ISSN 2185-159X

erd

International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Volume 3 Number 2

October 2012

International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

erd

International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development
Official Journal of the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

Aims and Scope:
The International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, IJERD, is an interdisciplinary journal
concerning environmental and rural development research in the education for sustainable development, ESD.
The IJERD is devoted to publishing peer-reviewed research article, review article and technical report in thefields of environmental and rural development, such as education for sustainable rural development, ruraldevelopment, environmental management or agricultural systems. Every article or report in IJERD must be
accepted by at least 2 reviewers and an editorial member.
The aims of IJERD are to publish the latest research development and achievements, to strengthen
education systems, to promote cooperation in environmental and rural development and to contribute to theprogress in sustainable development. The editorial board of this journal covers a variety of scientificdisciplines.
Thematic Areas:
The following areas are envisioned in IJERD.
Education for Sustainable Rural Development:
Environmental Education, Food and Agricultural Education, Participatory Approach, Capacity Building,Community Empowerment, Agricultural Extension, etc.
Rural Development:
Marketing, Partnership, Value Added Product, Community Development, Access to Technology,
Cultural Preservation, etc.
Environmental Management:
Bio-Diversity, Soil Degradation and Land Conservation, Water Quality Conservation, Deforestation andSustainable Forest Management, Environmental Management, etc.
Agricultural Systems:
Organic Farming, Conservation Tillage, Mechanization, Irrigation and Drainage, Nutrient and Pest
Management, Cattle Breeding, Agro-Forestry, Indigenous Technology, etc.
Infrastructural Systems:
Water Resource Development, Land Reclamation, Road Construction, etc.
Editorial Board:
Editor in Chief:
Prof. Dr. Eiji Yamaji, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Managing Editors:
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Yoko Mochizuki, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, France
Dr. Muhammad Aqil, Indonesian Center for Food Crops Research, Indonesia
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Editorial Advisory Board:
Dr. Venkatachalam Anbumozhi, Asian Development Bank Institute, Japan
Dr. Robert J. Farquharson, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Prof. Dr. Keishiro Itagaki, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Arata Koga, University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Pakistan
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Prof. Dr. Salvador Catello, University of the Philippines, Philippines
Dr. Rajendra P. Shrestha, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies, Japan
Dr. Vidhaya Trelo-Ges, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Editorial Secretariat:
Mr. Julian Torillo Jr., Ms. Hidemi Sasabe, Ms. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang and
Mr. Sergio Azael May Cuevas

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Contents
Special Contribution on EFA and ESD
Beyond ESD-EFA Dialogue
Yoko Mochizuki
The Mutually Complementary Relationship between EFA and ESD in Cambodia
Yuto Kitamura

1
7

ESD in the Asia-PacificMikko Cantell

14

Environmental Education through Eri-culture for Reducing Amounts of Chemical Pesticide
Applied in Greater Phnom Penh of Cambodia
Kumiko Kawabe, Machito Mihara and Keishiro Itagaki

20

Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture and Vulnerability as Expected Poverty
Of Kompong Speu Province, Cambodia
Nyda Chhinh and Bunnak Poch

28

Integration of Local Knowledge into Teaching-Learning Activities
of Agricultural Subjects in Primary Education
Chaicharn Wongsamun, Niwat Martwanna,
Prapatsorn Taechaprasertwitaya andSumonchart Charoenkornburi

38

Research Article
Evaluation of On-Farm Pond Water Budget in Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
Kewaree Pholkern and Vichai Sriboonlue

43

Science and Conservation of Aquatic Animals in Thailand
Patchara Nithirojpakdee, Rungthip Plongsesthee,
Frederick William Henry Beamish and Punnatut Kangrang

50

Effect of Culture Media on Fertilization Rate in Bovine and Caprine Embryos Production
Saruttiwong Boonkong, Chainarong Navanukraw,
Jiratti Thammasiri, Winai Jaikan andSuthipong Uriyapongson

56

Constraints on Small Scale Cattle Production in Kandal Province, Cambodia
Serey Mob, Yuthy Vay, Piseth Long, Miranda Pen and
Mom Seng

61

A Study on Cassava Marketing in Chang Krang Commune,
Chhet Burei District, Kratie Province
Sophat Ath, Kongkea Chhay, Chantha Nuth andSophearith Sok

67

An Assessment of the Natural Resources of Ang Trapeang Thmor and Its Impact
on the Livelihoods of Pongro and Sambour Villages
Thira Pinn, Chankakada Chhoeum and Norithya Saman

72

Mango Leather Development in Kiensvay District, Kandal Province
by Adaptation of Traditional Techniques
Chakriya Norng, Chim Chay and Engny Tan

77i

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Improvement of Khmer Traditional Rice Liquor (Sraa Sor) Productivity
Using Different Fermentative Conditions
Chim Chay, Chakriya Norng, Dina Kou andHamano Mitsuru

82

New Biotechnologies for Sustaining Greener Agriculture
Ivan R. Kennedy, Nguyen Thanh Hien,Phan Thi Cong,
Khanok-on Amprayn,Ganisan Krishnen, Michael Rose,
Augus Crossan, Zhang Yan and Wang Shuo

88

Nitrogen and Phosphorus Released from Coconut Husk during Retting Treatment
Julian E. Torillo Jr. and Machito Mihara

94

Pollination of Apis mellifera and Trigona biroi on the Productivityof Solanaceous Crops
Jose T. Travero, Ian L. Nuez and Wellie S. Sagliba

99

Socio-Economic Assessment for Proposing Alternative Livelihood Strategy
Of Minority Villagers, Ratanakiri and Stung Treng Provinces
Nara Chan, Nuth Chum and Colas Chervier

103

Effect of Using Sun-Dried Sesbania sesban Leaves in Concentrate on Growth Rate of Quail
Putheany Ung, Kroesna Kang, Sokhorn Neang,
Sophal Cheat and Serey Mob

109

The Characterization and Activity of Digestive Enzymes in Different Sizes
of Common Lowland Frog (Rana rugulosa Wiegmann)
Rungkan Klahan and Bundit Yuangsoi

114

The Biology of Lentinus polychrous Lev. in Nakhon Phanom Province, Thailand
and Kwaeng Kham Muan, Laos
Somchai Rattanamalee and Chanaporn Rattanamalee

121

Agroforestry Systems for Upland People in Lao PDR:
Production , Benefit, and Farmers’ Satisfaction Analysis
Thipphaphone Douangsila and Supaporn Poungchompu

127

Status of Blue Swimmer Crab (Portunus spp.) Fishing in Chang Hoan and
Kep Thmey Fisheries Community, Kampot Province
Vichar Chhom, Kuong Kov, Vanarith Ky andKongheang Huot

133

Validated Rice Cultivars for Rice-Based Systems of the Northern Mountainous Region,
Lao PDR
Khamdok Songiykhangsuthor, Houmchitsavath Sodarak,
Koung Douangsila and Benjamin K. Samson

140

Structure and Conduct of the Purple Rice Market in Northern Thailand
Pattana Jierwiriyapant, Ong-Art Liangphansakul andWanwilai Chulaphun

146

Role and Opportunities for Foreign Investment and Its Risks for Rural Developmentin Laos
Satomi Kimijima and Masahiko Nagai

150

The Effectiveness of Farmer Organizations Management in Kamchaymear andBaphnom Districts, Prey Veng Province
Savoeurn Meang and Mom Seng

156

The Impact of Changes in Crop-Livestock Interaction in Banteay Chmar Commune,
Thamar Puok District, Banteay Meanchey Province, Cambodia
Sovatna Phon, Sophark Thun, Lyna Khan and Phanna Nen

ii

162

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

The Diffusive Gradients in Thin Films Technique (DGT)
for Trace Metals versus Active Sampling
Tatiana Komarova, Henry Olszowy, Barry Noller andGary Golding

169

Determinants of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) Adoption in the Chili Production System
in Northeastern Thailand: A Case of Participatory Approach
Thanaporn Athipanyakul and Weera Pak-Uthai

175

Changes in Turfgrass Leaf Chlorophyll Content and Some Soil Characteristics
as Influenced by Irrigation Treatments
Thembinkosi Mathowa, Wilailak Chinachit,Pongsak Yangyuen and Supat Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya

181

Changes in Escherichia coli Efflux from Farmland by Surface Runoff and Percolation
under Different Application Methods of Manure
Yuta Ishikawa and Machito Mihara

188

The Nitrate Nitrogen Concentration in River Water and the Proportion of Croplandin the Tokachi River Watershed
Toshimi Muneoka, Hiromu Okazawa, Osamu Tsuji and
Masato Kimura

193

Use of BioClean and Liquid Biofertilizers in the Temples
for Enhancing a Natural Environment
Sittisak Uparivong

200

iii

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Special Contribution on EFA and ESD Review article
erd

Beyond ESD-EFA Dialogue
YOKO MOCHIZUKI*
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, France
Email: y.mochizuki@unesco.org
Received 30 June 2012

Accepted 1 October 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract The importance of the role of education in achieving sustainable development isunderscored by the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD). As
the final year of the DESD approaching in 2014 and the Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) and Education for All (EFA) goals approaching their target date in 2015, this article provides an overview of the emerging context in which Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD) and EFA are played out, based primarily on the review of the recent
UN publications. Building upon the outcomes of the Rio+20 conference and on-going rethinking of development trajectories, the article calls for going beyond the traditional
ESD-EFA dialogue and reshaping education as a critical lever for realizing more resilient,equitable and sustainable societies. The understanding that people are essential agents for
redirecting development paths should profoundly change the ways in which education policy-makers craft and implement education policy.
Keywords Education for Sustainable Development, ESD, Education for All, EFA, climatechange, Rio+20

INTRODUCTIONThe United Nations (UN) Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD), spanning
2005-2014, marked its midpoint in 2009. As a global education initiative coordinated by the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the DESD has been closelyaligned, at least conceptually, to the forerunning global education and development initiatives, notably the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Education for All (EFA) movement(see, for example, UNESCO, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009). Whereas the conceptual alignment of‘education  for  sustainability’  with  ‘development  goals’  is  at  times  negatively  interpreted (by someenvironmental educators) as diluting the project of transformative learning for the transition to sustainability, promoting dialogue between Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and EFA
has been emphasized by UNESCO as its official strategy to mobilize support for the DESD. Suchsearching for common ground between EFA and ESD has led UNESCO to the obvious position
that they are both about improving the quality of education. This special section of International
Journal of Environmental and Rural Development is an attempt to advance ESD-EFA synergies bytaking a closer look at the present situation and future prospects of cooperation between ESD and
EFA stakeholders and activities. This article, as an introduction to the section, provides an overview of the emerging context in which EFA and ESD are played out.
SHAPING THE NEW GLOBAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT AGENDA
A renewed focus on learning
The 1990 adoption of the EFA goals at the World Conference on EFA (Jomtien, Thailand) demonstrated an international commitment to meeting basic learning needs for all. This commitment wasaffirmed  in  the  2000  Dakar  Framework  for  Action’s  Goal  6,  which  focuses  on  “improving  every  aspect of the quality of education, and ensuring their excellence so that recognized and measurable
learning outcomes   are   achieved   by   all,   especially   in   literacy,   numeracy   and   essential   life   skills”  ⒸISERD1

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2(UNESCO, 2000, p.8). As we approach the target year of the EFA goals and MDGs in 2015, there
is growing concern that millions of children and youth do not have the basic knowledge and skills
necessary to succeed in school and life.
Since the official establishment of MDGs in 2000, most developing countries have sought toachieve the education MDGs (MDGs 2 and 3) and EFA goals as part of their national development
policies, education policy formulation and planning, budget allocations and strategic interventions,with support from international and bilateral agencies which in turn aim at achieving these goals as
part of their development assistance strategies. At the same time, high political profile of the
MDGs (agreed by Heads of States) has overshadowed the EFA goals (agreed by sector Ministers).
Education MDGs are restricted to primary level education (MDG 2) and gender equality (MDG 3).
While EFA has always been not only about guaranteeing access but also about achieving quality
learning for all since its inception in 1990, the strong focus on education MDGs has distorted progress with EFA, masking a variety of disparities and neglecting critical factors beyond access andcompletion of primary education.
The education MDGs underline enrolment rates, completion rates and gender parity index as
key indicators of educational development, which has significantly contributed to making advocacy
messages easy to understand and directing   countries’   efforts   towards   getting   more   children   into  school and reducing disparities between groups. These indicators are, however, inadequate for assessing benefits gained from investing in education. It is not access, completion or parity per se thatmatters; it is learning achievement that correlates with development both at individual and collective levels. The  World  Bank’s  education  strategy  now  has  a  new  emphasis  on  learning  achievement  over  enrolment:  “ultimately  what  matters  for  growth  is not the years that student spend in school,but   what   they   learn”  (World   Bank,   2011,   p.   12).   In   order   to   “shift  the   conversation   in   education  from  a  heavy  focus  on  access  to  access  plus  learning”  and  “ensure  that  learning  for  all  is  a  central  component of the  global  development  agenda”,  UNESCO  and  the  Center  for  Universal  Education  at the Brookings Institution convened a “Learning Metrics Task Force” to identify common competencies (learning outcomes) at early childhood, primary and post-primary education levels (Global
Compact for Learning, 2012).
Furthermore, to make a final push to meet the MDGs and prepare for the post-2015 agenda,
the UN Secretary-General  launched  the  global  education  initiative  “Education  First”  in  September  2012. The five-year initiative has three pillars: (1) put every child in school; (2) improve the qualityof education; and (3) foster global citizenship. The second and third pillars demonstrate a renewed
focus on learning, providing ample room for ESD implementation as an integral element of quality
learning. Notably, the initiative identifies   “understanding   local   environments,   designing   greener  technologies, changing consumption and production patterns and coping better with the impacts ofeconomic  and  natural  shocks”  as  skills  essential  to  ensuring  environmental  sustainability,  which  is
added to the list of critical roles of education in development (UN Secretary-General, 2012, p.11).
The Education First initiative provides a platform to enhance the ESD-EFA synergies by recognizing the role of education in promoting environmental awareness, knowledge and skills in addition
to its classic roles in enhancing gender equality, economic opportunities and health.
ESD and Rio+20
The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012, also referred to as Rio+20,
provided UN agencies an opportunity to articulate the role of education in contributing to sustainable  development.  As  one  of  the  two  main  themes  of  the  conference,  “green  economy”  has  emerged  as a pathway towards sustainable development. As inputs into Rio+20, many UN documents were
published with explicit references to the role of education in making a transition to greener economies. For one, UNESCO (2011) published a report entitled From Green Economies to Green Societies:   UNESCO’s   Commitment   to   Sustainable   Development, highlighting ESD and greening
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) as important educational contributions
to sustainable development.
ⒸISERD2

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

A number of other UN reports also noted the significance of ESD. The UN Environment Management Group (2011)  called  for  ESD  to  ingrain  “requisite  attitudes,  knowledge  and  values  needed  for responsible eco-citizenship”  (p.103).  The UNDP Human Development Report 2011, titled Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for All, demonstrated that progress in human development
cannot continue without paying adequate attention to sustainability and equity. In its brief referenceto   the   DESD,   the   Report   singled   out   “tempering   excessive   consumption”   and   “encouraging   sustainable consumption”  as  a  major  goal  of  ESD  (UNDP   2011,  p.27,  Box  2.3).  While  the  UNDP’s  interpretation of ESD was considerably narrower than UNESCO’s   definition, this is neverthelessone indication that ESD is being mainstreamed into the development agenda.
The International Labour Organization’s (ILO/Cedefop, 2011) report Skills for Green Jobs: A
Global View made a conclusion that strongly supports integration of ESD at all levels of education,although it did not use the term ESD: “Coherent  multi-level skills development responses are seenas the most effective approach to greening economies, as they address both consumption and production patterns. They influence consumption by raising environmental awareness through generalschooling or mass media; and they help production move to more environmentally conscious practices through training programmes, vocational, technical and higher education and training, andlifelong  learning  at  enterprise  level”  (p.  xxiii).    
Furthermore, the final report of the United Nations Secretary-General’s  High-Level Panel on
Global Sustainability (2012), titled Resilient People, Resilient Planet: A Future Worth Choosing,highlighted   “[advancing]   education   for   sustainable   development,   including   secondary   and   vocational education, and building of skills to help ensure that all of society can contribute to solutions
that  address  today’s  challenges  and  capitalize  on  opportunities”  as  one  of  the  six  priority  areas  for  action needed to empower people to make sustainable choices (p.6).
The Rio+20 Conference marked a significant milestone in the advancement of ESD. In the
Rio+20 outcome document The Future We Want, nations have agreed to  “promote  education  for  sustainable development and to integrate sustainable development more actively into education
beyond the United Nations Decade of Education  for  Sustainable  Development”.  Another  relevant  outcome of Rio+20 is the agreement by Member States to launch a process to develop a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which is to converge wit the post-2015 development agenda.
Preparing for the Post-2015 Development Agenda
With the MDGs and the EFA goals approaching their target date in 2015, the UN SecretaryGeneral established the UN System Task Team to support UN system-wide preparations for the
post-2015 UN Development agenda. The UN System Task Team on the Post-2015 UN Development Agenda (2012), in its first report entitled Realizing the Future We want for All, clearly signals
the  integration  of  the  concept  of  sustainability  into  the  mainstream  development  discourse:  “[the]  continuous striving for improvements in material welfare is threatening to surpass the limits of thenatural resource base unless there is a radical shift towards more sustainable patterns of consumption  and  production  and  resource  use”  (p.  i).  The  Task  Team  further  asserts:  “Business  as  usual  …  cannot  be  an  option  and  transformative  change  is  needed”  (p.  i).  Time  is  ripe  to  reconceptualise  the  role of education in making such transformative change happen.
ESD AS STRATEGIC INTERVENTIONS
From Rio to Rio+20
The year 2012 marked the twentieth anniversary of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, which produced
Agenda 21 as a major outcome. Chapter 36 of Agenda 21—which relates to the promotion of education, public awareness and training for sustainable development—consolidated the international
discussions on the role of education in achieving sustainable development, and it is generally
viewed as marking the birth of ESD in the international community. As Task Manager of Chapter
36 of Agenda 21 and lead agency of the DESD, UNESCO has promoted ESD, but its efforts have
ⒸISERD3

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

focused largely on advocacy until recently. The 1992 Rio Summit also gave rise to the three Rio
Conventions: the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). The Rio
conventions include Articles which relate to education and oblige the State Parties to the conventions to develop and implement education and training programmes in these areas.
Partly because the main emphasis 20 years ago was to address long neglected and then emerging environmental concerns, environmental health and ecological balance have been emphasized inpolicy  and  practice  on  sustainable  development.  In  the  case  of  UNFCCC,  “the  extreme focus within
the climate field on the science of emissions and impacts on the environment, compounded by thelate entry of social scientists and social organizations into climate change work, as well as the lateattention to adaptation as a priority in policy  and  practice”  have  delayed  the  integration  of  social  dimensions into the climate change discourse—including the ways in which mitigation and adaptation measures are designed and assessed (UN Systems Task Team on Social Dimension of Climate
Change, 2011, p. 8). Today the UN System Task Team on Social Dimension of Climate Change(2011) aims at integrating  “social  dimensions”—dimensions  that  reflect  “the  social,  economic  and  behavioural aspects  of  the  human  conditions” including education—into the climate change architecture (p. 3).
Despite the recognition of ESD as a moral imperative and an important dimension of quality
education, ESD has often been perceived as all-encompassing lofty ideals which have little relevance to strategic education interventions in developing countries. Such perception will quickly
change as sustainability is mainstreamed into the development discourse. The UN System Task
Team on the Post-2015 UN Development Agenda (2012) identifies human rights, equality and sustainability as the three fundamental principles upon which a vision for the future should rest. Twenty years since the 1992 Rio Summit, the international development community has come to accept
the limits of the current model of progress and the need for major transformations in patterns ofconsumption and production and social organization. Today both the development discourse andthe climate change discourse are being rearticulated to realize a better world for all, creating many
entry points for ESD as concrete and strategic interventions in developing countries.
Climate change education as a tangible entry point to ESD
In 2009, UNESCO developed its strategy for the second half of the DESD, highlighting climatechange, disaster risk reduction and biodiversity as priority themes. Consequently, UNESCO established the Climate Change Education for Sustainable Development (CCESD) Programme in 2010.
This new development was at times misinterpreted as narrowing down ESD to thematic approaches
to sustainable development and compromising its holistic approach. Such misinterpretation is basedon the assumption that CCESD will be mainly about the greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere and how to reduce emissions.
In   recent   years,   the   concept   and   practice   of   “Climate   Change   Education”   have   gained   importance and been broadened to go beyond a traditional focus on climate science. ESD is increasingly understood as a holistic framework to advance Climate Change Education (Anderson, 2010;
UNESCO/UNEP, 2011, p.56). Child-focused organizations like Plan International and UNICEF
also recognize a holistic approach to education (formal and non-formal) —to  increase  the  learner’s  understanding of key sustainable development issues and readiness to take action for shaping a resilient and sustainable society—as  an  integral  aspect  of  reducing  children’s  vulnerability  to  climatechange and safeguarding their rights.  UNICEF  (2011)  identifies  “promoting  environmental  education  and  life  skills”  as  one  of  the  eight  recommendations  to  enhance  people’s  capacity  to  adapt  to  climate change, and calls for adapting TVET and non-formal education  to  “the  requirements  of  lowcarbon   economies”   (p.   21,   6.6). Polack   (2010)   points   out   that  the   analysis   of   children’s   rights  to  education  should  reflect  “the need for a more holistic approach to education focused around sustainable  development”  (p.34).   These calls for an integrated approach to promoting climate change
ducation—for mitigation and adaptation—and   ensuring   children’s   rights   give   a   strong   support to
ESD implementation in developing countries.
ⒸISERD4

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Climate change is far from a solely environmental matter in terms of its root causes and actualand anticipated impacts, which makes it a strategic entry point to implementing ESD activities in aholistic manner. First, climate change has far-reaching repercussions for where people can settle,
grow food, keep built infrastructure and count on functioning ecosystems. Climate change therefore
touches upon myriad aspects of sustainable development, ranging from human displacement tofood security and sustainable livelihoods, concretizing what it means to address environmental,
economic and social dimensions of sustainable development in an integrated manner. Moreover,climate change does not affect everybody equally, not only because its effects on temperature, rain
fall, sea level and natural hazards vary across regions, but also because the capacity of individuals
and societies to respond and protect themselves also varies tremendously. Overall, developing
countries bear many of the costs of climate change. For example, Small Island Developing States(SIDS) are highly exposed to natural disasters and vulnerable to sea level rise. There is broad consensus on the central importance of education in enhancing resilience of vulnerable groups andcommunities and their coping capacities. In regions vulnerable to extreme weather events—such as
droughts, storms and floods—that can be induced or exacerbated by climate change, there are
emerging positive synergies in efforts to promote Climate Change Education as an adaptation strategy and efforts to integrate disaster risk reduction (DRR) in education.
Second, while focusing on climate change impacts on human life allows ESD interventions totarget the most vulnerable  populations   or   “victims”   of   the adverse effects of climate change, addressing the root causes of climate change and designing mitigation and adaptation measures require ESD programmes to highlight human-beings  as  both  the  “drivers”  of  climate  change  and  the“essential  agents  for  redirecting  development  trajectories”  (UN  System  Task  Team  on  Social  Dimensions of Climate Change, 2011, p. 5). Climate Change Education thus can address the needs ofthe most vulnerable populations (who are also the targets of MDG and EFA interventions), encourage rethinking of the current model of progress, and empower people to become change agents.
Climate Change Education in the context of ESD is especially compelling at this critical juncture
when the international community is deliberating the next set of development goals and many nations are committing themselves to more robust strategies for mitigation and adaptation.
CONCLUSION
Sustainable development has always been about addressing the development and environmental
agendas in an integrated manner, but it has too often been associated exclusively with the environmental agenda. This explains why ESD has often been equated with environmental education.
With Rio+20 and the on-going rethinking of the development goals towards 2015, the development
community and environmental community are making mutual approach towards sustainable development in the genuine sense of the word. As the global development agenda will be renegotiated in
the coming years, we should go beyond the traditional ESD-EFA dialogue (which assumes the dichotomy between ESD and EFA) and start articulating education as a critical lever for realizing
more resilient, equitable and sustainable societies. The understanding that people are essential
agents for redirecting development trajectories should profoundly change the ways in which education policy-makers craft and implement education policy.
DISCLAIMER AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this article and forthe opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. The author is grateful to Professor Yuto Kitamura of Sophia University, who was formerly
working on EFA coordination at UNESCO Paris, and Mr Mikko Cantell of Plan Finland, who was formerly with the ESD unit at UNESCO Bangkok, for contributing their articles to this section and providing their thoughtful reflections on the topic.

ⒸISERD5

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

REFERENCES
Anderson, A. 2010. Combating climate change through quality education. The Brookings Institution, Washington D.C.
Global Compact for Learning. 2011. Learning metrics task force: Rationale. Available at:
http://www.globalcompactonlearning.org/learning-metrics-rationale/.
ILO/Cedefop. 2011. Skills for Green Jobs: A Global View. ILO, Geneva.
Polack, E. 2010. Child rights and climate change adaptation: voices from Kenya and Cambodia (Research
report by Children in a Changing Climate). Institute of Development Studies (IDS) & Plan International.
UNESCO. 2000. Dakar framework for action - Education for all: Meeting our collective commitments.
UNESCO, Paris.
UNESCO. 2004. Draft DESD International implementation scheme. UNESCO, Paris.
UNESCO. 2005. DESD International Implementation Scheme. UNESCO, Paris.
UNESCO. 2006. Promotion of a global partnership for the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014): The international implementation scheme for the Decade in brief. UNESCO, Paris.
UNESCO. 2008. EFA-ESD dialogue: Educating for a sustainable world (authored by Ros Wade and Jenneth
Parker). UNESCO, Paris.
UNESCO. 2009. Education for sustainable development and Millennium Development Goals (Policy Dialogue 2). UNESO, Paris.
UNESCO.  2011.  From  green  economies  to  green  societies:  UNESCO’s  commitment  to  sustainable  development. UNESCO, Paris.
UNESCO/UNEP. 2011. Climate change starter’s  guidebook. UNESCO & UNEP, Paris.
UNDP. 2011. Human development report 2011 sustainability and equity: A better future for all, UNDP, New
York.
UNICEF.  2011.  Children’s  vulnerability  to  climate  change  and  disaster  impacts  in  East  Asia  and  the  Pacific.  
UNICEF East Asia and Pacific Regional Office, Bangkok.
UN Environment Management Group. 2011. Working towards a balanced and inclusive green economy: A
United Nations system-wide perspective. United Nations, Geneva.
UN Secretary-General. 2012. Education first:  An  initiative  of  the  United  Nation’s  secretary-general. United
Nations, New York.
UN Secretary-General’s  High-level panel on global sustainability. 2012. Resilient people, resilient planet: A
future worth choosing. United Nations, New York.
UN Task Team on the Post-2015 UN development agenda. 2012. Realizing the future we want for all: Reportto the Secretary General. United Nations, New York.
UN Task Team on Social dimension on climate change. 2011. The social dimensions of climate change: Discussion draft. http://www.who.int/globalchange/mediacentre/events/2011/social-dimensions-of-climatechange.pdf.
World   Bank.   2011.   Learning   for   all:   Investing   in   People’s   knowledge   and   skills   to   promote   development.  
World Bank Group Education Strategy 2020, World Bank, Washington D.C.

ⒸISERD6

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Special Contribution to EFA and ESD Review article
erd

The Mutually Complementary Relationship between EFA
and ESD in Cambodia
YUTO KITAMURA*
Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan
Email: yuto.kitamura@gmail.com
Received 20 June 2012

Accepted 20 August 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract This paper examines the significance of the concepts of EFA and ESD occurringin attempts at education reform and education improvement in developing countries, anddiscusses the issues found therein. Within this discussion, this paper analyzes why it is important to implement ESD on multiple occasions along with the promotion of EFA, withparticular focus on the importance of the role of education in achieving a democratic society. This paper  will  also  consider  the  state  of  “citizenship  education,”  which  is  thought  to  hold a major key to the promotion of ESD. Based on the above conceptual examination,
this paper then provides an overview of how ESD is being promoted in Cambodia today inhistorical, social, and cultural contexts as part of the implementation of EFA, from threeperspectives: (1) acquisition and improvement of life skills; (2) enhancing environmental
education; and (3) promotion of peace education and human rights education. It is worth
noting here that although the educational activities conducted in Cambodia are not necessarily known as ESD, they certainly embody its principles and characteristics. Although
EFA focuses on the diverse states of education in and out of school, its chief concern lies
in enhancing the quantity and quality of school education. Moreover, fundamentally, it ispublic organizations, such as governments under international agreements, who take onmost of the responsibility of promoting EFA, expanding basic education together with various other stakeholders. In contrast to this so-called top-down feature of EFA, ESD is amore bottom-up operation, based on autonomic educational activities by proactive citizens; the areas it covers include a wide range of issues, such as daily life, social forms, andthe natural environment. As a conclusion, the paper emphasizes that the positioning of
EFA and ESD as essential lifelong learning is important to achieve a sustainable society.
Keywords life-skills, environmental education, peace education, human rights education,
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), Education for All (EFA)

INTRODUCTION
Cambodia was in a state of social disorder, particularly from the 1970s to 1990s, due to ongoing
civil wars and genocide by the Pol Pot regime. However, the political situation and social environment gradually began to stabilize in the late 1990s; presently, Cambodia is achieving steady economic growth. Under these circumstances, Cambodia has actively promoted national education
reforms to improve the education situation (especially basic education), particularly since the year
2000,  based  on  the  goals  of  the  international  initiative  “Education  for  All  (EFA)”  to  expand  basic  education. The results of these reforms are gradually becoming apparent; however, many issues
have also come to light, such as the issue of education quality. Under such circumstances, promoting  “Education  for  Sustainable  Development  (ESD)”  is  not  only  essential  to  achieve  EFA  but  also  it is expected to be relevant for improving the whole education situation in Cambodia. In many developing countries such as Cambodia, EFA and ESD cannot be treated separately. It is important toexamine how a mutually complementary relationship is being built (or attempting to be built) between the two initiatives.1
First, this paper considers the significance of the concepts of EFA and ESD in the context of
education reform and education improvement in developing countries, and discusses the issuesⒸISERD7

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

found therein. Within this discussion, this paper examines why it is important to implement ESD
on multiple occasions along with the promotion of EFA, with particular focus on the importance ofthe role of education in achieving a democratic society. This paper will also consider the state of“citizenship  education,”  which  is  thought  to  hold  a  major  key  to  the  promotion  of  ESD.
Following the examination of the concepts of EFA and ESD, this paper then provides an
overview of how ESD is being promoted in Cambodia today in historical, social, and culturalcontexts as part of the implementation of EFA, from three perspectives: (1) acquisition/
improvement of life skills; (2) enhancing environmental education; and (3) promotion of peaceeducation and human rights education. It is worth noting here that although the educational
activities conducted in Cambodia are not necessarily known as ESD as such, they certainly embody
its principles and characteristics.
LINKAGES  BETWEEN  “EFA”  AND  “ESD”  It is widely known that the international goals to promote basic education based on the concept of
EFA were established in 1990. However, there has been a trend in many countries since the 1990sof governments attempting to reduce costs for public services; the expansion of basic educationmeans difficult decisions for governments as it requires policies and measures accompanied by increased  government  spending  to  increase  capital  and  to  secure  teachers’  jobs.  
One notable issue in the promotion of EFA is the emphasis on achieving macro-level objectives; no specific initiatives are suggested for tackling issues such as rectifying regional disparity
within a country or improving learning outcomes in schools. One reason for this is a policy-level
connection between the strong demand from the aid providers for international targets to bereached  by  2015  and  the  government’s  motivation  to  maintain  power  and  stability.  This  has  led  to  situations where despite substantial funds being invested into basic education, ordinary people are
not guaranteed the opportunity to participate in the policy dialog process and education is often
turning into a governmental means for populism.
On the other hand, under global capitalism-in which funds, goods, labor, and technology movefreely-economy and culture become internationalized, and with phenomena such as an increase inmigration, there is a greater necessity for multicultural education. As a consequence, many countries  are  promoting  “citizenship  education”  to  develop  democracy  and  cultivate  community ethics.
Furthermore,  with  the  transfer  of  the  state’s  redistributive  function  to  the  market  accompanying therise of neoliberalism, the power of state has become more relative. The relationship between thestate   and   individual   citizens   has   altered;;   “independent/autonomous   citizens”   are   expected   to   survive in a competitive society at their own risk. Moreover, many developing nations in which thesocial and political systems are still fragile often have multicultural, multiracial, and multilingual
settings, making national unity through education and the cultivation of a national identity essential.
This indicates that, in reality, education reforms based on neoliberal ideology are often being promoted in a mutually complementary relationship with a nationalist trend of thought.
Thus, as many countries search for an education system that meets the needs and aspirations ofboth the individual and the state, which may seem contradictory at first, it is necessary to ask who
ought to take charge of new education reforms. The answer to  that  question  is  “citizens,”  first  and  foremost; the government and international organizations—the public actors—ought to keep playing
a  supporting  role  to  the  independent  and  autonomous  reforms  of  “citizens.”  To  further  deliberate  on  this question, it   is   necessary   to   look   at   ESD,   an   attempt   at   “bottom-up   reforms”   aimed   at  independent/autonomous education reforms at the local level, such as reforms by individuals andcommunities. This is because ESD can potentially provide an opposing or complementary
discussion  to  the  “top-down  reforms”  seen  in  the  EFA  promotion  process.  
The  concept  of  ESD  that  covers  diverse  areas  initially  came  out  of  a  concern  for  the  “quality  of education.”  Behind  this  is  the  fact  that  despite  EFA  advocating  a  concept  of  basic  education tocover   a   wide   range   of   areas,   in   reality,   there   was   little   awareness   of   education’s   initial   role   in  raising   “citizens”   who   are   able   to   build   sustainable   society,   while   many   countries   became   more  interested in the quality of academic learning achievements in formal education. By contrast, ESD,ⒸISERD8

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

which  raises  “citizens”  as  members  of  a  democratic  society  and  the  community  and  is  supported  by  those  “citizens,”  is  a  conceptual  mechanism  to  broaden  the  scope  of  the  “quality  of  education.”
This can be seen in the fact that the Education Sector in UNESCO headquarters established a
Section for Education for Sustainable Development within the Division for the Promotion of Quality around the year 2002—the period in which the concept of ESD was being proposed—with
UNESCO having placed the role that ESD plays in planning for improving the quality of education
to be important.2 Although there is not really any general international consensus on how to position ESD as an educational practice, the author considers that the significance of promoting ESD
will be made clear by returning it to its original purpose of improving the quality of education.
Although the ESD concept focuses on covering a wide range of issues, its characteristic is thatit places each individual person as a starting point, irrespective of the issue. The existing discussions on developing countries tend to emphasize the quantitative aspects of the expansion of education; there has been little interest in the qualitative aspects of what is being taught. Furthermore,
where the quality of education has been considered, there has been little interest in subjects thatdeal with the development of individuals as engaged and responsible citizens —namely, citizenship,
ethics, and values—compared to the excessive interest in the level of achievement in academic subjects. Furthermore, the public actors in ESD—the governments and international organizations—are
expected  to  support  the  independent  and  autonomous  “bottom-up  reforms”  by  “citizens”;;  this  is  the  way education policies should be formulated and implemented in developing countries in the postneoliberal era.
Conceptually, ESD can be independent and autonomous educational activities at the local level of schools and communities. In practice, however, pressures from administration play a majorrole in shaping ESD and people on the ground may easily follow the direction set by the government. Promotion of ESD by governments and international organizations like UNESCO and theUnited Nations University (UNU), therefore, has the possibility of contradicting the original idea of
ESD. It is critically important to synergize citizen-led ESD and government-led EFA.
ESD IMPLEMENTATION IN CAMBODIA
This paper has discussed the conceptual framework of EFA and ESD; on the basis of this discussion, it now examines how these two concepts are implemented in Cambodian education.
Acquisition and improvement of life skills
The basic strategy of the Cambodian education sector is a five-year plan known as the Education
Strategic Plan (ESP). Four of these five-year plans have been put in place since 2000: (1) 20012005; (2) 2004-2008; (3) 2006-2010; (4) 2009-2013. The education sector has created a five-year
program called the Education Sector Support Program (ESSP) as an implementation program for
the ESP (the five-year period is the same as the ESP). Furthermore, the education sector has also
set in place the EFA National Action Plan 2003-2015 to deal with basic education. The highest priority in each of these policy documents is  implementing  “fair  access  to  high  quality  education”  at  the basic education stage.
However, despite the provision of these education policies, there is probably still room left for
improvement in terms of the quality of education, such as textbooks, teaching materials, curriculum,
teaching methods, teacher training, and school facilities (Hirosato & Kitamura, 2009). In promoting
ESD, formal education (especially primary and lower secondary education), the most basic educational foundation within a society, is more desirable than anything; however, in Cambodia, there
are major issues with the quality of basic level school education. Most of all, it is essential to improve the quality of teachers who play a central role in school education. From that perspective, theNational Institute of Education (NIE), the main teacher training institution in Cambodia, aims toprovide training that incorporates ESD while teaching, especially in the secondary teacher training
program, and to improve the quality of education of the regular curriculum while also promoting
ESD (UNESCO, 2010).
ⒸISERD9

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

While Cambodia needs education to support sustainable development, it first needs to raise thequality of basic education. Studies on the quality of education have often tended to focus only on
the level of achievement in academic subjects (so-called scholastic improvement). As previously
mentioned, however, education has a major role to play in fostering engaged and responsible citizens and critical thinkers who can shape a better future. It is essential to promote broad-perspective
initiatives such as ESD.
Accordingly, initiatives to promote ESD are being undertaken, particularly in various areasthat cannot be covered by basic school education alone. The most typical initiative is education
with   the   aim   of   acquiring   and   improving   “life   skills.”   The Policy for Curriculum Development
2005-2009,  adopted  in  2004,  aimed  to  introduce  a  new  subject  known  as  “Local  Life  Skill  Program  (LLSP)”  from  grades  1  to  10  to  raise  citizens  capable  of  contributing to building a healthy and productive  society.  This  policy  defines  life  skills  as  the  “intellectual,  personal,  interpersonal,  and  vocational skills that enable informed decision-making, effective communication, and coping and selfmanagement skills that  contribute  to  a  healthy  and  productive  life”  (MoEYS,  2004,  p.8).  The  introduction of these new life skills programs shows that there is an emphasis on educating publicminded citizens and developing useful skills for life in society.
The acquisition and improvement of life skills in school education is particularly conducted
through vocational training, health education, HIV/AIDS education, and human rights education.
However, school education, which focuses on passing on information and skills in academic subjects, cannot adequately pass on life skills, that is, knowledge and skills covering a wide range ofareas. Furthermore, life skills are necessary for everybody, regardless of age or gender. Since
school education only targets a certain age bracket, it is not possible to promote the acquisition oflife skills to many people in Cambodian society. Consequently, non-formal education is very important.
In order to promote non-formal education, a number of villages have established Community
Learning Centers (CLCs) or similar educational organizations. These CLCs provide non-formal
education, making use of existing facilities wherever possible, such as temples, village offices,
homes of village heads, etc., and building new facilities wherever necessary. In 1994, UNESCO
and the National Federation of UNESCO Associations in Japan provided assistance to the Cambodian government to establish the first CLCs in the provinces of Siam Reap, Battambang, and Kandal. Support then began to come in from other aid agencies and NGOs. Presently, villages in several provinces have established CLCs (or similar educational organizations) and implemented literacy training, vocational training for income generation and family education for childcare, playing amajor role in fostering  people’s  life  skills.  An  important  feature  of  CLCs  is  that  although  they  receive assistance from the government, they are basically managed and operated by villagers. This
type of community-based style of management is essential to embody the concept of ESD. The
aforementioned EFA National Action Plan identifies the importance of CLCs in implementing nonformal education.
Supplementing environmental education
Although the term ESD is not generally used in the Cambodian education sector, the field of environmental education is one area where education activity is actively promoted based on the conceptof ESD.
In  2009,  Cambodia’s  Ministry  of  Environment  set  out  its  five-year plan, the Five-Year Strategic Plan on Environmental Education for 2009-2013, asserting  the  importance  of  “Environmental  education  for  sustainable  development”  (EESD)  at  the  beginning  of  the  policy  document  (Department of Environmental Education and Communication, 2009). This Strategic Plan stipulates theStrategic Goal and Action Plan on EESD for 2009-2013 from an ESD perspective, in particular.
If we examine these initiatives, we see that they are plans to further enrich basic environmental  education  and  do  not  necessarily  focus  on  ESD.  Nevertheless,  providing  “training  on  environmental  issues  and  ESD”  under  the  human  resource  development  initiative  aims  at  fostering  people  with a deep understanding of ESD to become involved in environmental education. Moreover, atⒸISERD

10

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

tempting  to  raise  people’s  awareness  by  spreading  information  on  environmental issues will require
the use of a wide range of media, from printed media, such as books and magazines, to electronic
media, such as the Internet. The use of printed media is very significant in Cambodia, where provincial towns and villages still have limited access to electronic media, despite the fact that in recent years an increasing number of people own mobile phones and that internet cafes and the likeare becoming more commonplace.
Furthermore, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, the Ministry of Tourism, and theMinistry of Culture and Fine Arts are working together on a master plan for building a learning
program on environmental protection and biodiversity in the Tonle Sap Basin. 3 This learning program  is  known  as  a  “learning  laboratory”;;  it  aims  to  provide  opportunities  to  learn  about  sustainable development while coming into close contact with the actual natural environment. The program
can,  for  example,  deepen  people’s  understanding  of  how  a  body  of  scientific,  experiential,  and   indigenous knowledge about protecting the biosphere can be used to implement sustainable development. Moreover, the program can also have people think about policies to make improvements inthe environment (such as biodiversity conservation), human life and livelihood (such as reducing
poverty) or economic benefits (such as increased income through developing the tourism industry).
Other  countries  outside  Cambodia,  such  as  Vietnam,  are  also  building  these  “learning  laboratories,”  supported by UNESCO (Nguyen et al., 2010).
Peace education and human rights education
Cambodia entered a state of war in the late 1960s affected by chaotic situations of the Vietnam
War; a coup was staged in 1970, followed by a civil war. In the 1970s, Cambodia came under the
Pol Pot regime of the Khmer Rouge and their radical Maoist ideology. The political instability continued into the 1980s with interference by Vietnam and the Soviet Union; the Cambodian society
remained at the height of chaos until the late 1990s. However, after the signing of the 1991 Paris
Peace Agreement, the social situation did begin to gradually stabilize despite various issues, andCambodia began to show a significant economic growth in the 2000s.
Given this history, more than anything, the people in Cambodia want to maintain a peacefulsociety that they have taken such great pains to bring about. In order not to repeat the tragedies ofviolence and atrocities in the past, it is important to address peace and human rights through education. This paper will now outline how Cambodia is implementing peace education and humanrights education, which constitute the main fields of ESD.
While peace education exists in Cambodia, in reality, there has been a limited number of classes on peace education in schools until recently. For example, it was not until recently that history
classes began to adequately address the issue of what the Pol Pot regime did in the 1970s. Behind
this was the thinking that children would be able to envisage a bright future for Cambodia if they
were not taught the negative aspects of history, as well as the viewpoint that it was unnecessary toteach children things that would only fuel conflict between people as many people who supported
the Khmer Rouge are still alive and living in society. However, in 2003, the Cambodian government and the United Nations agreed to the establishment of a special tribunal to administer justicefor the genocide of the Pol Pot regime. Investigations began in 2006 and the trials are still being
conducted at the present time. Because of these developments, Cambodia has begun toacknowledge the importance of teaching children the accurate facts of this negative part of history
and has begun to publish revised history textbooks and supplementary teaching material The History of Democratic Cambodia. Initiatives toward peace education in schools are gradually starting toincrease.
Public organizations and associations as well as NGOs have also been actively involved in
implementing peace education in Cambodia, at times with overseas support. One example of this is
the implementation of peace education through the Tuol Sleng Museum, a concentration camp during  the  Pol  Pot  regime.  The  Japan  International  Cooperation  Agency  (JICA)  established  the  “Okinawa-Cambodia Peace Museum  Collaboration”  Grassroots  Technical  Cooperation  Project  to  support this. In this project, the Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum, the implementing orⒸISERD

11

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

ganization,  taught  the  curators  and  staff  of  Tuol  Sleng  Museum  about  the  “peace  museum”  concept
and the know-how necessary to operate it, such as data collection and preservation methods, andpeace education activities. The two museums continue to have dialog to further enhance their respective peace education activities.4
Furthermore, the aforementioned NIE teacher training program provides training on World
Heritage Education as part of its ESD training. This training also encourages the consideration ofpeace issues through world heritage.
Cambodia is also undertaking human rights education in the form of government-led programs
as well as educational activities outside the school classroom. In particular, various projects havebeen developed by schools, public organizations, and NGOs since 2005 to promote human rights
education  based  on  the  “United  Nations  World  Programme  for  Human  Rights  Education”  adopted  by the UN Commission on Human Rights in 2004.5
These projects include human rights workshops and the publication of a Khmer language version  of  the  “Human  Rights  Education  Lesson  Plans  for  Southeast  Asian  Schools,”  which  teaches  about human rights issues and situations with a particular focus on human rights in the Southeast
Asian region. The Cambodia Office of the United Nations Centre for Human Rights and the Cambodian Buddhist Society, a human   rights   NGO,   also   created   the   “Human   Rights   and   Buddhism  Training  Curriculum  for  Buddhist  Monks  and  Civil  Servants”  and  are  engaging  in  other  initiatives  using  Cambodia’s  traditional  cultural  resource  of  Buddhism  to  promote  human  rights  education.6
CONCLUSION
This paper has outlined Cambodian initiatives to promote ESD, based on its relation to EFA. As
mentioned at the beginning of this paper, a consideration of Cambodian education cannot separate
EFA and ESD, but should constantly be aware of the mutually complementary relationship between them. Furthermore, the positioning of EFA and ESD as essential lifelong learning is important to achieve a sustainable society.
In particular, although EFA focuses on the diverse states of education in and out of school, itschief concern lies in enhancing the quantity and quality of school education. Moreover, fundamentally, it is public organizations, such as governments under international agreements, who take onmost of the responsibility of promoting EFA, expanding basic education together with various other stakeholders. In contrast to this so-called top-down feature of EFA, ESD is a more bottom-up
operation, based on autonomic educational activities by proactive citizens; the areas it covers include a wide range of issues, such as daily life, social forms, and the natural environment.
Accordingly, this paper has provided an introduction on ESD in Cambodian education while
being always conscious of its relation to EFA (for instance, its placement within school education).
It is extremely important to bring ESD into schools from the perspective that it is vital to improve
the quality of education not only to raise the level of achievement in academic subjects but also topass on important knowledge and skills necessary for acquiring and advancing life skills. Furthermore, school education and non-formal education can be organically connected by being based on
the concept of ESD. As outlined in this paper, various initiatives for this have been set in place,with active measures being taken. However, we cannot deny that many initiatives are still insufficient, both quantitatively and qualitatively.
To improve this situation, as previously mentioned, ESD initiatives should fundamentally bepromoted by citizens. At the same time, this cannot be done without active participation by publicorganizations such as the government. The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable
Development will end in 2014, but long term initiatives to promote ESD should continue.
I sincerely hope that the aforementioned active ESD initiatives will continue to grow and further enhance the future of education in Cambodia and that this, in turn, will contribute to the expansion  of  EFA.  From  my  heart,  I  hope  that  raising  “citizens”  who  can  give much thought to democracy and public morals will create a sustainable Cambodian society.

ⒸISERD12

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

NOTES
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

See Wade & Parker (2008) for general discussion on the relationship between ESD and EFA.
Afterwards, there was repeated reorganization within UNESCO and the position of ESD as aiming to improve thequality of education became ambiguous.
See the Ministry of Tourism website for the Master Plan for Sustainable Tourism Development in Peri-Tonle Sap
Lake and Establishment of a Learning Laboratory for Sustainability (http://www.mot.gov.kh/ministryactivity.php?id=15 [accessed 2-25-2012]).
For further details on these projects, see the JICA website (http://www.jica.go.jp/topics/2009/20091026_01.html[accessed 2-25-2012]).
For details on the United Nations World Programme for Human Rights Education, see the website of the Office of
the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.
(http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/education/training/programme.htm [accessed 2-25-2012]).
See Kimura (2000; 2007; 2008) for the present status of human rights education in Cambodia.

REFERENCES
Department of Environmental Education and Communication. 2009. 5 year strategic plan on environmental
education for 2009-2013. Ministry of Environment, Phnom Penh.
Hirosato, Y. and Kitamura, Y. (eds.) 2009. The political economy of educational reforms and capacity development in Southeast Asia: Cases of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Springer, Dordrecht.
Kimura, M. 2000. An attempt to indigenize human rights education in Cambodia. The Bulletin of the Graduate School of Law, Ryukoku University, 2, 1-15.
Kimura, M. 2007. Human  rights  education  during  UNTAC’s  tenure  in  Cambodia:  An  analysis  on  the  human  rights teaching curriculum used in formal education. Quarterly Bulletin of Third World Studies, 47(3),52-81.
Kimura, M. 2008. A study of human rights education rooted in Cambodian Buddhism: An approach from thesociology of law and forensic anthropology. The Journal of Human Rights, 8, 123-136.
MoEYS. 2004. Policy for curriculum development 2005-2009. Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports,
Phnom Penh.
Nguyen, N.C., Bosch, O.J.H. and Maani, B.K. 2010. Creating  ‘learning  laboratories  for  sustainable development’  for  UNESCO  Biosphere  Reserves.  A  paper  presented  at  the  28th  International  Conference  of  theSystem Dynamics Society, July 25-29, 2010, Seoul, Korea. www.systemdynamics.org/conferences/2010/proceed/ [accessed 3-25- 2011].
UNESCO. 2010. UNESCO National education support strategy: Cambodia 2010-2013. UNESCO, Phnom
Penh.
Wade, R. and Parker, J. 2008. EFA-ESD dialogue: Educating for a sustainable world (Education for Sustainable Development Policy Dialogue No.1). UNESCO, Paris.

ⒸISERD13

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Special Contribution on EFA and ESD Review article
erd

ESD in the Asia-Pacific
MIKKO CANTELL*
Plan Finland, Helsinki, Finland
Email: mikko.cantell@plan-international.org
Received 20 June 2012

Accepted 20 August 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract The article is an attempt to describe the challenges and opportunities in integrating ESD into mainstream policy-making in the Asia-Pacific. The role of education in development is variably understood. It is widely recognized as a sui generis guarantor of personal and collective development. Educating for sustainable development has much untapped potential both in driving development in general and improving the contribution of
education as a sector within development. ESD in the Asia-Pacific has diverse forms ofexpression. Effective, frank and constructive intellectual exchanges could lead to significant progress in  ESD.  Reorienting  “quality”  in  education  should  assume  priority  position  in education and will ideally, for the sake of its relevance, appeal and continued development, include several dimensions of sustainable development.
Keywords Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), quality education, Asia-Pacific

INTRODUCTION
The Asia-Pacific region is geographically vast and both culturally and ecologically speaking extremely  rich  in  diversity.  It  is  also  home  to  the  majority  of  the  world’s  population,  witnessing an
unforeseen period of positive change both economically and politically. Unfortunately, it also hosts
a wealth of serious global challenges. More than two-thirds of people lacking basic sanitation, underweight children and the extreme poor live in the region (UNDP, 2012). These lives in the margins of human existence are also the most at risk and worst prepared for the perils of disasters, bethey  “natural”,  man-made, or economic in character. Threats to life in the region are not theoretical- the Asia-Pacific  is,  for  example,  considered  the  world’s  most  vulnerable  region  when  it  comes  to  natural disasters (UNISDR, 2011).
All of the above calls for serious changes in how we are managing our lives and maintaining
human dignity of our fellow human beings. Correspondingly, integrating the principles of sustainable development in education has been agreed to be one of the answers in meeting these challenges.
While the vision of the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD 2005-2014)
is “a  world  where  everyone  has  the  opportunity  to  benefit  from  education  and  learn  the  values,  behaviour  and  lifestyles  required  for  a  sustainable  future  and  for  positive  societal  transformation”,  the  stated  goal  of  the  Decade  is  to  “integrate  the  principles, values, and practices of sustainable development  into  all  aspects  of  education  and  learning”  (UNESCO,  2005,  p.  6).  This  is  quite  naturally  impossible to achieve in one decade and requires significantly more resources and political commitment than has since been awarded to programmes and projects implementing the UN decade.
Countries in the Asia-Pacific have had varied approaches to ESD and some have been far
more ambitious than others. It is to be noted, however, that approaches which have not been labeled ESD explicitly may have had and continue to have excellent results in advancing sustainable
development. Two such processes come to mind easily:  the  philosophy  of  “sufficiency  economy”  in Thailand and the Gross National Happiness process in Bhutan.
Excellent and diverse approaches to integrating sustainability in education can be found in
most countries, for example in Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia,
Nepal, Republic of Korea, Thailand and Vietnam.1 In the field of ESD, Japan must be mentioned as
being  incomparable  in  supporting  other  countries’  efforts  and  having  a  major  role  in  the  creation  of  the Decade itself, and by boasting a large number of ESD initiatives at all levels of education.
ⒸISERD14

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

EDUCATION AS DRIVER OF DEVELOPMENT
Education’s  role  in  human  development  is  widely  recognized  as  being  central.  It  is  argued  that  sustainable development calls for more education. This is somewhat contradictory given that on average, where economic progress and education systems are at their most mature, ecological footprints
are often also the largest (see, for example, Cantell and Elias, 2011). ESD therefore advocates forchanges in the status quo, to instill a broader understanding of the causalities surrounding our lives.
Such understanding can seem a trivial skill to provide to poor communities struggling with day-to
day subsistence. In reality it means providing them with the requisite skills to develop beyond survival and holding authorities accountable for progress in this area. In this vein, ESD is often seen asa systematic approach to integrate sustainability into education systems, processes and practices(Richmond, 2008). The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD,
2005-2014) comprises four major thrusts, around which ESD is globally expected to revolve: improving access to quality basic education; reorienting existing education programmes; developing
public understanding and awareness; and providing training (UNESCO, 2005, p.7).
But similar to sustainable development, ESD, too, is not universal one in its colour and shape.
For the Asia-Pacific region, UNESCO has in consultation with its member states formulated thefollowing  operational  definition  for  ESD,  which  aims  to  “facilitate  the  degree  to  which an education  system  is  prepared  for,  and  is  responsive  to,  existing  and  emerging  challenges  (e.g.  disasters)”  (UNESCO, 2011, p.2). This definition all but spells out the salience and centrality of change andthe   importance   of   education’s   ability   to   prepare citizens for it, without prescribing it in a preemptive fashion.
SUSTAINABILITY CHALLENGES IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC
As a region, the Asia-Pacific is far from a socially cohesive one, as are its constituent countries. In
the face of newly acquired economic power and growing consumption, vast differences in living
standards  exist  and  emerge  within  countries.  A  recent  report  put  the  dilemma  in  blunt  terms:  “[i]n  17 countries, 10 per cent or more of the population subsists on inadequate diets. Other people aspire to the high-consumption  lifestyles  of  the  global  consumer  class”  (UNDP,  2012,  p.5).
For individual countries the details of development challenges, and consequently answers tothem, differ markedly. In Cambodia, where a third of the population lives in conditions of extreme
poverty (Hayden and Martin, 2011, p.31), the priority may be obvious. Further, Cambodian political history with its utter devastation of organized, intellectual society and education, directly lead tocurrent challenges, including largest sizes of classes in Southeast Asia (ibid., p.44) and societal inequities  spilling  over  to  and  bequeathed  by  education  with  potentially  “catastrophic  consequences”  (ibid., p.43).
ESD CHALLENGES IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC
Sustainable development is like most good things. It is easy to agree on in principle and impossible
to implement to perfection. Among other metaphors, it has been said to resemble a journey, to underscore its not being a preset destination. It is also more often than not described by what it is not,by  highlighting  the  problems  it  intends  to  prevent  and  solve.  The  magnitude  of  the  world’s  problems carries with it much weight and brings about processes intended to alleviate them. However,with lacking or no reliable monitoring mechanisms in place to read progress by, an illusion of perfect has often become the enemy of the good, also in the area of ESD.2
And yet, the inescapable reality in a typical political decision-making situation remains. One
will always want highest attainable quality to the greatest number possible at the lowest cost. And
yet, in education, most systems are so structured that quantity in access greatly reduces quality
while exponentially increasing cost. It is most often this mindset that the minister of education has
when allocating funds to initiatives.
ⒸISERD15

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

ESD may not always play very well in this paradigm and system of thinking. For it is saying,among many other and potentially contested thematic emphases, that the current educational priorities might be wrong. Numeracy and literacy will never go out of fashion, but traditional teaching
and learning techniques, corporal punishment and studying irrelevant information to the test may
not bring about the kind of development one desires. It is such important and profound (if slow)
changes that, coupled with locally defined relevant content, ESD queries tend to lead to. The implications would not be few if fully taken into account - these will typically include reform in teacher
education, curricular content, sector planning and school management, but the resources to instigate change with have generally been rather ludicrous in comparison with the needs.
Lack of financial resources to work at country level and increasing demand from its member
states led UNESCO to an idiosyncratic conclusion in the Asia-Pacific. Having conducted a seriesof subregional workshops with member state representatives and experts, UNESCO produced regionally  a  guide  (“the  Astrolabe”)  on  ESD  coordination  and  implementation  at  the  national  level  (UNESCO, 2011). This guide was intended to move the process of sustainability integration in education one level higher and ensure a close connection with the overarching national policies andstrategies. A process of identifying the most salient sustainable development priorities and translating them into implementable action at community and classroom was put forth in the guide.
Therefore, in theory, the countries themselves were going to select priority areas of action andimplement much of the expert work previously expected of UNESCO. As this would have madecoordination highly demanding, in reality there was a further attempt within UNESCO to operationalize the concept into a manageable number of priority areas, which would make sense for mostmember states. These areas were general support to implementing the UN Decade of ESD (20052014) and member states' own work through the Astrolabe guide publication; climate change education and disaster risk reduction; supporting and developing efforts to (quantifiably) measure theimpact of ESD and its contribution to the quality of education; and tracking trends in ESD (e.g.
education   and   sustainable   business   models,   ESD’s   role   in   promoting   health   and   cognitive   development).
Strengthening networks and partnerships and extracting evidence of functioning ESD models
is as much a necessity in the Asia-Pacific as elsewhere. While UNESCO is doing this at the global
level, regional collections have a tendency to carry more weight among peers. Research in ESDrelated pedagogy, skills and monitoring is in need of support, which can oftentimes be simply a
mixture of moral support and increased visibility. Evidence of what works and needs to be further
promoted and/or researched will be a priority in any successful ESD programme, which will thenuse this newly established evidence base in focused policy advocacy for maximum performance inthe fields of teaching and learning, school management, and education policy and planning.
The last component in particular was an attempt to return   to   the   education   sector’s   internal  discussions on quality. For as we know, cognitive development has long since been identified the
major explicit objective of all education systems (UNESCO, 2004, p.17), but it is also a wonderfulindicator as regards several sustainability issues - health, social progress, wealth distribution, geographical cohesion - and whether or not the education delivered is relevant in reality.
What is perhaps in highest demand and what will likely yield the largest dividends in the region, however, is the work on ESD indicators. It is an effort that may be as likely to fail as it is to
succeed, but it will drive progress forward, and is vitally important for ESD. Country representatives look for guidance in this regard for practical reasons. Having indicators would help concretise
an otherwise diffuse programme and, most of all, helps set political targets. It calls for the collaboration, data and expertise of statisticians at ministries of education, which in turn will help make thecase for ESD in the political arena. Suggested measurements have included existing rates between
school employing ESD programmes and those that do not as well as, between rural and urban
schools (UNESCO, 2011).

ⒸISERD16

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

THE POTENTIAL OF ESD TO SUPPORT EFA
EFA has been vastly successful in getting as high a percentage of the population as possible to be apart of education. Clear, measurable targets have helped fast track processes and funnel funding
where it has been needed in many cases. Criticism has ensued also for EFA being allegedly in reality excessively number-oriented and grappling with intelligent ways of measuring quality. The process may also not be able to effectively to inform decision makers if and when education is not in
the best interest of the child. Teacher absenteeism and poor quality in particular violate the student’s  right  to  quality  education.  Violence  in  schools  and  tutoring  fees  are  other  critically  important  factors which can go unseen despite their gravity.
ESD for its part is concerned exactly with what type of education would best serve societal,
environmental and economic interests of both the individual and her community. Importantly, as asenior  UNESCO  staff  remarked,  it  is  “not  simply  an  addition  to  existing  education  systems, processes and practices, an optional extra that countries may or may not incorporate into their plansand programmes. Instead, ESD properly understood requires a fundamental reorientation of the
purposes  and  tasks  of  education”  (Richmond,  2008,  p.3).  He goes on to say how deep the implications  go:  “in  due  course,  no  aspect  of  educational  provision  will  be  left  unaffected.  [ESD]  is  an  approach that embraces an holistic vision of education and one that takes in the key building blocks
of a comprehensive and integrated framework: educational planning, policy development, teacher
education (initial and in-service), curriculum renewal, textbooks and other learning materials, assessment   and   examinations,   as   well   as   a   recognition   of   all   modalities   of   provision” (Richmond,
2008, p.3).
In the realm of development, everything ultimately relates to everything. It would be foolhardy to not concentrate scarce resources of the education sector for the benefit of human development. In development at large, such synergies are forming and evidence is emerging. As an example, UNISDR (2011) quotes experiences from several countries how a more integrated approachto disaster risk management and climate change adaptation contributes to sustainable poverty reduction and other development outcomes.
Every challenge presents with it an opportunity. Advice given at an inconvenient moment,
when the lead organization of the UN Decade is trying to make ends meet and keep key processes
in motion with what is at its disposal may be inappropriate, but from the margins of a specialized
UN agency with arguably the best and most noble mandate in human development, this would appear the moment to consider the future direction of education and the most central dividend it iscapable of producing, sustainable human development. At the time of this writing UNESCO is facing what some call a temporary cashflow crisis following the United States freezing its dues making  up  for  over  a  fifth  of  the  organization’s  regular  budget.  The  depth  and  temporal length of thecrisis remain to be seen and much energy is being used to debate the negative consequences. It has
been noted elsewhere that fundamental reforms of the education sector often only take place intimes of drastic changes. Perhaps this financially taxing time could provide the necessary impetus
towards finding more practical synergies between existing programmes? EFA as the flagship programme of the Education sector is coming to a close (or at least an interim one) in 2015. Having
been highly successful in several of its stated objectives and measurable goals, it has all the potential in the world to mature further from a race between numbers to more quality and developmental
impact, reflecting its shifting role from education only to an overall development agenda priority
item.
Again, this means reorienting how we measure quality. If and when education has a central
role to play in human development, its indicators should logically include those reflecting community and societal development. If a school of migrant children in a middle income country3 can byfocusing   on   sustainability   transform   itself   from   being   unattractive   to   the   children’s   families   and  ridden with seasonal disappearances and high incidences of pushouts, to a school whose students
surpass the average grades in the national language examinations - the  children’s  second  or  third  language in every single case - in a matter of years, what can systemic changes yield? The changesⒸISERD17

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

were controlled yet subtle and had to do with the community’s   needs  and  the  children’s  joy   and  ability to learn.
CONCLUSION
This paper has given an overview of the processes involved in ESD implementation in the AsiaPacific   and   some   recommendations   to   the   way   forward.   UNDP’s   (2012,   p.6)   recent   human  development report for the Asia-Pacific   reads:   “Countries   thus   have   to   strike   a   balance   between  cutting back on the over-exploitation of their resources and simultaneously increasing consumptionof energy services, better food, water and sanitation services that would enable poor communities
to become more resilient. The region must also look ahead. Human development involves
expanding  choices  for  all,  including  the  generations  to  come.”  Such  massive  expansion  of  choice  in  the region will call for the best available education to each individual.
Integrating sustainability in education is a complex undertaking, and one which requires theattention of both the political elites and technical experts, but it is attainable if shades of grey are
considered progress, and if debates concerning ESD remain constructive and productive at thesame time.
To some extent, sustainable development is universal and timeless as its best practices andprinciples often date back to the ways of peoples which today are referred to as indigenous. Take
the principle of the seventh generation practiced in some indigenous cultures. Certainly acornerstone of planning for sustainable development, this precautionary principle calls fordeliberation which takes into consideration the impacts of any decision on the seventh generation tocome. An Asia-Pacific idiosyncrasy appears to a European observer to be the pursuit forequilibrium, another central tenet of sustainability thinking. As with all displays of humanreasoning, these two examples are crude generalizations of thousands of local, national andtransnational approaches and ways of thinking. An area in need of further attention and study for its
high relevance remains then the multifaceted relationship between sustainability understood andimplemented in local communities and cultures on the one hand, and international commitments
and goals on the other.
NOTES
1)

2)

3)

See, for example, for Australia and Lao PDR UNESCO, 2011a, p.5; Brunei Darussalam<http://stepcentrebruneiblogspot.com>; China <www.unesco.org/new/en/rio-20/singleview/news/education_for_sustainability_governments_get_the_message/>; Indonesia UNESCO, 2009, p.12; Nepal<www.accu.or.jp/esd/projects/ip/ip01_nepal.shtml>; Malaysia<http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001929/192914e.pdf>; Republic of Korea<www.unesco.or.kr/eng/front/resource_center/data_center_01_view.asp?articleid=82&cate=>; Thailand<www.accu.or.jp/esd/forum_esd_2010/program/program08_02/index.html> and Vietnam<www.unesco.org/new/en/hanoi/education/education-for-sustainable-development/>.
UNESCO concluded a Japanese Funds-In-Trust supported ESD Monitoring and Evaluation project in the AsiaPacific some years ago. The project employed structural and often binary indicators such as a strategy being inplace which do not measure ESD outcomes intended here. A new project has been launched in 2011 with UNESCO,UNU and IGES.
Reference is made to Bansungkon school in Chiang Rai province in Thailand.

