Does the Balance Sheet Approach Improvethe Usefulness of Accounting Information?*
Masaki Kusano†

Graduate School of Economics
Kyoto University

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of a change in the accounting modelon accounting information for decision making. Especially, this study shows that net
income (earnings) does not play an important role in providing useful information for
decision making if the accounting model changes from flow-based accounting to stockbased accounting. If the IASB and the FASB adopt stock-based accounting and measureassets and liabilities at fair value, earnings persistence and predictive ability will decrease,and the usefulness of income information will be impaired due to the increasing transitory
earnings and the effects of earnings volatility. Stock-based accounting that emphasizes thebalance sheet will impair the valuation role of financial reporting because the combined
usefulness of accounting information of the book value of net assets and earnings does not
improve; the usefulness of stock information (the balance sheet) for decision making does
not necessarily improve, and the usefulness of flow information (net income) decreases.
This finding indicates that the balance sheet approach does not necessarily improve theusefulness of accounting information.
JEL Classification: M40; M41; G32
Key Words: Stock-Based Accounting; Flow-Based Accounting; Fair Value;
Earnings Persistence; Earnings Volatility* Acknowledgements: This study is based on the study by Kusano (2012a, 2012b). The author gratefully appreciates the helpfulcomments and suggestions received from Hisakatsu Sakurai, Kenji Shiba, Kazumi Suzuki, Hiromi Wakabayashi, Takashi
Obinata, Kenichi Akiba, and the participants of the 61th Kansai Regional Meeting of Japan Accounting Association and Current
Accounting Forum at the University of Tokyo. The author also acknowledges the financial support offered by the Japanese Society
for the Promotion of Science’s Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B) 2273035.
† Corresponding Author. Address Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, JAPAN.
Telephone +81-75-753-3495 E-mail kusano@econ.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Received August 11, 2012; accepted August 21, 2012
Copyright©2012 Research Institute for Economics & Business Administration – Kobe University.

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1. Introduction
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of a change in the accounting model on
accounting information for decision making. Especially, this study shows that net income (earnings)
does not play an important role in providing useful information for decision making if the accounting
model changes from flow-based accounting to stock-based accounting.
The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and the U.S. Financial AccountingStandards Board (FASB) have been promoting the convergence of accounting standards. When we
observe the standard setting processes of both these organizations, we find that they both consider
fair value as a possible measurement basis in many situations (Barth, 2007, p. 11). In other words,
they prioritize fair value measurements (Benston et al., 2006, p. 172). With regard to the movementsin the standard setting processes, it is often noted that the IASB and the FASB adopt the balance
sheet approach (AAA’s FASC, 2007; Penman, 2007; Nissim and Penman, 2008; Dichev, 2008;
O’Brien, 2009; AAA RITF, 2009; Demerjian, 2011).
The IASB and the FASB prescribe that the objective of financial reporting is to provide financial
information about the reporting entity that is useful to existing and potential investors, lenders, andother creditors in making decisions about providing resources to the entity (IASB, 2010, par. OB2;
FASB, 2010, par. OB2). Both standard setters adopt the decision-usefulness approach that treats
the objective of financial reporting as providing useful information in making economic decisions
and develop accounting standards based on this approach. Although it is noted that the IASB andthe FASB adopt the balance sheet approach, it is not certain whether this approach improves thevaluation role of financial reporting. Accordingly, this study investigates whether the accounting
model that focuses on the balance sheet provides useful accounting information for decision making.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses two accounting models
from the perspective of the equity valuation model, namely flow-based accounting and stock-based
accounting, and analyzes the natures of these models. Section 3 investigates whether earnings play animportant role in providing information for decision making if the accounting model changes fromflow-based accounting to stock-based accounting. Section 4 summarizes the conclusions and thelimitations of this research.

