ISSN 2185-159X

erd

International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Volume 9 Number 2

December 2018

International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

erdInternational Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development
Official Journal of the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development(Accessible from EBSCO, J-Stage, Google Scholar, CABI International, etc.)

Aims and Scope:
The International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, IJERD, is an interdisciplinary journal
concerning environmental and rural development research in the education for sustainable development, ESD.
The IJERD is devoted to publishing peer-reviewed research article, review article and technical report in thefields of environmental and rural development, such as education for sustainable rural development, ruraldevelopment, environmental management or agricultural systems. Every article or report in IJERD must be
accepted by at least 2 reviewers and an editorial member.
The aims of IJERD are to publish the latest research development and achievements, to strengthen
education systems, to promote cooperation in environmental and rural development and to contribute to theprogress in sustainable development. The editorial board of this journal covers a variety of scientificdisciplines.
Thematic Areas:
The following areas are envisioned in IJERD.
Education for Sustainable Rural Development:
Environmental Education, Food and Agricultural Education, Participatory Approach, Capacity Building,Community Empowerment, Agricultural Extension, etc.
Rural Development:
Marketing, Partnership, Value Added Product, Community Development, Access to Technology,
Cultural Preservation, etc.
Environmental Management:
Bio-Diversity, Soil Degradation and Land Conservation, Water Quality Conservation, Deforestation andSustainable Forest Management, Environmental Management, etc.
Agricultural Systems:
Organic Farming, Conservation Tillage, Mechanization, Irrigation and Drainage, Nutrient and Pest
Management, Cattle Breeding, Agro-Forestry, Indigenous Technology, etc.
Infrastructural Systems:
Water Resource Development, Land Reclamation, Road Construction, etc.
Editorial Board:
Editor in Chief:
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan /Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan
Managing Editors:
Dr. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation,
Southeast Asia Office / Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Dr. Shinobu Terauchi, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan
Dr. Toru Nakajima, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Editorial Advisory Board:
Prof. Dr. Mom Seng, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Dr. Insa Kuhling, University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Dr. Carlos Onan Tovar Mendoza, Honduras Embassy in Japan, HondurasProf. Dr. Noureddin Driouech, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy
Prof. Dr. Kiichiro Hayashi, Nagoya University, Japan
Prof. Dr. Kingshuk Roy, Nihon University, Japan
Dr. Yuri Yamazaki, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Prof. Dr. Merites M. Buot, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines /UP Open University, Philippines
Prof. Dr. Salvador Catello, University of the Philippines, Philippines

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

Prof. Tomas Reyes, Jr. Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Julian Torillo, Jr. Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Venkatachalam Anbumozhi, International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development,
Switzerland
Dr. Anchasa Pramuanjaroenkij, Kasetsart University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Rajendra P. Shrestha, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Dr. Somsak Srisontisuk, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Dr. Vidhaya Trelo-Ges, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Vo Quang Minh, Cantho University, Vietnam
Editorial Section in ISERD Secretariat:
Dr. Shinobu Terauchi and Dr. Takashi Ueno
Research Center, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON)
2987-1 Onoji Machida-Shi, Tokyo 195-0064, Japan
Tel/Fax: +81-42736-8972
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
Webpage: www.iserd.net
Collaborated with

Association of Environmental and Rural Development (AERD)
93/64 Moo.3, Sinsab Village 2, Bungyeetho Sub-district, Thanyaburi District,Pathum Thani 12130, Thailand
Tel/Fax: +66-2957-8064
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
Webpage: www.iserd.net

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

Contents
Erosion Control by Amending Soil with Gypsum in the Dawlatzai Village of Gardez District,Afghanistan
Abdul Malik Dawlatzai, Machito Mihara,
Takahiko Nakamura and Shafiqullah Rahmani

1

Microsatellite Markers and their Application on Genetic Diversity Studies of Rice Landraces(Oryza sativa L.) in Myanmar - A Review
Aye Aye Thant, Than Myint Htun, Marie Kalousová,
Rakesh Kumar Singh and Bohdan Lojka

8

Evaluation of Seed Cane Treatments on Sugarcane Germination in Two Planting Methods
Khaing Tha Zin Oo, Aung Myo Thant, Kyaw Kyaw Win,Kyi Toe and Ei Ei Khaing

14

Equivalency and Similarity Assessment of Forest Ecosystem Services by a Multi-Point Field Survey
in Nagoya City, Japan
Kiichiro Hayashi, Wataru Kobayashi and Makoto Ooba

20

Theme-Community Based Adaptation Strategies Toward Sustainable Rural Development:
Case from a Local Tofu Company in Saitama Prefecture, Japan
Nina N. Shimoguchi, Hiroki Inaizumi and Kenji Omuro

28

Effects of Living Conditions on Livelihood Satisfaction in Sri Lanka: Living Sectors and Tea Industry
Yuko Fukuda and Eiji Yamaji

34

An Evaluation of Water Demand and Supply for a Small-scale Irrigation Scheme in Zimbabwe
Edimus Masona, Katsuyuki Shimizu and Yumi Yoshioka

41

Sustainable Development through Environmental Education: From the Perspectives of Past and PresentGroup and Individual Rainforestation Adopters
Guiraldo C. Fernandez, Jr. and Marlito Jose M. Bande

47

Determination of Lethal Concentration of Copper Compounds on Nile Tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758) Larvae
Natsima Tokhun, Kanittha Pamonpol,
Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Atcharaporn Somparn

53

Antioxidant Activity of Crude Extract from Raw and Heat-treated Moringa oleifera
Nawaporn Lapsongphon, Monsicha Pinthong
and Piyada Sukdee

59

Contribution of Organic Agriculture to Gross National Happiness (GNH): Bhutan
Serki Wangmo and Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai

64

Survey on the Slope Protection Method for Sloped Farmland Aimed at Conservation ofRegional Unique Landscape
Shoko Nishiwaki, Kenji Okajima and Eiji Yamaji

70

Current Postharvest Management of Sesame Farmers in Selected Area of Myanmar
Hnin Thida Nyo, Nyein Nyein Htwe, Kyaw Kyaw Win
Theingi Myint and Moe Kyaw Thu

76

Farmers’ Perception of Fertilizer Management Practices for Cotton Productionin Magway Region of Myanmar
Khin Khin Mu, Kyaw Ngwe, Thanda Min, Aung Naing Oo
and Swe Swe Mar

82

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

Factors Affecting Farmers’ Attitudes on Hybrid Rice Production in Nay Pyi Taw Area, Myanmar
Naing Kyi Win, Kyaw Kyaw Win, Cho Cho San
and Nyein Nyein Htwe

88

Suitability of Groundwater Use for Drinking and Irrigation Purpose, Case Study ofKien Svay District, Kandal Province, Cambodia
Nareth Nut, Sony Serey, Vibol Sao and Machito Mihara

95

Utilization of Atis “Annona squamosa Linn” Desserts
Regucivilla A. Pobar

102

Evaluation of Soil Nutrient Level in Naypyitaw Agricultural Land
San San Myint, Kyaw Ngwe, Kyaw Kyaw Win
and Swe Swe Mar

108

Issues of Disaster Recovery Management and Application of GIS and UAV for Resilience inAgricultural Land and Infrastructure
Koji Miwa, Ayako Sekiyama, Toru Nakajima,
Takahiko Kubodera, Chikahiro Egami and Hiromu Okazawa

114

Wheat Market Instability in Afghanistan: A Case Study of Kabul, Mazar-e-Sharif,
Bamyan and Ghor Provinces
Zaigham Kazimi, Mohammad Eshaq Rasekh,
Sayed Reza Hashemi and Sayed Jalil Hashimi

122

The Impact of Mimosa pigra on Local Livelihood in the Stung Sen Core Area,
Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve
Somaly Chan and Machito Mihara

128

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

Research article
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Erosion Control by Amending Soil with Gypsum in
the Dawlatzai Village of Gardez District, Afghanistan
ABDUL MALIK DAWLATZAI
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: abduldawlatzai@gmail.com

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

TAKAHIKO NAKAMURA*
Faculty of Regional Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: ntaka@nodai.ac.jp

SHAFIQULLAH RAHMANI
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 31 December 2017

Accepted 15 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Minimizing soil and water loss in agricultural land, particularly in arid and semiarid climatic conditions, is indispensable for environmental protection and agricultural
production. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of gypsum
application in reducing sediment concentration in runoff and total soil loss. A field
experiment was conducted in the village of Dawlatzai in Gardez District, Paktya,
Afghanistan. Using a portable rainfall simulator, four erosion plots; gypsum-treated, clover,maize, and control were designed and applied in two replications. Surface runoff
experiment using sandy loam and loamy soil textures was conducted in the Laboratory ofLand and Water Use Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture. Gypsum mineral wasapplied at a rate of 5 t ha-1 for both experiments. The results of field experiments showedthat the gypsum-treated, clover and maize fields reduced total soil loss by 67.28%, 92.04%
and 54.45% compared to the control, respectively. Likewise, surface runoff was reduced by
19.62% in the gypsum-treated field compared to the control field. Similarly, the results oflaboratory experiment showed that with application of gypsum, surface runoff was reduced
by 38.83% and 37.07% from sandy loam and loamy soil textures with total soil loss
reduced by 60.25% and 81.86% compared to control, respectively. Percolation wasincreased by 2.31 and 2.29 times in sandy loam and loamy soil textures, respectively.
Moreover, the application of gypsum significantly reduced sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
and boosted the calcium content and flocculation phenomena. Based on these results, it canbe suggested and recommended that farmers in Paktya should apply gypsum mineral totheir farmlands to enhance water infiltration and minimize surface runoff and soil loss.
Keywords gypsum, infiltration, soil loss, village of Dawlatzai

INTRODUCTION
Gypsum mineral is generally used mostly because of its availability and low-cost. Gypsum has anability to minimize clay dispersion, thereby permeability of the soil and increases the stability
aggregates at the soil surface. However, the major benefits of gypsum mineral related to agriculture
includes; source of calcium and sulphur for plant nutrition, improves acid soils and treats aluminum
toxicity, enhances soil structure, increases water infiltration and reduce runoff and soil loss
(Greenleaf Advisors, 2015; US-EPA, 2008; Hopkins, 2013).
Gypsum mineral from by-product of industrial processing called synthetic gypsum. It is
composed of calcium sulphate dihydrate and similar in characteristics to natural gypsum and isⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

environmentally friendly. Ameliorating saline-sodic soils are indispensable for suitable agriculture
and clay dispersion. Therefore, gypsum is used for sodic soil reclamation, because it is calciumrich, dissolves at high pH and replaces of sodium from an exchange site (Horneck et al., 2007).
Gypsum mineral is able to improve soil hydraulic conductivity and significantly increases
infiltration conditions (Miller, 1987). Gypsum dissolves quickly and releases electrolytes thus
flocculate the soil particles and lower tendency of clay to disperse (Shainberg et al., 1989). The
objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of gypsum application in reducing sedimentconcentration in runoff and total soil loss.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Site
The research was conducted in the Dawlatzai Village of Gardez District, Paktya Province,
Afghanistan (Fig. 1). The village is about 5 km from south of Gardez city, which is the capital of
Paktya Province. About 1,850 families live in the village and 80% of the population depends on
agriculture and animal husbandry for livelihood.

Afghanistan

Paktya Province

Fig. 1 Dawlatzai Village in Gardez District, Paktya Province, Afghanistan
Field Experiment
A field experiment with four erosion plots; gypsum-treated, clover, maize, and control were
designed and applied in two replications. Using a portable artificial rainfall simulator; raindrop
sizes approx. 3.42 mm, kinetic energy about 1.6×10-5 J and Marriotte bottle generated constantpressure at 981 Pa (Maore and Mihara, 2017). Gypsum mineral was applied at the rate of 5 t ha -1.
Runoff collector was installed on the downstream side, depending on the direction of sloppy field.
The soil was pre-wetted for 24 hours before application of artificial rain (Fig. 2). Surface runoff
was collected at an interval of 5 minutes for a duration of 30 minutes. It was analyzed for chemicaland physical properties in laboratory of Land and Water Use Engineering, Tokyo University ofAgriculture.
Laboratory Experiment
Similarly, the surface runoff experiment was conducted in the laboratory of Land and Water Use
Engineering using a triangular erosion plot. The length was 91.0 cm, and width 3.0 cm and heightare 2.5 cm. The slope of a plot was arranged as 8.0° (Fig. 3). Soil was used for the erosion plot
compacted under a dry density of 1.61 g/cm3 and 1.47 g/cm3 for sandy loam and loamy soil
textures, respectively. Marriotte bottle with constant pressure was used to supply water during 30
minutes. Surface runoff and percolation water were collected at 5 minutes interval. Two treatments
were applied; control and gypsum-treated. Gypsum was applied at the rate of 5 t ha-1. Soil wasⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

saturated for 24 hours before the experiment. The surface runoff was analysed for calcium,magnesium, sodium, and soil loss. In addition, flocculation and dispersion experiments wereconducted; using loamy soil texture and gypsum mineral was applied at rates of 2.5 t ha-1, 5 t ha-1,
7.5 t ha-1, and 10 t ha-1. Soil and gypsum were put into tubes and added 100 ml deionized water,then shaken mechanically for a minute. Samples were taken after an interval of 1 hour andexperiment were run for 4 hours.