REFERENCES
Cantell, M. and Elias D. 2011. For bulls and bears alike: Education as investment in sustainable development.
C Brock and L. Pe Symaco (Eds.) Education in Southeast Asia. Symposium Books, Oxford, 323-340.
Hayden, M. and Martin, R. 2011. The education system in Cambodia: Making progress under difficult circumstances. C Brock and L. Pe Symaco (Eds.) Education in Southeast Asia. Symposium Books, Oxford,
31-51.
Richmond, M. 2008. The role of UNESCO in the decade of education for sustainable development. Speechdelivered at the International Forum on ESD Dialogue 2008 in Tokyo, Japan.
ⒸISERD18

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

UNDP. 2012. One planet to share: Sustaining human progress in a changing climate. Routledge for UNDP,New Delhi.
UNESCO. 2005. DESD International Implementation Scheme. UNESCO, Paris.
UNESCO. 2009. ESD currents: Changing perspectives from the Asia-Pacific. UNESCO Asia and PacificRegional Bureau for Education, Bangkok.
UNESCO. 2011a. Astrolabe: A guide to education for sustainable development coordination in the AsiaPacific. UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, Bangkok.
UNESCO. 2011b. Meeting report on monitoring and evaluation on processes and learning, 15-17 February,
2011. UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, Bangkok.
UNISDR. 2011. At the crossroads: Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction in Asia and thePacific. UNISDR Asia and Pacific secretariat, Bangkok.

ⒸISERD19

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Special Contribution on EFA and ESD Research article
erd

Environmental Education through Eri-culture for
Reducing Amounts of Chemical Pesticide Applied in
Greater Phnom Penh of Cambodia
KUMIKO KAWABE*
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: sunshinekumiko@gmail.com

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

KEISHIRO ITAGAKI
Faculty of International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo,
Japan
Received 30 August 2012

Accepted 20 September 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract Cambodia is located in Southeastern Asia with more than 70% of population isliving in rural areas and engaged in agriculture and related sectors. Agriculture is the mostimportant sector for the country, and the government focuses on increasing productivity
and trying to meet the international market demand. However, farmers are usually lesseducated and there are difficulties and obstacles for local farmers to increase knowledge
for better ways of agriculture and creating better quality of life. Most of farmers apply
agricultural chemicals with low knowledge to increase crop yields that causes various
illnesses of local farmers and environmental problems. Statistical data showed that literacy
rate of Cambodia from 2005 to 2010 was only 74% for over age of 15 years old. The rate
in rural area was much worse than the city. Education for All (EFA) aims to provide
quality basic education  for  “every  citizen  in  every  society.”  Although education is one of
the fundamental factors for the country to be developed, daily life security such as basic
and stable income is more significant for local people. However, ensuring stable income
needs basic education such as literacy and basic numerical ability. This paper deals withenvironmental education through eri-culture, raising eri silkworms, for reducing amountsof chemical pesticide taking into account the perspective of Education for All (EFA) and
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Following the first survey in March 2011
for evaluating the potential of local farmers to reduce chemical pesticide through ericulture, the results showed that expected percentage of chemical pesticide to be reduced
for eri silk-raising farmers was remarkably higher than the other farmers. However,research interests have been focused on how much amounts of chemical pesticide local
farmers succeeded to reduce compared to the conventional use. So, this study dealt withthe evaluation of the amounts of chemical pesticide reduced through eri-culture in
Kampong Cham province, Cambodia. The results showed that 35% of eri silk-raising
farmers reduced the amounts of chemical pesticide to 80 to 100%, 45 % of eri silk-raising
farmers reduced to 60 to 80% while only 5% of eri silk-raising farmers reduced to 20-40%
and other 50% reduced to 0-20%. Consequently, eri silk-raising farmers succeeded toreduce the amounts of chemical pesticide use through eri-culture, and eri-culture has
educational function to increase the environmental awareness to local farmers, especially,in terms of reducing chemical pesticide use.
Keywords eri-culture, sustainable rural development, ESD, environmental awarenessⒸISERD20

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

INTRODUCTION
Cambodia is located in Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, between Thailand, Vietnam and Laos. Population is 14,952,665 (July 2012 est.), and population growth rate is in 2012
up to 1.687%. More than 70% of population is living in rural areas and engaged in agriculture andrelated sectors (CIA Factbook). Agriculture is the most important sector for the country, and thegovernment focuses on increasing productivity and trying to meet the international market demand.
However, farmers are usually less educated and there are difficulties and obstacles for local farmers
to increase knowledge and technique for better ways of agriculture that hinder creating better quality of life for local farmers.
Most of farmers apply agricultural chemicals to increase crop yields, however at the sametime they face to the risks to be affected by agricultural chemicals that leads them to various illnesses, such as cancer or skin disease. Most of agricultural chemicals are imported from neighboring countries and are sold with label in foreign languages. Prohibited agricultural chemicals such as
Methyl parathion and Methamidophos are still on sale in the local market and farmers purchasethose chemicals without knowing it is categorized as prohibited ones or not knowing the appropriate usage, just simply because they are illiterate or have low level of literacy, so they listen and believe what sellers say.
Statistical data show that literacy rate of Cambodia from 2005 to 2010 is only 74% for overage of 15 years old. Literacy rate of male is 83%, while that of female is 66% (UNESCO Institutefor Statistic database, 2012). Literacy rate of female is lower than that of male, and also the rate inrural area is much worse than the city, Phnom Penh and it is also lower than the average literacy
rate of other developing countries.
Education for All (EFA) is an international initiative and started in 1990 under the coalition
cooperation of UNESCO, the World Bank, national government, development agencies and etc., toprovide quality basic education for all children, youth and adults, “every  citizen  in  every  society.”    EFA sets up six goals to be met by 2015. So, Governments, development agencies, civil societies
and the private sectors are working together to reach the EFA goals that include to ensure the learning needs of all young people and adults should be provided through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programs (Dakar Framework for Action, UNESCO, 2000). EFA expects
literacy rate goes up to 78% in total, 85% for male, 72% for female by 2015.
However, promoting EFA or ESD to local farmers in Cambodia, some kind of incentive related to poverty reduction and sustainable development are the keys to spread the concepts of EFA
and ESD. Although education is one of the fundamental factors for the country to be developed,
daily life security such as basic and stable income is more significant for local people. On the other
hand, ensuring stable income needs basic education such as literacy and basic numerical ability. In
short, promoting EFA and ESD are inseparably related to poverty reduction and income generation,and it is important that above aspects should be promoted together that will raise the level of “Sustainable  Development”.
Eri-culture, raising eri silkworms, has introduced to local famers in Kampong Cham provincein October 2010 and has been promoted since as a part of regional challenges of Regional Centresof Expertise (RCE) to promote as environment education (Kawabe, 2010). After 6 months passed
since eri-culture introduced to local farmers in Kampong Cham province, questionnaire survey was
conducted to evaluate the effects of eri-culture on promoting environmental awareness. The results
showed local farmers who raise eri silkworms wanted to reduce 92.5% of chemical pesticide compared to the conventional use, while local farmers who just participated in the workshop or who
have never participated in the workshops showed only 72.3% or 66.9% of chemical pesticide to be
reduced (Kawabe et al., 2012). The expected percentage of chemical pesticide to be reduced for
local farmers who raise eri silkworms was significantly higher than that for local farmers who justparticipated in the workshop or who have never participated in the workshops. So, it was considered that eri-culture has educational function for local farmers especially, regarding the reductionof chemical pesticide application.
ⒸISERD21

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

OBJECTIVE
Accordingly, this paper deals with environmental education through eri-culture for reducing
amounts of chemical pesticide, taking into account the perspective of Education for All (EFA) and
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). First survey was conducted 6 months passed after
eri-culture has introduced to the local farmers in Kampong Cham province for the first time in October 2010 to evaluate the potential of local farmers to reduce chemical pesticide through ericulture. However, research interests have been focused on how much amounts of chemical pesticide local farmers succeeded to reduce compared to before starting eri-culture. So, this study aims
to evaluate quantitatively the amounts of chemical pesticide reduced through eri-culture in Kampong Cham province, Cambodia.
METHODOLOGY
Eri-culture
Eri-culture, raising eri silkworm (Samia cynthia ricini) is conducted not only for rural development
but also for women’s capacity building and income generation in some developing countries, suchas Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, south China, and Ethiopia where the areas can grow the hostplants of eri silkworms, castor (Ricinus communis) and cassava (Manihot esculenta). Eri silkworm
is categorized as wild silkworm although it is completely domesticated as same as silkworm of themulberry tree (Bombyx mori). While Bombyx mori hatches once or twice per year according to thetypes, eri silkworm hatches approximately 6 times a year. In October 2010, eri-culture has introduced to local farmers in Kampong Cham province, Cambodia. Since then, workshops and demonstrations on promoting eri-culture have been conducted in the villages.

Photo. 1 Eri silkworms

Photo. 2 Cocoons of eri silkworms

Photo. 3 Extension activity for promoting eri-culture in Kampong Cham, CambodiaⒸISERD22

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

The first survey was conducted in March 2011 to evaluate the effects of eri-culture on promoting environmental awareness of local farmers in Kampong Cham province. The results showed that
eri silk-raising farmers wanted to reduce 92.5% of chemical pesticide compared to the conventionaluse. While local farmers who just participated or who have never participated in the workshops
showed only 72.3% or 66.9% of chemical pesticide to be reduced. Environmental awareness of erisilk-raising farmers on chemical pesticide to be reduced was significantly higher than that of otherfarmers who just participated in the workshop or who have never participated in the workshops(Kawabe et al., 2012). Sequel questionnaire survey was conducted in October 2011, 12 months
passed after eri-culture has introduced to local farmers, as attention has been paid how much in fact
the eri silk-raising farmers did reduced the amounts of chemical pesticide applied compared toconventional use.
Research sites
The research sites are namely Wat Chas village and Roung Kor village in Baray commune, Prey
Chhor district in Kampong Cham province where located approximately 100 km northeast from thecapital of Cambodia, Phnom Penh (Fig. 1). Due to the suitable location for distributing agricultural
products to Phnom Penh, most of farmers apply agricultural chemicals for farming practice to increase the productivity.

Prey Chhor district,Kampong Cham province

Fig. 1 Location of Wat Chas and Roung Kor villages in Baray commune,
Prey Chhor district in Kampong Cham province

Fig. 2 Education level of famers at Wat Chas (Left) and Roung Kor (Right) villages,
Kampong Cham province
Source: ERECON Questionnaire Survey in 2009 and 2010

ⒸISERD23

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Frequency

According to the surveys conducted in 2009 and 2010 by the Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON), level of education of farmers at Wat Chas and Roung Kor
villages were observed. The results shows 10% of farmers have never been to school, and 61%
completed only primary school and 22% completed secondary school, while only 6% completed
high school in Wat Chas village (Fig. 2). In Roung Kor village, less percentage of farmers completed secondary or high school as shown in Fig. 2.
Education for adults is usually not paid enough attention, also not enough provided. Local
farmers tend to think education is costly and they are too old to go back to school for study. However, they face difficulties due to being illiterate or less educated that cause poor access to theknowledge of agriculture and adoption of new techniques. Being illiterate, the information andtechnology are not easy for local farmers to access. Thus, any kind of non-formal education could
take an important role for local farmers to reach appropriate and reliable information andknowledge that promote sustainable development.
In the research sites, all men and women aged 18 and over were eligible to receive land equally by the Cambodian government when Pol Pot regime was over. Thus, the average farmland isquite small and approximately 0.45 ha per household today. Rice in paddy filed and some amountsof vegetables in upland fields are cultivated. Due to the limited size of farmland and one-crop system for most of farmers, agro-production is limited and poverty level is higher than other provinceof Cambodia (Kawabe, 2011).

n =77

USD

Fig. 3 Monthly income from agriculture at Wat Chas village,
Kampong Cham province

Frequency

Source: ERECON Questionnaire survey at Wat Chas village, 2009

USD

n =170Fig. 4 Monthly income from agriculture at Roung Kor village,
Kampong Cham province
Source: ERECON Questionnaire survey at Roung Kor village, 2010

ⒸISERD24

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

According to basic survey, monthly income from agriculture at Wat Chas village is shown in
Fig. 3. Income from agriculture, main income for living remains relatively low, and the income
range of 0 to 40 US dollar dominates 70% of the farmers in Wat Chas village, while the income
range of 0 to 30 US dollar dominates 83% in Roung Kor village (Fig. 4). However, increasing andmaintaining in yields, most of farmers purchase agricultural chemicals with small income and apply into farmlands that cause not only weighing down the household budget, but also causing
health problems of farmers, degradation of soil and water.
Solving the above mentioned problems, eri-culture has introduced to local farmers in Kampong Cham province as part of regional challenges of Regional Centres of Expertise (RCE) topromote ESD through the food, agriculture and environment education.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Amount of chemical pesticide reduced (%)

In the first survey in March 2011 to evaluate the effects of eri-culture on promoting environmental
awareness of local farmers, the results showed that eri silk-raising farmers wanted to reduce 92.5%
of chemical pesticide compared to the conventional way.
A**

B**

Conducting eri-culture

Only attending workshops

B**

No idea about eri-culture

n=36, farmers who parn=16, farmers who
ticipated in the last work- have never participated
shops
in the workshops
Different letter indicates the significant difference at 99%(**)

n=20, farmers who
conduct eri-culture

Frequency

Fig. 5 Difference in actual percentage of chemical pesticide reduced
between eri silk-raising farmers and othersn= 20

Fig. 6 Percentage of chemical pesticides reduced for eri silk-raising farmersⒸISERD25

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

While local farmers who just participated or who have never participated in the workshops
showed only 72.3% or 66.9% of chemical pesticide to be reduced (Kawabe, 2010). Expected
percentage of chemical pesticide to be reduced for eri silk-raising farmers was remarkably higher
than the other farmers. So, an attention has been paid to reveal that how much in fact the eri silkraising farmers reduced the amounts of chemical pesticide application compared to theconventional use. Questionnaire survey was conducted in October 2011, one year after eri-culture
had introduced to the local farmer in October 2010.
The results showed that eri silk-raising farmers succeeded to reduce the amounts of chemical
pesticide 69.5% compared to the conventional use, while famers who only participated in the ericulture workshops or who never participated in the eri-culture workshops reduced only 7.5% or 5%(Fig. 5). Observing the detail amounts of chemical pesticide reduced by the eri silk-raising farmers,
35% of eri silk-raising farmers reduced the amounts of chemical pesticide to 80 to 100%, 45 % ofthem reduced to 60 to 80%, while only 5 % of them reduced to 20-40% and other 5% of them
reduced to 0-20% (Fig. 6).
Consequently, eri silk-raising farmers succeeded to reduce the amounts of chemical pesticide
use through eri-culture, and eri-culture has educational function to increase the environmental
awareness to local farmers, especially, in terms of reducing chemical pesticide use. Moreover, ericulture has strong impact on local farmers who raise eri silkworms to move forward to sustainable
rural development.
CONCLUSIONSExpected percentage of chemical pesticide to be reduced for eri silk-raising farmers was
remarkably higher than the other farmers. So, an attention has been paid to reveal that how much infact the eri silk-raising farmers reduced the amounts of chemical pesticide application.
Questionnaire survey was conducted in October 2011, one year passed after eri-culture had
introduced to the local farmer in October 2010. The results showed that eri silk-raising farmers
succeeded to reduce the amounts of chemical pesticide 69.5%, while famers who only participatedin the workshop or who never participated in the workshops reduced only 7.5% or 5%. Observing
the detail amounts of chemical pesticide reduced by the eri silk-raising farmers, 35% of them
reduced the amounts of chemical pesticide to 80 to 100%, 45 % of eri silk-raising farmers reduced
to 60 to 80% while only 5% of eri silk-raising farmers reduced to 20-40% and other 50% of them
reduced to 0-20%. Consequently, eri silk-raising farmers succeeded to reduce the amounts ofchemical pesticide use compared to conventional use through eri-culture, and eri-culture has
educational function to increase the environmental awareness to local farmers, especially, in termsof reducing chemical pesticide use although most of farmers have less education in childhood.
Moreover, eri-culture has strong impact on local farmers who raise eri silkworms to move forward
to sustainable rural development, especially supplementary income is great motivation for local
farmers to learn and obtain knowledge and skills more and more. Education is the key fordevelopment, but it is not necessarily a panacea for everything, and it should be discussed alongwith the ideas of income generation for adult education.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, ERECON, has been supported the promotion of eri-culture in Kampong Cham province, Cambodia. Also, Ms. Nittaya Mahachaiwong,
Knowledge and Technology Center for Northern Textile (Fai Gaem Mai), Science and Technology
research Institute, Chiang Mai University and Dr. Bunthan NGO, Royal University of Agriculture
have been advising technical and social aspects on eri-culture. Authors would like to express special thanks to them.

ⒸISERD26

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

REFERENCE
Central Intelligence Agency, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cb.html.
ERECON. 2009, 2010. Questionnaire Survey at Baray commune, Prey Chhor district, Kampong Champrovince, Cambodia on November 2009 and 2010.
Kawabe, K. 2010. Eri-culture for sustainable rural development. ERECON Annual Report, Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, 2009-2010, 4.
Kawabe, K., Tal, M. and Mihara, M. 2011. Effects of eri-culture on promoting environmental awareness inGreater Phnom Penh of Cambodia. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development,
IJERD 3(1), 22-29.
Mihara, M. 2005. The effect of natural weed buffer on soil and nitrogen losses in Japan. Catena, 65, 265-271.
Mihara, M. and Fujimoto, A. 2009. Sustainable farming practices for environmental conservation. Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan.
United Nations Education, Scientific and Culture Organization, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/education-for-all/.
United Nations World Food Programme, http://foodsecurityatlas.org/khm/country/provincial-Profile/Kampong-Cham.

ⒸISERD27

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Special Contribution on EFA and ESD Rsearch article
erd

Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture and Vulnerability
as Expected Poverty of Kampong Speu Province, Cambodia
NYDA CHHINH*Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: chhinh.nyda@rupp.edu.kh

BUNNAK POCH
Western University, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 30 August 2012

Accepted 22 September 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract As a developing country that is heavily dependent on agriculture, Cambodia has
been severely affected by natural hazards. Since the 1990s, there has been an increase in
the frequency and severity of flooding and drought induced or exacerbated by climatechange. Literature has demonstrated that Cambodia is very vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change. Vulnerability, as posited by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), is a function of the character, magnitude and rate of climate change
and variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity and its adaptive capacity. This
paper measures the vulnerability as expected poverty (VEP), introduced by Shubham
Chaudhuri, in a province in Cambodia, Kampong Speu (KPS), using household survey data. The results show that among all of the exposures to natural hazards in Cambodia,
drought poses the highest risk for rain-fed agriculture dependent households. The VEP
shows that more than 60% of households in the KPS province are vulnerable to climatechange with an income threshold of US $1 per day. Some policy recommendations resulting from this study include building irrigation systems to mitigate the impacts of droughts,
ensuring secondary income generation opportunities for poor households so that households do not depend exclusively on agriculture, and increasing the education level of villagers.
Keywords Cambodia, climate change, vulnerability, adaptation, education

INTRODUCTION
The  main  sectors  that  drive  Cambodia’s  economic  growth  are  Agriculture  (including  Fisheries andForestry), Industry and Service. Each  sector’s  share  of  GDP  is  28%,  28.6%  and 38.3%, respectively(NIS, 2008). The Strategic National Development Plan (SNDP) places the agricultural sector as thecentral focus of Cambodian development for the next decade, and it is believed that agriculture sector will be a major contributing factor to inclusive growth (CDRI, 2012). The agricultural sector
currently employs 59%  of  Cambodia’s  total  labor  force  (NIS, 2008).
The industry that generates the most money in Cambodia is Textile, Wearing Apparel andFootwear (CDRI, 2007). However, the garments produced in Cambodia are created from raw materials supplied from outside of Cambodia, including fabrics. The Royal Government of Cambodia(RGC) believes that once the agricultural sector is developed, Cambodia can produce the raw materials (the agro-industrials) to supply to industry, particularly cotton and rubber. Therefore, thegrowth of agriculture will contribute to the growth of the industrial sector.
Paddy rice is the central livelihood of rural people. More than 50% of Cambodian workers are
employed in the agriculture sector, the majority of whom work in the cultivation and harvesting of
paddy  rice.  Cambodia’s  2008  general  census  (NIS, 2008) showed that more than 80% of Cambodians live in rural area and are engaged in subsistence farming. Approximately 47% of them own lessthan one hectare of land and have an average of five household members; more than one-fourth ofⒸISERD28

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

all households in Cambodia are headed by females (NIS, 2009). The majority of paddy fields arerain fed; therefore, the planting index of rice in Cambodia is around 1.2 per year (MoE, 2005).
Cambodia’s rice yield is low at around two tons per hectare compared to approximately three tons
per hectare in Vietnam and Thailand (Yu and Fan, 2011).
Agricultural activities in Cambodia are not sophisticated and require only low levels of skills
and training. Farmers have an average of seven years of education (NIS, 2009). With this level of
education, it is hard for agricultural experts to share knowledge and skills about how to use hightech equipment to improve agricultural practices. Since many farmers are still using traditional
methods and tools to cultivate their land, Cambodian farmers are highly sensitive to environmental
changes, especially drought.
Frequently, Cambodia experiences floods, drought, windstorms, insect outbreaks, underground water salinisation and seawater intrusion (MoE, 2005). Since the country is heavily dependent on the agriculture sector, these natural hazards have severe effects on the livelihoods of the
80% of Cambodians who live in rural areas (MoE, 2005, NCDM, 2008, Geres-Cambodia, 2009,
MoE and UNDP Cambodia, 2011). On a national scale, flood and drought caused crises in threeconsecutive years from 2000 to 2002. Flooding in 2000 was considered the most severe in four
decades and was followed by flooding of a similar intensity in 2001, while in 2002 both flood anddrought hit the country (Chan and Sarthi, 2002).
Due to the negative effects of natural calamities caused by climate change on the agriculturalindustry, achievement of the Millennium Development Goals in Cambodia may be hindered, especially the elimination of poverty and hunger. The United Nations World Food Program (WFP,
2003) identified provinces along the Mekong River as areas prone to flooding and flash flooding,and found that more than 80% of famers are living in drought-prone areas in Cambodia. This is ofgreat concern as the irrigation scheme is very limited in Cambodia. Assessments from government
institutions show that flooding did similar damage to drought (Fig. 1) (MoE, 2006). The Economy
and  Environment  Program  for  Southeast  Asia’s  (EEPSEA)  Framework  to  Assess  Climate  Change  Vulnerability demonstrated that Cambodia is highly vulnerable to climate change; not because of
exposure but because of its low adaptive capacity (Yusuf and Francisco, 2010).

Fig. 1 Flood and drought damages on rice fields in Cambodia 1982-2007
Source: Am, 2010

Shocks, including natural disasters, are regarded as the driving force that pushes vulnerable
people into extreme poverty, especially those who have few assets or savings (World Bank, 2006).
A case study by the Analyzing Development Issues (ADI) Team found that the severe floods anddrought in Cambodia that occurred in 2000/01 and 2004/05 contributed to crop failure and thatpeople exploited common pool resources (Ang et al., 2007). Droughts have impact when they occur during the three stages of rice production activities: planting (June-July), growing (AugustSeptember) and harvesting (October-November) period. At a national level, the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) has been developed to mitigate the impact of climate change,
which includes a proposal for an irrigation scheme and a flood prevention dike (MoE, 2006). NAPA states that the Agriculture and Water resource sectors are the highest priority in both short- andlong-term strategies.
ⒸISERD29

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

This paper investigates the impacts of climate change on farmers in the Kampong Speu (KPS)
province, specifically the dynamic impacts on households. It argues that the natural hazards facedby households in this province are the major factors in preventing people from escaping poverty
and that integrated policy intervention is necessary to address climate change impacts.
METHODOLOGY
Vulnerability framework
Vulnerability is defined differently in different disciplines. In this study, we adopt the Intergovernmental  Panel  on  Climate  Change’s  (IPCC)  definition:  “The  degree  to  which  a  system  is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability
and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate change
and variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity,  and  its  adaptive  capacity”  (McCarthy etal., 2001, p. 995).
Exposure to environmental hazards, especially flood and drought, has been well studied inmany countries where agriculture is dominant. Methods employed to understand the nature of theseclimate-induced  disasters  vary  from  author  to  author.  Liverman’s  (1990)  study  on  vulnerability  of  farmers to drought in Mexico, for example, suggests that using diverse quantitative data makes it
possible to identify the places and people who are prone to drought. National Committee for Disaster Management (NCDM) (2003) identified where drought and flooding occurred through examining the affected areas, rice dependency and food security based on rice production in Cambodia.
Vulnerability is conceptualized by many scholars (Adger, 2006, Eriksen and O'Brien, 2007,
Smit et al., 1996, Smith et al., 2000, Smit and Wandel, 2006). It can be best understood as an interaction between exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. At any point in time, the greater the
exposure (of people, agricultural systems and businesses), the higher the vulnerability. Vulnerability, however, is reduced when the sensitivity of the system(s) is lower. Sensitivity decreases or increases over time due to the adaptation measures taken following the disaster(s). If exposure andsensitivity remain constant from household to household, adaptive capacity of individual households will be highly associated with their vulnerabilities.
This study adopts the approach to measuring household economic vulnerability posited andelaborated  in  Chaudhuri’s  (2003) study of household vulnerability. Household vulnerability as expected poverty is defined as the probability that households will move into poverty given certain
environmental shocks, current poverty status and household characteristics of respondents. While
poverty reflects the current state of deprivation, vulnerability reflects what   a   household’s   future  prospects are (Elbers and Jan, 2003). Thus, a household’s  consumption  or  income  can  be  regressed  on household characteristics and shocks in order to obtain the estimated coefficients to be used forfurther prediction of the household’s  future  poverty.  In  this  regard,  households  with  high  predicted  poverty are considered vulnerable. Unlike Chaudhuri (2003),   who   analysed   households’   monthly  per capita consumption  expenditure,  this   study   analyses   households’   monthly   income   to   measure  the household vulnerability index due to the lack of expenditure data.
Technically, the household vulnerability index is derived from the difference between the expected log per capita income and the minimum log per capita income threshold, with households
having per capita incomes lower than the minimum per capita income defined as vulnerable (poor).
The expected log per capita income is estimated using the three-step feasible generalised leastsquares (FGLS) method.
The predictors of log per capita income used in the analysis include: droughts in the past 12
years (dummy); windstorms in the past 12 years (dummy); floods in the past 12 years (dummy);
household size; level of education; possession of motored vehicle (dummy); access to credit(dummy); presence of disabled persons in the households (dummy); and the dependency of livelihood on agriculture (dummy).

ⒸISERD30

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Survey design
The total land area of the KPS province is approximately 653,396 hectares divided into eight districts and 87 communes. The household survey samples were selected from six communes in six
districts within two geographical areas: highland areas (two districts) and the lowland area (fourdistricts). Three natural disasters were considered: flash flooding, drought, and windstorms. Areas
were defined using Geographical Information Systems, which can be used to produce a Digital Elevation Model. Administrative boundaries were used to define provinces, districts and communes.
Natural disaster occurrence was based on information given from key informant interviews fromthe Sub-national and local authorizes. A total of 600 questionnaires were collected from households.
RESULTS
Profile of the respondents
Among the six communes we selected, five communes were classified as rural and two communes
were located in highland. The majorities of the respondents were female and constituted 60% to
77% of each commune (Table 1). Also, an overwhelming number of respondents reported thatthey did not rely exclusively on agricultural work. In the rural highland commune of Tasal, thehighest number of respondents (13%) identified agriculture as the only source of income. On average, all respondents completed secondary education, and urban dwellers (Chbar Mon commune)
have higher education than their rural counterparts. The lowest school attendance was reported in
the highland communities of Tasal and Morhasaing.
Table 1 Sex and occupation of respondents
CommuneTopography

Number of
Respondents

Sex of respondents

Occupation of respondents

FemaleMale

Agriculture
only

Agriculture
and others

Chbar Mon

Urban/Lowland

100

65

35

9

91

Kork

Rural/Lowland

100

69

31

7

93

Morhasaing

Rural/Highland

100

73

27

6

94

Peang Lvea

Rural/Lowland

100

61

39

7

93

Rolang Chork

Rural/Lowland

100

65

35

7

93

Tasal

Rural/Highland

100

77

23

13

87

Total number

600

410

190

49

551

Total percentage
Source: Survey 2011

100%

68.3%

31.7%

8.2%

91.8%

Household Characteristics
There were on average five people within a household within the surveyed areas. This is well
above the national average household size (4.7) in 2008 (NIS, 2008). Rolang Chork has the smallest average household size (4.99 people per household on average) and the highest level of education among its population (9.6 years of schooling on average). The Kork and Chbar Mon communes had larger household sizes than the other selected communes (5.64 and 5.59 people perhousehold on average, respectively).
About 60% of respondents reported that their households have at least one motorcycle. There
was a large variation in the proportion of households possessing motorcycles between communes,
with the Chbar Mon (73%), Peang Lvea (74%) and Rolang Chork (68%) communes having a higher percentage of motorcycle-possessing households than the Tasal (44%), Kork (50%) andMorhasaing (53%) communes. The survey also revealed that 11.7% of respondents live in houseⒸISERD

31

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

holds with at least one person with disability. Peang Lvea commune has the highest proportion ofhouseholds containing a person with a disability (21%), followed by Rolang Chork (13%), Kork(12%), Tasal (11%), Morhasaing (7%) and Chbar Mon (6%).
Natural hazards and exposure index
The three natural hazards that impact  on  people’s  livelihoods  in  Cambodia  including  flood,  windstorms and drought are investigated in this paper. It is important to note that the indicators of these
events are measured as dummy, indicating whether the respondents have experienced drought,
flood and windstorm over the last 12 years (1999-2010).
As indicated in Table 2, an overwhelming majority of respondents have reported experiencing
drought ranging in the last 12 years. In the rural communities of Morhasaing, Peang Lvea and Tasal,
100 % of the respondents reported experiencing drought. In contrast, the percentages of respondents who have experienced floods or windstorms in those 12 years are significantly lower thanthose who have experience drought.
Although respondents reported a slight decline in the number of droughts over the 12-year period, they had experienced a number of particularly devastating droughts in 1999, 2000, 2003 and2004. Villagers from the Pongrek village (Peang Lvea commune, Odung district) stated that the2010 drought was also a very severe drought which badly affected rice yields.
Table 2 Households experiencing floods, windstorms or drought in the last 12 years(1999-2010)
CommuneUrban/
rural

Total number of
respondents

Floods% of households
Windstorms

Drought

Chbar Mon

Urban

100

12

5

83

Kork

Rural

100

2

6

99

Morhasaing

Rural

100

9

13

100

Peang Lvea

Rural

100

2

5

100

Rolang Chork

Rural

100

31

12

90

Tasal

Rural

100

4

1

100

Total number

600

60

42

572

Total (%)

100%

10%

7%

95%

Source: Survey 2011

Vulnerability analysis based on expected poverty
Table 3 presents the results of the FGLS analysis. Among the environmental impacts, only drought
was found to have had a significant negative impact on log per capita income (b= -0.379, p<0.001).
This indicates that households who have experienced drought over the last three years are predicted
to have log per capita income 0.379 less than those who have not experienced drought (controllingfor other household and individual characteristics in the model). Windstorms and flooding did nothave significant impacts on log per capita income.
The windstorms and flash floods that occurred in the period between 2005 and 2010 did nothave a significant impact on log per capita income. This may be due to the long period of time overwhich the occurrences of windstorm and flash flooding were measured in this study. With the exception  of  drought,  the  respondents’  experience  of  windstorm  and  flash  floods  in  the  last  five  years  has not changed considerably. It may be difficult to detect environmental impacts that have frequently occur over long periods of time due to people having developed adaptive strategies to mitigate their impacts. Few respondents experienced flash flooding or windstorms in the years prior tocompleting the survey.
ⒸISERD32

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Household size, the possession of motor vehicle and a livelihood dependency on agriculture
are significantly and inversely associated with log per capita income. Specifically, the larger thehousehold size, the lower the expected log per capita income (the coefficient is -0.182, p<0.001). In
addition, the possession of a motor vehicle is positively related to expected per capita income (thecoefficient is 0.312, p<0.001); while households who depend on agricultural work alone tend tohave lower per capita income than those households who have an additional secondary occupation(the coefficient is -0.899, p<0.001). In addition, the education attainment of respondents has a positive effect on log per capita income, although the effect is small (the coefficient is 0.044, p < 0.001).
Access to credit and the presence of person living with disability in the household does not significantly affect log per capita income.
Table 3 Results of least squares regression analysis of log monthly household
per capita income
Initial model
Coefficient

FGLS model

Drought in past 3 years-0.143Standard
error
0.067

Windstorm in past 12 years-0.264

0.133

0.047

-0.199

0.132

0.133

Flashfloods in past 12 years-0.076

0.113

0.503

-0.137

0.116

0.238

Household size

-0.197

0.017

0.000

-0.182

0.017

0.000

Education

0.047

0.010

0.000

0.044

0.010

0.000

Having motorcycle

0.265

0.071

0.000

0.312

0.072

0.000

Access to credit
Presence of person withdisability
Agriculture plus secondary
occupation-0.091

0.068

0.183

-0.061

0.068

0.375

-0.033

0.105

0.753

-0.026

0.106

0.808

-1.103

0.123

0.000

-0.899

0.118

0.000

3.700

0.138

0.000

3.714

0.139

0.000

Constant
Model summary
Adjusted R-squared

P>tCoefficient-0.379Standard
error
0.071

0.035

0.000

0.339

0.341

F (9,590)

33.64

33.97

N
Source: Survey 2011

600

600

P>t

Household vulnerability
The expected log per capita income obtained from the above FGLS analysis was used to create
vulnerability index at a US $1.00 daily threshold (Cambodia poverty line) and at a US $1.25 daily
threshold. Households are considered vulnerable (or poor in the future) if they score higher than
0.50 on the vulnerability index. Table 4 presents the results of the vulnerability analysis disaggregated by commune.
Given different household characteristics, the overall mean vulnerability is 0.65 using the
US$ 1.00 threshold with some small variation in the mean vulnerability across all six communes(Table 4). The vulnerability incidence is found to be high in highland and low in urban communities. The analysis suggested that contributing factors to vulnerability incidence among households
are livelihood (highly depending on agriculture) and low education. In our sample, we found thatvulnerability incidence is 70 %. This figure is high compared to the rate generated from generalvulnerability assessment in a provincial poverty report (NCDD, 2009).

ⒸISERD33

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Table 4 Vulnerability index and incidence per commune at US $1.00 daily threshold
CommuneMean vulnerability

Standard deviation ofvulnerability

Vulnerability
incidence (%)

Rank

Chbar Mon

0.63

0.18

73.00

5

Kork

0.68

0.16

82.00

3

Morhasaing

0.64

0.17

76.00

4

Peang Lvea

0.66

0.16

83.00

2

Rolang Chork

0.61

0.17

73.00

5

Tasal

0.70

0.17

85.00

1

Total

0.65

0.17

78.67

When the threshold is increased to US $1.25 the mean vulnerability increases to 0.72 and theincidence of vulnerability increases to 90.67% (an increase of 39.5%). This means that with a cutoff point of US $1.25, more than 90% of these respondents will become poor in the future. The
highest percentage of vulnerable households is in Kork (with 98 %), followed by Peang Lvea with
93%, Kork with 92%, Rolang Chork with 89%, Morhasaing with 87% and Chbar Mon with 85%.
Based on the model, it is apparent that poor communes, like Tasal and Kork, as indicated by
low percentage of motor vehicle possession, high percentage of villagers depending solely on agriculture and a high percentage of households with a person with a disability, are likely to be vulnerable now and in the future.
Vulnerability and per capita income
Each graph below is divided into four sections representing the vulnerability cut-off point and poverty cut-off point at a US $1.00 threshold in Fig. 2 and at a US $1.25 threshold in Fig. 3. Dots in
the graphs represent the interviewed households. Those households in the upper left quadrant areboth currently poor and vulnerable, that is, they are likely to continue to be poor in the future.
Those in the lower left quadrant are households that are currently poor but are not vulnerable.
Those in the upper right quadrant are households that are currently not poor but vulnerable, meaning that they are likely to be poor in the future. Households that are in the lower right quadrant areneither currently poor nor vulnerable, meaning that they are less likely to be poor in the future.

Fig. 2 Vulnerability vs log per capita income at US $1.00 threshold
Comparing Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, it is evident that increasing the threshold of per capita income
from US $1.00 to US $1.25 decreases the number of households that are not currently vulnerable
and increases the number of households that are vulnerable. This means increasing the per capitaⒸISERD34

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

income threshold results in moving more households into future poverty, regardless of their current
poverty status. However, the increase in the future incidence of poverty due to an increase in thethreshold is more severe among those who are currently poor than among their counterparts who
are not currently poor in all communes, with a higher increase in the number of poor and vulnerable in poor communes like Tasal, Rolang Chork and Kork.

Fig. 3 Vulnerability versus log per capita income at US $1.25 threshold
DISCUSSION
Natural hazards have had multiple impacts on communities in the KPS province. Windstorms had
the smallest impact on people, while flashfloods occurred infrequently but caused medium degrees
of damage while drought was the most severe and pronounced hazard.
The drought in 2003 decreased rice yields, this means that villagers had inadequate food.
Some villagers began eating vines as a substitute for rice. As a result of the impacts of disasters, inevery study site commune people migrated to find employment opportunities elsewhere. Among
the respondents from the six communes, the percentage of temporary migration is about 30% in
Tasal and Kork, about 10% in Morhasaing and Chbar Mon, 20% Rolang Chork, with Peang Lvea
having the highest rate of migration at 60%. Many anecdotes were shared in the focus group discussions about children dropping out of school and women bearing health and livelihood burdens
due to the impacts of disasters.
Discussions in Kork commune stated that poor families were the most vulnerable to drought incommunity, especially those with children who consume unclean water, therefore getting sick andincurring an additional cost for their families. During periods of drought some households had theability to rent pumping machines so they could pump water from nearby sources in order to supply
their rice fields with the water necessary for rice production. Others that were short on capitalwould have to take loans from microcredit institutions and local lenders. For some this resulted inhigh levels of debt which could not be paid back and hence assets and property were confiscated.
The survey here found that farmers usually undercultivated land and produced low yields (aslow as 500 kilograms per hectare during the drought spell). Believing that agricultural adaptation
options could increase yield and income as well as food security, farmers have considered many
strategies to mitigate drought impacts and increase rice production including changes in crop calendar and crop variety and the increased use of chemical fertilizer. The most urgent adaptation
measure in KPS is to provide water for rice fields, especially when there is a prolonged drought
during the middle of a wet season. The experts in agriculture of the province highlighted thatproviding training on modern agricultural methods and small-scale water management are also apriority.
While the model used in this study captures only household characteristics and natural hazards
and  escaping  from  disasters  are  beyond  households’  capacity  and  should  rest  on  other  stakeholders  ⒸISERD35

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

such as government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and private sectors. Currently, there are a number of stakeholders working to assist farmers such Department of Agriculture but it may not effective in terms of the increasing threats from climate change.
CONCLUSION
Changing climate and climate variability may prevent Cambodia from reaching its development
goals, particularly those related to reducing poverty. As indicated by the Ministry of the Environment (MoE), flash flooding and drought are responsible for the reduction in rice production in
Cambodia (MoE, 2001, MoE, 2005). At the provincial level, Yusuf and Francisco (2010) indicatedthat the KPS province is the third most vulnerable province to climate change in the country.
The study aims to identify the impact of environmental shocks (flash floods, windstorms anddrought) and household characteristics on per capital income and to create vulnerability indexes topredict future poverty incidence in the communities of the KPS province. Drought is found to be
the most common environmental hazard experienced by people in these communities. The study
found that, among the three indicators of environmental shocks, only drought resulted in a decreasein the per capita income of households between 2008 and 2010. Drought can be more devastating
than either windstorms or flash flood, as it can easily destroy an entire season of crop.
Two of the household characteristics that negatively affected household per capita income area household size and agricultural dependency. This suggests that households that have many children and do not have other sources of income are likely to be poor and continue to be poor (vulnerable)  in  the  future.  In  contrast,  the  education  of  respondents  and  households’  possession of motor
vehicles are positively related to per capita income.
Some policy recommendations resulting from this study include building irrigation systems to
mitigate the impacts of droughts, ensuring secondary income generation opportunities for poor
households so that they do not depend exclusively on agriculture, and increasing the education level of villagers.
In conclusion, drought is the most severe natural hazard in KPS and farmers reported that they
regularly experience a late onset of rainfall. There is a widespread problem of water scarcity andmost farmers do not have access to irrigation systems or other technology that can supply water,such as water pumps. Based on the VEP, the study shows that many people are unable to cope withenvironmental shocks, especially drought. As a result, farmers are not able to fully cultivate their
paddy fields and therefore experience reduced crop yields. It is imperative to increase the adaption
capacity of farmers who have livelihoods that are highly sensitive to natural hazards. Diversifying
livelihoods is also recommended, but it is beyond the scope of this paper. While enhancing adaptive capacity is very critical, there is currently limited intervention from the local government andsub-national government. Whereas NGOs are working to enhance the livelihoods of communities
through community risk management, there has only been limited cases of direct resource andknowledge transfers. Farmers have limited access to credit at their locality when they need it mostto save their livestock and paddy fields during natural hazards.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was carried out with the aid of a grant from the International Development ResearchCentre, Ottawa, Canada and Economy and Environmental Program for Southeast Asia. Also, there
were contributions from the Hue College of Economics, SEARCA, the University of the Philippines Los Banos and the Provincial Department including Provincial Hall, the Department of Water
Resource and Meteorology and the Department of Agriculture in the Kampong Speu province. Rural communities are highly appreciated for their time answering our questions. Authors are gratefulto Dr. Yoko Mochizuki for her comments on the paper.

ⒸISERD36

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

REFERENCES
Adger, W.N. 2006. Vulnerability. Global Environmental Change, 16, 268-281.
Am, P. 2010. Impact of climate change on rice production of Cambodia, MAFF, Phnom Penh.
Ang, S., Oeur, I. and McAndrew, J. 2007. Understanding social captal in response to floods and droughts.
http://www.ccc-cambodia.org.
CDRI. 2007. Annual Development Review 2006-07, Cambodia Development Resource Institute (CDRI),
Phnom Penh.
CDRI. 2012. Cambodia’s   Priorities   for   Inclusive   growth,   Regional   Integration   and   ASEAN   Leadership,
Phnom Penh,
Chan, S. and Sarthi, A. 2002. Facing the Challenges of Rural Livelihoods, CDRI, Phnom Penh.
Chaudhuri, S. 2003. Assessing vulnerability to poverty: concepts, empirical methods and illustrative
example http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/97185/Keny_0304/Ke_0304/vulnerabilityassessment.pdf.
Elbers, C. and Jan, W.G. 2003. Staying Poor: Chronic Poverty and Development Policy, University ofManchester, UK.
Eriksen, S.H. and O'Brien, K. 2007. Vulnerability, poverty and the need for sustainable adaptation measures.
Climate Policy, 7, 337-352.
Geres-Cambodia. 2009. Public perceptions of climate change in Cambodia. Phnom Penh Franke, Sandra.
2005., Canada.
McCarthy, J., Canziani, O., Leary, N., Dokken, D. and White, K. 2001. Climate Change 2001: Impacts,
Adaptation and Vulnerability, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
MoE. 2001. Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment to Climate Change in Cambodia, Ministry ofEnvironment, Phnom Penh.
MoE. 2005. Vulnerability and adaptation to climate hazards and to climate change: A survey of rural
Cambodia households, Ministry of Environment, Phnom Penh.
MoE. 2006. National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate Change, Ministry of Environment, Phnom
Penh.
MoE and UNDP Cambodia. 2011. Cambodia Human Development report 2011. Building Resilience: theFuture of Rural Livelihoods in the Face of Climate Change.
NCDD. 2009. Kampong Speu Data Book 2009, NCDD, Phnom Penh.
NCDM. 2003. Mapping vulnerability to natural disasters in Cambodia. Phnom Penh, National committee fordisaster management (NCDM), Phnom Penh.
NCDM. 2008. Strategic National Action Plan, National Committee for Disaster Management, Phnom Penh.
NIS. 2008. Statistical Year Book of Cambodia 2008, Ministry of Planning, Phnom Penh.
NIS. 2009. Cambodia Socio-economic Survey 2009, Ministry of Planning, Phnom Penh.
Smit, B., McNabb, D. and Smithers, J. 1996. Agricultural adaptation to climatic variation. Climatic Change,
33, 7-29.
Smit, B. and Wandel, J. 2006. Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability. Global Environmental Change,
16, 282-292.
Smith, B., Burton, I., Klein, R.J.T. and Wandel, J. 2000. An Anatomy of Adaptation to Climate Change andVariability. Climatic Change, 45, 223-251.
WFP. 2003. Mapping vulnerability to national disasters in Cambodia, Phnom Penh.
World Bank. 2006. Managing risk and vulnerability in Cambodia: An assessment and strategy for social
protection, Washington DC.
Yu, B. and Fan, S. 2011. Rice production response in Cambodia. Agricultural Economics, 42, 437-450.
Yusuf, A.A. and Francisco, H.A. 2010. Mapping climate change vulnerability in Southeast Asia, Singapore.

ⒸISERD37

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Special Contribution on EFA and ESD Research article
erdIntegration of Local Knowledge into Teaching-Learning
Activities of Agricultural Subjects in Primary Education
CHAICHARN WONGSAMUN*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: chaichrn@kku.ac.th

NIWAT MARTWANNA
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

PRAPATSORN TAECHAPRASERTWITAYA
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

SUMONCHART CHAROENKORNBURIFaculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 19 December 2011

Accepted 18 April 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract It is stated in the National Education Act of Thailand that there shall be the application of local knowledge in teaching-learning process of academic subjects in various
educational levels. In order to assess a suitable procedure on how to integrate local
knowledge into teaching-learning activities of agricultural subjects in primary education,
this research was conducted by collecting data from teachers, students, administrators andcommunity leaders in Khon Kaen Province, Thailand, through survey, case studies, training and seminars. It was summarized that there should be four stages in integrating local
knowledge into the educational process of agricultural subjects. These included: 1) raisingawareness on the importance of local knowledge and building cooperation among relevant
persons, such as educational administrators, community leaders, local intellectuals, students and parents; 2) preparing a lesson plan with suitable contents, materials and resources; 3) conducting teaching-learning and evaluation activities; and 4)   disseminating
the outputs from teaching-learning activities to the public. Agriculture teachers had aprominent role in all four stages and their duties on studying, selecting, integrating anddisseminating local knowledge were defined.
Keywords local knowledge, agricultural subject, primary education

INTRODUCTION
There are a number of definitions for local knowledge or indigenous knowledge. Department of
Education (1997) defined local knowledge as the accumulated knowledge of local people and has
been handed down to new generations. It is the core knowledge that people use for making a living,solving problems and adapting to sustain their community existence. Buasonth (1990) noted that
local knowledge is the paradigm of the self to the world and the environment. This paradigm derived from the foundation of religious teaching and customary principles which had been inheritedand practiced with continuous improvement to the changing social context of each period of time.
Somkanae (1992) described that local knowledge is the mass of knowledge and experiences of thepeople who had been using them to make a happy living. The accumulation of knowledge was inherited through the development process and consistent with the passage of time.
The importance of local knowledge has been recognized by international development agencies. The World Bank (2005) stated that indigenous knowledge (IK) or local knowledge can be a
ⒸISERD38

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

powerful tool in a learning environment to teach students. However, educational curricula in many
countries  do  not  support  students’  learning based on local knowledge existing in their community.
It is needed to adapt learning environments to help students learn and appreciate various aspects of
their local knowledge. Educators should identify appropriate pedagogical techniques to combine
local knowledge into academic programs. When IK is integrated into the learning environments,
students can better connect to the material taught, and it can become a major knowledge source forsustainable development of local communities. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction(1996) described that local knowledge is embedded in a dynamic system in which livelihood activities, spirituality, kinship, traditions and other aspects in a particular community are tied together
and influence one another. Local technologies and know-how have an advantage over introduced
ones in that they rely on locally available skills and materials and are thus often more cost-effective
than the technologies from outside.
Wasie (1987) stated that the community should be the center of learning process to students.
Local schools and communities should have cooperation in providing education for young people.
Local intellectual persons should be invited to take part in curricular development and teachingdifferent courses in the school. Students should be assigned to study local knowledge in the community and the teachers should do the survey of existing local bodies of knowledge and apply theminto the teaching-learning activities of relevant subjects.
According to the Primary Education Curriculum, issued in 2001, local schools are required toteach agricultural subjects to students in every class level. In the National Education Act, issued in
1999, there is a list of articles that set up guidelines stating that there shall be the application of local knowledge in teaching-learning process of academic subjects in various educational levels, including agricultural subjects in primary education.
However, it was reported that a high number of teachers who were responsible for this subject
area did not finish their education in agriculture and lacked of appropriate approaches and methods
for integrating local knowledge and technology into the teaching-learning process (Wongsamun etal., 1987, Imwiriyawat et al., 1989, and Thalangsri, 1994). Therefore, the research was conductedin Khon Kaen province during 2004-2006 to assess a suitable procedure on how to integrate local
knowledge into teaching-learning activities of agricultural subjects in primary schools.
METHODOLOGY
The activities of this research were divided into four sub-projects, including 1) Study of the process,problems and needs in conducting teaching-learning activities in agricultural subjects at the primary education level (grade 4-6) of teachers in Khon Kaen province; 2) Study on the opinions of related parties towards the integration of local knowledge into teaching-learning process of agricultural subjects in primary education; 3) Development of a model and methods for integrating local
knowledge in the teaching-learning process of agricultural subjects in primary education; and 4)
Summary of lessons learned and dissemination of a suitable model and methods for integrating local knowledge in the teaching-learning process of agricultural subjects applied in primary education. In the first sub-project, research data were collected from 216 teachers, who were selectedwith multi-stage random sampling, by mailed questionnaires. The collected data were statisticallyanalyzed for frequency, percentage, arithmetic mean, standard deviation,  maximum, minimum, ttest and F-test.     In the second sub-project, 10 primary schools were selected and a case study for each school
was conducted to assess the opinions of the school administrators, teachers and students towards
the integration of local knowledge into the teaching-learning process of agricultural subjects. A
one-day workshop was also conducted for 65 participants, including teachers, school administrators,
educational supervisors and local agricultural extension workers, to share, exchange and discuss
their ideas and experiences on applying local knowledge into primary education.
In the third sub-project, 25 teachers from five districts of Khon Kaen province were selected toparticipate in a two-day training program on the preparation of a lesson plan of agricultural subjects
with the integration of local knowledge into educational process. After the participating teachersⒸISERD39

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

had used those lesson plans at their schools in the following term, they were invited to participate
in the second training program for sharing their experiences and improving their lesson plans. At
the same time, a model on how to integrate local knowledge into educational process was discussed
and drafted taking into account the findings, comments and suggestions from previous activities ofthe project.
In the fourth sub-project,  three  local workshops were conducted in three districts for teachers,
school administrators, parents, community leaders and students to summarize lessons learned andexpress their opinions and give suggestions towards the drafted model on integrating local
knowledge into the educational process of agricultural subjects. About 40 participants were involved in each of the workshop.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results and discussion can be divided into four main parts in accordance with the sub-projects of
the research. The details of each part are the following.
Teaching-learning process and problems, and training needs of teachers
Backgrounds of agriculture teachers: Results revealed that the average age of the teachers was
45 years old, 69.4  % of them were male, only 23.6% finished academic major in agriculture and96.3% taught other subjects beside agriculture.
Agricultural teaching-learning activities at the school: The first three most popular agriculturalactivities at schools were vegetable growing (79.6%), fish culture (61.1%) and ornamental plantgrowing (59.7%). Most of the teachers, 89.4%, integrated agricultural subject into other subjects ofschool curriculum with an average of 2.5 periods of instruction per week. Subject matters in agriculture that were commonly taught by the teachers included vegetable growing (87.5%), agricultural tools and usage (86.1%), work safety (83.3%), ornamental plant growing (66.2%), conservationof energy and environment (64.4  %) and integrated farming (61.6%). Learning processes used atthe   “high”   level   were   learning   by   actual   practice   and   learning   from   experiences.   Teaching   techniques highly used by the teachers were integrated approach, group work and demonstration. For
evaluation, the methods used were individual and group performances, work outputs and reports,
and assessment of practical work. Important problems faced by the teachers included lack of instructional media (61.6%) and lack of parents’  cooperation  (46.3%).
Training needs of agriculture teachers: Training topics in agriculture highly needed by theteachers were crop production, conservation of energy and environment, plant protection, fish culture and animal raising. For teaching preparation, the training topics highly needed by the teachers
included preparation of course syllabus, preparation of lesson plans, preparation of budget, place,materials   and   equipment   for   instruction,   learners’   preparation   and   getting   cooperation   from local
intellectuals and related organizations. For instructional media, the training topics highly needed by
the teachers were preparation of instructional manual, photography for instructional media preparation, preparation of specimen, model and video media, classroom research and preparation of agricultural  tools.  For  conducting  students’  activities,  the  teachers  highly  needed  training  in  the  following topics: learning from actual practice, learning from documentary inquiry, learning from experienced persons  and  learning  from  students’  group  work.  For  evaluation  aspects,  the  following  training topics were highly needed by teachers: evaluation from individual and group performances,evaluation from work outputs and reports, assessing and evaluating practical work, assessing andevaluating  students’  skills,  and  evaluating  students’  portfolio.  For  supporting  aspects,  the  teachers  expressed highly needs for training on the following topics: getting support from school principal,
requesting for technical publications and materials from related organizations and getting cooperation  from  students’  parents  and  community  leaders.  
Comparisons of training needs of teachers: Comparisons of training needs of teachers found thatthose with different sexes, age groups, numbers of years in teaching agricultural subjects, majors ofⒸISERD40

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

graduation, areas for agricultural activities at school and locations of school in rain-fed or irrigatedareas had statistically different levels of needs on certain training topics.
Strengths and weaknesses of instruction in agricultural subjects
It was found in the case studies which were carried out at 10 schools in five districts of Khon Kaen
province that most primary schools allocated two periods per week of instructional time for agricultural subjects for students in grades 4-5 was (1 period = 50 minutes) and three periods for students
in grade 6. The teaching-learning activities included classroom instruction and field practices. From
the opinions of respondents, the strengths of the instruction in agricultural subjects in primaryschools included: (1) good coordination with relevant agencies, (2) having areas in the school for
agricultural practices of students, (3) good cooperation from local intellectuals to help in teaching
agriculture in school, and (4) provision of out-of-school activities to learn agriculture in real-lifesituations. On the other hand, they expressed that the weaknesses of the instruction in agriculturalsubjects included (1) lack of instructional media and agricultural tools for field practices, (2) lackof water resources for agricultural activities during the dry season, (3) teachers lack of experiencesin agricultural work and did not finish their education in agriculture, (4) parents lack of understanding on the importance of teaching agriculture in school, (5) limited school areas for agricultural
practices, and (6) teachers have limited knowledge on local situation, culture and wisdom. To beable to integrate local knowledge into educational process of agricultural subjects, it was suggested
that there should be a cooperative effort among school administrators, teachers, students, local
community leaders and related organizations. The suggested procedures for the integration included (1) setting clear policies and guidelines by the high-level education offices, (2) studying andcollecting local knowledge in the community, (3) preparing lesson plans with contents and activities related to relevant local knowledge, (4) conducting teaching-learning activities, (5) supervisingteaching  activities,  and  (6)  evaluating  students’  achievement  and  teaching  performance.    
Training, lesson plan preparation and development of teaching model
During the two-day training, all 25 participating teachers exchanged their teaching experiences andreceived additional information on local knowledge, how to study this type of knowledge and how
to include it in teaching-learning process. Each teacher was asked to prepare a lesson plan to betaught at his or her school in the following academic term. The plan contained the standard components of lesson plan, consisting of teaching topic, important concept, learning objectives, subject
matter, teaching-learning process, media and learning resources, evaluation of learning achievement, suggestions for additional learning activities, and assignment worksheets. At the same time,
the teachers had to identify and include local knowledge to be included into their lessons plans. As
a result, by the end of the training, all teachers had their own lesson plans for teaching at theirschools. Then, they came back for the second training to share their experiences and improve theirlesson plans for future use. At the same time, they were involved in a discussion on suitable models
and methods for integrating local knowledge in the teaching-learning process of agricultural subjects in primary education which consisted of various procedures and activities of related persons
as described in the conclusion below.
Summary of lessons learned by related parties
As a result, three  local workshops were conducted after all main stake holders, including teachers,
school administrators, parents, community leaders and students had gone through relevant activities
on integrating local knowledge into educational process in agricultural subjects at their local
schools. It was agreed that the integration could be done, and was useful for students. Each party
should have certain responsibilities to do in order to have a successful model of instruction. Undera good cooperation of related persons and organizations, existing problems or limitations could beⒸISERD41

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

solved   and   students’   learning   accomplishment   and   appreciation   on   local   knowledge   could   be  strengthened.
CONCLUSION
From the research findings, it was concluded that a suitable model for integrating local knowledge
into the educational process of agricultural subjects consisted of four stages, and the teachers hadprominent  tasks  in  implementing  this  model.  The  details  and  teachers’  tasks  of  those  stages  are  the  following:Stage 1: Raising awareness on the importance of local knowledge and building cooperation
among relevant persons including educational administrators, community leaders, local intellectuals,  students  and  parents.  Teachers’  tasks  include  organizing  meetings  for related persons, disseminating  information  on  successful  cases  in  using  local  knowledge,  publicizing  students’  work  outputs, and organizing field trips for related individuals.
Stage 2: Preparing lesson plan with suitable contents, materials and resources.  The  teachers’  tasks include studying structure of curriculum, education policies of administrators and local environment, studying and collecting local agricultural knowledge, preparing integrated lesson plans,
and preparing teaching media, learning resources and assignment worksheets
Stage 3:   Conducting teaching-learning and evaluation activities.   The   teachers’   tasks   include  studying and reviewing the lesson plans, preparing instructional media, classroom and places forfield practices, delivering the contents of subject matters and conducting learning activities withstudents’  centered  approach,  coordinating  with  local  intellectuals  as  needed,  following  up  the  progress   of   students’   work,   preparing   evaluation   tools   and   measures,   and   implementing   them asplanned, and recording successes and problems of teaching-learning activities with suggestions for
future improvement.
Stage 4: Disseminating outputs from teaching-learning activities to the public. The  teachers’  tasks include identifying means and opportunities  to  present  to  students’  outputs  in  the  school  and  community, providing suggestions in media preparation and delivery for students, evaluating students’  accomplishments,  collecting  and  reviewing  data  on  the  successes  and  problems  of  the  course,  and writing reminding statements for the future improvement of contents and teaching delivery.
REFERENCES
Buasonth, R. 1990. The role of primary schools and the transfer of local knowledge. Journal National Education, 24(4), 68-74.
Department of Education. 1997. Summary of research findings entitled local knowledge and curriculum development. Ministry of Education. Bangkok: Kurusapa Ladprao.
Imwiriyawat, S., Taechaprasertwitaya, P. and Wongsamun, C. 1989. Training needs of agriculture teachers inprimary schools in Northeastern Region, Thailand. Research Report. Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen
University, Thailand.
International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. 1996. Recording and using indigenous knowledge: A manual.
IIRR: Silang, Cavite, The Philippines.
Somkanae, A. 1992. Conditions and problems on integrating local wisdom in curricular development for
primary schools in Ubon Ratchathani.province, Master's degree thesis in Education. Graduate School.
Chulalongkorn University, Thailand.
Thalangsri, S. 1994. Management of agricultural education in grades 5-6 of teachers in primary schools under
the Office of Education, Kalasin province. Master Degree of Education in Primary Education. Graduate
School. Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
Wasie, P. 1987. Thai local wisdom for development. Community Development. 1, 5.
Wongsamun, C., Bunthamcharoen, C., Imwiriyawat, S. and Taechaprasertwitaya, P. 1987. Training needs ofagriculture teachers in primary schools in Khon Kaen province. Research Report. Faculty of Agriculture,
Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
World Bank. 2005. Education: Building on indigenous knowledge. IK Notes No. 87, December 2005.
http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ik/iknt87.htm.
ⒸISERD42

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Evaluation of On-Farm Pond Water Budget in Khon Kaen
Province, Thailand
KEWAREE PHOLKERN*
Groundwater Research Center, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen University, Kohn Kaen,
Thailand
Email: rekawee@hotmail.com

VICHAI SRIBOONLUE
Groundwater Research Center, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen University, Kohn Kaen,
ThailandReceived 19 December 2011

Accepted 7 February 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract An on-farm pond is an essential technique for water resources management innortheast Thailand. It can be used for many purposes e.g. farm water supply,
supplementary irrigation, livestock, aquaculture, and flood mitigation. The purpose of thisresearch is to evaluate the suitability of two calculation methods for on-farm pond water
budget. Two on-farm ponds in Ban Wangwa were selected to be the study sites and thewater balance of the ponds including water inflow and water outflow components were
calculated. Water inflow was determined by two methods, namely watershed routing andsynthetic unit hydrograph. The results show that the synthetic unit hydrograph method
gives the better agreement to the observed data than the watershed routing method in bothof peak discharge and runoff volume. The main causes of water losses are evaporation,water usage, and seepage. Evaporation from the ponds was determined by two methods,
namely the Penman method using Priestley-Taylor evaporation equation and the
Evaporation pan method. Subsequently coefficient of the Priestley-Taylor evaporation (α)  and coefficient of the evaporation pans (Kp) are 1.66 and 0.88, respectively. The
evaporation by pan evaporation is fast, simple and easier than Priestley-Taylor
evaporation.
Keywords on-farm pond, water budget, inflow, evaporation

INTRODUCTION
An on-farm pond is an appropriate technology for water harvesting in northeast Thailand. The undulating landscapes, which dominate the northeast topography, enhance the efficiency and usabilityof on-farm ponds, by providing catchment areas and reasonable head for water conveyance. It canbe used for many purposes e.g. farm water supply, supplementary irrigation, live stock water consumption, aquaculture, and even flood mitigation (Suresh, 2002; Ngigi et al., 2005; Yoo and Boyd,
1994; and Kumar, 1992).
The climate of the northeast is monsoon, where wet season is from May to October and dry
season is the rest of the year. Therefore more than 80% of annual rainfall is in the wet season, onfarm pond harvests water during 6 months of the wet season and supplies water for the next dry 6
months. The study of the nature of the on-farm pond inflow and outflow is important for the onfarm pond design, construction, and management. To utilize an on-farm pond to its highest
potential and in an environmentally sound way, its study of water balance must be performed. This
study presents a suitable method for calculating the pond water inflow and water loss of the onfarm ponds.

ⒸISERD43

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

STUDY AREA
The study areas located at two on-farm ponds in Ban Wangwa, 25 km south of Khon Kaen, werechosen as study sites. The two ponds are closed together, and one is considered to be the northpond while the other is considered the south pond. The north pond has the dimensions of 20304m. Its elevation of the bottom is 194.44 m above the mean sea level. The south pond has the size of17334 m and the elevation of the bottom is 194.95 m amsl. Fig. 1 shows the satellite image ofthe ponds and their environment which consists of upland crops, fallows, and eucalyptus woodlands.
The surrounding topography of the two ponds was surveyed using a level and a hand-held GPS.
The topographic contours and the watershed areas of the two ponds are shown in Fig. 2. The
catchment of the north pond is like a butterfly in shape which should produce a sharp peak with ashort time base. The catchment of the south pond is an elongated shape that should produce a mild
peak with a long time base. The outlet from the watershed or the inlet into the pond for each of thecases is quite special. For the north pond, the inlet is at the northeast corner of the pond and close to
the road, therefore we installed a rectangular weir for inflow measurement. For the south pond, theoutflow from the watershed passes through a ditch which leads across a road to the pond, a complicated inflow arrangement. The length and slope of the main channel for the north pond are 167 m
and 0.0096 respectively, and for the south pond are 480 m and 0.0165 respectively. The areas of
the watershed of the north and the south pond are 10643 m2 and 12618 m2 respectively. Piezometers were installed to observe groundwater levels, two for the north pond at P 2 and P4 in Fig. 2 andone for the south pond at P5. Automatic water level recorders were installed on north and south
ponds at P3 and P6 respectively. An automatic weather station was set up near the north pond. It
recorded rainfall, air and dew point temperatures, relative humidity, wind speed and direction, andnet radiation.
METHODOLOGY
Water balance equation or continuity equation can be used to describe the flow of water in and outof pond. Using all components that might possibly be significant, solve the continuity equation forgroundwater seepage (Chow, et al., 1988) as equation (1).
S
(1)
t
where P is precipitation,   Ri and  Ro are Runoff in and out respectively, Gi   and  Go are Groundwater
seepage additional to the pond and removal respectively, U is water use and S/t  is  change instorage.
Water balance in the on-farm pond was divided into two main sections. First section is theevaluation of accuracy of the water harvesting or water inflow of the on-farm ponds. The second
section was conducted to calculate the factors affecting water loss or outflow of the on-farm ponds.
P  Ri  Gi - E - R o - Go - U (1) On-farm ponds water harvesting
The water which flows into the pond consists of rainfall in to the pond, runoff and groundwater
inflow. The main component of water inflow is runoff. Two simple lump models were used in thisstudy, namely the watershed routing technique and the synthetic unit hydrograph method.
The watershed routing technique
Based on the assumption that the outflow from the watershed varies nonlinearly with the storage inthe watershed, van den Akker and Boomgaard (1996) suggested the following model.
q2 ⒸISERDk  0.5ttq1 ik  0.5tk  0.5t                                                                                                                            

44

(2)

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

where q1 and q2 are discharges as depth per unit time at time steps 1 and 2 respectively, i is intensity of excess rainfall, k is parameter and t is time interval.
The watershed routing model can be used to predict the flow rate from the present flow rateand intensity of rainfall data. The unit flow rate, q, can convert to total flow rate, Q, by multiplying
with the watershed area.

