR.

454

Tasmannia lanceolata

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

WINTERACEAE

Mountain Pepperbush_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Shrub to 2 m high
Vegetative spread:Longevity:
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: White, summer, September–November.
Fruit/seed: Purplish, fleshy berry 5 mm diam. Fruit weight 214 mg, c. 10 seeds per fruit (extra
data on seed & pulp characteristics in French 1991). Fruit mature March–April; seed stored atroom temperature viable for up to one year (Floyd 1989).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: berry.
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Foodplant of butterfly caterpillar Graphium macleayanum(Coupar & Coupar 1992).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: ST CT ST; Vic., Tas.
Distribution Sydney area: Upper Blue Mountains.
Select locations: CT: Blackheath, Kanangra Creek.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Rocky slopes, moist sites.
Altitude: 1000–1100 m
Annual rainfall: 1000–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation: Moist eucalypt forest e.g. with Eucalyptus fastigata, E. dalrympleana, E. radiata,
Leptospermum polygalifolium, Gleichenia dicarpa; woodland e.g. with Callicoma serratifolia,
Blechnum nudum.
Substrate: Wet sandy soil on sandstone.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Blackheath is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown.
Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Boyd NP.

Tribulus micrococcus

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Yellow Vine, Spineless Caltrop_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Herb with prostrate to ascending branches to mores than 1 m long.
Vegetative spread:Longevity: Probably short-lived.
Primary juvenile period:
Flowers: Yellow, February–May.
Fruit/seed: Dry, hairy, separates into 5 spiny segments; each 3–5 mm long, with 1–3 seeds,
March–May.
Dispersal, establishment & growth:Fire response:Interaction with other organisms:____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Native.
Botanical subregions: NC CC NT CT NWS CWS SWS NWP; Qld.
Distribution Sydney area: Western Sydney, Bathurst.
Select locations: CC: Campbelltown, St Marys, Casula, East Hills, Camden. CT: Bathurst.
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Disturbed places, embankments.
Altitude: 0–800 m
Annual rainfall: 600–800 mm
Typical local abundance: Occasional.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Clay and loam soils on shale, medium nutrients.
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Possibly introduced to Sydney area from western NSW with livestock.

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8

Tribulus terrestris *455

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Caltrop, Cat-head_____________________________________________________________________________ Life history
Growth form: Prostrate herb with branches to 80 cm long. There may be an inland
native species with more rounded fruit and shorter spines. Taproot long, slender, woody
with many fibrous lateral roots (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).
Vegetative spread: No.
Longevity: Less than 1 year.
Primary juvenile period: Less than 1 year.
Flowers: Yellow, February–March.
Fruit/seed: Woody, spiny burr, separates into 5 spiny segments; each 4–8 mm long, with 2–
4 yellow seeds. Fruit formed continuously throughout summer and autumn (Parsons &Cuthbertson 1992).
Dispersal, establishment & growth: Diaspore: burr, dispersed by attachment to feet andfur of animals and vehicle tyres; germination rate of 84% reported and buried seeds remain
viable for several years (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992). High reproduction capacity andability to germinate rapidly with low moisture (Squires 1969), on soils made bare bydrought, overgrazing, or mechanical disturbance (Everist 1974).
Fire response:Interaction with other organisms: Cause of sudden death in sheep (Hurst 1942), causing
staggers, photosensitivity, nitrate poisoning resulting in death; spines on fruit damage feetof horses, sheep, cattle and dogs and cause nuisance on playing fields; seeds sometimes
attacked by small native moth Aristotelia sp. (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992). May be more
toxic when there is vigorous growth in hot weather (Everist 1974). Spiny burrs may
contaminate harvested dried fruit (Scott & Morrison 1996).
____________________________________________________________________________ Distribution
Status/origin: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Introduced by early 1900s (Squires1969).
Botanical subregions: NC CC CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP SFWP; LHI, Qld,
Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A., Medit region.
Distribution Sydney area: Sporadic.
Select locations: CC: Wondabyne (1978), Flemington Saleyards (1969). CT: Bathurst (1909).
_________________________________________________________________________________ Habitat
Habitat: Along tracks, around habitation.
Altitude: 0–1000 m
Annual rainfall: 700–1200 mm
Typical local abundance: Rare.
Vegetation:
Substrate: Will grow on most soils, with light-textured soils most favourable (Parsons &Cuthbertson 1992).
Exposure:___________________________________________________________________________ Conservation
Conservation: Probably introduced from western NSW and only recorded sporadically.
Probably extinct at Flemington. Control by repeated cultivation and burning of fruit;overseas research into control by weevils (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992).