Fig. 2 Diagram of field experimentFig. 3 Diagram of surface runoff experiment

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of field experiments showed that, the total surface runoff for all treatments’ gypsum
treated, clover, maize and control fields was at 3.40 L, 3.06 L 4.01 L and 4.23 L, respectively.
Statistical analysis showed that there were significant differences (P<0.05) between gypsum-treatedand clover fields, and control and maize fields (Fig. 4). Application of gypsum reduced surface
runoff 19.62%. Total soil loss of gypsum-treated, clover and maize fields were reduced by 67.28%,
92.04% and 54.45% compared to control, respectively (Table 1). Gypsum has been used for
reducing and controlling crust formation on the soil surface and improving water infiltration as well
as stabilizing sodic soil (Agassi et al., 1981; Miller, 1987).
Table 1 Soil loss in each field
Average soil loss (t ha-1)
4.11
1.00
5.72
12.56

Treatment
GypsumCloverMaize
Control

Total soil loss, reduced from control (%)
67.28
92.04
54.45

1.40

(L)
runoff(L)surfacerunoff
Cumulative
surface
Cumulative

Gypsum4

1.20

Clover

1.00

Maize

3

SAR

Control

2

0.80
0.60
0.40

1

0.20
0.00

0

0

10

20
Time (min.)Gypsum Clover Maize Control

30

Fig. 4 Changes in surface runoff with time

Fig. 5 SAR of surface runoffⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) expresses the relationships between sodium content andcalcium plus magnesium contents (Eq. 1). This ratio reflects the amounts of sodium adsorbed onto
clay and soil organic matter exchange surfaces, hence the potential for flocculation or dispersion
processes within the soil (Keren, 1991). These processes influence the hydraulic properties of thesoil, runoff and soil erosion (Lavee et al., 1991). The higher the SAR, the more likely the soil is todisperse, but low SAR soils tend to flocculate. In dispersed soils, water infiltrates and drains slowly,
the water runs off the soil, increasing the potential for erosion and limiting amount of the water
available for crops and soil become very poorly aerated due to inadequate of the large pores.
However, the application of gypsum significantly reduced SAR value. SAR value for all treatments’
gypsum-treated, clover, maize and control fields were as of 0. 59, 1.00, 1.19 and 1.07 (Fig. 5).
SAR =[𝑁𝑎 + ]

(1)

+2 + 𝑀𝑔+2 ]

√[𝐶𝑎

2

Table 2 shows that the application of gypsum mineral slightly increased EC of soil solution
because the gypsum mineral is sparingly soluble salt. However, it did not change the pH of the soil
solution. Gypsum improves chemical properties of soil such as aluminium toxicity caused bysubsoil (Chen and Dick, 2011). Gypsum is a neutral salt and not a liming agent, therefore, does notneutralize the hydrogen ion in the soil solution (Fisher, 2011).
Table 2 Electrical conductivity and pH of surface runoff
No
1
2
3
4

Treatment
GypsumCloverMaize
Control

EC (mS/m)
77.88
67.13
59.11
55.03

pH
7.78
7.87
7.97
7.79

Total surface runoff for gypsum-treated plots was at 0.63 L and 0.73 L and for control plots
were 1.03 L and 1.16 L. The results showed the application of gypsum significantly reduced runoff
by 38.83% for sandy loam soil and 37.07% for loamy soil compared to the control (Table 3).
Likewise, the total percolating water for gypsum-treated plots was at 0.81 L and 0.35 L and forcontrol plots; 0.71 L and 0.31 L. The application of gypsum increased percolation rate by 2.31
times for sandy loam soil texture and 2.29 times for loamy soil texture compared to the control(Table 4). Mahardhika et al., (2008) reported, they applied gypsum mineral at a rate of 10 t ha -1,
polyacrylamide (PAM) 40 kg ha-1 and combined application of both amendments (PAM + gypsum)at the same rates. Total soil loss was reduced by 39%, 43%, and 74%, compared to the control. The
application of PAM + gypsum more significantly was reduced soil to compare with othertreatments. The application of gypsum mineral was effective in considerably reducing total soil loss
from agricultural land.
Table 3 Changing surface runoff from the control
Soil texture
Sandy loam soil
Loamy soil

Treatment

Total discharge (L)GypsumControlGypsumControl

0.63
1.03
0.73
1.16

Total surface decreased fromcontrol (%)
38.83
37.07

The results in Table 5 indicated, the application of gypsum significantly reduced the total soil
loss by 60.25% and 81.86% for sandy loam and loamy soil textures, respectively compared tocontrol. As well, significantly reduced SAR value by 59% and 52% and increased the calcium
content for both soil textures (Fig. 6 and Fig. 7), although, the calcium concentration a slightly
more for loamy soil texture because of Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) of soil. Gypsum mineralboosted soil condition and improved crop yields as well as increasing the sulphur content which isⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

an essential nutrient for plant growth (Chen and Dick, 2011). Calcium ion is very important for cell
walls, membrane and developing root growth (Fisher, 2001).
Table 4 Changing percolation from the control
Soil texture
Sandy loam soil
Loamy soil

Treatment

Total percolation (L)GypsumControlGypsumControl

0.81
0.35
0.71
0.31

Total percolation changed fromcontrol (time)
2.31
2.29

Table 5 Soil loss from sandy loam and loamy soil textures
Soil
Sandy loam soil

GypsumControlGypsumControl

Average total soil loss
(t ha-1)
16.98
42.72
5.34
29.50

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

Concentration (mg/L)

SAR

Loamy soil

Treatment

Gypsum Control Gypsum Control
Sandy loam
soil texture

60.25
81.86

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Ca

Mg

Na

Gypsum Control Gypsum Control

Loamy soil texture

Fig. 6 SAR of surface runoff

Total soil loss decreased fromcontrol (%)

Sandy loam
soil texture

Loamy soil texture

Fig. 7 Cation concentration in surface runoff
a*

b*
c*

Fig. 8 Flocculation and dispersion resultsc*c*Fig. 9 Effects of gypsum on suspended soil

Flocculation is the process by which clay particles, individual coagulate or aggregate, water
easy moves mostly in large pores between in aggregates. The dispersion is the reverse action offlocculation clay plug soil pores over enhances surface runoff and reduces water infiltration anddrainage thereby increases soil erosion (Bratby, 1980). Gypsum is known to flocculate the soil andⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

pull together clay particles an aggregate. The results indicated the addition of gypsum mineral at
the rates of 2.5 t ha-1, 5 ha-1, 7.5 ha-1, and 10 ha-1 significantly (P<0.05) flocculated soil particles
compared to the control. Furthermore, there is a negligible differential between high and low rates
of gypsum application (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9). It means the application of high rate gypsum mineralsimilar affected as medium rate and the application high-rate of gypsum is uneconomical for
farmers.
CONCLUSION
The results could be concluded that the total soil losses from gypsum-treated field, clover field andmaize field were reduced by 67.28%, 92.04%, and 54.45% compared to the control and reduced
surface runoff by 19.62% for gypsum-treated field compared to the control field. Similarly, itsignificantly reduced surface runoff by 38.83% for sandy loam soil and 37.07% for loamy soil
compared to the control, increased the percolation rate by 2.31 times and 2.29 times and the totalsoil loss was reduced by 60.25% and 81.86%, from sandy loam and loam soil textures, respectively.
By the application of gypsum mineral significantly reduced SAR value and boosted the calcium
content. It was considered that gypsum mineral addition is effective in enhancing flocculation andaggregated of soil clay particles and reduce soil loss. The improved surface conditions in the
gypsum-treated soil contributed towards reduction in sediment concentration in surface runoff andtotal soil loss. Accordingly, it is suggested and recommended that farmers in Paktya Province apply
gypsum mineral into their farmlands for reducing surface runoff and soil loss.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are profoundly grateful to Department of Agriculture Engineering, Tokyo Universityof Agriculture and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
REFERENCES
Agassi, M., Shainberg, I. and Morin, J. 1981. Effect of electrolyte concentration and soil sodicity on
infiltration rate and crust formation. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 45, 848-851.
Bratby, J. 1980. Coagulation and flocculation with an emphasis on water and wastewater treatment. Filtrationand Separation, Uplands Pess LTD Publishers, UK.
Chen, L. and Dick, W.A. 2011. Gypsum is an agricultural amendment. General Use Guidelines, Ohio State
University, USA.
Fisher, M. 2011. Amending soils with gypsum. Crops and Soil Magazine, USA.
Greenleaf Advisors. 2015. Gypsum for agricultural use. The State of the Science, Bridging Enterprises for a
Healthy and Sustainable World.
Hopkins, M. 2013. The role of gypsum in agriculture and five key benefits. http://www.croplife.com/cropinputs/micronutrients/the-role-of-gypsum-in-agriculture-5-key-benefits-you-should-know.
Horneck, D.A., Ellsworth, J.W., Hopkins, B.G., Sullivan, D.M. and Slevens, R.G. 2007. Managing saltaffected soils for crop production. PNW 601, E, November 2007.
Keren, R. 1991. Specific effect of magnesium on soil erosion and water infiltration. Soil Science Society ofAmerica Journal, 55, 783-787.
Lavee, H., Imeson, A.C., Pariente, S. and Benyamini, Y. 1991. The response of soils to simulated rainfall
along a climatological gradient in an arid and semi-arid region. Catena, 19, 19-37.
Mahardhika, H., Ghadiri, H. and Yu, B. 2008. Effects of polyacrylamide and gypsum on soil erosion andsediment transport. Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.
Maore, J.M. and Mihara, M. 2017. Development of portable artificial rainfall simulator for evaluation
sustainable farming in Kenya. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 8 (1), 2733.
Miller, W.P. 1987. Infiltration and soil loss of three-gypsum amended Ultisols under simulated rainfall. Soil
Science Society of America Journal. 51, 1314-1320.

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Shainberg, I., Sumner, M.E., Miller, W.P., Farina, M.P.W., Pavan, M.A. and Fey, M.Y. 1989. Use of gypsum
on soils. Contribution from the Department of Agronomy, University of Athens Georgia, Advances inSoil Science, 9, 43-50.
UN-EPA. 2008. Agricultural uses for flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum. United States - Environmental
Protection Agency, National Service Centre for Environmental Publications, USA.

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Review article
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Microsatellite Markers and their Application on Genetic
Diversity Studies of Rice Landraces (Oryza sativa L.) in
Myanmar - A Review
AYE AYE THANT
Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
Email: aye18988@gmail.com/thant@ftz.czu.cz

THAN MYINT HTUN
Yezin Agricultural University, Zeyar Thiri, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar

MARIE KALOUSOVÁ
Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic

RAKESH KUMAR SINGHInternational Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

BOHDAN LOJKA*
Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
Email: lojka@ftz.czu.cz
Received 31 December 2017

Accepted 15 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Myanmar is one of the centers of genetic diversity of rice as it has heterogeneous
geographical and ecological conditions such as hills and mountains. Since 1988, owing tomarket oriented economic policy and international rice price, traditional varieties have been
replaced by improved varieties. Landraces are known for the excellent adaptation to the
local conditions; however, their productivity is very low. Increased productivity of thelandraces through high input application has not been possible because they are notresponsive to the inputs. However, these landraces and traditional varieties possess very
useful and important traits for further breeding and genetic improvement of rice. Thus, there
is an urgent need for germplasm collection, their conservation and characterization to study
the diversity of traditional rice varieties in Myanmar. In recent years, DNA sequencevariations have been used as markers for genome analysis since they are independent ofenvironment and growth stages of plant and more reliable than the other phenotypic orbiochemical markers. Of the different types of molecular markers, microsatellites have beenutilized most extensively, because they can be readily amplified by PCR, present large
amount of allelic variation at each locus, are highly informative, and require small amounts
of DNA. They have become the versatile molecular markers not only for germplasm
diversity studies but also for exploration of targeted gene. In Myanmar, some research on
rice landrace diversity by using microsatellites has been done. Therefore, this review aims
to take stock of the current status and summarize genetic diversity studies of traditional rice
varieties in Myanmar, through the use of microsatellite markers.
Keywords microsatellites, genetic diversity, rice landraces, Myanmar

INTRODUCTION
Myanmar is known as a rice-based agriculture country and large fraction of national economy relyon the surplus from rice export. From historical time to now, the country has a long history of riceproduction. Moreover, culture, religion and belief, politics and national economy were influenced
by rice and rice production. Therefore, civilization of Myanmar was established based on rice andⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

rice cultivation. Since 1988, owing to market oriented economic policy and international rice price,
traditional varieties have been replaced by improved varieties. However, Myanmar traditional
landraces are still under cultivation by resource poor farmers who practice subsistence farming(Yamanaka et al., 2011) and the outcome is low yield. Although the output is lower, theselandraces have wide adaptation to local or harsh conditions and they are assumed as a harbor ofgreat genetic potential for rice improvement.
Landraces are also an integral part of cultural heritage due to their close link with the local
territory as well as the community with their associated traditional uses, knowledge and habits.
Landraces are, however, threatened and suffering from genetic erosion. Major contributing factors
include climate change, habitat loss, environmental degradation and changes in farming practices,leading to the introduction of new pests and diseases, a collapse of pollinators, and increased
drought and salinization. These precious and irreplaceable resources urgently need to be conserved
before they disappear. Therefore, in order to prevent the permanent loss of landraces, research
activities on genetic diversity, conservation and utilization become critical issues for the agriculture
sector in Myanmar.
Nowadays, several techniques are available for the detection of genetic diversity, i.e. for
identifying DNA polymorphism, including the microsatellite ones. This marker is easily amplified
by PCR, requires no large initial amounts of DNA samples and has high polymorphism due to alarge variation in the number of repetitions. Furthermore, the microsatellite loci have co-dominant
multi-allelic expression which permits the discrimination of homozygous and heterozygous
genotypes, facilitating the characterization of different populations by allele frequency analysis(Bruford, 1996). Therefore, genetic diversity data, based on microsatellites, can be used formonitoring the genetic variability of species and support management actions to prevent the loss ofgenetic diversity over time. Tens of thousands of potential SSRs have been identified in rice, andover 25,000 have been developed as molecular markers (Temnykh et al., 2000; McCouch et al.,
2002; IRGSP, 2005). These markers are currently being used to develop high density genetic maps,
genotype rice accessions, determine the genetic structure, optimize the assembly of core collections,and for marker-assisted breeding (McCouch et al., 2002; Yu et al., 2003; Garris et al., 2005). The
limiting feature of the application of these markers is the need for prior sequence information fordeveloping primers for locus-specific PCR amplification. This limitation is alleviated for the
economically important species and the ones closely related, since primer sequences of the SSR
DNA markers and the amplification conditions are available in the published reports and the riceannotation project database (rap-db). Generation of complex banding patterns for SSR loci could be
due to various reasons such as type of repeat, non-optimization of PCR conditions and the nature ofgenome (Mausa, 2014).
OBJECTIVE
This review aims to make an overall assessment of the current status and summarize genetic
diversity studies of traditional rice varieties in Myanmar, through the use of microsatellite markers.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIn Myanmar, assessment of genetic diversity of rice germplasm have been conducted by using
various characters: viz: morphological, physiological, biochemical, and molecular characters.
Among them, molecular markers have been used for genome analysis since they are stable anddetectable in all tissues regardless of growth, differentiation, development, or defense status of thecell. Wunna et al., (2016) studied the genetic diversity of 175 rice accessions from Myanmar,
including landraces and improved types from upland and lowland ecosystems in five different areas.
They evaluated on the basis of polymorphism data for 65 microsatellite markers and confirmed
high genetic diversity with average polymorphism information content (PIC) value of 0.82 perlocus with the range of 0.519 to 0.919. The large range of PIC values for the respective accessions
provides greater confidence for the assessment of genetic diversity and relationships. ClusterⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

analysis based on the polymorphism data from SSR markers clearly differentiated the riceaccessions into two groups. Group I, with 85 accessions, corresponded to Indica Group and was
dominant in all upland regions except for the Northeastern. Group II, with 90 accessions,corresponded to the Japonica Group and was dominant in the Southern (lowland) region (Table 1).
Table 1 Relationships among groups, areas, and rice cultivation ecosystems
Ecosystem
UplandLowland