Fig. 1 Location of the two experimental ponds satellite image
LegendPosition of
instrument
Contour line
Farm pond
Watershed areas

Fig. 2 Location watershed areas and its environment
The synthetic unit hydrograph
The unit hydrograph is a direct runoff hydrograph resulting from a unit rainfall (1 cm depth) of thespecific rainfall duration (Shaw, 1994). The unit hydrograph is normally derived from records ofrainfall and runoff data. When dealing with small watersheds, coupled rainfall and runoff data are
hardly available, we therefore resort to the synthetic unit hydrograph. The unit hydrograph that is
synthesized from topographic and climatic features is called a synthetic unit hydrograph (Shaw,
1994).
ⒸISERD45

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

The shape of a unit hydrograph may be assumed as the gamma function distribution (Aron andWhite, 1982). Akan and Houghtalen (2003) suggest an equation for coordinate of unit hydrographas equation (3).
u

Cp A
tp

[(t / t p ) exp(1  ( t / t p ))]n 1(3)where Cp = proportional constant, tp = time to peak discharge, A = watershed area, t = time, u =unit discharge at time t and n is a constant which related to Cp as equation (4).
n  1.0685 0.1175C p  0.782C p(4)

2

We selected 3 prominent storm events, two storms in the year 2006 on 30 Aug, and 17 Sept,and one storms in the year 2007 on 12 Sept for this study. The runoff data were interpreted fromthe incremental volume of the pond storage with the time interval of recording. Table 1 shows thedata of rainfall and runoff for the north and the south pond.
Table 1 The data of rainfall and runoff into the north and the south pond
30 Aug 2006
17 Sep 2006
12 Sep 2007
Time
Runoff (m3/s)
Runoff (m3/s)
Runoff (m3/s)
RainfallRainfallRainfall(min)(mm) north pond south pond (mm) north pond south pond (mm) north pond south pond
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0.20
0.005
0
0
0
0.031
0
0
0
20
3.80
0.004
0.006
2.60
0.012
0.008
8.2
0.004
0.007
30
10.60
0.056
0.023
4.00
0.044
0.017
2.2
0
0.002
40
4.60
0.060
0.044
7.20
0.034
0.011
3
0.016
0.005
50
3.00
0.049
0.061
4.80
0.029
0.019
7.2
0.047
0.028
60
0.60
0.024
0.077
4.40
0.023
0.011
7
0.016
0.033
70
0.80
0.002
0.022
1.60
0.026
0.036
1
0.026
0.018
80
0.60
0.008
0.022
2.00
0.025
0.014
0
0.022
0.024
90
0.60
0
0.013
0.60
0.006
0.014
0
0.019
0.029
100
0.60
0.004
0.008
0.20
0.005
0
0
0.013
0.015
110
1.20
0.009
0.022
0
0.001
0.008
0
0.010
0.009
120
1.60
0.013
0.004
0.20
0.001
0.006
0
0.008
0.004
130
0.60
0.002
0
0
0
0
0.2
0.007
0.003
140
0
0.008
0.008
0
0
0
0
0.007
0

(2) Water loss or outflow
The outflow of water or water loss from a pond, consists of evaporation, water use and groundwater seepage. The query found that both on-farm ponds are not water used for any activity. Groundwater seepage can be determined from the water balance equation or continuity equation. This
study presents a method to determine water loss from evaporation, that water loss is the factor ofmost important (Vichai, 2008).
In the design and management of the reservoir, evaporative water loss is the factor of mostimportant (Vichai, 2008). The most popular method for determining the amount of evaporation,
Penman equation (1948) was employed. Penman equation combines the energy balance with themass transfer method and derives an equation to compute the evaporation from open water.
Penman equation  is quite difficult to be calculated and requires a lot of information. Then pond
evaporation data was estimated by Penman equation by using variables of other evaporation
equation that was more simple, as follows.
Priestley and Taylor evaporation equation
In 1972, Priestley and Taylor have revised the penman equation to be calculated easier as thePriestley and Taylor evaporation equation (5).
ⒸISERD46

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

E pond  


Er


(5)

where Epond = pond evaporation,  = gradient of the saturated vapor pressure curve at air temperature, Er = evaporation  rate,    = psychrometric constant.
  is  unknown parameter value. There will be slight variations in location of the study area.
Determining evaporation by Priestley and Taylor evaporation equation is much easier than Penman
equation.
Evaporation pan
The general methodology for evaporation calculation is the evaporation pan (Ep). There are various
types of evaporation pan. Adjustment factors or pan coefficients (K p) have been determined toconvert the data recorded in evaporation pans so that they correspond to evaporation from large
open water surface. Equation of the evaporation pan (Chow, et al., 1988) is as equation (6).
E pond

K E
p

(6)

pan

The evaporation from the pond was computed by using data from an automatic weather station,
which was set up on the study area in dry season of year 2006 and 2007 (November 2006 to April2007). Evaporation pan (Epan) data of study area from Thai Meteorological Department was used.
North pond 30-Aug-06

0.07

0.05

0.06

North pond 19-Sep-06

D a taData

Wa t e rs h e d ro u t in g k =1.1

Watershed routing k=0.6

Un it h yd ro g ra p h C p =0 .3 7

0.04

Unit hydrograph Cp=0.65

0.04

0.02

0.01

0

0.02

0.00
0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

0Time (min)

(a)

(b)

South pond 30-Aug-06

0.07

Data

W a t e rs he d ro ut ing k=2 . 5
U nit hy d ro g ra p h C p =0 . 10 5

0.04

Q (m3/s)

Q (m3/s)

Q (m3/s)

0.04

0.03
0.02

0.02

Dat a

0.03

0.05
0.06

Time (min)South pond 12-Sep-07

0.04

Data
Watershed routing k=0.9
Unit hydrograph Cp=0.33

Unit hydrograph Cp=0.98

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140(c)South pond 19-Sep-06

0.06

Watershed routing k=0.55

0.08

0.00

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

Time (min)0.10

Un it h yd ro g ra p h C p =0 .9

0.06

0.02

0.01

Wa t e rs h e d ro u t in g k =1.3

Q (m3/s)

30.03

D a ta

0.10
0.08

0.03

0.04

Q (m /s)

Q (m3/s)

0.05

North pond 12-Sep-07

0.12

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.00
0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

Time (min)

(d)

0.00

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

Time (min)(e)

0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

Time (min)(f)

Fig. 3 Comparison of the predicted runoffs to the observed data, (a), (b), and (c)for the north pond and (d), (e), and (f) for the south pond
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Three sets of rainfall-runoff data on 30 Aug and 19 Sept, 2006 and 12 Sept, 2007 were used. The
observed hydrographs were plotted and compared with the two predicted methods in Fig. 2. It isclear from Fig. 3 that the synthetic unit hydrograph method has better agreement with the observedhydrograph than the watershed routing technique. For peak discharge, the synthetic unit hydroⒸISERD47

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

graph method gives lower values that are closer to the observed data than the routing technique,although not by much. However, for the volume of flow, the watershed routing technique predictedmuch larger volumes than the observed data or the unit hydrograph method.
The k values vary in the ranges 0.6-1.3 and 0.55-2.5 for the north and the south pond
respectively. The coefficient Cp values of the synthetic unit hydrograph are in the ranges 0.37-0.90
and 0.10-0.98 for the north and the south pond respectively. The variations in both k and Cp
demonstrate the nonlinearity of the flow system. The average values of k of both ponds are rather
varied, but Cp of both ponds are fairly close. It is suggested that the runoff calculation from rainfall
for an on-farm pond water harvesting in northeast Thailand should be done by using the synthetic
unit hydrograph. The suitable Cp value can be obtained by fitting the model to several observed
data then averaging the values.
Evaporation of on-farm ponds, in November-February are in the ranges 4.48-4.77 mm/day,those in March and April are 5.26  mm/day  and  6.03  mm/day respectively as shown in Table 1. The
research results help to find the coefficients for the simpler method namely Priestley-Taylor
evaporation equation and the Evaporation pans method. The average coefficient  values ofPriestley-Taylor evaporation equation in Ban Wangwa are in the ranges 1.37-1.86 (average 1.67).
The pan coefficient Kp values of evaporation pans are in the ranges 0.80-0.91 (average 0.87) for
Ban Wangwa.
Table 2 Evaporation of water in the on-farm pond andthe most suitable values of  and Kp

November 2006

4.40

(Priestley and Taylor
evaporation equation)
1.37

December 2007

4.34

1.82

0.90

January 2007

4.47

1.86

0.91

February 2007

4.80

1.80

0.85

March 2007

5.31

1.50

0.80

April 2007

6.04

1.40

0.85

4.89

1.67

0.87

Month

The data of evaporation(mm/d)

Average

Kp(Evaporation pan)
0.89

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONThe synthetic unit hydrograph method gives better predictions than the watershed routing techniquefor both the peak discharge and the runoff volume. The k-values of the routing technique vary in
the range 0.55-2.5 (avg 1.16). The Cp-values of the unit hydrograph method vary in the range 0.100.98 (avg 0.56). The variations in k and Cp demonstrate the nonlinearity of the flow systems.
Evaporation of on-farm ponds, in November-February are in the range 4.48-4.77 mm/day,those in March and April are 5.26  mm/day  and  6.03  mm/day respectively. The results help to findthe coefficients for the simpler method namely Priestley-Taylor evaporation equation and the
Evaporation pans method. The average coefficient  value of Priestley-Taylor  evaporation equationis 1.66. The pan coefficient Kp value of Evaporation pans is 0.88. However, the evaporation by pan
evaporation is fast, simple and easier. Because the data used are less and easier to find.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is funded by Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)
and Groundwater Research Center (GWRC), Khon Kaen University, Thailand. The authors thank Mr.
Suwanchai Nadee and Mr. Phayom Saraphirom for their useful suggestions.

ⒸISERD48

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

REFERENCES
Aron, G. and White, E. 1982. Fitting a gamma distribution over a synthetic unit hydrograph. Water Resources Bulletin, 18(1).
Chow, V.T., Maidment, D.R. and Mays, L.W. 1988. Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill.
Penman, H.L. 1948. Natural evaporation from open water, bare soil, and grass, Proc.R.Soc.London A, Vol.
193, 120-146.
Shaw, E.M. 1994. Hydrology in practice. 3rd ed., Chapman and Hall.
Sriboonlue, V. 2008. Hydrology. Faculty of Engineering, Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
Suresh, R. 2002. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering. 2nd ed., Standard Publishers.
Van den Akker, C. and Boomgaard, M.E. 1996. Hydrologie. Technische Universiteit Delft, Netherland.

ⒸISERD49

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Science and Conservation of Aquatic Animals in Thailand
PATCHARA NITHIROJPAKDEE*
Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand
Email: patjj_22@yahoo.com

RUNGTHIP PLONGSESTHEE
Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand

FREDERICK WILLIAM HENRY BEAMISH
Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand

PUNNATUT KANGRANG
Faculty of Science, Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand
Received 19 December 2011

Accepted 7 February 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract Conservation policy, plans and implementation require the integration and management of a multitude of disciplines including the natural, physical and social sciences,law, economics and government policy. This study describes several major steps to implement a conservation plan for degraded rivers in Thailand and provides new approaches
to assist in repairing degraded freshwater fish communities. Conservation of aquatic animals requires an understanding of their environmental requirements, preferences and species associations to accompany existing tactics to improve physical and chemical conditions of rivers. At present this ecological information is dreadfully inadequate in Thailand.
Some freshwater environments in Thailand are currently experiencing an alarming decline
in biodiversity. As a result, scientists and managers should undertake immediate management techniques to protect what remains of these aquatic systems. First step in conservation is to recognize a need and this is not likely to be easy. Effective conservation projects
are likely to be lead by a committee representing a wide range of expertise including ecology, policy, law, economics and sociology along with appropriate government representatives. Second step is to determine objectives and an implementation strategy. Each river isdynamic and unique. Conservation may be approached and applied in different ways depending on human and financial resources, timeframe, information and severity of resource depletion, including recovery, rehabilitation, restoration and replacement. A third
step might include restructuring the biotic community in a degraded river once the physical damage or source of contamination has been contained and the chemical and physicalconditions repaired. Conservation planning is an activity in which social, economic andpolitical imperatives may modify, sometimes drastically, scientific prescriptions. This interaction need not be all one way.
Keywords bioenvironmental associations, ecosystem dynamics, conservation,
species richness, aquatic animals, Southeast Asia

INTRODUCTION
Ecosystems are complex and temporally dynamic and need to be understood to implement conservation plans and actions. Conservation plans for degraded aquatic systems should at the outset
clearly define temporal objectives recognizing available finances as well as physical, chemical andbiological resources information. Success is likely to be enhanced by incorporating human values
and needs within the ecosystem model. The specific applicability of these broad principles is context-specific because all ecological systems are unique as a function of their location, physical andchemical environment and current level and type of human use.
ⒸISERD50

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

The outcomes of conservation efforts commonly depend on how and by whom problems areframed. Conservation biology focused mostly on regional issues in the early years; however,recognition of the impact of human activities on global climate and potential consequences has
contributed a new level of urgency and understanding. While conservation biology is part of a multifaceted and interdisciplinary social-ecological system, social factors are likely to be the moreforceful and manipulable. This means solutions to conservation problems require integrated andholistic management taking into consideration relevant aspects of sociology, local and regional politics, law and economics.
Mainland Southeast Asia has undergone rapid social and economic changes in recent decades
and with these has been a precipitous rise in the degradation of natural resources. In Thailand, forest cover, coastal mangroves, coral reefs and many aquatic and terrestrial animals have declined in
distribution and numbers, in some cases dramatically (Aksornkoae, 1996; Nabhitabhata and Chanard, 2005; Sanguansombat, 2005; Ahmed et al., 2007). Certainly, Thailand has cause for the conservation concern that is recognized within several governmental departments, including the Royal
Forest Department, Fisheries Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment as well
as a number of small nongovernmental groups scattered throughout the country. A multitude of
threats to species and habitats as a consequence of human activities can lead to widespread environmental losses (New, 1998). Conservation is one response to environmental losses associatedwith anthropogenic activities. Science is required to help in the planning and implementation ofconservation actions. Perhaps of no less importance is knowledge and cooperation from local people in concert with guidance and assistance from the appropriate governmental and non governmental leaders. This study describes several major steps to implement a conservation plan for degraded rivers and provides a new approach to assist in repairing degraded freshwater fish communities.
METHODOLOGYFirst step in conservation is to recognize a need and this is not likely to be easy. Effective conservation projects are likely to be lead by a committee representing a wide range of expertise including
ecology, policy, law, economics and sociology along with appropriate government representatives.
Almost certainly there will be contrasting views of objectives and solutions within any such committee.
There is no international or even national standard that can be applied to determine a conservation need. Perception of the level of degradation varies among those making the assessment, theirbackground and agenda. Recognition of a biological need for conservation of aquatic ecosystems or
habitats can be difficult. Historically, water quality monitoring has relied on chemical testing which
provides no information on water quality resulting from non-chemical activities. Physical alterations such as habitat destruction, flow and discharge are undetected by chemical monitoring. Water
quality might better be evaluated from the occurrence and abundance of aquatic organisms that inhabit rivers. These organisms provide a direct association with water quality as they continuously
integrate the direct and interactive effects of all environmental variables and stresses, making themholistic indicators of water quality. A comprehensive bioassessment model is important for all geographic regions and one should be developed specifically for Thailand waters in recognition ofThai species distributions and habitat characteristics.
Second step is to determine objectives and an implementation strategy. Each river is dynamic
and unique. There are many causes of degradation: physical, chemical and biological, so conservation needs and solutions can be expected to be complex and uneven in cost. For example, conservation of a situation in one river may require relatively simple physical changes to improve bank stability, reduce erosion and turbidity, possibly leading to increased habitat diversity and enhanced
plant and animal diversity and abundances. In another river, chemical contamination may have replaced many indigenous plant and animal species with invasive organisms. The source of chemical
contaminants may be outside the jurisdiction of those wishing to implement the conservation project further complicating the process.
ⒸISERD51

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Objectives should consider time, cost and completeness of conservation area. Important toconservation projects is a clear understanding of the ultimate target. If for example, a community
decided their once beautiful river had become polluted and needed to be changed, one importantquestion  would  have  to  be  “changed  to  what  and  how  quickly”?  Aquatic  conservationists  recognize  there can be degrees of change to an ecosystem or its components. Perhaps the simplest change iscalled   ‘recovery’   which   simply   means   to   stop   the   source   of   whatever   is   negatively   affecting   the  condition of their river and let it regain its former condition through natural processes. This has theadvantage of low cost but is slow and species that may no longer inhabit the river may not be available  or  unable  to  repopulate  the  river.  Another  target  might  be  ‘rehabilitation’.  This  is  understood  to include changing parts rather than the entire degraded river. Advantages include relatively low
cost and being able to evaluate partial rather than a complete conservation effort. A third categoryis  ‘restoration’  which  is  to  return  an  ecology  or  river  to  the  way  it  was before being changed byhuman  activity.  A  special  category  is  called  ‘replacement’  which  is  to  improve  a  degraded  river  by  adding components that were not present in the original river. This might include different species
or improved habitat such as enlarged riffles, pools or spawning areas. Closely related to this is understanding the chemical, physical and biological conditions prior to its degraded conditions and in
the absence of this information how it can be hindcasted. We must remember that in rivers, in theabsence of anthropogenic influences, a harmonious association between the chemical and physicalcharacteristics and the resident biota has evolved over long periods of time. It is unreasonable toexpect biotic associations with abiotic factors to suddenly change in accord with human resources
and timeframes. Indeed, experience has found aquatic biota to be constrained within specific physical and chemical ranges, although the number of species for which this information is known isalarmingly small. Thus, if we wish to conserve, restore or rehabilitate river biota it is incumbent on
the conservationists to understand the environmental needs of the targeted biota. Without doing so
is almost certain to lead to failure. Obviously then conservationists must know what species arepresent at the outset of a conservation plan and the reason for managing fish species.
A third step might include restructuring the biotic community in a degraded river once thephysical damage or source of contamination has been contained and the chemical and physicalconditions repaired. This is likely to require information on all of the species that used to live there.
Guidelines to estimate total number of species within taxonomic groups are now available. If a river has only recently become degraded then it is likely some local residents can be helpful in recalling at least some of the former taxa and their relative abundances. This is most likely for taxa
considered to be useful to local residents such as fish and plants of medicinal or food value. In rivers degraded for decades custodial memories may have been lost or at least faded, however, underthese conditions science can help. Recently, the relationship between fish species number and river
length has been examined for several regions in Thailand. Number of fish species in relation to river size was determined by electrofishing sites selected by a randomized stratified procedure basedon river order. Number of potential sites within each order was based on cumulative length relative
to total. With adequate sampling equipment and experience most rivers can be sampled by two
people within a few days. Total number of species was estimated by the non parametric Jackknife
method (Krebs, 1989; Smith and Jones, 2005).
Companion information needs that are useful to conservation programs include environmental
conditions necessary to sustain target species. In this regard it would seem enormously beneficial tothe conservation of rivers in Thailand to have a national compendium of baseline information for
all taxa of plants and animals and effective and efficient technologies available for the implementation of approved conservation practices. Of course this would be complicated by a large and diverse array of abiotic and biotic interactions. Until such information becomes available recent scientific investigations have provided some useful guidelines. Practical studies of associations between fish species, their abundances and significant physical and chemical environmental conditions have been undertaken for rivers in several regions of Thailand (Beamish et al., 2006; Beamish
and Sa-ardrit, 2007). These studies have been conducted in rivers throughout Thailand and include
measurements of a large number of physicochemical factors at each of an even larger number ofsites together with quantitative sampling of resident fish species and their abundances. This inforⒸISERD

52

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

mation was then analyzed using canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) to identify significant
habitat variables and fish species associations, described in an ordination diagram in which species
are represented by coded numbers and, significant physicochemical variables, by vectors.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Number of fish species estimated by our laboratory for the relatively pristine nine rivers sampled incentral, southern and western Thailand increased in relation to their length (Fig. 1). However, theincrease in species diversity was less than predicted from a direct relation with length. Furthermore,
there is a suggestion of regional differences in species diversity with western rivers appearing tosustain more species per unit of length than in other regions.

Fig. 1 Relationship between total number of cypriniform species and river length inWestern, South-Central and South Eastern river systems
This is important preliminary information for the conservation of fishes in degraded rivers thatemphasizes a need to estimate baseline species numbers for more rivers from throughout Thailand.
Wherever information on species numbers prior to habitat degradation is not available from records
or local residents, regressions such as that in Fig. 1 can provide a simple method for hindcasting
potential target numbers.
Associations between fish species and statistically important chemical and physical environmental variables have been described in our laboratory for several regions of Thailand. One example of the extent to which balitorid species vary in their association with environmental conditions
was demonstrated in several rivers in Thailand (Plongsesthee, 2011; Fig. 2). The distribution andabundance of balitorid species in these rivers was significantly related to several factors with elevation and temperature being of primary importance followed by dissolved oxygen, silica, pH andwater velocity. The extent of influence by each environmental factor varies among fish species. For
example, distribution and abundance of Schistura balteata (#14 in Fig. 2) is positively associatedwith elevation and negatively, dissolved oxygen while the occurrence and abundance of Balitora
kwangsiensis (#3 in Fig. 2) is associated positively and primarily with temperature and secondarily
with pH and water velocity. Other species were variously associated with the other significant environmental factors highlighting the importance of identifying and understanding the environmental
conditions most suitable for each species. Information on species associations and the importantenvironmental variables provide essential baseline data especially in the absence of pre-degradation
information and should be of great benefit to conservation efforts of degraded rivers in Thailand.
Conservation of aquatic animals requires an understanding of environmental requirements andspecies associations to accompany existing tactics to improve physical and chemical conditions ofrivers. Some environmental factors have long been known or accepted to be beneficial for fish or
habitat conservation and can be implemented with simple technology, relative ease and low cost,such as current deflectors and embankment protection with boulders, gabions or tree plantings. Deflectors can be designed for a variety of purposes (Gore, 1985) including deepening and narrowing
channels, scouring pools, altering water velocity and chemistry, and removing silt from spawning
gravels and critical areas for benthic invertebrate production.
ⒸISERD53

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Fig. 2 Distribution of Balitoridae species from lightly exploited rivers in Thailand
with respect to significant habitat variables identified by canonical correspondence
analysis on axes 1 and 2, for each, the vector length and direction (Plongsesthee, 2011)
Generally dams are to be avoided in conservation strategies. The key ingredient to all habitatimprovement technologies is an understanding of aquatic ecology in concert with the conservation
objectives and resources along with the development of practical tools that can be used to determine environmental requirements of aquatic animals and species associations in undisturbed andenvironmentally threatened rivers. This is of critical importance for conservation in Thailand now
and in the future.
CONCLUSION
Conservative principles need to be developed, approved, implemented and managed to perpetuateaquatic resources for the benefit of all humankind. An understanding of the needs of flora and fauna must be acquired because without this information conservation efforts may prove unproductive.
At present this ecological information is dreadfully inadequate in Thailand. Some freshwater environments in Thailand are currently experiencing an alarming decline in biodiversity. As a result,scientists and managers should undertake immediate management techniques to protect what remains of these aquatic systems. Conservation planning is an activity in which social, economic andpolitical imperatives may modify, sometimes drastically, scientific prescriptions. This interactionneed not be all one way.

ⒸISERD54

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the RGJ-Ph.D. Program (Grant No. PHD/ 2. S.BU/ 49) and to BRT and ETM
programs for financial support. We gratefully acknowledge the permit to collect fish provided by
the Thailand Department of Fisheries.
REFERENCES
Ahmed, M., Boonchuwongse, P., Dechboon, W. and Squires, D. 2007. Overfishing in the Gulf of Thailand:
Policy challenges and bioeconomic analysis. Environment and Development, 12, 145-172.
Aksornkoae, S. 1996. Scientific mangrove management in Thailand. Tropical Forestry in the 21st Century.
Mangrove Ecosystems, 10, 118-126.
Beamish, F.W.H. and Sa-ardrit, P. 2007. Abundances and habitat sensitivities of some fishes in Thailand.
Tropical Freshwater Biology, 16(1), 57-73.
Beamish, F.W.H., Sa-ardrit, P. and Tongnunui, S. 2006. Habitat characteristics of the Cyprinidae in small
rivers in central Thailand. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 76, 237-253.
Gore, J.A. 1985. The restoration of rivers and streams: Theories and experience. Butterworth Publishers,
Stoneham. 280.
Krebs, C.J. 1989. Ecological methodology. First Edition. Harper Collins Inc., New York.
Nabhitabhata, J. and Chanard, T. 2005. Thailand red data: Mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning, Bangkok, Thailand.
New, T.R. 1998. Invertebrate surveys for conservation. Oxford University Press, UK.
Plongsesthee, R. 2011. Environmental associations of Balitorid fishes with special emphasis on the genus
Schistura in Central Thailand. MSc dissertation, Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Burapha
University.
Sanguansombat, W. 2005. Thailand red data: Birds. Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy
and Planning, Bangkok, Thailand.
Smith, K.L. and Jones, M.L. 2005. Watershed-level sampling effort requirements for determining riverine
fish species composition. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 62, 1580-1588.

ⒸISERD55

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Effect of Culture Media on Fertilization Rate in Bovine andCaprine Embryos Production
SARUTTIWONG BOONKONG
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

CHAINARONG NAVANUKRAW*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center for Sustainable Economy (ABRCSE),
Khon Kaen, University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: chanav@kku.ac.th

JIRATTI THAMMASIRI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

WINAI JAIKAN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

SUTHIPONG URIYAPONGSON
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 19 December 2011

Accepted 7 February 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract The objective of this experiment was to determine the effect of culture media(Tyrode Albumin Lactate Pyruvate-In Vitro Fertilization-Synthetic Oviduct Fluid; TALPIVF-SOF and SAGE mediaTM) on fertilization rate in bovine and caprine embryos production. Thai crossbred bovine ovaries (n=40) were collected at a local abattoir located in Khon
Kaen municipality. Caprine ovaries (n=22) were collected by the surgery method at the Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University. In order tocompare the culture media, oocytes were recovered and randomly cultured in TALP-IVFSOF and SAGE mediaTM during in vitro oocytes maturation and fertilization as described by
the standard protocols for in vitro maturation, in vitro fertilization and in vitro culture, respectively. Oocytes, obtained from ovaries with corpus luteum (CL) and without CL, wererecovered and determined as recovery rate prior in vitro culture. The results revealed that therecovery rates of bovine and caprine oocytes were not significantly different between ovaries
with CL (58.5 and 27.6%) without CL (43.5 and 29.4%) respectively; bovine oocytes had
significantly more layers of cumulus than caprine oocytes. IVF and IVC, developed fromtwo cells to blastocyst stage, derived from SAGE mediaTM were better than that of TALPIVF-SOF.
Keywords culture media, in vitro fertilization, embryo, beef, goat

INTRODUCTION
In vitro production techniques of bovine and caprine embryos become widely used to genetic
improvement. The improvement of bovine and caprine embryo culture systems is highly desirable
in term of the production of preimplantation stage embryos for biotechnological studies and for theembryo transfer. A standard medium for in vitro maturation is tissue culture  (Lonergan et al., 1994).
TALP-IVF-SOF is the medium commonly use for embryo fertilization and embryo culture in vitro.
SAGE MediaTM is also available as  a commercial product. This culture media has been modified byaddition of amino acids. The effect that the culture media may have on the developing embryos
between different media is unknown.
ⒸISERD56

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of culture media on thefertilization rate in bovine and caprine embryos production.
MATERIAL AND METHODSThe experimental procedures were approved by the Animal Ethic committee of Khon Kaen University(Reference No. 0514.1.12.2/88). Bovine ovaries were collected at a local abattoir located in Khon Kaenmunicipality and caprine ovaries were collected by surgery method at the Department of Animal
Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University. In order to compare the culture media,
oocytes were recovered and randomly cultured in two media: TALP-IVF-SOF (Table 1) and SAGE
mediaTM (CooperSurgical Inc., Trumbull, CT) as shown in Table 2.
Oocyte collection in bovine and caprine: Bovine oocyte collections were recovered fromslaughtered bovines at Khon Kaen municipality and transfered in 0.9% saline to the laboratory
within 1h (Yang et al., 1990). Follicles were aspirated with an 18 gauge needle using vacuum
suction.
Caprine oocyte collections were recovered from live goats by surgery method at the Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University and transferred in 0.9%
saline  to the laboratory within 1 h  (Yang et al., 1990). Follicles were aspirated with a 21 gauge needle using vacuum suction.
Table 1 Chemical composition of culture media (TALP-IVF-SOF)
Composition
NaCl (mM)
KCl  (mM)
NaH2PO4 (mM)
CaCl26H2O (mM)
HEPES (mM)
Glucose (mM)
PVA  (mg/mL)
Lactate (sodium salt) (mM)
Pyruvate (mM)
Penicillamine (mM)
Gentamicin (µg/mL)
Sodium pyruvate (g)NaHCO3 (g)Glutamine (g)Glucose (g)Serum  (mg/ml)
EDTA (g)Streptomycin (g)TALP-IVF
114.00
3.20
0.40
2.00
0.50
5.00
1.00
13.00
10.40
3.35
50.00
-

SOF-IVC
0.33
1.00
1.50
10.00
0.10
0.10
0.10

Table 2  Chemical composition of culture media SAGE MediaTM ProductCatalog Number
SAGE MediaTMProductBasic Media Components
Non-Essential Amino Acids
Essential Amino Acids
Vitamins
Magnesium Sulfate Heptahydrate
Magnesium Chloride
Potassium Phosphate, Monobasic
Anhydrous
Calcium Lactate (L+)
TaurineCitric Acid
EDTA

ART-1020/1021
Fertilization (HTF)X
X

ART-1026/1027
Cleavage
X
X

X

X

X

ART-1029
Blastocyst
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

ⒸISERD57

X
X

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

In vitro maturation (IVM): Oocytes were placed in maturation medium  (TCM-199) under mineral oil (Rose et  al.,  1992). Maturation proceeded for 22-24 h at 38.5 ºC in an environment of 5%
CO2 in air.
In vitro  fertilization (IVF): Frozen semen was thawed at 37 ºC for 30 second and washed by centrifuging at 700 g for 5 minutes to remove any remaining semen extender (Gandhi et al. 2000). Before transfer to fertilization drops, oocytes were transferred into drop of fertilization medium undermineral oil. Oocytes were coincubated with spermatozoa for 22-24 h at 38.5 ºC in an environmentof 5% CO2 in air.
In vitro  culture (IVC):  At 24 h post-insemination, the presumptive embryos were washed in culture medium and embryos were placed into culture medium under mineral oil at 38.5 ºC in an environment of 5% CO2 in air. Cleavage rate was recorded at 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 h postinsemination.
Statistical analysis: Data were analyzed using Chi-square test  (Steel et al., 1997). Statistical analysis was performed in all tests at a 95% confidence interval.
RESULTS
Studies on the influence of ovaries with CL (ovaries within the development of CL) and without
CL showed that   ovaries with CL and without CL were not significantly different (P>0.05) (Table
3).
Table 3 Recovery rate of oocyte obtained from bovine ovaries
Ovary
with CL
without CL

NumberFollicle
123
147% Recovery of oocyte
Oocyte7264

58.54 (72/123)
43.54  (64/147)

Table 4 The recovery rate of oocyte obtained from caprine ovaries
Ovary
with CL
without CL

NumberFollicle
94
17% Recovery of oocyte
Oocyte26527.66 (26/94)
29.41    (5/17)

Studies on the influence of ovaries with CL (ovaries within the development of CL) and without CL showed that   ovaries with CL and without CL were not significantly different (P>0.05) (Table 4).
Morphology of bovine oocytes and caprine oocytes
Study of the morphology of bovine and caprine cumulus cells have shown that bovine oocytes had
significantly more layers of cumulus than caprine oocytes and can effect fertilization of oocytes.

Fig. 1 Morphology of bovine oocytes (left) and caprine oocytes (right)ⒸISERD58

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Effect of culture media on in vitro fertillization in bovine embryo production
The results revealed that IVF and IVC, developed from two cells to the blastocyst stage of SAGE
mediaTM, were better than that of TALP-IVF-SOF as determined by the embryo image analysis.

AB

2 cell (SAGE mediaTM)

2 cell (TALP-IVF-SOF)C

D

4 cell (SAGE mediaTM)

8 cell (SAGE mediaTM)

E

F

Morula (SAGE mediaTM)

Blastocyst  (SAGE mediaTM)

Fig. 2 (A-F) Morphology of bovine embryo during early development
CONCLUSION
The present study suggested that the number of cumulus cells is important for supporting embryo
development and culture media can increase the cleavage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express the most appreciation to the Thailand Research Fund Master,
Research Grants: TRF-MAG Window II (MRG-WII535S012), and Research Group of Beef andBuffalo production, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University.

ⒸISERD59

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

REFERENCES
Gandhi, A.P., Lane, M.L., Gardner, D.K. and Krisher, R.L. 2000. A single medium supports development ofbovine embryos throughout maturation fertilization and culture. Human Reproduction, 15, 395-401.
Gordon. I. 1994. Laboratory production of cattle embryos. CAB International, Oxon, UK, 640.
Lonergan, P., Carolan, C. and Mermillod, P.  1994. Development of bovine embros in vitro following oocyte
maturation under defined conditions. Reproduction Nutrition Development, 34, 329-339.
Nagano, M., Katagiri, S. and Takahashi, Y. 2006. Relationship between bovine oocyte morphology and invitro development potential. Zygote, 14, 53-61.
Rose, T.A. and Bavister, B.D. 1992. Effect of oocyte maturation medium on in vitro development of in vitro
fertilized bovine embryos. Molecular Reproduction Development, 31(1), 72-7.
Steel, R., Torrie, J. and Dickey, D. 1997. Principles and procedures of statistics: A biometrical approach.
WCB/McGraw-Hill, a Division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, 666.
Yang, N.S., Lu, K.H. and Gordon, I. 1990. In vitro fertilization (IVF) and culture (IVC) bovine oocytes fromstored ovaries. Theriogenology, 33(1), 352-362.

ⒸISERD60

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erdConstraints on Small Scale Cattle Production in Kandal
Province, Cambodia
SEREY MOB*Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: serey.mob@gmail.com

YUTHY VAY
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

PISETH LONG
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

MIRANDA PEN
New England University, Armidale, Australia

MOM SENG
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received16 December 2011

Accepted 7 February 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study was conducted in Kandal Steng and Saang District, Kandal Province,
Cambodia, to determine the constraints on small scale cattle production in this area. Sixty
small holding cattle keepers were interviewed using semi-structure questionnaires. Faeces
samples from 80 cattle were selected and subjected to intestinal parasite investigation at
the Royal University of Agriculture Laboratory. Cattle are kept for draught power andreproduction purposes. Crossbreed animal types were dominant in these areas. The
average herd size is 2.5, ranging from 2 to 3 heads. Eighty five of respondents practiced
vaccination and 26% de-worming. However, the Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) andHaemorrhage Septicaemia disease usually occurred as it was mentioned by farmers. Fivetypes of parasites (Fasciola, Paramphystomum, Gastro-intestinal strong (GIS), Eimeria andToxocara) had been detected; majority of GIS (68%) was found in feaces. The farmers
expressed that the major constraints to cattle production are disease outbreak (95%), lackof feed (35%) and that price of cattle is low (26%). In order to improve livestock
production at small scale level, animal health services for vaccination and treatment
should be strengthened and animal bio-security management should be applied. Technicalsupport should be in place, in order to encourage farmers to provide proper feeding
management, sufficient amount and quality of food so that growth rate, reproductive
performance and disease resistance of animals can be improved.
Keywords cattle, management, feeding, parasite

INTRODUCTION
In Cambodia, large ruminants play an important role in the agricultural sector of rural areas,
providing draught power, organic fertilizer, and cash accumulation (Pen et al., 2009). Livestock areraised through traditional management methods, such as rice straw and other seasonal crop residues
usually used for the main feed (Maclean, 1998; Pen et al., 2009; and Sath et al., 2008). During thedry period, major grazing activities take place (Sath et al., 2008) exposing animals to disease andinternal parasites (Keyyu et al., 2005), especially the calves which are more vulnerable.
Recently, the number of cattle in the province had significantly decreased due to; the incidence
of infectious diseases, an increased use of land for cropping and an increase in the use of machinerⒸISERD61

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

ies for land preparation and transportation reducing the need for draught power. In addition, labordemands for feeding the animals are relatively high, consequently, some farmers decided to reduce
the herd size (Pen et al., 2009). In order to identify the situation of cattle production and intestinal
parasite investigation among farmers with small holdings, this study was conducted in Kandal
Steng and Saang District, Kandal Province.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study site
The survey and internal parasites investigation were conducted as a baseline study for the project“Establishment  of  Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepium as forage supplementation for cattle  of  small  scale  farmers  in  Kandal  Province”  carried  out  between  Royal  University  of  Agriculture(RUA) and Cambodia Agriculture Research Fund (CARF). The study started from March 18 toApril 18, 2010 in Kandalsteng and Saang districts, where small producers handle cattle for crop
farming systems. These areas lay on a flat land in Kandal province, 12 km and 25 km from Phnom
Penh city, respectively. 60 households were selected for individual interview on animal production
aspects and 80 cattle were chosen for intestinal parasite study.
Sampling procedure for baseline study
Randomized sample of correspondents among small scale cattle keepers were selected. Twenty
producers in each commune, Koktrop and Ampovprey (Kandal Steng district) and Krangyov(Saang district) were chosen. Equal number of adoption forage and non-adoption forage farmers
was selected. Krangyov is the busiest farming area among all selected sites, where farmers cultivated rice almost 3 times per year.
Data collection for parasites study
Faeces samples for intestinal parasites identification were collected from the animals owned by thesame recipients in Kandalsteng district (Koktrop and Ampovprey village). The samples were harvested from rectum with new unused gloves for each animal and stored at 4 0C in a refrigerator andanalyzed within 3 days. Faecal samples were examined for the presence of parasite eggs, namely:
Fasciola, Paramphystomum, Gastro-intestinal strong (GIS), Eimeria (Coccidiosis) and Toxocara.
RESULTS
Herd size and breed
In  the  study  sites,  rice  was  the  staple  crop  for  securing  villagers’  livelihood,  whereas  livestock  was  the second sources of food, draught power and income generation. Compared to other species (pigsand poultry), cattle were present in highest number in those areas (Fig. 1). The average number ofanimals per household was approximately 2.5 head, which is similar to the finding of Maclean(1998). The herd size varied according to the farming aspect, in Krangyov, 35 percent of correspondents raised 4 animals whereas only 10 and 20% in Apovprey and Koktrop (Table 1).
The crossbred animal was the dominant breed type found in these study sites (Fig. 2). The
characteristics of this breed were similar, as described by Sath et al., 2008. Villagers selected bulls(Haryana) in their area for natural mating with local types. According to the farmers, crossbreed
cattle show significant difference in body condition and usually fit with labor work. Moreover, thetraders usually put their high interest and demand on crossbreed cattle. Majority of livestock werepurchased by neighboring villagers (Fig. 3). Approximately 36% of live animals were sold for
draught power rather than for breeding or slaughter. The male animals were temporary kept andⒸISERD62

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

tended to be replaced when the holders were able to gain more profit. Traditionally, farmers inthese areas sold their draught animal after rice harvesting (January to February). Later, they werelooking for new animals in the early rainy season (April to May). The holders confirmed that during the dry season, frequently, animals lack feed and it was uneconomic to keep unused-animals.
Table 1 Average of households (Head/hs) keeping in Kandal province
Herd size (head)
Koktrop
1
2
3
4
5
5<

15
45
20
20
0
0

Households (%)
Ampovprey
Krangyov
25
20
25
10
20
0

Fig. 1 Types of livestock kept

15
5
25
35
10
10

Means
18.3
23.3
23.3
21.7
10.0
3.3

Fig. 2 Breed preference

Fig. 3 Animals Market Chains defining the
major constraint of animals production

Fig. 4 Constraints on cattle production

Disease was identified in the survey as the major problem (95%) which limits the production
whereas feed supply (35%) and market price (26%) were considered to be less important (Fig. 4).
Most farmers reported that Foot and Mouth disease and hemorrhages septicemia were regularly
occurring even though eighty five percent of them attempted to use vaccinations (Fig.5).
ⒸISERD63

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Fig. 5 Vaccinations and deworming

Fig. 6 Types of vaccinations used

Fig. 7 Prevalence of internal parasite
infection on animals
The transmission of infectious diseases increased when the diet failed to meet the energy andnutrient requirements of the animal (Ben et al., 2006; Daovy et al., 2008). Thus the host is more
susceptible to infection when fed a low quality feed. As can be seen in this study, majority of producers were using rice straw low quality based-diet annually, particularly in Krangyov (Figs. 8 and
9). Similarly to Sath et al. (2008), when the rice fields were vacant, grazing activities in the selected sites highly increased in dry period, especially in Koktrop and Ampovprey. Collected native
grasses were almost twice in raining season for all selected villages. In Krongyov, paddy rice fields
were cultivated almost three times per year; hence native grass can be harvested on the edge of rice
field boundaries. Interestingly, some families in that area allocated their land close to their residential land for Para-grass planting. This forage was not only used for feeding their animals, but also
for selling to the other neighboring cattle holders. A bunch of cut grass accounted 1000 Riels.
Although deworming treatment for preventing five types of parasites (Fasciola, Paramphystomum, Gastro-intestinal strong (GIS), Eimeria and Toxocara) had been conducted (Fig. 5);
the majority of worm eggs found were in GIS of 68% (Fig. 7). High presence of GIS can be foundin border cattle production in many areas and countries (Keyyu et al., 2005; Swai et al., 2006). Cutand carrying or eventually grazing of natural pastures may increase the opportunity of transmissionof internal parasites (Keyyu et al., 2005; Maichomo et al., 2004). However, most of the animals
examined during the present survey had low to moderate strongly eggs and Coccidia oocyst counts,
meaning that the infections were usually sub-clinical.
Limitation of the herd size was not only due to widespread of disease but also due to the longcalving interval (18.5 months) which resulted from lower quantity and quality of feed supply (Penet al., 2009). In the study areas, calves were weaned approximately 10 months earlier than those in
the report of Sath et al., (2008) (12 to 15 months), although this practice of reducing calving intervals was extended to small scale farmers. According to Baiden and Duncan (2008), 3 months
weaning can be done in case farmers are fatting cattle for slaughter purpose, however, certainⒸISERD64

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

amount of concentrated feed supplements (grass and legume) may be given in order to gain
330g/day in the 12 months indoors.
Table 2 Prevalence of faecal GIS, Eimeria and Toxocara egg counts in all typeand age of animals
Parasites

GIS

Eimeria
Toxocara

Number of examinedanimals
26
34
18
2
59
11
2
8
70
10

Range of eggs
None50-200250-500>500
None50-200250-500>500
None50-200Fig. 8 Feeding animals in rainy season% of animals thatexcreted eggs
32.5
42.5
22.5
2.5
73.8
13.7
2.5
10
87.5
12.5

Fig. 9 Feeding animals in dry season

Table 3 Weaning and Castration practices
CalvesKok trop

Ampov Prey

Krang Yov

Mean

STD

Weaning (Months)

9

12

8

9.7

2.1

Castration (Year)

1.15

1.78

0.45

1.13

0.7

CONCLUSION
Based on the study, followings were concluded;- Cattle production is linked to farming activities, and the majority of household keep animals from
2-3 heads- Crossbred are dominant and appropriate for the market demand- Infectious diseases are influenced by production performance, there is not enough community
veterinary service to have emergency support to the farmers- Feeding is depending on grazing, collecting natural grasses and rice straw- Improve feed quality, quantity and fattening cattle for slaughterhouse was not consistent, and- Carrying out traditional weaning are prolonging calving interval.

ⒸISERD65

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support from CARF and RUA Research Laboratory,
because without their support, this research would not have been possible. Special thanks to thefarmers who contributed with their valuable time and welcomed our study.
REFERENCES
Baiden, R.Y. and Duncan, L. 2008. Performance of indigenous beef cattle under two management systems at
Pokuase, Ghana. 20(88). http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd20/6/baid20088.htm.
Ben Salem, M., Djemali, M., Kayouli, C. and Majdoub, A. 2006. A review of environmental and management factors affecting the reproductive performance of Holstein-Friesian dairy herds in Tunisia. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 18(53). http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd18/4/sale18053.htm.
Daovy, K., Preston, T.R. and Ledin, I. 2008. Survey on the utilization of local foliage species for goats in
Xaythanee district, Vientiane City. Livestock Research for Rural Development,20. http://www.
lrrd.org/lrrd20/supplement/daov1.htm.
Keyyu, J.D., Kassuku, A.A, Kyvsgaard, N.C. and Willingham, A.L. 2003. Gastrointestinal Nematodes inindigenous zebu cattle under pastoral and Nomadic management systems in the lower plain of the Southern highlands of Tanzania, Veterinary Research Communication, 27, 371-380. http://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14509451.
Maclean, M. 1998. Livestock in Cambodian Rice Farming Systems. Phnom Penh: Cambodia-IRRI-Australia
Project.
Maichomo, M.W., Kagira, J.M. and Walker, T. 2004. The point prevalence of gastro-intestinal parasites incalves, sheep and goats in Magadi division, south-western Kenya, Ondersterpoort Journal of Veterinary
Research, 71, 257-261. http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd20/6/baid20088.htm.
Sath, K., Borin, K. and Preston, T.R. 2008. Survey on feed utilization for cattle production in Takeo province.
Livestock Research for Rural Development, 20. http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd20/supplement/sath1.htm.
Swai, E.S., Mtui, P.F., Mbise, A.N., Kaaya, E., Sanka, P. and Loomu, P.M. 2006. Prevalence of gastro intestinal parasite infections in Maasai cattle in Ngorongoro District, Tanzania. Livestock Research for Rural
Development. 18(107). http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd18/8/swai18107.htm.

ⒸISERD66

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

A Study on Cassava Marketing in Chang Krang Commune,
Chhet Burei District, Kratie Province
SOPHAT ATH*
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email:ath.sophat@yahoo.com

KONGKEA CHHAYRoyal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

CHANTHA NUTH
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

SOPHEARITH SOKRoyal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 16 December 2011

Accepted 7 February 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract Cassava, an agro-industry crop, has been cultivated for years by farmers;
however, it was not popular in the past. Recently, the market demand for cassava root hasradically increased; hence, the number of farmers and cultivated areas has boosted
considerably. This study on Cassava Marketing was conducted to measure: 1) cassava
household production, 2) cassava marketing, and 3) the important of cassava production infarmer household. 81 producers, 5 traders and 4 key informants in Chang Krang
commune, ChhetBurei district, Kratie province were selected. Multiple tools in
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) method were employed. The result of the study
shows that the majority (95%) of Chang Krang commune farmers depend on Cassava
production. The cultivating method is operated in a traditional way and depends on rain
fed-crop. The majority of households own more than one ha of cassava field. Mostly,
cassava is converted into dry chip and sold between January and March; the average pricewas 850 riels/kg. Approximately ninety five percent of the yield is exported to Vietnam.
The cassava marketing pattern in the selected area was appropriate as not only are theyrich in middlemen, but also the location is close to the Vietnamese border. The cassava
price is defined by Vietnamese buyers and the information regarding to market price waslimited. Most farmers could get benefit both from cassava root and trunk. Cassava
production contributed 87.68% to rural livelihood. The advantages of planting cassava
included not only generating family income but also employing rural workers andreducing local and cross border migration. In conclusion, cassava production is very
important for farmers in Chang Krang commune and the marketing situation is the main
factor that effects production chain.
Keywords cassava household production, marketing, income household

INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the most important sector in the Cambodian economy and plays an important role in
improving economics, poverty alleviation, and building social sustainability. In 2009, agriculture
contributed 33.5% to the Gross Domestic Production (GDP) and crops production was 52.9% of
agriculture sector (Ministry of Agriculture,   Forestry,   and   Fisheries“MAFF”,   2009).   Besides rice,which is the major food production in Cambodia, farmers, local and international traders, and industrials are attracted to cassava production. Recently, Chinese businessmen have been fascinatedwith cassava and plan to produce cassava in Cambodia- about 150,000 tons per year for export toⒸISERD67

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Republic of China (Phnom Penh Post Newspaper, 2011). As a result, cassava growing areas haverisen remarkably. In 2008, the cassava growing area was only 108,122 hectares and, in 2010, it wasincreased to 200,821 hectares (MAFF, 2010).
Cassava is a kind of root crop that is convenient to grow, drought tolerant, insect and illness
resistance, and has a high yield (FAO, 2007). In Cambodia, there are two main types of cassava:
sweet cassava and bitter cassava. Sweet cassava is commonly grown for family consumption andbitter cassava is generally grown for animal feed or as a raw material for processing industries(Hung, J. et al., 2009). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the utilizationof cassava will continue to increase in food processing and animal feed both locally and for exportabroad.
Nowadays, the government of Cambodia has tried to attract local and international businessmen to invest in the cassava market, especially, the Chinese. This is because cassava will become
the root crop of the future (Cambodia Daily Newspaper, 2011).
In conclusion, cassava production will continue to be developed, especially its technical production and marketing. As technical production improves, it will extend to all farming areas. As formarketing will be promote both in local and international. As a result, farmer living standard will
be better and prosperity from cassava production.
METHODOLOGY
Study site: The study was conducted in 3 villages (Chang Krang, Or Chhor, and ToulTrang
village), Chang Krang commune, Chhet Borei district, Kratie province. In these areas, most people
grow cassava and depend on it.
Sampling size and method: The study included 81 farmer households, 5 traders, and 4 key
informants in this commune. The samplings of 81 farmer households were chosen in 3 villages;
Chang Krang had 51 households, Or Chhor had 6 households, and Toul Trang had 24 households.
Moreover, it was including 1 person from the Kratie Provincial Department of Agriculture, and 1
person from the Provincial Department of Commercial.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
History of Cassava in Kratie Province
Cassava was brought to grow in Kratie Province in 2004 by Mr. Leang Seng, Deputy Director of
Provincial Department of Agriculture. He cooperated with Ben Perk Province, Vietnam. Vietnam
has provided the KM-94 variety of cassava for Cambodia two times: 2004 and 2005. Cassava wasinitially grown in Pi Thnou and Sre Char communes, Kratie Province.
Table 1 Initiative of growing cassava in Kraties Province
Year
2004
2005

Amount of Cassava(trunk)400,000
650,000

Grow Area size (ha)300
500

Yield Harvested of freshroot (t)9.000

Cassava Household Production
Capital: Cassava  production  capital  was  from  loan  provider  and  farmers’  own  capital.  Typically,  farmer used their own capital for production account to 60.49% and borrowed from loan provider
about 39.51%. The reason that farmers didn’t  prefer  to  use outside capital because the interest rate
was high and farmers could not afford it. For farmer that accept loan, they commonly paid back in
dry chip cassava. They were unable to pay back in interest rate. Farmer in study area could not useⒸISERD68

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

credit from Rural Micro-Finance for the reason that they have no property or land title to pawn for
the Micro-Finance.
Machinery for land preparation: For land preparation, farmers mostly use their own machinery(tractors) because their land could not be prepared by animal power. Farmer who does not own themachinery hired it from others. Farmer use tractor for land preparation around 80% of the time andprepared the land with animals, which accounted for 20%.
Size area: According to the results, Cassava area was larger  than  other  kind  of  crops’  area.  In  all  three villages of Chang Krang Commune, the cassava area was larger than 50%. The cassava area
in Chang Krang was 58.05%, Toul Trang was 53.76%, and Orchor was 65.86%. So, we canconclude that farmers paid more attention to cassava than other crops like corn, soy bean, sesame,and bean.

Fig. 1 Cassava area of each village
Growing Technique: Farmers in the study location had poor knowledge of growing technique.
They applied traditional techniques, cultural way, and rain water. For maintaining the growing area,
farmers did not use chemicals or fertilizer. They just cleared small forests or grasses several times.
With respect to cassava variety, farmers grow only KM-94 that has been imported from
Vietnam. This variety provides high yield and is tolerant to drought and pests. This variety issuitable for processing in dry chip form. KM-94 is commonly called Migort or Mimaly by farmers,
which in Thai is called KU-50.
Generally, the cassava season lasts for 8 months. Farmers start to grow cassava at any time
between February and May. It depends on rain: if there was enough rain in February, farmer will
start to grow in February. But, if there was less rain, farmer will wait until to April or May. The
harvest time is from October to February. Farmer harvests the product by relying on the market.
Frequently, if farmer grow in February or March, farmer will harvest in October or December.
However, if they grow in May, they will harvest in January or February.
Cassava marketing
Cassava in the market: The majority (95%) of cassava production was exported to Vietnam
through the Kratie and Kompong Cham Provincial Border. These two borders were extremely
economically for exporting agricultural products to Vietnam. Local consumption of cassava
production was around 5%. Vietnam is the most important market for traders.

Fig. 2 The percentage of cassava exported to VietnamⒸISERD69

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Traders export yield to Vietnam because the local demand is low and limited. The processing
industries are only located in Phnom Penh capital city and Kompong Cham Province. On the other
hand, exporting products to Vietnam is easier because it is convenient to transport and high demand.
Moreover, farmers around industrial areas could afford the industry’s   raw   materials.   So,   when   it  was surplus in the local market, the traders need to export to another area, especially, to Vietnam.
The main factors in the market: The main factors that play an important role in the cassava
market are: the farmer, the collector, the small trader, the trader that transports cassava to Vietnam,
the loan provider, and the Vietnamese trader that stands at the Vietnam border.
- Farmer: the producer- Collector: someone who collects products from the farmer for the trader that transport to Vietnam
and get the commission- Small trader: someone who buys the products from the farmer in small amounts and sells it totraders that transport to Vietnam or the loan provider to get some profit. A small trader is the one
who lives permanently in Chang Krang commune- Trader that transports to Vietnam: the one who transports all cassava products to Vietnam andcooperates closely with Vietnamese traders- Loan provider: the one who provides loan to farmers and allows farmers pay back in dry chipcassava. The loan provider also exports cassava to Vietnam directly- Vietnamese traders: They are all Vietnamese, who stay at Vietnamese borders to get the products
from Khmer traders
Marketing structure: The marketing structure starts from the farmer, who is the producer. The
product flows from farmers to Vietnam border through collectors and small traders. Collectors
transfer products to the trader that transported to Vietnam and small trader exchange products totrader that transported to Vietnam and also to loan provider. Traders and loan providers bring the
products directly to the Vietnam border. Moreover, farmers sell their consignment directly to thetrader and loan provider as well. After collecting enough cassava, traders and loan providers deliver
the products to the Vietnamese traders via two different borders, Kratie and Kompong Champrovinces.
FarmerTrader that transport
to Vietnam

Small
TraderCollector

Loan Provider

Vietnamese Trader atVietnamBorderFig. 3 Marketing structureMarketing constraint: The biggest marketing constraint is price fluctuation. The price of cassava
is seemingly unpredictable. Both traders and farmers were not satisfied with the price situation. In
fact, this year the price was high and farmer enjoyed with it, but they were really not happy withthe price instability. Farmer was unable to predict for the price next year and later on because they
have experienced extremely low prices in the past.
The  importance  of  cassava  in  farmers’  households
Cassava is very important for family households in rural regions. Households mainly rely on
cassava production. In families, both fresh leaves and fresh root cassava are commonly consumed
for food. As for fresh root, farmers boil it for a snack. Cassava is not only for householdⒸISERD70

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

consumption, but also for gross income. Cassava provided farmer income that can support thefamily living situation. The benefit of cassava product is extremely important for all households inthe surveyed region. Farmers can support child education, material and equipment, household
repairs, food and other nutrients, and other expenditure for daily living.
Furthermore, cassava production offers employment to all members of the family. It reduces
migrant labour and members of household can earn more profit from hiring labor in cassava
production.

Fig. 4 The percentage of hiring labor andother activities

Fig. 5 The income source in thehousehold

CONCLUSION
Cassava production is the main root crop for farmers in the surveyed region. People rely on it morethan other kinds of crops. However, the growing techniques were still inefficient, simply using traditional methods and rain water. Most cassava produced is exported to the neighboring country ofVietnam and a small amount is left that is need in local industrials. Kratie and Kompong Cham
were the most important borders for transport to Vietnam. The significant factors that play important roles in marketing were: the farmer, the collector, the small trader, the trader that transports
to Vietnam, the loan provider, and the Vietnamese trader that stands at the Vietnam border. In addition, the core income in farming households was from cassava. Farmers can support their living
standard by depending on this crop. Finally, farmers’  income was maily from cassava production.
So, in conclusion, growing technique and market were the main point that could improve farmers’
living situation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Centro International de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) cooperated
with Royal University of Agriculture (RUA). Sincerely, I would like to thank CIAT, RUA, lecturers, parents, and other partner who assisted in the research.
REFERENCES
Cambodia Daily Newspaper. 11 January 2011. Phorn Bopha and Paul Vrieze, Published 17 February 2011.
Centro International de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). 2010. A new future for cassava in Asia: Its use as food,feed and fuel to benefit the poor. Proc. 8th Regional Workshop, help in Vietnam, Lao PDR. Oct 20-24,
2008.
FAO. 2007. Cassava development strategy for Mozambique. 2008-2012. Volume I, Sub-sector Strategoc
Study on Cassava.
Huang Jie, Tain Yinong, Seng Srey, Kang Aun, Chiv Phiny and Suon Serey. 2009. Cassava production andUtilization  in Cambodia.
MAFF. 2009. Annual report about agriculture 2008-2009, Cambodia.
MAFF. 2010. Annual report about agriculture 2009-2010, Cambodia.
Phnom Penh Post Newspaper. 11 January 2011, published 17 January 2011.
ⒸISERD71

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

An Aassessment of the Natural Resources of Ang Trapeang
Thmor and Its Impact on the Livelihoods of Pongro andSambour Villages
THIRA PINN*Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: thearapinn@yahoo.com

CHANKAKADA CHHOEUM
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

NORITHYA SAMAN
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 15 December 2011

Accepted 7 February 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract Ang Trapeang Thmor (ATT) is a protected area (PA) which history dates back to
the late 1970s with the creation of a huge reservoir for rice irrigation during the Khmer
Rouge reign. The designation of ATT as a crane sanctuary in 2000 led to changes in use
and management of resources around the area. This study sets to identify the local
livelihood strategies in Pongro and Sambour and to define the level of participation,
acceptance and understanding of the need for conservation of the Protected Area. Somemethods have been selected to collect necessary data such as informal interviews,
participatory rural appraisal (PRA) such as a drawing exercise with school children on
environmental   education   and   children’s   perceptions,   awareness   on   ATT,   and   nature.  
Furthermore, focus group discussions were conducted with two groups of villagers
separately. The findings reveal that a very common practice of households at Pongro andSambuor were wet season rice cultivation in ATT, livestock breeding, vegetable growing,collecting NTFP and fishing in ATT. The general perception of the villagers on ATT is
negative probably because they passively participate in the management of it and due tothe lack of understanding of the aim of the conservation project. There are conflicts
between Pongro and Sambuor opposed to the villages south of the main gate of thereservoir over water levels on the reservoir. Water levels and recent increase in cassava
prices have led to illegal encroachment into a state forest East of ATT. However theconservation of ATT and the surrounding natural resources still present opportunities inconnection to tourism and community forestry that can be beneficial to the villagers ofPongro and Sambuor.
Keywords conservation, Ang Trapeang Thmor, conflicts, livelihoods, natural resources,
community participation

INTRODUCTION
Banteay Meanchey province is situated on the Thai border in north-western Cambodia and its capital province is named Sisophon. This province is poor and there are still many unexploded mines in
the fields and forests of the province. Ang Tropeang Thmor is located in Phnom Srok district, Banteay Meanchey province, about 80 km northwest of Siem Reap town. The protected area covers
about 12,650 ha consisting of a large lake, lowlands and forest (WCS, 2007). It consists of a large
reservoir of water contained by 11 km and 9 km long dykes to the south and east, respectively. The
southern dyke has three water gates with ten decaying Chinese-made sluices. The reservoir covers
less than 1,000 ha during the dry season but expands to cover most of the reserve during the laterainy season (August - October). The PA is a huge reservoir created by forced labor during theⒸISERD72

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Khmer Rouge regime, which harbors a unique wetland now. The reservoir harbors more than 200
species of other birds, of which 18 have been classified as globally threatened or globally nearthreatened. In February 2000, a Royal Decree was signed establishing a Sarus Crane Conservation
Area. Soon after the decree was passed, a local conservation team was set up with the technical andfinancial support of the Wildlife Conservation Foundation (WCF) and International Crane Foundation (ICF).
METHODOLOGY
The objective of this study is to identify the local livelihood strategies in Pongro and Sambour villages and define the level of participation, acceptance and understanding of the need for conservation of the PA in Pongro and Sambour villages. The field study was conducted from 7th - 19th
March 2009 (duration 12 days) in Ang Trapeang Thmor, Poey Char commune, Phnum Srok district,Banteay Meanchey province. We had done our study in Sambour and Pongro villages which aresituated around PA. To achieve this objective, some methods have been designed such as semi
structured interviews, transect walk, Participatory Rural Appraisal, questionnaire surveys, and GPS
mapping to collect necessary data.
RESULTS
Local Livelihoods
The people living around ATT are strongly depended on natural resources. The state of the natural
resources  directly  affects  local  people’s  livelihoods.  In  this  part,  the  livelihood  of  the  villagers  is  assessed; both concerning how they are affected by the fact that they live on the border of ATT andhow the local livelihoods are affecting the environment in and around ATT. Fig. 1 shows the distribution of livelihood strategies among the households in Pongro and Sambuor. As it can be seen,
most households apply wet season rice cultivation in ATT and livestock breeding. The most common livestock is hens and chickens, followed by cows, ducks and pigs. Only few households havewater buffalos. Only three households had their livestock grazing in ATT, but of the 11 collecting
NTFP in ATT most of them collects fodder for the livestock in ATT. Also 68% of the households
are fishing in ATT making it a very common practice. Only three households cultivate cassava inthe state forest to the east of the villages and two cultivate sweet potato and maize in the forest.

Fig. 1 Livelihood strategies that the households applied
Local participation in conservation
The level of participation and environmental understanding among the villagers has been assessed
through questions about their  awareness  of  the  Wildlife  Conservation  Society’s  (WCS)  presence  in  the area. The majority (86%) of the villagers from Sambuor and Pongro have heard about the WCS(refer to Fig. 2). In most cases information about the NGO has been provided by the authorityⒸISERD73

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2(54%), referring to the local village chief or commune chief. Nonetheless, 29% of the villagers
have heard about the WCS from the organization itself and 14% heard about the NGO from theirneighbors.

Fig. 2 The results of the questionnaire “Have  you  heard  of  WCS,  and  if  so,  from  where?”
There is a general confusion about whether WCS has actually been providing specific training
courses on conservation and sustainable use of the area. It is equally not clear whether they have invited villagers for  information  meetings  or  if  information  and  “training”  has  simply  been  a  part  of  the  village meetings among other important subjects. Therefore, when villagers mention the training
courses and the meeting they have been participating in, this might very well refer to the same activity. 21% of the villagers say that they have been participating in a training course, while 46% (out of
the 24 persons who had heard about the WCS) has been participating in any kind of activity in relation to ATT and WCS (which may include training courses). 31% of the villagers participated in theplanning of ATT while 69% attend meetings about the PA. Regularly, from these results, it can besaid that although the villagers participate in these activities at a passive level, over half of them takepart in the meetings related to ATT. This means that over half of the villagers have an idea, based onthese meetings, of what management activities have been implemented in ATT.

Fig. 3 Percentage of villagers who attended meetings
Some villagers did not participate in the previous meetings about conservation. When they
were asked about the reason, the answers were; lack of time (45%) or lack of information (55%),
further underlining the point that not everyone has an opportunity to participate.
Perceptions
The different perceptions in Table 1 both positive and negative were expressed by different villagers.
Table 1 Positive and negative perceptions expressed by villagers
Positive perceptions:

Negative perceptions:- Likes ATT because of sustainability and ecology conservation- Likes the birds- Very good, because they can still do farming, fishing, etc.,
inside the PA- Most villagers like it. However, if they can benefit from it,then it would be good. Overall, though, they have lost a lot of
land.
- No idea about the PA, but the water level is a problem.
- The birds destroy the rice.
- It is good for nature, good for wilderness. Not good for villagers though. Most villagers are unhappy.
- Doesn’t  like  the  lake  at  all.
- Eco tourism is good, but the problem of the flooded fields
since 2003 decreased the rice yield.

ⒸISERD74

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Further livelihood opportunities
Despite the conflicts observed in the use, management and conservation of ATT and the surrounding areas, the natural resources still offer other opportunities for the local livelihoods. Apart fromthe traditional livelihood activities of wet season rice cultivation, fishing, collection of NTFPs andmost recently cassava cultivation, there are a number of other opportunities related to tourism andcommunity forestry.
Tourists are not new to the area. The study investigated the attractiveness of the area for tourists before and after it was declared a PA. 20% of the respondents think they saw tourists before thearea was declared a PA. Meanwhile, 48% of the respondents think they saw tourists in the area only after it was declared a PA. Fig. 4 presents the various categories and their percentages.

Fig. 4 Respondents' views on tourists in the area before and after PA was establishedThe general perception of tourism in the area is very good. 80% of the respondents think it is agood area for tourist though only 16% actually know how they can be benefited from tourism.
Even though tourists visit the area, so far there is no benefit from tourism to Pongro and Sambuor
as none of the respondents have ever sold any items or benefited from the largesse of the visiting
tourists.
SWOT analysis
Table 2 presents a synthesis of the analyses of the result in the form of a SWOT
Table 2 SWOT analysis of ATT
STRENGTHS-

Biodiversity conservation
Reservoir for irrigation and water utilization
Fishing-

Tourism
Community forestry
Increase of biodiversity
Training programmes from WCS
Sustainable natural resource management

WEAKNESS-

Flooding of rice fields
Food insecurity
Field difficulties
Passive participation by local communities-

Conflict in water management and utilization
Increased flood hazard
Illegal occupation of adjacent forest
Destruction of rice fields by birds
Water levels threatens crane habitat

OPPORTUNITIESTHREATSDISCUSSION
The management of ATT certainly affects the villagers in Sambuor and Pongro. This becomes
clear when the villagers mention their flooded rice fields and the fact that they are forced to growcassava in the forest. When asked questions on ATT, the villagers often refer to the floods in PA.
The villagers still blame the conservation project and the WCS.
As mentioned above, several conflicts were found in the area. Due to that, the pressure on thenatural resources in ATT was not  as  high  as  expected.  A  question  like:  “Have  you  seen  any  illegal  activities  in  the  protected  area?”  clearly  indicates  expectations  about  discovering  illegal  activities  (hunting, logging and NFTP collection), performed by poor villagers, who were limited in theiropportunities, and did not have any other choices. However, this was not the case, and fewer illegal
activities than expected were reported, which did not make this issue that important.
ⒸISERD75

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Concerning the opportunities for the villagers to improve their livelihood and income possibilities, which were not considered initially, they were discovered during the fieldwork undergone.
Tourism seems to be the most obvious opportunity although a lot of efforts still need to be put into
the area, to attract international tourists. The international tourists though, have already started visiting the area. The guesthouse in Pongro may enhance the activity. The natural resources in ATT
were initially expected to produce a positive effect, since this is the aim of the conservation project.
CONCLUSION
In 2000, the villagers of Pongro and Sambuor experienced changes in the size of their fields for ricecultivation because they both were within the designated PA. This led to the reduction at their rice
yields and made effect on the livelihoods. However, the situation has been affected negatively withthe flooding of the rice fields because of the closure of the main gate. The management of water
resources of the reservoir is in the center of a conflict between Pongro and Sambuor. The land in
ATT is officially owned by the state; however, the villagers cultivate the land without legal rights.
The high water levels and the recent increase in cassava prices have led to the illegal encroachment
on the forest to the east of ATT.
With respect to ATT and its management, the general perception of the villagers is negative.
This is partly because WCS unilaterally manages ATT and only inform the villages of what has
been decided as well as the fact they see ATT as the cause of their flooded rice fields. The level ofparticipation by the villagers is limited to information meetings which is equal to passive participation. Even though they have a negative perception of ATT, they are generally aware of the importance of conservation. However, ATT and the surrounding resources have a potential to sustain
the local livelihoods of Pongro and Sambuor. These potentials can be harnessed from tourism andcommunity forestry.
REFERENCES
International Crane Fondation. 2009. Sarus crane, ICF. http://www.savingcranes.org/saruscrane.html.
WCS, Cambodia Program. 2007. Paoy Char Commune Natural resources management profile.