456

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

Index to ecology of Sydney plant species 8
Scientific names are in bold type and synonyms are in italics. Family names are in upper case.
Common names are in roman type. Exotic species are indicated by an asterisk following the botanicalname.

A
Acronychia
Common 255
oblongifolia 255
simplicifolia 289
wilcoxiana 256
Ailanthus
altissima * 356
Alectryon
subcinereus 315
Apple
Black 327
Devil’s 372
Kangaroo 370
Apple of Sodom 375
Apple-of-Peru 365
Artillery Plant 425
Asterolasia
asteriscophora 256
buxifolia 257
correifolia 258
elegans 258
rivularis 259
Australina
pusilla 421

BBaby’s Tears 426
Bacopamonnieri 328
BallartCherry 309
Pale-fruit 310
Balloon Vine 316
Small 316
Bartsia
Red 344
trixago * 328
Yellow 328, 345
BeechWhite 430
Boroniaalgida 260
anemonifolia var. anemonifolia 260
anethifolia 261
barkeriana 261
deanei 262
floribunda 262
fraseri 263
ledifolia 264
Ledum 264
microphylla 264
mollis 265
nana var. hyssopifolia 266

Pale-pink 262
parviflora 266
pinnata 267
polygalifolia 268
rigens 268
Rose 270
rubiginosa 269
serrulata 270
Small-leaved 264
Swamp 266
Sydney 264
thujona 270
Boxthorn
African 364
Chinese 363
Brachychiton
acerifolius 386
populneus subsp. populneus 387
Broomrape 343
Burr
Narrawa 373

C
Calceolaria
tripartita * 329
Caltrop 455
Spineless 454
CandlesCreamy 384
Cardiospermum
grandiflorum * 316
halicacabum var. halicacabum * 316
Carpet Weed 432
Cat-head 455
Cayratia
clematidea 448
CeltisNative 420
occidentalis * 419
paniculata 420
Centranthus
ruber subsp. ruber * 428
Cestrum
aurantiacum * 356
Green 357
Orange 356
parqui * 357
CherryDwarf 310
Ground 367
Jerusalem 379
Native 309
Choretrum
candollei 307
pauciflorum 308
sp. A 308

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8
Cissusantarctica 449
hypoglauca 450
opaca 450
sterculifolia 451
Clerodendrum
tomentosum 429
Climber
Potato 374
Commersonia fraseri 388
Corkwood 362
Correaalba var. alba 271
Common 272
lawrenciana var. macrocalyx 272
reflexa var. reflexa 272
White 271
Corsican Carpet 426
Croweaexalata 273
saligna 274
Cupaniopsis
anacardioides 317
Currant
Native 310
Currant Bush
Sour 310
Cymbalaria
muralis * 329
Cyphanthera
albicans subsp. albicans 358
scabrella 358
Cyphomandra
betacea * 359

D
Daturaferox * 360
stramonium * 361
Dendrocnide
excelsa 422
Derwentia
blakelyi 330
derwentiana subsp. subglauca 330
perfoliata 331
Devil's Needles 382
Digitalis
purpurea * 331
Diploglottis
australis 318
Dodonaeaboroniifolia 318
camfieldii 319
falcata 320
heteromorpha 320
megazyga 321
multijuga 321
pinnata 322
triangularis 322
triquetra 323
truncatiales 324
viscosa
subsp. angustifolia 324

subsp. angustissima 325
subsp. cuneata 325
subsp. spatulata 326
Duboisia
myoporoides 362