OthersUplandLowlandTotal

Landrace or
improved

Area

Landrace

Northern
Western
Southeastern
Northeastern
Sum
Improved
Northeastern
Subtotal
Landrace
Southern
Improved
Southern
Subtotal
Improved
Landrace

Unknown
Unknown
Subtotal

No. of accessions (%)
Group I
16 ( 9.1)
11 ( 6.3)
29 (16.6)
12 ( 6.9)
68 (38.9)0 ( 0.0)68 (39.4)
3 ( 1.7)
12 ( 6.6)
15 ( 8.6)

Group II
2 ( 1.1)
1 ( 0.6)
4 ( 2.3)
18 (10.3)
25 (14.3)
7 ( 4.0)32 (18.3)
50 (28.6)
2 ( 1.1)
52 ( 29.7)

Total
18 ( 10.3)
12 ( 6.9)33 ( 18.9)30 ( 17.1)
93 ( 53.1)
7 ( 4.0)100 ( 57.7)
53 ( 30.3)
14 ( 8.0)
67 ( 38.3)

1 ( 0.6)
1 ( 0.6)
2 ( 0.11)
85 (48.6)0 ( 0.0)
6 ( 3.4)
6 ( 3.4)
90 (51.4)

1 ( 0.6)
7 ( 4.0)
8 ( 4.6)
175 (100.0)

Pawsan rice cultivars, quality rice, seems to be originated in Myanmar and due to theirdelightful aroma and good eating quality, they are recognized as premium rice cultivars in
Myanmar. Min Soe Thein et al., (2014) collected 38 Pawsan cultivars mainly from Ayeyarwaddy
region and documented the variation of genetic structure of these collected Pawsan cultivars inorder to fingerprint, conserve and exploit potential cultivars for breeding program. Twenty two
SSR loci of Pawsan cultivars with two controls generated 112 alleles with an average of 5.09, andPIC ranged from 0.22 to 0.80 with an average of 0.54. SSR genotyping revealed that pair-wise
genetic similarity of Pawsan cultivars ranged from 14% to 84% and averaged of 49%, and Pawsan
group was separated from two controls (IR36 and Koshihikari). However, genetic similarity of
Pawsan group was closer to Koshihikari (japonica). Among the local varieties in Myanmar,
Meedon rice, which is one of the five rice varietal groups in Myanmar, is important for local
adaptability, grain quality, premium price and market availability. Minn San Thein et al., (2012)carried out a study to assess genetic diversity and to analyze population structure of Meedon rice
germplasm conserved in Myanmar Seed Bank using SSR markers. 154 accessions of Meedon rice
germplasm were analyzed with nine SSR markers. A total of 86 alleles were detected with anaverage of 9.6 alleles per locus. All the loci were found to be polymorphic, and there wereconsiderable genetic variation among accessions with mean values of expected heterozygosity(HE) = 0.5774 and polymorphic information content (PIC) = 0.5496. High frequency of rare alleles
was identified, among which 35 unique (accession-specific) alleles were observed. Based on cluster
analysis, the three population groups consist of 105 accessions, 43 accessions and 6 accessions
indicating the inclusion of non-Meedon rice accessions, which was about one-third of the
germplasm, and it was a large proportion. This study revealed that the small number of SSR
markers is possible for discriminating Meedon and non-Meedon rice. Yamanaka et al., (2011)
conducted a study on genetic variation in Myanmar by using 12 SSR markers. 41 out of 83 strains
were obtained from the Myanmar seedbank. The other 42 strains were directly sampled fromagricultural fields in the areas where the seed-bank materials were originally derived. The geneⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

diversity were 0.809 in seed-bank and 0.826 in on-farm. This suggested that on-farm material wascomparatively more diverse than the seed-bank samples.
Isozyme analyses classified majority of the rice cultivars into six groups; group-I corresponds
to the indica and group-VI refers to both temperate and tropical japonica. Groups II, III, IV and V
were classified as indicas conventionally (Glaszmann, 1987). Recently, a diversity analysis was
conducted using DNA markers on Myanmar rice varieties and found that some varieties fromisozyme group-V appeared to be japonica types. Thawda et al., (2005) analyzed 31 rice varieties
from Myanmar and they reported that the rice varieties, in isozyme group-V (Singh, 2000; Khushet al., 2003) could also be considered as japonica. Therefore, Moe Moe Oo et al., (2009) conducteda research to obtain more information on Myanmar rice varieties from isozyme group-V for proper
genetic resource conservation and management. A total of 43 microsatellite primers were utilized
and 41 primers showed polymorphism among the 52 accessions. The number of alleles per locus
detected by microsatellite primers varied from 2 to 15 with an average of 5.63 alleles per primer.
The highest polymorphism was observed at RM334 on chromosome no.5 which showed 15 alleles.
According to the cluster analyses, most of the Myanmar rice varieties from the isozyme group-V
are genetically closer to japonica and a few of them are found closer to indica. The dendrogram
reveals two main groups with the genetic similarity of 0.476. The group-I consisted 5 rice varieties
including indica control and 4 Myanmar rice varieties with maximum genetic similarity of 0.520.
The group-II was formed cluster by 48 Myanmar rice varieties together with temperate japonica
control and tropical japonica control. All the rice varieties in group-II possess japonica type DNA
in both nuclear and chloroplast genomes. Therefore, it is assumed that the rice varieties from thegroup-I are genetically closer to indica and the group-II closer japonica.
Table 2 Number of alleles and gene diversity of rice landraces from Myanmar andstandard strains observed for 10 SSR loci
Locus
RM1
RM7
RM19
RM20A
RM20B
RM120
RM164
RM167
RM241
OSR21
Average

Alleles/locus
MyanmarStandard
9
4
18
9
10
11
15
10
18
8
11
5
17
12
17
10
15
10
20
14
15
9.3

Gene diversity
MyanmarStandard
0.876
0.718
0.939
0.839
0.930
0.919
0.877
0.911
0.918
0.888
0.885
0.851
0.919
0.904
0.908
0.888
0.879
0.888
0.922
0.900
0.905
0.871

According to Htay Htay Aung (2007), SSR analysis revealed high variation among the
Myanmar rice varieties. There are 202 alleles in 132 accessions using 34 SSR loci, the Myanmar
rice varieties showed 197 alleles. The average alleles per locus for all accessions and Myanmar rice
varieties are 5.94, and 5.79, respectively. The average gene diversity for all accessions is 0.71
while for the Myanmar rice varieties, it is 0.70. This indicates that high gene diversity exists among
Myanmar rice varieties. The dendrogram based on cluster analysis of SSR markers generated two
major clusters. Cluster I consisted of mostly japonica, javanica and high quality aromatic rice types.
Cluster II corresponded to the indica group. Glutinous rice varieties are mostly scattered in cluster
II with a few included in cluster I. It has been indicated that most glutinous cultivars arose
independently from indica types. Myanmar rice varieties represented a genetically diverse andheterogeneous group with multiple alleles at many of the SSR loci. Genetic polymorphism of ten
microsatellites loci were examined in 100accessions of rice including 77 landraces from Myanmar,
3 cultivated varieties from Japan, 4 from China, 1 from Vietnam, 4 from Philippines, 5 from
Taiwan area, 6 from India and 2 from Indonesia (San San Yi et al., (2005). Those other varieties
were representative strains for each country (Oka, 1958). In this study, RM 1 produced the smallestⒸ ISERD

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number of alleles per locus and OSR 21 generated the largest number in both samples. Range ofalleles per locus is 9-20 and totally 150 alleles in Myanmar strains and 4-14 and totally 93 alleles
for standard strains. Therefore, in Myanmar samples, total and average numbers of alleles arehigher than those in standard strains. Gene diversity of Myanmar strain is also greater than standard
strains from different Asia countries (Table 2). Oka (1988) also stated that the diversity of Oryza
sativa is the highest in Myanmar compared with other Southeast Asia countries because thesestandard strains are core collection of landraces of Asian rice that seeds were donated from
National Institute of Genetics (Japan). In cluster analysis, it produced 5 main clusters. 4 maingroups are indica and the other one is japonica rice group.
Table 3 Informative primers
SSR locus
RM1
RM263
RM7
RM241
RM164
OSR21
RM11
RM72
RM3164
RM271
RM167
RM247

Chromosome
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

No. of alleles
12
17
18
15
17
20
9
11
8
8
17
9

Gene diversity
0.90
0.62
0.94
0.88
0.92
0.92
0.80
0.81
0.80
0.84
0.91
0.77

CONCLUSION
Overall we can conclude that microsatellites are useful markers and they detect a high level ofallelic variation and give an understanding of the genetic relationships and diversity among the
Myanmar rice varieties. SSRs can also be used not only in rice germplasm evaluation but also
effectively in indica-japonica differentiation. According to the survey articles, the genetic diversityof over 600 Myanmar landraces have been evaluated by using 148 SSR loci, which are distributed
all over the 12 chromosomes. Despite this, the publications involving genetic diversity
measurement using microsatellites are still rare in Myanmar rice varieties because around 7,000
accessions are kept in the Seed Bank at the Department of Agricultural Research, Myanmar. Basedon the level of polymorphism detected by individual primers, the most informative primers wereidentified with different polymorphic bands (Table 3). Therefore, future research studies of genetic
variation should be performed on Myanmar rice landraces through the use of those highpolymorphic SSR loci.
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1996. Microsatellite and their application to conservation genetics. In Smith, T.B. and Wayne, R.K.
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L.N., Jiang, Y. and Shata, M.A.M. 2003. Classifying rice germplasm by Isozyme polymorphism andorigin of cultivated rice. International Rice Research Institute, Discussion Paper, 46, Philippines.
Mausa, E.A. 2014. Genetic diversity of rice (Oryza sativa L.) landraces conserved at the national genebank
as revealed by simple sequence repeat (SSR) DNA markers. MS Thesis, University of Agriculture.
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Minn San Thein, Lee, G.A., Cho, K.T., Sung, J.S., Jeong, J.W., Park, J.H. and Baek, H.J. 2012. Assessmentof genetic diversity in Meedon Rice (Oryza sativa L.) germplasm. Journal of the Korean Society ofInternational Agriculture, 24 (2), 232-240.
Min Soe Thein, Htay Htay Aung, Ye Win Aung, Nan Su San, Thanda Tin, Wah Wah Lwin, Ko Ko Maung,
Pa Pa Aung and Khin Maung Thet. 2014. Variation of some pawsan rice (Oryza. sativa L.) cultivars ofMyanmar using morphological, physiochemical and molecular characters. Proceedings of the Eighth
Agricultural Reserach Conference in Commemoration of the 90 th Anniversary of Yezin Agricultural
University, Myanmar, 60-71, Myanmar.
Moe Moe Oo, Thawda Myint, Wunna, Khin Maung Thet, Yamanaka, S. and Watanabe, K.N. 2009. A study
on Myanmar rice varieties from isozyme classification group. V. Myanmar Academy of Agricultural,
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Myanmar.
Oka, H.I. 1958. Intervital variation and classification of cultivated rice. Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant
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Oka, H.I. 1988. Origin of cultivated rice. Japan Scientific Societies Press, Elsevier, 121.
San San Yi, Kyaw Win, Hu, J. and Fujimura, T. 2005. Polymorphism of microsatellities in some Myanmar
rice varieties. Myanmar Academy of Agricultural, Forestry, Livestock and Fishery Sciences, Proceedingof the Annual Research Conference, 1, 63-89, Myanmar.
Singh, V.P. 2000. The basmati rice of India. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 137-153, New Dehli.
Svetlana, T., William, P.D., Nicola, A., Sam, C., Hauck, N., Leonard, L., Gu, C.Y., Ishii, T. and McCouch
S.R. 2000. Mapping and genome organization of microsatellite sequences in rice (Oryza sativa L.).
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Thawda Myint, Aung, P.P., Khin Maung Thet, Yamanaka, S. and Watanabe, K.N. 2005. Genetic
identification of some rice varieties using PBA markers. Proceeding of Myanmar Academy ofAgricultural, Forestry, Livestock and Fishery Sciences, 7 (9), 518-532.
Wunna, Watanabe, K.N., Ohsawa, R., Obara, M., Yanagihara, S., Aung, P.P. and Fukuta, Y. 2016. Genetic
variation of rice (Oryza sativa L.) germplasm in Myanmar based on genomic compositions of DNA
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Yamanaka, S., Jatoi, S.A., San San Yi, Kothari, S.L., Tin Htut and Watanabe, K.N. 2011. Genetic diversityof Myanmar rice and their implementation on management methods. African Journal of Biotechnology,
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Yu, S.B., Xu, W.J., Vijayakumar, C.H., Ali, J., Fu, B.Y., Xu, J.L., Jiang, Y.Z., Marghirang, R., Domingo, J.,
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Research article
erd