ⒸISERD76

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Mango Leather Development in Kiensvay District, Kandal
Province by Adaptation of Traditional Techniques
CHAKRIYA NORNG*
Graduate School, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: chariya_norng@yahoo.co.nz

CHIM CHAY
Graduate School, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

ENGNY TAN
Graduate School, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 15 December 2011

Accepted 12 March 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract Kiensvay district, Kandal province is a popular place for mango leather
processed in Cambodia where plenty of mango trees are grown. However, due to lack ofskill and technical knowledge of the people, the product has failed to make economic
impact on their livelihoods due to poor product quality that does not meet market
standards. Poor sanitation and lack of technical information are mainly responsible for thissituation. This study was conducted among producers and farmers in the selected area withthe objective to gain an understanding of the technical processing methods and to analyse
the economic viability of this product. 55 people in these districts were interviewed withsemi-open   questionnaire:   details   of   each   family’s   technical   method   for   mango   leather  processing were collected. The initial results were used to identify various techniques usedby farmers in the processing method. Then, yes/no questionnaire was applied to 20 people
in order to deeply understand the process. After this, the technical processes used by
farmers were categorised. Experiments were carried out on farmers techniques and tested
in controlled laboratory conditions of Graduate School of Royal University of Agriculture.
The results of this research will provide an insight into the best processing technique that
may be used for commercial development with the aim of improving the income andlivelihoods of the inhabitants.
Keywords mango leather, processing, traditional technique

INTRODUCTION
Mango has become a naturalized and adapted fruit throughout the tropics and subtropics. Much of
the spread and naturalization has occurred in conjunction with the spread of human populations,and as such, mango plays an important part in the diet and cuisine of many diverse cultures. There
are over 1,000 named mango varieties throughout the world, which is a testament to their value tohumankind. Mango is a common garden tree throughout the tropics. When ripe, this delicious dessert fruit is particularly high in vitamin A. The fruit is also an important source of sustenance forbirds, bats, insects, and mammals (Bally, 2006). The fruit may be eaten green, processed into pickles,  juice,  pulps,  jams,  cream,  wine,  ice  cream,  dessert,  children’s  food,  and  chutneys,  and  is  frozen  or dried (Swi-bea wu and Chen, 1993). Mango drying into edible mango slabs has long been a tradition of the people of this region. Mango is an essential commercial crop in the tropical countries(Donald and Robert, 2008).
The food industry contributes xx% of the GDP and provides employment for rural population,
hence a source of income (Global Agri System, 2005). Most people enjoy eating ripe and green
mangoes. However, high perishability of ripe mangoes, inadequate storage conditions and poor
infrastructure for transportation to distant markets make profitable production to remain a challengeⒸISERD77

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

to farmers, resulting into income loss. Mango is a seasonal crop; so, the fruits usually ripen at thesame time, as a result market prices fall due to oversupply, making it hard to to be sold at a goodprice. Value-addition through food processing would be a good strategy to utilize rejected mango
and other unmarketable fruits. It adds value to mango while keeping the cost of production down. It
is also important for the products to be competitive in the world market. Fruit preservation will
provide availability of mango flavour throughout the year, and is important to avoid wastage andincrease income. Some of the simplest ways of preserving fruits include drying (mango leather),juicing, and making jam or chutneys (Agri Business Week, 2009).
The processed mango products would provide additional source of income, especially during
peak season when there is a glut in supply and the price of mangoes is much cheaper. Althoughmango leather process has been an old tradition for Cambodian people, the techniques used forprocessing as well as the use of mango were limited. There is therefore a need to improve ripemango processing techniques and improve sanitation during mango leather processing.This study
was conducted to review existing methodologies and analyze the economic efficiency of mango
leather production.
METHODOLOGYThis study was conducted in Kien Svay district (Fig. 1), one of the 11 districts of Kandal province.
This is especially an agricultural district along the Mekong River and an important dam is locatedthere.The study was done in two stages. The first stage focused on interviewing people in Sdaokan
Lang village, Dey Ed commune, and Kompong Svay village, Kompong Svay commune, Kiensvay
district, Kandal province. Sdaokan Lang village have 1,377 families and Kompong Svay village
have 672 families who made mango leather. The second stage experiments (drying by solar dryer)
were conducted at Royal University of Agriculture.

Fig. 1 Map of the study area in Kien Svay District
Yamane (1967 and 1973) equation was used for sample selection based on the calculation of
the sample during field survey as shown below. Sample selection was chosen by purpose with the
producers in the target areas.
N
2077
Yamane(1967)n 335
2
1  N .e1  2077(0.05) 2

Yamane(1973)ni ( Sdaokanlang ) 

nxNi 335x190

31
N
2077

ⒸISERD

78

(1)
(2)

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Yamane(1973)nii ( KompongSvay) 

nxNii 335x145

24
N
2077

(3)

This study involved interview of the focus group and direct observation. The focus group interviews adopted open-ended questions to obtain general information, as processing chain, hygienic
practises during processing, and economic efficiency of producers. Specific questions were given
to check for the answers and to observe the contexts related to each question.
The collected data was analysed using SPSS version 17.0 statistical software by using descriptive statistics to interpret the results. For economic efficiency, the data is analyzed by Microsoft
Excel and then using the formula of Economic Efficiency = Total Revenue (TR) divided by Total
Cost (TC).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mango processing technique was divided into three main procedures. The first procedure is preheating and stirring (involves selecting deteriorative mangoes, washing and peeling and chopping
roughly into chunks/pieces or by the use of blending machine). The second procedure is heating
and stirring (during which sugar and spices are added to the liquid solution and mix thoroughly).
The third procedure is post heating and stirring. The mango mixture is evenly spread to approximately 1/4 -inch thickness on the trays as a thin sheet, and positioned on fruit roll liners on dryer
trays and placed under the sun. Drying is done continuously for about 3-4 days depending on thetemperature, and relative humidity. The trays are then removed from the sun when mixture is dry,with no sticky areas. Level of dryness is examined by touching gently in several places near centreof leather; where wetness indentation should be evident.
The leather is peeled from trays while still warm and left on the second tray on the dehydrator,
while the first leather was peeled, the leather may be re-warmed slightly by exposing to the sun if
they cool too much prior to peeling. The sheet is then cut into quarters, laid on a piece of clean
plastic food storage wrap about 1 to 2 inches longer at each end of the plastic wrap and tightly
closed.
The fruit rolls are stored in room temperature-quality plastic bags or airtight plastic container
for short term storage, up to about 6 months. Leathers should be stored in a cool, dark and dry place.
For longer storage up to 1 year, it should be placed in tightly wrapped rolls in a refrigerator. Drying
time will be longer for the large leather than smaller ones. Drying time may also be longer depending on temperature during drying. For a large leather pieces, it is necessary to check the leather after 2 to 4 days.
The results of analysis also showed that all people washed the processing equipments and 76.4
percent of people washed hands during processing. The water used mostly was from wells (58.2%)
which may be a source of contamination of microorganisms. In addition all people did not think
about the sanitation while drying. Plastic is the packaging and storage container that people prefer
to use than other containers (65.5% of people use plastic as storage container and 87.3% use it as
packaging container).
Analysis on economic efficiency of mango leather processing
Mango leather processing provided an average economic efficiency of 1.29, which is equal to128,100 Riel of profit on average during ripe mango season. Moreover, it helps to reduce the surplus mango product after selling or provides use for overripe mangoes. Table 2 below shows the 5case studies on mango leather processing and demonstrates that fresh overripe mangoes could beprocessed into mango leather during peak season and could generate more income. Economic efficiency for this processing was started from 1.17 to 1.26 consistently. Saka et al., (2004) and Mithofer (2004) showed that harvesting fruit from the forest and the farm could reduce food shortage andimprove local development and create more income by value-added products  thus more products ofgreater economic value.
ⒸISERD79

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

SelectingSelection
Cleaning

Before stirring

Peeling/slicing

MixingHeating

Cleaning

Before stirring

Peeling/slicing
MixingAdding salt

Adding salt
Heating

Spreading
SpreadingSunning
Packaging

After stirring

Sunning
After stirring
Packaging

Storage

Storage

Selling

Fig. 2 Mango leather processing (producers) Fig. 3 Mango leather processing (experiment)
Table 1 Economic efficiency for 5 case studies with producers
Case Study
1
2
3
4
5

Total Revenue(Riel)
209.000
264.000
216.000
336.000
352.000
Average

Total Cost
(Riel)
169.342217.400
184.267
288.100
277.417

Profit(Riel)
39.65846.60031.73347.90074.583128.100

Economic
Efficiency
1.23
1.21
1.17
1.17
1.26
1.19

Considerable factors for families that process mango leather
It was observed that factors that should be taken into consideration during processing are: (1) technical skill for producers such as ingredients used during processing, heating identification, stirring
method, tasting method, thickness of the products, drying method or condition used, texture of the
products, control condition for the products, testing for dryness, storage at room temperature/cool
condition, dark, dry place, packaging material plastic, as bags, paper, jar or other suitable containers, uniformity of the product, and sanitation practice. (2)  Suitable equipments or materials for drying.  (3) Water quality used: well water has micro organisms and unsuitable components. (4) Market
chain and management. (5) Share and acceptance of the experience with/from the experts.
Berdegue, J.A. et al., (2008) showed that small-scale farmers need to change their ways ofworking to be able to access restructured markets and, above all, to sustain participation over time,as these markets continue to evolve in ever more demanding ways. There seems to be three common elements to all successful case studies of smallholder farmer participation;- Upgrading of technical skills, infrastructure and management capacities- Specialization within multi-agent organizational arrangements- Increased working and investment capital, usually requiring subsidized external support for prolonged periods of time
ⒸISERD80

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Svay Koa Lmeat is a popular variety of mangos in Kien Svay district and it was a popular resourcefor being processed into mango leather. Processing of this product had 3 main stages: preparation,
juice extraction and stirring, and straining and drying. During the preparation stage people useddifferent techniques: some people used grinding machine and some people used knives for slicing
followed by peeling. Generally, equipments used during processing were the simple ones and always cleaned before processing. Plastic was the preferred packaging and storage material used.
76.4 percent of the producers interviewed ensured that cleaning and sanitization was done before
processing. 100 percent of producers did not care about the storage method during drying to protect
infestation or contamination.
Processing provided more profit to the farmers, being on average 128.100 riel per ripening
season. Although the economic efficiency on average was 1.19, the abundant fresh fruit could be
utilized and provide more profit from processing on average 7000 riel per person. With these contexts, some recommendations have been made for improved profitability and quality-  Cleaning before process as a rule for producers-the equipments must be dried-  Increase product quantity by producers-  Filter well water before using for processing mango leather-  Producers must identify alternative suitable package for mango leather-  Survey on the equipments used during drying with respect to the conditions and socio-economics
related to local livelihood-  Conduct more studies on the shelf life of the product-  Conduct studies on the preservation methods used to increase shelf life of the products-  Conduct  quality  assessment  studies  of  the  s  with  a  focus  on  the  micro  organisms’  - Identify detail on the micro-organisms followed by the 5 parameters:  (1) Fecal Coliform or Thermptolercent Coliform (2) Campylobacter spp (3) Salmonella spp (4)Clostridium perfringer (5) Staphyloccocus aureas for mango leather-  Extension services to train the producers on the best practices and hygiene requirements.
REFERENCES
Agri Business Week. 2009. Make mango rejects profitable through value-adding. (www.Agribusinessweek.
com).
Bal, J.S. 1997. Mango. fruit growing, first edition. New Delhi, India, 155-182.
Bally, I.S.E. 2006. Species profiles for Pacific island agroforestry: Mangifera indica (mango).
(www.traditionaltree.org).
Berdegue, J.A., Bienabe, E. and Peppelenbos, L. 2008. Keys to inclusion of small-scale producers in dynamic
markets - Innovative practice in connecting small-scale producers with dynamic markets, Regoverning
Markets Innovative Practice series, IIED, London.
Christian and Joffin, J.N. 1989. Food microbiology. Center Regional of Documentation of Bordeaux. Pasteur
Institute of Cambodia, 40-46.
Global AgriSystem. 2005. Global AgriSystem Pvt. Ltd.
Mithofer, D. 2004. Economics of indigenous fruit tree crop in Zimbabwe. Ph.D thesis. Department of Economics and Business Administration, University of Hannover. Hannover, Germany.
Saka, J.D.K., Swai, R., Mkonda, A., Schombarg, A., Kwesiga, F. and Akinnifesi, F.K. 2004. Processing andutilization of indigenous fruits of the miombo in Southern Africa. World Agro-forestry Centre: Nairobi,
Kenya, 343-352.
Swi-bea Wu, J. and Chen, H. 1993. Fruit juice processing technology: Mango juice. Agscience, Inc. Auburndale, Florida, 620.
Yamane, T. 1967. Statistic an introductory analysis, 2nd Edition, New York: Haper and Row, Institute ofFood and Agricultural Science, University of Florida, USA.
Yamane, T. 1973. Statistics an introduction analysis, 3rd Edition, New York : Haper and Row, Institute ofFood and Agricultural Science, University of Florida, USA.

ⒸISERD81

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Improvement of Khmer Traditional Rice Liquor (Sraa Sor)
Productivity Using Different Fermentative Conditions
CHIM CHAY*
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: chaychim@yahoo.com

CHAKRIYA NORNG
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

DINA KOU
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

HAMANO MITSURU
International Center for Agriculture Education, Nagoya University, Japan
Received 16 December 2011

Accepted 12 March 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract The objective of this research was to establish suitable conditions for rice liquor(Sraa sor) in order to improve its productivity in rural areas. Five treatments of fermented
rice conditions were used: cool temperature, ambient temperature, ambient temperature
with plastic bag-covered pot, high temperature and room temperature condition. Data of
temperature, productivity, pure ethanol and ethanol percentage was collected. The data
was analyzed using SPSS version 15 in general linear model univariate to identify the significant level. The results of analysis indicated that fermentation temperature had a strong
significance at (p<0.05). Fermented rice changeable temperature was caused by ambient
temperature. So the ambient temperature is very necessary for fermented rice conditions.
Yeast activity is reduced by low temperature. At temperature between 30-38 ℃ in thefermented rice condition, the productivity, pure ethanol and ethanol percentage had strong
significance (p<0.05). Lowest productivity was observed in cool temperature condition. Insummary, rice fermentation in room temperature was found to be the best condition, whileambient temperature with plastic bag-cover pot was possible in rural area for developmentof rice liquor productivity. However, the level of added water during fermentation and period of fermentation should be examined.
Keywords Khmer traditional rice liquor (Sraa sor), fermentative condition, alcoholic
percentage

INTRODUCTION
Rice liquor (sraa sor) is obtained through traditional fermentation of steamed/boiled rice by mesraa (yeast) in Cambodia. The fermentation of steamed/boiled rice into rice liquor is a complex
biochemical process, during which yeasts utilize sugars and other constituents of steamed/boiled
rice as substrates for their growth, converting them to ethanol, carbon dioxide, and other metabolicend products that contribute to the chemical composition and sensory quality of the rice liquor.
Several factors affect yeast growth during alcoholic fermentation, including cooking rice condition,
sanitation of pots, and temperature of fermentation. However, rice liquor fermentation condition is
the single most important aspect for ethanol productivity. The rice fermentation condition varies
depending on season, especially cold season causes low productivity but this condition can be controlled and improved.

ⒸISERD82

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

METHODS
Location
This experiment was conducted in the bio-processing lab of the Graduate School, Royal Universityof Agriculture. The experiment was conducted in April 2011, which is the hottest month in Cambodia.
Experimental designs
Five treatments of rice fermentation temperature conditions were done in 3 replicates (Fig. 1).
Completely randomized experimental design was used. The fermentation conditions are shown below: 1) Fermented rice in cool temperature (CT): cool temperature was achieved by adding ice tothe water in a plastic box. 2) Fermented rice in ambient temperature (AT): ambient temperature
was a place with free air flow with a roof but no walls 3) Fermented rice in ambient temperature
with plastic bag-covered pot (ATPC): the condition was similar to second treatment condition, but
a plastic bag was used to cover the pot. 4) Fermented rice in room temperature (RT): this wasplaced in the bio-processing lab. And 5) fermented rice in high temperature (HT): the HT wasachieved in a small room by turning on lamps throughout the fermentation.

CT

AT
ATPC
HT
Fig. 1 Rice fermentation temperature in different conditions

RT

Table 1 Experiment material for conducting the treatments
Fermented
condition
CT
AT
ATPC
HT
RT

Rep.

3

Rice amount(kg)

Yeast amount(g)

Amount of added
water (kg)Femented period
(hr)

1

25
(me sraPhùòngTrang)

4.6

96

Rice liquor processing
Rice preparation: Rice was weighed and washed with water 2 to 3 times to remove the rice brain
and husks.
- Pan preparation: Water was poured into the cooking pan and heated on the steaming plate (ortable iron). The washed rice was placed on a cloth and put on the surface of steaming plate andspread to a uniform surface and then covered with a cloth- Steaming: The rice was steamed for 30 minutes. The steaming rice was stirred using a bamboo
stick, and sprinkled with water again and covered; the water was added to be boiled again. The
same steps were repeated as above but the amount of water was reduced a little. After the water
was boiled for the second time for 30 minutes, the fire gradually reduced and the steamed rice wastaken out from a steaming pan.
- Mixed rice with yeast: The steamed rice was taken out from the pan and placed on a plastic mat.
The steamed rice was spread thinly on the mat. Steamed rice was cooled at room temperature
while the temperature was decreased between 35 to 38 ℃, suitable for mixing; yeast was sprayedon the surface of the steamed rice. After which the steamed rice was uniformly mixed with yeast.
The steamed rice mixed with yeast was put in glass.
ⒸISERD83

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Fermented rice condition:- Fermentation without water: Steamed rice mixed with yeast was put into a glass. The fermentation temperature and conditions were observed at six hours over a 48-hour.
- Fermentation with water: After 48-hour fermentation, water was added into the glass. Water
was twice the amount of milled rice. The temperature was checked every six hours over 48 hours.
The total time of rice liquor fermentation was 96-hour including fermented rice without and withwater.
- Distillation of rice liquor: The liquid part of fermented rice was put at the bottom of distillation
pan while solid fermented rice was put in the surface of the steaming table. The burned fermented
rice was placed in the distillation pan until rice liquor was dropped. The rice liquor was dropped
until one litter per kilogram of milled rice was obtained.
Data collection: Temperature of the fermented rice was taken every six hours using a thermometer.
The results are shown in the Table 2 below.
Table 2 Temperature records of rice fermented and ambient conditions (in degrees C)
First dayTime (24hr)
Fermented
Period (hr)

06

12
MT

Second day

Third day

Fourth day

DD

18

24

06

12

18

24

06

12

18

24

06

12

18

23

06

10

16

22

28

34

40

46

52

58

64

70

76

82

88

94

Temperature checking in fermented rice
MT = Temperature of steamed rice mixed with yeast, DD = Distillation day
Ethanol percentage: Measure the degree of alcoholic percentage by hydrometer and look up the % alcohol on a table
at 15 ℃.
Pure ethanol: Pure ethanol (kg) = ethanol volume (l) x ethanol percentage (%)/100
Productivity ethanol per kilogram of milled rice: Productivity (l/kg) = pure ethanol (l) / milled rice volume (kg).

Statistical Analysis
The data was analyzed using general linear model in the program SPSS version 15.0 for window
XP. Multiple comparisons were conducted using Duncan at a significance level of  = 0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fermented rice and ambient temperature
Fermented rice temperature had strong significance in different types of fermentation conditions(P<0.05). Fermented rice in cool temperature exhibited incomplete fermentation, as evidenced bycontinued yeast activity compared to the yeast activity observed in high temperature fermentation.
Fermented rice in high temperature was more active than that in low temperature. Fermentable rice
at low temperature was not completed because the period of fermentation was short, but it wascomplete at high temperature fermentation. The aroma of fermented rice at AT, ATPC and RT
were good (sweet) but sour in CT and HT. Report by Fleet and Heard (1993) showed thattemperature affects the rate of fermentation, with lower temperatures yielding slower fermenation
rates and longer fermentation periods. At a low temperature, fermentation is exceedingly slow. But
the low temperatures notably reduce the growth of acetic and lactic acid bacteria and they can facilitate the control of alcoholic fermentation (Ribereau-Gayon et al., 2002). On the other hand, fermented rice in high temperature condition was quite rapid with complete fermentation as comparedto low temperature.
Fermented rice was variable depending on the ambient temperature (Fig. 2a). However, fermented rice in ambient temperature with plastic bag-covered pot was stable but ambient temperature varied according to the external temperature (Fig. 2b). The unstable temperature affected theyeast activities. Moreover, fermented rice in room temperature was stable even out and inside temperatures (35 to 38 degree Celcius). According to Fleet and Heard, (1993); Ribereau-Gayon et al.,(2000) reported that temperature has an impact on yeast development and on fermentation kineties.
ⒸISERD84

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

a) Fermented rice in cool temperatureb) Fermented rice in ambient temperaturec) Fermented rice in ambient temperature withplastic bag-covered potsd) Fermented rice in high temperaturee) Fermented rice in room temperature

Fig. 2 Fermented rice and temperature (in degree Celcius)

Based on these results, fermented rice in cool temperature was unsuitable as fermention
temperature of rice liquor condition. Rice fermemntation in ambient temperature was impossible incold season but suitable in hot season. On the other hand, fermented rice in ambient temperature
with plastic bag-covered pot and room temperature were possible for fermented rice liquor in bothcool and hot conditions or seasons. It was observed that fermented rice in ambient temperature withplastic bag-covered pot is a suitable way for producing rice liquor by rural farmers. It may beconcluded that rice fermentation in room temperauture is the best way. The temperature between
30 to 38 degree Celcius of the rice fermentation condition was suitable for producing rice liquor in
Cambodia within fermentation periods of 96 hours.

ⒸISERD85

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Table 3 Ethanol production per kilogram of milled rice
Fermented
condition

Milled rice(kg)

Ethanol %
(%)

CT

1

9.2b

AT

1

31.4a

ATPC

1

HT

1

Pure ethanol(L)

Liquor(L)

0.09b

Productivity(L/kg)

1

0.09b

0.31a

1

0.31a

33.4a

0.33a

1

0.33a

29.0a

0.29a

1

0.29a

1
33.2a
0.33a
1
0.33a
RT
CT = fermented rice in cool temperature, AT = fermented rice in ambient temperature, ATPC = Fermented rice inambient temperature with plastic bag-covered pot, RT = fermented rice in room temperature and, HT = fermented
rice in high temperature

Table 4 Temperature of fermented rice in different fermentation conditions (degree C)
Fermentation without water
Mixed yeast

F 10 hrs

TM

T

AT

F 16 hrs

AT

T

F 22 hrs

AT

T

c

18.7

c

20.0

c

19.0

d

F 28 hrs
AT

T

F 34 hrs

AT

T

F 40 hrs

AT

T

F 46 hrs

AT

T

AT

19.3d

19.0

d

20.0

c

19.0

c

20.0

c

19.0

c

20.8

d

19.3

d

19.8

d

18.5d

CT

37.0

28.7

21.0

AT
ATP
C

37.0

28.7

34.0b

30.5b

31.8b

27.2c

29.5c

25.8c

32.5b

33.3b

35.0b

31.0b

31.2c

27.2c

29.3c

26.0c

37.0

28.7

33.8b

30.8b

34.0b

27.7c

33.0b

26.5c

33.2b

33.8b

34.7b

31.5b

33.7b

27.7c

32.3b

26.7c

HT

37.0

28.7

39.2a

42.8a

39.2a

42.2a

39.7a

43.0a

39.0a

41.8a

39.8a

42.8a

39.0a

42.5a

38.5a

42.0a

28.7

b

b

b

b

32.5b

30.0

b

b

b

b

b

b

b

b

30.0b

**

**

RT
P
<.05

37.0

33.3

**

32.7

**

33.3

**

30.8

**

33.0

**

32.7

**

33.8

**

32.5

**

33.2

**

30.8

**

32.5

**

**

Fermentation with water
F 52 hrs
T

F 58 hrs

AT

T

F 64 hrs

AT

T

F 70 hrs

AT

T

F 76 hrs
AT

T

F 82 hrs

AT

T

F 88 hrs

AT

T

F 94 hrs

AT

T

AT

CT

19.3

c

17.3

c

19.3

c

18.0

c

19.0

c

18.0

d

19.0

d

18.0

d

19.3

d

17.7

c

20.7

c

19.3

c

18.8

d

17.3

d

19.5

d

18.3d

AT
ATP
C

33.3b

34.8b

35.3b

31.8b

32.8b

28.3c

29.5c

25.5c

31.3c

32.8b

34.2b

31.0b

31.5c

27.5c

29.8c

26.2c

33.0b

34.3b

34.0b

32.0b

34.2b

28.5c

33.7b

26.3c

33.7b

33.2b

34.7b

31.3b

34.0b

28.0c

33.2b

28.8c

HT

37.3

a

41.8

a

40.5

a

42.5

a

40.0

a

41.8

a

40.2

a

42.0

a

40.2

a

41.2

a

40.2

a

42.0

a

40.7

a

41.3

a

40.7

a

41.8a

RT
P
<.05

32.5b

32.7b

33.7b

32.5b

34.0b

31.2b

33.0b

30.0b

33.5b

33.0b

33.8b

32.5b

33.7b

31.3b

32.7b

30.3b

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

TM = Temperature during mixed steamed rice with yeast, AT = Ambient temperature, T = Temperature in fermented rice,
F = Fermentation period,Hr = Hour, * Significant, ** High significant

The degree of ethanol percentage, pure ethanol and productivity were affected by fermentabletemperature condition, as shown in Table 4. The degree of ethanol percentage, pure ethanol andproductivity were strongly significant under different fermentation temperature conditions. Fermented rice condition in CT had the lowest productivity. Fermented rice condition in AT, RT, HT
and ATPC showed similar production, but AT condition, suitable for hot season, losing its fermentative abilities in cool season. ATPC and RT produced stable liquor even in a cool or hot season. Fermented conditions were affected by the degree of ethanol percentage, pure ethanol and ethanol production. The alcohol yield is generally lower at elevated temperatures, which has been
related to a drop in the ethanol yield and a reduction of substrate (Ribereau-Gayon et al., 1975;
Llaurado, 2002; Torija et al., 2003).
Virender et al. (2000) showed that typical yield of alcohol from molasses is 0.225 l/kg whenmolasses contains 45% sugar, only 70-75% of the sugar get fermented to alcohol and the remaining
sugars go into spent wash. On the other hand, in typical grain fermentation the alcohol yield is>0.36 l/kg of grain, containing 60% of starch which corresponds to 85% of conversion of sugar toⒸISERD86

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

alcohol. An addition of sorghum can potentially give good yield of alcohol of about 0.38 to 0.39
litre of absolute alcohol per kilogram of grain provided and the process is optimized from 0.32 to
0.33 litre.
CONCLUSION
In summary, the fermention temperature affected the yeast activity, causing a decrease in the
productivity of pure ethanol and ethanol percentages. The fermented rice in ambient temperature
with plastic bag-covered pots and in room temperature were suitable temperatures for rice liquor
production.
Temperatures between 30 to 38 o C were the best rice fermentation conditions. However, theamount of added water in fermented rice and period of fermented should be evaluated further.
REFERENCE
Fleet, G.H. and Heard, G.M. 1993. Yeast growth during fermentation. Wince Microbiology and Biotechnology, ed. G. H. Fleet Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 27-54.
Gina, J. 2004. Temperature at which beer is fermented. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/GinaJohn.shtml.
Killian, E. and Ough, C.S. 1979. Fermentation ssters-formation and retention as affected by fermentation
temperature. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 30, 301-305.
Llaurado, J. M., Rozes, N., Bobet, R., Mas, A. and Constanti, M. 2002. Low temperature alcoholic fermentation in high sugar concentration Grape Must. J. Food Science, 67, 268-273.
Peterson, A. 1995. Production of fermentable extracts from cereals and fruits. Fermented Beverage Production (Lea, A.G.H, and Piggot, J.R., eds). London, UK, 1-31.
Ribereau-Gayon, J., Peynaud, E., Ribereau-Gayon, P. and Sudraud, P. 1975. Sciences Et Techniques Du Vin,
Traité dÓenology IIParis: Dunod.
Ribereau-Gayon, P., Dubourdieu, D., Doneche, B. and Lonvaud, A. 2000. Handbook of Enology. The Microbiology of Wine and Vinifications Vol. I. West Sussex, England.
Robert, W. 2004. Mashing and fermentation. Heineken Brewing kettles, Amsterdam. http://running_on_
alcohol.tripod.com/id20.html.
Sheorain V., Banka, R. and Chavan, M. 2000. Ethanol production from Sorghum. Technical and Institutional
Options for Sorghum Grain Mold Management: Proceedings of an International Consultation, 228-239.
Torija, M.J., Rozes, N., Poblet, M., Guillamon, J.M. and Mas, A. 2003. Effects of fermentation temperatureon the stain population of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae. Int. J. Food Microbiol, 80, 47-53.

ⒸISERD87

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

New Biotechnologies for Sustaining Greener Agriculture
IVAN R. KENNEDY*
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, University of Sydney, Australia
Email: ivan.kennedy@sydney.edu.au

NGUYEN THANH HIEN
Biofertilizer Action Center, Hanoi, Vietnam

PHAN THI CONG
Agriculture Green Future, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

KHANOK-ON AMPRAYN
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, University of Sydney, Australia

GANISAN KRISHNEN
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, University of Sydney, Australia

MICHAEL ROSE
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, University of Sydney, Australia

ANGUS CROSSAN
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, University of Sydney, Australia

ZHANG YAN

Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin,  People’s  Republic  of  China  WANG SHUO
Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People’s  Republic  of  China
Received 13 February 2012

Accepted 12 March 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract Sustainable agriculture must face the challenge of sufficient productivity to feed
and clothe up to 10 billion people this century. As a result, strictly organic methods, whileenvironmentally welcome, can be no more than a partial solution because more land isneeded than is available. However, recent development in a range of biotechnologies may
provide safer environmental protection together with improving yields. For example, plant
growth-promoting (PGP) microorganisms in Vietnam have been shown in field studies tooffer reduced needs for seed, chemical fertilisers, pesticides, water and harvest yield losses.
Interestingly, one PGP inoculant called BioGro was designed using validation of microbial
strains from farmers' results; but these very same species are now being characterised inlaboratories world-wide as PGP strains. Their laboratory analysis has shown similar traits
as observed by farmers, such as extended root structure, nutrient mobilisation, biocontrol
for pathogens and insecticidal activity. Despite less nutrient and pesticide needs and thus
reduced environmental impacts, agrochemicals will still be needed for sufficient productivity. Research on tools for environmental risk management by farmers such as immunological ELISA analysis can also contribute here. Rapid 5-minute tests for monitoring bothfood and environment for pesticides can provide better stewardship of such chemicals,
helping  to  ensure  a  ‘greener  future’.
Keywords nitrogen fixation, PGPR, safer pesticides, immunogold tests, risk managementⒸISERD88

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

INTRODUCTION
In this paper, two recent areas of biotechnology developments now being applied will be described.
These are based on original research findings made in our group at the University of Sydney, in
Vietnam and in China since around 2000 or earlier, leading to the application of these findings andtheir launching in a commercial format. More than 10 years has been required for this result, given
the need for robust field research and extensive quality control of all outputs.
The two areas that will be described cover plant growth promoting microbes used to achieve
nutrient efficient rice production and the development of rapid test kits for measuring pesticides
used in crop production. Both of these outcomes are directed towards achieving more sustainableagriculture, by reducing environmental impacts and improving food safety.
MICROBIAL BIOFILMS AND PGPR RESOINSES ON RICE YIELDS
Microbial biofilms play an important role in agriculture and in food and fibre production. Whilst
some microbial effects on crop plants are deleterious, it is increasingly recognised that biofilms
may have strong beneficial effects in agriculture. Furthermore, realising these potential benefits islikely to play an increasing role in achieving sustainable solutions regarding improved crop yields
and in human and environmental health. Such gains may be essential in the face of the increasing
global population and climate change.
Plant growth promotion (PGP) for crops by microorganisms has been recognised for sometime in biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in legumes, shown in Germany in the late 19th century in
the face of opposition by Justus Von Liebig. More subtle are the beneficial effects of the PGP microbes in cereals and other crops. These involve a complex of phytohormonal effects, nutrient mobilisation, BNF and biocontrol that benefit plant growth and overall yield (Kennedy et al. 2008).
Essentially, it is possible to grow crops such as rice inoculated with microbes forming biofilms on
the surfaces of their roots that allow significantly reduced input of chemical fertilisers, seed, pesticides and water, as well as reduced harvest losses.
In this paper we describe a successful biofertiliser, BioGro - now a commercial product in Vietnam invented by Professor Nguyen Than Hien; it consists of four microbial strains in peat (Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus spp. and a soil yeast, Candida tropicalis) inoculated to the rhizosphere of rice seedlings (Nguyen et al., 2003; Phan et al., 2009, 2011). Remarkably, BioGro contained unidentified strains selected empirically on the basis of their effectiveness for rice farmers;
later, these were identified in Australia to include species now recognised around the world in research laboratories as having a strong genetic basis for beneficial effects as inoculant biofertilisers(Kennedy et al., 2008).
As was the case about a century ago with legumes and the rhizobia that form N2-fixing nodules on their roots, obtaining an effective outcome from applying these biofilm-forming organisms
to crops in the field is challenging. It is important that inoculants of high quality in terms of particular microbial strains in sufficient numbers (ca. 107 -108 cells per g of inert carrier). Furthermore,convincing farmers of the beneficial effects and the scale of economic benefits possible, limiting
their risk, is also important. An efficient supply chain that includes quality control and delivery of
economic and environmental benefits from biofertilisers to farmers is also essential.
A strategy for simultaneously achieving environment-friendly and economic benefits developed in a World Bank Development Marketplace project Sustaining nitrogen-efficient rice production (DM2008), was developed. Recent unpublished research indicates the role of cyclic lipopeptides and phenazines produced by Pseudomonas sp. CMR12a in root colonization, biofilm formation and biological control of soil borne plant pathogens, regulation of insect plant-beneficial
pseudomonad and insecticidal activity of plant-associated pseudomonads: how they became insect
pathogens, aiding plant salt tolerance by tissue specific regulation of sodium uptake, thus conferring plant growth promotion with yield increases from less fertiliser (Nguyen et al., 2003; Phan etal., 2009, 2011) in the application of such microbes to crops as biofertilisers like BioGro still needs
to be determined.
ⒸISERD89

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

However, the results of a participatory action process with the application of BioGro at village
level in the Mekong Delta has led to significant increase in the profitability of rice farming (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 shows plots of yield ratio to profit ratio that farmers using BioGro replacing about 40% of
urea application can obtain as greater yields and profits as a result of better tillering, lower Nfertiliser inputs, reduced pesticide inputs, improved water use efficiency and reduced harvest losses
as machine harvesting could occur more promptly. The tendency to be in the top sector with ratios
greater than 1.0 increased with experience, most of the values falling below 1.0 occurring in thesummer-autumn crop of 2009 during the third crop before the annual flood in September when soil
condition was acid sulphate and nutrients were low and soil toxicity greatest. Crops on the sameplots twelve months later nearly all had ratios exceeding 1.0.
2.2

Profit ratio (BioGro/Farmer)

2.0
1.8

R2 = 0.8
P< 0.0001
Y = -1.36 + 2.4X

1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4

0.98

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

Yield ratio (BioGro/Farmer)

Fig. 1 Yield and profit ratios over four crops comparing farmers using 100 kg of BioGro
reducing urea inputs to about 60% compared to normal farmer practice (100 kg
urea-N per ha) on individual plots less than 1 ha are shown. T
An imperative here for success of this biotechnology shown in Fig. 1 with BioGro is ensuring
the quality control of these inoculants; the correct strain species in the correct numbers must bepresent in commercial inoculant products. Using techniques similar to those employed to produce
immunogold tests for herbicides described in more detail below, we have also generated similar
immogold tests for beneficial PGPR microbes such as Pseudomonas fluorescens, one of the key
components of BioGro (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 2 Rapid immunogold quicktests for 1N (Pseudomonas fluorescens), a component of
BioGro used in rice production
The  test  lines  (T)  show  increasing  concentrations  of  1N  (cfu’s  per  mL).  These  devices  are  being applied to testing commercial peat cultures as part of their quality control, ensuring that specificstrain cell numbers exceed 106-107 viable cells per g.
ⒸISERD90

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

QUICK IMMUNOTESTS FOR HERBICIDES
In our research, three polyclonal antibodies against herbicides used in cotton growing, diuron,
fluometuron and prometryn for the preparation of rapid lateral flow immunogold tests have recenly
been developed. We will provide some details of the preparation of two of these rapid tests, for diuron and prometryn.
1. DiuronA rapid immunotest for diuron was developed using published techniques. Haptens were synthesised as indicated. The hapten was attached to the protein carriers of keyhole limpet hemocyanin(KLH), bovine serum albumin (BSA), ovalbumin(OVA) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) using
the active ester method. The conjugates of hapten 4C-KLH, hapten 6C-KLH, hapten 4C-BSA andhapten 6C-BSA were all used as immunogens.

Fig. 3 Preparation of haptens for antibodies reactive with diuron
Sensitivity of the test could be controlled by varying the length of the coupling groupused for conjugation to protein for injection into rabbits

A pair of male rabbits was immunized with each immunogen. Test results showed that rabbits
immunized with the conjugate of hapten 4C-KLH produced the best specific antibody. To test thesuitability of the antibodies, competitive indirect ELISA microtiter plates were coated with 100 μL  per well of hapten 4C-OVA  (0.1  μg mL−1 in 50 mM carbonate buffer, pH 9.6) overnight at 4 o C.
The following day, the plates were washed with PBST and blocked with 200 μL  per  well of 0.5%
milk powder diluted in PBS.  50μL  per  well  of  diuron  and  50  μL  per  well of rabbit anti-diuron pAb(1  μg  mL−1, diluted in PBS) were added. Plates were shaken gently for one minute before incubatedfor 1 h at 37 o C.  Then  the  plates  were  washed  again  with  PBST,  and  100  μL  per  well  of  10000-folddiluted secondary antibody were added and incubated at 37 o C for 30min. After another washing
step,  150  μL  per  well  of  substrate  were  added  and  incubated  for  15  min.  The  enzyme reaction was
stopped with 1.5 M H2SO4 and the plates were read at 450 nm (reference 650 nm). Having shown
the suitability of the IgG, immnogold strip tests were prepared. Full details of their manufacture
will be published elsewhere.

Fig. 4 Diuron Quick Test
As test water samples contain diuron as a contaminant, the test line (T) disappears,
The control line, containing non-specific antibody (C) indicates the antibody test is effective

2. Prometryn
The following is the chemical structure of the hapten for prometryn:ⒸISERD91

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

The hapten synthesis is as the following:

The hapten was attached to the protein carriers bovine serum albumin (BSA), using the Nhydroxysuccinimide active ester reaction Hapten-BSA was used as immunogen. The titre of theserum produced was 160,000, which was purified by protein A-sepharose-4B.
The optimization of a direct competitive ELISA for prometryn is ongoing, under the preliminary condition of ELISA, IC50 is 0.4 ppb.

Fig. 5 The standard curve of direct competitive ELISA for prometryn
Immunogold tests for pesticides based on these ELISA results are currently in preparation

CONCLUSION
Farmers need many new tools to assist them to achieve sustainable agricultural practices. In thispaper, we have described two areas where biotechnology has allowed advances that both help
achieve higher crop yields for rice and also allow farmers to manage environmental risk regarding
their application of agrochemicals. We plan to generate a large range of such rapid tests, including
some for screening food products for aflatoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus. The availability ofsuch rapid tests at a reasonable cost will provide tools supporting best management practices.
Organic production of crops is a worthwhile aim when consumers of farm products can afford
to pay the higher costs. Organic production requires at least 50% more land than conventional agriculture so that only a small proportion of organic products can be expected without clearing moreforests. With global climate change, this is unacceptable. But feeding the world sustainably will
require most food to be grown using all farming tools available, leaving choices of the best production systems to farmers. Government agencies must support farmers to make the best choice and toundertake stewardship. Banning chemical products and farming practices such as land clearing iscounterproductive. Far better for farmers to volunteer protection of the environment, using modern
biotechnology such as that described in this article.
REFERENCES
Cong, P.T., Dung, T.D., Hien, T.M., Hien, N.T., Choudhury, Abu T.M.A., Kecskés, M.L. and Kennedy, I.R.
2009. Inoculant plant growth-promoting microorganisms enhance utilisation of urea-N and grain yield of
paddy rice in southern Vietnam. European Journal of Soil Biology, 45, 52-61.
ⒸISERD92

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Hien, N.T., Deaker, R., Kennedy, I.R. and Roughley, R.J. 2003. The positive yield response of field-grown
rice to inoculation with a multi-strain biofertiliser in the Hanoi area, Vietnam. Symbiosis 35, 231-245.
Kennedy, I.R., Choudhury, A.T.M.A., Kecskes, M.L. and Rose, M.T. (eds.) 2008. Efficient nutrient use inrice production in Vietnam achieved using inoculant biofertilisers. Proceedings of a project(SMCN/2002/073) workshop held in Hanoi Vietnam, 12-13 October 2007, ACIAR Proceedings, No. 130
137. Canberra ACT. www.aciar.gov.au.

ⒸISERD93

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Nitrogen and Phosphorus Released from Coconut Husk
during Retting Treatment
JULIAN E. TORILLO JR.
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: juliantorillo@yahoo.com

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 14 January 2012

Accepted 12 March 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract Upland fields in Bohol of the Philippines are mostly located on areas with highslopes resulting in soil erosion. Although coconut husk has been applied as buffer strips
for eliminating soil erosion, attention has been paid to the loss of nitrogen and phosphorus
components not only discharged from synthetic fertilizer applied in upland fields but also
those released from coconut husk. The leached nutrients associated with surface runoffand percolation water may cause pollution downstream. Thus, efficient utilization of thenutrient components from coconut husk is necessary from a view point of conservation
agriculture in Bohol, Philippines. This study sought to find out the amounts of nitrogenand phosphorus in coconut husk, to quantify the amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus
released from coconut husk during the pretreatment by retting process and to observe theoptimum period of releasing nutrients from coconut husk. Retting of coconut husk werecarried out for 140 days and small amounts of ret liquor was sampled at certain days ofinterval for nitrogen and phosphorus analyses. Based on the experimental results, it wasobserved that releasing nutrients from coconut husk rapidly increased from the starting day
up to ten days of retting. Even after ten days, nutrient components released from coconut
husk tended to increase gradually. It was also proven that about 87% of its phosphorus and
10% of its total nitrogen was released from the coconut husk. Therefore, it was concluded
that coconut husk has a high tendency to release nutrients during the retting process,particularly for phosphorus component that can be a source for bio-fertilizer.
Keywords coconut husk, retting, nitrogen, phosphorus, bio-fertilizer

INTRODUCTION
Upland fields with protruding stones and rocks on ground surfaces as well as abandoned farmlands
are dominant particularly in the southwestern part in the island of Bohol (Torillo and Mihara, 2011).
Moreover, these lands are mostly located on slopes of areas with 8-18% and even some portions
with more than 18% slope, particularly for subsistence agriculture (OIDC, 2006). Together withhigh squalls, uplands in the island are susceptible to soil erosion causing rapid degradation of landwith the decrease of crop quality and yields.
To replenish the nutrients required by crops and to increase crop yields, local farmers choose
to apply synthetic fertilizers. However, high prices of synthetic fertilizers lead to scarcity of theseresources, particularly on phosphorus. Cordell et al. (2009) reported that phosphorus is mainly
obtained from mined rock phosphate and its reserves could be exhausted in the next 50-100 years(Steen, 1998; Smil, 2000b) thus an effective approach to the management of phosphorus cycle isnecessary. On the other hand, coconut husks that were installed as buffer strips for soil erosion
control tended to release nitrogen and phosphorus. This tendency was observed during the slopemodeling under artificial rainfall simulator (Torillo and Mihara, 2011). Those nutrients released
from the coconut husk may leach through percolation and surface runoff resulting water pollution
in downstream. Therefore, treating of coconut husk before its installation as buffer strips throughⒸISERD94

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

retting has been recommended. However, improper management on the treatment process may
cause pollution to surface waters as well. Bijoy (1997) reported that coconut husk retting activity
has caused large scale organic pollution with the mass destruction of flora and fauna, foul smelling
stagnant waters in Kerala, India. Also, Ambika and Gopalakrishna (1990) added that pectin,
pectosan, fat, tannin and also toxic polyphenols are liberated into ambient water by the activity ofbacteria and fungi in the coconut husk retting area in backwaters at Cochin, India.
Thus, making use of the nutrient component in coconut husk for liquid bio-fertilizer has been
desired. The objectives of this study were 1) to find out the amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus incoconut husk at different portions and layers, 2) to quantify the released amounts of nitrogen andphosphorus from the coconut husk during the retting treatment, and 3) to determine the optimum
period for retting of coconut husk.
MEHODOLOGY
To find out the total amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus in the coconut husk, a preliminary
analysis was carried out. The following procedure was also aimed to find out which portions andlayers of the coconut husk have lower concentration of total nitrogen (T-N) and total phosphorus(T-P) that could be applicable as buffer strips for soil erosion control in order to mitigate thereleasing of nutrients from coconut husk. As shown in Fig. 1, coconut husk were cut into three
portions as bottom, middle and top then were sliced into three layers as inner, middle and outerthen the bark layer. Pith and fiber were segregated, and were crushed into powder. Crushed pithand fiber were then analyzed for T-N and T-P components.
Pedicel and Sepal

Top
Micropyle

Fiber

EmbryoMiddlePithBottoma) Cross-section of
coconut huskb) Segregated fiber, pith and barkc) Pulverizing of fiber, pith and barkFig. 1 Preparation process for preliminary analysis of total nitrogen (T-N) and total
phosphorus (T-P) in coconut husk

First day of rettinga) Minor pounding by hammer

Fourth day of rettingb) Retting into cylinders with distilled water

Fig. 2 Procedure of pretreating coconut husks
The coconut husks utilized as buffer strips for soil erosion control had released nutrient
components, so it was proposed to carry out the pretreatment of the coconut husks by retting before
installing into the site. To quantify the amount of T-N and T-P released from the coconut husk
ⒸISERD95

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

during the retting treatment, the analysis of those nutrients in the ret liquor was carried out. Rettingof coconut husk was performed using the following procedures; firstly, coconut husks weremoderately pounded by hammer (Fig. 2) to produce porous material similar to that being installed
into the site as buffer strips. Pounded coconut husks of 119.22 g in dry mass were then immersed
into the 4,600 ml of distilled water.
Secondly, sampling of water soaked with coconut husk or so called ret liquor was done atcertain days of intervals within 140 days. Thirdly, ret liquor samples were analyzed for T-N and TP after the decomposition with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium peroxodisulfate (K2S2O8)
then the concentrations of T-N and T-P were measured by spectrometric methods (Mihara andUeno, 2000).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Amount of nitrogen and phosphorus in coconut husk

T-N per mass of husk (mgN/g)

Coconut husks were portioned, layered and then pith, fiber and bark were segregated for analyzing
the amount of total nitrogen (T-N) and total phosphorus (T-P). Based on the experimental results, it
was found out that every portion of the coconut husk has different concentrations of T-N and T-P(Figs. 3 and 4).
0.30
0.25

a**

a**

0.20

a**
a**,b**

a**,b**

a**,b**

0.15

b**

b**

0.10

b**

0.05

b**
b**
b**

0.00

Portion of coconut husk

Weighted mean of nitrogen mass** Significant difference at 99%

T-P per mass of husk (mgP/g)

Fig. 3 Amount of total nitrogen (T-N) per dry mass of pith, fiber and barkat top (T), middle (M) and bottom (B) portions of coconut husk
0.70

a**

0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10

b**

c**

c**,d**c**c**

b**,c**

c**,d**
c**,d**

c**,d**
d**

d**

0.00

Portion of coconut husk

Weighted mean of phosphorus mass** Significant difference at 99%

Fig. 4 Amount of total phosphorus (T-P) per dry mass of pith and fiber, and barkat top (T), middle (M) and bottom (B) portions of coconut husk

ⒸISERD96

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Most of the top portions showed significantly higher in the amounts of T-N and T-P than thatof the middle and bottom portions. Top portion of the coconut husk is highly concentrated with TN and T-P, it may be because of the pedicel and embryo (Fig. 1a) that are located in the top portionof the husk and nut. As Rancic et al. (2010) reported that water and nutrients which fruit growthdepends on is transported from the stem into the fruit through the pedicel by xylem and phloem.
The embryo which germinates at microphyle (Chan and Elevitch, 2006) develops a haustorium thatprovides a conduit for the supply of nutrients from kernel into the germinating embryo (Foale,2003). These conditions might be the factors that most nutrients are accumulating at the top portionof the coconut husk.
As shown in Fig. 3, the weighted mean of T-N in the coconut husk was 0.1138 mgN/g and asignificant difference at 99% was observed among portions. For the amounts of T-P, a weighted
mean at 0.3037 mgP/g and also a significant difference at 99% were observed among the portionsof coconut husk (Fig. 4).
Optimum retting period of coconut husk

0.02

Mass of T-P per mass of husk
(mgP/g)Mass of T-N per mass of husk
(mgN/g)Coconut husks were retted within 140 days and then the ret liquor samples were collected at certain
days of interval for nitrogen and phosphorus analyses. It was observed that a remarkable increase intotal nitrogen (T-N) and total phosphorus (T-P) components in coconut husk ret liquor from thestarting day of retting up to a certain period of time then tended to increase gradually further.

y = 0.0035ln(x) + 0.0394
R² = 0.9791

0.01

Deflection point
0.01

0.00

0.30

y = 0.0592ln(x) + 0.628
R² = 0.9129

0.20

Deflection point
0.10

0.00
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

0

Time (day)

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Time (day)Fig. 5 Amount of T-N released from coconut
husk into ret liquor

Fig. 6 Amount of T-P released from coconut
husk into ret liquor

Based on the logarithmic curve as shown in Figs. 5 and 6, the deflection point lies approximately on the tenth day of retting. This trend indicates that up to the tenth day from the starting dayof retting, T-N and T-P rapidly released from coconut husk. After then, the trend changed to release
gradually of those nutrients. The results suggested that ten days of retting is an adequate period of
pretreating the coconut husk when its nutrient components are mostly released.
Amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus released from coconut husk during the retting
treatment
Coconut husks were retted in distilled water and ret liquor samples were collected at certain days ofinterval for total nitrogen (T-N) and total phosphorus (T-P) analyses. It was suggested that ten days
retting of coconut husk is an adequate period of pretreating the material. As shown in Fig. 5, theamount of T-N released into the ret liquor was 0.0114 mgN/g during the tenth day. Based on theweighted mean of T-N in coconut husk as shown in Fig. 3 was 0.1138 mgN/g therefore it wasproven that 10.01% of T-N was released from the coconut husk during the retting treatment.
Fig. 6 shows the amount of T-P in the ret liquor where 0.2639 mgP/g was released into the ret
liquor during the tenth day of retting which is 86.89% in the weighted mean of 0.3037 mgP/g thatis being shown in Fig. 4. Although, it was clearly observed that T-N and T-P were released fromⒸISERD97

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

the coconut husk during the retting treatment, a confidence interval was not observed. It was also
indicated that the amounts of T-P released from the coconut husk during the retting period wassignificantly higher than that of T-N.
CONCLUSION
For sustainable use of resources, utilizing the nutrient components from the coconut husk which is
locally available and a renewable resource in the region has good value. So, this study dealt withthe optimum retting period of coconut husk to release its nitrogen and phosphorus components. The
quantification of the amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus released from coconut husk into the ret
liquor during the retting treatment were also sought to be found out of this study. However, as afundamental basis on the quantification of nitrogen and phosphorus released into the ret liquor,
finding out the amounts of T-N and T-P in the coconut husk is necessary. Thus, analyses on theamounts of T-N and T-P in the coconut husk were also carried out.
It was found out that the weighted mean of T-N and T-P in coconut husks were 0.1138 mgN/g
and 0.3037 mgP/g, respectively. The experimental results also indicated that rapid release ofnutrient from coconut husk during the tenth day of retting. During the tenth day period, 0.0114
mgN/g accounted for about 10% of 0.1138 mgN/g in coconut husk was released into the ret liquor.
Meanwhile, phosphorus component was 0.2639 mgP/g accounted for about 87% of 0.3037 mgP/g
in coconut husk has been released from the retted coconut husk into the ret liquor.
Therefore, it was concluded that ten days is enough period of treating the coconut husk by
retting treatment. At this period, about 87% of T-P component from the coconut husk while about
10% of T-N were released during the retting treatment. Thus, rich amount of nutrient component
particularly on phosphorus could be extracted from the coconut husk by retting method within tendays which could be the suitable source for bio-fertilizer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to acknowledge the support of President Dr. Elpidio T. Magante of Bohol Island
State University for his meaningful guidance and advice.
REFERENCES
Ambika, D.M. and Gopalakrishna, P.N. 1990. Effect of pollution due to coconut husk retting on the southwest coast of India. Indian Journal of Fisheries, 37(2), 145-149.
Bijoy, N.S. 1997. Retting of coconut husk: A unique case of water pollution on the southwest coast of India.
International Journal of Environmental Studies, 52, 335-355.
Chan, E. and Elevitch, C.R. 2006. Cocos nucifera (coconut). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry,
2-1, 1-27.
Cordell, D., Drangert, J.O. and White, S. 2009. The story of phosphorus: Global food security and food forthought. Global Environmental Change, Elsevier, 19, 292-305.
Foale, M. 2003. The coconut odyssey: the bounteous possibilities of the tree of life. Australian Centre forInternational Agricultural Research, 44-46.
Mihara, M. and Ueno, T. 2000. Nitrogen and phosphorus transfer in soil erosion processes, IAHS Publication,
No. 263, 109-115.
Orient Integrated Development Consultants Inc. 2006. Bohol Agriculture Master Plan, CY2006-2026.
Rancic, D., Pekic, S. and Pecinar, I. 2005. Anatomy of tomato fruit and fruit pedicel during fruit development. Microscopy: Science, Technology, Applications and Education, 851-861.
Smil, V. 2000b. Phosphorus in the environment: Natural plows and human interferences. Annual Review ofEnergy and the Environment, 25, 53-88.
Steen, I. 1998. Phosphorus availability in the 21 st Century: Management of a non-renewable resource. Phosphorus and potassium, 217, 25-31.
Torillo, J.Jr. and Mihara, M. 2011. Soil erosion control by coconut husk buffer strip in Bohol island of Philippines. International Journal for Environmental and Rural Development, 2(1), 25-30.
ⒸISERD98

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erdPollination of Apis mellifera and Trigona biroi on the
Productivity of Solanaceous Crops
JOSE T. TRAVERO*
Bohol Island State University, Bohol, Philippines
Email: jose_travero@yahoo.com

IAN L. NUEZ
Bohol Island State University, Bohol, Philippines

WELLIE S. SAGLIBA
Bohol Island State University, Bohol, Philippines
Received 16 December 2011

Accepted 12 March 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study was conducted to determine the effects of bee pollinators (A. mellifera and T. biroi) on the productivity of solanaceous crops. Two observation sites were selected for conducting this study. One was intended for the A. mellifera and other site for T.
biroi. A randomized complete block design (RCBD) was laid out with four blocks andthree replicates. Solanaceous crops used in the study were eggplant, tomato and sweet
pepper. Of the three solanaceous crops, analysis of variance showed that A. mellifera had ahighly significant effect at 1% level of significance on the percent pollinated flowers of
eggplant. However, both bee pollinators had shown the same significant effects on sweet
pepper and tomato. Furthermore, this study revealed that both A. mellifera and T. biroi arevery efficient pollinators of eggplant crop. Eggplant is the best solanaceous crop withhighest pollination efficiency to A. mellifera and T. biroi.
Keywords bee-pollinated, pollinators, solanaceous, stingless bees

INTRODUCTION
Pollinators strongly influence ecological relationship, ecosystem conservation and stability, genetic
variation in the plant community, floral diversity, specialization and evolution. In farmed areas,
bees are needed for the pollination of many cultivated crops for fruit and seed set and for maintaining  biodiversity  in  ‘islands’  of  non-cultivated areas. The main role of bees in the different ecosystems is their pollination work.
Being tropical, stingless bees are active all the year round although they are less active incooler weather. The Trigona species is one of the known species of honeybees that are endemicallyliving in the Philippines. This kind of bees is lacking of sting; in fact, they are harmless to humans
but they defend by biting if their nest is disturbed. They are noted as good pollinators, the behaviorof the most efficient pollinators carry plenty of pollens, visit several flowers of the same species insuccession and move frequently from flower to flower and plant to plant. Foraging of these bee
workers are mainly for pollen-gathering due to a very short tongue needed for gathering nectar.
On the other hand, honeybee or Apis mellifera originated in Europe and is widely popularamong beekeepers for honey production is now widely used in commercial pollination. Beekeepers
may quote a figure, courtesy of the USDA, that honeybees pollinate 80% of the U.S. crops that require pollination. According to researches, bee pollination increased crop production by 30% (Baconawa, 2002). This was the reason why the researchers came up with this idea to study about bee
pollination among the solanaceous crops chosen for this research. Through natural pollination of
the stingless bees, it would determine if it could contribute to productivity and increase yield quality and quantity. Hence, this study was conceptualized and conducted through actual and practicalfield observations.
ⒸISERD99

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

OBJECTIVES
The primary aim of the study was to determine the pollination efficiency of both Honeybees (Apismellifera) and Stingless bees (Trigona biroi.) to three solanaceous crops, namely; (a) Eggplant (Solanum melongina), (b) Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), and (c) Sweet pepper (Capsicum anuum). Specifically it sought to determine the percentage of fruit set between bee pollinated and nonbee pollinated.
METHODOLOGY
Research design and the research environment: The study on stingless bees was conducted at
the upland area of the Oikos Peace Garden in Zamora, Bilar Bohol. The type of soil was sandyloam. The solanaceous plants were exposed to sunlight during the whole day. While the honeybees
are at the Eco-farm, BISU-Bilar, Zamora, Bilar, Bohol, it is a flat open area with sufficient sunlight,
alkaline soil and good drainage.
Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) was laid out at the experimental areas. The experimental lot had an area of 263.44 sq.m. There were four blocks representing the replication that
had three plots per block measuring 3.2 m x 3.6 m per plot. One meter distance between blocks andplots served as an alleyway and at the same time the borders in the whole area. The planting distance was 60 cm. between hills and rows, allowing distance of 80 cm. in between the beepollinated and non-bee pollinated plants to provide a space for the construction of covers.
Research materials: The materials used in the study were the following: plow, meterstick, bamboo slats, wood, nails, honeybee colony, stingless bee colony, fine nets, solanaceous crops (eggplant, tomato, sweet pepper), bolo, seedling trays, vermicast, hammer, and weighing scale.
The plants opened for bee pollination were labeled Bp or Bee-pollinated, while the plants thatwere not pollinated by bees were labeled NBp or Non bee-pollinated. The code used for eggplant
was 1(one), 2 (two) for tomato and 3 (three) for sweet pepper.
Construction of net covers: The construction of net cover was done by block one month after
transplanting and after the second fertilizer application. The first ten plants from the right side of aplot were the Non-bee pollinated constructed with net covers. The net cover was 1.6 m in height.
Introduction of honeybees and stingless bees: The introduction of honeybees and stingless bees
was done before transplanting to provide enough time for them to adjust the condition of the area.
The hives were installed at a distance of 50 m. from the experimental area. Six hives were used in
the study.
Data collection and analysis: Data collection started from the flowering stage up to the fruiting
stage. Counting the flowers per hill for three times with an interval of one week was done to gather
the total number of flowers per treatment. The same process was done during the fruiting and theharvesting stages.
The gathered data were tabulated and analyzed through the assistance of the Statistician.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used for the statistical treatment of data.

Fig. 1 One of the two experimental areas (left) and colonies of stingless bees
ⒸISERD100

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 shows the average percent pollination of stingless bee. It shows that Eggplant had the highest percent of pollination of 54.80 while Tomato had the lowest percent of pollination of 32.87.
Table 1 Average percent pollination of stingless bee
Crops
I

Block
III

II

Treatment total
IV

Treatment
mean

Eggplant
36.36
56.25
72.72
53.85
219.1854.80aSweet pepper
27.10
37.54
36.16
37.60
138.4034.60bTomato
34.13
30.59
32.32
34.45
131.4932.87bGrand Total
489.07
Grand Mean
40.76
Means within treatment mean column followed by a common letter are not significantly different at 0.05 level ofprobability using Least Significant Difference (LSD) test

Table 2 Analysis of variance on the average percent pollination of stingless bee
Source of
Variation

Degrees ofFreedom

Tabular F

Sum ofSquares

Mean
Squares

Computed
F

5%

1%

Block
3
328.359
Treatment
21188.56
Expt’l  Error  6421.718
Total
11
1938.63
cv = 20.6%, * = Significant at 5% level

109.453594.27970.2864

8.46*

5.14

10.92

Table 2 presents the analysis of variance on the average percent pollination of stingless bee. Itshows that there is significant (P<0.05) difference among treatments since the computed F value of
8.46 is higher than the Tabular F value at 5% level (5.14) but lower than 1% level (10.92) of significant. On the other hand, Eggplant is the best solanaceous crops with highest pollination efficiencyof stingless bee (Trigona biroi) compared to sweet pepper and tomato (Table 1). This implies thatstingless bees are more efficient on eggplant crops compared to sweet pepper and tomato.
Table 3 shows the average percent pollination of honey bee. It shows that eggplant had thehighest percent of pollination of 86.45 while sweet pepper had the lowest percent of pollination of
25.68.
Table 3 Average percent pollination of honey bee
Crops

Block
I

II

Treatment total
III

IV

Treatment
mean

Eggplant
100.0055.69
90.11
100.00345.8086.45aSweet pepper
22.77
13.61
40.33
26.01
102.7225.68bTomato
18.88
23.22
48.12
20.18
110.4027.60bGrand Total
558.92Grand Mean
46.58
Means within treatment mean column followed by a common letter are not significantly different at 0.05 levelof probability using Least Significant Difference (LSD) test

Table 4 presents the analysis of variance on the average percent pollination of honey bee. Itshows that there is significant (P<0.01) difference among treatments since the computed F value of
28.46 is higher than the Tabular F value at 5% level (5.14) but lower than 1% level (10.92) of significant.
Furthermore, eggplant is the best solanaceous crops with highest pollination efficiency ofhoney bee (Apis millefera) compared to sweet pepper and tomato (Table 3). This implies that Honeybees are more efficient on eggplant compared to sweet pepper and tomato.

ⒸISERD101

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Table 4 Analysis of variance on the average percent pollination of honey bee
Sum ofSquares

Mean
Squares

ComputedF

5%

Tabular F
1%

Block
3
1260.66
Treatment
29546.67
Expt’l  Error  61006.36Total
1111813.70
cv = 27.8%, ** = highly significant at 1% level420.2194773.33
167.726

28.46**

5.14

10.92

Source of
Variation

Degrees ofFreedom

CONCLUSION
Based on the findings of the study, the researchers concluded that both honeybees (A. millefera)
and stingless bees (Trigona biroi) are efficient in pollinating solanaceous crops. A millefera, however is more efficient than T. biroi particularly on eggplants. This can be attributed to the bigger
size of the flower of eggplant compared to the size of the flower of other solanaceous crops understudy. Other factor could be the size of A. millefera which is obviously bigger comparatively with T.
biroi.
REFERENCES
Amano, K., Nemoto, T. and Heard, T. 2000. What are stingless bees, and why and how to use them as croppollinators? A review of JARQ 34(3), 183-90.
Baconawa, Antonio Jr. 2000. The economics of bee pollination in the Philippines.
Bispo dos Santos, Roselino, S.A.A.C., Hrncir, M. and Bego, L.R. 2009. Pollination tomatoes by the stinglessbee Melipona quadrifasciata and the honey bee Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera, Apidae), 8(2), 751-757.
Heard, T.A. 1999. The role of stingless bees (Meliponinae) in crop pollination. Annual review of entomology,
44: 183-206
Pollinator Partnership Protection and Funding Farm Bill Programs, 2008.
Stinglessbees-Wikipedia, The free Encyclopedia, June 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stinglessbee.
Squidoo. 2000. Stingless bees-2009, http://www.squidoo.com/stingless-bees.
Yousef Ahmad Al-abbadi, S. 2009. Efficiency of different pollination treatments on solanaceae yields grownin Plastic House. J. Biot. Sci., 9P 463-469, http://emkerci.com/articles/ns/pollination_Philippines.htm.

ⒸISERD102

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erdSocio-Economic Assessment for Proposing Alternative
Livelihood Strategy of Minority Villagers, Ratanakiri andStung Treng Provinces
NARA CHAN*
Graduate School, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
E-mail: nara_c86@yahoo.com

NUTH CHUM
Graduate School, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

COLAS CHERVIER
Graduate School, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 15 December 2011

Accepted 12 March 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract Ratanakiri and Stung treng provinces are located in northeast of Cambodia.
There are riches of natural landscape which is abundant with many rice fields, lakes, waterfalls, rivers as well as vast areas of forest. This research was focused on relative importance of activities related to farming and natural resources collection in terms of revenue and occupation at the household level and the way people benefit from communities
and natural resource. 120 samples were selected for household survey. Stratified random
sampling was used to interview rich, medium and poor households. Other primary datacollection methods including questionnaire survey, observation; key informant interviews
were also implemented. This study showed that rice farming and shifting farm (Chamkar)
are the main sources of food consumption and supplementary income for their living in thefour villages. But non-timber forest product (NTFPs) collection and wildlife poaching are
the main sources of income for the rural livelihoods in remote village in the forest. Local
communities in the village studied preferred to poach the wildlife by dog hunting andcrossbow and collecting malva nut tree by cutting down in average 10 malva nut tree perhousehold in year round. However, livestock production was the other livelihood activities
because local communities can raise chicken, duck, pig, cow and buffalo for selling,household consumption, agricultural activities and spirit Areak (Kavet people). The income that came from natural resource was high but this trend was not sustainable for the
future. The natural resource is decreased day by day due to the illegal activities, the local
communities do not know how to harvest or collect in the sustainable way. By the way,
improvement of agriculture sector in the targeted area is the good way to improve theirlivelihood and avoid the negative affected to the natural resources.
Keywords minority, socio-economic, assessment, natural resource.