E
Elatostema
reticulatum var. reticulatum 423
Elderberry 306
Native 305
White 306
Eriostemon
australasius 274
buxifolius
subsp. buxifolius 283
subsp. obovatus 284
hispidulus 284
myoporoides 285
obovalis 286
scabersubsp. latifolius 287
subsp. scaber 288
trachyphyllus 288
Euodia microcca 280
Euphrasia
arguta 332
bowdeniae 332
collinasubsp. paludosa 333
subsp. speciosa 333
orthocheila subsp. orthocheila 334
scabra 334
Exocarpos
cupressiformis 309
strictus 310

F
Figwort 345
Flame Tree 386
Illawarra 386
Foxglove 331
Fuchsia
Native 272

G
Geijeralatifolia 275
salicifolia var. latifolia 275
Glossostigma
elatinoides 335
Gmelinaleichhardtii 430
Gnidiasquarrosa * 402
Gooseberry
Cape 368
Wild 368
Grape
Native 449
Slender 448

457

458
Gratiolapedunculata 336
peruviana 336
pubescens 337
Guioa
semiglauca 326

H
Hackberry 419
Hairy-leaved Doughwood 280
Hazelwood
Buff 401
White 400
HenbaneBlack 362
Hop Bush
Native 323
Hybanthus
monopetalus 438
stellarioides 439
vernonii
subsp. scaber 439
subsp. vernonii 440
Hymenanthera
dentata 440
Hyoscyamus
niger * 362

K
Kangaroo Apple 383
Mountain 375
Spiny 374
Keraudrenia
corollata var. denticulata 388
Kerrawang 393
Kickxia
elatine subsp. crinita * 337
spuria subsp. integrifolia * 338
Kiss-me-Quick 428
Korthalsella
rubra subsp. rubra 446
Kurrajong 387
Brush 388

L
Lady’s Slipper 329
Lantana 430
camara * 430
Creeping 431
montevidensis * 431
Lasiopetalum
ferrugineum
var. cordatum 389
var. ferrugineum 390
joyceae 390
macrophyllum 391
parviflorum 392
rufum 392
Leionemadentatum 276
diosmeum 276
lachnaeoides 277

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001
lamprophyllum subsp. orbiculare 278
sp. Hungryway Creek 278
sympetalum 279
Leptomeria
acida 310
drupacea 311
Levenhookia
dubia 396
Lily-of-the-valley
Pampas 369
Limosella
australis 339
Linaria
incarnata * 339
pelisseriana * 340
vulgaris * 340
Lippia 432
Lyciumbarbarum * 363
ferocissimum * 364
Lycopersiconesculentum * 365

MMadeira Winter 379
Melicope
micrococca 280
Mimulusgracilis 341
moschatus * 341
repens 342
Misopatesorontium * 342
Mistletoe
Golden 447
Kurrajong 446
Monkey-flower
Musk 341
Slender 341
Mudwort
Australian 339
MulleinGreat 346
Green 347
Moth 346
Twiggy 347

N
Nasturtium 418
Nematolepis
squamea subsp. squamea 280
Nemesia
strumosa * 343
NettleGiant 426
Scrub 427
Small 428
Stinging 426, 427
Nicandra
physalodes * 365
Nicotiana
forsteri 366
glauca * 366

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8
suaveolens 367
Nightshade
Black-berry 376
Brazilian 381
Eastern 380
Forest 379
Glossy 370
Green-berry 377
Jasmine 374
Three-flowered 383
Violet 371
Whitetip 373
Notothixos
cornifolius 446
subaureus 447

OOmphacomeria
acerba 312
Oncinocalyx
betchei 432
Oondoroo 381
Orobanche
minor * 343