2. Two Accounting Models: Flows and Stocks
As flows and stocks are the most obvious and frequent dimensions of accounting tensions(AAA’s FASC, 2012, p. 126), the views of flows and stocks are often used in analyzing issues infinancial reporting. Especially, issues are analyzed by using two accounting models: the income
statement approach, which emphasizes the determination of revenues and expenses, and the balance
sheet approach, which emphasizes the valuation of assets and liabilities (Penman, 2007; Nissim andPenman, 2008; Dichev, 2008). This section discusses the two accounting models from the views offlows and stocks and analyzes their natures in depth.
2.1 The Residual Income Model and the Two Accounting Models
The residual income model has received considerable academic attention owing to the researchby Ohlson (1995) and Feltham and Ohlson (1995). When we assume that the cost of capital isconstant, the residual income model is stated as follows:Kusano: Does the Balance Sheet Approach Improve the Usefulness of Accounting Information?

Vt = BVt +141

E [ NIt – r ×BVt+i−1 ](1+ r)t+i
i=1
∞

Σ t

A strong point of the residual income model is its ability to estimate equity value by directly
using the amounts on the balance sheet and the income statement. Equity value (V) is determined byusing the book value of net assets (BV) on the balance sheet and future income (NI) on the income
statement plus the cost of capital (r). Under the residual income model, we need both net assets andincome to estimate equity value. However, it is ultimately possible to determine equity value fromeither net assets or income (Ohlson and Zhang, 1998; Ohlson, 1999; Penman, 2007; Nissim andPenman, 2008). One way is to use the accounting model that reports equity value from the bookvalue of net assets when all assets and liabilities are recognized on the balance sheet at market price,
and when the net amounts of market prices of assets and liabilities are equal to the book value of net
assets. The other is to use the accounting model that estimates equity value by capitalizing current
earnings by cost of capital when current earnings are expected to persist and indicate permanentearnings.
Under the ideal accounting models from the perspective of stocks and flows, equity value isdetermined by either the book value of net assets or current earnings. However, in reality, we cannot
adopt either ideal accounting model. With regard to the ideal stock-based accounting model, we haveto assume perfect and complete markets when the book value of net assets reports the equity value.
However, real markets are neither perfect nor complete (Beaver and Demski, 1979; Beaver, 1998,
chaps. 3–4; Whittington, 2010). Also, with regard to the ideal flow-based accounting model, firmmanagers forecast the stream of future cash flows indefinitely and allocate these cash flows to eachperiod, and thus, current earnings indicate permanent earnings. However, even though managers arewell informed about their investment projects, it is impossible for them to predict long-term future
movements in markets and future directions of investment projects (Tokuga, 2012).
Accordingly, under real conditions, when we adopt the residual income model as a businessvaluation model, we have to use both net assets and income to estimate equity value (Ohlson andZhang, 1998). When ideal accounting models based on flows and stocks are placed at either endof the spectrum, real accounting models exist somewhere in between. We can assume different
accounting models that focus on either of “the two ‘bottom-line’ numbers, book value of equity(stocks) and earnings (flows) on which investors and analysts focus” (Nissim and Penman, 2008,
p. 10). In other words, two different accounting models can be obtained by treating either of the“summary figures like earnings and [the] book value [of net assets]” (Black, 1993, p. 3) as an ultimate
bottom line. In the next subsection, this study investigates flow-based accounting, which focuses on
the income statement, and stock-based accounting, which focuses on the balance sheet from theperspective of flows and stocks.
2.2 Flow-Based Accounting and Stock-Based Accounting
Flow-based accounting uses the income statement as the primary vehicle to provide useful accounting
information for decision making. It assumes that investors predict future flows (e.g., future earnings andfuture cash flows) from current earnings and estimate equity value (O’Brien, 2009). Investors place muchvalue on recurring and highly persistent earnings and less value on non-recurring and transitory earnings(Obinata, 2011, pp. 271–272). Current earnings, on average, are an indicator of future earnings (Penman,
2003, p. 90), and thus, it indicates that highly persistent earnings have a high predictive ability for future
flows. Since periodic earnings are expected to be an indicator of long-run or normal trend of earnings, it is142