INTRODUCTION
Ratanakiri and Stung treng are located in northeast of Cambodia. There are riches of natural landscape which is abundant with many rice fields, lakes, waterfalls, rivers as well as vast areas of forest. Those provinces are place of ethnicities such as Kavet, Lao, Tumpun, Kachock, Jarai, Kroeung,
Preo, Kouy, Lun, Islam, Chinese, and Khmer (Ian et al., 1996). Most of them are farmer, who liketo live on the mountain and in the forest. They are doing shift culture, hunting, finding NTFPs fortheir livelihood (Sopheap 2004). Their livelihood depend on forest resource are decrease and startchange to agriculture instead (Chea, 2008). The villagers who do not possess domestic animal are
involved most in poaching to feed their families. This research need to do base line survey in four
ⒸISERD103

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

villages. It conducted to the Socio-Economic Assessment for proposing alternative Livelihood
Strategy of Minority villagers, Ratanakiri and Stung treng provinces.
Three hypotheses have been set in this research. First, natural resources are contributes significantly   to   the   households’ livelihood and income living in the target village. Second, natural resources are managed in such a way that it does not contribute to the development of local communities and conservation in a sustainable manner. Third, income from natural resources use is higher
than income from agriculture activities in the village.
Accordingly, the objectives of this study are to assess the relative importance of activities related to farming and natural resources collection in terms of revenue and occupation at the household leve and to describe the way people benefit from communities and natural resource.
The studied topic focuses on socio-economic of the local people get from natural resources(NTFPs, wildlife), farming, and other activities, farming practice and natural resource management.
Due to the time and human resource constraints, sample size of the research is not statisticallycomputed. Only 120 households will be randomly selected from the four villages which 2 inRatanakiri and 2 in Stung Treng provinces.
METHODOLOGY
Site selection: The study (thus) corresponds to a baseline survey. Other justification for selecting
these target villages include: high-dependence of local communities on natural resources associatedwith a depletion of natural resources caused by various causes including illegal activities. Richness
in terms of biodiversity makes this area of high priority for conservation: high occurrence ofendangered mammals.

Fig. 1 Map of study area
Household selection: The first step was to do a wealth ranking exercise whereby each village wasdivided  into  three   wealth   levels,   namely   “poor”,   “medium”   and  “better-off”.   A  random   sampling
approach was randomly selected among four villages (Table 1).
Table 1 Sample size for study
Village

Talae
Kapin
BackaeKang Nuok

Total households
123
88
77
84

Sample size
30
30
30
30

Percentage
25
34
39
36

Source: field survey, 2010
One hundred twenty households were selected by using the following formula (Yamane, 1967):
Nn=n: Total numbers of samples to be selected for interview
1+N(e)2
N: Total number of household
e: Acceptable bias (+7.5%)--= =ⒸISERD104

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Key informants: After the observations have been conducted, key informants have beeninterviewed by semi-structure questionnaires and the checklist had been used to interview 4 key
informants at different institutional levels as forestry officer (2 people), elder people (12 people),village leader (4 people), and trader in the village and in Banlung (6 people).
Primary data collection: Followings have conducted as primary data collection.
- Semi-structured interviews with key informants- Group discussion with key-informants and transects walk of the area
- Structured interviews with individual households
Secondary data collection: The secondary data has been collected from other reports of bothprevious and current related study which may be found in the NGOs offices, Department ofAgriculture and Forestry, academic and research institutions, journals, and the internet sources.
Data analysis: Data from the quantitative like household asset, labor used natural resource used
income and expensed was computerized using Microsoft Excel software.
Qualitative data have been reviewed, summarized and categorized in priory defined parameters which were determined and then entered in a database. In particular, a database for ecosystemservices combining both quantitative and qualitative data has been created.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Socio-economic situation
This section presents basic data and information about villages studied, in order to characterize activities in each village. Livelihood activities are economic activities that household takes on to meettheir basic needs, including food, clothing and shelter. Most of people in the study area rely on anumber of different occupations (Table 2).
Table 2 Main occupation of local people in the villages studied
Occupation/Village
FarmerNTFPs collector
Small business
Farmer, NTFP collector
Farmer, Small business
NTFPs collector, Small business
Farmer, NTFPs collector, Small businessBackae (%)

Kapin (%)

Kang Nuok (%)

Talae (%)

7

3
3

73
20

77
10

100

7
100

3

70
7

3
3
80
4

17

Farmer, NTFPs collector, Other
3
10
Total
100
100
Note: Other occupation, there are: worker, teacher, trader, and craftworker

Animal production
Animal production is less important in livelihood since farmers are very busy with doing farming
and shift culture. Chicken are mostly raised conventionally. Chicken is offered to the spirit, consumed and sold. Duck are raised to get eggs for household consumption and selling in the village.
Pig rising is popular in the study area even though they are no plenty of feed stuffs. Cattle are important labor for agriculture for rice farm and also for their cart to transport the rice, crop products,
etc.
Local villager benefit from community and natural resource
Right to access natural resource is as follows.
- Utilization on dry wooden, wild forest fruit, honey, resin, and other NTFPsⒸISERD105

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Fig. 2 Percentage of local communities raising animals in the village studies- Usage of timber for house building, fence, stables for animals, and for making agricultural equipment
and harvesting grass or freeing the animal in to the forest- Utilization of other non-timber forest products consistent with traditional use of minority or family and
NTFPs were selling or traded by no need approved latter if is trade affected to the sustainable of theforest.

Table 3 Average income of local communities get from NTFPs in the village studied/year
BackaeKapin
Kang Nuok
Talae
Income (US$)
Income (US$)
Income (US$)
Income (US$)
Resin
230
228
96
145
Malva nut
329
363
605
297
Total
559
591
701
442
Note: Resin = 0.30 US$/ L, Malva nut = 4.70US$/ kg, 1 US$ was equivalent to 4250 Riel in 01 June 2010
SourceTable 4 Average income of timber forest product/year
BackaeIncomeExpense
(US$)
(US$)
572
188
TimberLuxury wood
800
Total
1372
Profit1184
Note: 1 US$ = 4250 Riel in 01 June 2011
Sources

Kapin
IncomeExpense
(US$)
(US$)
180
50
180
130

Kang Nuok
IncomeExpense
(US$)
(US$)
1115
230
1115
885

Talae
IncomeExpense
(US$)
(US$)
1153
187
282
1435
1248

Household income
There are many kinds of income that the villagers can receive per year such as by farming (paddy
rice, shifting culture (Chamkar)), NTFPs (the main are risen, malva nut), wildlife hunting, wood
logging, livestock production (cattle, chicken and duck), small business, rice mill, handicraft, andtrader (Fig 2).

Fig. 3 Average income from each activity (village study)ⒸISERD106

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

DISCUSSION
Access right to natural resources: Natural resources that are accessible as common property provide an important livelihood, especially for the poor, as a source of food and additional income.
Nowadays, local people still have their own traditional utilization right on that natural resource inthe sustainable way, for example, the local community have their traditional ownership on resin
tree even though it is not recognized by authority but at the household level, villagers are approved.
Similar results were showed in Chea (2008), where the ethnic minority is respected spirit in theforest.
Land use and land tenure: The research found that forest land allocation was open for those whowant to do agriculture or shifting cultivation as well as for those who would be affordable todevelop plantation by themselves. However, forest land allocation to households entirely depends
on the production capacity and the social networks of each household. In other words, the forest
land allocation was favored to households who have either financial capital available to cover input
costs for plantations or have social networks to gain access to free input supply from plantation.
The proportion of forest land received by three different wealth groups and state forest owners as
discussed in the result. The poor group gained least from the land allocation process. Lack of
capital to invest in plantations is the most critical factor hampering the poor people in gaining
allocated forest land. This finding corresponds to those of Tam.V. Le (2008).
Natural resource elimination: Natural resource has plummeted as a result over-exploitation forboth legal and illegal export to neighboring country and china for making furniture, other masteries,
traditional medicine, domestic consumption and local sale (Luy, 2008). A similar study in Chum(2009) and Chea (2008) reported that the rural community in the forest area commonly logging
luxury wood and other value kind of tree, harvest wildlife such as turtle, water monitor, Bengal
monitor, Burmese python, cobra, wild pig, red muntjac, Sam bar Pangolin and main NTFPs such as
Malva nut tree by cutting down the trees, resin, in the forest, nearby the rice fields, shifting culture,streams.
CONCLUSION
According to research findings in the village studied, it can be concluded that rice farming andshifting farm (Chamkar) are the main sources of food consumption and supplementary income for
their living in the four villages. Villagers who lived in Backae, Kapin, Kang Nuok and Talae village can make income in average 420-700 US$ from NTFPs collection per household, especially
300-600 US$ from malva nut collection and 100-230 US$ from resin tree collection in year round..
Besides, local communities in Backae can make income in average 904 US$ from wildlife poaching, especially Sam bar, turtle, Bengal monitor, water monitor, cobra, wild pig and red muntjac.
But villager in the Kang Nuok and Talae village can make income in average 550US$ from wildlife hunting, whereas Kapin village can make income in average 442 US$ per household in year
round. Moreover, villager can make income from Timber forest product in average 885 $-1154$ per families. The income that came from natural resource is high but this trend is not sustainable
for the future. The natural resource is decreased day by day due to the illegal activities, the local
communities do not know how to harvest or collect in the sustainable way. By the way, improvement of agriculture sector in the targeted area is the good way to improve their livelihood and avoid
the negative affected to the natural resources.
REFERENCE
Chea Ramsey. 2008. Socio-economic assessment for proposing alternative livelihood strategy of Lao minority villagers of I Tub, Ratanakiri province. 85.
Chum Nith. 2009. Contribution of natural resource to livelihood in two floating villages near Kampong Prakfish sanctuary Tonle Sap Lake, Krokor District, Pursat Province. Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia.
ⒸISERD107

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Luy Rattana. 2008. Study on the issue of forest and wildlife offend in Pursat Province. Royal University ofAgriculture (Khmer version), Cambodia.
Tam V. Le. 2008. The Forest land use and local livelihoods.
Yamane, T. 1967. Determining sample size.

ⒸISERD108

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Effect of Using Sun-Dried Sesbania sesban Leaves inConcentrate on Growth Rate of Quail
PUTHEANY UNG*
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: vet_theany@yahoo.com

KROESNA KANG
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh , Cambodia

SOKHORN NEANG
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

SOPHAL CHEAT
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

SEREY MOBRoyal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 15 December 2011

Accepted 12 March 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract This paper dealt with the experiment   on   “Using   sun-dried Sesbania sesban
leaves with petioles in concentrated feed on growth rate   of   quail”. It took 42 days tocompletely   undertake   the   trial   to   evaluate   a)   quail’s   growth   rate   (daily   live   body   weight  gain and weekly live body weight), b) feed intake (FI), c) feed conversion ratio (FCR), andd) economic efficiency (EE). S. sesban leaves mixed petioles being completely sun-dried
and finely ground contains 27.62% crude protein, 19.28% crude fiber in 89.13% dry
matter basic. The foliage meal with different level of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% wasconcentrated with a basic diet of maize, dried fish, rice bran and soybean (T0, T1, T2, andT3). Two hundred forty 5-day-old quails were used and then fed with each treatment dietconsisting of 27% and alternatively 24% crude protein for the first and the second stages,
respectively. Total expense, income, daily feed intake, and weekly body weight wererecorded. The result indicated that there were differences (P<0.05) of the daily body live
weight gain (T0 = 3.94 g, T1 = 3.89 g, T2 = 3.64 g, and T3 = 3.31 g); of the finishing live
body weight of quails between all treatments (T0 = 187.2 g, T1 = 184.8 g, T2 = 174.0g
and T3 = 160.8 g); and of FCR (T0 = 2.69, T1 = 2.72, T2 = 2.92, and T3 = 3.24).
However, there were no significances of FI in which each treatment quail took in 11-12
grams of the feed per day, and of EE in which all treatment diets provided profit around10-13 cents as expense on the quail product was one dollar. In sum, the inclusion of S.
sesban foliage meal to a maximum of 5% is recommended for quail rising.
Keywords quail, Sesbania sesban leaves, growth rate

INTRODUCTION
This paper dealt with the experiment  on  “using sun-dried Sesbania sesban leaves with petioles inconcentrated  feed  on  growth  rate  of  quail”  which  was  conducted  for  BSc  thesis  at  Royal  University  of Agriculture (RUA) in 2010.
Quail consumption was estimated to be more popular for supporting food demand because it isa kind of poultry with its very delicious meat and its 22.55% crude protein (Chreng, 2007). Its meatproduct can readily match market demand because of its short production cycle from four to five
weeks (Barrette et al., 1998 cited from Kheang, 2006). Furthermore, quail requires a simple smallⒸISERD109

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

space for keeping and it is more resistant to any diseases and environment than other poultry suchas chicken and duck (Randall, et al., 2008).
Because of the fact that raw materials for animal food processing in today’s market is very expensive, quail production expenses are also affected seriously. Accordingly, to facilitate the quail
keepers, especially in rural areas, as well as to alleviate their expenses on the raw materials; inclusion of Sesbania sesban leaves with petioles in concentrated feed for quail was conducted. Sesbania sesban including its leaves is a kind of plant which is eaten by humans and it is very inexpensive and freely available almost all over Cambodia. Furthermore, it was indicated that CP of its
sun-dried leaves (27.62%), which was obtained from Saang district, Kandal province, Cambodia; ishigh and acceptable for concentrated feed of quail meat production with 86.13% DM and 19.28%
CF (RUA, 2010).
For the reasons mentioned above, accompanied with the fact that sun-dried S. sesban leaves
with petioles had never been used in the concentrated feed in Cambodia, this trial was conductedon  “Effect  of  Using Sun-Dried Sesbania sesban Leaves  in  Concentrate  on  Growth  Rate  of  Quail”  which was mainly focused on  a)  the  quail’s  growth  rate,  b)  the  feed  intake  (FI),  c)  the  feed  conversion ratio (FCR), and d) the economic efficiency (EE).
METHODOLOGY
Study site: The study was carried out at Animal Experimental Station, Faculty of Animal Scienceand Veterinary Medicine, Royal University of Agriculture (RUA), Phnom Penh, Cambodia. It was
conducted with two hundred forty quails over 42 days between from February and March 2010.
Table 1 Concentrate Formula
Ingredient
Maize
Rice bran
Dried fish
SoybeanSun-dried S.sesban leaves
Salt
PremixTotal  CP (%)  ME (kcal/kg)
Ca   (%)
P   (%)
Maize
Rice bran
Dried fish
Soy beanSun-dried S.sesban leaves
Salt
PremixTotal
CP (%)  ME (kcal/kg)
Ca   (%)
P   (%)

T0 (%)
T1 (%)
1st Stage (0-3weeks)

T2 (%)

T3 (%)

30
16.4
27
25.6
0
0.5
0.5
100

29
12.5
24.5
23
10
0.5
0.5
100

25
14.5
23
21.5
15
0.5
0.5
100

27
3022.42(*)
1.35
0.93

27
2856.66(*)
1.3
1.1

35.5
15
14.5
24
10
0.5
0.5
100

34
14
13
23
15
0.5
0.5
100

24
3034.12(*)
0.87
0.88

24
2865.3(*)
0.8
0.62

29
15
26
24
5
0.5
0.5
100
Chemical Components
27
27
3366.83058.89(*)
1.5
1.44
1.3
1.2
2nd Stage (4-6weeks)
38
36.7
17
16.08
20
17.2
24
24.02
0
5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
100
100
Chemical Components
24
243251.33197.8(*)
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.96

* Note: ME value without including ME value of Sun-dried S.sesban leaves

Sampling size: It took five days to adapt two hundred forty one-day-age quails and then based onCompletely Randomized Design (CRD); they were divided into four dietary treatments comprisedⒸISERD110

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

three replications with 20 quails each. The dietary treatments were comprised of T0 (control treatment), T1 (including 5% sun-dried Sesbania sesban leaves and petioles in concentrated feed), T2(including 10% sun-dried Sesbania sesban leaves and petioles in concentrated feed) and T3 (including 15% sun-dried Sesbania sesban leaves and petioles in concentrated feed).
Concentrate formula: For feeding the quail in the experiment, there are two stages with different
CP ratio of their diets over six weeks. Five-day-aged quails in each dietary treatment were fed with
27% CP diet over three weeks; and then alternatively, fed with 24% CP diet for another three
weeks (Sam, 2001 cited from So Leakhena, 2007). The formula of concentrated feed is calculated
and shown as in Table 1.
Data collection and analysis: Total expenses on each treatment including the price of 1-day-aged
quail, housing, health care, and management of; as well as the total income of selling quails in eachtreatment were recorded in order to calculate the economic efficiency. In addition, feed intake of all
experimental quails was recorded daily for determining food conversion ratio and their live bodyweight was also recorded weekly until the end of experimental periods. All data obtained was analysed using one-way ANOVA in SPSS version 15.0.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Body live weight gain
There was significant difference (P<0.05) of the daily live body weight gain of each treatment. It
was observed that quail in T1 and T0 gained similarly high daily live body weight, while those in
T2 and T3 gained significantly less (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Daily average weight gain
Table 2 Weekly body live weight
Age (week)

Parameters

T0

T1

T2

T3

P

N

60
21.6ns0.73

60
20.5ns1.31

60
20.3ns1.33

60
20.3ns
0.15

0.399

60
42.9ns1.98

60
43.4ns1.53

60
42.7ns0.72

60
39.5ns
2.83

0.122

60
67.2a
2.22

60
64.5a
0.58

60
58.5b
3.07

60
54.0b
4.73

0.03

60
85.5a
0.79

59(*)
84.7a
0.98

59(*)
81.8a
3.56

60
75.4b
3.99

0.007

60
120a
2.26

59
114ab
4.75

59
108.8b
1.62

59(*)
99.7c
7.63

0.004

60
153a
3.86

59
148.2a2.01

59
140.6b2.08

59
129.4c
6.37

0.001

60
187.2a5.47

59
184.8a1.94

59
174.0b
1.62

59
160.8c
6.61

0.001

0
S
N
1
S
N
2
S
N
3
S
N
4
S
N
5
S
N
6
S

ⒸISERD

ns is no significance (P>0.05), a, b and c  show significant difference (P<  0.05)

111

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Weekly live body weight
By the end of the first week, there was no significant difference  (P>0.05)  between  quail’s  live  body  weight in each treatment. Alternatively, from second to sixth week it was significant (P<0.05) (Table 2). It was indicated that the average of the finishing live body weight of quail with dietary T0,
T1, T2 and T3 was 187.2 g, 184.8 g, 174.0 g and 160.8 g, respectively. However, in the second
week one quail died in T1 and T2; and in the third week in T3. The death was not caused by theconcentrated feed impact based on the analysing quail corpses, but instead by mechanic causes.
Feed Intake (FI)There was no significance (P>0.05) in average feed intake (g/bird/day) between all treatments (Fig.
2). Quail in all of the treatments consumed between 11-12 grams per day.

Fig. 2 Average feed intake (g/bird/day)Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)The FCR value was calculated by the following formula.
Total feed intake
FCR

The last body live weight

The previous body live weight

The FCR of the different dietary treatments during overall experimental period is shown in Fig.
3. It indicates that there was significant difference (P<0.05) in FCR value between the treatments.
Though, it was that T0-diet, T1-diet and T2-diet gave the same FCR value; and T3-diet different.
According to the meaning of FCR; it takes less than three grams of T0, T1, and T2-diets to createone  gram  of  quail’s  live  body  weight;;  but  over  three  grams  of  T3-diet.

Fig. 3 Feed conversion ratio
Economic Efficiency (EE)The EE value was calculated by the following formula.
EEⒸISERD

Total income
Total expense112

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Table 3 reflects that feeding diets with using sun-dried Sesbania sesban leaves and petioles for
quail raising made no essential difference in profit compared to T0. It shows that one dollar spenton each treatment-diet provides around 11-13 cents of profit as compared to 10 cents for T0.
Table 3 Economic efficiency for each treatment
Treatment

Total income (US$)

Total expenses (US$)

Total profit (US$)

EE (%)

T0
T1
T2
T3

39.00
38.35
38.35
38.35

35.26
34.53
34.13
33.73

3.74
3.82
4.22
4.62

1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13

CONCLUSION
Despite the fact that it provides no difference in profit compared to the control treatment diet, adding up to 5% of sun-dried S. sesban leaves mixed petioles in concentrated feed does not harm quailproduction. However, inclusion of this raw material in the concentrated feed should be limited to
5% due to the significantly lower finishing live body weight at higher levels, which would impact
food security. According to Factsheet-Sesbania sesban (2007), using Sesbania sesban 10% in poultry concentrated feed could kill poultry. In sum, compared to the control treatment and based on thementioned results, the inclusion of S. sesban leaves mixed petioles can be definitely recommended
to use at 5% of concentrated feed.
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
There are many people to whom I would like to express gratitude for their contributions to thisstudy. I would like to express great thankfulness to my parents and my siblings for supporting mewith financial resources and great encouragement and motivation. Furthermore, I would like to express sincere thanks to my friends as well as classmates at the same academic year for their assisting to build the quail-keeping house and their sharing knowledge and providing me with encouragement.
REFERENCES
Cheeke, P.R. 1999. Applied animal nutrition: Feed and feeding, Second ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon &Shcuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. USA.
Clarence, E.B., and Ronald, V.D. 1968. Livestock and poultry production, Third ed. E. Designed by Carlos
N.Crosie. USA.
Chreng, C. 2007. The effect of using sun-dry TARO leaves in feed ingredient on growth rate of quail at Animal Experimental Station. BSc thesis, Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Factsheet - Sesbania sesban. 2007. http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_se.
Retrieved on June 27, 2010, from http://betuco.be/coverfodder/ Sesbania%20 sesban.pdf
Kheang, V.T.N. 2006. The effectiveness of using whey protein on growth rate of quail. BSc thesis, Animal
Science and Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia.
Randall, M. and Bolla, G. 2008. The raising Japanese quail. Primefact of New South  Wales Department ofPrimary Industries (NSW DPI), 602, Second ed. Retrieved April 20, 2007,   from http://www.dpi.nsw.
gov.au/_data/assets/pdf_file/0005/145346/ Raising-Japanese  quail.pdf.
RUA. 2010. Analyzing of chemistry components of sun-dried sesbania sesban in chemistry laboratory. Faculty of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Royal University of Agriculutre, Cambodia.
So Leakhena. 2007. Effect of using Kapok tree leaves in concentrate on growing quail. BSc thesis, Animal
Science and Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia.

ⒸISERD113

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

The Characterization and Activity of Digestive Enzymes in
Different Sizes of Common Lowland Frog (Rana rugulosa
Wiegmann)
RUNGKAN KLAHAN*
University of Phayao, Phayao, Thailand
E-mail: supatcharin5@hotmail.com

BUNDIT YUANGSOIFaculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Received 15 December 2011

Accepted 12 March 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract The activity of serine and acid protease, amylase and lipase from a 3-day-old
whole-body frog, the gastrointestinal tract of a 10-day-old frog, and the stomach, intestineand pancreas of a 45-day-old and a 60-day-old frog (Rana rugulosa Wiegmann) were determined. The results showed that the medium-age frog (45 days) appeared to have higher
activity of serine protease and lipase than the old frog (60 days) and tadpoles (3 and 10days), while the old frog had the highest activity of acid protease. The activity of serine
and acid protease from the four ages of frogs had the high activity at pH 8-12 and 3 respectively, while the activity of both amylase and lipase were highest at pH 7. The activityof all kinds of enzymes were shown to have the highest activity in the pancreas while theactivity of acid protease was found to have the highest activity in the stomach. These results will be used as the basis for suitable feed formulation and feedstuffs for different sizes of common lowland frogs so that optimum nutritional value and cost-effectiveness canbe achieved.
Keywords common lowland frog, acid protease, serine protease, amylase, lipase

INTRODUCTION
Amphibian diets indicate that all adult amphibians are carnivores; most feed principally on insects,
although many species eat a variety of invertebrates. The anuran larvae are herbivorous, so the diets include such vegetable matter as aquatic invertebrates (Duellman and Trueb, 1994). Some adultanurans, including Rana sp., feed on large prey items, e.g. small mammals, bird and other anurans.
Hylid frogs (Acris crepitans) during post-metamorphic growth ingest increasingly larger prey items.
The same trend for anurans, the function of developmental change from herbivorous to carnivorous
feeding, varies. For this reason, digestibility is important and necessary. The digestive enzyme system includes protease, amylase and lipase which are basic enzymes necessary for digestion, especially for frog culture involving artificial feedstuffs, such as frogs and catfish feed that are high innutrients, particularly protein. Amphibians have a gland in the mucosal lining which secretes mucus in which pepsinogen proliferates. Pepsinogen is the precursor of pepsin, released by the main
cells in the stomach, and it degrades food proteins into peptides. Pepsin is one of three principal
protein-degrading, or proteolytic, enzymes in the digestive system; the others are chymotrypsin andtrypsin, which are alkaline, and serine protease which are produced by the pancreas. During theprocess of digestion, these enzymes, each of which specializes in severing the links between particular types of amino acids, collaborate to break down dietary proteins into their components, which
can then be readily absorbed by the intestinal lining. In amphibians, digestive enzymes are generally considered to be absent in buccal secretions, though low concentrations of diastatic amylase
have been reported in the secretions of the intermaxillary, lingual and pharyngeal glands in somespecies of Rana (Reeder, 1964). The digestive enzymes in the small intestine are secreted by theⒸISERD114

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

pancreas (Duellman and Trueb, 1994). Lipase activity has been found in extracts of the pancreas,
pyloric ceca and upper intestine, but almost non-existent in the stomach and lower intestine. Digestion is completed in the small intestine in which the content of the lumen is mixed with a variety ofdigestive enzymes by intermittent contraction of the muscular wall (Duellman and Trueb, 1994).
The main aim of this study was to determine the activity of digestive enzymes, including protease  (acid and serine), amylase and lipase, in four stages of common lowland frogs, given the fact thatthese are culture stages. The results from this study will be used as a basis to select feedstuffs anddevelop feeding formulations that are suitable for different stages of common lowland frogs, so that
optimal nutritional values and cost-effectiveness can be obtained.
METHODOLOGY
Frog and Sample Preparation
One thousand 3-day-old frogs, five hundred 10-day-old frogs, one hundred 45-day-old frogs andfifty 60-day-old frogs from the Department of Fisheries, University of Phayao were used in thisstudy. The 3-, 10-, 45- and 60-day-old frogs were fed with 52, 40, 35 and 30% protein feed, respectively, twice a day. The whole body of 3-day-old frogs, the gastrointestinal tract of 10-day-old
frogs, and the intestine, stomach and pancreas of 45- and 60-day-old frogs were collected andweighed 16 hours after feeding. Samples were stored at -80oC until use.
Crude enzyme preparations
The whole body of 3-day-old frogs, the gastrointestinal tract of 10-day-old frogs, and the intestineand pancreas of 45- and 60-day-old frogs were prepared by the method of Gimenez et al., (1999)
for the serine protease, amylase and lipase assayed and Klomklao et al., (2007) for pepsin assayed.
Enzymatic assay
Characterization of serine protease: Serine protease activity was monitored in triplicate bymeasuring the increase in cleavage of short chain polypeptides via the method of Bezerra et al.
(2005), but with the slight modification of using azocasein as a substrate. Protease specific activity
was expressed as units of change in absorbance per min. per mg. of protein of the enzyme extract(Abs/min/mg protein). Acid protease activity was assayed in triplicate by measuring the increasein oligopeptides via the method of Klomklao et al. (2007), but with the slight modification of using
hemoglobin as a substrate. The acid protease specific activity was expressed as units of change inabsorbance per min. per mg. of protein of the enzyme extract (Abs/min/mg protein). Amylase
activity was determined in triplicate by the 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) method (Bernfeld, 1951)
using starch as the substrate. The amylase specific activity was defined as the mmol. of maltose
produced per min. per mg. of protein under the conditions specified. Lipase activity was measured
in triplicate by a method modified from Markweg et al. (1995) using 0.01 M paranitrophenylpalmitate (pNNP) dissolved in iso-propanol as substrate. The lipase specific activity
was defined as the mol of p-nitrophenol produced per min. per mg. of protein under the conditions specified.
Protein concentration: Protein concentration was determined by the method of Lowry et al.
(1951) using bovine serum albumin as a standard.
Statistical analysis
This experiment was conducted according to a completely randomized design (CRD) and the dataobtained from the enzyme activity in various pH buffers and ages of frog were subjected to a oneway  Analysis  of  Variance  (ANOVA)  followed  by  a  Duncan’s  new  multiple  range  test.  
ⒸISERD115

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Optimal pH of serine protease
The activity of serine protease from the whole body of 3-day-old frogs was the highest at pH 11,
the serine protease activity from the gastrointestinal tract of 10-day-old frogs was the highest at pH
9, and in the intestine and pancreas of 45- and 60-day-old frogs it was the highest at pH 9 and 10,
respectively (Fig. 1). The pH range for the maximal activity of serine protease extracted from thepancreas, intestine and the whole body of small tadpoles (3 - 6-day-old frogs) was in the range 9-11.
The results were in line with the work of Teo et al. (1990), who showed that the serine proteaseactivity of common Malayan toads displayed a well-defined optimum at pH 7.2. These results werein line with studies of fish, such as Sheng et al. (2006) also reported that alkaline protease activity
remained high over a wide range of pH values (6-11). Klomklao et al. (2011) reported that the optimum pH for Na-p-tosyl-L-arginine methyl ester hydrochloride (TAME) hydrolysis was 8.0 andthat trypsin was stable over a pH range of 6.0-11.0. The kcat-pH profile of serine proteinasecatalyzed reactions showed a bell-shaped curve, reflecting a maximum activity close to pH 8
(Wong, 1995). Proteases and other enzymes can also be classified and based on their optimal pH(acid or alkaline) and the tissues of production (gastric, pancreatic and mucosal) (Halver and Hardy,2002).

Fig. 1 Serine protease activity (specific activity) in the whole body of 3-day-old frogs,
the gastrointestinal tract of 10-day-old frogs, and the pancreas (panc.) andintestine (int.) of 45- and 60-day-old frogs at pH 6-13
Optimal pH of acid protease (pepsin)
The pepsin activity from the whole body of 3-day-old frogs was the highest at pH 2 and the activityof pepsin from the gastrointestinal tract of 10-day-old frogs and the stomach of 45- and 60-day-old
frogs was the highest at pH 3 but not found to be active at over pH 4 (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Acid protease activity  (specific activity) in the whole body of
3-day-old frogs, the gastrointestinal tract of 10-day-old frogs
and the stomach of 45- and 60-day-old frogs at pH 2-6ⒸISERD116

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Pepsin functions best in acidic environments; it is often found in an acidic environments, inparticular those with a pH of 1.5 to 2, and pepsin denatures when the pH is more than 5.0. Most
digestion of pepsin occurs in the stomach as a result of the action of pepsin (De Silva and Anderson,1995). The results were in line with the work of Teo et al. (1990) who showed that the pepsin activity of common Malayan toads showed a well-defined optimum at pH 2-2.2.  The results were similar with those of Tanji et al. (2007) who found that Pepsin-A from the gastric mucosa of African
coelacanths, Latimeria chalumnae (Actinistia), had the highest activity at pH 2-2.5.  
Optimal pH for amylase
The amylase activity from the whole body of 3-day-old frogs, the gastrointestinal tract of 10-dayold frogs and pancreas and the intestine of 45- and 60-day-old frogs was the highest at pH 7  andsub-optimal at pH 12 (Fig. 3). Amylase or -amylase is a hydrolysis enzyme produced by the pancreas. By  acting  at  random  locations  along  the  starch  chain,  α-amylase can operate anywhere on thesubstrate and tends  to  be  faster  acting  than  β-amylase. In animals, like frogs, -amylase is a major
digestive enzyme and its optimum pH range is 6.7-7.0.

pH

Fig. 3 Amylase activity  (specific activity) in the whole body of 3-day-old frogs,
the gastrointestinal tract of 10-day-old frogs, and the pancreas (panc.)
and intestine (int.) of 45- and 60-day-old frogs at pH 2-13
De Silva and Anderson (1995) stated that amylase had been identified in pancreatic juices, thestomach, the intestine and bile; however, the main producers were the pancreas and liver, which isconsistent with this report, showing high activity of amylase in the pancreas and that it acts in neutral to alkaline environments in the upper intestine. The amylase activity of frogs lacks data, sothese results were compared with those for other animals, such as fish. The amylase activity in allages of frogs was similar to that in the study of Zeng and Cohen (2000) who showed peaks in amylase activity in the salivary glands of Lygus hesperus and L. lineolaris at pH 6.5. The maltase activity on carbohydrates in the small intestine of African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis) was shownin the report of Sabat et al. (2005) who studied it at approximately pH 6.5 in their study. The optimal pH for amylase activity varies with the enzyme source and values reported for amylase in
mammalians are in the ranges of 6.0-7.0 and 6.0-8.0 with a temperature tolerance of between 2040oC for porcine pancreatic -amylase (Wong, 1995).
Optimal pH of lipase
The lipase activity in the whole body of 3-day-old frogs, the gastrointestinal tract of 10-day-old
frogs, and the pancreas and intestine of 45- and 60-day-old frogs was highest in the range pH 7-9.  
(Fig. 4). In addition, the highest activity of lipase was detected in the pancreas of 45-day-old frogs.
Lipase or pancreatic lipase, also known as pancreatic triacylglycerol lipase, is secreted from pancreas and hydrolyze dietary fat molecules as triglyceride substrates in the digestive system to makemonoglycerides and free fatty acids. The principal site for lipase activity is the mucosal layer, butthere are no data for anurans. However, the primary site of lipid hydrolysis for most speciesⒸISERD117

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

appears to be in the pyloric ceca and anterior intestine (Halver and Hardy, 2002), and all fatdigesting enzymes are known to act in alkaline media. The lipase activity data of frogs along withamylase activity have insufficient data so these results were compared with other animals, such as
fish. Gjellesvik et al. (1989) showed similar results with cod lipase activity with optimal pH above
8.25, while Sheng et al. (2006) reported maximal activity of lipase in the intestine of hybrid juvenile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus × Oreochromis aureus)  at a pH of between 6.0 and 9.0. All fatdigesting enzymes act in alkaline environment and optimal pH slightly varies from species to species.

pH

Fig. 4 Lipase activity  (specific activity) in the whole body of 3-day-old frogs,
the gastrointestinal tract of 10-day-old frogs, and the pancreas (panc.)
and intestine (int.) of 45- and 60-day-old frogs at pH 2-13
Lipase from the intestinal mucosa has an optimal pH of between 7.0 and 7.5, while intestinal
esterase is at its most active between pH 8.0 and 9.0 (De Silva and Anderson, 1995), i.e. in agreement with the values reported here.
Digestive enzyme activity in various ages of frogs
Digestive enzyme activity in the whole body of 3-day-old frogs, the gastrointestinal tract of 10day-old frogs, and the stomach, pancreas and intestine of 45- and 60-day-old frogs is summarizedin Table 1.
Table 1 Activity of digestive enzymes extracted from various ages ofcommon lowland frogs
Age(days)
3
10
45

Specific activity (mU mg protein-1)
Serine protease

Acid proteasedd66.39  9.62
5,159.2  165.08 c

22.66  1.68
118.39  17.09 c

AmylaseLipase59.75  10.57 ca121.51  16.44
55.68  5.24

297.26  29.43
11,989.57  677.05 a
116.65  3.60 b
28,325.45  1616.07
104.82  3.68 bbc
60
9,192.59  250.23 b
1,698.77  120.32 a
106.09  2.82
84.29  1.63
abcd
Mean values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (P<0.01)

Serine protease activity appears to be significantly higher in the pancreas and 45-day-old frogs
had the highest activity (P<0.01).  The  frogs’  serine  protease  is  produced  by  the  pancreas  which  is  most active in alkaline environments in the intestine (De Silva and Anderson, 1995). Pepsinogen is
the inactive form of pepsin which is secreted by the esophagus, but it functions in the stomach in
pepsin form which attacks protein. The old frogs had the perfect stomach to effect the highest rateof pepsin activity. For this reason, the stomachs of 60-day-old frogs showed the highest pepsin activity. A comparison of amylase activity in the four ages of frogs showed the highest activity in 10day-old frogs. In general, amylase in animals is produced by the pancreas but Rana spp. found that
low concentrations of diastatic amylase were secreted by the intermaxillary, lingual and pharyngealⒸISERD118

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

glands also. Amylase is the one of the carbohydrases and looks like the serine protease produced by
the pancreas, so they are called pancreatic enzymes. Furthermore, adult amphibians are carnivores;
they principally feed on insects, although many species eat a variety of invertebrates.
The anuran larvae are herbivorous while their diet includes such vegetable matter as aquatic
invertebrates (Duellman and Trueb, 1994). Therefore, the young frogs had the highest amylase activity at 10 days old. Lipase activity was significantly higher in the pancreas of 45-day-old frogs(P<0.01). From the results, the activity of protease and lipase, essential for the utilization of proteins and lipids from feed corresponding to high growth rates at early ages, were high in the 45day-old frogs. Like serine protease and amylase, lipase is produced by the pancreas and acts in alkaline environments in the intestine. The pancreas in frogs is enclosed in the hepato-gastric ligament and lies between the duodenum and the stomach (Duellman and Trueb, 1994). It is a sourceof digestive enzymes.
CONCLUSION
The study clearly demonstrates variations in digestive enzyme activity (including pepsin and serine
protease, amylase and lipase) in different ages of frogs. Serine protease and lipase activity was thehighest in base pH (8-13) in medium-age frogs (45 days old), amylase activity was highest at neutral pH (7) in sub-medium frogs (10 days old), and acid protease (pepsin) was the highest at acidpH (3) in the large frogs. Digestive enzyme activity also depends on the organs studied. Proteaseamylase and lipase activity appears to be high in the pancreas while pepsin is more active in thestomach. The different rates of digestive enzyme activity in various ages of frogs can be used to
select suitable feedstuffs for the highest digestibility and lowest cost in each age of frogs. Thus, theresults from this study can be used as the basis for devising suitable feeding formulations that canbe effectively utilized by different ages of frogs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was supported by a grant from the University of Phayao.
REFERENCES
Bernfeld, P. 1951 Enzymes of starch degradation and sysntehsis, 379-424. Nord., F.F.(ed.). Advances inenzymology. Interscience Publications Inc. USA.
Bezerra, R.S., Lins, E.J.F., Alencar, R.B., Paiva, P.M.G., Chaves, M.E.C., Luana, C.B.B. and Carvalho, L.B.
2005. Alkaline proteinase from intestine of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Proc. Biochem, 40,
1829-1834.
De Silva, S.S., Anderson, T.A. 1995. Fish nutrition in aquaculture. Chapman & Hall. UK.
Duellman E., Trueb, L. 1994. Biology of amphibians. The Johns Hopkins University Press, UK.
Gimenez, A.V.F., Fernandez, I., Preciado, R.M., Oliva, M. Tova, D., and Nolasco, H. 1999. The activity ofdigestive enzyme during the molting stage of the arched swimming Callinectes Arcautus orday, 1863.
(Crustacea: decapoda: portunidae). Bull. Mar. Sci, 65(1), 1-9.
Halver, J.E., Hardy, R.W. 2002. Fish nutrition. Academic Press. USA.
Klomklao, S., Kishimura, H., Yabe, M. and Benjakul, S. 2007. Purification and characterization of two pepsins from the stomach of pectoral rattail (Coryphaenoides pectoralis). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B,
147(4), 682-689.
Lowry, O. H., Rosebrough, N.J., Farr, A.L. and Randall, R.J. 1951. Protein measurement with the folin
phenol reagent. J. Biol. Chem, 193, 265-75.
Markweg, H., Lang, M.S., and Wagner, F. 1995. Dodecanoic acid inhibition of lipase from Acinetobacter sp.
OPA 55. Enz. Microb. Tech, 17, 512-516.
Reeder, W.G., 1964. Physiology of the amphibia. Academic Press, USA.
Sheng, L.J., Lin, L.J., and Ting, W.T. 2006. Ontogeny of protease, amylase and lipase in the alimentary tractof hybrid juvenile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus × Oreochromis aureus). Fish Physiol. Biochem, 23(4),295-303.
ⒸISERD119

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Tanji, M., Yakabe, E., Kageyama, T., Yokobori, S.I., Ichinose, M., Miki K., Ito, H. and Takahashi, K. 2007.
Purification and characterization of pepsinogens from the gastric mucosa of African coelacanth, Latimeria chalumnae, and properties of the major pepsin. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B, 146(3), 412-420.
Teo, L.H., Chen, T.W. and Tan, L.L. 1985. The proteases of the common Malayan toad (Bufo melanostictus)
Schneider. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B, 96(4), 715-720.
Wong, D.W.S. 1995. Food enzyme: Structure and mechanism. Chapman and Hall. USA.
Zeng, F., Cohen, A.C. 2000. Partial characterization of -amylase in the salivary glands of Lygus Hesperus
and L. lineolaris. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B, 126, 9-16.

ⒸISERD120

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article

erd

The Biology of Lentinus polychrous Lev. in Nakhon Phanom Province, Thailand and Kwaeng Kham Muan, Laos
SOMCHAI RATTANAMALEE*
Faculty of Agriculture and Technology, Nakhon Phanom University, Nakhon Phanom,
Thailand
Email: rathanamalee@hotmail.com

CHANAPORN RATTANAMALEE
Faculty of Liberal Art and Science, Nakhon Phanom University, Nakhon Phanom, Thailand
Received 8 December 2011

Accepted 12 March 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract This article describes the results of the survey on mushrooms in Nakhon Phanom
province Thailand and Kwaeng Kam Muan Laos done from April to November 2010. It
was found that there were 13 varieties in Nakhon Phanom and 10 varieties in Kwaeng
Kam Muan. The 13 varieties in Nakhon Phanom were College of Agriculture and Technology NPU 1 variety, Amphoe Tha U Ten 4 varieties, Kalasin province 1 variety, Amphoe Pla Pak 2 varieties, Tumbon Wangtamua Amphoe Muang 4 varieties and Amphoe
Renunakhon 1 variety. In Kwaeng Kam Muan, Laos there were 10 varieties: 2 varieties in
Muang Hin Boon, 2 varieties in Muang Tha Khaek, 3 varieties in Muang Yomarat, 1 variety in Muang Mahachai and 2 varieties in Muang Nagai. Each variety was different regarding cap, gills, scales, stalk, color, and size. The caps of these varieties were 4.0 - 14.5
cm in diameter. The caps of some varieties were thick while those of other varieties were
thin. The number of gills was about 85-730, and the length of gills was 2.0 - 10.0 cm. The
young gills were creamy white in color but the old gills were dark brown. The weight ofdry mushroom was 2.0 - 15.0 g. The weight of wet one was 5.0 - 35.0 g. Scales on caps ofmushrooms were different in cold season (October - November) and rainy season (April July). In cold season skin of caps was scabbed and scattered but in rainy season the skin
was smooth. Some stalks were short and others were long. Some varieties had short stalks.
Average was 1.0 - 2.0 cm. Some varieties had long stalks. Average was 3.0 - 3.5 cm. The
colors of caps were mainly brown, but some caps were white-brown and other caps were
yellow-brown. When a mushroom is small, it was young about 1 day but when it grew to
big size, it was about 2 or 3 days after primordial of mushroom. So Thailand or Laos varieties were similar, also. It meant that it could be preventive against cancer if you eat it always.
Keywords Lentinus polychrous Lev., mushroom, cultivation

INTRODUCTION
Hed Bod (Lentinus polychrous Lev.) is in family Polyporaceae (Royal Institute of Thailand, 1996).
It is blooming on log of trees in natural. It has very good taste. It is a popular mushroom in thenorth and northeast of Thailand and in Laos (Pukahuta et al., 2006). It is called in the local language
Hed Kra Dunk, Hed Kon Dum and Hed Lom etc. (Pegler, 1983). In natural Hed Bod bloom in earlyand late rainy season between March and October which the mushrooms become mature and suitable for studying about taxonomy and could culture the mycelium (Tianhirun, 2002). Nowadays thismushroom had decreased because of the environment change and the destruction of forest (Panmoot, 2002). So it was important to study about the mushroom such as morphology, taxonomy,
environment, period of blooming, species of tree log which gave the basic data and conservation ofmushroom varieties in order to have advantage and to be guideline villagers could cultivate thismushroom. The digestion of cellulose by mycelium of the mushroom synthesis enzyme lignocelluⒸISERD

121

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

lase such as laccase which could be stored the mycelium for 2 years. So it is confident that productivity and quality of the mushroom could be improved. (Pukahuta et al, 2004) which could help
people to become rich and have sustainable life.
So in this study, the four objectives were determined. One is to survey and take samples to investigate characteristics of the mushrooms such as diameter of cap, cap width, height, length of
stake, length of gill, amount of gill, dry weight, wet weight, color of cap etc. to get basic information of the mushroom. Second objective is to collect varieties of the mushroom for studying andanalyzing start from basic information of biology in nature. The third objective is to cultivate themushrooms on logs of different species of trees to find the best yield and suitable one. Fourth objective is to eliminate poverty by transfering cultivation technology of the mushroom to local villagers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Surveyed, photographed and collected the sample of the mushroom that bloomed on log of trees inforest in area of Nakhon Phanom Province, Thailand and Kwaeng Kham Muan, Laos. Took thesamples that bloomed in nature on log of trees from villages of Nakhon Phanom and Kwaeng Kam
Muan. The number of samples bloomed on logs of trees were not equal in each area because of different environment. Then they were measured and weighed then dried by the sun or wind or theoven in the laboratory and kept in bags. Characteristics in morphology were investigated. Incubatedtissue in PDA media, checked growth rate of mycelium and recorded data. All of these surveys
were done from April to November 2010 which was in rainy and early cold season.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The varieties of Hed Bod were investigated in Nakhon Phanom, Thailand and Kwaeng Kam Muan.
Laos have many varieties, 13 varieties in Nakhon Phanom and 10 varieties in Kwaeng Kam Muan.
The 13 varieties in Nakhon Phanom were found in College of Agriculture and Technology NPU 1.
Amphoe Tha U Ten 4 varieties, Kalasin province 1 variety , Amphoe Pla Pak 2 varieties, Tumbon
Wangtamua Amphoe Muang 4 varieties and Amphoe Renunakhon 1 variety. In Kwaeng Kam
Muan, Laos there were 10 varieties, 2 varieties in Muang Hin Boon, 2 varieties in Muang Tha
Khaek, 3 varieties in Muang Yomarat, 1 variety in Muang Mahachai and 2 varieties in Muang Nagai. There were 23 varieties, all of which were similar in shape and characteristic especially inmorphology and period of blooming. All of them bloomed between April and July and between
October and November (Leumlum, 2004). The logs of trees that Hed Bod can be grown were Mangifera indica, Shorea obtusa, Shorea siamensis, Sindora siamensis, Anisoptera costata, Hopea
odorata,  Afzelia xylocarpa and  Shorea roxburghii which were found in dipterocarp forest at Amphoe Pla Pak and Amphoe Muang (Punmoot, 2002).
Table 1 Varieties of Hed Bod in Nakhon Phanom, Thailand and Kwaeng Kam Muan, Laos
1. Variety- College of Nakhon Phanom Agriculture and Technology, Nakhon Phanom University
Source:  Ban Kam Swang Tumbon  Guruku Amphoe Muang

2. Variety- Ban Pranom      Source: Moo 1 Tumbon Pranaom  Amphoe Tha U Ten    White-brown cap,  white-yellow gill,   red gill when mature, cap
width 4.5-14.0 cm. height    4.0-14.0 cm. length of gill 1.0-10.0
cm. length of stake  1.0-5.0 cm. thick of cap  3.0 mm. amount ofgill 180-730 gills, wet weight   2.0-40.0 g.

Cap width 5.5-11.2 cm. height    4.0-9.2 cm.  length of stake    3.0cm.  amount of gill   85-300 gills  dry weight   2.0-15.0 g. face of
cap-   white-brown, cap edge was brown, white-gray on central
cap, white-red brown gills, length of gill  4.0-9.0 cm.

ⒸISERD122

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

  3. Variety- Ban Pranaom
Source: Moo 4 Tumbon Pranaom Amphoe Tha U Ten      4. Variety  Kalasin
Source:  Ban Mahachai Tumbon Mahachai , Amphoe Pla Pak  Cap width  5.5-7.5 cm.  height  5.0-7.3 cm. length of stake1.0-1.5
cm.  length of gill 4.0-7.0 cm.  face of cap  white-brown, cap edge
was light brown, white gills when it was young but had browngills when it was mature, cap was thickness, cap edge was notbroken when it was blooming, dry weight 2.0-5.0 g., amount ofgills  184-192 gills

Cap width  6.5-12.0 cm. height 6.0-9.5 cm. cap face was   whitebrown,   on central cap was brown color, length of stake 1.5-3.5
cm.   length of gill 5.0-8.5 cm. white-brown gills, cap was thin,cap edge was dark-brown color and broken, wet weight 5.0-12.0
g.         5. Variety  Mahachai1
Source:  Ban Mahachai Tumbon Mahachai , Amphoe Pla Pak  6. Variety  Mahachai 2
Source:  Ban Mahachai Tumbon Mahachai , Amphoe Pla Pak  Yellow-brown cap,   central of cap was dark-brown color, capedge was light-brown,   cap width      4.0 cm.   height   4.0 cm.   dryweight  3.0 g.

Cap width  4.7-5.5 cm.   height  3.0-4.5 cm. length of stake 1.0-1.5
cm.    Cap face was white-brown,   Cap edge   was dark-brown,
amount of gills 86-110 gills, Dry weight was   1.0-2.0 g.

  7. Variety-  Ban Nong Boa Tumbon  Guruku Amphoe Muang

8. Variety-  Ban Wangtamua Amphoe Muang

Dark brown cap, cap was thick, white gills, amount of gill 98106 gills  , cap width    6.5 cm.  length of stake 1 cm.length of gill
3.5 cm. dry weight   was   0.5-   1.0 g. Cap edge was broken, wetweight   5.0 g.

Cap width  9 cm.  height  7.0 cm.  Central of cap was white-brown.
Cap edge was dark-brown. white-redbrown  gills, amount of gill
82-100 gills, gill thickness 3.0 mm., length of stake   2 cm., wetweight   7 g.

9. Variety- Ban Nong Sang   1   Tumbon Wangtamua Amphoe
Muang   10. Variety- Ban   Tan Pak Num Tumbon Chi Bu Ree    Amphoe
Tha U Ten      Cap width   8.5-10 cm.  height  6.5 cm. dry weight 5-15 g. lengthof gill 5.5-  6.0 cm.  red-brown gills,  length of stake    0.5-1.5 cm.
Cap face was white-gray.    Cap edge was yellow-brown.   amountof gill 160-225 gills.

Cap width   4.5 cm. height 2.0 cm.   length of stake 1 cm. wet
weight 2 g.  amount of gill 149 gills, cap face was white-brown  11.Variety- Ban Tat  Amphoe Tha U Ten      12. Variety- Ban Nong Sang   2   Tumbon Wangtamua Amphoe
Muang   Cap width      2.5-8.5 cm.   height 2.3-   6.5 cm.   length of stake 1.5
cm. length of gill 2.0-5.2 cm.  dry weight 1.0-7.0 g. Cap face waswhite-gray and yellow.    

Cap width    6.0-8.5 cm. height 6.0 cm. dry weight  2.0-5.0 g. Cap
face  was white-gray and yellow-brown, brown-gray gills, lengthof gills  5.0-5.5 cm. amount of gill 167 gillsⒸISERD123

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

13. Variety- Ban   Phon Tong Amphoe Renunakhon

14. Variety- Ban   Poong, Muang Hin Boon,  Laos  Cap width    7.2 cm. height 7.5 cm. length of gill 6.5 cm. length of
stake 1.5-2.5 cm. Cap face   was white-brown, central of cap was
yellow-brown, cap was thin, gills color was white-cream,   capedge was light brown, wet weight 2.0-  5.0 g. amount of gill 156234 gills.

Cap width  6.0-7.3 cm. height 5.0-6.5 cm. length of stake 1.3-1.5
cm.   length   of gill          3.5-5.0 cm. amount of gill 170-219 gills   ,wet-weight 4.0-5.0 g. dry weight 0.2-0.5 g.  Cap face was whitebrown,   white brown gills, cap edge was broken.

15. Variety- Ban    Wearn   Muang Tha Khaek      Kwaeng Kam
Muan,  Laos  16.Variety-    Ban   Phon Soong   Muang Tha Khaek  Kwaeng Kam
Muan,  Laos  Cap width  5.5-6.5 cm. height 4.5-7.5 cm. length of stake 1.5-2.0
cm. white-cream gills, length of gill   4.0-5.0 cm.   amount ofgill158-328 gills. wet weight 5.0-7.0 g. dry weight 0.5-1.0 g.
Cap face was light brown color.

Cap width  6.5-9.0 cm. height 5.5-7.0 cm. length of stake 1.5-2.0
cm. Amount of gill 240-350 gills, length of gill 3.0-5.5 cm. Cap
face was white-gray. Cap was thin. Cap edge was broken, darkbrown gills, dry weight 5.0-7.0 g.

17. Variety-   Ban Phon Dia Muang Tha Khaek   Kwaeng Kam
Muan,  Laos

18. Variety-      Ban Mun Muang Mahachai Kwaeng Kam Muan,  Laos  

Cap face was white-gray. Diameter of cap 7.7 cm. length of
stake 1.5 cm. length of gill 5.0 cm. cap height 5.0 cm., darkbrown gills  White-yellow gills, cap face was white-gray and brown color,cap width   8.0-11.0 cm. height 6.0-9.3 cm., length of gill   3.5-7.0
cm., amount of gill 112-360 gills, wet weight 5.0 -10 g., dryweight 0.5 g.

19. Variety-  Ban Tha Rung Muang Nagai Kwaeng Kam Muan,     20. Variety- Ban North Nagai   Muang Nagai Kwaeng Kam
Laos  
Muan,    Laos  Cap width   7.5-9.2 cm. height 7.3-7.5 cm. length of gill   4.5-7.0
cm. Cap face was white-gray. Cap was thin. Brown gills, lengthof stake 1.0-2.5 cm. Cap edge was white-gray. Cap deepness  1.0cm.

Cap width  1.7-8.5 cm.  height 3.0-8.5 cm.  length of stake 0.5-1.0
cm. Cap was thick. Cap face was brown-gray. Central of cap was
yellow-brown. brown gills, Length of gill was 2.0-5.5 cm.  whitebrown gills in a young cap but red brown gills in the big size
and mature, amount of gill 102-348 gills.

21.   Variety- Ban Kog Swang Muang Yomarat   Kwaeng Kam
Muan,  Laos  22. Variety- Ban Don Du Muang Hin Boon,  Kwaeng Kam Muan
Laos  

Cap width   7.7-9.0 cm. height 7.0-7.5 cm.  length of stake 1.0 cm.
cap was thickness 1 mm.  wet weight 8.0-9.0 g. length of gill 4.05.0 cm. dry weight 0.2 g. cap face was white and thin, whitebrown gills.

Cap face was white-brown. Cap edge was light-brown, whitegills, length of stake 1.0-1.5 cm., cap width   2.3-4.5 cm., height   2.0-3.0 cm. amount of gill 172 gills, length of gill 2.0-3.0 cm.
wet weight 2.0-5.0 g. Cap was thin and broken.

ⒸISERD124

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

23. Variety- Ban Yomarat    Muang Yomarat   Kwaeng Kam
Muan,    Laos  Cap width 10-11.5 cm. height 7.2-11.0 cm.  length of stake 1.02.0 cm. Cap face was white-gray. Central of cap was deep andbrown color. Dark brown gills, length of gill   6.7-7.0 cm. wet
weight 6.0-15.0 g. amount of gill  340-480 gills.

Totally 23 photos. show the varieties of Hed Bod in Nakhon
Phanom, Thailand and Kwaeng Kam Muan, Laos

Kwaeng Kam Muan, Laos was found same as Nakhon Phanom, Thailand such as at the forestof Ban Tharung Muang Nagai. It was found Hed Poa, Hed Tub Tao or Hed Puearng bloomed at thesame time. However, the villagers in both of Mekong River harvest the Lentinus polychrous Lev. to
be Hed Kra Dung and when you want to cook you will soak it in the water before. Hed Bod could
be stored very long time and have rich nutrition. Hed Bod could reduce cholesterol and triglyceridebecause it has eritadenine substance, which can protect heart disease and high blood pressure disease especially diabetes and HIV (Panmoot, 1994) In addition Hed Bod could induce immuned
cells to protect cancer (Sutachit and Sutachit, 2002). Furthermore, Hed Bod could kill cancer cells(Armussa, 2009).
CONCLUSION
Surveying varieties of Lentinus polychrous Lev. In Nakhon Phanom, Thailand and Kwaeng Kam
Muan, Laos there were many varieties but they had similar characteristics in shape, morphology,
and period of blooming. Hed Bod was found on log of trees in dipterocarp forest especially in log
of Mangifera indica, Shorea obtuse, Shorea siamensis, Sindora siamensis, Anisoptera costata,
Hopea odorata,  Afzelia xylocarpa and  Shorea roxburghii was found during April to July and during October to November. The important thing was there were many germplasm of Lentinus polychrous Lev.varieties in Nakhon Phanom, Thailand and Kwaeng Kam Muan, Laos. So we can havegermplasm resources for cultivation. Furthermore we can use the species of trees that could givehigh yield and then transfer technology of cultivation to the people
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank the National Research Council of Thailand that contributed the fund to this research.
REFERENCES
Armussa, N. 2009. Antioxidant activity and cytotoxicity in breast cancer cells line of mushooms extracts
Lentinus polychrous Lev. compared to Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.). Karst. Isan Journal of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, 5(3), 243-250.
Leumlum, N. and Pukahuta, C. 2004. Biodiversity of wild mushroom in Phu Jong Nayoi National Park. 4165. In Hed Thai 2003, The Mushroom Researchers and Growers Society of Thailand.
Panmoot, K. 1994. Mushroom spawn and mushroom cultivation. Teaching Document. College of Agriculture
and Technology, Nakhon Phanom University. 260.
Panmoot, K. 2002. Cultivation of Lentinus polychrous Lev. and Lentinus squarrosulus. Publicized Document.
College of Agriculture and Technology, Nakhon Phanom University. 6.
Pegler, D.N. 1983. Agaric Flora of the Lesser Antilles. Kew Bull Add. Ser. IX. HMSO. London. 668.
Pukahuta, C., Unpim, U., Bunlue, S., Wuticumpee, P. and Payappanon, U. 2006. Strain of Lentinus squarrosulus Mont. at Ubon Ratchathani. 1-12 In Hed Thai 2006, The Mushroom Researchers and Growers
Society of Thailand.
ⒸISERD125

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Pukahuta, C., Suwanarit, P., Shinagawa, E., Hoshida, H. and Nishizawa. Y. 2004. Combination of laccase,xylanase and cellulose in lignocellulose degradation by white rot fungi, Lentinus polychrous Lev. and L.
squarrosulus Mont. Kasetsart Journal (Nat. Sci.) 38, 65-73.
Royal Institute of Thailand. 1996. Edible and poisonous mushroom in Thailand. Royal Institute of Thailand,
Bangkok. 180.
Sutachit, S. and Sutachit, M. 2002. Mediclinal Mushrooms: Past, present and future. 1-11. In Hed
Thai, 2002.
Tianhirun, S. 2002. Diversity of mushroom family Xylariaceae in Doi Inthanon National Park. The Conference Report of Royal Forest Department 2002.

ⒸISERD126

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Agroforestry Systems for Upland People in Lao PDR:
Production,  Benefit,  and  Farmers’  Satisfaction  Analysis  THIPPHAPHONE DOUANGSILA*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: tounic77@gmail.com

SUPAPORN POUANGCHOMPU
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 15 December 2011

Accepted 12 March 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract With an increasing population and governmental land-use restriction, shortened
fallow periods of some traditional farming systems have contributed to the reduction ofagricultural production in the uplands of Lao P.D.R. In response, systems which integrate
trees, crops, and/or animals, such as agro forestry have been applied. However, the promotion of agroforestry as an alternative choice for upland farmers has become very challenging as a result of long-term economic incentives. The objectives of this study were to identify agroforestry systems employed, cost and returns, and the satisfaction of farmers, aiming to promote more benefits of agroforestry. Information described in this paper camefrom a survey of 80 agroforestry farms under a project support in nine villages of twonorthern districts. The results implied that three main agro forestry systems, based on nature components, have been employed. 81 percent of farmers employed Agrisilviculture,
where trees and crops were combined in the same parcel. 14 percent applied Agrosilvopastoral (trees, crops, and pasture/animals), followed by 5 percent who applied Silvopastoral(trees and pasture/animals). In terms of production cost, initial investment in Agrisilviculture cost on average US$ 575 ha-1; while Agrosilvopastoral farmers spent around US$ 795
ha-1 and Silvopastural farmers, an estimated US$ 282 ha-1. After three-years of establishment, most farmers achieved success meeting their food sufficiency needs and obtained
additional income from extra production, with average returns from each system about
US$ 186 ha-1, US$ 632 ha-1, and US$ 104 ha-1 respectively. With biological and economic
advantages produced by natural components in each system, most of farmers were similarly satisfied. Although the systems could not provide immediate-profitable returns, they
were able to sustain food production and were profitable for a long-term use. A particularattention and continual technical support from relevant agencies are still required to enhance application of agroforestry.
Keywords upland farmers, agroforestry systems, production cost and benefits, farmers’satisfaction.