Evaluation of Seed Cane Treatments on Sugarcane
Germination in Two Planting Methods
KHAING THA ZIN OO*
Department of Agronomy, Yezin Agricultural University, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
Email: kthazinoo5@gmail.com

AUNG MYO THANT
Department of Agronomy, Yezin Agricultural University, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar

KYAW KYAW WIN
Department of Agronomy, Yezin Agricultural University, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar

KYI TOE
Department of Plant Breeding, Physiology and Ecology, Yezin Agricultural University,
Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar

EI EI KHAING
Yezin Agricultural University, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
Received 31 December 2017

Accepted 15 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The experiments were conducted in the glasshouse of Sugarcane Research andDevelopment Farm, Pyinmana to evaluate the effect of seed cane treatments on sugarcane
germination of K-95/84 variety in two planting methods from August-October 2015 andJune-August 2016. The glasshouse experiments were conducted in 2×4 factorial
arrangement in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCB) with three replications. It
evaluated two different planting methods (single budded setts and three budded setts) withpre-planting treatments by using different levels of lime (0, 7.5, 15, 22.5 g l-1), different
levels of topsin fungicide (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 g l-1) and different degree of hot water (0, 50, 52,
54˚C). Single budded setts gave the earliest and higher percentage of germination than threebudded setts. Among the pre-planting treatments, the earliest and higher percentage ofgermination was obtained from the lowest level of lime 7.5 g l-1 (L1), topsin fungicide 0.5 g
l-1 (F1) and hot water 50˚C (H1) treatments. As a combined effect of two factors, single
budded setts with lime 7.5 g l-1 (SL1), topsin fungicide 0.5 g l-1 (SF1) and single budded setts
with hot water 50˚C (SH1) gave maximum germination. Thus, this study highlighted thatthe single budded setts with lime 7.5 g l-1, topsin fungicide 0.5 g l-1 and hot water 50˚Ctreatment should be used for the uniformity of germination.
Keywords sugarcane, planting method, pre-planting treatment, germination

INTRODUCTION
Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is one of the priority crops for many regions of the world including
Myanmar. Its domestic production, local consumption and international trade were graduallyprogressed in Myanmar (MOAI, 2005).
Seed material is one of the costlier inputs in sugarcane and accounts for nearly 25% of thetotal production. The conventional use of three-eye setts imposes high cost to the estate andgrowers resulting in the shortage of planting materials. The use of high planting rates also forces anincrease in the acreage of seed cane which competes for fertile land (Netsanet et al., 2014). The
size of the cutting has a significant effect on both the percentage of germinated buds and the vigourof the cane plants (Croft, 2000).

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

The planting materials which have suitable sett size and seed rate, without any harmful effecton plant stand, may help in receiving higher cane yield with lower cost of production (Patel and
Rinku, 2014). Moreover, pre-planting treatments should be used to protect the crop from soil borne
diseases, sett rotting and damage to buds which affected the germination. It may be achieved about
60% by sett treatment which is quite simple and cheap (Sundara, 1998).
In Myanmar, most of the sugarcane farmers used to grow three-budded setts as planting
materials without pre-planting treatments. It seems that three-budded setts generally cannot givethe uniform germination as of an individual bud and damage to the setts can cause large gaps along
the cane rows. To overcome the poor germination and poor crop stand, the suitable cane treatments,
cane sett size and planting methods are essential for commercial sugarcane planting. Based on theabove information, it seems that the evaluation of germination is still the critical component insugarcane cultivation as well as varietal assessment before releasing a new variety (Sanda Kyaw
Win and San Thein, 2006).
OBJECTIVESThis study aimed to find out the suitable seed cane treatment for uniform germination and crop
stand, and to compare germination percentage and vigorous of sugarcane affected by seed canetreatments and planting methods.
METHODOLOGY
These glasshouse experiments were conducted in 2×4 factorial arrangement in Randomized
Complete Block (RCB) design with three replications in Sugarcane Research and Development
Farm, Pyinmana. It evaluated on two different planting methods (single budded setts and threebudded setts) with three pre-planting treatments which include different levels of lime (0, 7.5, 15,22.5 g l-1), different levels of topsin fungicide (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 g l-1) and different degree of hot water(0, 50, 52, 54˚C). Zero (0) levels in each experiment referred to as control treatments. The canesetts used in all treatments were cut into single budded setts and three budded setts before planting.
These two sets of cane setts cuttings were soaked in each solution of different pre-planting
treatments for 30 minutes.
The numbers of shoots germinated were counted at 3 days interval from 4 to 45 days after
planting (DAP). The WGP and FGP were calculated by the equation (1) and (2) (Al-Mudaris,
1998).
Weighted Germination Percentage (WGP) =[rth ×n1+(r−1)th ×n2+⋯+1th× n15]100
15× N

(1)

Where n1, n2,…, n15 are the number of cane setts germinated on the 1st, 2nd and consequentdays until 45 DAP in each which is multiplied by the counting times, r th (up to 15th count in thisexperiment). The weighted germination percentage (WGP) was calculated by giving maximum
weight to the seeds that germinated first and progressively less weight to that germinated setts
subsequently. N is the total number of eye buds placed for germination.
Final germination percentage - Germination count is only based on the number of eye-buds
per row, regardless of the cane sett length.
Final Germination Percentage (FGP) =final number of shoots germinated× 100
total number of eye buds seeded(2)

The data were subjected to analysis of variance by using Statistix (version-8) software andmean comparisons were done by Least Significant Different (LSD) at 5% level.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONⒸ ISERD

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Weighted Germination Percentage (WGP) and Final Germination Percentage of Lime
Experiment
There was highly significant different in weighted germination percentage (WGP) in lime
experiment. In lime experiment, single budded setts gave faster germination speed, also called
WGP than three budded setts overall in Table 1, although they were the same germination
percentage at last. There was 482.02% in WGP in single budded sett planting whereas 360.25%
WGP in three budded sett planting method. However, there was no difference in the germinatedbuds at the end, which both accounted for nearly 87% of final germination percentage (FGP).
According to Singh and Gurpreet (2015), a small volume of tissue and a single root primordial
adhering to the bud are adequate to ensure germination of the bud. This finding was also observedby Chen et al.1981 that pretreatments such as soaking the seed cuttings in solutions of CaCO3,
MgSO4, and KOH could enhance the germination of sugarcane cuttings under laboratory
conditions.
Fig. 1 shows that different levels of lime treatment were statistically significant in WGP in twoplanting methods but not in FGP. There was no noticeably different in WGP in each planting
methods but single budded sett planting method is superior to three budded sett planting. The lime
level (7.5 g l-1) should be selected because of low amount of dosage which would be economical
for the farmers.
Table 1 Comparison of WGP and FGP in different levels of treatments in two planting
methods
Lime Experiment
Fungicide Experiment
Hot Water Experiment
WGP (%)
FGP (%)WGP (%)
FGP (%)WGP (%)
FGP (%)
Single budded setts
482.02 a87.77 a493.79 a
92.22 a367.22 a75.55 aThree budded setts
360.25 b
87.22 a355.05 b
83.88 b321.82 a
81.66 a
LSD0.05
42.87
10.49
33.23
7.86
51.37
9.47
Pr>F
<0.01
0.91
<0.01
0.04
0.08
0.19
CV%
11.63
13.70
8.94
10.20
17.03
13.77
Mean values followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different at 5% LSD level.
Planting Methods

Weighted Germination Percentage (WGP) and Final Germination Percentage (FGP) of
Topsin Fungicide Experiment
As in lime experiment, the two planting methods were highly significantly different in WGP in
topsin fungicide experiment (Table 1). Single budded sett planting method gave the higher speed ofgermination than three-eye setts. The WGP in single budded sett was 493.79% which was almost
one-third higher than that of three budded sett planting (355.05%).
There was also significant different in final germination percentage in fungicide experiment at
LSD 5% level. Single budded sett planting showed the higher germination which accounted for
92.22% compared to the 83.88% in FGP of three budded sett planting (Table 1). Talukder et al.
(2007) reported that systemic fungicides helped in improving sugarcane sett germination by theprotection from the fungus disease and similarly significantly increased the cane yield.
In Fig. 2, it can be concluded that single budded sett planting was higher in WGP and FGP ineach different levels of topsin fungicide treatments. None of topsin fungicide treatments weresignificantly different with each other in both WGP and FGP except the control treatments (zerolevel of fungicide which means spraying water only to the plants). Therefore, the lowest level oftopsin fungicide (0.5 g l-1) can be recommended to treat the cane setts before planting if thegrowers wished to use fungicide treatments.
Weighted Germination Percentage (WGP) and Final Germination Percentage (FGP) of Hot
Water Experiment
In hot water experiment, there were not statistically different in weighted germination and finalⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

germination in both planting methods (Table 1).

Fig. 1 Weighted germination percentage (WGP) and final germination percentage (FGP) as
affected by different levels of lime treatment in two plating methods

Fig. 2 Weighted germination percentage (WGP) and final germination percentage (FGP) as
affected by different levels of topsin fungicide treatment in two planting methods

Fig. 3 Weighted germination percentage (WGP) and final germination percentage (FGP) as
affected by different degree of hot water treatment in two planting methodsⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

However, the combined effect of planting methods and different levels of hot water treatments
were significantly different in both WGP and FGP (Fig. 1). The hot water level (52˚C) showed thehighest percentage in WGP in both planting methods which was not statistically differ from 50˚Cof hot water. The slowest speed of germination was observed at the hot water level (54˚C). Trippi(1961) stated that the germination of the buds in sugarcane cuttings was stimulated by hot water
treatment at 50˚C. Similarly, Goodall (1998) reported that ratoon stunting disease is eliminated andgermination is not unduly adversely affected by using the shortening heat treatment.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, these experiments were conducted to determine the suitable seed cane treatment forsugarcane germination which will support for the farmers in choosing the seed cane treatment
before planting. In addition, the experiment can reveal the suitable planting method for the farmers
who normally familiar with the three budded sett planting techniques in Myanmar.
The results showed that single budded sett planting gave the higher germination percentage interms of speed and the final germinated buds. Single budded sett planting were higher in WGP thanthose of three budded sett planting method in both lime and topsin fungicide treatments.
Among the different levels of treatments, the lowest levels of lime, topsin fungicide and hot
water degree showed the higher percentage and speed of germination in both planting methods. As
a recommendation, this research should be undertaken for further study in different regions anddifferent seasons of the country to verify the strong result in sugarcane cultivation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Dr. Myo Kywe (Rector), Dr. Kyaw Kyaw Win (Head ofAgronomy) and the administrative team of Yezin Agricultural University for their cooperation
throughout this research. In addition, we appreciate a partial support of this research by Myanma
Awba Group Co. ltd. for funding and the Sugarcane Research and Development Farm, Pyinmana
for allowing to conduct experiments in their glasshouses.
REFERENCES
Al-Mudaris, A.M. 1998. Notes on various parameters recording the speed of seed germination. Der.
Tropenlandalrt, 2, 147-154.
Chen, J.B., Lo, C.C., Yang, C.P. and Ho, W.F. 1981. Effect of freshness and pretreatment on the germinationof seed cuttings of sugar cane variety ROC 1. Rept., Taiwan, Sug. Res. Inst., 93, 1-10.
Croft, J.B. 2000. Literature review of improving the germination of sugarcane. Sugar Research Australia Ltd.
Bureau of Sugarcane Experiment Stations Queensland, Australia. 15.
Dillewijn, V.C. 1952. Botany of Sugarcane. The Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, Mass. 371.
Goodall, L.J. 1998. Factors affecting germnation and growth of sugarcane tranplants. Master of Science.
Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of Natal, 170, Pietermaritzburg.
MOAI. 2005. Myanmar agriculture planning. Master Plan from 1999-2000 to 2029-2030, Ministry ofAgriculture and Irrigation, Myanmar.
Netsanet, A., Abiy, G., Tadesse, N. and Zinaw, D. 2014. Effect of planting density on yield and yield effectof planting density on yield and yield. Scholarly Journal of Agricultural Science, 4 (12), 583-586.
Patel, D. and Rinku, P. 2014. Influence of sett size, seed rate and sett treatment on yield and quality ofsugarcane. The Bioscan, 9 (1), 55-57.
Singh, G. and Gurpreet, K. 2015. Infusion of single bud chip planting technique for sugarcane propagation.
Journal of Economics and Development, 11 (1), 10-15.
Sundara, B. 1998. Sugarcane cultivation. Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 156-234, New Delhi.
Talukderr, I.M., Begum, F. and Azad, M.K.M. 2007. Management of pineapple disease of sugarcane throughbiological means. J. Agric. Rural Dev., 5 (1 and 2), 79-83.
Trippi, V.S. 1961. Action of hot and cold water on the germination of cane. Sugar Azucar, 56 (10), 38.
Win, K.S. and Thein, S. 2006. Effects of variety, methods of fertilizer placement, and seed-pieces treatmentsⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

on germination response of sugarcane. Proceeding of Second Agricultural Research Conference, 236-237,
Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw.