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required to eliminate the financial effects of events that are irrelevant to assessing continuing performanceand average the financial effects of events that affect performance only over the long term (FASB, 1976,
par. 62). Accordingly, under flow-based accounting, the objective of income measurement is to determine
net income (earnings), not comprehensive income.
Flow-based accounting stresses “good matching and appropriate matching” (FASB, 1976, par. 50)
between expenses and revenues for a period in order to indicate highly persistent earnings. The revenue
and expense view (the revenue and expense approach) of that fundamental process is to measure revenues
and expenses and time their recognition in order to relate effort (expenses) and accomplishment (revenues)
for a period (FASB, 1976, par. 39), and belongs to flow-based accounting. However, if the matching
between revenues and expenses is highly exaggerated, this approach may give a manager considerable
discretion in allocating revenues and expenses to accounting periods. In fact, in the 1960s and the early
1970s, accounting problems such as arbitrary accounting treatments and abuse of choice of accounting
methods with regard to deferred items have occurred and have been intensively criticized. Accordingly, theasset and liability view (the asset and liability approach), which calculates periodic income based on thedefinitions of assets and liabilities, was developed (Tsumori, 2002, pp. 282–283). If we treat the asset andliability view as the accounting view determining income based on the definitions of assets and liabilities
to limit a manager's discretion, the asset and liability view belongs to flow-based accounting.1
On the other hand, stock-based accounting uses the balance sheet as the primary vehicle to provide
useful accounting information for decision making. Although investors estimate equity value by using
information about the company including financial reporting, stock-based accounting is expected toprovide useful information for decision making by lowering the proportion of firm value that investors
have to estimate (Scott, 2012, chap. 6). In other words, because there is an information asymmetry
between the manager and investors, the balance sheet, from which the manager who has an information
advantage, recognizes the items that meet the definitions of assets and liabilities and measures them atcurrent value, narrows the gap between the book value of net assets and the market value of equity, thereby
providing useful information for decision making (Hitz, 2007). Accordingly, the expansion of on-balance
sheet items and the adoption of the fair value measurement are required to show the values of stocks on
the balance sheet.
Stock-based accounting emphasizes the timely indication of the values of stocks on the balance
sheet. The asset and liability view of that fundamental measurement process measures attributes of assets
and liabilities and their changes in a timely manner, and belongs to stock-based accounting. However, wemust keep in mind that the asset and liability view is used to specify “when identified assets and liabilities
should be recognized and how they should be measured” (SEC, 2003, IIIB). In other words, the asset
and liability view under stock-based accounting not only uses the definitions of assets and liabilities asrecognition criteria of stocks, but also uses them to indicate the values of stocks on the balance sheet.2
Consequently, under stock-based accounting, the objective of measurement is to measure assets, liabilities,
As already noted in previous studies, the asset and liability view has different levels (Storey and Storey, 1998; Tokuga, 2002;
Tsujiyama, 2007; Saito, 2010, chap. 2). The difference between the asset and liability view and the revenue and expense view
under flow-based accounting is definitional dependency in defining the elements in financial statements (assets and liabilities orrevenues and expenses). Both views have the same objective, which is net income determination. The asset and liability view underflow-based accounting functions to complement the revenue and expense view because the asset and liability view is used as arecognition criterion to minimize the arbitrariness of the periodical allocation (Tsujiyama, 2007, pp. 34-35).
2
The asset and liability view under stock-based accounting is related to “the question of what information is most useful or of how
it is measured” (Gellein, 1986, p. 15). Thus, in contrast to the asset and liability view under flow-based accounting, the asset andliability view under stock-based accounting contrasts that under the revenue and expense view because it has significant effects on
the measurements of assets and liabilities (Tsujiyama, 2007, p. 35).
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143