INTRODUCTION
In Lao PDR, 80 percent of the land area is classified as mountainous, including much of the Northern region. This is a main obstacle for the development of social infrastructure. Still, the majorityof upland population employs shifting cultivation as the main agricultural activity (Seidenberg etal., 2003). Along with the main shifting cultivation, agroforestry, an ancient process of cultivating
trees and crops in combination with one another, has also been employed. These practices havebeen classified as indigenous or traditional agroforestry, practiced in home gardens, intercropping
systems, and livestock grazing practices (Sodarak et al., 2004). Under population pressure and government restriction on deforestation, traditional shifting cultivation as well as indigenous agroforestry practices has faced the problem of shortened fallow periods, consequently contributing to thedegradation of soil fertility and crop yield (De Rouw, 2005). In response, the government has imⒸISERD127

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

plemented policies and programs aiming at providing better options for sustainable agriculture in
the uplands (GoL, 2004). One of those methods employed is alternative agroforestry. An integration of annual crop, upland rice, with medium-term fruit trees and longer-term fruit trees has been
set up for upland farmers (Lai et al., 2004). After several years of introduction, it seems the extension of alternative agroforestry is still limited due to a lack of immediate returns. Thus, this study
aims at analyzing the alternative agroforestry systems applied, production, benefits, and the farmers’  satisfaction  regarding  the  technology  support.  Information  presented  in  this  study  is  believed  to  be useful for farmers who are interested in applying agroforestry as well as development agencies
involved in the promotion of agroforestry in uplands.
METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted in two northern districts, Namor in Oudomxay province and Phonxay inLuangprabang province, where alternative agroforestry has been practiced under field-based research of a foreign project. Hence, purposive sampling was applied to collect data. From a project
document’s  review,  120  families  had  been  in  the  agroforestry  trials.  However,  after  the  real  survey  only 80 families continued applying this system, as some had stopped. Thus, the total number ofsamples interviewed was 80 families. The study used structured interview and randomly visited
farms during 20 March to 03 May 2011 in both districts. Questions were asked mainly on agroforestry systems details, production cost and income, and satisfaction of farmers regarding advantages
received. All data collected was processed by the computer program SPSS for Windows Version
17.0. Descriptive statistics were applied, such as percentage, means, and figures, to support thequalitative  data.  The  farmers’  satisfaction  levels  for  agroforestry  advantages  were  analyzed  by  using interval mean scores, dividing into five interval levels that were calculated by using the equation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Agroforestry systems and component species
From the data analyzed, three main systems of agroforestry, based on their nature components,
have been employed (Table 1). Agrisilviculture, where only trees and crops including shrubs/vines
integrated together, was mostly applied, accounting for 81 percent of agroforestry in the community.
Among farmers applying this system, about half preferred to integrate fruit trees like prunes, pomelo, lychee, mango, longan, orange, and others. At least, two kinds of fruit trees were used in a same
parcel. Woody trees like rubber tree, agarwood, and teak were also used, but only a single specy
was planted with other crops or sometimes with fruit trees and a single crop. In this system, various
kinds of crops were applied and the popular crops were pineapple, soybean, galingale, upland rice,maize, and others. Mostly, farmers liked to add only pineapple as it was easy to grow and needed
less care compared to other kinds.
Table 1 Agroforestry systems applied
Agroforestry Systems

Percentage (%)

Agrisilviculture (trees and shrubs/tree, or and crops)

81.25

Agrosilvopastoral (trees, crops, and pasture/animals)

13.75

Silvopastoral (trees and pasture/animals)

5.00

Another prevalent agroforestry system found on farms was Agrosilvopastoral, a system inwhich trees, crops and pasture/animals are planted together, accounted for 14 percent. Within thissystem, several trees, crops, and animals were incorporated. Over half of the farmlands employing
this method planted fruit trees, mostly litchi and longan. Woody trees such as rubber trees, teak,ⒸISERD128

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

and agarwood were also applied. With the integration of crops, farmers preferred to grow pineapple,
galingale, soy bean, maize, and sesame. The most commonly raised livestock was poultry which
was naturally free-grassing. Additionally, 5 percent of farmers employed Silvopastoral, where pasture land or animals are integrated in the tree plantation. The most popular trees were litchi, prunes,orange, and rubber tree, combining with some animals like pigs, goats, and cattle, mostly roaming
freely in the day time and confined in a pen at night. As nearly all of the farmlands situated on
hillsides, the most common cropping pattern applied in all systems was alley cropping in whichtrees are planted in rows at wide spacing with companion crops grown in the spaces between thetree rows.
Farm Production
In each system, the levels of production were dissimilar, in conjunction with the different amountof trees, crops and animals integrated. Analyzed data in Table 2 showed the average yield, and saleof extra production annually. Genarally, most farmers could harvest the production from fruit trees
after three years of farm establishment. While only some rubber plantations were able to reap benefits from sales of rubber cup lump last year. In crop production, farmers could gain benefits within
the first year of integration. Farmers indicated that they could sustain food self-sufficiency fromharvested crops (i.e. pineapple, maize, soybean, galingale, and sesame) and could also sell some of
the crops surplus to generate household income. Combined with animals, some families who raised
cattle could generate a very good profit.
Table 2 Average yearly production, amount of consumption and sale per hectare
Systems and components
Agrisilviculture
Woody trees
Fruit trees
Crops
Total
Agrosilvopastoral
Fruit trees
Crops
Animals
Total
Silvopastoral
Woody trees
Fruit trees
Animals* Unit of animals yield was counted in head

Yield (kg/ha)

SD

Sold (kg/ha)

SD

18.61
129.91
1,635.68

63.45
182.16
2,921.40

18.61
86.33
465.6163.45
168.04702.61338.751,000.00
32.20

563.701,026.37
46.98

329.25863.6420.60

569.19914.1647.06

16.50
196.257.00

23.33
278.052.83

16.50
122.501.50

23.33
157.56
2.12

Among the families participating in Agrisilviculture trials, only few families could collect the
production from woody trees, due to the fact that most of the rubber tree as well as teak and agarwood were not yet fully formed. Only a few rubber plantations were ready for tapping with the average yield of 18.61 kg ha-1. As fruit trees were mostly grown to sustain food production, the average yield was 129.91 kg ha-1, mainly from prunes, pomelo and lichee. Of these, some was used forhome consumption and the extra yield was sold in the local market. The average yield gained fromcrops, such as pineapple, soybean, galingale, upland rice, maize, and sesame was 1,635.68 kg ha -1.
In Agrosilvopastoral, the number of farmers engaged in this system was smaller, so the average of
production seemed higher than the first system. For fruit trees, farmers could harvest fruit about
338.75 kg ha-1, largely from litchi, longan, prunes, and pomelo. The production from crops was
1,000 kg ha-1, mainly from pineapple. Besides, several kinds of animals were raised, the most preferred being poultry, goat, and pig, with total offspring averaged from all kinds about 32 head ha -1.
ⒸISERD129

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Chicken made up the highest proportion. In the mean time, the Silvopastoral farmers had obtained
the production of some mature rubber trees, approximately 16.50 kg ha-1 of rubber cup lump. The
fruit trees production was mainly harvested from litchi, prunes, and orange, and averaged a combined total of about 196.25 kg ha-1. The most frequently used animals in this system were pig andgoat, generally fed by free-roaming in the day time and confined in pens at night. Average animal
production from both was about 7 head ha-1 year-1.
Cost and benefits
Due to the use of various species components applied on each farm, the cost of production was analyzed by the three main systems of agroforestry. Table 3 shows average cost of production per hectare at the time of initial investment by each natural component (trees, crops, and animals), calculated from labor and material input costs. The labor inputs for each system were land preparation,
planting, farm management, harvesting, and transporting. The total labor needed for each systemvaried due to the different amount of trees and crops planted. The material inputs were mostly
seeds, including trees seedlings and crop seeds, followed by organic fertilizer, which was applied
only in the first two years. The remaining expense was farm equipment, such as knives, hoes, shovels, and spades, which were purchased only one time. The material inputs for animals were different. They included medicine, forage, and fencing. The investment in animals only occurred at thetime of the first acquirement.
Table 3 Average cost of initial investment by nature components and annual income
Systems and components

Amountintegrated (ha)SD

Initiative cost
(US$/ha)Annual income(US$/ha)Agrisilviculture
Trees (plant)

275

275

372

58

Crops (kg)

1,980

3,406

203

128

575

186

Total
Agrosilvopastoral
Trees (plant)

329

305

313

170

Crops (kg)

2,065

2,070

262

146

20

23

219

316

795

632

Animals (head)
Total
Silvopastoral
Trees (plant)

387

625

218

85

Animals (head)

7

7

64

19

282

104

Total
* 1 $UDS=8,000 LAK

In Agrisilviculture where only trees and crops were integrated, the average number of tree
seedlings used at the beginning was about 275 plants ha-1, including both woody and fruit trees.
The price of trees varied, depending on species. In fact, all trees were funded by the project. However, the cost of trees seedlings was still calculated as a material input. For intercrops, farmers were
supported by the project in the first year. After that, farmers had to invest on their own for the annual crops, excluding pineapple. In total, the initial investment in Agrisilviculture was around
US$ 575 ha-1. In Agrosilvopastoral, the cost of production was higher due to the higher quantity oftrees, crops, and animals used. Due to the variation of animals applied, the cost of animals was
summed up and estimated in average including cost for relevant materials such forage, fencing, andmedicine. Total initial expense, estimated for the use of 329 trees, 2,065 kg of different crops and a
mixture of 20 animals, was about US$ 795. In Silvopastural, where there were only trees and animals, the initial investment was less compared to other techniques. The total expense was estimatedⒸISERD130

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

to be around US$ 282 ha-1 for the integration of 387 trees with 7 animals. Farmers stated that normally feed their livestock naturally by free-grazing, and as such, there was no expense for forage.
The only fencing cost paid for was nails, as other materials like timber could be taken from the forest.
In each system, monetary returns were dissimilar due to the different amount of trees, crops
and animals integrated. Most farmers established farms with the aim mainly to produce food forhome consumption. However, they also used surplus fruit and crops harvested to generate additional income. Analyzed data in Table 3 also showed the average income gained annually from the saleof extra production. Among the families participating in Agrisilviculture trials, they could harvest
the production from all components and make additional income equivalent to US$ 186 ha-1 year-1.
In the Agrosilvopastoral system, the average income was the highest, estimated at US$ 632 ha-1, in
relation to the higher amount of natural components combined, as well as the higher rate of production sold. Silvopastoral obtained the lowest profit, approximately US$ 104 ha-1 as the benefit could
be reaped only from trees and livestock, particularly poultry. If comparing the cost of production
and income in all three systems, although it seems that their cost of initial investment was higher
than income, the yearly average return still gave the satisfactory benefits. Particularly, farmers
claimed that they could sustain their food production and also increase household income, enabling
their ability to purchase more food and daily goods for their families.
Farmers’  satisfaction  to the agroforestry advantages
This  study  also  examined  the  differences  of  farmers’  satisfaction  with  the  agroforestry  advantages
generated by the interaction of its natural components through the use of Chi-square test of difference (Table 4).
Table 4 Satisfaction on biological and economic advantages of agroforestry
Agrisivil-

Percentage
Agrosilvo-

Silvo-

culturepastoralpastoralSatisfaction on trees

81.25

13.75

Satisfaction on crops

84.06

Satisfaction on animals-

Crops production increase

N

Mean

SD

X2

5.00

80

3.46

.826

.177ns

15.94

-

69

3.67

.852

4.429**

78.57

21.43

14

3.64

.497

1.479ns

81.25

13.75

5.00

80

3.36

.830

6.311**

Increase food production

81.25

13.75

5.00

80

3.46

.745

1.843 ns

Variety of farm production

81.25

13.75

5.00

80

3.20

.818

1.033 ns

Save household labors

81.25

13.75

5.00

80

3.53

.927

2.048 ns

Increase income

81.25

13.75

5.00

80

3.46

.810

1.034 ns

Various income from intercrops

81.25

13.75

5.00

80

3.34

.728

4.798 ns

81.25
13.75
5.00
80
3.34
Buy more goods and servicesnsNote: Differences are compared using Chi-square test; = Non-significant, ** Significant at 5%.762

4.123 ns

Agroforestry advantages
Biological advantages

Economic advantages

Investigated data indicated that the satisfaction to biological advantages from trees and animals were insignificant differences among three systems. Farmers were commonly satisfied withtrees since trees and animals integrated were suitable to the environment. For satisfaction on animals raised, there was also an insignificant difference among three groups since farmers werelargely satisfied with an increase of household income from sales of livestock. Nevertheless, there
is a significant difference of 5% among farmers who integrated crops. The given reason by farmer
who applied Agrisilviculture was that the combination of crops created a good environmental, conⒸISERD131

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

tributing to the increased of crops yield; meanwhile, farmers who employed Agrosilvopastoral
claimed that crops were difficult to take care at the time of fruit-bearing due to damage by insects
and rodents, often resulting in crops failure. In addition, some crops like pineapple were small insize and sour in taste, resulting in unsellable production. To economic benefits, the satisfaction of
farmers of three systems was not significantly different. Mostly, they were satisfied that the varietyof crops could not only sustain food supply but also could make additional cash income from surplus production to buy more goods and services supporting daily life. Yet, there is a significantly
different satisfaction at 5% to the crops production increase as Agrosilvopastoral farmers reported
differently that crops yield gradually decreased year by year.
CONCLUSION
Through the introduction of agroforestry for farmers in the hilly areas, three main agroforestry systems have been employed: Agrisivilculture, Agrosilvopastoral, and Silvopastoral. The most prevalent system was Agrisivilcuture where only trees and crops were put together in the same plot. In
each system, various kinds of trees, crops, and animals were diversely incorporated. The initial costof production was considerably dissimilar. Among three systems, Agrosilvopastoral farmers had thehighest cost of production, due to the fact that all three main nature components, trees, crops, andanimals, were integrated. In regards to the estimated profitable returns, all systems could provide
levels of production to support the food sufficiency of families and gain additional income fromsales of surplus production. The most profitable was Agrosilvopastural, since various kinds of species  were  applied.  In  addition,  the  differences  of  farmer’s  satisfaction  on  biological  and  economic
advantages of all agroforestry systems are mostly non-significant. Only some showed their significant different satisfaction to the benefit of crops integrated, in accordance with the difficulty offarm management during fruit-bearing times as a result of insect and rodent damage, resulting insome crop failure. To this point, the need for farm management techniques are required to preventthe production loss as it is a key motivator to help the expansion of agroforestry systems. Moreover,some on-going technical and advisory assistance from related agencies, especially government andprojects, is still needed to facilitate the application of technologies introduced and to provide information about solving problems on farms to enhance effectiveness. Hence, farmers will feel more
confident with the new farming systems offered that could help them improve their food production
and create better livelihood conditions.
REFERENCES
DeRouw, A.J. 2005. Weed control in shifting cultivation. Improving livelihoods in the upland of the Lao
PDR. Initiatives and approaches, Vientiane. 1, 78-84.
GoL. 2004. The national growth and poverty eradication strategy. Government of Laos (GoL), Vientiane. 5355.
Lai, C., Sodarak, H., Keoboualapha, B. and Linquist, B. 2004. Integrated fruit tree systems in Luangprabang:
Scaling-up sustainable technologies and process. Poverty reduction and shifting cultivation stabilizationin the uplands of Lao PDR: Technologies, approaches and methods for improving upland livelihoods,
Laos, 353-359.
Seidenberg, C., Mertz, O. and Kias, M.B. 2003. Fallow, labour and livelihood in shifting cultivation: implication for deforestation in northern Lao PDR. Geografisk Tidsskrift, Danish Journal of Geography, 103(2),71-80.
Sodarack, H., Ditsphorn, C., Thammavong, V., Ounthammasith, N. and Forshed. O. 2003. Indigenous agroforestry practices in two districts in the northern part of Lao PDR. Poverty reduction and shifting cultivation stabilization in the uplands of Lao PDR: Technologies, approaches and methods for improving upland livelihoods, Laos, 213-228.

ⒸISERD132

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Status of Blue Swimmer Crab (Portunus spp.) Fishing in
Chang Hoan and Kep Thmey Fisheries Community,
Kampot Province
VICHAR CHHOM*Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: chhomvichar@gmail.com

KUONG KOV
Fisheries Administration, Phnom Penh , Cambodia

VANARITH KY
Fisheries Administration, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

KONGHEANG HUOT
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 17 December 2011

Accepted 12 March 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract Blue swimmer crab plays a significant role for the people living around thecoastal zone which provides foods, income for livelihood. Unsustainable use of fishery resources and lack of food security by human activities and environment factors drove thedegradation of these species. So, the study aimed to: identify the kind of fishing gears andthe way of fishing blue swimmer crab, identify the average yield of blue swimmer crab,
and show the blue swimmer crab market. The study selected 2 different Community Fisheries (CFi) from 2 communes and 14 fishermen from Keb Thmey Fisheries Communityand 25 fishermen from Chang Hoan CFi, 10 middlemen, 2 chief communities from eachFisheries Communities were interviewed. The simple yields, moreover, were recorded in
Chang Hoan CFi every morning and Keb Thmey CFi in the evening for 4 months. The results showed that crab trap and trawling have been used in both areas for catching blue
swimmer crab, but trawling is not commonly used. In Keb Thmey CFi, the average yields
per day of blue swimmer crabs were caught by crab trap: 15.77 kg/boat in March, 16.45
kg/boat in April, 13.93 kg/boat in May, and 8.09 kg/boat in June. On the other hand, trawling was used to collect blue swimmer crab in Chang Hoan CFi; in average were 1.01
kg/boat in March, 1.09 kg/boat in April, and 0.89 kg/boat in May. Whereas the yield fromthe crab traps were 6.72 kg/boat in March, 5.05 kg/boat in April, 5.05 kg/boat in May and4.44 kg/boat in June. Usually, blue swimmer crabs were classified into 3 classes. The firstand second classes were purchased by middlemen who delivered to the crab strip shop, retailer and Kampot and Vealrihn markets. The third class was sold to the crab peelers. In
conclusion, crab trap is commonly used for catching crab all year round. The variation of
total is according to time, weather, place and the number of fishing gears. The averagecatch in March and April is more than that in May and June.
Keywords blue swimmer crab, crab trap, trawling, fishery community.

INTRODUCTION
Cambodia’s   coastal zone is an ecological system which provides high potential of mangroves,aquatic plants, fishes, water birds, mollusks, mammals, reptiles and so on that support to economics
such as tourism sector, industry sector, ports, navigation. Furthermore, this area has been providing
the local livelihood through fishing. Blue swimmer crab is considered as a kind of zooplankton
which lives in the marine water that is attractively fished nowadays as it is highly economic both inⒸISERD133

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

local and international market. However, these species are decreasing both in size and in quantitywith the modern fishing gears as well as technologies, which affects the livelihood of people in thearea. So the study proposed to: (1) identify the kind of fishing gears and the way of fishing of blue
swimmer crab; (2) identify the average yield of blue swimmer crab; and (3) show the blue swimmer crab market.
METHODOLOGY
Study site: Two community fisheries such as Chang Hoan and Keb Thmey CFi which are locatedin Prek Thnot and Teuk Chhou district, Kampot Province were selected to conduct the research,
because it is the place where people fish blue swimmer crab and also the place for blue swimmer
crab market process.

Prek Tnout
Kep
Thmey
Chang
Hoan

BoeungTouk

National road
Prek
Tnout
BoeungTouk

Fig. 1 Map of study area (JICA, 2005)
Sampling size and method: There were two different methods of data collection: conducting
interview and yields recording. Also, 3 kinds of questionnaire had been created for householdinterview including 39 fishermen (14 and 25 fishermen from Kep Thmey and Chang Hoan CFi,
respectively), 10 middlemen, and 2 community chiefs from each CFi. These questionnaires wereused to compare on the concept and understanding of the fishermen and community chiefs as well
as middlemen in the area.
On other hand, the data of blue swimmer crab yields were recording every day during fourmonths with the all of the fishermen who fish blue swimmer crab. The data was recorded in themorning in Chang Hoan FCi from 7 fishermen by using trawling and 3 fishermen by using crab
traps. Moreover, 15 fishermen from Kep Thmey CFi were selected to record the yields which holdin the evening. Both primary and secondary data had been collected and analysed by using MS Excel.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Blue swimming crab fishing
In the Chang Hoan CFi, fishermen have been using crab trap and trawling to catch blue swimmer
crabs and other fish species. However, fishermen in Kep Thmey CFi use only crab trap as a fishinggear to catch blue swimmer crabs. These fishing gears can be bought from the market or middlemen.
The technique of crab trap using
In the early morning about 4 or 5 a.m., the fishermen drive their boat to the fishing place. A boatowner is responsible for driving and other two crews are responsible for laying the traps into water
until completed (in the crab traps they put bait to attract crabs). In order to avoid the traps damageⒸISERD134

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

by other fishing boat, the fishing gave any signal (at the beginning of string and the end of thestring). After laying the traps, fishermen park their board for relaxing 4 to 5 hours, then they start tocollect their traps, tie the crab with the rubber band, keep it in net, and come back to landing side.
After selling crabs to middlemen, fishermen prepared traps and facilities for fishing next day.

Fig. 3 TrawlingFig. 2 Crab trap
Technique of trawling using

At about 5 p.m., the fishermen go to their usual fishing place. They start to operate their task as
they have been doing for catching fishes. First, the fishermen opened the stick and tie it. Second,
they dropped the tail of trawling into water until finished. Next, the fishermen starts to drop wooden boards into the water and tie the rope with two sticks to open trawling surface and drove a bite
faster than before. To continue, they untied the rope from the sticks and lie on the water and allowing the boat to operate faster. This task took about 3 hours, then the fishermen drive slowly to lift
the trawling on the boat and come back to landing side. After selling crabs to the middlemen, fishermen prepared trawling and any facilities for fishing tomorrow.
Time and duration of fishing
The crab trap and trawling can be used all year round: night and day times. For the crab trap, mostly fishermen in the Kep Thmey CFi do their fishing activities a time per day. Generally, they gofishing early morning around 4 to 5 a.m. and come back around 4 to 5 p.m. Although, fishermen in
Chang Hoan CFi operate crab catching twice times a day. In the morning, fishermen go to fisharound 4 to 5 a.m. and come back around 8 to 9 a.m. About 1 or 2 p.m. fishermen go fishing again
and come back about 5 to 6 p.m. in the evening. For trawling fishing gear, fishermen usually gofishing at night from 4 p.m. to 6 a.m.
Table 1 The number of fishing days in the four months
MonthsNumber of fishing daysby crab trap (Kep Thmey)

Number of fishing days bycrab trap(Chang Hoan)

Number of fishing days bytrawling (Chang Hoan)

15

16

18

April

15

16

17

May

20

18

17

June

13

25

-

Total

63

75

52

16

19

17

March

Mean

Fishermen did not go to fishing every day during conducted research. In Kep Thmey CFi, thehighest number of fishing days was in May about 20 days while the lowest was 13 days. In contrast,
the highest number of fishing days in Chang Hoan CFi by crab trap was 25 days June which theⒸISERD135

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

trawling was about 18 days in March (there was no data in June) (Table.1). According to the survey,
the two major factors that affect the number of fishing days were climate conditions and holidays(New Year, weddings and other ceremonies) as well as lack of baits ( for crab trap activities).
Blue swimmer crab yield
The yield of blue swimmer crab by crab trap in Kep Thmey CFi: Fig.4 shows the averagecatches of blue swimmer crab from March, April and May were not different (15.77 kg/boat/day,
16.45 kg/boat/day, and 13.93 kg/boat/day, respectively), while the average catches in June was decreased ( about 8.09 kg/boat/day). During data collection period, which during rainy season, thetemperature and salinity were declined between May and June so most crabs move to the depth sea
or other places. In March, the average catches of second and third classes of blue swimmer crabs
were increased about 8 and 4 kg/boat/day while the first class was decreased about 2 kg/boat/day(fig.5). The average catches of crab size were changed in April, May and June. The variety of average catches by size is depending on life cycle and biology of blue swimmer crab.

Fig. 4 The average yield of blue swimmer
crab in 4 months

Fig. 5 The average yield of blue swimmer
crab by size in average in 4 months

The yield of blue swimmer crab by crab trap in Chang Hoan CFi: Fig. 6 shows that the average catches of blue swimmer crab by crab traps in Chang Hoan CFi were increased in March andApril around 7 kg/boat/day, but this yield was declined in May and June around 5 kg/boat/day. The
third class of blue swimmer crab was highest amount of all classes because fishermen operated at
the shallow water areas (Fig. 7).

Fig. 6 The average yield of blue swimmer
crab in 4 months

Fig. 7 The average yield of blue swimmer
crab by size in average in 4 months

The yield of blue swimmer crab by trawling in Chang Hoan CFi: By using trawling, the average catches of blue swimmer crab in Chang Hoan CFi were not different in three months about 1
kg/boat/day (Fig.8). According to climate conditions, fishermen did not go fishing in June. In addition, most yields were first class (Fig.9). The total catches of blue swimmer crab by trawl gear wasⒸISERD136

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

not high compared with crab trap, because the purpose of trawl activities does not catch only crabs
but also shrimp, squid, and other fish species.

Fig. 8 The average yield of blue swimmer
crab in 4 months

Fig. 9 The average yield of blue swimmer
crab by size in average in 3 months

Blue swimmer crab market
Blue swimmer crab market framework (Fig. 10) is related to fishermen, middlemen, crab strip shop
owner, consumers, and exportation middlemen.
Kep Thmey CFi Fishermen

Chang Hoan CFi Fishermen

2%Middlemen

Middlemen

18.77%
58%

Crab Strip
Shop

8.12%

76.67%

13.21%

13%

KampotMarketVealrihn
MarketCrab Peelers

All classes
Third classes, small andother crabs
First and second classes
Thailand andVietnamSihanoukvilleConsumers

Fig. 10 Blue swimmer crab framework

Blue swimmer crab priceⒸISERD137

Crab meat

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Crabs were priced by the middlemen and it was rarely changed because most fishermen received
loans or fishery gears from them. Thus, the crabs should be sold out to the loaners who were themiddlemen.
Yet, other fishermen who did not get any loans also sold their crabs to the same person easierthan selling it by themselves or selling to others. The prices were different between the fishermen
who got loans and did not get loans. The middlemen sold to Kampot and Vealrihn market in higher
price. However, the price was not too different between buying from fishermen and selling to the
crab strip shop. Generally, the market price for the consumers and crabmeat selling are highest(Table 2).
Table 2 Price change of blue swimmer crab
MarketFirst Class(riel/kg)

SecondClass(riel/kg)

Third Class(riel/kg)

Small Crab(riel/kg)

Bought from fishermen ( loan)

15,000

8,500

4,500

500

Bought from fishermen ( no loan)

17,000

9,000

4,500

500

Sold to retailers at Kampot market

1,900

10,000--Sold to retailers at Vealrign market

1,900

10,000--Sold to crab strip shop

15,300

8,800

-

-

Sold to crab strip shop (no loan)

17,500

9,500

-

-

Sold to consumers

30,00015,000--Crabmeat selling

32,00025,00020,00010,000Price

CONCLUSION
Crab trap is a fishing gear that fishermen in the Kampot Province prefer to use in order to catchblue swimmer crabs. Although, the purpose if trawling is to catch shrimps and squids, but somecrabs can be caught by this gear too. The variation of total yield is according to time, weather,place and the number of fishing gears. Moreover, these gears can be use all year round dependingon time, place and climate conditions. According to local people surveyed, shows that the cause ofblue swimmer crab yields have declined because of fishermen using the small size of crab trap
mesh (2a = 4 cm) and the number of crab traps has been increasing in the last few years. Likewise,
the use of beach seine is a major cause of destroying the habitats and foods for crab and otheraquatic plants and animals. Blue swimmer crabs are clarified into three classes. The first and second classes are counted into high price to sell in markets and the crab strip shop by middlemen andthird class are sold to crab peelers. Middlemen play an important role in market finding to fishermen and loan.
REFERENCE
Boal Suong, Ng. 2003. Case study on Trawling Steoung Sen by Using 140 HP of HINO in Kok Kong.
Bachelor Thesis. University of Agriculture, Cambodia.
FiA. 2006. Cambodia fisheries magazine. Fisheries Administration. Cambodia.
KetSaNa, K. 2003. Blue swimmer crab fish by using engine board HINO 275 HP in Sihanoukville. Bachelor
Thesis. University of Agriculture, Cambodia.
Kunthea, K. 2003. Small-scale fishing in mangrove forest from Prek Ta Som to Prek Kon Kon, Prey NoubDistrict, Sihanoukville. Bachelor Thesis. University of Agriculture, Cambodia.
Kunthy, R. and Guttman, H. 1998. Survey of fish marketing in Svay Rieng Province. Svay Rieng Province,
Cambodia.
MAFF. 2002. Blue Swimmer crab and blood cockle fishing in Cambodia Sea. Ministry of Agricultural Forestry and Fisheries, Cambodia.
MoE and DANIDA. 2007. Cambodia coastal zone management in Kampot Province. Cambodia.
ⒸISERD138

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Narith, B. 2004. Assessment of fisheries management based community in Prek Tnout Village, Prek Tnout
Commune, Kampot District, Kampot Province. Bachelor thesis. University of Agriculture, Cambodia.
Pholine, M. 2002. Fisheries coastal zone management in Poum Thmey Community, Prey Thom Commune,
Kep District, Kep City. Bachelor thesis. University of Agriculture, Cambodia.
Potter, I.C., Chrystal, P.J. and Loneragan, N.R. 1983. The biology of the blue manna crab P. pelagicus in an
Australian estuary. Marine Biology, 78, 75-85.

ⒸISERD139

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Validated Rice Cultivars for Rice-Based Systems of theNorthern Mountainous Region, Lao PDR
KHAMDOK SONGIYKHANGSUTHOR*
Northern Agriculture and Forestry Research Center (NAFReC), Luang Prabang province,
Lao PDR
Email: khamdoks@yahoo.com and khamdok.s@gmail.com

HOUMCHITSAVATH SODARAKNorthern Agriculture and Forestry Research Center, Luang Prabang province, Lao PDR

KOUANG DOUANGSILA
National Rice Research Program, Vientiane, Lao PDR

BENJAMIN K. SAMSONInternational Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Lao PDR
Received 14 December 2011

Accepted 2 April 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstracts This study aimed to identify and evaluate appropriate introduced and improved
sloping upland rice cultivars for the northern region of Lao PDR (Bokeo, Houphanh, Luangnamtha, Luangprabang, Oudomxai, Phongsaly, Sayabuly, and Xiengkhuang). The
study was designed to detect genotype by environment for seven cultivars: 1) Makhinsoung, 2) Nok, 3) Non, 4) Laboun, 5) IR55423-1, 6) B6144F-MR-6 and 7) IR6008046A  in  the  farmer’s  field  with  farmer  practices  and  farmer’s  preferences  analysis.  The  results showed that both introduced and improved rice varieties consistently produced higher
grain yield compared to local varieties, from 157 to 381 kg/ha over years that the experiments were conducted. Local varieties yielded an average of 1700 kg/ha. Most of the varieties were suitable for Oudomxai, Sayabuly and Xiengkhuang provinces. Some varieties
were specifically appropriate for some provinces: Non (Bokeo), IR60080-46A (Houaphanh and Luangnamtha). Yield data of all tested varieties were generally significantly
different from that of local variety. However, grain yield differences of entries in Luangprabang and Phongsaly were not significant, but almost all the entries cultivars produced more grain than local checks.
Keywords plant characteristics, rice cultivar validation, northern mountainous and uplandcultivation

INTRODUCTION
Rice is the primary staple crop of Lao PDR. It accounts for 70% of the diet and supplies about 70%
of caloric requirement. Among Lao people, rice self-sufficiency is equated to food self-sufficiency(Linquist et al., 2007). Laos achieved rice self-sufficiency in 1999; upland farmers and households
are still rice-deficient.
The uplands of Lao PDR are located in northern part of the country and along the LaosVietnamese border in the central and southern regions. The northern uplands form the largest upland environment in Lao PDR, comprising seven, out of eighteen provinces that make up the wholeof Laos. It is predominantly mountainous, but there are a number of minor plains and numerous flat
intermountain basins and narrow river valleys where water is available year-round, allowing for
full or partial irrigated agriculture. Upland farmers grow rice in the intermountain basin, and rivervalleys as transplanted wetland or lowland paddy rice, and on the sloping uplands as direct-seededⒸISERD140

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

upland rice. The uplands also provide a range of agro-ecological environments that enable farmers
to grow cash crops, paper mulberry, cassava, and beans, among other crops.
Surveys of upland households show that livelihoods are overwhelmingly agricultural in nature.
Farmers with more lowland had better food security than farmers who raised their crops purely on
upland sloping environments. Seventy three percent of households reported at least 1 year of ricedeficiency in 10 years (1995-2005). In contrast, only 17% of households with lowland reported atleast one year of rice deficiency during the same period.
The major constraints to improve rice production in the uplands are low productivity of rice
varieties, lack of high quality seeds and livestock diseases, inadequate extension services, limitedaccess to public services and advanced technologies, poorly developed transport, irrigation andmarketing infrastructures (Roder, 2001).
This paper aims to describe the process and results of a long-term effort to evaluate and identify appropriate rice germplasm for the uplands of Lao PDR through multi-environment yield trials.
METHODOLOGY
Multi-environment   yield   trials   were   conducted   on   farmers’   fields,   with   farmer   participation,   in  eight provinces of the northern region of Lao PDR: Sayabuly, LuangPrabang, Oudomxai, LuangNamtha, Bokeo, Phongsaly, Houaphanh, and Xiengkhuang. The field research sites were selected
to represent the northern region of Lao PDR. Oudomxai and Sayabuly provinces had more farmer
participants from 2005 to 2009. Elevation of field sites ranged from 300m to 1300m. Fields wereselected to be representative of upland environments.
Seven lines and cultivars were used in the trials. Laboun, Non, Nok, and Makhinsoung are
traditional cultivars which have been identified from a series of screening trials to perform wellunder a range of upland conditions. These cultivars have been purified so that each variety is distinctive, recognizable and produce uniform crop stands in the field. IR55423-1, B6144F-MR-6,
IR60080-46A are improved, stable, non-glutinous rice lines which perform well in upland environments. Seeds were direct-seeded on dry soil. Crops were managed according to local practice.
Neither fertilizer nor other agricultural chemicals were used on the crop. At the time of harvest,
crop cuts were taken to determine grain production of the lines and cultivars. Data from 2003 to2009 were included in the analysis. Data were tabulated and graphically evaluated.
Preference analyses by farmers were conducted prior to harvest. Farmers were asked to identify the reasons why they liked or disliked particular varieties. These data were tabulated and graphically evaluated.
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the mean grain yield of seven rice cultivars in eight northern Lao PDR provinces.
Under farmer management practices, grain yields of test cultivars were significantly better thanthose of local check varieties. Yield advantage of rice lines and selected and purified glutinous
landrace varieties ranged from 157-381 kg/ha (9-22%). Improved non-glutinous varieties (IR55423-1, B 6144F-MR-6, IR 60080-46A) produced 167-334 kg/ha (10-20%) more grain than local
checks. Selected and purified traditional cultivars (Laboun, Non, Nok, and Makhinsoung) produced
157-381 kg/ha (9-22%) more grain than checks.
Sites where the trials were conducted were significantly different in mean rice production
across the years examined (Table 2). Bokeo had the highest mean annual rice production (2,309 kg/ha) among eight provinces, while Phongsaly and Xiengkuang had the lowest (1,615 kg/ha).
Table 2 also shows that mean rice production, across sites, was more than 1,800 kg/ha from2003 to 2007. Production declined in 2008 and 2009. The trend of production is shown in Figure 1.
IR60080-46A  exhibited  the  best  yields  in  2003  and  2004,  during  the  “good”  years  for rice production. However, B6144F-MR-6 did best in 2006 and 2008. Laboun performed best in 2005, 2007
and 2009. These observations may indicate that these lines and cultivars are highly adaptable toboth  “good”  and  “bad”  rice  growing  years.
ⒸISERD141

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Table 1 Mean grain yield of seven test lines and cultivars and their yield advantage
over local varieties
Varieties

Grain yield (kg/ha)

LabounNon
IR60080-46A
B6144F-MR-6
Nok
IR55423-1
Makhinsoung
Local
SE(N= 9)5%LSD 780DF
PR>F

2080
2038
2034
2017
1887
1867
1857
1700

Grain yield advantage (kg/ha)

Grain yield advantage (%)

381
339
334
318
188
167
157
0

122
120
120
119
111
110
109
100

a
ab
ab
ab
abc
bc
bc
c
76
210
0.0001

Table 2 Mean annual rice grain yield in eight northern Lao PDR provinces
Provinces
Luangprabang
Oudomxai
Houphanh
Luangnamtha
Phongsaly
Sayabuly
XiengKuang
Bokeo
Mean (kg)SE(N=99)
5%LSD 780DF
PR>F

2003

2004

1908
2239
1311
1783
1843
1886
2627
1942
187
518
0.000

2037
1861
1830
1351
2784
1497
2810
2024

Annual grain yield (kg/ha)
2005
2006
2007
1995
1604
1941
2035
1860
2720
1383
1523
1883

Grain yield (kg/ha)

3,000

2,500

2036
1336
2184
1341
2712
2128
1693
1919

1663
2881
1615
1957
2893
2202

2008

2009

1407
1057
1232

1610
1771
1467
1313
1187
1469

B6144F-MR-6
IR60080-46A
Local
Nok

IR55423-1
Laboun
Makhinsoung
Non

2006

2008

Mean (kg)
1808
1821
1913
1695
1615
2275
1616
2309
1882

2,000

1,500

1,000
2003

2004

2005

2007

2009

Fig. 1 Grain yield of seven rice lines and cultivars over seven years,
averaged across sites
Rice lines and cultivars performed well in Oudomxai, Sayabuly and Xiengkhuang provinces(Table 3). Some varieties performed well in specific provinces, such as Non in Bokeo province,
and IR60080-46A in Houphanh and Luangnamtha. However, none of varieties stood out in termsof grain production in Luangprabang and Phongsaly provinces. Almost all lines and cultivars in thetest set, except Makhinsoung, and the checks produced more than 2,000 kg/ha in Sayabuly province sites.
Fig. 2 gives a human dimension to the grain yield data. The graphic summarizes farmer opinions and comments on traits that they liked and disliked about the lines and cultivars in the test set.
Large panicles, big-sized grain and strong culms were the most commonly referred to positive
characteristics. Farmers did not like cultivar that produced few tillers, short and non-uniform panicles.
ⒸISERD142

Itchy seed

Few leaves

Non-uniform plant

Weed competitivenessMany leaves

Resistant to lodging

Few grain

Rapid emergence

Late duration

Positive plant characteristic

Negative plant characteristic

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Susceptible to pests
Non-uniform ripening
Growth in some soil
Poor emergence
Sterile spikelets
Small stem

Many panicle
Grows in any soil
Uniform panicle
Uniform plant height
T all plant
Early duration
More tiller

Small grain

Many grains

Non-uniform panicle

Strong stem

Short panicle

Large grain

Few tiller

Large panicle

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0

40

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Number of times mentioned by farmers

Number of times mentioned by farmers

Fig. 2 Positive and negative plant characteristics most mentioned by farmers
Table 3 Grain yield of rice lines and cultivars in eight northern Lao PDR provinces
Varieties

Bokeo

Houa
phanh

Luang
namthaLuang
prabangOudom
xai

Phongsaly

SayabulyXiengkhuang

B6144F-MR-6
IR55423-1
IR60080-46A
Local
Laboun
Makhinsoung
Nok
Non
SE(N=12)
5%LSD 724DF
PR>F

1710
1706
1720
1704
1688
1789
1380
2478

1659
1974
3577
1934
1954
2148
1951
1953

1887
1789
2276
1686
1807
1817
1638
1683

1814
1753
1828
1668
2040
1697
1881
1993

2511
1508
2913
1456
2680
2108
2074
2040

1458
1091
1628
1627
1470
2052
1086
2028

3748
3595
4496
2251
3160
1761
2108
2072

2233
1344
2133
1524
2294
2366
2700
1928

205
570
0.0000

Based on the preferences of farmers, six (Nok, Makhinsoung, Laboun, Non, IR55423-1 andB6144F-MR-6) were propagated. Production of seeds for distribution to farmers was ramped up
from 2005 to 2009 (Table 4). Makhinsoung and Nok distribution to farmers was more than 2 and 3
tons, respectively, in 2009. B6144F-MR-6 distribution peaked at 2 tons in 2007.
Table 4 Amount of rice seed distributed (kg) from 2005 to 2009
Varieties
Nok
Makhinsoung
LabounNon
IR55423-1
B6144F-MR-6
Total

2005

Seeds distribution in each year (kg)
2006
2007
2008

30
20
20
20
5
10
105

230
100
250
30
20
800
1430

220
200
250
30
2000
2700

2585
1079
340
70
50
25
4149

2009
3317
2207
1145
527
163
165
7524

The number of farmers planting the lines and cultivars, and the amount of seeds they used aresummarized in Table 5. There was a steady increase in number of farmers planting the lines andcultivars and the amount of seeds that they used, except for IR55423-1. By 2008, fifty farmers were
ⒸISERD143

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

using Non and Nok, but larger amounts of seeds were being used by farmers using Nok, perhaps
implying that larger areas of land were being sown to his cultivar. The number of farmers tryingout B6144F-MR-6 increased to 70 by 2008 but the amount of seed used was static from 2008 to2009 at about 900 kg. This probably means that more farmers were trying out the line, but steadyuptake was not yet occurring for this rice line. It is worth noting that these data are limited to thefarmers and farm households that could be tracked by the researchers and does not include unreported seed exchanges and sales.
Table 5 Number of farmers planting selected rice lines and cultivars andamount of seed used from 2006 to 2008
Variety
Nok
Makhinsoung
LabounNon
IR55423-1
B6144F-MR-6

Farmers
5
5
5
5
5
5

2006

2007

Amount of seed
(kg)
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5

Amount of seed
(kg)
220
200
100
100
30
900

Farmers
8
7
10
4
2
50

2008
Farmers
50
27
20
50
3
70

Amount of seed
(kg)
2585
1079
800
450
50
850

DISCUSSION
Results showed that both introduced lines, and selected / purified landraces performed better, under
the same environmental conditions, as local varieties (Asai et al., 2009). However, other reported
that only the improved rice germplasm produced higher yields in both low and high fertility conditions over a number of locations (Saito et al., 2007). The average grain yield of the test lines andcultivars was higher than that of the local varieties in all sites. This supports the findings (Atlin etal., 2006). Higher productivity may be due to high sink size of improved lines and selected/purified
landraces, manifested by their larger panicle number per unit area. Panicle number has been reported to be an essential trait for high grain yield in low as well as high soil fertile uplands in Asia andWest Africa (Saito and Futakuchi, 2009). Poor adaptation of tropical japonica rice genotypes to low
soil fertility conditions may be the result of reduced sink size and grain-filling percentage.
Our results suggest that improved indica rice and selected/purified traditional rice cultivars
can improve productivity without addition of fertilizer, even in low soil fertility conditions (short
fallow cycle). This finding is significant and important for resource-poor farmers, who have faceddifficulty in maintaining rice productivity in short-fallow slash-and-burn systems in northern Laos.
Other reasons for those select/purified traditional rice cultivars were preferred and adopted in large
areas by Laos farmers, because they were glutinous rice and big-sized  grain.  And  most  of  Laos’s  farmers preferred glutinous cultivars than non-glutinous cultivars.
The use of these genotypes should only be seen as a component for improving upland ricebased cropping systems since continuous rice cropping with such high-yielding genotypes can leadto a greater nutrient withdrawal from the soils as well as a more rapid decline of soil organic carbon
in upland conditions (Saito et al., 2006b; Asai et al., 2007). Therefore, integrated soil fertility management practices need to be developed for effective use of sustainable rice production.
CONCLUSIONSThis paper showed that indica and tropical japonica rice genotypes differed in yield response to soil
fertility conditions under rainfed uplands in northern Laos. Grain yield of rice genotypes were notstable across low and high soil fertility conditions. Grain yield of introduced improved rice lines,
and selected/purified cultivated varieties were generally significantly better than local varieties.

ⒸISERD144

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

REFERENCE
Asai, H., Saito, K., Samson, B.K., Songyikhangsuthor, K., Homma, K., Shiraiwa, T., Kiyono, Y., Inoue, Y.
and Horie, T. 2009. Yield response of indica and tropical japonica genotypes to soil fertility conditions
under rainfed uplands in northern Laos. Field Crops Research, 112, 141-148.
Asai, H., Saito, K., Samson, B., Vongmixay, K., Kiyono, Y., Inoue, Y., Shiraiwa, T., Homma, K. and Horie,
T. 2007. Quantification of soil organic carbon dynamics and assessment of upland rice productivity under the shifting cultivation systems in northern Laos. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Rice for the Future, Bangkok, Thailand, 9-13.
Atlin, G.N., Laffite, H.R., Tao, D., Laza, M., Amante, M. and Courtois, B. 2006. Developing rice cultivars
for high-fertility upland systems in the Asian tropics. Field Crops Res. 97, 43-52.
Linquist, B.A., Tro¨ sch, K., Pandey, S., Phouynyavong, K. and Guenat, D. 2007. Montane paddy rice: its
development and effects on food security and livelihood activities of highland Lao farmers. MountainRes. Dev. 27, 40-47.
Roder, W. 2001. Slash-and-Burn Rice Systems in the Hills of Northern Laos PDR: Description, Challenges
and Opportunities. International Rice Research Institute,  Los  Ban˜os,  Philippines,  201.
Saito, K.and Futakuchi, K. 2009. Performance of diverse upland rice cultivars in low and high soil fertility
conditions in West Africa. Field Crops Res. 111, 243-250.
Saito, K., Atlin, G.N., Linquist, B., Phantaboon, K., Shiraiwa, T and, Horie, T. 2007. Performance of traditional and improved upland rice cultivars under nonfertilized and fertilized conditions in northern Laos.
Crop Sci. 47, 2473-2481.
Saito, K., Linquist, B., Keobualapha, B., Phanthaboon, K., Shiraiwa, T. and Horie, T. 2006b. Cropping intensity and rainfall effects on upland rice yields in northern Laos. Plant Soil 284, 175-185.

ⒸISERD145

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Structure and Conduct of the Purple Rice Market inNorthern Thailand
PATTANA JIERWIRIYAPANT*
Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai , Thailand
Email: pattanaj@chiangmai.ac.th

ONG-ART LIANGPHANSAKUL
Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand

WANWILAI CHULAPHUN
National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtun, Taiwan R.O.C.
Received 14 December 2011

Accepted 18 April 2012(*: Corresponding Autor)

Abstract In recent years, health issues are a major concern for consumers. Northern Thai
farmers are seeking alternative crops with high nutritional value and market potential. Recent studies show that purple rice (or Thai black rice) is rich in nutrients, such as gammaoryzanol and natural antioxidants, and therefore, could be potential crop. The main purpose of this study is to investigate market structure and market conduct of purple rice innorthern  Thailand.  Porter’s  five  forces  analysis  was  used  to  evaluate  the  competitiveness  and relative attractiveness of growing purple rice. The surveying method was used to study
market conduct. The result from the estimated Concentration Ratio indicated that market
structure of purple rice differ in all three provinces. It was also found that the five competitive forces influence the collectors the most and the farmers the least. Even though thecompetitive  forces  aren’t  very  high,  survey  data  indicates  that  the  purple  rice  market  hasn’t  been found attractive by farmers, collectors or retailers.This study concludes that despite
purple rice being a high-nutrient product, its market is still very small in northern
Thailand. However, purple rice as a serious commercial crop is still not that attractive tothe farmers.
Keywords structure, conduct, purple rice, Northern Thailand

INTRODUCTION
As good health is a growing issue for consumers, many studies have been focusing on finding nutritious foods that can be used as a sort of alternative medicine. Northern Thai farmers are looking
for crops with both high nutritional value and high marketability. Research by Boonsit, Kaladee
and Phongpiachan in 2006 shows that purple rice (or Thai black rice) has a mean of 55.58 mg of
gamma-oryzanol per 100 g, compared to white rice that has a mean of only 30.67 mg per 100 g.
Additionally, purple rice contains big amount of natural antioxidants and its  extract’s  antioxidants
can be used as a natural preservative in meat products (Min, Chen & Green, 2009).
Due to these nutritional advantages, demand for purple rice may increase; creating an opportunity for farmers in northern Thailand. However, the factors  that  influence  the  farmers’  decisionmaking process need to be understood in order to convince farmers to start growing purple rice instead  of  white  rice.    The  farmers’  decision  to  adopt  a  new  crop  is  not  solely  led  by  economic  factors,
but socio-economic and psychological factors as well. Purple rice has been grown in Thailand forquite some time and is perceived as a crop for local consumption which hinders its attractiveness as
a commercial crop by farmers.
As it is important to understand the production  and  market  of  purple  rice,  this  study’s  purpose  is   to   investigate   the   current   marketing   situation   and   better   understand   the   market’s   structure   and  conduct  of  this  crop  in  northern  Thailand.  Porter’s  five  forces  analysis  was  used  to  evaluate  the  relⒸISERD146

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

ative competitiveness and the attractiveness of growing purple rice. The surveying method wasused to study market conduct. Additionally, in order to successfully promote purple rice, this study
aims   to   find   the   factors   that   could   influence   the   farmers’   adoption of this healthy alternative towhite rice.
MATERIALS AND METHODSThis   study’s   primary   data   was   collected   from   all   players   in   the   supply   chain;;   farmers   who   grow  purple rice in Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai and Phayao Provinces, local collectors, wholesalers and retailers over the course of the 2010-2011 production. Questionnaires and personal interviews wereconducted  in  order  to  analyze  the  market’s  structure  and  conduct, and  Porter’s  five  force  analysis  was applied to examine the competitiveness and to analyze the attractiveness and profitability of
the industry.
Porter’s   analysis   is   used   to   determine   the   degree   of   competition   and   the   attractiveness   of   a  market environment by looking at five forces; threat of new entrants, competitive rivalry, bargaining power of suppliers, bargaining power of consumers and the threat of substitute products (Porter,2008). Factors of each force were identified and analyzed in order to gain understanding of the
supply   chain’s   key   players   and   the  influence   each   force   has   on them. The questionnaire was designed using the Likert scale that allows participants to measure the influence of each force by selecting a number between 1 and 5; 5 represents the highest level of influence while 1 represents theleast influence (Likert, 1932).
The concentration ratio (CR) of the market structure was used to assess the monopoly power
or degree of concentration in the system, if any. The CR is a partial index that measures the shareof the industry that is made of a few large firms or groups. It is calculated as follows;
CRn  =  ∑  Xn /  ∑  Xi
CRn denotes the share of the industry accounted for n larger firms in the market, ∑  X   n is thevolume of product produced by n firms and ∑  Xi is the volume of product produced by all firms inthe market. The estimated value of CR for any given n should be between 0 and 1 - the higher the
CR indicated, the greater the market concentration or monopoly power.
Market structure can be classified based on the size of the market share in the hands of the top
firms (Bain, 1968). For example, if the top four firms control more than 70 percent of the market,
it’s  revealed  to  be  a  highly  concentrated oligopolistic market. Other factors such as barriers to entry,
entry conditions and exit conditions are also evaluated. Production and marketing strategies, pricing behavior and policies of purple rice were examined during the personal interviews and surveys.
Also, secondary data related to marketing purple rice in northern Thailand was collected from various sources and is listed in the references section of this paper.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Competitiveness of the industry
The threat of new entrants is high for both collectors and retailers, while farmers have a medium
level as most purple rice farmers belong to agricultural groups and usually produce under contractual  agreement.    Since  this  is  the  case,  the  farmer’s  suppliers  of  inputs  and  buyers  of  outputs  are  typically the same person - thus reducing their bargaining power as suppliers. The rivalry among
competitors  is  low  as  there  isn’t  much  product  differentiation  with  the  same  variety  of  purple  rice.    
Threat of substitutes is also low due to the uniqueness of the product.
The   results   from   the   study’s   Porter’s   five   forces   analysis   of   the   competiveness of northern
Thailand’s  purple  rice  industry  can  be  seen  in  Table 1. These results indicate that the competitive
forces influence the collectors the most (3.2) and the farmers the least (2.4) as shown in Fig. 1.
Even though the competitive forces aren’t  very  high,  survey  data  indicates  that  the  purple  rice  ⒸISERD147

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

market  hasn’t  been  found  attractive  by  farmers,  collectors  or  retailers.
Table 1 Influence level of competitive forces of marketing environment for purple rice
Competitive Five Forces
1. Threat of new entrants
2 .Rivalry among competitors
3. Bargaining power of suppliers
4. Bargaining power of buyers
5. Threat of substitutes
Average Mean

Mean (Likert Scale Rating)
Farmers
Collectors
Retailers
2.9(medium)
2.7(medium)
2.0
(low)
2.9
(medium)
1.5
(low)
2.4
(low)

3.8
(high)
3.1(medium)
3.4(medium)
2.2
(low)
3.6
(high)
3.2(medium)

3.7(high)
3.0(medium)
1.9
(low)
2.4
(low)
2.8
(medium)
2.7(medium)

Fig. 1 Weighted score of marketing competitive forces
Market structure for purple rice
After using the CR to measure the purple rice market, it was found that each of the three selected
provinces’  market  concentration  differs.    However,  pricing  is  set  by  buyers  either  through  contract
farming  or  the  buyers’  bargaining  power in each market.
In Phayao Province, only one agricultural group, consisting of 33 farmers, exists. The member farmers obtain the seed from the group leader who also serves as the collector, miller and retailer. The Phayao market is monopolistic with the market share of this group accounting for 25.3
percent of northern Thailand.
Two major purple rice producers exist amongst over 100 very small scale farmers in Chiang
Rai Province with an estimated CR2 of 0.08. Despite the low CR, the two major farms run theirown rice mills and have an outlet for selling the final product. Purple rice from the rest of othersmall farmers is sold to four large collectors with an estimated CR4 of 0.73 which indicates a higholigopolistic market.
Chiang  Mai  Province’s purple rice market is very small scale that allows for perfect competition.
CONCLUSION
This study concludes that despite purple rice being a high-nutrient product, its market is still verysmall in northern Thailand. However, there are signs of market growth in some areas. Even thoughⒸISERD148

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

the market structures vary among the three provinces, the bargaining powers of both the buyers andsuppliers are quite high for the farmers. It was also found that the concentration ratio was higher atthe  collectors’  level and  the  pricing  is  still  under  the  intermediary  buyers’  power.    Purple rice needs
to be promoted in order to make it an attractive alternative crop for farmers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the National Research Universities Program of the Office of the Commission on
Higher Education, Ministry of Education, Thailand, whose funding made this study possible.
REFERENCES
Bain, J.S. 1968. Industrial organization. New York : John Wiley and Sons.
Boonsit, P., Kaladee, D and Phongpiachan, P. 2006. Gamma oryzanol content in purple rice Thailand local
genotypes. Prosperity and poverty in a globalized world - challenges for agricultural research, Bonn,
Germany.
Likert, R. 1932. A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology. 22 (140), 55.
Min, B., Chen, M.H. and Green, B.W. 2009. Antioxidant activities of purple rice bran extract and its effecton the quality of low-NaCl, phosphate-free patties made from channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) belly
flap meat. Journal of Food Science, 74, C268-C277.
Porter, M.E. 2008. The five competitive forces that shape strategy, Harvard Business Review, January, 86104.

ⒸISERD149

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erdRole and Opportunities for Foreign Investment and Its
Risks for Rural Development in Laos
SATOMI KIMIJIMA*
School of Engineering and Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Email: kimijimasatomi@hotmail.com

MASAHIKO NAGAI
Geoinformatics Center, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Received 16 December 2011

Accepted 18 April 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract Recently, foreign investment has grown significantly in the Greater Mekong
Sub-region (GMS) hence its macro-economic impact has been the subject of numerous research studies. However, there is a lack of studies assessing the micro-economic impact offoreign investment in the rural areas of GMS countries. This paper (a) assesses the change
in rural non-farm wage employment as a result of foreign investment and its socioeconomic impact on rural people in Laos, (b) highlights the participation of women in aplantation project initiated by a Japanese company, and (c) analyze the effect of foreign
investment  on  people’s  mobility  patterns,  the  change  on  their  interactions  at  local  level  and  the risks for rural development. Data has been collected using purposive sampling methods with a total of 80 respondents from two villages and were selected randomly at ahousehold survey in 2009. The respondents comprised 50% of men and also 50% of women in each village. Questionnaire survey, focus-group discussion and field observation
were conducted. The results showed a significant change of income for rural people employed  by  the  project,  particularly  for   women.  Improved  women’s  participation   had provided opportunities for their empowerment and changed their mobility patterns. This, inturn, facilitated  women’s  networking  with  people  with  diverse  status  and  experiences  outside  their  village.  This  resulted  in  a  slight  change  in  women’s  active  participation  in  community meetings at the local level as well as their relations with men, challenging existingsocio-cultural norms. It was concluded that foreign investment can contribute to rural development by creating a non-farm rural employment opportunities. However, it is also
cautious to become excessively dependent on foreign investment for rural employment
opportunities since foreign investment have a high risk of changing condition in the global
market.
Keywords employment creation, foreign investment, Laos, mobility, women’s
empowerment

INTRODUCTION
Socio-economic change at the community level is one of the factors influencing gender roles andstatus of women. Rapid socio-economic change has been observed in many developing countries
involved in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). FDI   is   deﬁned   as   “an   investment   involving   a   long  term  relationship  and  reﬂecting  a  lasting  interest  and  control  of a resident entity in the source county  (foreign  direct  investor  or  parent  firm)  in  the  host  country”  (Razin and Sadka, 2007). It is argued
that through FDI, the host country can be provided with more employment and increase local production growth. However, there is little information regarding the contribution of FDI to socioeconomic levels in developing countries especially in Greater Mekong sub-region countries.
FDI has grown significantly with the increasing globalization of the economy since the 1960s
that was operated by multi-national companies. This affected third world countries by creating a
New International Division of Labor (NIDL), which is the relocation of export-oriented industrialiⒸISERD150

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

zation from developed countries to developing countries. The NIDL has enabled developing countries to export not only primary products, but also competitive products to developed countries
thereby shifting the areas of manufacture. This is because of the availability of cheap and obedientlabor force such as women engaged in reproductive sectors. Thus, giving rise to feminization oflabor. FDI paradigm is believed to be more stable associated with technology and skill transfer.
Southeast Asian countries initiated the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) Economic Cooperation Program in 1992 (Ngampramuan, 2008) with the aim to promote socio-economic development
within countries sharing the Mekong River through strengthened intra-regional economic cooperation. Such initiatives, in fact, facilitated economic liberalization and deregulation leading to freemarket policies (ibid) and encouraged various foreign investments in the GMS countries. Several
studies regarding GMS regional economic corporation pointed out positive socio-economic impacts
at macro level, specifically with the increase in foreign investment (ADB, 2006). However, the dynamic impact of foreign investment at the micro-level in rural areas of the GMS countries is documented only in a few studies.
In Laos, the New Economic Mechanism introduced in 1986 enabled the expansion of foreign
direct investment in the country, facilitating the transition from subsistence to a market economy(Mwankusye, 2002). Furthermore, GMS Economic Cooperation systematized the way towards foreign investment (ADB, 2006). Investment in rural Laos is quite significant in the sectors of agriculture, industry, trade/service, hydropower and mining (ADB, 2005). As a result, various types of
employment opportunities have been created by foreign investment in Laos.
In 2005, a Japanese company took over a foreign-owned tree plantation, a joint venture company that was set up in 1996. The Japanese investor implemented 112 plantation projects in 150
villages, employing workers in tree nursery, grooming, planting, weeding and fertilizing activities.
In Nongboua Noy village of Laos, many villagers are employed in a tree plantation nursery centernear the village.
This paper (a) assesses the change in rural non-farm wage employment as a result of such investment and its socio-economic impact on rural people in Laos, (b) highlights participation of
women in a plantation project initiated by a Japanese company, and (c) analyzes the effect of suchinvestment  on  people’s  mobility  patterns  and  the  resulting  change  in  interactions  at  local  level  and  analyzes risks of such investment for rural development.
METHODOLOGYThis paper discussed the changes in socio-economic status of local people after their employment
in the plantation project managed by Japanese company in rural Laos. The study areas are locatedin Hinboune district, Khammouane province, Lao PDR. The study purposively selected the villages
named Nongboua Noy and Hath Yai. Nongboua Noy village was selected as many villagers havebeen employed at a nursery center established nearby. Furthermore, Hath Yai was selected as there
was no significant employment creation in the village. The purpose of selecting these two villages
was to compare the socio-economic impact by foreign investment.
A total of 80 individual respondents from the two villages were randomly selected for ahousehold survey through pre-tested questionnaires in 2009. The respondents comprised 50% maleand 50% female in each village. The study also employed formal and informal interview to retrieve
information  from  key  informants  such  as  the  Laos’  branch  manager  and  village  heads  using  check  lists and from Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Male and female participants were grouped separately during the discussion on FGDs. Data collection also involved direct field observation. Local
language was used as the means of communication with local people assisted by a translator particularly during the interview.
Both qualitative and quantitative types of data were collected. Primary data was collected inorder to analyze how the Japanese plantation project affects the socio-economic condition of rural
people, influences mobility patterns and household community relations in rural Lao. Secondary
data from Asian Development Bank, Japan External Trade Organization, the Japanese Paper Company, and their Laos branch were also collected in order to find out the historical background of theⒸISERD151

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

plantation project. Furthermore, data from the Lao National Statistics Centre were gathered in order
to compute gender compositions and to find out the changes in socio-economic conditions after
employment at the Japanese company. Quantitative data regarding the gender composition was analyzed using cross tabulation in SPSS version 16. Qualitative analysis was done with extensive review of secondary data and primary information from the FGDs and informal interviews with villagers.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Changes in rural non-farm wage employment and socio-economic conditions
Rural industries hold high potential of employment contribution, especially for women, who are
categorized as subgroups of the population. The plantation project has employed more than 3000
daily wage workers throughout Laos, of which men and women have been employed in similar
numbers. Approximately 50 daily wage workers have been employed in Nongboua Noy village
with a high participation of women. A comparison of household income revealed that non-farm
employment contributes to increase the annual household income (Table 1).
Table 1 Comparison of annual household income by villages
before-after the establishment of the project
Annual Household Income(Kip)<2,000,000
2,000,001 - 4,000,000
4,000,001 - 10,000,000>10,000,001

Nongboua Noy Village
2005
2009

Hath Yai Village
2005
2009

30
(75.0)
8(20.0)
2
(5.0)
0
(0)

18
(45.0)
10(25.0)
12(30.0)
0
(0)

0
(0)
23
(57.5)
15(37.5)
2(5.0)

16(40.0)
8(20.0)
16(40.0)
0(0)

Source: Field Survey 2009
Note: - Percentage in the figures (inside brackets) denotes the distribution of the respondents within the column- Kip: Laos currency (1US $= 8,338.30 Kip in July 2009)

Households in Nonboua Noy village were benefited relatively more in comparison tohouseholds in Hath Yai village in terms of annual household income. The increase in annual
household income in Nongboua Noy village was noted to be five times higher compared to theperiod before the establishment of foreign investment. The respondents’  active  participation  in  theproject was found to be a significant key factor contributing to the increase of annual householdincome which is not noted in Hath Yai village. Benfica et al., (2002) pointed out that plantation
projects and agricultural industry play a significant role in rural employment creation and reducepoverty through an increase in wages. Plantation industries are also found to contribute to socioeconomic development of rural households.
Participation of women in a plantation project initiated by a Japanese company
Women’s  contribution  to  household  cash  income  was  minimal  before  the  project.  However,  there  were significant changes after the project started. The survey showed higher percentages ofcontribution to annual household incomes among male and female respondents in Nongboua Noy
village (Table 2).  Nevertheless,  women’s  contribution  to  the  annual  household  income  in  Nongboua  Noy village was much higher than in Hath Yai village. The analysis of Hath Yai village is notpresented since there was no significant change in women’s  economic  contribution. An increase in
women’s  contribution to household income is widely observed particularly in the lower to medium
annual income from - 2,000,001 to 4,000,000 kip and from 4,000,001 to 10,000,000 kip.
ⒸISERD152

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Table 2 Individual contribution to household annual income
by sex in Nongboua Noy village
Respondents<10

Contribution to Annual Household Income (%)
11-30
31-50
51-80

>81

Female1(5.0)

4(20.0)

11(55.0)

0(0)

4(20.0)

Male

0
(0)

0
(0)

5
(25.0)

6(30.0)

9(45.0)

Total

1
(2.5)

4
(10.0)

16(40.0)

6(15.0)

13(32.5)

Source: Field Survey 2009
Note: - Percentage in the figures (inside brackets) denotes the distribution of the respondents within the row

A study conducted in India found that wage structure in a plantation industry is biased since
women workers could not access the same wage as men  even  though  women’s  work  load  was  morethan that of men (Reddock and Jain, 1998). However, in the case of Laos, the study showed
positive results as the plantation project positively involved women with the same daily wage ofmen. The wage differentials and occupational segregation as reported from India was not observedin Laos. Labour market regulation has been considered to play an important role in reconciling thegoals of efficiency and equality (Elson, 1999). Such positive economic contribution to householdincome   developed   women’s   self-confidence.   According   to   the   respondents,   that   women’s   selfconfidence had increased with their contribution to household income. The study also found outthat   a   positive   correlation   between   women’s   household   income   contribution   and   their   positive  attitude   at   the   community   level.   Thus,   through   women’s   development   on   self-confidence has
influenced them to practice actively in community-based activities.
Change  in  women’s  mobility  patterns  and  their  empowerment  Improved  women’s  participation  provided  opportunities  for  their  empowerment  and  changed  their  mobility patterns. Equal  opportunity  of  women’s  mobility  is  not  being practiced especially in rural
areas, with women, especially having less mobility than men (Jennifer and Mandel, 2004). However, the study found an increase in mobility for women within and outside the village such as traveling to markets, health centers and attending meetings at plantation project. Respondents indicatedthat there is a positive correlation between mobility development and contribution to householdincome. Thus, large mobility developments are observed among women contributing to the household income. The change in mobility can be summarized as from household to community, household to near community, household to another community and another community to household(Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Change in mobility pattern in Nongboua Noy village
Source: Field Survey 2009

ⒸISERD153

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Furthermore, development of mobility facilitates   women’s   networking   with   people   with   diverse status and experiences outside their village. Such interactions provided women with alternative sources of knowledge and developed household strategies regarding   women’s   relations withmen in the village. Indeed, women further developed self-confidence through such experiences.
The qualitative information showed positive relations between mobility development and an active
approach to decision making at the community level. In contrast, in Hath Yai village, there were no
positive changes. Thus, the economic development has not only empowered women economically
but also developed their interaction toward different people. Economic development also means
mobility and network development for women and specifically provides them with opportunities toobtain and develop knowledge and strategies to deal with men. This finding is consistent with thefindings of Carr, et al., (1996), that economic empowerment is a significant factor in the empowerment of women with increased levels of awareness, understanding, unity, mobility and confidence to handle problems outside of the family.
Risks of foreign investment to rural development
While FDI in the plantation sector has led to positive results in terms of increased household income,  mobility  development  and  women’s  empowerment  at  the  local  level,  it  is  also  important  to  consider the risks inherent in foreign investment. For example, the global financial crisis in 2008
caused a decline in paper consumption in the United States but the demand for paper in newly industrializing countries like China grew (Paper News, 2010). This became an opportunity for foreign investors to seek and develop new sources of raw material for paper production such as tree
plantations in GMS countries. Indeed, the Japanese plantation company in Laos has shifted its target from the world market to East and Southeast Asia, and is planning other plantation projects andnew factories in Southeast Asia.
At the same time, the new Foreign Investment Law in Laos aims to attract more foreign
investment (ASEAN-JAPAN CENTRE, 2009). An excessive inflow of foreign capital aiming to
exploit  the  subregion’s  rich human and natural resources would lead to overuse of depleting natural
resources. In addition, continuous establishment of foreign investments and industries threaten thelocal traditional lifestyles through rapid structural changes transforming the subsistence economy
to a market economy. Furthermore, this will create over-reliance on foreign investment which isvulnerable to international market conditions.
CONCLUSION
Women’s  active  participation  was limited before the establishment of the project due to lack of income and prevalent socio-cultural constraints on women. The socio-economic condition of women,
including household income and mobility improved after their engagement in the plantation project
and alternative mobility pattern and community relations were slightly restructured. Thus, the plantation project contributed to the overall socio-economic  development  and  women’s  empowerment
in rural Laos. The findings in this paper agree with those in the Benfica, Tschirley and Sambo’s  study (2002); additionally, this paper shows that increased rural household income also increased
women’s  mobility  and  their  active  participation  in  the  community.  
Foreign investment can contribute to rural development by creating non-farm rural employment opportunities and economically empower vulnerable social groups such as women, especiallyin developing countries. This is considerably important in the GMS region. However, it is also
prone to become excessively dependent on foreign investment for rural employment opportunities
since foreign investment have a high risk of changing according to the conditions in the global
market.

ⒸISERD154

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Iizuka Takeshi Scholarship Foundation in Japan. The authors
would like to thank Dr. Kyoko Kusakabe, Asian Institute of Technology and Prof. Dr. Mariko
Adachi of Ochanomizu University, for their advice during the research. We would like to thank Mr.
Kan Kaewknogkaew for his generous effort as an interpreter during the field study.
REFERENCESASEAN-JAPAN CENTRE. 2009. http://www.asean.or.jp/ja/asean/know/country/laos/invest/guide/section01/
section01_01.html.
Asian Development Bank. 2005. Report and recommendation of the president to the board of directors:
Proposed   Loan   and   Asian   Development   Fund   Grant   Lao   People’s   Democratic   Republic: Forest
Plantations Development Project.
Asian Development Bank. 2006. The Greater Mekong subregion: Beyond border: Regional cooperation
strategy program update, 2007-2009. The Philippines.
Benfica, R., Tschirley, D. and Sambo, L. 2002. Agro-industry and smallholder agriculture: Institutional Arrangements and Rural Poverty Reduction in Mozambique. Flash Working Paper Series, 33. Resultados
das investigacoes do Departamento de Analise de Politicas.
Carr, M., Chen, M. and Jhabvala, R. 1996. Speaking out, Women economic empowerment in South Asia,
UK.
Elson, D. 1999. Labor markets as gendered institutions: Equality and empowerment issue. World Development, 27(3), 611-627.
Jennifer,  L.  and  Mandel,  L.  2004.  Mobility  Matters:  Women’s  strategies in Porto Novo, Benin. Gender, Placeand Culture. Balancing the Load: Women, Gender and Transport. London: International Forum for Rural
Transport and Development.
Mwankusye, J. 2002. Do intermediate means of transport reach rural women balancing the load: women,
gender and transport. London: International Forum for Rural Transport and Development.
Ngampramuan, S. 2008. Subregional cooperation in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS). Transborderissues in the Greater Mekong Sub-region, 13-32. Ubon Rachathani University, Thailand.
Paper News. 2010. Further development corporation supply-demand industry.
Razin, A. and Sadka, E. 2007. Foreign direct investment: an analysis of aggregate flows. Princeton University Press. ISBN-13: 978-0-691-12706-4.
Reddock, R. and Jain, S. 1998. Plantation women: An introduction. Women Plantation Worker: International
Experiences. New York. Oxford.