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Research article
erd

Equivalency and Similarity Assessment of Forest Ecosystem
Services by a Multi-Point Field Survey in Nagoya City,
Japan
KIICHIRO HAYASHI*
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Email: maruhaya98--@imass.nagoya-u.ac.jp

WATARU KOBAYASHI
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan

MAKOTO OOBANational Institute for Environmental Studies, Fukushima Branch, Miharu, Japan
Received 31 January 2018

Accepted 15 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Urban forests provide a variety of benefits to citizens, including micro climate
regulation, soil erosion regulation, and wildlife habitats. Under the biodiversity offset system,
the equivalency and similarity of biodiversity and ecosystem services (BD/ESs) are importantbut controversial issues. The purpose of this study is to develop a simple method to assess
aspects of the equivalency and similarity of forest BD/ESs and consider their applicability tobiodiversity conservation policy. The study was conducted on a selection of 41 forests in
Nagoya City. Several combinations of forests were recognized as similar providers of
BD/ESs. Historical land-use change was also important in assessing forest equivalency andsimilarity for biodiversity conservation policy.
Keywords ecosystem service, biodiversity, forest, Japan, GIS

INTRODUCTION
Urban forests provide many benefits to citizens, including micro climate regulation, soil erosion
regulation, and habitats for wildlife. According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA,2005), these benefits can be summarized as ecosystem services (ESs) provided to human society.
There are several types of forest, including urban parks, secondary forests, and natural forests. Eachplays a different role in providing biodiversity (BD) and ESs. Despite their proven benefits, urban
forests in Japan have been decreasing over the past several decades. Biodiversity offsets (BO) are apolicy instrument developed to compensate for the loss of BD by development activities (BBOP,
2013). Madsen et al. (2010) summarized the global state of BO systems, and reported that the USA
and Australia are experienced in this field. In contrast, there is no legal requirement to conduct BO
in Japan on the national scale, although a basic guideline of the environmental impact assessment
law recommends compensating for the impacts of a development project on BD (MOE-J, 2014).
Many issues related to the BO system have been identified, including metrics, ecologicalequivalency, and no-net loss (Maron et al., 2012; Bull et al., 2013; Koyama and Okabe, 2017).
Additionally, the positive outcomes of BO have occasionally been overestimated (Pickett, 2013;
Gibbons et al., 2017). Nevertheless, BO has been recognized as a biodiversity conservation policy
and its potential use has been studied (MOE-J, EIA Division, 2014), with a focus on important
issues such as gains and losses of biodiversity in the BO system. Many BO related assessment
methods have been implemented and studied (Quétier and Lavorel, 2011), including the Habitat
Hectares method (The State of Victoria, https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/native-vegetation/native-vegetation), and the BioBanking assessment methodology (The State of New South Wales,
http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/biobanking/assessmethodology.htm), both in Australia.
Another study focused on the development of objective and transparent BO assessment methodsⒸ ISERD

20

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2(Gibbons et al., 2009). Koyama and Okabe (2017) summarized many issues related to the potential
application of the BO system in Japan. Several case studies have also touched on the applicabilityof BO methods in Japan (Hasegawa and Hayashi, 2014; Ito and Hayashi, 2014). However, not only
species, habitat, and ecosystems, but also the similarity of potential ESs needs to be considered in
the future (MOE-J, EIA-Division, 2014; Koyama and Okabe, 2017). In the study on supporting andregulating ESs, Yonekura et al. (2014) categorized forests into several types based on a simple fieldsurvey for 52 forests in Nagoya. Hayashi and Ooba (2017) analyzed the categorization of culturalESs (CESs) based on a multi-point field survey for 180 forest sites in Nagoya City. These studies
were limited both in the scope of ESs covered and in the assessment items included in the survey.
A comprehensive assessment of BD/ES potential is needed in order to develop a simple assessment
method.
OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this study is to develop a simple method, one that could be used in the developmentof biodiversity conservation policy, to assess the equivalency and similarity aspects of forest
BD/ESs. To this end, a case study was done in Nagoya City using a multi-point field survey. The
scope of this study was expanded to cover a variety of BD/ESs, in contrast with the study ofHayashi and Ooba (2017), which focused only on cultural ESs.
METHODOLOGY
Study Method
Nagoya City (city hall: 35.181°N, 136.906°E) is the third largest city in Japan. The study area ispresented in Fig 1. The average annual temperature and precipitation in 2017 were 15.9°C and1701.5 mm (Japan Meteorological Agency, http://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/index.php).

Fig. 1 Maps of (a) Japan with Nagoya City as a star symbol, (b) Nagoya City outlined inblack and forest in green, and (c) a sample of targeted forests with 1955 land use map
Source: Forest by Nagoya green coverage GIS (Nagoya City) and 1955 Land-use maps by GSI (1955)

In this paper, forests were defined as the continuous tree crown area within a forest area ≥1 ha.
Based on the Nagoya green coverage GIS (geographic information system) data provided by
Nagoya City, around 200 forests (of around 240 total forests in the city) have been surveyed since2012. The survey items included species; the diameter at breast height (DBH ≥ 5cm ); tree height;
litter thickness; over-, mid-, and understory canopy cover (assessed visually); and naturalness. The
items, proxies, methods, and data are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. The carbon stock estimation
method is explained below. The surveys were conducted in a similar manner to Hayashi and Ooba
(2015). A second round surveys (referred to hereafter as the 2nd survey) on the same forests was
begun in 2016, including additional items and expanding the survey coverage to a 300 m2 area. In
some cases, the location of the site had to be changed to allow the extension of survey coveragearea. For several forests, new 200 m2 sites were set up in addition to the original 100 m2 sites. InⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

this study, the results from the 2nd survey were used along with several first round results that had
enough data for this analysis. Bamboo was counted as one independent species, and the number ofindividual trees included the number of individual bamboo trees (counted only within 100 m2 andconverted to the 300 m2 value). The 2nd survey is not yet complete for all targeted forest sites. For
this study, 41 forest sites were selected.
Table 1 BD/ES items, proxies, methods and data
BD/ES

BD

RES

SES

Item

Proxy

Conservation area

C_A

Habitat size

Forest area

Species diversity

Simpson' DI

Naturalness

Naturalness

Micro climate
regulation
Soil erosion
regulation
Carbon Stock

ForestvolumeForest flow
cover
C-Stock

Soil formation

Litter(thickness)

MethodCheck special green
conservation areas designatedby Nagoya City and Aichi Pref.
Continuous tree crown areas (≥1ha)
Details in Table 2
Subjective judgement on a scaleof 1 to 5 scale by the author

Data
Nagoya City urban planning
information providing service, URL:
http://www.tokei-gis.city.nagoya.jp/
Nagoya green coverage GIS(Nagoya
City)
Based on field survey

Details in Table 2
Details in Table 2
Details in the main text
Three points in each 100 m2
area and averaging the results ofseveral visits

Based on field survey

Table 2 BD/ES estimation methods

Species diversity

FormulaThe diversity of species is an important indicator for explaining
the ecological community diversity. Hasegawa and Hayashi.
(2014) compared several diversity related indexes including
Simpson’ Diversity index (Simpson’s DI) to the results of a BO
assessment methodology. In this study, Simpson’ DI was used
to explain within-habitat diversity in Formula 1 (Simpson,
1949; Morishita, 1996; Ohgaki, 2008). Individual species andthe number of the species were used to calculate Simpson’ DI.

Micro climate regulation

Description

Hiruta and Ishikawa (2012) studied the heat-reduction effect bygreen spaces, which compared three indicators: forest canopy
coverage, tree volume, and ground coverage. They concluded
that tree volume had the largest effect on the heat-reduction,
especially for daytime in summer. Our study focused on the
micro climate regulation in a summer daytime. Forest volume
was picked out as a proxy in this study by Formula 2 using
forest cover and average tree heights (DBH ≥ 5 cm) (Kobayashi
et al., 2016). The height of bamboo trees (only 5 selectedbamboo trees were measured in the bamboo forest) were
included in the average tree heights and forest cover.

Soil erosion regulationESs

For soil erosion regulation, Chu et al. (2010) studied therelationship between forest floor cover and soil erosion. They
concluded that the total forest floor cover (understory and litter
cover) was correlated with soil erosion rate in the case of
Tanzawa mountain area, Japan. In this study, forest floor cover
was selected as a proxy for soil erosion regulation. Forest floor
cover was the totaled score of understory tree (0 to 1 m height),
grassland, bamboo grass and fern coverages with litter coverage
averaged by several visits through the field survey in 100 m2
site by the author’s visual judgement.

Ⓒ ISERD

22𝑛

𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝐷𝐼 = 1 − 𝛴 ( 𝑖)𝑁(1)

N : number of individuals
ni : number of each species

Vi = 104 * (CovHov - (1 - Cov)CmidHmid)+(1 Cov)(1 - Cmid)CundHund}(2)
Vi : forest volume in 100 m2 site i (m3/ha)
Cov : overstory cover (10 m<)
Cmid : midstory cover (10 m≥, >5 m)
Cund : understory cover (5 m≥, > 1m)
Hov : average height of overstory trees (m)Hmid : average height of midstory trees (m)Hund : average height of understory trees (m)Cforest = Cund + {(1-Cund)Clit}(3)

Cforest : forest floor cover(%)
Clit : litter cover(%)
Cund : understory cover (%, understory tree (01m), grassland, bamboo grass and fern)

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

In Hayashi and Ooba (2017), CES forest use in Nagoya was evaluated subjectively (n=180).
Seven CES items (CES7) were developed, taking into account four basic parameters: forest area,
scenic districts (S_D), shrine or temple (S_T), and major attraction facilities listed by the city
(A_F). Then a clustering analysis was conducted to categorize forests into several types. The
results of the clustering analysis were used as the CES values in this study.
For the carbon stock survey, DBH (≥ 5 cm) and the tree height (H) were measured by a 15 m
tree height pole (SK measurement pole AT-15, Senshin Industry Co.) supported by a Laser range
finder (Nikon Laser 550A S) to calculate above ground biomass (AGB) as in Kobayashi et al.
(2019). First, DBH and H were measured for each tree in a 100 m2 area. H was only measured for
100 m2 sites, so the H of the 300 m2 sites were estimated by Formula 4 (Matsumura, 2003). The
values of a and b were estimated by using the DBH and H values for conifer-, deciduous- andevergreen broad leaf trees measured in the 100 m2 area. The values of DBH and H used to estimate
a and b were taken from the 41 forests for which a 100 m2 area had been surveyed, along withvalues from additional four sites in the city (in total 45 sites). Yamamoto (1985) and Matsumura(2003) compared several tree height curves including Näslund, Allometry referring to Nishizawa(1972). In this study, the Näslund equation was used for coniferous, deciduous, and evergreen
forests based on Matsumura (2003). These results are summarized in Table 3. By using DBH and H,
the AGBs of each tree were estimated based on Tadaki et al. (2004) in Formulas 5 and 6.
Underground biomass was assumed to be one fourth of AGB and the carbon content of the biomass
was assumed to be 4/9 of the total biomass as in Tadaki et al. (2004). According to Tadaki et al.
(2004), the AGBcon was estimated to apply for Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora). This wastentatively used for other conifer trees in this study.
For the AGB of bamboo trees, Okuda et al. (2006) developed a simple estimate (Formulas 7 to
9). Averaged DBH of bamboo trees for 5 selected individuals were used for the estimation,
multiplied by the number of bamboo trees in each 100 m2 site with 4/9 of carbon content. In thecase of no bamboo tree in a 100 m2 site, a 100-300 m2 converted figure was used as a 100 m2 value.
Lastly, the number of dead trees was
Table 3 Estimated equation parametersroughly estimated by Formula 5 and 7 on the 100abm2 sites by visual estimation of the DBH (≥ 5
Evergreen broad leaf tree (n=586) 1.4089 0.2109
cm) and length of dead trees, and using the
average H of bamboo trees. After that, all the
Deciduous broad leaf tree (n=210) 1.2622 0.2017
carbon contents including tree carbon, tree AGB
Conifer tree (n=16)
1.2092 0.2161
of bamboo and dead trees were summed to Note: R2 values 0.918, 0.965 and 0.937, respectively.
obtain carbon stock per ha.
𝐷𝐵𝐻= 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∗ 𝐷𝐵𝐻√𝐻(4)

H : tree height
AGB br = 0.0601*(DBH2 * H)0.901
AGBcon = 0.0278*(DBH2 * H)0.990
a, b : parameters ; AGBbr : AGB of broad leaf tree
AGBcon : AGB of Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora)
AGBbam-cul = 0.0845 * DBH2.2275
AGMbam-bra = 0.047 * DBH1.5989
AGMbam-le = 0.0097 * DBH1.8388
AGBbam-cul : AGB of bamboo culm; AGMbam-bra : AGB of bamboo branch
AGMbam-le : AGB of bamboo leaf

(5)
(6)

(7)
(8)
(9)