and net assets, and thus, comprehensive income is calculated as a change in net assets for a period(excluding transactions with shareholders).
When we focus on the measurement methods, basically, historical cost is connected to flow-based
accounting and market value/fair value is connected to stock-based accounting. It is expected that flowbased accounting will provide useful information for decision making through income measurement.
Because earnings are assumed to be an indicator of the firm’s or manager’s usual, normal, or long-run
performance or effectiveness (FASB, 1976, par. 62), it demands allocation/matching based on historicalcost to produce a stable income for the periods of the investment projects. On the other hand, stock-based
accounting is expected to provide investors with useful information through recognition and measurementof assets and liabilities. Thus, it demands measuring assets and liabilities at market value/value-in-use toreport the values of stocks on the balance sheet.
2.3 Summary
This section discusses the two accounting models from the perspective of flows and stocks basedon the business valuation model (the residual income model), and analyzes the natures of flow-based
accounting and stock-based accounting. Flow-based accounting emphasizes income determination toprovide useful information for decision making. Highly persistent earnings are an indicator of future
earnings and have a high predictive ability for future earnings and cash flows; flow-based accounting
demands historical cost as a measurement basis of assets and liabilities in order to determine current
net income. On the other hand, stock-based accounting focuses on the book value of net assets inorder to provide investors with useful information. A manager who has an information advantage
reports the values of stocks on the balance sheet and narrows the gap between the book value of net
assets and the market value of equity; stock-based accounting demands market value/value-in-use
as a measurement basis of assets and liabilities. Accordingly, flow-based accounting and stock-based
accounting emphasize different bottom lines (summary figures) to provide useful information for
decision making, thereby demanding different measurement bases.
The current accounting model adopts the mixed attribute approach, which uses several
measurement bases. 3 As an example of the IASB’s and the FASB’s accounting for financial
instruments, the movements in the current accounting model (mixed attribute accounting) aredescribed as follows. The FASB issued Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS)
115, Accounting for Certain Investments in Debt and Equity Securities, and SFAS 133, Accounting for
Derivative Instruments and Hedging Activities. Similarly, the International Accounting Standards
Committee (IASC), which was the predecessor of the IASB, issued International AccountingStandards (IAS) 39, Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement. The FASB and the IASC
required firms to measure securities and derivative instruments at fair value and expanded the used offair value measurement of financial instruments. Because both standard setters separated accounting
treatments based on managers’ intentions for holding financial instruments and required accounting
treatments to reflect the results of investments (Kusano, 2005, chap. 3), it is possible to interpret themas aiming for flow-based accounting.
3

Although flow-based accounting demands historical cost and stock-based accounting demands market value/value-in-use,
nowadays, several measurement bases are used. In this case, the relationship between the accounting model and the measurement
bases of assets and liabilities is explained as follows. Flow-based accounting uses several measurement bases to determine current
net income appropriately from the perspective of investment objectives (expectations). On the other hand, although stock-based
accounting demands a single measurement basis (i.e., market price/value-in-use) to measure assets and liabilities appropriately, it
uses other measurement bases (e.g., historical cost) as second-best measurement bases to ensure reliability and verifiability.

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However, the IASB issued amendments to IAS 39, The Fair Value Option, and permitted firms to
use the fair value option. The FASB also issued SFAS 159, The Fair Value Option for Financial Assets
and Financial Liabilities, to promote convergence with the IASB. The IASB and the FASB regarded
the fair value option as an interim step toward full fair value accounting for financial instruments(Barth and Schipper, 2008, p. 184). In fact, both standard setters established long-term objectives, oneof which was to adopt full fair value accounting for financial instruments (IASB, 2005b). Since the
IASB and the FASB moved toward full fair value accounting for financial instruments, it is possible
to interpret the movement as aiming for stock-based accounting.4
Accordingly, with regard to accounting for financial instruments, while the IASB (the IASC)
and the FASB initially aimed for flow-based accounting, they have been changing the accounting
model from flow-based accounting to stock-based accounting after adopting the fair value option.5