ⒸISERD155

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

The Effectiveness of Farmer Organization Management in
Kamchaymear and Baphnom Districts, Prey Veng Province
SAVOEURN MEANG*
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: meangsavoeurn@gmail.com

MOM SENG
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 13 December 2011

Accepted 18 April 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract ‘Farmer  organization’  is  a  new  concept for Cambodian people, and capacities toeffectively manage farmer organizations are limited. Thus, a study was conducted with
two objectives, (1) to explore aspects of management and leadership capacities of management committees, and (2) to look into the management processes for farmer organizations. After finishing an interview with all stakeholders, the results showed that educational level of the management committee is so low, with 64.50% finishing primary school
and only 1.4% university. Even though they have low education, among 95.1% of the
management committees had the ability to write their small project proposals to be submitted to supporting non-government organizations or other donors for both financial andtechnical support. After their assessment, each farmer organization received 1-3 grants for
implementing their own economic initiatives, 62% of the management committees and themembers interviewed were provided with technical trainings. All farmer organizations
have all the necessary characteristics such as logo, organizational chart, by-laws, recording
tools and they conducted meetings regularly. Furthermore, they maintain good relationships with all stakeholders and also received official recognitions from the local authorities.
Overall, we can say that the management capacity of the committees have improved eventhough they still need further support from outsiders in terms of capacity building, working capital, etc. so as to make sure they continue to function well to serve the interest of
the members in the long run.
Keywords farmer organization, committee, Prey Veng province, Cambodia

INTRODUCTION
The Cambodian government is focusing on the reduction of poverty of the people. Over 80% of
Cambodian population is living in rural areas and more than 70% of labor force in the whole country do farming (MAFF, 2006). Even though many farmers are self-sufficient, 86% of them are below the poverty line (NPRS, 2002; MOP, 2003).
The government is now trying to improve the livelihood of people and develop the national
economy through the implementation of government and civil development projects, in order to get
effective success and sustainability. Government, non-governmental organizations and other institutions have been organized and used many new strategies to support and develop more effectively
farmer groups, associations, communities, cooperatives and federations. All of them were defined
as farmer organizations (FO) and facilitated with managing, funding, training and so on. In the inventory of Cambodian farmer organizations, it has been found that before 1995 there were 616 FOs,
between 1995 and 2000 3,785 FOs, and after 2000 there were 10,157 FOs (Couturier et al., 2006).
The type of farmer organizations in Cambodia can be divided into 10,487 farmer groups, 662
farmer associations, 1,769 farmer communities, 93 farming business communities, and 6 farmer
federations, and a total of 13,017 FOs (Couturier et al., 2006).
ⒸISERD156

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

In 2001, a Royal Decree on Agricultural Cooperative, Union of the Agricultural Cooperative
and the Pre-Agricultural Cooperative was published, giving a legal framework for farmer economical organizations. Also in 2003, Prakas of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries on statuteand regulation format was used on Agricultural Cooperatives.
Farmer organizations can be successful or fail. It depends on the leading of committee members,   members’   participation   and   supporting   agencies   or   stakeholders.   Committee   members   have  enough management qualifications. They can well manage their FOs such as meeting facilitation
ability, planning activities annually, strategy plan preparation, knowledge transfer, experience sharing, bookkeeping, and implementing, monitoring and evaluating of farmer organization projects
etc.(Sophany, 2010). On the other hand, to become a good manager, the applicant has to be honest,
self-sacrificing, try to learn what he is weak at, and good internal and external communication.
Most farmer organization leaders are lacking abilities such as general management, financial management, communication, bookkeeping, and agricultural techniques (Couturier et al., 2006).
METHODOLOGY
The research was conducted in Prey Veng province with the target area of Komrong Daikou of
Agronomes et Vétérinaires Sans Frontières, that have been working in Baphnom and Kamchaymear districts. There are 33 farmer organizations (2 agricultural cooperatives, 29 rice bankassociations,  and  2  village  animal  health  worker  “VAHW”  associations).
The sample selection for interviewing was divided into 3 parts:
1. All farmer organization committee members were interviewed (100%), the total sampling being
142 persons.
2. All project implement staff and commune councils collaborating with project were interviewed(100%), being the total sampling 8 persons.
3. Farmer  organization  members’  samplings  were  selected  by  stratified  sampling  method  based  on  the scoring evaluation of farmer organization types in 2009. Each type of farmer organization
limited 50%, but not less than 2 farmer organizations. The formula of Yamane Taro (1967) byrandomized method was used. So, a total of 314 members were interviewed.
The primary and secondary sources of information were compiled together for analyzing by
SPSS and SWOT.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The research results showed that farmer organizations that were successful in its development relyon  the  committee  members’  capacities  mainly,  because  committee  is  the  leader  of  farmer  organizations responsible to achieve progress and sustainability. So, many non.government organizations
and institutions have been trying different approaches to support farmer organizations such as training by theory and actual practice, conducting exchange visits, etc. in order to improve the committee’s capacity in accordance with their situations.
Through  questionnaires  it  was  observed  that  committee  members’  education  as well as the opportunity to get capacity building and institutional strengthening was different among farmer organizations.
Table 1 Educational attainment of committee members
Type of FO
Agriculture cooperative
VAWH association
Rice bank association
Total

No.
of FO

No. of committee (person)

Primary

2
2
29
33

16
12
114
142

62.50
33.30
68.40
64.80

ⒸISERD

157

Education (%)
SecondaryHighschool
25.00
41.70
26.30
27.50

12.50
8.30
5.30
6.30

University
16.70
1.40

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Most  of  the  committee  members’  education  in  the  three types of farmer organizations was low,with 64.80% finishing primary school, 27.50% finishing secondary school, 6.30% high school andonly 1.4% university. The reason why many administrative committee members studied only at
primary schools was that most of them are farmers. Furthermore, if they have higher education,
they do not want to be administrative committee members because of little interest in the benefits.
As shown in Table 1, we found that only committee members of Village Animal Health Worker
Association have university degrees since they got income from animal treatment. They want tostrengthen their capability and be more effective in their profession.
Regarding administrative committee members who have low education, many institutions ofdevelopment agencies started changing their approaches not only focusing on providing fund, materials and technical training support but also strengthening the committee capacity building of
farmer organization in leadership and management. As a result, 76.1% of administrative committee
members received farmer organization management training, 61.3% financial training, 32.4%
communication and marketing trainings, 34.5% leadership training and 88% proposal writing training. With these approaches, 50% of administrative committee members had participated in various
exchange visits on animal raising, vegetable growing, farmer organization management and otherenhancements.
Table 2 Administrative committee capability of funding proposal writing
Education

No. of administrative
committee chief (person)

Primary school
Secondary school
High school
University
Total

18
11
2
2
33

Fund proposal writing from 2007-2010
Success (%)
Failure (%)
88.90
100.00100.00100.00
93.90

11.10
6.10

Opinion of members andstakeholders

Based on the support and strengthening from various development agencies, the capacity
building of administrative committee members was improved. The committee has improved its
ability of leading farmer organizations, preparing clear organizational charts, communicating withdonors and stakeholders. Because of the improved ability, they now got 1 to 3 grant(s) from donors
through proposal writing for implementing micro-projects from 2007 to 2010. Table 2 shows thatadministrative committee chiefs who studied only at primary school got 88.90% of success andonly 11.10% a failure. Compared to others who studied at secondary school or above, they now
could get 100% of success. As a result, this success contributed as an idea from other committee
and members in their farmer organizations. They now not only receive funds, but most of committee members get various training also, for example, rice seed production, 21.80%; fertilizer use,
26.80%; pig rearing, 36.60%; marketing, 32.4% and proposal writing 88%, etc.

Fig.1 Opinion of members and stakeholders about committee capability
The result showed that only 3.2% of the members said that committee capacity was not good,but others (44.3%) said that it was moderate and 52.5% that it was good. For the project staff andcommune councils, 50% replied moderate and the other 50%, good. In accordance with the resultsⒸISERD158

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

shown, the committee’s capability was not good enough in leading farmer organizations yet. They
still need more support on capacity building and other skills that involve development agencies andother stakeholders.
The process of farmer organization establishment depends on the types of farmer organization,
objectives, and steps taken by farmer organization creators. There were different steps/methods
referring to the aims of the creation of projects or laws. If someone wants to be a member of a
farmer organization, he has to pay membership fee or share buying, and anyone who wants to be acommittee member has to go through an election process.
Table 3 Recruitment of administrative committee members of FO
Type of farmer organization
Agricultural cooperative
VAHW association
Rice bank association
Total

No. of committee
members (persons)
16
12
114
142

Assignation to a committee
Election (%)
Appointment (%)
100
91.70
75.40
79.60

8.30
24.60
20.40

According to the results of Table 3, 100% of Agricultural Cooperative committee, 91.70% of
Village Animal Health Worker association committee and 75.40% of Rice Bank association committee were selected by election. Only 20.40% of committee members were selected by appointment as it was based on the criteria selection rule. For example, rice keepers were selected by appointment because they provided their lands for rice store construction and also because it is difficult to move the rice store from one place to another. The mandate of election is 3 years, but some
farmer organizations do not apply the written statute and internal rules because of no new candidates. Members let old committees to continue, and sometimes committees do not organize elections.
Table 4 Application of duties and responsibilities to administrative committee members
Education
Primary school
Secondary school
High school
University
Total

No. of committee(person)Not done

92
39
9
2
142

4.30
2.60
3.50

Organizational chart (%)
Partly done
Well done
58.70
48.70
55.60
50.00
55.60

37.00
47.70
44.40
50.00
40.80

In order to have a more effective management of farmer organizations, each farmer organization committee as well as its members must apply organizational charts to divide the duties andresponsibilities among members. The questionnaires showed that all farmer organizations createdorganizational charts, but their duties and responsibilities stated in the organizational chart were notdone well. In the results of the survey, 40.80% of the duties were well done, 55.60% partly doneand 3.50% not done. One reason is that some committee members could not do their duties alone,such as organizing bookkeeping or conducting meeting, etc.
Table 5 Application of statute and internal rules of administrative committee members
Education
Primary school
Secondary school
High school
University
Total

No. of committee(person)Not done

92
39
9
2
142

3.30
2.10

ⒸISERD

159

Statute and internal rule (%)
Partly done
Well done
53.30
43.60
44.40
50.00
50.00

43.50
56.40
55.60
50.00
47.90

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Table 5 shows that 100% of farmer organizations have conducted meetings and made statutes
and internal rules to be followed and performed. As a result, there were only 47.90% well done,
50% partly done and 2.10% not done.
To be easily recognizable or identifiable by donors, development agencies and other stakeholders, 93% of farmer organizations  had  to  have  logos,  and  only  7%  didn’t  have.  Farmer  organizations at least got a recognition letter from the commune office.
Table 6 Committee capability for conducting meetings
Type of farmerorganization
Agricultural
cooperative
VAHW
association
Rice bankassociation
Total

No. of committee
members (person)

1-monthMeeting duration
3-month

16

50.00

50.00

-

12

66.70

33.30

-

114

24.60

72.80

2.60

142

31.00

66.90

2.10

6-month

A meeting is very important for all committee members and members or stakeholders to havetime for discussion, sharing information, planning preparation, or participating to solve any problem and other matters. Even though the committee education is low, they have sufficient capability
to conduct meetings at least for their own farmer organizations. In Table 6 it is expressed that meeting duration depends on their activities. If they have many activities, more meetings will be conducted. As a result, 66.90% of farmer organizations conducted a 3-month meeting. By the support
from development agencies, committees did not only have the ability to facilitate the meeting but
also could prepare agenda for meeting, and take minutes.
Referring to research results, relationship between farmer organization committees and members depends on the point of views of each one. Overall, the opinions of project staff and commune
councils about committees and members relationship were moderate and good.
To encourage administrative committee members in farmer organization that can manage well,members and committee members also discussed and agreed to provide salaries for committee
members under facilitation of local authority or development agencies. As a result, each committee
member can get 80 kg to 120 kg of paddy rice per year or get cash. It depends on the resource orincome of the micro-project activities.
CONCLUSION
A farmer organization is a type of farmer group that was n created to be responsible for the overall
objectives and interest of farmers and to serve the interest of economic and natural resource management that involved direct and indirect agricultural activities implemented by farmers. In Cambodia, farmer organization was divided into 5 types, such as group, association, community, agricultural cooperative and federation.
In accordance with the research results, we can conclude as follows.
- Leading capability of farmer organization committee members were improved, even though they
were selected from farmers and had low education as well.
- Leading and managing farmer organizations improved, as they set up organizational charts, statute, internal rules, logo, and conducted meetings regularly as well as they were able to get grants
and trainings through proposal writing. Furthermore, their knowledge on how to manage and process farmer organization was also improved.
Finally,  farmer  organizations’  success  or  failure  depend  on  how  good  the  committee  members  and participating members as well as development agencies function and manage.

ⒸISERD160

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

ACKNOWLEGEMENT
We would like to deeply acknowledge and give thanks to the Royal University of Agriculture forfacilitating and writing the manuscript, to Agronomes et Vétérinaires Sans Frontières Cambodia forproviding the place to research and to my relatives.
REFERENCES
Couturier, J., Sam, O. and Phalla, H. 2006. Overview of the situation of farmer organization in Cambodia.
Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries-2006, Cambodia.
MAFF. 2003. Prakas 547 on statute and regulation format use of agricultural cooperative. Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fishery, Cambodia.
MAFF. 2006. Master plan for national agriculture research. Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fishery,
Cambodia.
MOP. 2003. Cambodia millennium development goals report, 2003. Ministry of Planning, Cambodia.
NPRS. 2002. National poverty reduction strategy, 2003-2005. Council for Social Development, Cambodia.
Royal Decree. 2001. On agricultural cooperative, union of the agricultural cooperative and the preagricultural cooperative, Cambodia.
Sophany, P. 2010. The support of NGO agronomes et Vétérinaires Sans Frontières (AVSF) for farmer organization. Master degree thesis. Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia.

ⒸISERD161

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

The Impact of Changes in Crop-Livestock Interaction in
Banteay Chmar Commune, Thmar Puok District, Banteay
Meanchey Province, Cambodia
SOVATNA PHON*
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: ruasovatna@yahoo.com

SOPHAK THUNRoyal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

LYNA KHAN
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

PHANNA NEN
Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 14 December 2011

Accepted 18 April 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract Banteay Meanchey Province is located in the northwest of Cambodia with agricultural, tourism, and handicraft economic sectors. The main agriculture products werecrops (rice, cassava and banana) and livestock (cattle, buffalo, pigs and poultry when water is available). In between 750-1,500 families raised livestock for cash income, field operation, transportation and other uses. In the last few years, the number of livestock heads
significantly decreased because of the introduction of hand tractors, lack of feed, and diseases. The observation of such decreases led to a study focused on income flow throughdifferent farming systems, linkages between crop and livestock production and analyzing
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and the huge challenges in the region. Appropriate
samples were used according to spatial/grid-cell method from Googleearth. GPS was used
to identify the locations based on the grid-cell data. Many tools such as Participatory Rural
Appraisal (PRA and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), were included. Local authorities, relevant NGOs such as Economic and Social Relaunch of Northwest Provinces in Cambodia(ECOSORN) and Agricultural Development Denmark Asia (ADDA), agricultural extension workers and farmers were involved. The results revealed that there were two kinds offarming systems - with livestock and without livestock. It indicated that farming with livestock could produce much more income than without livestock because farmers could sell
both crop and livestock production to the market. Moreover, livestock could be fed easily
with crop residues.  In  most  of  the  cases,  livestock’s  manure  could  also  be  used  to  fertilize  fields. Although livestock production was economically important for farmers, the shortage of water and feed throughout the year and the existence of diseases discouraged farmers from raising livestock in great numbers even if there was intervention from NGOs, local authorities, or veterinarians. Such conditions led most of the farmers to change to theuse of hand tractors as a means of transportation and field work.
Keywords farming system, crop-livestock interaction, SWOTINTRODUCTION
Banteay Meanchey Province is located in the Northwest corner of Cambodia, bordering with Thailand, Oddar Meanchey and Siem Reap and Battambang Province. Its economy was based on agricultural, tourism, and handicraft sectors (SOLD, 2006-2007). The main livestock products werecattle (buffalo, oxen, and cows), pigs, and poultry, (mainly chicken and ducks when water wasⒸISERD162

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

available) (Vinvien, 2004). Banteay Chmar is the commune of Benteay Meanchhey Province withthe highest number of families. Between 750 and 1,500 families were engaged in feeding cattle andpigs for substantial daily life (Cambodia, 2007; ECOSORN, 2007).
The number of livestock increased in previous years mainly as a reflection of improved production and income. The main livestock were cattle, pigs, and poultry. Cattle were most often
raised as draft animals for field operations and transportation, and were also seen as an importantinvestment/insurance in terms of urgent cash needs. Pigs, however, were mainly a cash enterprisefor farm families. Chickens and ducks were kept by most families for their own consumption, andwere probably the most important animal protein after fish (Cambodia, 2007).
Cattle are important as a source of draft power, and the use of manure was an essential croplivestock interaction. Dried manure or manure-based compost was often important for crop production, particularly on the low fertility soils in the area (Cambodia, 2007).
The importance of crop-livestock interactions were, however, challenged by a number of factors in the last few years. In the case of more resourceful farmers, animal draft power was outcompeted by motorized mechanization (hand tractor). In addition, subsidized fertilizers displaced
more labour-intensive animal manure application. Finally, the lack of fodder in the wet season restricted the number of cattle, and was further constrained by the expansion of agriculture (primarily
cassava cultivation) instead of the previous important grassing areas (Cambodia, 2007).
The purpose of this study of crop-livestock interaction is to identify the income flow throughdifferent farming systems, the linkages between crop and livestock production, and achievements
and difficulties in the agriculture of the study area.
METHODOLOGY
The study site was proposed in Banteay Chmar Commune, Thmar Puok District, Banteay Meanchey Province, as the site was economically based on crop-livestock production.
The following approach was used to sample the study area. A spatial/grid-cell method wasapplied using a map from Google Earth mapping software. The map was split into columns androws. Selected households were pointed in yellow colour and the latitude/longitude coordinates
were obtained from the points. GPS was then used to identify the sampling locations in the field.
Moreover, some tools such as Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) including Seasonal Calendar,
Ranking Matrix, Map Sketching/Mapping, and Rural Rapid Appraisal (RRA) including SemiStructured Interview, Structured Interview, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), and Direct
Observation were applied.
37 households were selected to be interviewed, two FGDs (10 persons/FGD) were conducted,
and other individuals were consulted and interviewed such as local guides, communal heads,
ECOSON staff, and agricultural extension workers. The findings were presented at the local,
district, and provincial levels and in Royal University of Agriculture.

Fig. 1 Map of the research zone
ⒸISERD163

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Situational information
The Banteay Chmar Commune has had a large decrease in livestock since 2005. The decrease inlivestock is due to the introduction of hand tractors, lack of feed caused by land use change, anddiseases. Many actors were involved in supporting livestock production such as NGOs, local authorities, agricultural extension workers and local veterinarians. However, their involvement still
did not encourage farmers to focus on the reproduction of livestock.
Hand tractor use
Hand tractors have been introduced in the region since 1999. The increase in use of hand tractors
was caused by the perception of local people that there have been big losses in animal draft power,
and that hand tractors are useful substitute. In some cases, the use of a hand tractor spread from one
farmer to another as an effective tool.
Only about 6 percent of the total local people were using hand tractors at the starting time in
1999. In 2001, however, the number of tractors was slightly increasing. Many local farmers werestarting to recognize the importance of hand tractors for field operations and other purposes.
By 2005, the number of hand tractor was rapidly increasing as farmers recognized their effectiveness. Moreover, shifting land use from grasslands to agricultural land decreased the feed available to livestock and potentially increased the use of hand tractors. This negative experience led
local people to change their way of life from livestock-based farming to hand tractor-based farming.
It could be summed up that most farmers switched to hand tractors from livestock. Hand tractors could be used for land preparation, transportation, pumping. Some people were using tractor asa method of fishing (by pulling a net connected behind the tractor) as well.

Fig. 2 Annual increase of hand tractors (1999-2008)
Land use change
Based on information from the field surveys, land use could be classified into six categories:
settlement land, rice field, cassava field, crop field, grassland and rest land. The land use change
has been occurring since 1996; however, a huge amount of change emerged in 2005 when the priceof cassava was increasing and the diseases of livestock were a serious problem. Since 2005, land
use has changed remarkably in the region, shifting from settlement land and grassland to cassava
land. This significant land use change caused the shortage of feed for livestock, especially cattle.
Even the rice fields, which provide a subsistence food source for the local people, were reduced.
The increases in cassava crops and livestock diseases had a negative impact on land use types
such as settlement land, rice field, and grassland. Also, the decreases in grassland land use reduced
the amount of feed available for cattle.
ⒸISERD164

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Fig. 3 Dynamic of land ownershipLand classification
In accordance with this classification, the land area of all categories changed. The amount of settlement land decreased slightly as well as the amount of rice fields. However, there was a significant increase in the land area of cassava fields. This is due to the market demand for cassava product.
Table 1 Land classificationLandclassification< 0.5haSettlement land
Rice field
Cassava field
Crop field
Grassland
Rest land

73
8
11
19
0
0

2005 (%)
0.5-<1ha 1-<3ha
27
27
0
23
17
0

0
41
0
37
0
0

>3ha

< 0.5ha

0
24
0
19
0
0

92
11
11
19
5
0

2008 (%)
0.5-<1ha
1-<3ha
9
37
11
23
0
0

0
29
37
37
0
0

>3ha
0
23
41
19
0
5

Disease status
The rearing of livestock in the local area decreased due to several diseases that infected livestock
throughout the region. The diseases which infected pigs and cattle included Foot and Mouth,
Hemorrhagic Septicemia, Swine Fever, and fowl cholera and fowl pox infected poultry. The
occurrence of serious diseases has increased greatly since 2005. The impact of this bad issue was
locally and internationally considered. Although there were no intervention from others
stakeholders, the damage of livestock was still happening. The bad experience to the local people
did not encourage farmers to raise livestock in large amounts.
Still, in some cases, farmers continued to raise pigs and chickens. These types of livestock
could be easily kept, grow quickly, and produce high income, so some farmers continued to raisethese animals.

Fig. 4 Tendency of livestock rearingⒸISERD165

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Income flow through the farming system
Mostly, farmers in the region were growing rice, cassava and banana. According to the farming
system classification, many types of products from the crops were used for both subsistence consumption and marketing. Out of the three sources of income, farmers were also fishing to supply
their families. Moreover, it seemed that the outputs from crop production were not handled properly. Some farmers burned or left crop residue in the fields as an organic fertilizer. However, this is
not an efficient way to improve soil fertility because if they had livestock, some kinds of crop residue could be effectively used as forage for the animal, which in turn produced manure to fertilize
the fields. In addition, the animal can provide food and cash income.

Fig. 5 Farming system without livestock

Fig. 6 Farming system with livestock

Crop-livestock linkage
Crop-livestock interaction was classified into two categories: with livestock and without livestock.
In the local area, most farmers were growing rice, cassava and banana. Banana was found only ingardens while the other two crops were cultivated in the field. Farming without livestock did noteffectively use crop residues and larger amounts of chemical fertilizers were applied in fields where
livestock were absent. Information from the survey suggests that the soil became gradually lessfertile with the application of inorganic fertilizers, indicated by the fact that some farmers bought
manure from neighbors to re-fertilize their fields.

Fig. 7 Cropping without livestock

Fig. 8 Cropping with livestockⒸISERD166

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

However, farming was more effective where farmers had livestock. Crop residue was used foranimal feed, and manure, in return, was used as an organic fertilizer to enrich the field. Therefore,farming with livestock balances crop-livestock interaction and provides an additional source of
cash income.
SWOT analysis
The SWOT analysis was used to determine proper strategies to deal with weakness and threats of
the local farmers by using their strength and opportunities. After SWOT tool was analyzed, farmers
suggested using their local resources in order to make better their livelihood.
Table 2 SWOT analysis for improving the crop-livestock interaction and livelihood
STRENGTH

THREATS Variety of crops were cultivated in the region
 Crop residue was used for animal feed
 Manure was used to improve field instead of chemical fertilizer application
 Farmers had a lot of free time Soil pollution by using chemical fertilizers
 Water pollution from chemical fertilizers negatively
affected human and animal health Increased new diseases from pesticide use Lake of water supply in the dry months

WEAKNESSESOPPORTUNITIES








 Many NGOs were supporting local farmers
 Full availability of local veterinarians
 Water source around temple and Cheongcrosh Lake
was used in dry months
 Crop residue should be kept for animal feed
 Local cattle should be considered and Manure should
be kept for soil enrichment

Lack of water in the dry season
Lack of forage for cattle in the wet months
Lack of prevention of animal diseases
Poor management of manure
Crop residue was burned in the field
Hand tractors played more important role than cattle in term of field operation

CONCLUSION
Most farmers cultivated rice, cassava, and banana. At the same time, they raised cattle, pigs, andpoultry. Since 1996, the linkage between crops and livestock had become more effective. They
primarily used manure for their fields, and crop residue for feeding animals. In 2005, however, theincreases in diseases, the market demand of cassava, and shortage of feed drove down the numberof livestock. Farmers tended to rear animals in small numbers for home consumption and cash income only. Moreover, the introduction of the hand tractor positively affects the field work, and reduced the importance of animals in terms of farm operation.
Many farmers who did not engage in livestock rearing used chemical fertilizer instead of manure. Moreover, pesticides were applied throughout the area which has negatively affected thefields and water, and it impacted human and animal health. The soil fertility became poorer, so thefarmers started recovering the soil by applying manure. The farmers without livestock bought manure from the neighbors to apply to their fields.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to sincerely thank to the Graduate School of Royal University of Agriculture and France Solidarity Priority (FSP) for funding and inspiring us in this field survey. In addition, we would like to thank to all lecturers and Denmark students for their well cooperation in fieldsurvey. Last, I would greatly thank to Prof. Cindy Thatcher/s that afforded to edit my full paper.
REFERENCES
Cambodia. 2007. Agriculture productivity improvement project.
ⒸISERD167

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

ECOSORN. 2007. Newsletter. 1 (1).
The second office of local department and land collectivity (SOLD). 2006-2007. Pocketbook on the information of statistic situation research, the fourth region, Battambong, Banteay Meanchey, Siem Reap,
Odormeanchey and Pielen Vill.
Vinvien, K. 2004. Livestock section report. Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam.

ⒸISERD168

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

The Diffusive Gradients in Thin Films Technique (DGT)
for Trace Metals versus Active Sampling
TATIANA KOMAROVA*
Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Inorganic Chemistry Division
E-mail: tatiana_komarova@health.qld.gov.au

HENRY OLSZOWYQueensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Australia

BARRY NOLLER
The University of Queensland, Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation, Australia

GARY GOLDING
Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Australia
Received 19 December 2011

Accepted 18 April 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract The diffusive gradient in thin films (DGT) technique is an in situ passive sampling method that is designed to accumulate labile metal species in environmental systems.
DGTs were applied for the determination of time integrated concentrations of low level
dissolved metals in waters in areas of ecological concern. The data revealed heavy metal
contamination of waters and tracked the contamination to the source. A comparison of
DGT-derived water concentrations with water concentrations measured from grab samples
highlighted the effectiveness of passive water samplers for detecting ultra-trace levels of
metals. Comparing active and passive sampling techniques showed that both methods produce similar results when used simultaneously at the same sites. The use of DGT technique along with traditional methods offers an extra cost effective method of independent
evaluation of environmental sites as well as more sensitive and inexpensive way of obtaining additional information about sites which would be very hard to obtain using active
sampling techniques.
Keywords passive sampling, ultra-trace levels, labile metal species, accumulation, time
integrated concentrations.

INTRODUCTION
In recent years, passive sampling techniques have been developed to measure dissolved organicand inorganic compounds in waters at sub-nanogram   per   litre   levels.   “Passive”   samplers   are  defined as human-made devices where sample collection occurs in a non-active, inert manner.
DGT technique is designed to accumulate labile species in environmental systems (Davison
and Zhang, 1994; Davison et al. 2000; Zhang and Davison, 1995; Zhang and Davison, 2000). The
currently available DGTs still require further method development and field validation (Warken etal., 2006).
The DGT technique employs an adsorbent (e.g. Chelex-100), usually immobilized in apolyacrylamide gel (the binding or resin gel), to adsorb analyte species from solution. Chelexbased resins can be used for simultaneous collection of many metals in water including silver (Ag),aluminium (Al), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese(Mn), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). The binding gel is separated from the bulk solution by apermeable polyacrylamide gel (the diffusive gel) and a solution diffusive boundary layer.
DGT devices are deployed in an environmental system for a time period ranging from days tomonths to accumulate analyte species of interest. Following deployment, the binding gel and theⒸISERD169

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

diffusive gel are separated and the accumulated analyte is eluted from the binding gel. The
concentration of analyte in the eluant is then determined by an appropriate analytical technique,usually inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS). The time-averaged concentrationof a species in the bulk solution, C, is then calculated using the DGT Equation below, which isderived  from  Fick’s  first  law  of  diffusion (Zhang and Davison, 1995); M is the accumulated massof  analyte  on  the  binding  gel;;  Δg  is  the  thickness  of  the  diffusive  gel,  D  is  the  diffusion  coefficient  of analyte in the diffusive gel, t is the deployment time, and A is the surface area of the diffusive
gel exposed to the bulk solution.
C  =  M  Δg  /  D  t  A                                                                                                                                                                                                                          

(1)The assessment of water quality for the protection of the aquatic ecosystem requires the use of
a combination of analytical methods based on the Australian ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000)
decision tree process for assessing metal toxicity in water. An initial step is to calculate sitespecific trigger values for metals by using a correction for hardness, calculated from the calcium
plus magnesium concentrations expressed as mg/L CaCO3, to the default ANZECC/ARMCANZ(2000) guideline value. The aquatic toxicity decreases with increasing water hardness as soluble
metal is precipitated. The next step in the decision tree process uses the measurements of metals inlabile or bioavailable forms and metals and metalloids in particulate and insoluble colloidal
fractions that can be measured through filtration (<0.45µm) and ultra-filtration (<0.003µm) todetermine the bioavailable fractions of metals in waters. DGT samplers offer an alternative toconventional active sampling techniques.
The objective of the present study was to enhance and consolidate DGT applications formonitoring low levels of dissolved metals in water. The study seeks to address the following
research questions: (i) how will DGT and active sampling techniques compare in a real world studyof a contaminated water body in different environmental conditions; (ii) could the DGT technique
be incorporated into the trace metal monitoring programs in waters together with traditional
methods and replace them in the future; and (iii) will bioavailability results from DGT analysis add
more value to the current analysis by conventional sampling techniques?
MATERIAL AND METHODSDGT samplers were deployed for 2 days at the Woodcutter mine area in Northern Territory (Fig.1),
Australia and in the Tosno river area in St. Petersburg (Fig. 2), Russian Federation.
The major silver-lead-zinc deposits at Woodcutters were mined from 1985 (Noller et al. 2003)
to May 2000. Initial deployment of DGTs in Woodcutters Creek at the rehabilitated mine site wasundertaken in June 2010 and a further more extensive deployment took place in September 2010
(Noller et al. 2011).
To compare DGT and active sampling techniques in a real world study of contaminated waters
in different environmental conditions various experimental designs were established in a majorindustrial areas of the Russian Federation in January 2011 (Fig.2).
The diffusion coefficient of metals in the diffusive gel D (see Equation above) is dependent on
the temperature. Therefore the average temperature of the water at all sites during DGTdeployment was estimated. It ranged between 23.4-25.6 °C in the first round and 25.6-27.6 °C in
the second round of deployment in the Woodcutter Creek and between 0-1 °C in the Tosno river
deployment. At the completion of the deployment period, DGTs were delivered to the QHFSS
laboratory where they were kept below 4 °C until prepared for analysis. During the extraction
procedure the DGT device was opened, the binding gel and the diffusive gel were separated and thebinding gel was submersed in 1 mL nitric acid for over 24 hours to elute the accumulated metals.
Then 0.5 mL of extract was made up to 5 mL with nitric acid and water and analysed for metals by
ICPMS (ICPMS 7700X, Agilent). At the time of DGT deployment 1L water samples werecollected (active sampling) from all sites. Some water samples were filtered through 0.45 and 0.003µm filters and analysed for metals by ICPMS.
ⒸISERD170

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Woodcutter mine site in Australia
Initially 5 sets of DGTs were deployed in Woodcutter Creek in the vicinity of Woodcutters minesite in June 2010 to identify the bioavailable fraction of metals in the creek water (Fig. 1A). The
DGTs collect the soluble or labile metal only and enable a comparison to be made with ecotoxicity
measurements previously undertaken on creek water.
The measured DGT concentrations were generally higher than some of the filtered fractions.
Table 1 shows the data for two major metals: lead and zinc. The grab water samples were collected
at the beginning of DGT deployment and therefore represent the concentration of lead and zinc at
this particular time. Concentrations of lead and zinc estimated from the DGT data represent theiraverage concentrations over the deployment period (i.e. time integrated concentrations and may
differ from spot sampling). Further experimental work performed at this site showed that the concentrations of lead and zinc in water may change significantly within 2-3 days (up to 5-10 times).
This can explain the difference between the data.

A

B
B

2

1 (old bore)

3
4
5

10
6

6.5
7

7.5

8
9

Fig. 1 A Sampling sites at Woodcutter
Creek June 2010
1. upstream site
2. new polishing pond outflow
3. above Huandot crossing
4. seepage below former Tailings Dam 2 at
Huandot crossing
5. Mine lease boundary

B. Shallow seepage sampling sites
at Woodcutters Creek
September 2010 Site 1 corresponds toJune 2010 Site 4

In the second DGT deployment undertaken at Woodcutters Creek in September 2010 (Fig. 1B)
grab water samples were collected before and after DGT deployment and the average
concentrations of lead and zinc were measured in filtered and unfiltered water. There were
insignificant levels of lead present in water at all sites. Good agreement was found between theconcentrations of zinc in 0.003 µm filtered grab water fraction and zinc DGT concentrations (Table2). The minor difference in these values is attributed to the different approach applied with passive
and active sampling techniques; that is time integrated water concentration of dissolved metals vs.
“single  point  in  time”  concentrations.  The  overall  findings  from  September  2010  were  as  follows:  (i) increased zinc concentration was accompanied by increases in electrical conductivity and sulfate
in water; (ii) for an observed hardness range of 800-2200 mg/L CaCO3 the zinc filteredconcentration (<0.45µm) marginally exceeded the hardness-adjusted ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000)
trigger value for 95% protection of aquatic species of 72 µg/L; (iii) the zinc DGT concentrationsⒸISERD171

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

did not exceed the trigger value of 72 µg/L; and (iv) further investigation of actual ecotoxicity is
warranted to confirm this finding.
Tosno river in St Petersburg, Russian Federation
DGTs were deployed in Tosno River situated around one of the major industrial areas of St.
Petersburg (Fig.2). The deployment of DGTs in this area was aimed at the identification of thecontamination   source   which   was   suggested   to   be   downstream   of   site   фN1   (small   arrow,   Fig.   2).  
DGTs  were  deployed  at  four  different  sites  (фN1,  фN2,  фN3  and  фN4) following the direction of
the river flow (large arrow, Fig. 2) for 2 days. At their deployment 5 L water samples were also
taken at the corresponding sites (active sampling).
Table 1 Metals in surface water at Woodcutters Creek (16 June 2010)
Site

Metal

1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5

Pb
Pb
Pb
Pb
Pb
Zn
Zn
Zn
Zn
Zn

Active sampling (µg/L)
Total

0.45µm

0.003µm

Passive sampling(µg/L)
C from DGT

0.4
5
0.4
1
0.3
25
31
47
7
33

0.1
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.1
22
7
40
5
22

0
0
0.1
0.1
0.1
20
4
25
6
13

0.02
0.5
0.06
0.04
0.5
0.6
29
2
1
22

Table 2 Zinc in shallow seepage entering Woodcutters Creek andnearby groundwater (September 2010)
Site
WC1
WC2
WC3
WC4
WC5
WC6
WC7
WC8
WC9
WC10

Sulfate(mg/L)
1200
701
789
1490
1920
1260
581
628
1590
509

Zinc (µg/L)
Total<0.45µm<0.003µm

from DGT

66
109
850
94
356
271
70
90
97
31

25
27
63
26
73
24
32
25
47
9.6

9.1
16
47
23
59
24
12
12
29
8.9

7.5
13.1
16.6
18.3
47.6
15.9
10.5
10.3
25.1
3.7

After deployment and recovery the DGTs were delivered to QHFSS by air freight andanalysed for the following metals: aluminium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron,manganese, nickel, lead and zinc. Based on the obtained data the concentrations of these metals inwater at different sites of the river were estimated using Eq. (1). The results presented in Table 3
showed that a number of metals (aluminium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium and lead) on grab water
analysis were not at detectable levels. In contrast DGTs revealed their presence at all sites. Copper,
nickel and zinc were only  detected  in  grab  water  samples  collected  at  Sites  фN4  and  фN3  though  their presence at all sites was proven by the DGT data.
Only two metals, iron and manganese, were found above detectable levels at all sites for bothactive and passive sampling (Table 3). Despite the difference in the concentrations of these metals
found by the two methods, the change of the concentrations from site to site was similar. As theⒸISERD172

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

grab water samples were not collected in a time integrated manner, the concentrations of metals
differed from the time averaged DGT-derived concentrations.
It is important to note that DGTs accumulate dissolved phase metals and the estimation of theconcentrations is based on diffusion through the gel followed by uptake of dissolved phase metals.
The DGT results are therefore more appropriate in terms of environmental risk since they represent
an immediately available fraction of the chemical or bioavailable fraction. The estimation of metal
concentrations by grab or active sampling is based on their total amounts in water including
particle associated and colloidal metals. This could also explain the difference in iron andmanganese concentrations found by comparing the two methods. The results obtained by two
independent methods (active and passive sampling) draw us to the same conclusion - the source of
the iron and manganese contamination of Tosno river is most likely situated somewhere between
Sites  фN1  and  фN2.
Table 3 Metal concentrations in water from grab samples and by DGTs
Passive sampling (µg/L) (DGT)
Site
фN1

Site
фN2

Site
фN3

Site
фN4

Active sampling (µg/L) (grabwater)
Site
Site
Site
Site
фN1
фN2 фN3
фN4

95% Confidence interval ofmean ± t0.05 sea
Sites фN1  - фN4
Al
16.00
77.00
65.00
63.00
68±19
n/d
n/d
n/d
n/d
Cd
0.26
0.17
0.09
0.09
0.12±0.11
n/d
n/d
n/d
n/d
Co
0.09
0.18
0.17
0.18
0.18±0.01
n/d
n/d
n/d
n/d
Cr
0.62
0.41
0.10
0.10
0.20±0.44b
n/d
n/d
n/d
n/d
Cu
9.40
8.70
6.60
5.70
7±3.8b
n/d
n/d
n/d
2.7
Fe
51.00 216.00 253.00 245.00
238±481300 1900 1500 1800
Mn
1.20
89.00
85.00
84.00
86±6.6
150
290
220
210
Ni
11.00
3.80
0.81
1.40
2.0±3.9
n/d
n/d
3.4
n/d
Pb
0.58
0.52
0.13
0.19
0.28±0.52b
n/d
n/d
n/d
n/d
Zn
0.62
65
48.00
45.00
53±27b
n/d
n/d
n/d
7.5
Note: a. t0.05 = 4.303 from t-distribution table for degrees of freedom (n-1) =2 where n=number of results andstandard  error  (se)  =  s/√n;;  b.  not  significantly  different  from  фN1.

Fig. 2 Deployment sites on Tosno River
The  DGT  data  for  the  upstream  Site  фN1  was  compared  with  the  95%  confidence  interval  of  the mean of the   downstream   Sites   фN3   and   фN4   (Table   3).   This   comparison   showed   that,  compared   with   Site   фN1,   there   was   a   significant   increase   for   aluminium,   cobalt,   iron   and  manganese going downstream and a significant decrease for chromium, copper, lead and zincindicating their origin from another source upstream. Thus the DGT data in Table 3 showed that:(i) aluminium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium and lead were present in the water; (ii) aluminium andpossibly traces of cobalt were most likely released into the water along with iron and manganese by
the same source as their concentrations changed in a similar manner from site to site; and (iii) the
source of contamination of water with cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead and zinc was most
likely situated upstream of   Site   фN1   as   the   concentrations   of   the   metals   were   slowly   decreasing  ⒸISERD173

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

from  Site  фN1  to  Sites  фN3  and  фN4.  The  use  of  DGTs  in  this  experimental  work  provided  a  more  complex picture of contamination of the river with heavy metals than could be achieved by using
any conventional active sampling techniques.
CONCLUSIONS
The results obtained in this study show the potential of the DGT technique to measure ultra-tracelevels of metals in water reliably at a range of temperature and environmental conditions.
Comparison of active and passive sampling techniques showed that both methods produce similar
results when used simultaneously. The use of DGT technique along with traditional methods offers
an extra cost effective method of independent evaluation of environmental sites as well as moresensitive and inexpensive way of obtaining some further information about sites which would bevery difficult to obtain using any conventional active sampling techniques.
This technique allows measurement of time integrated water concentration of dissolved
pollutants in contrast to grab sampling techniques which only represent single points in time. DGTs
require relatively inexpensive and simple materials for their preparation and there is no powersource or active sampling equipment (e.g. pump, flow meter etc) needed during their deployment.
The post deployment process of DGT extraction and clean up takes several minutes using minimal
consumables and chemicals and can be done in the field if necessary.
The DGT results represent an immediately available fraction of the chemical. DGTs mimic theaccumulation that occurs in aquatic biota allowing toxicologists to estimate the actual levels of
toxicities of different metals under the specific environmental conditions and their impact onenvironmental health and health of biological organisms including humans.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Clinical and Statewide Services (CASS), Queensland (Australia) for thefinancial support of this work and staff of Inorganic Chemistry Division of QHFSS (Australia)
especially Michael Peters and Tetyana Krasnoff for assistance with sample analyses and datainterpretation, Prof. N. N. Bobrovitskaya, the Chief of Department of Monitoring surface water ofState Hydrological Institute (Russian Federation) for help with experimental work performed in St.
Petersburg, Drs. Mansour Edraki and Trang Huynh for assistance with the Woodcutters minestudies and Newmont Mining Asia Pacific for access to the Woodcutters site.
REFERENCES
Davison, W., Fones, G., Harper, M., Teasdale, P. and Zhang, H. 2000. In situ monitoring of aquatic systems:
Chemical analysis and speciation, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 495.
Davison, W. and Zhang, H. 1994. In situ speciation measurements of trace components in natural waters
using thin-film gels. Nature, 367, 546-548.
Noller, B.N., Edraki, M., Huynh, T., Komarova, T. and Haymont, R. 2011. Evaluation of a DGT approach todevelop toxicity models of metal speciation in shallow seepage from a rehabilitated lead-zinc mine to an
ephemeral tropical creek. EnviroTox., 201, 31.
Noller, B.N., G. Parker and G.H. Gao. 2003. Metal transportation through a wetland at a lead zinc mine in the
Northern Territory, Australia. European Journal of Mineral Processing & Environmental Protection, 3(1),15-35.
Warnken, K.W., Zhang, H. and Davison, W. 2006. Accuracy of the diffusive gradients in thin-films
technique: diffusive boundary layer and effective sampling area considerations. Anal.Chem., 78, 37803787.
Zhang, H. and Davison, W. 1995. Performance characteristics of diffusion gradients in thin films for the insitu measurement of trace metals in aqueous solution. Anal.Chem., 67, 3391-3400.
Zhang, H. and Davison, W. 2000. Direct in situ measurements of labile inorganic and organically boundmetal species in synthetic solutions and natural waters using diffusive gradients in thin films.
Anal.Chem., 72, 4447-4457.
ⒸISERD174

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Determinants of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
Adoption in the Chili Production System in Northeastern
Thailand: A Case of Participatory Approach
THANAPORN ATHIPANYAKUL*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: thanaporn_k@hotmail.com

WEERA PAK-UTHAI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 15 December 2011

Accepted 18 April 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract A participatory research approach has been conceptually proposed as aneffective method for introducting knowledge-intensive technologies. This approach was
adopted for the promotion of Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) in the chili production
system in Thailand. However, some farmers still use conventional practices that often
result in an overuse of chemicals. This study projected the impact of participation andimproved knowledge of farmers, which can encourage the program adoption. Other
conventional factors such as farming characteristics were also considered. Research was
carried out involving 179 chili farmers both participants and non-participants in the GAP
program located in the Northeastern part of Thailand. A treatment effect model was usedin the identification of factors affecting the program adoption. Results showed asignificant  effect  on  program  participation  and  farmer’s  knowledge  that was the precursorof  adoption.  Farmers’  experience  in  chili  production  significantly  affected  adoption.  Age  was a negative determinant of adoption. The conclusion can be drawn that adoption ofknowledge-intensive technologies such as GAP needs an effective approach such as theparticipatory   research   program,   which   can   improve   farmers’   knowledge   and   encourage  them to adopt innovative technologies. This approach allows farmers to learn from theexperience of other farmers.
Keywords chili production, knowledge intensive technologies, treatment effect model

INTRODUCTION
The participatory research approach program has been developed to overcome the hierarchicalstructure of the training and visit system (Krasuaythong, 2008). Hussain, et al. (1993) had
confirmed that the adoption did not live up to its expectations seven years after the introduction of
the extension program using the training and visit approach. Therefore, the participatory research
approach was adopted as an effective way to transfer innovation, particularly for knowledgeintensive technologies (Feder, et al., 2003). It also has been adopted as the introduction of good
agricultural practices (GAP) for Thai farmers. The objective of the GAP program is to reduce theuse of pesticides, and increase the production and marketing standards of agricultural commodities.
It has been firstly applied in rice, vegetable, and fruit production systems; especially in the areas
where most farmers grow in commercial enterprises with high level usage of pesticides.
Chili is among the vegetable commodities, playing a major role as an important ingredient inThai cooking. Also, it is a high value crop providing a major source of income for small scale
farmers in Thailand. However, chili farmers in Thailand have overused pesticides both pre andpost-harvest, to control pests and diseases (Pak-Uthai, 2010). This still occurs even though several
organizations have been introducing practices that rely less on the use of pesticides and were morebenign for the environment and human health. Adoption of GAP seems to be at a very low scale.
ⒸISERD175

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Recently, chili exported from Thailand was banned from European countries, because it was foundto be contaminated with banned pesticides (Ariesen, 2011).
Adoption of innovation was a complex issue. Many factors were identified as determinants ofadoption   of   innovation.   Among   those   factors,   the   farmers’   knowledge   was   important   to   the  adoption of new technologies, particularly knowledge-intensive technologies (Krasuaythong, 2008).
The result of Krasuaythong (2008) was consistent with the suggestion of several studies, whichstated that producers with more knowledge will increase the probability of technology adoption(Praneetvatakul et al., 2007; Waibel and Zilberman, 2007). However, this was not clear for the caseof GAP adoption in chili production. The objective of this paper, therefore, was to determine thefactors that affect the adoption of GAP. The results of this research thus can guide policy makers indeveloping strategies suitable to achieve a more rapid and efficient introduction of such practices.
DATA COLLECTION
The Thailand Research Fund (TRF) is a non-government organization that provided the budget forKhon Kaen University to develop the GAP program in chili production system to farmers in the
Chaiyaphum province of Northern Thailand. This paper is a part of that research. Purposive
sampling was used for the selection of the study area. A multistate sampling technique was used fordata collection. The first stage consisted of the selection of four districts. In the second stage,
simple random sampling was used for the selection of a sub-district and, subsequently, a village.
Stratified random sampling was involved in the final stage. Farmers were divided into two stratums,
namely those participating in the GAP program, and those who were not participating in the
program. Each farmer was interviewed to determine the socio-economic characteristics of theirhousehold by using a structured questionnaire. A total of 200 farmers were interviewed, but only
179 questionnaires were completed.
SPECIFICATION OF THE EMPIRICAL MODEL
A matrix z demonstrated  the  factors  affecting  the  farmers’  decision  to  participate  in  the  program,  and p was a vector of two parameters for participation and non-participation. The expected utilityof farmers was measured through their decision making, and was formulated as a dummy variable
P. It was identified as 1 if farmers participated in the program and 0 otherwise. The probability offarmers’  decision  for  participation  in  the  program  was  derived  as  Eq.  (1).

Prob(yi 1|z)

 Prob(U1  U0  e1  e0 )(1)

 F (pi  z)

Green (1997) stated that F (pi  z) was the cumulative distribution function for a random
disturbance term, or the error term ( ei ). The distribution of this term proposed the functional formof F (pi  z) , which can be of logistic distribution or a normal distribution. In this study, a probit
model was adopted, because this assumption was more efficient for the treatment effect model(Hechkman, 1979). Notation  is normally distributed with a mean and zero unit of variance, and(pi  z) was called as the probit score.
(2)
Prob(y |z) Φ(p  z)i 1i

Estimation of Eq. (2), a nonlinear maximum likelihood was used and the functional form wasderived as Eq. (3).
  ln 1 (pi  z )   ln(pi  z )
(3)
yi 0
yi 1
However, in practice; farmers who decided to participate in the GAP program are not randomly
selected.  It  implies  that  factors  affecting  the  farmers’  decision  to  participate  in  the  GAP  program alsoln L

ⒸISERD176

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

determine the adoption of GAP, which means that the direction of causality obtained by simple
regression can be biased. To cope with these biases, the treatment effect model developed by Heckman(1979) was used. This model assumes that the unobserved variables (  ) of the utility function
parameter  of  adoption  are  correlated  with  the  unobserved  variables  affecting  the  farmer’s  decision  to  participate in the program ( e ), but not with the factors ( X ) determining the value of parameters(Heckman, 1979). Therefore the conditional expected value of the utility function observed when
individual farmers decide to adopt GAP can be represented as Eq. (4).
E(ADOPT | participat ion  1, X, z)  P  γ  X  β  ρ  σ parameter.[  Φ(z  p) /(1  Φ(z  p) )] (4) parameter is the standard deviation of the utility function, and  is the correlation between theunobservable independent variables ( , e) . z is   the   vector   determining   the   farmer’s   decision   to  participate in the program, p is an unknown parameter, and (.) is normally distributed with azero mean and unit variance. The final term in the brackets is the inverse mill ratio (IMR) that
represents a correlation between  and e . The Hypothesis for testing this correlation was carriedout using chi-square. If there was no correlation between those terms, the formulation was reduced
to a multiple linear regression model.
DESCRIPTION VARIABLES
The adoption variable was a dependent variable, and identified by the cumulative practices which
the farmers adopted. The GAP introduced by the researcher was a set of practices. It contained 17
practices in total. During the survey, chili farmers were asked whether they have knowledge, andin-depth understanding about these practices or not. Also, they were asked to identify many
practices they adopted, non-adopted, and dis-adopted. The independent variable used in thetreatment effect model contained five variables including participation, knowledge, asset, landlabor, and meeting (Table 1).
The participation variable was expressed as a dummy variable, and was used as a proxy of amajor source of knowledge for farmers who participated in the GAP program. It was expected tohave a positive and direct effect on practice scores. The meeting variable was the number of meetings with neighbors. The knowledge scores, measured from a number of in-depth practices, determined  the  farmers’  understanding.  This  factor  encouraged farmers to adopt new technologies.
Table 1 Description of dependent and independent variables
Variables
Dependent variable
AdoptionIndependent variable

Variable type

Expected sign

Description
Practice score that is the cumulative total of GAPpractices applied in chili production system.

Continuous

Participation

Dummy

+

Knowledge

Continuous+

Meeting

Continuous

+

Asset

Continuous+

Land-labor

Continuous-

Age
Note: 1 ha = 6.25 rai

Continuous-

1=if farmers participated in GAP program;0=otherwise.
Farmers’  knowledge  scores.
Number of farmers meeting with neighbors anddiscussing chili production practices.
Value  of  farmers’  asset.
The ratio of household labor working full time on
chili production to total land area (manday/rai*).
Farmers’  age  (years).

The variable asset expressed the wealth of the farmers, and was expected to increase with thenumber of practices adopted by farmers. Age was expected to have a negative effect on adoption. In
this paper, the land-labor variable was the land to labor ratio. It was used as a farm resource, asⒸISERD177

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

endowments use neither farm household labor nor land size. Gebresekassie and Sanders (2006)
pointed out that farmers with a larger farm size tend to be more likely to adopt new technologies,
but Feder et al. (2003) argued that small scale farmers were more likely to adopt labor intensive
technologies. In this study, the set of practices promoted by the GAP program were suggested aslabor-intensive technologies (Pak-Uthai, 2010).
RESULTS
Table 2 shows results obtained from the descriptive statistics of variables used in the model. Statistical analysis using the t-test showed significant differences between participants and nonparticipants, except asset, meeting and age. A correlation matrix was carried out between
knowledge and program participation. This may bring to light the problem of multi-co-linearity.
Table 2 Descriptive statistics of variables used in the model
Variable
Participants

Mean
Non-participants

All samples

3.99
Practices
12.12***
8.11
50.28%
Participation 1
49.72%
100.005.81
Knowledge
14.61***
10.23
5.97
Meeting
8.14ns
7.06
57,747.98
Asset (Thai Baht; 30 Thai Baht =$1)
14,026.50,674.17
7.92
Land-labor
5.29***
6.59
48.89
Age
50.00 ns
49.46
89
N
90
179
Note: 1/ Percentage of total farmers
2/*Significant at the level 0.1 **Significant at the level 0.05; ***Significant at the level 0.04

Table 3 Correlation matrix of independent variables
VariablePartknowledge

meeting

asset

land-labor

Age

Participation
Knowledge
MeetingAsset
Land-labor
Age

1
0.56
0.09
-0.32
-0.23
0.08

1
0.14
-0.15
-0.05
-0.11

1
-0.01
0.0009
-0.06

1
0.17
0.05

1
0.09

1

Table 4 Determinants of GAP adoption estimated by treatment effect model
Variables

CoefficientStandard errorZ

P-valueConstant
0.72388
1.35430
0.53
0.593
Participation
14.35064
1.0589713.55
0Knowledge
0.22935
0.05896
3.89
0
Asset
-0.01795
0.01390-1.29
0.196
Meeting
0.00001
0.00000
4.34
0Land to labor ratio-0.27156
0.41812
-0.65
0.516
Age
-0.04460
0.02114-2.11
0.035
Wald chi2
978.40***Log likelihood-526.963
Test of selection bias (IMR)
Chi2 = 14.56***
Note: 1/ *Significant at the level 0.1 **Significant at the level 0.05; ***Significant at the level 0.04

Table 3 shows a non-correlation between knowledge and program participation. Results obtained from the treatment effect model showed that the estimated model had selection biased probⒸISERD178

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

lems,  because  the  null  hypothesis  was  rejected  (IMR≠0).  Therefore,  they  were  appropriate  for  identification of factors determining adoption of GAP (Table 4).
The participation and knowledge variables have had a significant effect on the number ofpractices (measured by practice scores) with a high level of significance. However, the magnitudeof participation was greater than that of the knowledge variable. This suggests that participation in
the GAP program that applied the concept of a participatory research approach was more pronounced in adoption of knowledge intensive-technologies such as GAP. During participation,
farmers can gather information and exchange their experience with other farmers. This can affectthe   farmers’   decision   making   about   whether to adopt GAP practices. The meeting variable thatused as a proxy of social network increase the number of GAP practices adopted by farmers, as
farmers can learn from the experience of others (Foster and Rosenzweg, 1995). Therefore, farmers
who were non-participants were able to adopt some practices gained from those neighbors who
participated in GAP program. Richer farmers were more likely to adopt an increased number ofpractices, because they were more inclined to experiment with new technologies (Krasuaythong,2008). This was supported by the study of Jayasinghe-Mudalige and Weersink (2004). They pointed out that rich farmers tend to adopt as many environmental management practices as possible.
However, this study showed it significantly affected GAP adoption. The younger farmers tended toadopt more practice in the set of GAP. They opened their minds to innovation and tried to gather
more information as well as improving their knowledge.
Results of this paper support findings in several publications, which stated that program participation has a direct effect on adoption of GAP (Krasuaythong, 2008). Moreover, the process ofknowledge gathering was a major factor affecting adoption of technologies that related to natural
resource management (Waibel and Zilberman, 2007). However, adoption of knowledge-intensive
technologies   depended   upon   other  factors   as   well.   Farmers’   risk   attitude   and   their   behavior   were  also suggested from the study of Krasuaythong (2008).
CONCLUSION
This study aimed at identifying factor affecting adoption of GAP. The treatment effect model wasapplied. The results finding in this were similar to many  publications.  Farmers’  characteristics  such  as age and wealth play a major role in determining the adoption of technologies. An important finding
drawn from this paper was that using the participatory research approach can be an effective tool toenhance  farmers’  knowledge  and  increase  the  rate  of  adoption.  In  this  case,  it  was  measured  by  the  number of practices being adopted from the set of GAP. However, practices may have different levelsof complexity. This may suggest one reason for non-adoption or ceasing a practice. Additionally, other   factors   such   as   farmers’  risk   attitude   and   behavior   should   be   involved   in   the   adoption   model   as  they may affect adoption of innovation. This paper does not discuss these issues, and is therefore recommended for further study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is a part of the research funded by the Thailand Research Fund (TRF).
REFERENCES
Ariesen, M. 2011. Newsflash: Precautionary Ban on Thai veggies to the EU. http://www.cbi.eu/?pag=55&nid=992.
Defrancesco, E., Paola Gatto, P., Runge, F. and  Trestini,  S.  2008.  Factors  affecting  farmers  ‘participation  in  agri-environmental measures: A Northern Italian perspective. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 59,
114-131.
Feder, G., Murgai, R. and Quizon, J.B. 2003. Sending farmers back to school: The impact of farmer field
schools in Indonesia. Review of agricultural economics, 26, 45-62.
Foster, A.D. and Rosenzweg, M.R. 1995. Learning by doing and learning from others: Human capital andⒸISERD179

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

technical change in agriculture. The journal of political economy, 103, 1176-1209.
Gebreselassie, N. and Sanders, W.J.H. 2006. Farm-level adoption of sorghum technologies in Tigray, Ethiopia. Agricultural Systems, 91, 122-134.
Heckman, J.J. 1979. Sample selection bias as a specification error. Econometrica, 47, 153-161.
Hussain, S.S., Byerlee, D.and Heisey, P.W. 1993. Impacts of the training and visit extension system on farmers' knowledge and adoption of technology: Evidence from Pakistan. Agricultural Economics, 10, 39-47.
Jayasinghe-Mudalige, U. and Weersink, A. 2004. Factors Affecting the Adoption of Environmental Management Systems by Crop and Livestock Farms in Canada. Sri Lankan Journal of Agricultural Economics, 6, 25-36.
Krasuaythong, T. 2008. Technologies adoption in vegetable production in Northern Thailand. Ph.D. dissertation, Institute of Development and Agricultural Economics, University of Hannover, Germany.
Pak-uthai, W. 2010. The study chili supply chain management in the Kasetsomboon and Jaturas Districts of
Chaiyaphum Province, Thailand. Research report, Thailand Research Fund.
Praneetvatakul, S., Waibel, H. and Meenakanit, L. 2007. Farmer field schools in Thailand: History, economics and policy. Leibniz University of Hannover, Germany.
Walbel, H. and Zilberman, D. 2007. Productivity enhancement and NRM, International research on natural
resource management: Advances in impact assessment, edited by H. Waibel and Zilberman, D. Oxford
university press, 43-81. USA.

ⒸISERD180

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erdChanges in Turfgrass Leaf Chlorophyll Content and Some
Soil Characteristics as Influenced by Irrigation Treatments
THEMBINKOSI MATHOWA*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: tmathowa@yahoo.com

WILAILAK CHINACHIT
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

PONGSAK YANGYUEN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

SUPAT ISARANGKOOL NA AYUTTHAYA
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 14 December 2011

Accepted 18 April 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract In plants, less water causes photosynthesis reduction whereas excessive water
reduces the soil nutrients. These effects induce stunted plant growth. The aim of this work
was to study the changes in leaf chlorophyll content and some soil characteristics of thenative common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L.) as influenced by irrigation treatments. Two experiments, open bottom 4 x 1 m concrete blocks and closed bottom pots
were set up during the dry season from January to May 2011 at the Horticultural Section,
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University. The experimental designs were randomized
complete block design (RCBD) with 4 daily irrigation levels; 0.50 evaporation pan(0.50Epan), 0.75Epan, 1.00Epan (control) and 1.25Epan. The results showed that 1.25Epan irrigation in open bottom concrete blocks significantly increased leaching of essential soil nutrients and decreased leaf chlorophyll content. The 0.50Epan irrigation treatment in pot experiment which was meant to resemble drought conditions had the lowest values in leaf
chlorophyll content for the first two months. However, there were no differences in leaf
chlorophyll content in all the treatments for the last two months. Moreover, the soil nutrients in all the treatments were not leached out in the closed bottom pot experiment. Therefore, the optimum watering amount should be taken into consideration.
Keywords photosynthesis, soil nutrients, water logging, water stress

INTRODUCTION
Chlorophyll is a molecule that performs photosynthesis, and it is found in the chloroplasts of green
plants. This molecule is also responsible for the visual green colour in plants (Cheng et al., 2007;
Fu and Dernoeden, 2009). Changes in chlorophyll content could occur as a result of nutrients deficiencies or exposure to environmental stress such as water stress (Mohesenzadeh et al., 2006) andsoluble salts (Hameed and Ashraf, 2008). Generally, high soil fertility has been associated with theincrease in total chlorophyll concentration (Minotta and Pinzauti, 1996; Cheng et al., 2007). Moderate soil drying and infrequent irrigation was reported to have increased leaf chlorophyll content(Jiang and Huang, 2001; DaCosta and Huang, 2006; Fu and Dernoeden, 2009). However, Alshehhi
et al. (2010) found out that chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll (a+b) contents did not present significant differences on the three warm season turfgasses studied under different irrigation regimes
in arid region, which reflects that there was no water stress.
Irrigation is an important factor in achieving the desired functions and aesthetics of theturfgrasses. It is aimed at sustaining turf quality and performance by maintaining a favorable soil
ⒸISERD181

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

water balance which can be achieved with a well-scheduled irrigation together with other appropriate inputs such as fertilizers (Kneebone et al., 1992). Water is utilized by the turf for the transportation of organic molecules, inorganic molecules and in overall structural support (Decoteau, 2005).
However, less or excessive water can have some detrimental effects on turfgrass growth due to water stress and the environment such as water logging and salinity problems (Qadir et al., 2003; Rose,
2004). Moreover, soil characteristics which are fundamental to turfgrass growth such as pH, EC,
CEC, the rate of organic matter decomposition, nutrients and exchangeable cations are affected byeither excessive or insufficient water (Decoteau, 2005; Barton et al., 2006; Harivandi et al., 2009).
Despite chlorophyll being an important parameter for plants growth and soil characteristics
playing a major role on plants growth as well, an observation of inconsistent reporting by the previous researchers along these areas was noticed. Therefore, the present study was aimed at evaluating the changes in native common bermudagrass leaf chlorophyll content and some soil characteristics as influenced by the irrigation treatments. Moreover, soil nutrients leaching were confirmedby 2 experiments in open and closed soil systems.
MATERIALS AND METHODSTwo experiments were set up during the dry season. In both experiments native common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L.) was propagated using rhizomes. In experiment 1, 16 concrete
blocks with open bottoms were used, each measuring 4 x 1 m while experiment 2 was comprised of
12 pots with closed bottoms buried to ground level, each measuring 0.55 m surface diameter and a
depth of 0.35 m. The experiments were designed according to a randomized complete block design(RCBD) with four blocks and four replications for experiment 1, and three blocks and three replications for experiment 2. Four daily irrigation treatments were applied as follows; 50, 75, 100-control
and 125% (0.50Epan, 0.75Epan, 1.00Epan and 1.25Epan) replacement of the evaporation pan (Class A
pan; Epan) which was installed at the study area for treatments 1-4 respectively. The watering wasdone manually.
Experimental units were filled up with a well prepared mixture of soil, chicken manure, ricehusk and rice husk ash (1:1:1:1, v/v) to provide uniform soil conditions. The bulk density was 1.10
g cm-3 at 0-15 cm soil depth, and it contained 87.8% sand, 8.1% silt and 4.1% clay. The soil mixture was fermented for a month and some soil physical and chemical properties were determined asfollows; pH (1:1 soil: distilled water extract) and electrical conductivity (EC; 1:5 soil: distilled water extract) were measured by conductivity meter (model: MPC227), cation exchange capacity(CEC) by ammonium saturation (Schollenberger and Simon, 1945), organic matter (OM) (Walkley,1947), total nitrogen (N) content by Kjeldahl method and measured by flow injection analyzer(model: 5012 Analyser) (Bremner, 1965), available phosphorus (P) by Bray II method (Bray and
Kurt, 1945), and both exchangeable potassium (K+) and (Ca2+) were measured by flame photometer(model: 410) after extraction with 1 N ammonium acetate pH 7.0. Also, soil characteristics were
determined at the end of the study. The turf was maintained at 1 cm canopy height by cutting andremoving the clippings from the experimental units.
Meteorological data was obtained from the agronomy section weather station, located 150 m
away from the study area (Table 1).
Leaf chlorophyll content was measured on monthly basis following a method described by
Arnon (1949). Chlorophyll was extracted by manual grinding 0.05 g of fresh leaf tissues with 80%
acetone using a pestle and mortar in dark room at room temperature. After extracting the chlorophyll, the extract was topped up with 80% acetone to 20 mL, and filtered through a filter paper intoa glass tube wrapped with aluminum foil. Residues were discarded, and the resulting solution wasthen transferred into a rectangular glass cuvette (path length 10 mm) and the absorbance was measured at 663 and 645 nm with a spectrophotometer (model: G10S UV-Vis). Final chlorophyll a, b
and total chlorophyll (a+b) were calculated using the following equations.