The proxies defined above were normalized by dividing each proxy value by the maximum
value of that proxy, and then the equivalency and similarity of several aspects of the forest BD/ESs
were evaluated. First, correlations among the proxies were investigated by the Pearson correlationand the Spearman’s rho. Second, the 41 sites were classified by forest type. Conservation areas
were treated as a separate category. Third, for each forest type, forests were ordered by BD scoresand categorized into four groups (A to D). Fourth, within each group forests in the same CES7
category defined by Hayashi and Ooba (2017) were compared to each other. Finally, the land-useⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

changes from 1955 to 2017 were taken into consideration in conjunction with the distance betweensites. The land-use maps of 1955 provided by the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (GSI)
were digitized for analysis on the 10 m grid scale approximately as in Kobayashi et al. (2016,2019). Four land-use maps were used, namely Nagoya north, Nagoya south, Koromo, and Seto.
The statistical analysis was conducted using Excel version 2010 (Microsoft) and SPSS
statistics v.22 (IBM). ArcGIS 10.4.1 (ESRI Japan Inc.) was used for the spatial analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the correlations among the proxies are presented in the Table 4. BD (C_A) was wellcorrelated with RES (Forest_volume) and SES (C-stock and litter). RES (Forest_volume) was
significantly correlated with SES (C-stock). Generally, some of the BD proxies were positively
correlated with some of RES and SES proxies. BD (C_A) showed a positive correlation with CES(shrine/temple and cultural heritage value; 0.471** and 0.473**, respectively) and a negative
correlation with CES (daily recreation, holiday recreation and education; -0.343*, -0.499** and 0.387*, respectively by the Spearman’s rho). In Nagoya, conservation areas were located mostly inshrine/temple and recreational activities were not common in these as a whole.
The most frequent forest type classification was forest type 2 (secondary forest composed of
deciduous broad leaf tree), with 31 sites, followed by type 5 (evergreen broad leaf forest, 8 sites).
Four type 2 sites were conservation areas, which are important for the protection of natural habitats
and were thus treated differently. In total, 31 type 2 sites were used for further analysis.
After ordering by BD score, these 31 sites were categorized into 4 groups: A (BD <0.30); B(0.30≦ BD <0.45); C (0.45≦ BD <0.60); and D (0.60≦ BD). Fig. 2 shows the total score of each
forest ordered by total score of BD, RES and SES. Within each group, these total scores weresimilar. However, the CES scores of the groups were very different. Fig. 3 compares the averagescores in each group from A to D. The RES and SES scores of each group were similar except for
BD (C_A and forest area).
Table 4 Proxy correlations
Next, we employed the CES7
Forest_Forest
C-Stock
Littercategories from Hayashi and Ooba (2017)
volumefloor cover
to divide group B into sub-categories (B1
C_A
0.310 *
-0.1080.419 **
0.353 *
to B5). Fig. 4 presents the results of thisForest area
-0.001
0.079
0.243
0.175
categorization. The characteristics of the
Simpson' DI
0.047
0.301
0.242
0.305
BD, RES, and SES scores were similar
Forest_ volume
1.000
0.062
0.532 **
0.147*: Pearson Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
within sub-categories (Fig. 4 (a)).
**: Pearson Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
However, the CES proxy scores differedby sub-category (Fig. 4 (b)).
Finally, the relative site distanceswere investigated using GIS, and sites
within 100 m and 500 m of each otherwere selected for further analysis. Afterchecking the shrine and temple location
factor and the cultural heritage factor,
which were traditional aspects, land-use
Fig. 2 BD, RES, SES and CES scores by sitechanges from 1955 to 2017 were
C_A
considered. The results are shown in
A: BD <0.30
1.00
Forest0.80
B: 0.30≦ BD <0.45
LitterTable 5. Six site combinations were
area
0.60
C: 0.45≦ BD <0.60
0.40
recognized as being potentially similar.
0.20
D: 0.60≦ BD
Simpson'
C-Stock
0.00
Referring to the old land-use maps, inDIseveral of the 100 m distance
ForestNaturalncombinations, both sites were located
floor
ess
cover
within the same or neighboring forests in
Forest_v
olume
the past. This means that from the
Fig.
3
Radar
chart
of BD, RES and SES for A to D
perspective of this analysis, these siteⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

pairs had high similarity. Over the past several decades, these forest sites were fragmented byurbanization. Two site pairs within 500 m of each other were cemeteries in the past, according to
the land-use data. More data on past forest locations (such as old aerial photographs) is needed.
The equivalency and similarity assessment presented here could be used for a BO assessment oncethe scope of the BD/ES items has been extended.
CONCLUSION
This study focused on the(a)(b)
development of a simple method
for evaluating the equivalency
and similarity aspects of forest
BD/ESs through a multi-point
field survey in Nagoya City. Thismethod is potentially applicabletobiodiversity conservation
policy. Eight items from BD,
RES, and SES, along with several
Fig. 4 Radar charts of (a) BD, RES and SES and (b) CES
CES items from Hayashi andOoba (2017), were selected forTable 5 Equivalency and similarity aspects in forest type 2
assessment.
Finally,
severalcombinations were identified that Distanc Cate
SubSite ID
Old land-useegory
category
were recognized as providing
BB3
163,165
Same mixed forest
similar BD/ESs. Historical landB
B3
163,206
Neighboring mixed and conifer forest
use change was found to be ≦100m
B
B4
121,131
Same conifer forest
crucial to allow better judgement
BB2
134,139
Same cemeteryof forest equivalency andBB2
137,139
Same cemeterysimilarity in carrying out ≦500m
One was conifer forest with cleared area.
B
B3
166,167
The other was mixed forest. Both wereassessments for biodiversity
separated by agricultural landconservation policy, which havebeen pointed out from the context
of ES conservation in Ooba et al.
(2015).
The remaining issues can be summarized as follows. First, this study only includes the survey
results at 41 forests. Further field surveys covering the remainder of the forests in Nagoya City areneeded. Second, in this study 8 BD/ESs items were used. However, after completion of the forest
surveys, a wider variety of items should be considered. For example, fish-eye cameras, vegetation
coverage by 50 m transect survey, and variable species distribution would be useful.
C_A

B1

1.00

Litter0.80

Forest area

0.60
0.40
0.20

C-Stock

0.00

Simpson'DI

B2

Socialrelations

Scenicdistricts
1.00
0.80

B3
CulturalB4
heritage

0.60

B5

0.00

0.40
0.20

Spiritual/relig
ious

Forest floor
cover

Major
attractions

B2
B3
B4
B5

Aesthetic
value

Naturalness

Daily
recreation

Education

Forest_volume

B1

Shrine/temple

Holiday
recreation

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Nagoya City Greeniﬁcation and Public Works Bureau and the many forest owners
who gave us permission for the surveys. We thank N. Yoshino, N. Kawaguchi, J. Okata, H. Takagi,
T. Matsumoto, H. Sumi, T. Souphihalath and others for their assistance. This was supported by
KAKENHI15K00622 from JSPS, Japan and the Environment Research and Technology
Development Fund1-1401 from MOE-J, Japan. We also thank Editage for English language editing.
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Research article
erd

Theme-Community Based Adaptation Strategies Toward
Sustainable Rural Development: Case from a Local Tofu
Company in Saitama Prefecture, Japan
NINA N. SHIMOGUCHI*Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: n3nocon@nodai.ac.jp

HIROKI INAIZUMITokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

KENJI OMURO
NARO Western Regional Agricultural Research Center, Hiroshima, Japan
Received 31 December 2017

Accepted 15 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract There are several past researches conducted on “theme-community” wherein theinitiatives and/or relationship among stakeholders focus on a certain product or concept
regardless of traditional political boundaries. This paper focuses on tofu or its raw material,
soybean. Tofu is one of the main soybean processed products and an integral part of a
traditional meal in Japan. Although the amount of its domestic production and consumption
have only changed slightly, the number of tofu companies have been drastically decreased
from 50,000 in 1960 to 8,000 in 2014. This can be attributed to the inability of small-scale
tofu companies to compete with prevalent mass production of large-scale processing
companies, and to respond to the demand of supermarkets for much lower retail price. In
order to provide possible ways to gain resiliency for local small-scale companies, this study
aims to determine the adaptation strategies of a local tofu company in Saitama Prefecture,
Japan using the case study approach. Company visits and key informant interviews revealed
that the local tofu company conducted (1) product development in accordance with season,
farming community and consumer demand, (2) introduction of TEIKEI for soybean farmers,and (3) implementation of innovative selling activities. Moreover, these initiatives further
paved way for sustainable rural development. For further study, there is a need to determine
the development of its partnership with and its respective impact to the local soybean
farmers.
Keywords organic farming, soybean, TEIKEI, product development, selling

INTRODUCTION
There are several past researches conducted on “theme-community”1) wherein the initiatives and/or
relationship among stakeholders focus on a certain product or concept regardless of traditional
political boundaries. This paper focuses on tofu or its raw material, soybean. Tofu is one of themain soybean processed products and an integral part of a traditional meal in Japan. Although theamount of its domestic production and consumption have only changed slightly, the number of tofu
companies have drastically decreased from 50,000 in 1960 to 8,000 in 2014 (Zentoren, 2017). Thiscan be attributed to the inability of small-scale tofu companies to compete with prevalent mass
production of large-scale processing companies, and to respond to the demand of supermarkets formuch lower retail price.
In order to provide possible ways to gain resiliency2) for local small-scale companies, thisstudy aims to determine the adaptation strategies of a local tofu company (thereafter, LTC) in
Saitama Prefecture, Japan using the case study approach.
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METHODOLOGYThis study utilized the case study approach using both qualitative and quantitative data. Thisfocuses on the experiences of LTC operating in Tokigawa, Saitama Prefecture, Japan since 1946.
Tokigawa Town, which is located North-West of Tokyo, has a land size of 55.9 sq. km. andpopulation of 11,488 persons (TOT, 2017). Primary data were gathered from company visits andkey-informant interviews with President W (thereafter, PW) conducted in June and December 2015,
and November 2016. Gathered information included company profile and vision, company
development, relationship with other stakeholders, usage of locally-grown soybeans to name a few.
Moreover, preliminary and additional information were also gathered from the special lectures
given by PW about his tofu company during the Shimosato Farm Tour 3) in May 2015 and 2016,
respectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Profile of LTC
Table 1 shows the highlights on how LTC developed as a company, which was initially established asa family-managed konnyaku (jelly-like cake made from konnyaku flour) store by the founder (father
of PW) in 1946. Since konnyaku showed to be unsellable during summer, the family also engaged in
tofu business in 1951. Selling activities was mainly conducted by peddling in 1955, and expanded towholesale selling to local stores of food, vegetables and/or fish in 1965. PW took over the business in1979 when he realized that the founder was heavily affected by the passing of his mother. This was
also the time when PW, as then college graduate, gave up his dream to be an accountant.
Table 1 Highlights on the Development of LTC
Year
1946
1951
1955
1965
1979

1985
1992
1993
1997
2002
2003
2004
2005

2006
2007
2012

EventsFounder (Father of the current president) established a family-managed konyaku store in
Myokaku Village (Presently known as Tokigawa Town)
Engaged in family-managed tofu business
Mainly sold tofu by peddling
Started wholesale selling tofu in local stores of food, vegetable and/or fish
Mother of PW passed away
Took over the business from founder
Shifted to retail selling at supermarkets as main channel
Experienced business challenges due to extreme price competition among supermarkets
Started construction for tofu factory expansion
Secured parking lots for three (3) delivery vans
Met with organic farmers and consumers who prefer organic / natural produce
Shifted to direct store selling with “Territorial Development with Cultural Identity” as amanagement policy
Started being supplied by local farmers from Hatoyama Town, followed by Ogawa Town
Made improvements in the main store
Converted family business to a limited company (LTC) with 10 million yen capitalFounder passed away
Received the Saitama Governor Award for Agriculture and Forestry Division specifically for its
local production-local consumption initiatives
Moved the main store to new location for establishment of disposal facility and expansion of
parking space, and improvement of production/selling operations
Received the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Prize as the Best Food Retail Store(National Competition)
Reached 340 million yen in sales
Received The Mainichi Newspaper Agriculture Record Award
Started mobile store

Source: Key-Informant Interviews, June 2015, December 2015 and November 2016.
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In the early 1980s, most tofu companies were mainly dependent on supermarkets as main
channel. However, the price competition among supermarkets became extreme in 1985.
Supermarkets lowered the price from 80 yen per to 30 yen (US$1 = 119.49 yen, Mitsui Sumitomo
Bank, 1 December 2017) per pack to attract more customers. However, this resulted to great
financial burden for tofu companies, including LTC. In PWs search for other business options, PW
had the opportunity to start exchanging ideas with organic farmers (including Mr. Kaneko of
Shimosato Farm, pioneer organic farmer in Ogawa Town, Saitama) and consumers who preferorganic/natural produce in various study groups and events since 1993. By 1997, PW reformulated
its management policy to a company focusing on Territorial Development with Cultural Identity.
Specifically, PW “believes that safe and good quality foods are made based on good humanrelationships. Thus, the store will continue to keep promises to the society and to serve as thebridge for local farmers and consumers brought together by tofu making.” In order words,
connectedness with and among local farmers, customers, employees and other stakeholders are
significantly valued. In the same year, transactions with local farmers from Hatoyama and Ogawa
Towns were initiated.
In order to fulfill the management policy, improvements were made in the main store and PW
converted family business to a limited company in 2002, then the store moved to the current
location in 2005 to improve its production and selling operations, and its service to valued
customers.
Currently, LTC employs about 50 persons, including part-time, mostly residing within 15 km
away from the store, conveying that LTC also supports local employment. In addition to its own
local produce for local consumers, it also supports local farmers by allocating a corner at its store
for local vegetable, flowers and other local products. Since 2006, the annual company sales havebeen more than 300 million yen.
In recognition to LTCs various efforts and initiatives, PW has received various awards such as
Saitama Governor Award (2004), Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Prize as the Best
Food Retail Store (2005) and The Mainichi Newspaper Agriculture Record Award (2007).
Adaptation Strategies
Soybean-based TEIKEI: In order for LTC to offer various tofu products made from locallyproduced soybeans, LTC gives value and support to its soybean farmers through TEIKEI system.
LTC president first heard about TEIKEI4) (Producer-consumer co-partnership that is not limited tobuying-selling transaction) from Mr. Kaneko of Shimosato Farm and wanted to make a SoybeanBased TEIKEI. Currently, LTC’s basic policy in purchasing soybeans are (1) price is set at a point
wherein farmers can sustain its operations and replant for next season; (2) all harvested soybeans
are purchased; and (3) all payments are made in cash only.
Table 2 Local Soybean Supply of LTC by Location and Variety, 20141)
Location

Kumagawa City
Ranzan Town
Ogawa Town3)
Kawagoe City
Hatoyama Town
Total

AoyamaZairai2)
48,3830
13,5907,320
9,730
79,023

Soybean variety (kg)
Miyagi
Sato Irazu
ShakinShiromi
Nashi
0
0
360
4,350
9,900
2,730
0
0
0
0
6,240
0
0
0
0
4,350
16,140
3,090

Total
Tanba
Kuromame
138
0
0
0
0
138

48,743
16,98013,59013,5609,430
102,603

Source: Key-Informant Interview, December 2015.
1) In terms of size, LTC had been supplied with extra-large, large, medium and small sizes of soybean. Large sizedsoybeans accounted for 95% of the total supply.
2) Aoyama Zairai accounted for 77% of total supply.
3) Ogawa Town farmers supplied organically-grown (yuuki saibai) or specially cultivated (tokubetsu saibai) soybean.
Organically-grown soybeans accounted for 38% of total supply from Ogawa farmers.