3. Stock-Based Accounting and Accounting Information
Nowadays, the IASB and the FASB, which have promoted the convergence of accounting
standards, tend to develop (propose) accounting standards focusing on the recognition andmeasurement of assets and liabilities. In particular, although both standard setters had tried to revise
the conceptual framework and accounting standards to achieve a single measurement basis (fairvalue), they have considered the conceptual framework and accounting standards (proposal) based on
the mixed measurement approach since the occurrence of the financial crisis in 2008 (Kusano, 2011).
However, the IASB and the FASB still emphasize fair value measurement. Accordingly, this section
assumes a change in the accounting model from flow-based accounting to stock-based accounting
and investigates the effects of stock-based accounting on accounting information.
3.1 Stock-Based Accounting and Fair ValueThe IASB and the FASB move toward the balance sheet approach, which focuses on measuringassets and liabilities at fair value. The FASB issued SFAS 157, Fair Value Measurements, and the IASB
issued International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) 13, Fair Value Measurement, to define fairvalue and establish a framework for measuring fair value (SFAS 157, par. 1; IFRS 13, par. 1). These
accounting standards define fair value as “the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid totransfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date”
By adopting the fair value option, it is possible to measure financial liabilities other than derivative instruments at fair value. When
we measure financial instruments at fair value, gains are recognized in the income statement, as the reporting entity’s credit quality
deteriorates. Although the gains due to the deterioration of the reporting entity’s credit quality represent “the transfer of wealthfrom creditors to equityholders” (Barth and Landsman, 1995, p. 104), many firms cannot realize these gains since they do not haveenough money to pay back their liability because their funds are restricted to operating businesses or they are unable to negotiatewith creditors to change their credit amount (ASB, 1996, par. 3.3.25; Upton, 2009, pars. 58–61). In other words, even if a firm
reports gains due to a deterioration of credit quality, we cannot regard these gains as the results of investments because liabilities
are increased and losses are recognized for a period of maturity, in many cases. This means that the fair value option aims for stockbased accounting.
5
In March 2008, the IASB and the FASB issued the discussion paper, Reducing Complexity in Reporting Financial Instruments,
and described that fair value seems to be the only measurement basis that is appropriate for all types of financial instruments(IASB, 2008, pars. 3.7-3.39). Although both standard setters had considered moving toward full fair value accounting (stockbased accounting) for financial instruments, they have conducted a financial instruments project based on the mixed measurement
approach. It is necessary to deliberately consider that this project is explained from the perspective of flow-based accounting or
stock-based accounting.
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145(SFAS 157, par. 5; IFRS 13, par. 9). The IASB and the FASB define fair value as an exit price andemphasize that fair value is a market-based measurement, not an entity-specific measurement (SFAS
157, pars. 29D and C32; IFRS 13, pars. 2 and B42).
Because fair value is determined by “the assumptions that market participants would use inpricing the asset or liability” (SFAS 157, par. 11; IFRS 13, par. 22), it reflects “market risk preferences
and market expectations with respect to the amounts, timing, and uncertainty of future cash flows”(IASB and AcSB, 2005, par. 99). On the other hand, since value-in-use attempts to capture thevalues of assets and liabilities in the context of a particular reporting entity (FASB, 2000, par. 24(b)),
it depends on the reporting entity’s expectation and assessment of future cash flows (ASB, 1997, par.
3.1).
Under perfect and complete markets, where market prices reflect all value-relevant information(Barth and Landsman, 1995, p. 99), market price (fair value) equals value-in-use. Accordingly, if we
recognize all assets and liabilities on the balance sheet and measure them at market price (fair value),the book value of net assets reports the market value of equity. That is, under perfect and complete
markets, investors do not need to estimate equity value because the balance sheet reports the equity
value through the ideal stock-based accounting.
However, even when a market price exists, the potential for private information can result in amarket price that does not reflect all value-relevant information since we usually assume imperfectand incomplete markets (Barth and Landsman, 1995, p. 101). In other words, because only value-inuse always reflects differential management skill based on private information, there is a difference
between market price (fair value) and value-in-use (Barth and Landsman, 1995, p. 101). The
difference reflects “the intangible value of management’s skill in selective investments” (Barth andLandsman, 1995, p. 100), that is, the value of self-developed goodwill.6
Even under imperfect and incomplete markets, where we adopt stock-based accounting andmeasure all assets and liabilities at fair value, investors cannot estimate equity value only by using
the book value of net assets because fair value does not reflect self-developed goodwill. Nevertheless,stock-based accounting is aimed for because when we adopt the residual income model as thebusiness valuation model, we expect it to provide useful information for decision making by putting
more weight on the first term (the book value of net assets) and less weight on the second term(the present value of residual income) of the residual income model (Hitz, 2007). Ceteris paribus,
the measurement bases of assets and liabilities do not affect equity value. However, if a firm can
prepare more accurate estimates of the current values of assets and liabilities and these estimates arereasonably reliable, it is expected that the financial statements improve the decision usefulness since
the book value of net assets shows a greater proportion of the firm value (Scott, 2012, pp. 212–213).7
Except in the ideal stock-based accounting, investors have to estimate part of the goodwill in
When we have to use the mark-to-model to estimate fair value, it is possible to reflect entity-specific components into the measure;
it is difficult to distinguish between fair value and value-in-use. In this case, the concept of fair value is ambiguous (Benston, 2008;
Milburn, 2008), and thus, it is possible to include self-developed goodwill into the measure of fair value. This study conceptually
makes a distinction between fair value (exit price) and value-in-use.
7
However, Hann et al. (2007) compare the value relevance between the smoothing (SFAS 87) model and the fair value modelof pension accounting and report that the fair value model significantly deteriorates the value relevance of financial statements
compared with the smoothing model. In particular, because the fair value model does not improve the value relevance of thestock information (balance sheet) and impairs the value relevance of the flow information (net income), the value relevance ofthe combined stock and flow information is impaired (Hann et al., 2007, Table 3). Similarly, Werner (2011) compares the value
relevance between the SFAS 87 model and the fair value model and does not find any statistically significant difference between
the two models (Table II).
6