ⒸISERD182

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Ca = [(12.7 × D663) – (2.69 × D645)] × DF
Cb = [(22.9 × D645) – (4.48 × D663)] × DF
Total chlorophyll (a+b) = [(8.02×D663) + (20.20×D645)] × DF

(1)
(2)
(3)

Where Ca is leaf chlorophyll a (mg g-1 fresh weight), Cb is leaf chlorophyll b (mg g-1 fresh
weight), DF is dilution factor, in this case was (20.05/50), D663 and D645 are spectrophotometer
absorbance at 663 nm and 645 nm respectively.
The data collected was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the STATISTIX-8
program, where a significant F-test was observed and means comparison test was carried out using
Least  Significant  Difference  (LSD)  at  p≤0.05  to  separate  treatment  means.  
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The temperature ranged from 14.5oC to 34.6oC and average relative humidity was 79.6%. The
weekly Epan reading was 33.4 mm or approximately 4.77 mm day-1 (Table 1). However, there wasrainfall in mid March and April; so, compensation for rainfall by reducing the amount of watering
was done when rainfall occurred.
Table 1 Weekly averages of meteorological data measured during the period of the study
Month Week Min_Temp (oC)
Jan
3
14.5
4
16.2
Feb
1
15.9
2
19.1
3
19.3
4
22.7
Mar
1
22.4
2
20.6
3
18.6
4
18.9
Apr
1
19.8
2
19.7
3
18.7
4
17.6
Total

Max_Temp (oC)
27.9
29.4
28.5
33.8
33.7
33.5
34.6
33.5
29.4
28.4
34.5
33.3
32.9
33.1

RH (%)
85.6
81.9
83.6
80.0
82.1
85.1
75.9
76.9
76.9
76.9
77.0
76.1
77.3
79.4

Epan (mm)
34.0
48.0
30.0
30.0
33.0
25.0
37.0
36.0
33.0
32.0
37.0
24.0
38.0
30.0
467.0

Rainfall (mm)
12.0
18.0
6
36.0

Note: Dates for total evaporation in January week 3 and week 4 ranges from 12 th - 21st and 22nd - 31st respectively.
Total rainfall in March week 4 was from 22nd - 31st

Soil characteristics
pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and cation exchange capacity CEC: The pH tended to increase in high irrigation treatments in both experiments. The values in this work were in the rangeof the general suggestion, which recommends soil pH between 5.5 and 7.5 for nutrients uptake byturfgrasses (Bell, 2011). The comparison between open and closed systems clearly differed in EC
parameter. The open system had lower EC while the closed system had higher EC as compared tothe composite soil sample value. This evidence indicated that the open system had soil nutrientsleaching in the root zone to the deeper soil profile. The consideration in the 4 treatments for bothexperiments showed that high amount of watering (1.25Epan) decreased the EC (Table 2). Nevertheless, the observed increase in EC from the closed system experiment could be attributed to the fertilizer applied two times in March and April.
The CEC in open system decreased with the increase in irrigation amount while the opposite
was revealed in the closed system. Also, the reduction in CEC with high irrigation could be relatedwith nutrients leaching out from the root zone (Qadir et al., 2003; Rose, 2004; Bell, 2011).
ⒸISERD183

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Organic matter (OM), Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P): In open system experiment, OM significantly decreased in 1.25Epan irrigation and all treatments were under the composite soil sample(Table 2). This evidence may be the same with EC and CEC; where high leaching of the soil nutrients was observed in open system experiment. Normally, OM is related with N in the soil. Our results revealed that the open system had the lowest OM and N as compared to the closed system. In
addition, high irrigation in open system had the lowest OM and N. Comparing OM and N with thecomposite soil sample, and with the standard soil value (Bell, 2011), the values in this experimentwere higher in OM and N levels.
Similarly, the closed system experiment had higher P when compared to open system. Also,
for the high irrigation treatment in open system, P was leached out (Table 2).
Exchangeable cations; Potassium (K+) and Calcium (Ca2+): When comparing exchangeable K+of the two experiments, the results revealed high decrease in open system which was lower than thecomposite soil sample. This relates to the observed decrease in EC (Table 2). The watering induced
leaching of exchangeable K+ from the top soil. Bell (2011) reported that it is more difficult to maintain K+ levels on soils with very high sand contents because K+ is not tightly bound and leaches out
easily. However, the closed system had accumulated exchangeable K +. In detail, the treatments inclosed system experiment, 0.75Epan and 1.00Epan irrigation had lower exchangeable K+ as comparedto 1.25Epan irrigation. Mathowa et al. (2011) reported increase in shoot biomass in 0.75Epan and1.00Epan irrigation treatments as opposed to the 1.25Epan irrigation. Therefore, the observed decrease could also be attributed to exchangeable K+ being utilized for shoot biomass production.
On the contrary, the irrigation treatments seem to have had no effect on exchangeable Ca 2+leaching (Table 2), because of the characteristic of Ca2+ as an immobile nutrient.
Table 2 Soil characteristics as influenced by irrigation treatments in both open bottom
concrete blocks and closed bottom pots experiments
pH 1:1
H2O

EC 1:5
H2O
dS m-1

CEC
(cmol
kg-1)

OM
(%)

Total N(%)

Available P Exchangeable(mg kg-1)
K+ (mg kg-1)

Exchangeable
Ca2+ (mg kg-1)

Composite
7.2
0.7
9.9
3.9
0.12
2199.51461.01300.0
SD
0.3
0.1
1.6
0.4
0.02
430.3
114.4
127.3
Treatments
Open bottom concrete blocks
0.50Epan
7.0b
0.5a
11.0a
3.4b
0.12b
1852.4c1051.9b
1900.0a
b
a
b
a
a
a
a
0.75Epan
7.1
0.5
10.6
3.5
0.13
2275.01149.31450.0c
b
c
d
c
b
b
b
1.00Epan
7.0
0.4
10.3
3.3
0.11
2142.31042.2
1400.0d
1.25Epan
7.3a
0.2d
10.4c
3.2d
0.10b
1749.2d866.9c1850.0b
F-test
*
**
**
**
*
**
**
**
LSD 0.05
0.18
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
10.73
17.79
8.22
CV (%)
0.80
0.62
0.05
0.15
4.73
0.17
0.54
0.16
Treatments
Closed bottom pots
0.50Epan
7.0b
1.8a
10.0d
3.9c
0.15c
2893.6a3141.1d1452.5c
b
b
c
c
b
c
c
0.75Epan
7.0
1.7
10.8
3.9
0.16
2771.23335.91550.0b
b
b
a
a
a
b
b
1.00Epan
7.1
1.7
11.7
4.6
0.18
2845.83555.11150.0d
1.25Epan
7.6a
1.4c
11.4b
4.2b
0.15c
2412.5d4139.5a1700.0aF-test
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
LSD 0.05
0.13
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.01
15.16
17.08
8.88
CV (%)
0.57
0.87
0.05
0.10
2.17
0.17
0.15
0.19
*  significant  at  p≤0.05,  **  highly  significant  at  p≤0.01,  standard  deviation  (SD).  Means  separated  by  LSD  Test  at  p≤0.05,  means within columns followed by the same letters are not significantly different.

Leaf Chlorophyll content
Chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll (a+b): In open system, chlorophyll a seemed to be positively correlated with the treatments for the first two months with 0.50E pan irrigation significantly
reducing the content. Contrary to the first two months, 0.50Epan and 0.75Epan showed the highest
content (Fig. 1A) The same trend was revealed for chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll (a+b) contents (Fig. 1B and 1C). Similar results; that is, the increase in chlorophyll content in 0.50Epan andⒸISERD184

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

4.9
4.6
4.3
4.0
3.7
3.4
3.1
2.8
2.5
2.2
1.9
1.6
1.3
1.0
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

0.50 Epan

0.75 Epan

1.00 Epan

1.25 EpanA

Leaf chlorophyll content (mg -1 FW)

Leaf chlorophyll content (mg -1 FW)

0.75Epan irrigation treatments were reported by Jiang and Huang (2001), and DaCosta and Huang(2006) found out that drought or lower amount of irrigation increase the chlorophyll content. It
seems as if turfgrass chlorophyll contents increase serves as an activator for biochemical processes
such as photosynthesis. Moreover, a sharp decrease in chlorophyll content for the control and1.25Epan irrigation at the end of the study could be attributed to the excessive irrigation which led tosome essential soil nutrients such as N and exchangeable K+ being leached out to the deeper soil
profile as shown in Table 2.
Similar trend in closed system (Fig. 2) to the one shown in open system (Fig.1) was revealed
for the first two months. However, there were no differences in the third and fourth months (Fig.2).
Water moves downwards to the deeper soil profile after rain or irrigation and it moves upwards toevaporate or transpire from the soil surface or plant leaves (Plaster, 2003). Therefore, the closed
bottom pot experiment was set up to counteract the upward movement of water. As a result nocompensation for less water in closed system, hence water stress could possibly explain the highdifferences among the treatments as opposed to the open system for the first two months (Fig.1 and
2). Due to the fact that the closed pots were able to retain essential soil nutrients such as N, P and
K+ (Table 2), this could be attributed to the increase observed in chlorophyll contents at the end of
the study. In support of our findings, Minotta and Pinzauti (1996) and Cheng et al. (2007) suggested that chlorophyll content progressively increase in high fertility soils.

B

C

Fertigation
8-Feb

8-Mar
7-Apr
Time intervals (dates)

5.0
4.8
4.6
4.4
4.2
4.0
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
6.0
5.6
5.2
4.8
4.4
4.0
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.0

0.75 Epan

1.00 Epan

1.25 EpanA

B

C

Fertigation

8-Feb

30-Apr

0.50 Epan

8-Mar
7-Apr
Time intervals (dates)

30-AprFig. 1 Effect of irrigation regime on leaf chlo- Fig. 2 Effect of irrigation regime on leaf chlorophyll content
rophyll content
chlorophyll a (A), chlorophyll b (B) and total
chlorophyll (a+b) (C) of native common bermudagrass in open bottom concrete blocks. Verticalbars  are  LSD  values  (p≤0.05)ⒸISERD185

chlorophyll a (A), chlorophyll b (B) and total
chlorophyll (a+b) (C) of native common bermudagrass in closed bottom pots. Vertical bars are
LSD  values  (p≤0.05)

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

CONCLUSIONS
Excessive irrigation in open system experiment led to leaching of essential plants nutrients and resulted in a significant decrease of leaf chlorophyll content. On the contrary, the closed system had
no leaching of essential plants nutrients as proved by the increase in chlorophyll content in the thirdand fourth months. Therefore, optimum irrigation can retain nutrients and increase chlorophyll content; this should be taken into consideration for irrigation amount.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to the Graduate School, Khon Kaen University for financial support, TICA scholarship, andAgronomy Soil and Plant Analysis Laboratory technicians for technical assistance.
REFERENCES
Alshehhi, A.M.H., Khan, I.A., Al-Said, F.A., Deadman, M.L., Al-Khanjari, S. and Ahmad, T. 2010. Evaluation of warm season turfgrasses under different irrigation regimes in arid region. Notulae Scientia Biologicae, 2, 30-38.
Arnon, D.I. 1949. Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplasts polyphenoloxidase. Beta vulgaris, Plant Physiology, 24, 15-22.
Barton, L., Wan, G.G.Y and Colmer, T.D. 2006. Turfgrass (Cynodron dactylon L.) sod production on sandy
soils: Effects of irrigation and fertilizer regimes on growth and quality. Plant and Soil, 284, 129-145.
Bray, R.H and Kurtz, L.T. 1945. Determination of total, organic, and available forms of phosphorus in soils.
Soil Science 59, 39-45.
Bremner, J.M. 1965. Isotope ratio analyses of nitrogen-15 traces investigations. Methods of soil analysis.
American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, 1256-1286.
Bell, G.E. 2011. Turfgrass physiology and ecology: Advanced management principles. Cambridge University
Press, UK.
Cheng, H., Xu, W., Liu, J., Zhao, Q., He, Y. and Chen, G. 2007. Application of composted sewage sludge(CSS) as a soil amendment for turfgrass growth. Ecological Engineering, 29, 96-104.
DaCosta, M. and Huang, B. 2006b. Minimum water requirements for creeping, colonial and velvet bentgrasses under fairways conditions. Crop Science, 46, 81-89.
Decoteau, D.R. 2005. Principles of plant science: Environmental factors and technology in growing plants.
Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Fu, J. and Demoeden, P.H. 2009. Creeping bent grass putting green turf responses to two irrigation practices:
Quality, chlorophyll, canopy temperature, and thatch-mat. Crop science, 49, 1071-1078.
Hameed, M. and Ashraf, M. 2008. Physiological and biochemical adaptations of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
from the salt range (Pakistan) to salinity stress. Flora, 203, 683-694.
Harivandi, M.A., Baird, J., Hartin, J., Henry, M. and Shaw, D. 2009. Managing turfgrasses during drought.
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. http://ancatalog.ucdavis.edu.
Jiang, Y. and Huang, B. 2001. Drought and heat stress injury to two cool season turfgrasses in relation to
antioxidant metabolism and lipid peroxidation. Crop science, 41, 436-442.
Kneebone, W.R., Kopec, D.M. and Mancino, C.F. 1992. Water requirements and irrigation. Waddington,
D.V. et al. (eds.), Turfgrass. Agron. Monogr. 32. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI, 441-472.
Mathowa, T., Chinachit, W., Yangyuen, P. and Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya, S. 2011. Influence of irrigation
regime on some growth characteristics and water use efficiency of native common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L.). Acta Horticulturae (In press).
Minotta, G. and Pinzauti, S. 1996. Effects of light and soil fertility on growth, leaf chlorophyll content andnutrient use efficiency of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) seedlings. Forest Ecology and Management 86, 6171.
Mohsenzadeh, S., Malboobi, M.A., Razavi, K. and Farrahi-Aschtiani, S. 2006. Physiological and molecularresponses of Aeluropus lagopoides (Poaceae) to water deficit. Environmental and Experimental Botany,
56, 314-322.
Plaster, E.J. 2003. Soil science and management. Delmar Learning, Inc, Clifton Park, NY.
Qadir, M., Boers, Th.M., Schubert, S., Ghafoor, A. and Murtaza, G. 2003. Agricultural water management inwater-starved countries: challenges and opportunities. Agricultural Water Management, 62, 165-185.
ⒸISERD186

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Rose, C. 2004. An introduction to the environmental physics of soil water and watersheds. Cambridge University Press, UK.
Schollenberger, C.J. and Simon, R.H. 1945. Determination of exchangeable capacity and exchangeable bases
in soils-ammonium acetate method. Soil Science, 59, 13-24.
Walkley, A. 1947. Organic carbon by Walkley-Black oxidation procedure. Soil Science, 63, 251-264.

ⒸISERD187

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erdChanges in Escherichia coli Efflux from Farmland by
Surface Runoff and Percolation under Different
Application Methods of Manure
YUTA ISHIKAWA
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: y_i4kawa@yahoo.co.jp

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 15 February 2012

Accepted 18 April 2012(* : Corresponding author)

Abstract The application of cattle manure in farmlands was considered as a proper
treatment from a viewpoint of organic agriculture. However, pathogenic bacteria known as
E. coli in immature fermented manure happen to spread out from farmlands. So, theobjective of this study is to investigate E. coli efflux under different application methodsof cattle manure. Slope modeling experiment was conducted under an artificial rainfall
simulator. Slope plots were filled with soil then fresh cow dung and 2 weeks fermented
manures were applied into the plots. Cow dung and manure were applied with 2application methods: the broadcasting method and the incorporating method. Based on theexperimental results, it was found that E. coli efflux increased with soil loss throughsurface runoff. Moreover, it showed that the amounts of E. coli efflux were higher thanthat of input in either plot broadcasted or incorporated with cow dung. In addition, there
were tendencies that E. coli had been transported by percolation although it was smaller innumber than that by surface runoff.
Keywords Escherichia coli, total suspended solid, soil erosion, cow dung, manure

INTRODUCTION
Large amount of dung has been produced from cattle farms. So, making manure was considered as
one of the proper treatments for utilizing cattle manure from a viewpoint of organic agriculture.
However, most of manures produced from cattle farms may include immature fermented manure.
The pathogenic bacteria known as E. coli may survive and remain in immature fermented manure(Chun-Ming et al., 2005). It was reported by Islam et al. (2005) that E. coli applied through immature fermented manure survived in longer days at farmlands. Also, some reports mentioned that theefflux of E. coli occurs through surface runoff from grazed land and farmland where cattle manures
were applied (Mishra et al., 2007; Yagura et al., 2006) and large amounts of E. coli were transported along with soil erosion from farmland where fresh dung was applied (Ishikawa and Mihara,2010). In addition, E. coli efflux remarkably influences environmental pollution in watersheds aswell as contamination of potable water source affecting human health (Tamura et al., 2006; Mishina et al., 2007). However, only few studies has been carried out concerning the efflux of E. colifrom farmlands where immature fermented manures were applied.
In this study, the objectives were to investigate the relationship between the efflux of E. coli
and total suspended solids under broadcasting and incorporating methods of manures, to evaluate
the difference between E. coli efflux through surface runoff and that through percolation, and tocompare the efflux of E. coli with the input amounts of E. coli.

ⒸISERD188

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

METHODOLOGY
Cow dung and manure used in this experiment were collected from Fuji Farm, a cattle farm of Tokyo University of Agriculture located in Shizuoka Prefecture. There were two types of cow dungcollected for the experiments, the fresh cow dung (Fig. 1a) and the 2 weeks fermented manure (Fig.
1b) with water contents at 84 and 72%, respectively. For sanitary reasons, collected cow dungs
were kept in a close container under anaerobic condition. Organic matters were 89% in fresh cow
dung and 87% in 2 weeks fermented manure as shown in Table 1. The colony forming unit (cfu) of
E. coli was 19×106 cfu/g in fresh cow dung and 21×103 cfu/g in 2 weeks fermented manure.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1 Piles of fresh cow dung (a) and 2 weeks fermented manure (b) at Fuji Farm
Table 1 Properties of cow dung and fermented manure
Period of fermentation

Escherichia coli
(cfu/g)Water content(%)

Organic matter(%)

0 days

19×10684

89

2 weeks3

72

87

Cow dung
Manure21×10

Stainless slope model plots of 130 cm long and 11 cm wide were filled up with light clay soil,
andosol, at 5 cm deep (Table 2). The plots were set up at 8 degrees in slope then cow dung and 2
weeks fermented manure were applied. The amounts of cow dung and manure applied into eachplot were 1000 g/m2 (10 t/ha) in dry mass. Both of fresh cow dung and fermented manure were applied by broadcasting method and incorporating method into each designated slope model plot.
Broadcasting method is spreading fresh cow dung or fermented manure on soil surfaces, while incorporating method is mixing fresh cow dung or fermented manure with soil. The prepared slopemodel plots were kept to make soil the 24 hour field capacity moisture before starting the rainfall
simulation.
Table 2 Physical properties of soil
Specific
gravity
2.68

Particle size distribution(%)

Soil texture

GravelCoarse sandFine sand

Silt

Clay

2.0

12.3

27.8

30.2

27.7

LiC

Table 3 Chemical and biological properties of soil
Ignition loss(%)

Total nitrogen(10-5 kg/kg)

Total phosphorus(10-5 kg/kg)

Escherichia coli
(cfu/g)13.41

226.3130.36

0ⒸISERD189

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Artificial rainfall simulation was carried out at rainfall intensity of 60 mm/hr for 2 hours. Suspended water samples through surface runoff were collected from each plot (Fig. 2). Suspended
water samplings were done every 15 minutes for the first one hour and every 30 minutes for thesecond one hour of the simulation. Percolation water was sampled only once after 24 hours passed
from the end of simulation.
Artificial rainfall at 60 mm/h8°Percolation water

Fresh or fermented cow dung

Surface water discharge

Fig. 2 Slope model plot and suspended watercollected by surface runoff andpercolation water

Fig. 3 Propagated E. coli by culture
media in petri dishThe colonies of E. coli in the collected suspended water samples were evaluated through laboratory analysis. The analysis was carried out by bacteria culture medium XM-G as shown in Fig.
3. The mass of solids in surface runoff and in percolation water were also measured by oven drying
method.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The relationship between E. coli efflux and total suspended solids loss from the plot applied freshcow dung was summarized in Fig.4. It was observed that E. coli efflux significantly increased withtotal suspended solids in surface runoff from both application methods. A confidence interval at
99% was also observed in surface runoff from the plots broadcasted and incorporated with cow
dung. However, E. coli efflux tended to be very low in correlation with suspended solid losses forpercolation water.
The relationship between E. coli efflux and suspended solids loss in the plots applied 2 weeks
fermented manure was shown in Fig. 5. There was a tendency that E. coli efflux increased withsuspended solids losses in surface runoff. It was also observed that E. coli efflux was very low in
broadcasted plots comparing to that in incorporated plots. The tendency of E. coli efflux with suspended solids loss was very low in percolation water. Therefore, it was considered that E. coli efflux had a remarkable tendency to be transported along with suspended solids loss for surface runoff, but that tendency was not clear for percolation water.
Additionally, Fig. 6 shows the total input and efflux of E. coli through surface runoff or percolation from the plots applied cow dung. The experimental results of fresh cow dung indicated thatthe number of E. coli efflux was higher than that of input in both broadcasting and incorporating
methods. However, the significant difference was not observed between the input and the efflux ofE. coli. In the plots applied 2 weeks fermented manure, it was observed that E. coli efflux was
higher than that of input in incorporation methods as shown in Fig. 7. Although a significant difference was not observed, the number of E. coli efflux from incorporated plot was higher than thatfrom broadcasted plot. The tendency of E. coli efflux being higher than that of E. coli input wasconsidered that E. coli may be facultative anaerobic pathogens which may propagate for a certain
period after applying into an open land. Hence the condition before applying E. coli was an anaerobic then it changed to aerobic condition after applying.

ⒸISERD190

2E+10 9
20×10

Runoff frombroadcasted plot
R = 0.8888 **1.5E+10 9
15×10

Runoff fromincorporated plot
R = 0.9311 **1E+10 910×10

5E+09 95×10

Percolation frombroadcasted plot
R = 0.6744

00

Percolation fromincorporated plot
R = 0.5493

0

200

400

600

800

1000

100000000
10×107

Cumulative E.coli efflux (cfu/m2)

Cumulative E.coli efflux (cfu/m2)

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Runoff frombroadcasted plot
R = 0.9759**
Runoff fromincorporated plot
R = 0.9264**
Percolation frombroadcasted plot
R = 0.6968
Percolation fromincorporated plot
R = 0.9999**

80000000
8×107
60000000
6×107
40000000
4×107

20000000
2×107
00

0

200

400

600

800

** Counfidence interval at 99%** Counfidence interval at 99%

Fig. 4 Relationship between E. coli efflux andsuspended solids loss from plots where
fresh cow dung was applied

1.E+121012
1.E+10
1010

10
1E+10

10
appliedA

A

A

Fig. 5 Relationship between E. coli efflux
and suspended solids loss from plots
where 2 weeks fermented
manure was applied
Number of E.coli (cfu/m2)

Number of E.coli (cfu/m2)

1.E+14
1014

1000

Cumulative suspended solids loss (g/m2)

Cumulative suspended solids loss (g/m2)

100000000
108

A

A

A

1000000
106

1.E+08108
1.E+06
106

10000
104

1.E+04104
1.E+02102
1.E+00
100

Input

100
102

1010

Efflux from
Efflux frombroadcasted plot incorporated plot
Surface runoff

Input

Efflux from
Efflux frombroadcasted plot incorporated plot

Percolation

Surface runoff

Fig. 6 Number of E. coli input in fresh cow
dung and E. coli efflux through surface runoff and percolation

Percolation

Fig. 7 Number of E. coli input in 2 weeks
fermented manure and E. coli efflux through surface runoff andpercolation

1E+12
1012

E.coli efflux (cfu/m2)

A

A

a*

b*

1E+08
108

A

a
a

A

1E+04
104

1E+00
100

Cow dung
broadcasted

Cow dung
incorporated

2 weeks manure
broadcasted

2 weeks manure
incorporated

Surface runoff

Percolation

Significant difference at *95%

Fig. 8 Total efflux of E. coli from plots applied fresh cow dung or 2 weeks
fermented manure by broadcasting or incorporating
methods
The total efflux of E. coli through surface runoff and percolation are shown in Fig. 8. It was
indicated that the efflux of E. coli decreased with the fermentation. The tendency of E. coli efflux
through surface runoff to be larger than that through percolation was also observed. It was clearly
indicated that E. coli efflux occurred not only through surface runoff but also through percolation.
A significant difference at 95% was observed in only the case fresh cow dung applied by incorporating method.

ⒸISERD191

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

CONCLUSION
Based on the experimental results, it was clearly observed that E. coli efflux significantly increased
with the increase in total suspended solids in surface runoff from the plots applied fresh cow dungand from the plots applied 2 weeks fermented manure. Also, the same tendency that E. coli efflux
increased with the increase in total suspended solids by broadcasting and incorporating methods.
The efflux of E. coli through percolation was significantly lower than that of E. coli efflux
through surface runoff. It was also observed that the number of E. coli efflux was higher than thatof E. coli input from both plots applied fresh cow dung and 2 weeks fermented manure.
The existence of E. coli were found even in the 2 weeks fermented manure indicating a potential of E. coli efflux after applying into farmlands particularly by incorporating application method.
Therefore, fermentation of cow dung for more than two weeks before applying into farmlands ishighly suggested.
REFERENCES
Gong, C., Koshida, J., Moriyama, N., Xiaodan Wang, Udou, T., Inoue, K. and Someya, T. 2005. Occurrence
and survival of coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli and salmonella in various manure and compost. Journal of the science of soil and manure, 76(6), 865-874.
Ishikawa, Y. and Mihara, M. 2010. Characteristics of E.coli loss under different fertilization of manure. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, IJERD, 1-2, 84-87.
Islam, M., Doyle, P.M., Phatak, C.S., Millner, P. and Jiang, X. 2005. Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7
in soil and on carrots and onions grown in fields treated with contaminated manure composts or irrigation water. Food Microbiology, 22, 63-70.
Mishina, M., Takahashi, E., Sasaki, M., Hatakeyama, T., Uemura, H., Yatsu, J. and Saito, N. 2007. Clarification of infection route in the frequently outbreak regions of enterohemorrhagic E.coli infection disease in
Miyagi prefecture. Annual Report of Miyagi Prefectural Institute of Public Health and Environment, 25,
34-37.
Mishra, A., Benham, L. B. and Mostaghimi, S. 2007. Bacterial transport from agricultural lands fertilizedwith animal manure. Water Air Soil Pollut. 189(4), 127-134.
Tamura, H., Sasaki, M., Hatakeyama, T., Kawano, M., Yatsu, J. and Akiyama, K. 2006. Verification of incident preventions against outbreak incidences of enterohemorrhagic E.coli infectionin Miyagi prefecture.
Annual Report of Miyagi Prefectural Institute of Public Health and Environment, 24, 50-54.
Yagura, H., Tada, N. and Yasutomi, M. 2006. Nitrogen, phosphorus and coliform contamination of outflow
in cattle grazing land. Research Bulletin of the Kyoto Prefectural Livestock Technological ResearchCenter, 3, 71-73.

ⒸISERD192

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

The Nitrate Nitrogen Concentration in River Water and
the Proportion of Cropland in the Tokachi River
Watershed
TOSHIMI MUNEOKA*
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Email: muneoka@obihiro.ac.jp

HIROMU OKAZAWA
Faculty of Regional Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanOSAMU TSUJI
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan

MASATO KIMURA
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Received 14 December 2011

Accepted 18 April 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract It is widely known that nitrate pollution of river water and groundwater inagricultural regions has become severe in Japan and in other agricultural countries aroundthe world. On the other hand, in the Tokachi River Watershed, where large-scale uplandfield cultivation with dairy farming is the main form of agriculture, few surveys and little
research have addressed the impact of agriculture on water quality in the area. This study
examined the relationship between the nitrogen concentration in river water at normal
water level and the proportion of cropland in the Tokachi River Watershed with taking
notice of both maintaining sustainable agriculture and conserving water quality
environment. At 37 locations on the Tokachi River main stream and its tributaries (theirdownstream ends), the NO3-N concentration in river water and the proportion of croplandin the watersheds were surveyed for three years. Nitrate nitrogen as a percent of total
nitrogen in river water ranged from 84% to 91%. The maximum T-N in water from thetributaries was approx. 8.8 mg/L. There was a correlation (significance of 1%) between the
NO3-N concentration in river water and the proportion of cropland in the watersheds. The
correlation coefficients ranged from 0.80** to 0.95** in the water from the main stream. It
was confirmed that the impact factor, or the slope of the regression curve that represents
the relationship between the two, ranged from 0.037 to 0.075, which was greater than thevalues reported for various other locations in Hokkaido. Future studies on conserving thewater environment by reducing the nitrogen loading into the river system while
maintaining the cropland in the Tokachi River Watershed in favorable condition will needto explore the feasibility of land use assessment methods based on the new viewpoint.
Keywords Tokachi River, NO3-N concentration, proportion of cropland, impact factor

INTRODUCTION
It is widely known that nitrate pollution of river water and groundwater in agricultural regions has
become severe in Japan and in other agricultural countries around the world. The close relationshipbetween agricultural land use, which causes nitrogen loading, of the watershed in particular and thenitrate nitrogen concentration in river water has been pointed out (Carpenter et al., 1998; Shimura
and Tabuchi, 2000).
In Hokkaido, where large-scale agriculture predominates, surveys and research on agriculturalland use and river water quality have been conducted in many areas since the  1990’s.  In  Eastern  ⒸISERD193

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Hokkaido, where the scale of dairy farming is particularly large, it has been reported in numerous
studies that the high density of pasture and cattle population in the watershed tends to result in ahigh nitrate nitrogen concentration in river water. (Tabuchi et al., 1995; Nagasawa et al., 1995;
Inoue et al., 1999).
In the Tokachi River Watershed, where large-scale upland field cultivation with dairy farmingis the main forms of agriculture, few surveys and little research have addressed the impact ofagriculture on water quality in the area. Tabuchi et al. (1995) and Anbumozhi and Yamaji (2001),
for example, attempted to assess the impact of land use on the water quality of the northwesternarea of the Tokachi River Watershed, by using the nitrate nitrogen concentration of river water as
an index of land use. In each of these cases, however, investigation was based on only one water
quality survey or on only a short period of such survey. Accurate understanding of secular or
annual fluctuations in river water quality (N concentration in particular) has not been attempted in
the Tokachi River Watershed, which possesses local characteristics that are distinct among regionswith an Asian monsoon climate.
This study examined the relationship between the nitrogen concentration in river water at
normal water level and the proportion of cropland in the Tokachi River Watershed based on athree-year observation. To ensure sustainable agriculture by maintaining the water quality, thisstudy also investigates a new land use assessment method for the region, taking the current
proportion of cropland in the Tokachi River Watershed into account.
METHODOLOGYThe Tokachi River Watershed measures 9,010 km2, making it the second largest watershed in
Hokkaido and the sixth largest in Japan. A map of the Tokachi River Watershed and basic data of
the survey sites are shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1. In the watershed, where survey site No. 17(Tokachikakouhashi) is located, 30% of the land is used for cropland and 62% is forests. The major
upland crops in this area are wheat, sugar beets, legumes and potatoes. Feed crops are also grown.
Watershed boundary

Pacific Ocean
Watershed boundary■Cropland ■Forest □■Sampling point

Fig. 1 Location and sampling points of
the Tokachi River WatershedⒸISERD194

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

In the Tokachi River Watershed we conducted river water sampling at ordinary water level,water quality analysis and land use evaluation. The survey sites numbered 37: 17 on the mainstream of the Tokachi River (No. 1 to No. 17), and 20 on tributaries that flow into the TokachiRiver’s  main  stream.  The  tributary  sites  were  all  at  the  downstream  end  of  the tributaries (A to T;
Fig. 1, Table 1). The samples were kept in airtight containers at low temperature and carried to thelaboratory for analysis of total nitrogen (T-N) and nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) according to the Japan
Industrial Standards (JIS). The period for water sampling was the three years from 2007 to 2009,
nine times in total. Samplings for each year were done in late June, late August (or early
September) and late October.
The GIS software application ArcGIS Desktop (Ver9.3, ESRI) was used for analyzing the land
use of the Tokachi River Watershed. The data on land use and watershed boundaries were extracted
from digital national information (National and Regional Planning Bureau, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism). The data on administrative boundaries, rivers andelevations were extracted from 1/25000 national digital cartographic data (Geographical Survey
Institute). Land was categorized as forest or agricultural land based on the digital national land data
(1997). Vector data were created for the land use in each watershed. These created data were thenconverted into raster data with 100-m grids.
Table 1 Land use of the Tokachi River Watershed
Sampling point
No.

Bridge nameLand use (%)

River name

Area
(km2)

Cropland

ForestOthersTokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River
Tokachi River

632
658
801
806
840
858
1,289
1,531
1,777
1,798
2,669
2,683
2,686
4,479
5,098
8,224
8,982

1
1
2
3
5
7
15
19
21
21
31
32
32
32
36
30
30

88
88
88
87
85
84
77
72
70
70
60
59
59
58
54
61
62

11
11
10
10
10
10
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
8
8

Penkenai River
Penkenikorobetsu River
Penkenikorochin River
Sahoro River
Memuro River
Piuka River
Bibaushi River
Bisei River
Shinobihiro River
Shibusarabibaushi River
Shikaribetsu River
Otofuke River
Satsunai River
Obihiro River
Shihoro River
Tobetsu River
Sarubetsu River
Toshibetsu River
Ushisyubetsu River
Rebunnai River

23
48
72
337
210
26
35
180
164
33
667
693
704
197
316
127
449
2,850
173
66

0
1
1
26
38
71
79
16
74
53
48
19
30
66
64
79
69
20
24
43

98
98
98
68
56
12
19
74
16
43
45
69
61
14
29
13
26
75
61
51

2
1
1
2
6
17
3
8
10
3
8
12
9
20
7
8
5
5
3
6

Main stream
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Oojikahashi
Iwamatsuhashi
Shinseihashi
Kyoueihashi
Kamikawahashi
Shimizuoohashi
Tokachihashi
Shoueihashi
Memurooohashi
Nakajimahashi
Heigenoohashi
Suzuranoohashi
Tokachioohashi
Tokachichuuouoohashi
Chiyodaoohashi
Moiwaoohashi
Tokachikakouhashi

Tributaries (downstream ends)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T

Pennaihashi
Penkenikorobetsuhashi
Minamiiwamatsuhashi
Sahorohashi
Kenenakajimahashi
Motomachihashi
Bimanhashi
Biseihashi
Kitanisenhashi
Shinshibusarahashi
Kunimihashi
Houraihashi
Satsunaihashi(Downstream end)
Asahihashi
Senjyuuhashi
Yamuwakkahashi
Kawaioohashi
Noyaushihashi
HoueihashiⒸISERD195

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

For the main stream and tributaries (the lowest reaches), tests for noncorrelation for the
regression coefficients (significance of 1% to 5%) were conducted to clarify the relationshipbetween the NO3-N concentration in river water and the proportion of cropland in each watershed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
When the data from the main stream and tributaries of the Tokachi River were examined, a highcorrelation was found between the T-N concentration and NO3-N concentration of the river water(significance of 1%). The coefficients of determination r2 were 0.93** and 0.97**, respectively(Fig. 2 (a), (b); Table 2 (a), (b)). NO3-N as a percent of T-N in the river water ranged from 84% to91%, which is extremely high.
The relationship between the NO3-N concentration in river water when the water level isnormal and the proportion of cropland in the watershed will be examined.
First, there was a positive correlation (significance of 1%) between the NO 3-N concentrationin the river water and the proportion of cropland in the watershed of the Tokachi River main stream.
The coefficients of correlation r showed extremely high values, ranging from 0.80** to 0.95** (Fig.
3 (a); Table 3(a)). The same relationship for the tributaries was also positively correlated(significance of 1%) (Fig. 3 (b); Table 3 (b)). The coefficients of correlation r, however, were notvery high, ranging from 0.66** to 0.82**.
As discussed above, regardless of the survey year or season, for the watershed with a highproportion of cropland, the NO3-N concentration in the river water at the ordinary water level ishigh. The correlation between the two is remarkably high in the Tokachi River Watershed as awhole. The difference between the data for the main stream and its watershed and that for thetributaries and their watersheds seems to be because the size of the watershed and the distances ofcroplands from the river greatly varied according to the history of development of each area. These
differences seemed to be reflected in the difference between the coefficients of correlation of thetwo.
The slopes of the regression curves that represent the relationship between the NO3-N
4.0

10.0

(a) Main stream

8.0

T-N (mg/L)

3.0

T-N (mg/L)(b) Tributaries

2.0
1.0

6.0
4.0
2.0

r2 = 0.93※※
0.0

r2 = 0.97※※

0.0
0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

0.0

NO3-N (mg/L)

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

NO3 -N (mg/L)

Fig. 2 The relationship between T-N and NO3-N (2007-2009)
Table 2 The regression curve between T-N and NO3-N (2007-2009)
Sampling
point

Regression cuｒve(a) Main stream T-N = 1.2 NO3-N + 0.28(b) Tributaries T-N = 1.1 NO3-N + 0.34※※** significance of 1%

significance of 1%ⒸISERD

196

Coefｆicient ofdetermination r

Numberof data**
0.93※※
**
※※
0.97

147
180

2

10.0

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

concentration in the river water and the proportion of cropland in the watershed (Table 3 (a), (b))
were examined. The values were evaluated as the impact factors (IF values). The IF values reported
in the studies on the watersheds in the agricultural areas of Hokkaido ranged from 0.0052 to 0.040.
(Tabuchi et al. 1995; Woli et al. 2002; Woli et al. 2004; Okazawa et al. 2009).
Our survey shows that the IF values for the Tokachi River main stream were between 0.037
and 0.075, and those for the tributaries were between 0.042 and 0.071. The highest IF value (0.075
and 0.071) was observed for the main stream and tributaries in 2009 respectively. One thing to notehere is the high IF values in the Tokachi River Watershed. Nitrogen components in the chemicalfertilizers that are applied to cropland in large amounts and nitrogen components in cattle manurein the watershed ultimately turn into NO3-N and seep into the ground. Because of these agriculturalactivities, NO3-N constantly flows into rivers in relatively high concentrations at the ordinary waterlevel in the Tokachi River Watershed.
10.0(a) Main Stream 2009.8.26(b) Tributaries 2009.10.24-25

8.0

IF value = 0.075

3.0

NO 3 -N (mg/L)

NO 3 -N (mg/L)

4.0

2.0
1.0

IF value = 0.071

6.0
4.0
2.0

r = 0.95※※
0.0

r = 0.79※※

0.0
0

10

20

30

40

0

Proportion of cropland (%)

20

40

60

80

Proportion of cropland (%)

Fig. 3 The relationship between NO3-N and proportion of cropland
Table 3 The impact factor between NO3-N and proportion of croplandIF value※(Impact factor)

Coefｆicientof corelation r

Numberof data

22
20
23-24
28
9
28-29
30
26
24-25

0.039
0.048
0.044
0.037
0.045
0.044
0.062
0.075
0.068

0.87※※
※※
0.90
※※
0.87
※※
0.81
※※
0.80
0.80※※
0.92※※※※
0.95
0.91※※

17
17
17
16
16
16
16
16
16

22
20
23-24
28
9
28-29
30
26
24-25

0.055
0.042
0.048
0.049
0.049
0.044
0.058
0.064
0.071

0.77※※
0.70※※
※※
0.82
※※
0.74
※※
0.74
※※
0.66
※※
0.71
※※
0.77
0.79※※

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20

Sampling date

N.B.

(a) Main stream
2007 June
AugustOctober
2008 June
September
October
2009 June
AugustOctoberFig. 3 (a)(b) Tributaries
2007 June
AugustOctober
2008 June
September
October
2009 June
AugustOctober※

IF value = NO3-N concentration / Proportion of croplandⒸISERD197※※

Fig. 3 (b)significance of 1%

100

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Generally, the greater is the proportion of forested area in the watershed, the lower is the NO 3N concentration in the river water, because the water from the forest dilutes the NO3-N-polluted
water from the cropland. To reduce inflow into rivers of nitrogen components that are not used or
fixed in cropland, it is worth considering changing the uses of land adjacent to the rivers. Suchchanges would include the establishment of buffer zones such as riparian forests (Okazawa et al.,2010). In recent years, some basic research has addressed the influence of land agglomeration inwatersheds on the nitrogen concentration of the river water (Okazawa et al., 2009, 2011).
Incorporating the new viewpoint of the positional relationship between cropland and forests inwatersheds into assessment of the impact of land use, we will investigate desirable land use in the
Tokachi River Watershed from the standpoint of conserving the water environment, which will
make it possible for us to provide ideas for better land uses.
CONCLUSION
The relationship between the NO3-N concentration in the river water and the proportion of croplandin the watershed was investigated for 37 locations on the Tokachi River main stream and its tributaries (their lowest reaches). The maximum slope of the regression curve (IF value) that represents
the relationship between the NO3-N concentration and the land use was found to be 0.075. It wasclarified that the IF values for the investigation locations were far greater than those for other areasin Hokkaido. In future study, it will be necessary to explore the feasibility of land use assessment
methods that are based on the new viewpoint, in examining water environment conservation by
reducing the nitrogen loading into the river system while maintaining the cropland in the TokachiRiver Watershed in favorable condition.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Yasushi Takeuchi, Faculty of Regional
Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture. The authors are also grateful for the
research assistance provided by the students of the Laboratory of Hydro-structural Engineering,Tokyo University of Agriculture, and the Environmental and Rural Engineering Unit, Obihiro
University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine.
REFERENCES
Anbumozhi, V. and Yamaji, E. 2001. Riparian land use and management of nonpoint source pollution in arural watershed. Transactions of rural planning, 3, 55-60.
Carpenter, S., Caraco, N.F., Correll, D.L., Howarth, R.W., Sharpley, A.N. and Smith, V.H. 1998. Nonpoint
pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Issues in Ecology, 3, 1-12.
Inoue, T., Yamamoto, T. and Nagasawa, T. 1999. River water quality and landuse of watersheds in Hamanaka, eastern Hokkaido, Japan. Trans. of JSIDRE, 200, 85-92.
Nagasawa, T., Inoue, T., Umeda, Y. and Muneoka, T. 1995. River water quality of daily farming area ineastern Hokkaido, Japan. J. Japan Soc. Hydrol. & Water Resour., 8(3), 267-274.
Okazawa, H., Takeuchi, Y. and Samura, I. 2009. Relationship between land-use agglomeration and nitrate
nitrogen concentration of river water in the Shari and Abashiri region of Hokkaido, Japan. Trans. of
JSIDRE, 259, 53-59.
Okazawa, H., Yamamoto, D. and Takeuchi, Y. 2010. Influences of riparian land use on nitrogen concentration of river water in agricultural and forest watersheds of northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. International
Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 1(2), 1-6.
Okazawa, H., Muneoka, T., Kudo, Y. and Takeuchi, Y. 2011. Effect of land use agglomeration on nitrogenconcentrations in river water in the Tokachi River. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 2(1), 37-42.
Shimura, M. and Tabuchi, T. 2000. Characteristics of nitrogen outflow from a high stocking density area.
Rural and Environmental Engineering, 39, 94-103.
ⒸISERD198

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Tabuchi, T., Yoshino, K., Shimura, M., Kuroda, S., Ishikawa, M. and Yamaji, E. 1995. Relation between
land use and nitrate concentration of outflow water from watersheds of agricultural and forest area, Japan.
Trans. of JSIDRE, 178, 129-135.
Woli, K. P., Nagumo, T. and Hatano, R. 2002. Evaluating impact of land use and N budgets on stream water
quality in Hokkaido, Japan. Nutr. Cycle. Agroecosyst, 63, 175-184.
Woli, K. P., Nagumo, T., Kuramochi, K. and Hatano, R. 2004. Evaluating river water quality through land
use analysis and N budgets approaches in livestock farming areas. Sci. Total. Environ, 329, 61-74.

ⒸISERD199

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Research article
erd

Use of BioClean and Liquid Biofertilizers in the Temples
for Enhancing a Natural Environment
SITTISAK UPARIVONG*
Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: sittisak@kku.ac.th
Received 14 December 2011

Accepted 18 April 2012(*: Corresponding Author)

Abstract BioClean is the brand name of a liquid bioproduct, which had been produced byusing various types of flowers. Liquid biofertilizers had been produced by using local
available materials such as vegetables, fruits, herbaceous crops, etc. and molasses as
substrate, especially added with 18 species of zymogenic synthetic microorganisms. This
generation of bioclean products and liquid biofertilizers are aimed to serve to theenvironmental cleaning sector and the liquid biofertilizers sector for planting trees in thetemples and green areas near the region of Khon Kaen University. The board of 18
zymogenic synthetic microorganisms was transferred from the original microorganisms
seeding of previous research products of liquid biofertilizer, such as kku-1 and/or liquidbiofertilizer biotech-1. The product composition of bioclean and liquid biofertilizers were
investigated by standard methods for standard products, and the quality of products wasdetermined by field testing with crops such as water convolvulus; flowers, and water
quality treatment for fish living before servicing products to the temples for naturalenvironment. The services project of both products were designed to treat the two templesof Wat Adulkaewmordee and Wat Nonmuang near the region of Khon Kaen University onthe   event   of   “Temples   big   cleaning   day   2011”   for   natural   environment   treatments   by  utilizing bioclean products at 1:2000 (0.05%) for cleaning and wastewater treatment, andutilizing liquid biofertilizer products at 1:500 for planted trees and green areas.
Furthermore, liquid biofertilizer products had been utilized to plant trees along the mainroad at Khon Kaen University. The evaluation results of satisfactory services rating of
projects of bioclean and liquid biofertilizers to the both temples and green areas had
satisfactory results as 4.26 average score value or 85.3%, evaluated by the expert board often  committees’s  considerations.
Keywords BioClean, liquid biofertilizers, 18 zymogenic synthetic microorganisms(18 ZSMs), temples, environment

INTRODUCTION
BioClean is an original brand product that plays an important role as a liquid bioproduct of various
flowers. Liquid biofertilizers are liquid bioproducts of various local available materials such as
vegetables; fruits; some herbaceous crops; etc. Bioclean and liquid biofertilizers are produced
under a similar process but only from different raw materials. The name of bioclean was used inorder to solve an odour problem of liquid biofertilizers that responded the interested users. The
original bioclean had been produced by using 14 diversities of odoriferous flowers since 2003
(Uparivong, 2009). The original liquid biofertilizer kku-1 had been produced since 2002
(Uparivong, 2002). For this generation products, bioclean was produced by using various flowers
donated during the graduated ceremony of Khon Kaen university in 2010, meanwhile liquidbiofertilizers biotech-1 and liquid biofertilizer biotech-2 were produced by using the previous
research stocks of the original liquid biofertilizer biotech-1 and biotech-2 since 2003-2004(Uparivong, 2004). The targets of this project were aimed to serve for environmental and healthyliving  places  to  the  two  temples  of  “Wat  Adulkaewmordee”  and  “Wat  Nonmuang”  near  the  region  of Khon Kaen university, in order to utilize bioclean services for reducing odours such as floor;ⒸISERD200

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

sewerage; bathroom/lavatory; wastewater treatment; water quality treatment; etc., and utilizing
liquid biofertilizers services for encouraging the plantation of trees and creation of green areas.
Moreover, project services had supported the promotion of green areas and plant trees along themain road at Khon Kaen University. Furthermore, bioclean could be applied for agricultural sectors
as liquid biofertilizers. Thus, the utilization of liquid biofertilizers may solve the problem of
degradated soil by increasing organic biofertilizers applied into soil land, and to increase thequality of organic agriculture products (Pairintra, 1991), and to improve the quality of life andhealth safety, and to respond the policy for agricultural products safety to kitchen of the world(Uparivong, 2004). The board of 18 zymogenic synthetic microorganisms (18 ZSMs) was selected
and invented by Prof. Dr. Chaitat Pairintra, former professor at Khon Kaen University to our
research  project  of  “Improvement  of  the  theparuge’s  liquid  biofertilizer  product”  since  2002.  The  18 ZSMs consisted of 9 bacteria, 6 fungi and 3 yeast species (Uparivong, 2002).
METHODOLOGY
Materials
The   originality   of   raw   materials   to   produce   “BioClean”   was   obtained   by   selecting   14      types   of  odoriferous flowers such as rose; marigold ; orchid; lotus; etc. since 2003 (Uparivong, 2009), andusing   organic   biomaterials   such   as   vegetables;;   fruits;;   herbaceous   crops;;   etc.   to   produce   “liquid  biofertilizers biotech-1”   and   “liquid   biofertilizer   biotech-2”   since   2003-2004 (Uparivong, 2004).
For this study, raw materials to produce   this   generation   of   “BioClean   (v.2010)”   were      various  flowers donated during the graduated ceremony at Khon Kaen University in 2010, and by using theprevious research stocks of original microorganism seeding of liquid biofertilizer biotech-1 andliquid biofertilizer biotech-2   to   produce   “liquid   biofertilizers   biotech-1   (v.2010)”   and   “liquid  biofertilizer biotech-2   (v.2010)”.   Thus,   the   original   microorganism   seeding   of   liquid   biofertilizer  biotech-1 and liquid biofertilizer biotech-2 were produced by utilizing the group of 18 zymogenic
synthetic microorganisms (18 ZSMs) which consisted of 9 bacteria, 6 fungi and 3 yeast species,
and transferred from the original microorganism seeding of liquid biofertilizer kku-1 (Uparivong,
2002). Molasses were supplied from sugar cane factories at the local areas of Udon Thani andKhon Kaen provinces.
Biofermentors and liquid biofermentors
Biofermentors and liquid biofermentors to produced this generation products of bioclean and liquidbiofertilizers had been supplied by using the previous research equipments of biofermentors andliquid biofermentors such as a 500-L liquid biofermentor model BT-1 equipped with a motor 1 hp
and with/or without a compressor air supply (Uparivong, 2004); a 500-L liquid biofermentor model
BT-2 equipped with a stirrer motor 1 hp and with/or without an air pump supply (Uparivong, 2006)
and a 500-L biofermentor or liquid biofermentor model BT-3 equipped with a stirrer motor 1 hp
and with/or without an air pump supply (Uparivong, 2007), as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Liquid biofermentors BT-1, 2, 3
ⒸISERD201

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Process methods
Methods to produce bioclean and liquid biofertilizers were the same excepting only for thedifferent raw materials (Uparivong, 2009; 2010). For these generation productions, bioclean (2011)used the diversities of donated odoriferous flowers as mention above, meanwhile liquidbiofertilizer biotech-1 (2011) and liquid biofertilizer biotech-2 (2011) utilized the previous researchstocks of original fermented liquid bioproducts of liquid biofertilizers biotech-1 and biotech-2 that
had been produced by using vegetables; fruits; some herbaceous crops; etc. (Uparivong, 2004;
2005; 2006; 2007). The 3 steps of this processing method are explained below.
First step, preparation: All available materials were cleaned and cut into small pieces forfermenting   as   the   ratio   as   “Materials   :   Molasses   :   Microorganism   seeding   of   liquid   biofertilizer  kku-1 or liquid biofertilizer biotech-1 or liquid biofertilizer biotech-2”   =   3   :   1   :   1   or   3   :   1   :   2  (w/w/v), and filling clean water within biofermentors such as 20; 30; 40 gallons (75.7; 113.55;
151.4 liters) or more etc., during the retention time more than 2 weeks.
Second step, fermentation: The original liquid bio-extracted product of the first step process was
separated from residues (to become solid biofertilizers), and then fermented with molasses andclean  water  as  the  ratio  as  “Liquid  bio-extracted  product  :  Molasses  :  Clean  water”  =  1  :  1  :  40  or  2 : 1 : 40 (v/v/v) within liquid biofermentors such as 500; 1000; 1500 liters or more etc., equipped
with/or without a stirrer motor to produce the fermented liquid bioproduct during the retention timeof 1-2 weeks.
Third step, filtration: the fermented liquid bioproduct of the second step process was filtered toobtain   the   final   products   as   so   called   “BioClean”   or   “Liquid   Biofertilizers”   depending   on   the  differential types of raw materials.
Methods to utilize bioclean and liquid biofertilizer kku-1 and liquid biofertilizers biotech-1;biotech-2; biotech-3 were utilized for environmental and agricultural sectors as follows.
For agricultural utilization: Using the dilution ratio of liquid biofertilizer products at 1:2000 by
spraying or pouring to the growth crops every 5-7 days, and the dilution ratio of 1:500 to the plant
trees and green areas for living places.
For environmental utilization: Using the dilution ratio of bioclean product at 0.05% (1:2000) for
floor cleaning, the concentration ratio of 70-80% for reducing odour treatment of bathroom/
lavatory/ toilet/ w.c./ sewerage etc., and the concentration ratio of 0.05% for wastewater treatment
and water quality treatment or water flood treatment.
Methods to quality test bioclean and liquid biofertilizers were determined before servicing to
the temples and the green area at the regions of Khon Kaen University as follows:
For agricultural test: Both products were tested by cultivating for various crops to evaluate thegrowth rate of crops by pots and/or fields testing such as water convolvulus; flowers, etc.
For environmental and healthy test: Both products were tested by treating for sanitary systems
such as reducing odour treatment for bathroom/ lavatory/toilet/wc.; sewerage; wastewater treatment
and especially water quality treatment for goldfish and nile tilapiafish living, etc.
Analysis methods to investigate the composition products of bioclean and liquid biofertilizers
were investigated as the same analysis methods as previous research (Uparivong, 2002; 2004;
2005; 2006; 2007) as follows:
Investigation of optimized microorganism populations: Both products were investigated by themethod of standard plate count (using agar powder, peptone, bacteriological HIMEDIA RM001) at
a laboratory of the Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen University.
Investigation of composition of the products: Both products characteristics were analyzed, suchas pH; EC (electrical conductivity, ds/m); %OM (organic matter); Total N; P; K; Na; Ca; Mg; etc.
by the standard methods at a laboratory of Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University.
Methods to evaluate the satisfactory services rating of bioclean and liquid biofertilizers on theevent   of   “Temples   big   cleaning   day   2011”   at   both   temples   of   Wat   Adulkaewmordee   and   Wat  Nonmuang, including project services to green areas and along the main road at the region of Khon
Kaen University were designed by using the applied forms of the Academic Service Center ofKhon Kaen University as follows:- First,  evaluation  by  temple’s  persons and monks at both templesⒸISERD202

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2- Second, evaluation by general persons/home/shop owner or members/ etc. around the regions ofboth temples- Third, evaluation by inviting the expert board of ten  committees’s  considerations
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Properties of bioclean and liquid biofertilizers
This generation of bioclean (2011), liquid biofertilizers biotech-1 and biotech-2 (2011) were contained into bottom and tank containers such as 1-L; 10-L; 20-L; etc., as examples shown in Fig. 2.
The results of effective microorganism populations of bioclean, liquid biofertilizers biotech-1 andbiotech-2 obtained 1.0 x 108 - 3.4 x 1013 cfu/ml, 1.0 x 108 - 3.8 x 1013 cfu/ml and 1.0 x 108 - 4.0 x
1012 cfu/ml respectively, after the retention time more than 7-8 day, as in Table 1, which optimized
biomass populations were more than the standard products (107-108 cfu/ml). The composition
properties of bioclean products obtained were pH=3.76, EC=4.31 ds/m, N=0.018 ppm, P=25 ppm,
K=561 ppm, Na=73 ppm, Ca=254 ppm and Mg=200 ppm, and liquid biofertilizers biotech-1 andbiotech-2 obtained were pH=3.45-4.19, EC=3.00-5.43 ds/m, N=0.025-14 ppm, P=28-38 ppm,
K=881-1023 ppm, Na=108-225 ppm, Ca=175-271 ppm and Mg=0.50-142 ppm, as in Table 1.
These results obtained were similar as the previous research products of bioclean and liquid biofertilizers (Uparivong, 2002; 2004; 2005; 2006; 2007; 2009; 2010).

Fig. 2 BioClean and liquid biofertilizer biotech-2 (2011)
Table 1 Properties of bioclean and liquid biofeftilizers biotech-1, 2
Product Sample(2011)a

Optimize
cfu/ml

pHw

EC
(ds/m
)

OM
(%)

N
(ppm)

BioClean (original)
6.0x1012
4.32b
2.50
10
BioClean
3.4x1013
3.76
4.31
0.018
Liquid biofertilizer
3.8x1013
4.19b
3.00
14
Biotech-1
Liquid biofertilizer
4.0x1012
3.45
5.43
1.43
0.025
Biotech-2a
The generational products had produced since 2011, bThe pHw (1:5)

P
(ppm)

K
(ppm)

Na
(ppm)

Ca
(ppm)

Mg
(ppm)

26
25
28

598
561
811

82
73
108

205
254
271

131
200
142

38

1023

225

175

0.50

Quality testing of bioclean and liquid biofertilizers
Quality of bioclean and liquid biofertilizers biotech-1, 2 were tested for quality standard products
before distributing to general users by the pots and/or fields testing. For agricultural testing, bothproducts of bioclean and liquid biofertilizers were tested by the growth rate of various crops suchas water convolvulus; flowers, etc. during 45 days (data not shown). For environmental and healthy
testing, both products were satisfactorily evaluated by testing for sanitary systems such as reducing
odour treatment for the bathroom/ lavatory/ toilet/ wc./ sewerage of distributed general households
by responding feedback of users. For wastewater treatment, the efficiency of chemical oxygenⒸISERD203

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

demand (COD) of pond treatment was 61.90% and 89.80% by using the dilution ratio of 0.05%
bioclean product during the retention time of 7 days and 14 days respectively, at a pond treatmentof Wat Nonmuang near Khon Kaen University, including water quality treatment for goldfish andnilefish, as shown in Fig.3.

Fig. 3 BioClean and liquid biofertilizers testing (2011)
Table 2 Properties of original liquid biofertilizers1
Compositions

Biotech-1

Biotech-2pH
EC (mS)
N (%)
P (%)
K (%)
Ca (% or mg/L)
Mg (% or mg/L)
Na (% or mg/L)
SO-4 (%)
OC (%, g/100mL) C/N  

4.28
4.73
13.23
8.72
0.24
0.075
0.083
0.070
0.20
0.193
1629 mg/L
0.023
570 mg/L
0.042
303 mg/L
0.003
1.16
5.33
15.47
1
Source reference: the development of biofermentor BT-3 (sittisak, 2007)

Biotech-3
4.64
7.30
0.376
0.037
0.135
0.071
0.026
0.024
0.97
2.78

Evaluation rating by temples on the big cleaning day
Project   products   of   bioclean   and   liquid   biofertilizers   were   supplied   to   the   two   temples   of   “Wat  Adul  kaew  mordee”  and  “Wat  non  muang”  near  the  regions  of  Khon  Kaen  University  on  the  event  of  “Temples  big  cleaning  day  2011”.  The  results  of  evaluation  services  rating  after  used  for  floor  cleaning; sewerage; toilet/wc.; wastewater treatment and water quality treatment by using bioclean
products, and supplied to plant trees and green areas by using the products of liquid biofertilizers
biotech-1, 2 at the both temples were satisfactory, which overview obtained satisfactory results as
4.26  average  score  value  or  85.3%,  evaluated  by  the  expert  board  of  ten  committees’s  considerations.

Fig. 4 Big cleaning services to the two templesⒸISERD204

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Service products applied along the main road and green areas
The serviced products of liquid biofertilizers biotech-1, 2 were satisfactorily appliedas liquid biofertilizers for plant trees along the main road (Kaenkallapaphruek road) and green areas, living
places at Khon Kaen University, during proceeding services as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Liquid biofertilizers services along the main road and green areas
CONCLUSION
BioClean services to the temples: BioClean services consisting of 18 zymogenic synthetic microorganisms (18 ZSMs) could be used as an odour treatment for sanitary systems and environmental
and healthy living places, and for temples.
Liquid biofertilizers services along the main road and green areas: Liquid biofertilizers services, consisting of 18 zymogenic synthetic microorganisms (18 ZSMs) could enrich much more to
the plentiful trees along the main road and green areas for natural environment living places andrelated to climate change.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was financially supported by grants from the Academic Service Center of Khon Kaen
University,   Thailand.   Acknowledgements   are   extended   to   the   expert   board   of   ten   committee’s  considerations, to Mr. Boonyarit Sombutlai, Mr. Rachaporn Patawanit, Mr. Soontorn Sarapanich,Asst. Prof. Dr. Araya Ahromrit, Asst. Prof. Dr. Somsak Pitaksanurat, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sirinda
Yunchalard, and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pinit Wangsomnuk, Pol. Sub. Lt. Suwith Nampan, Pra Petcharat
Kachapanyo, and Pra Veerasak Jantemduang.
REFERENCES
Pairintra,   C.   et   al.   1991.   Zymogenic   synthetic   soil   and   crop   “Agricultural   in   the   next   new   century”.   ISBN  974-55-251-3.
Uparivong, S., Prachankanchana, S. and Pairintra, C. 2002. Product development on liquid biofertilizer of thetheparuge’s  agricultural community. J. of Academic Service Center KKU, 11(3), 37-41.
Uparivong, S. et al. 2004. Production of liquid biofertilizer to kitchen of the world. The 16 th Annual Thai
Society for Biotechnology. Phitsanulok, Thailand.
Uparivong, S. 2005. The production of liquid biofertilizer. Asian Wetland Symposium 2005. Innovative Approaches to Sustainable Livelihood. Bhubaneswar, India.
Uparivong, S. et al. 2006. Liquid biofertilizer fermentor and microorganism biofermentor of model BT-2. Int.
Conf. on TISD. 2006. Technology and Innovation for Sustainable Development Conference, Khon Kaen,
Thailand.
Uparivong, S. 2006. 18 Zymogenic synthetic microorganism of liquid biofertilizer Biotech-3 for agriculturaland environmental. The 18th Annual Thai Society for Biotechnology, Bangkok, Thailand.
Uparivong, S. 2007. The development of biofermentor BT-3. Int. Conf. on IAEC2007 International Agricultural Engineering Conference. Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok, Thailand.
ⒸISERD205

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Uparivong, S. 2009. BioClean. Int. Conf. on Innovations in Agricultural, Food and Renewable Energy Productions for Mankind. The 10th Annual Conference of Thai Society of Agricultural Engineering, Surasammanakhan, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand, 173-175.
Uparivong, S. 2009. Utilization of liquid bioferilizer for mankinds. Int. Conf. on XXXIII CIOSTA CIGRV
Conference 2009. Technology and Management to Ensure Sustainable Agriculture, Agro Systems, Forestry and Safety. Reggio Calabria, Italy, 1391-1395.
Uparivong, S. 2010. BioClean a new friendly environmental cleaning product. Int. Conf. on Workshop on“Livelihood   and   Health   Impacts   of   the   Climate   Change:   Community   Adaptation   Strategies”, Pullman
Raja Orchid Hotel, Khon Kaen, Thailand, 122-128.
Uparivong, S. 2010. BioClean for environmental biotechnology of canteens and green area. Int. Conf. on
Biotechnology for Healthy Living. The 22nd Annual Meeting of the Thai Society for Biotechnology.
Prince of Songkla University, Trang Campus, Trang Province, Thailand, 849-857.

ⒸISERD206

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

erd

International Society ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Philosophy of ISERD:
Recently, in developing countries, subsistence agriculture is being converted to export-oriented mono-culture,and the amounts of agricultural chemicals applied to the farmland are increasing every year. The appliedchemicals in farmland cause serious environmental problems downstream such as eutrophication, unusual
growth of aquatic plants, decrease in dissolved oxygen and accumulation of bottom mud in water resources.
Also, there seem to be many cases in which people apply agricultural chemicals without understanding its
impact to health and food safety. Therefore, it is necessary to promote and enhance understanding ofsustainable rural development among local stakeholders including farmers.
Sustainable rural development aims to meet human needs while preserving the natural environment. As
it should cover not only social and economic development but also natural environment conservation, no
single organization can achieve sufficiently the aspirations of sustainable rural development. Collaboration
among international, governmental and non-governmental organizations, together with the academe andscientific sector, is indispensable.
The knowledge and intelligence accumulated in universities and research institutions are also expected
to make the programs facilitated by the international, governmental and non-governmental organizations
more adequately implemented and meaningful to societal development. However, these cases especiallythose implemented locally have been scattered without having been summarized well or recorded in annals
academic or scientific societies.
So, the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development founded in 2010, aims to discussand develop suitable and effective processes or strategies on sustainable rural development focusing on
agricultural and environmental aspects in developing countries. The ultimate goals of the society are tocontribute to sustainable rural development through social and economic development in harmony with thenatural environment, and to support the potential or capacity building of local institutions and stakeholders in
the rural area with academic background.
Purposes of ISERD:
The primary purposes of ISERD are to contribute to sustainable rural development through social andeconomic development in harmony with the natural environment and to support the potential or capacity
building of local institutions and stakeholders in the rural area with academic background.
In order to enhance the realization of the primary purposes of ISERD, the secondary purposes are;- to facilitate interaction among international, governmental, non-governmental organizations and local
communities,- to hold conferences or symposia on environmental and rural development,- to publish the International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, and- to encourage and develop local awareness concerning sustainable rural development.
Membership:
There shall be two categories of membership.
(a) Individual(b) Organizational
An application for membership of ISERD shall be submitted to the secretariat of ISERD, Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation (Japan) or Association of Environmental and Rural
Development (Thailand) by writing or by other appropriate means.
Council of ISERD:
The affairs of ISERD shall be governed and managed by the ISERD Council. The councilors are as follows.
President
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies, Japan
Deputy President
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-2

Executive Secretary
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Editor-in-ChiefProf. Dr. Eiji Yamaji, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Managing Editors
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Yoko Mochizuki, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, France
Dr. Muhammad Aqil, Indonesian Center for Food Crops Research, Indonesia
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Treasurer
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Regional Vice Presidents
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Mom Seng, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Dieter Trautz, University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Dr. Siaw Onwona-Agyeman, African Program on Field Oriented Leaders in Environ. Sectors, Ghana
Dr. Muhammad Aqil, Indonesian Center for Food Crops Research, Indonesia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Prof. Dr. Elpidio T. Magante, Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Prof. Dr. Anan Polthanee, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Dr. Vo Quang Minh, Cantho University, Vietnam
ISERD Secretariats:
Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON)
2987-1 Onoji Machida-Shi, Tokyo 195-0064, Japan
Tel/Fax: +81-42736-8972
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com, iserd@int-erd.org
Webpage: www.int-erd.org
Association of Environmental and Rural Development (AERD)
93/64 Moo.3, Sinsab village 2, Bungyeetho sub-district, Thanyaburi district,Pathum Thani 12130, Thailand
Tel/Fax: +66-2957-8064
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com, iserd@int-erd.org
Webpage: www.int-erd.org

All articles and reports published in this journal were accepted through a peer-review process. However,most articles and reports published in this journal were presented at the 3rd International Conference on
Environmental and Rural Development that was co-organized by United Nations University-IAS.