P
Pansy
Field 441
Parahebe
lithophila 344
Parentucellia
latifolia * 344
viscosa * 345
Parietaria
debilis 424
judaica * 424
Parthenocissus
quinquefolia * 452
Peach
Native 420
Poison 420
Pellitory 424
Native 424
Pepperbush
Brush 453
Mountain 454
Phebalium
Alpine 282
dentatum 276
diosmeum 276
lachnaeoides 277
lamprophyllum 278
Scaly 281, 282
squameum subsp. squameum 280
squamulosum subsp. argenteum 281
squamulosum subsp. ozothamnoides 282
squamulosum subsp. squamulosum 282
sympetalum 279
Toothed 276
Philotheca
buxifolia subsp. buxifolia 283

buxifolia subsp. obovata 284
hispidula 284
myoporoides subsp. myoporoides 285
obovalis 286
salsolifolia subsp. salsolifolia 286
scabra subsp. latifolia 287
scabra subsp. scabra 288
trachyphylla 288
Phyla
nodiflora * 432
Physalis
ixocarpa * 367
minima 368
peruviana * 368
Pilea
microphylla * 425
Pimeleacurvifloravar. curviflora 402
var. divergens 403
var. gracilis 404
var. sericea 404
glauca 405
humilis 405
latifolia
subsp. elliptifolia 406
subsp. hirsuta 406
ligustrina
subsp. hypericina 407
subsp. ligustrina 407
linifolia
subsp. caesia 408
subsp. collina 408
subsp. linifolia 409
subsp. linoides 410
spicata 410
treyvaudii 411
Pink Wax Flower 274
Planchonella
australis 327
Poisonberry
Green 357
PoplarLombardy 302
White 301
Populusalba * 301
nigra * 302
Purpletop 433

R
Ray Flower
Grey 358
Rod
Aarons 346
Rose
Native 270
Rulingia
dasyphylla 393
hermanniifolia 394
prostrata 394
rugosa 395

459

460
RUTACEAE 255–300
Rylstone Bell 279

S
SALICACEAE 301–304
Salix
alba * 302
babylonica * 303
fragilis * 304
nigra * 304
Salpichroa
origanifolia * 369
SAMBUCACEAE 305–306
Sambucus
australasica 305
gaudichaudiana 306
nigra * 306
SANTALACEAE 307–314
Santalumobtusifolium 313
Santalwood 313
SAPINDACEAE 315–326
SAPOTACEAE 327
Sarcomelicope
simplicifolia subsp. simplicifolia 289
Satinwood 280
Scrophularia
nodosa * 345
SCROPHULARIACEAE 328–354
SELAGINACEAE 354–355
Selagocorymbosa * 354
thunbergii * 355
Seringiaarborescens 396
Silver Aspen 256
SIMAROUBACEAE 356
Snapdragon
Lesser 342
SOLANACEAE 356–383
Solanum
americanum 370
aviculare 370
brownii 371
campanulatum 372
capsicoides * 372
chenopodioides * 373
cinereum 373
elegans 374
jasminoides * 374
linearifolium 375
linnaeanum * 375
mauritianum * 376
nigrum * 376
opacum 377
parvifolium 378
physalifolium var. nitidibaccatum * 378
prinophyllum 379
pseudocapsicum * 379
pungetium 380
radicans * 380
seaforthianum * 381

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001
simile 381
sisymbriifolium * 382
stelligerum 382
trifolium * 383
vescum 383
Soleiroliasoleirolii * 426
Sour Bush
Dwarf 308
White 307
Spade Flower 439
SpeedwellBlue Water 348
Creeping 351
Digger’s 331
Hairy 349
Trailing 352
Wall 348
Wandering 351
Stackhousia
Creamy 384
monogyna 384
muricata 384
nuda 385
Slender 386
spathulata 385
viminea 386
STACKHOUSIACEAE 384–386
STERCULIACEAE 386–396
Stinging Tree
Giant 422
Shiny-leaved 422
Stinkwood 290, 300
Stylewort
Hairy 396
STYLIDIACEAE 396–400
Stylidium
debile 397
despectum 397
graminifolium 398
laricifolium 398
lineare 399
productum 400
SYMPLOCACEAE 400–401
Symplocos
stawellii 400
thwaitesii 401

T
Tamarillo 359
TamarindNative 318
Tasmannia
insipida 453
lanceolata 454
Tetrastigma
nitens 452
Tetrathecabauerifolia 412
decora 413
ericifolia 413
glandulosa 414

Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 8
juncea 414
neglecta 415
rubioides 416
rupicola 416
shiressii 417
thymifolia 418
Thesium
australe 314
Thornapple
Common 361
Fierce 360
Longspine 360
THYMELAEACEAE 402–412
Toadflax
Australian 314
Ivy-leaved 329
Pelisser’s 340
Round-leaved 338
Twining 337
Woolly 338
TobaccoNative 367
Tree 366
Tobacco Bush
Wild 376
Tomato 365
Tree 359
Tree of Heaven 356
Tremaaspera 420
TREMANDRACEAE 412–418
Tribulus
micrococcus 454
terrestris * 455
Triggerplant 400
Dwarf 397
Frail 397
Grass 398
Narrow-leaved 399
Tree 398
TROPAEOLACEAE 418
Tropaeolum
majus * 418
Tuckeroo 317

U
ULMACEAE 419–420
Urticadioica * 426
incisa 427
urens * 428
URTICACEAE 421–428

V
Valerian
Red 428
VALERIANACEAE 428
Verbascum
blattaria * 346
thapsus subsp. thapsus * 346

virgatum * 347
Verbenabonariensis * 433
caracasana * 434
Common 434
gaudichaudii * 434
hispida * 435
incompta sp. nov. * 435
litoralis * 436
quadrangularis * 436
rigida * 437
Rough 435
Veined 437
x brasiliensis * 437
VERBENACEAE 429–437
Veronica
anagallis-aquatica * 348
arvensis * 348
brownii 349
calycina 349
gracilis 350
notabilis 350
peregrina * 351
persica * 351
plebeia 352
serpyllifolia * 353
sp. A sensu 353
sp. C 354
Viburnumsuspensum * 438
VIBURNACEAE * 438
Vine
Yellow 454
Violaarvensis * 441
betonicifolia 442
caleyana 442
fuscoviolacea 443
hederacea 444
odorata * 444
sieberiana 445
VIOLACEAE 438–445
VioletIvy-leaved 444
Swamp 442
Sweet 444
Tree 440
Violet-bush
Slender 438
Virginia Creeper 452
VISCACEAE 446–448
Viscumarticulatum 448
VITACEAE 448–452

W
Water Vine 449
Giant 450
Small-leaved 450
Wikstroemia
indica 412

461

462

Cunninghamia Vol. 7(2): 2001

Wild Quince 315
WillowBlack 304
Crack 304
Weeping 303
White 302
WINTERACEAE 453–454

Z
Zieriaarborescens subsp. A 290
arborescens subsp. arborescens 290
aspalathoides 290
baeuerlenii 291
caducibracteata 292
covenyi 292
cytisoides 293

Downy 293
fraseri subsp. B 294
fraseri subsp. compacta 294
furfuracea 294
granulata 295
involucrata 295
laevigata 296
laxiflora 296
murphyi 297
obcordata 298
pilosa 298
robusta 299
Sandfly 300
smithii 300
sp. C sensu 300
sp. M 291
tuberculata 300
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE 454–455

SYDNEY'S BUSHLAND
More than meets the eyeby Jocelyn Howell and Doug Benson
This delightful new book describes Sydney's forests, woodlands, heaths and wetlands — andguides you to national parks and reserves to see their charismatic plants. Easy-going writing
and 370 colour photos make it ideal as a souvenir or gift; for home, or to take with you
walking in Sydney's bushland.
128 pages, RRP $27.95
Available from Gardens Shops
Published by: Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, 2000.

Missing Jigsaw Pieces:
The Bushplants of the Cooks River Valley
by Doug Benson, Danie Ondinea and Virginia BearThrough photographs, original drawings, and a lively text Missing Jigsaw Pieces presents
a broad perspective of the natural landscape of the Cooks River Valley Despite thedegradation of the last 200 years, the valley still contains much that is natural and of
intrinsic value. These remnants are the jigsaw pieces which allow us to piece together thestory of the bushland valley.
More than 60 native plants are illustrated with photos and drawings. A species list of 500
species provides information for restoration of communities. Why not take this book withyou and explore the valley for yourself?
Available from Gardens Shops RRP: $13.15
Published by: Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, 1999.