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estimating equity value. Only when we do not treat the book value of net assets as a proxy, investors
need to forecast future flows (e.g., future earnings and future cash flows) based on the current
information and estimate the values of stocks. Even if stock-based accounting is adopted, it would be
difficult for investors to estimate equity value only by using stock information on the balance sheet
in many situations; investors have to use both stock information and flow information to estimate
equity value.8
3.2 Stock-Based Accounting and Accounting Information
Under the current definition of fair value (exit price), this subsection examines the effects ofstock-based accounting on income information if we assume a change in the accounting model fromflow-based accounting to stock-based accounting.
When fair value is emphasized as the measurement basis of assets and liabilities, the proportionof transitory earnings in current income is larger, and thus, it is possible to decrease earnings
persistence and predictive ability for future earnings and future cash flows. Under active markets,
where we use the mark-to-market to measure fair value, it is assumed that changes in market pricefollow a “random walk.” Accordingly, the fact that unrealized gains or losses are recognized in thecurrent period does not give an indication of whether gains or losses will be recognized next period(AAA’s FASC, 1997, p. 124). For example, since past changes in the value of investment securities
have no implications for future changes, and thus are unlikely to be related to future earnings or cash
flows of investment securities and other business activities, changes in market prices are completelytransitory (Skinner, 1999, p. 107). In other words, gains and losses in fair value are transitory innature, and thus are unlike recurring and highly persistent operating earnings (Ball, 2006, p. 13).9In this manner, transitory earnings have no relations with forecasts of future earnings of its items
and other items, and thus, with estimation of equity value (Ohlson, 1999). Even if we measure assets
and liabilities at fair value and the proportion of transitory earnings in the current income is larger,
under the situation where transitory earnings are separated from highly persistent earnings andinvestors can distinguish them from transitory earnings, the usefulness of income information will
not decrease. This is because the earnings components such as operating earnings that are sufficiently
persistent and predictable are aggregated with transitory earnings that are less persistent andpredictable, and the extent of aggregation is not known by investors, thereby resulting in an operating
earnings amount with less predictive ability (AAA’s FASC, 2000, p. 369); otherwise it is expected not
to decrease the usefulness of income information.10
Using the book value of net assets as a surrogate of equity value and estimating equity value only by using stock information are
possible under very limited situations where the value of goodwill is zero or negligible, or the relation between the book value ofnet assets and equity value is stable (Yoneyama, 2008, chap. 5; Saito, 2010, chap. 2).
9For example, Jones and Smith (2011) investigate the persistence and predictive ability of net income before special items, special
items, and other comprehensive income by using a panel data on companies between 1986 and 2005. They show that net income
before special items exhibits a positive persistence and special items are transitory, while other comprehensive income exhibits
negative persistence ( Jones and Smith, 2011, Table 5). Also, special items have a predictive ability for future net income before
special items and future operating cash flows, while other comprehensive income has a predictive ability for future net income
before special items and future operating cash flows in some periods ( Jones and Smith, 2011, Table 6). Their additional test, which
separates items of other comprehensive income, shows that gains or losses of available-for-sale securities are transitory and have nocumulative predictive ability for future operating cash flows ( Jones and Smith, 2011, pp. 2066-2067).
10
Hann et al. (2007) do not find a statistically significant difference between the smoothing model and the fair value model withregard to the value relevance of flow information when gains or losses related to pension are disaggregated into highly persistentearnings and transitory earnings (Table 4).
8