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Table 2 shows local soybean supply of LTC by location and variety in 2014 with a total
supply of 102,603 kg. There were five (5) varieties of soybean namely Aoyama Zairai, Miyagi
Shiromi, Sato Irazu, Shakin Nashi and Tanba Kuromame. Among them, Aoyama Zairai accounted
for 77% of total soybean, followed by Sato Irazu (16,140 kg).
In terms of location, Kumagaya City supplied the highest volume, amounting to 48,743 kg(47% of total supply), followed by Ranzan Town (16,980 kg) and Ogawa Town (13,590 kg). It
should be noted that Ogawa Town supplied organically-grown (yuuki saibai) and speciallycultivated (tokubetsu saibai) soybean. Organically-grown soybeans accounted for 38% of total
supply from Ogawa Town. In order to further promote local brands, LTC also offers special
products made from certain farms, locations or varieties (e.g. Shimosato Series). Although thesoybean supply fluctuates every year, volume supplied by Ogawa farmers has been increasing from6,590 kg in 2011 to 13,590 kg in 2014.
Product development: LTC sells a total of 100 products, of which own brand accounts for about
30-50 soybean products including special products for winter and summer seasons. It also offers
special local products by soybean variety (e.g. sato irazu momen tofu, sato irazu nigari tofu) andlocation/farmer (e.g. Shimosato tofu series, Hatoyama natto, Shimosato natto). Jimoto no daizu detsukutta tofu is made from locally soybean produced within a 3km radius from the store. Since
Japanese also have the tradition to give/send presents (e.g. mid-year gift, year-end gift) to family,
friends and/or colleagues, gift sets (e.g. Tokigawa set, Organic Set by Shimosato) are also madeavailable. In order words, LTC offers a wide-range of products.
Table 3 shows the top 10 most saleable products in 2014. According to PW, June andFebruary are the peak and low months, respectively. Except for tofu purin (tofu flan), all listed
products are LTC brand. All-year round favorites are okara donuts (donuts made from tofu
leftovers), agebo (fried tofu bar) and renkon ganmo (fried tofu with lotus root). The top 10 mostsaleable products accounted for 42% and 40% of the total sale in June and February, respectively.
Table 3 Top 10 Most Saleable Products of LTC by Peak and Low Months, 20141)
Rank

Peak Month(June)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Okara Donuts (5-pc. pack)Agebo (1 pack)Renkon Ganmo (1 pack)
Tokigawa Tokyo Kata
Kyo Nigari Shimosato
Shiro Zaru Tofu
Nagoshi Tofu
Teage Aburaage (1 pack)
Kurogoma Tofu
Tofu Purin2)

Low Month(February)
Okara Donuts (5-pc. pack)Agebo (1 pack)
Tokigawa Tokyo Kata
Onsen Yu Tofu
Renkon Ganmo (1 pack)
Teage Aburaage (1 pack)
Kyo Nigari Shimosato
Fuwafuwa Atsuage (3 pcs)
Shiro Zaru Tofu
Fuwafuwa Namaage (3 pcs)

Source: Key-Informant Interview, December 2015.
1) LTC sells about 100 products every day, of which LTC brand accounts for about 30-50 products.
2) Among the top 10 most saleable products for both months, all products are own brand products except for tofu
purin.
3) Top 10 most saleable products accounted for 42% and 40% of the total sale in June and February, respectively.

Innovative selling strategies: As mentioned earlier, LTC’s selling method has continuously andproactively evolved from peddling (1955) to wholesale selling in to local food stores (1965) toretail selling in at supermarkets (1979) to direct store selling (1997-present), in response to thechanging business environment. Moreover, it also organizes events (e.g. monthly Tofu Marche, instore tofu tasting) as part of their promotion activities. The tofu processing area is also madeavailable to customers who can view through in-store glass windows. In this way, not only thetransparency of tofu making can be achieved, but also the connectedness between employees (whodirectly make the tofu) and customers can be spontaneously created. As a result of these initiatives,Ⓒ ISERD

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LTC has about 400 customers in weekdays and 800 customers in weekends during summer season,
while 300 customers in weekdays and 600 customers in weekends from October to March.
However, PW emphasized that the store has reached its peak in terms of sale and customer
reach. Therefore, LTC has started its mobile store in 2012, which has further expanded its potential
market (e.g. aging population and/or those who do not have cars to directly buy in the store).
Currently, there are 3 mobile stores that offer freshly-made soybean products to customers innearby Hatoyama Town, Ranzan Town, Higashi Matsuyama City and Sakado City following aweekly schedule.
CONCLUSION
Company visits and key informant interviews revealed that the local tofu LTC conducted (1)product development in accordance with season, farming community and consumer demand, (2)introduction of TEIKEI for soybean farmers, and (3) implementation of innovative selling activities
to name a few. Moreover, these initiatives further paved way for sustainable rural development. For
further study, there is a need to determine the development of its partnership with and its respective
impact to the local soybean farmers.
NOTES
1) Shimoguchi and Inaizumi (2016) clarifies the relationship of a farmer and other spontaneous “organic”
peers (e.g. local tofu maker) through organic farming/products. Shimoguchi (2015) explains how two
Philippine provinces in the same island, however, separated by political boundaries, language andenvironmental conditions (e.g. mountain) sign an agreement to establish the Negros Island as the“Organic Island in Asia” towards their mutual and sustainable growth and development.
2) Milestad & Darnhofer (2003) explains that resiliency can be achieved by continuously learn and adapt tochanging environment.
3) Shimoguchi et al. (2015) explains that Shimosato Farm offers farm tour six (6) times a year. Each tour
includes two (2) lectures and tour around the farm. One lecture is given by Mr. Kaneko, organic pioneer
and farmer in Ogawa Town, Saitama, and another lecture by his collaborators such as Reform Company
for Community Supported Agriculture (CSA)-related to rice and Tofu Company for soybean.
4) Orito (2014) explains the TEIKEI experience of Shimosato Farm. In addition to stipulating the 10
principles of TEIKEI, JOAA (1978) explains that “TEIKEI is an idea to create an alternative distribution
system, not depending on the conventional market. Though the forms of "teikei" vary, it is basically adirect distribution system. To carry it out, the producer(s) and the consumer(s) have talks and contact todeepen their mutual understanding: both of them provide labor and capital to support their own delivery
system……. The Japanese organic agriculture movement started with this "teikei" system. "Teikei" isnot only a practical idea but also a dynamic philosophy to make people think of a better way of life
either as a producer or as a consumer through their interaction”.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is partly funded by a 4-year JSPS projected (2013 April - 2017 March) entitled “Support
System for Rural Innovation towards Human Development and Knowledge Creation” with Prof. Dr.
Hiroki Inaizumi as project leader. Moreover, we wish to extend our sincere appreciation to the
local tofu company for their support and cooperation.
REFERENCES
Japan Organic Agriculture Association (JOAA). 1978. Teikei of farmer and consumer (http://www.
joaa.net/english/teikei.htm (accesssed on 1 December, 2017).
Milestad, R. and Darnhofer, I. 2003. Building farm resilience: The prospects and challenges of organic
farming, J. Sust. Agric, 22 (3), 81-97.

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Orito, E. 2014. TEIKEI as a “Morotomo” relationship embedded in agrarian rationality: The experience of
the “Orei-Sei” system at Shimosato Farm (in Japanese). Jap. Assoc. of Envi. Sociology, J. Envi.
Sociology, 20, 133-148.
Shimoguchi, N. 2015. Formation process of actors-network towards organic based - Island development Focus on Negros Island sustainable agriculture and rural development foundation in the Philippines - (inJapanese). Assoc. Design about Strategy for Zone Industry and Zone Brand, J. Zone Design, 6, 63-80.
Shimoguchi, N. and Inaizumi, H. 2016. Area design based on organic farming in Ogawa Town, Saitama:
Focus on the contribution of a local tofu maker (in Japanese). The Assoc. of Design about Strategy forZone Ind. and Zone Brand, J. Zone Design, 7, 107-121.
Shimoguchi, N., Inaizumi, H., Yasue, H. and Omuro, K. 2015. Impact of farm-based learning practices on
young farmers: Case from an organic farm in Ogawa town, Saitama Prefecture, Japan. Int’l Soc. forSoutheast Asian Agric. Sci., J. ISSAAS, 21 (2), 143-167.
Town of Tokigawa (TOT). 2017. Tokigawa town homepage (in Japanese). http://www.town.tokigawa.lg.jp/
forms/top/top.aspx (accessed on 1 December, 2017).
Zenkoku Tofu Rengokai (Zentoren). 2017. Zentoren homepage (in Japanese). http://www.zentoren.jp/(accesssed on 1 October, 2017).

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Research article
erd

Effects of Living Conditions on Livelihood Satisfaction in
Sri Lanka: Living Sectors and Tea Industry
YUKO FUKUDA*
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan
Email: yukotsu70@yahoo.co.jp

EIJI YAMAJI
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan
Received 3 January 2018

Accepted 15 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The purpose of this study is to identify the disparity of living conditions and theeffects on the living standards’ Satisfaction of the households in the Sri Lanka and on the
Tea Industry. Sri Lanka has progressively developed its status as middle low income
country, while regional income and social disparity has still remained, especially in estate
sector. Tea is a main industry of estates. Past studies indicated that people live in the low
quality of housing with low income, while different articles mentioned that number of low
income family in rural area is larger than in other sectors. This analysis applies a descriptive
method with binary logistic regression. Quantitative analysis relies on the secondary dataand qualitative descriptions rely on the primary survey. The qualitative analysis revealed
that people living on estates are more likely to feel dissatisfaction compared to those living
in urban, rural, and farming areas. Alternatively, the results of the survey showed that
residents in three residential areas on the tea industry are not much different regarding theirlivelihood satisfaction.
Keywords livelihood satisfaction, country and reginal level, disparity, capability

INTRODUCTION
The estate sector, which has been a mainstay of the economy of Sri Lanka, was developed during
the colonial area and has been primarily managed by private owners until the early 1970s, before
nationalization. Studies mentioned there is a historical legacy of poor living conditions with low
income, poor health, and lower levels of education, especially in tea industry (Salomonsen andGunasekera, 1995; Chandrabose, 2011), while a change to the estate sector has been recognized
after being privatized again in 1992 with the effort of the government and support of international
agencies. Other studies have explicated the disparity of each sector. Nine out of ten citizens live inthe rural sector, 86.8% of which accounted for the poor in 2013 (UN, 2015). The farmers, who arein the rural sector, cultivate mainly paddy, vegetable, black paper, tea, and grains and are describedas working from early morning until evening (Williges, 2004). The urban sector, where the poverty
rate is much lower than other sectors, shows higher disparity of income among the residents (Child
Activity Survey [CAS], 2009). Disparity in each sector and among sectors has been explored.
Factors have been found for each issue, but not many studies have focused on the effect of eachfactor that has influenced residents’ satisfaction and the difference of effects on living standard
satisfaction between the estate and other sectors. This paper aims to identify the disparity of living
conditions and the effects on the living standards of the households in the estate and in theresidential sectors of the tea industry, which is the main industry of estates.
METHODOLOGYThis analysis applies a descriptive method with binary logistic regression. Quantitative analysis
relies on secondary data from CAS, which was conducted by the Department of Census andⒸ ISERD

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Statistics (DCS), Sri Lanka with the International Labour Organization in 2008 and 2009.
Qualitative descriptions were used for substituting this study, which comes from the primary survey
at the Kotapola Division of the Matara District in 2013 and 2014. The capability approach to
livelihood provides a theoretical basis for identifying disparity within a multidimensional context.
Characteristics of the Country Level
The objective of the CAS data was to identify the characteristics of Sri Lankan children. It also
described housing and household characteristics comprising 16,000 households covering the wholecountry. Living sectors were classified into three categories: urban, rural, and estate. The data
selected for this study were from districts where all three sectors exist. A variety of occupations in
the rural were covered but not described explicitly. The main export production from the estate
sector is tea, where small holders and farmers have been increasing. Thus, the CAS data wereextracted from the rural sector for the farmer. Characteristics of the farmer are living in a single
house, owning land where at least one parent is working, and owning livestock of less than 10 cows
or goats and less than 100 chickens.
To deepen the understanding of the livelihood of residents in the multidimensional context,
examining the income and other index is necessary. Therefore, the living condition variable
household income was adapted for this analysis. Living conditions were divided into two variables.
One is to focus on privacy protection, and the other one focuses on housing environments. The
privacy index included three indices, such as type and ownership of housing, and the number ofrooms for individuals. The housing index adapted the data of access to safe drinking water,
exclusive toilets, and electricity for lighting and cooking. A limitation of this analysis is that thedata did not cover the health index, which is important for well-being, and no natural scientificevidence.
Characteristics of District Level and Tea Industry
Sri Lanka is geographically recognized as two zones with available rainwater. The southern parts ofthe country where tea lands have been extended receive ample rainfall, while the northern parts ofcountry are the dry zone and receive scarce rain. Sri Lanka comprises 331 divisions in 25 districts.
Primary data were collected at Kotapola Division of the Matara District, which is famous as a tea
cultivation area located in Low-grown. The housing conditions of the survey villages arerecognized as the lower rank in the Matara District (DCS, 2013).
Table 1 Number of GN Division on quality of housing
Very
Low