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However, the usefulness of income information will decrease if stock-based accounting moves
toward the level of daily transactions such as revenue recognition. For example, if the IASB and the
FASB adopt the fair value model (the current exit price approach) in revenue recognition, revenues
are recognized and measured through the fair value measurement of performance obligation(Schipper et al., 2009). In this case, it is difficult to distinguish between highly persistent earnings
components and transitory earnings components. Thus, since both earnings are aggregated, and theextent of aggregation is not known by investors, the usefulness of income information will decrease.
Accordingly, it is expected that stock-based accounting affects the persistence and predictive abilityof earnings through the fair value measurement of assets and liabilities.
Also, earnings persistence and predictive ability are affected by earnings volatility that is due tomeasurement errors. When market prices of assets and liabilities do not exist and a manager has touse the mark-to-model to estimate fair value, measurement errors are included in stock measures.11
In addition, it is possible to increase the measurement errors of flow measures (Peasnell, 2006, pp.
7–8).
Measurement errors of assets and liabilities are divided between intrinsic measurement errors
and management-induced errors (Song et al., 2010, p. 1379). Intrinsic measurement errors aremeasurement errors caused by uncertainties regarding measurement objects and measurement
systems. When we measure the objects that have a larger uncertainty and a larger variable ofmeasurement, errors of measurement objects occur (Tokuga, 2008). Also, model errors due
to imperfect pricing models and imperfect estimates of model parameters cause errors in themeasurement system (Ball, 2006). Intrinsic measurement errors occur due to uncertainties aboutmeasurement objects and measurement systems even if a manager’s (intended or unintended) bias
does not exist. It is expected that intrinsic measurement errors increase measurement errors of flow
measures, thereby increasing earnings volatility.
On the other hand, management-induced errors are measurement errors caused by a measurer’s(a firm manager) intended or unintended bias. Because a firm manager can intentionally influenceboth the choice of models and the parameter estimates when she/he uses the mark-to-model
to estimate fair value (Ball, 2006, p. 13), measurement errors emerge. Also, even if a manager
does not intend to bias the fair value measurement, assets and liabilities can be overestimated orunderestimated due to the effects of business cycles. Because risk is underestimated in booms andoverestimated in recessions (Boyer, 2007, p. 783), measurement errors are included in fair value
measures. It is expected that intrinsic measurement errors affect measurement errors of flow measures,
thereby affecting earnings volatility.
Accordingly, accounting measurement consists of three factors, namely a measurement object,a measurement system, and a measure (Ijiri and Jaedicke, 1966, p. 476), and measurement errors areincluded in stock measures through these three factors when a manager uses the mark-to-model
to estimate fair value (Tokuga, 2008). Fair value measurement is often insisted by the claim thatearnings volatility should be revealed rather than concealed by accounting practices. However, thisclaim misses the fact that spurious signals are sent not only by reporting false non-volatility wherevolatility exists, but also by reporting false earnings volatility where none exists when we use themark-to-model to estimate fair value (Miller and Bahnson, 2010, p. 433). Through these “estimation
11

When we use the mark-to-market to measure fair value under the situation where market liquidity decreases, measurement errors
are included in stock measures because market price deviates from fundamental value. Measurement errors of fair value occur not
only when we use the mark-to-model but also when we use the mark-to-market.

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error volatility” (Barth, 2004, pp. 325–326), earnings volatility becomes a disadvantage to investors
whenever it reflects estimation noise or managerial manipulation (Ball, 2006, p. 13). This is because
it is difficult for investors to grasp the extent of measurement errors in many situations. Therefore,
stock-based accounting affects earnings persistence and predictive ability due to the effects ofearnings volatility, thereby decreasing the usefulness of income information.
3.3 Summary
This section explained the IASB’s and the FASB’s definitions of fair value and investigated
how a change in the accounting model from flow-based accounting to stock-based accounting
affects accounting information (income information). Stock-based accounting reduces the weightof the proportion of the investors’ estimation in equity value and is expected to provide useful
information for decision making. Because self-generated goodwill is not included in stock measureseven if we measure assets and liabilities at fair value due to the definition of fair value (exit price),
investors have to estimate a portion of the goodwill by using flow information. When fair value
measurement is expanded, earnings persistence and predictive ability will decrease and the usefulness
of income information will be impaired due to the increasing transitory earnings and the effects ofearnings volatility. When the usefulness of income information decreases, investors may use otheraccounting information as a substitute for income information to estimate equity value. Accordingly,
if the accounting model changes from flow-based accounting to stock-based accounting, income
information will not play the important role that has long been expected of it.
This study shows that stock-based accounting, which focuses on the balance sheet, will notprovide useful information for decision making.12 In particular, under imperfect and incomplete
markets, self-generated goodwill is not included in fair value measure because fair value is a marketbased measure. Fair value measurement provides useful information for decision making with regard
only to items that have active markets and if goodwill is negligible; otherwise it is not expected toprovide investors with useful information. Under this case, even if we measure assets and liabilities
at fair value, it is possible to impair the valuation role of financial reporting because the combined
usefulness of accounting information of the book value of net assets and earnings does not improve;the usefulness of stock information for decision making does not necessarily improve, and theusefulness of income information decreases.

4. Concluding Remarks
This study investigated how a change in the accounting model from flow-based accounting tostock-based accounting affects accounting information from the perspective of the valuation roleof financial reporting. First, it described the two accounting models from the perspective of flows
and stocks and then analyzed flow-based accounting and stock-based accounting. Next, it analyzed
the IASB’s and the FASB’s definitions of fair value and showed that a change in the accounting
model from flow-based accounting to stock-based accounting will impair the usefulness of income
information. This study indicates that the balance sheet approach does not necessarily improve theusefulness of accounting information.
12

Empirical research regarding recent fair value information is comprehensively surveyed by prior studies such as those by Shuto(2011), Obinata (2012a, 2012b), and Tokuga (2012).

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Although this study examined the effects of stock-based accounting on accounting information
based on the current definition of fair value (exit price), the results of this study will still hold evenif we performed the analysis from the perspective of stock-based accounting based on value-in-use.
Because the objective of value-in-use is to reflect the reporting entity manager’s best estimates of
future cash flows (IASB and AcSB, 2005, par. 87), self-generated goodwill is included in value-inuse. Under the residual income model of equity valuation, when we plug in the measures of valuein-use in the first term of the residual income model, we may obtain useful information for decision
making. However, under imperfect and incomplete markets, we cannot directly use stock measures
based on value-in-use. This is because value-in-use measures include intrinsic measurement errors
and management-induced errors. Thus, investors have to estimate the values of stocks by using flow
information again. If we measure assets and liabilities at value-in-use, as is the case with measuring
them at fair value, earnings persistence and predictive ability will decrease, as will the usefulness
of income information, because of the increasing transitory earnings and the effects of earnings
volatility. Accordingly, even if we assume stock-based accounting based on value-in-use, it is possible
to impair the valuation role of financial reporting because the usefulness of stock information for
decision making does not improve due to a manager’s discretion, and the usefulness of income
information decreases.
However, despite the useful insights it obtained, this study has several limitations. First, thisstudy investigated the effects of a change in the accounting model from flow-based accounting
to stock-based accounting on flow information and did not examine the effects on cost of capital.
Future flows and cost of capital are very important inputs for estimating equity value. A change in
the accounting model will affect equity value through cost of capital.13 Second, this study investigatedthe effects of a change in the accounting model on accounting information from the perspective of
the valuation role of financial reporting and did not investigate them from the point of view of thecontracting role of financial reporting. Because financial reporting is expected to play the contractingrole as well as the valuation role (Watts and Zimmerman, 1986; Suda, 2000), a change in theaccounting model affects the contracting role of financial reporting.14 These examinations clarify acomprehensive relationship between a change in the accounting model and accounting information.

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