Low

Average

High

Very
High

538

1598

3052

4500

4344

31

86

177

216

140

10

12

14

1

---

3

1

---

Sri
Lanka
MataraDistrict
Kotapola
Division
Survey
Areas

---

---

Fig. 1 Location of Deniyaya GN Division
With the historical changes in the tea industry, its management style is classified into three
categories: regional plantation companies (RPCs), private estates (PEs), and individual farmers(IFs). The government created state-owned RPCs, each of which reached an agreement with a
private company to improve the efficiency of production, and their tea lands have been leased fromthe government for 99 years (Wenzlhuemer, 2007; Dilshan, 2012). Interviews and data collection
were conducted in the villages and estates around Deniyaya and Morowaka, which are famous forⒸ ISERD

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the Sinharaja Forest Reserve. The villages near Deniyaya are ranked as the lowest for housing
conditions in Sri Lanka (DCS, 2013). The primary sample size is 302 housing units, which
comprises 103 households at 12 divisions of RPCs, 100 households at 19 PEs, and 99 households
of IFs.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the analysis provide a different aspect of relations between living environments andlivelihood satisfaction. The satisfaction with Sri Lankan livelihood overall varies among the four
sectors, while that in Kotapola was not statistically significant between the three residential areas.
The previous studies indicated there were many poor in the rural areas, while the lowest level ofliving environment was in the estates. By focusing on the main industry of estates and the region
where tea cultivation is extended, a different aspect of the past is investigated.
Livelihood in Estate Sector
The CEPA (2005) stated that residents perceived the overall living conditions on estates to havedeteriorated over the last 15 years, while Ole and Hubert mentioned (1995) that positive changes tothe plantation sector have occurred since 19921. Housing built for temporary workers during thecoffee plantation era has remained in the traditional manner. Sri Lanka has been tackling ethnic andreligious conflicts, malnutrition, housing conditions, education, child labor, and other issues in theestate sector by establishing a ministry, enacting legislation, ratifying international laws, andreceiving international support.

Resource: CAS Data

Resource: CAS Data Fig. 2 Livelihood satisfaction and factors in country level

Fig. 2 represents
livelihoodSatisfaction
satisfaction andamongurban,inrural,
estate,and farming sectors.
Fig. 2 theLivelihood
Factors
Country
Level
The average satisfaction for livelihood was approximately 25% at the country level. Comparing
living sectors shows that highest unsatisfied residents were 59.2% in estates, about 20% in the ruralsector, followed by residents in the farming and urban sectors. The different degrees of satisfaction
1 A reason for the difference between the former and latter is the definition of plantations and estates. Under CAS, estateencompasses both large and small holdings managed by the state and RPCs that are individually or family managed,
while the plantation is defined as being more than 20 acres with not less than 10 residential laborers.
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lead us to exam the influential factors. Figs. 2a, 2b, and 2c explain the factors related to livelihood
satisfaction. Fig. 2b indicates that lower income households are more likely to be unsatisfied
compared to higher income households in all living sectors. Generally, in any country, the cost ofliving in the urban sector is higher than that of the rural sector, but Fig. 2b illustrates that the
dissatisfaction rate of the lowest income range in the estate is higher than in the urban sector. Fig.
2c depicts the distribution of housing conditions. The livelihood satisfaction in all living sectors
increases when the level of housing conditions is improved. A lower level of housing conditions
accounted for 46% in the estate sector, while other sectors comprised 6% to 11%. Satisfaction
varies by sector even at the same level. Fig. 2d delineates the distribution of the privacy index. The
results of the cross-sectional analysis describe the different trends of satisfaction in each sector. In
all living sectors, the more privacy is secured, the greater livelihood satisfaction has been increased.
Privacy in the estate sector is more likely to not be secured, and more than 60% of households livein line rooms with no ownership and not a room per a person, while other sectors are categorized as
middle or high privacy.
Comparative results of living conditions among sectors are not much different from those ofpast studies. Living conditions have been affected by regional characteristics. The cross-sectional
analysis of each index shows that it is statistically significant at the 1% level between living sectors
and each index. People in the estate sector have faced disadvantages on income, security of privacy,
and housing compared to those in urban, rural, and farming sectors. The satisfaction of people in
the estate sector is more likely lower than others even though each of the three indices are at thesame level.
Effect of Living Conditions on Livelihood Satisfaction
This study estimated that the binary logistic regression models contained three factors as
explanatory variables and the livelihood satisfaction was taken as a dependent variable. This study
coded livelihood satisfaction as 0 for unsatisfactory and 1 for satisfactory. This analysis categorizedhouse income into low, middle, and high, and coded it as 0 if the household income is not in that
range or 1 if it is in that range. Thus, low-income families are a natural base group. For housing
conditions, this study adopted three categories (low, middle, and high) for assessing sanitary andsafety conditions, and coded it as 0 if the families are not in that rank of house conditions or 1 if thefamilies are in that rank. Thus, low-ranking families are a natural base group. This analysis ranked
privacy into none, low, middle, and high to assess the protection of privacy and coded it as 0 if thefamilies are not ranked in that category or 1 if they are ranked in it.
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Table 2 describes the outcomes of five models. Model 1 explains how much livelihood
satisfaction is greater if living in urban, rural, or farming sectors compared with living in the estate
sector. Residents in the urban sector have 14.216(e2.654) times greater livelihood satisfaction thanthose living in the estate sector, 5.203(e1.649) times those in the rural sector, and 8.869(e2.183) times
those in the farming sector.
Model 2 contains the household income index in Model 1. Livelihood satisfaction is6.406(e1.857) times greater if the resident income is in the middle level and 52.33 (e3.958) times greater
if at the high-income level. Under the household income, the effect of the living sector on
livelihood satisfaction is reduced but is still statistically significant at the 1% level.
Model 3 includes the housing condition index. Livelihood satisfaction is 6.7 (e1.902) times
greater if at the middle level and 101.603(e4.621) times greater if at the highest level. Under the
housing conditions, the effect of the living sector on satisfaction is reduced in all three sectors,
especially in the rural sector. The livelihood satisfaction is still greater in three sectors incomparison with in the estate sector. It is statistically significant at the 1% level. The effect of theliving sectors remains.
Model 4 added the privacy protection index. Under the privacy index, the effect of the living
sector on satisfaction in urban, rural, and farming sectors are reduced. Highly protected families
have 6.266(e1.835) greater livelihood satisfaction than those with no privacy.
Model 5 contains all indices, which indicate that livelihood satisfaction in rural and farming
sectors is almost the same as living in the estate sector after the three factors are considered
individually. Living in the urban sector results in a 1.7(e0.588) times higher satisfactory level than in
the estate sector, which is statistically significant at the 1% level.
The models explain the satisfaction degree of each explanatory variable based on the basegroup and the change of effect of the living sector on livelihood satisfaction. Model 5 shows that
income, housing, and privacy are partial factors of disparity on livelihood satisfaction. Satisfactionin the estate sector is lower than in the other three living sectors, which agrees with other studies.
The next section focuses on the tea industry, which has been influenced by recent developments ineconomic growth, social and human development, and globalization. Unlike the country-level
analysis, the regional-level analysis shows a different aspect.
Livelihood of Tea Industry in Low-Country
During the colonial era, tea estates on the hillside were established by cutting through the forest,
while the low country was surrounded by villages when the estates were introduced (Bronkhorst2008). To explore the quality of life in the tea industry, this study focused on one area in the low
country. When focusing on satisfaction with their living based on the tea management style, thisstudy found a different view of aspects on residents’ well-being.
Fig. 3 illustrates the difference of livelihood satisfaction between RPCs, PEs, and IFs in thetea industry based on household income, security of privacy, and housing conditions. The results of
the analysis based on management style found that the difference of livelihood satisfaction cannot
be observed among the three residential areas. Thus, there is no difference in livelihood satisfactionin RPCs, PEs, and IFs, even though the trends of the three indices are different among the threeresidential areas. Compared with the CAS data, the residents in estates (RPC and PE) are at thesame or higher livelihood satisfaction, but the satisfaction of living as IFs in the survey area islower than for farmers at the country level.
Fig. 3a shows the income distribution and satisfaction level in the three residential areas basedon household income. The percentage of the lowest income families is similar in all residential
areas, but the median of household income in RPCs is between 20K and 30K, while those of PEs
and IFs are over 30K. It elucidates that residents in RPCs are more likely to receive lower income
than others. Fig. 3c demonstrates that housing conditions for farmers are more comfortable thanthose in RPCs and PEs. Fig. 3d explains the satisfaction with the security of privacy in eachresidential sector and shows that families in RPCs and PEs face difficulty attaining privacy.

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However, comparing satisfaction with privacy among each level except for none category, thecross-sectional analysis is not statistically significant.

Fig. 3 Livelihood satisfaction and factors in tea industry

Fig. 3 Livelihood Satisfaction and Factors in Tea Industry
While conducting the survey, residents in the estates expressed their hopes to own their line
room and a small amount of land in their estates and not rent it from the estate owners, even if they
are satisfied with free accommodations. They mentioned that they feel free, and there is no need tocare about others and worry about future if they could own it. Residents in RPCs also stated theyfelt satisfaction with having an exclusive toilet, but getting wood for cooking takes time, andkerosene for lighting is very dangerous. Individual farmers faced low income because of the tea
disease, which reduced the production. They mentioned that their income was insufficient for theirchildren’s education and keeping their house properly.
CONCLUSION
The secondary data analysis revealed that people living on estates are more likely to feeldissatisfaction compared to those living in urban, rural, and farming areas. The effect of the privacy
is greater influence on the living standard satisfaction rather than other factors. Living conditions
have been influenced by the characteristics of the living sectors. People in urban can easily access avariety of jobs with higher salary and live in a single house, and infrastructures are more developed.
Those living in rural and farming areas have lived under similar living environments, but farmers
live in a single house that protects their privacy. Income on estates is lower than in other areas.
Access to better housing conditions is also harder, and living in a line room on estates avoids
isolation and tightens the solidarity, while reducing privacy.
Alternatively, focusing on the tea industry in one area drives a different viewpoint on life in
the tea industry. The results of the survey showed that residents in three residential areas ofdifferent management styles are not much different regarding their livelihood satisfaction.
Exploring the relations between factors and satisfaction delineates the different distribution
tendencies of each factor among three residential areas, while the satisfaction level is same if
families belong to the same range in each factor.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my appreciation for the people who kindly gave me support, assistance, andadvice. I also thank all interviewees who allocated their valuable time for this study. I express mysincere gratitude to my academic supervisor and advisors for their guidance and considerable
encouragement on this analysis.
REFERENCES
CEPA. 2005. Moving out of poverty in the estate sector in Sri Lanka, Understanding growth and freedom
from the bottom up. Sri Lanka.
Chandrabose, A.S. and Sivapragasam, P.P. 2011. Red colour of tea-central issues that impact the tea
plantation community in Sri Lanka. Human Development Organization, Sri Lanka.
DCS, Government of Sri Lanka. 2013. Classification of administrative divisions by quality of housing. DCS,
Government of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka.
Dilshan, A. 2012. Sri Lanka: Conflict mitigation through community-based water resource management, A
case study of tea plantation community Sri Lanka. CPCS Peace Practitioners’ Research Conference, 2012.
Johannes, B. 2008. From coffee to tea cultivation in Ceylon, An economic and social history. Brill’s
Indological Library, Netherlands, 1880-1900.
Ole, S. and Hubert, G. 1995. Housing cooperatives for plantation workers in Sri Lanka. ILO, Geneva.
Roland, W. 2007. The Shinhalese contribution to estate labour in Ceylon, 1881-1891. Journal of the
Economic and Social History of the Orient, 41 ( 3), 442-458.
United Nations. 2015. Millennium development goals country report 2014, United Nations. Sri Lanka
Wal, S.V.D. 2008. Sustainability issues in the tea sector, A comparative analysis of six leading producing
countries. Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations (SOMO), Netherlands.
Williges, U. 2004. Status of organic agriculture in Sri Lanka with special emphasis on tea production system.
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Giessen, Gernany.

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Research article
erd

An Evaluation of Water Demand and Supply for a Smallscale Irrigation Scheme in Zimbabwe
EDIMUS MASONA
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori, JapanKATSUYUKI SHIMIZU*
Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan.
Email: shimizu@tottori-u.ac.jp

YUMI YOSHIOKA
Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
Received 20 February 2018

Accepted 20 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Previous studies have shown that most smallholder irrigation schemes indeveloping countries in Africa, have proved to be unsustainable beyond external assistance.
The low performance of most smallholder irrigation schemes is largely attributable tounreliable and inadequate water delivery. This research assessed the on-farm water
management performance for Fuve-Panganai irrigation scheme in Zaka District ofZimbabwe. The objective of this study is to assess the on-farm water management
performance for the irrigation scheme in terms of water demand and supply. The irrigationwater demand for 204 ha of dry beans for the winter irrigation season (April to August) was
estimated using the FAO CROPWAT. The seasonal water supply was calculated using the2012 to 2016 recorded canal water depths. The Relative Water Supply (RWS) index was
calculated from the water demand and supply. 38 randomly selected farmers, members of
the waters user’s association and relevant agencies were interviewed to understand thedecision-making process and the overall performance of the scheme. The results showed astable water supply for the five years with a coefficient of variation of 0.2. The watersupply was greater than water demand during the winter mid-irrigation period (May to July)
with an average RWS of 1.59. The results correspond with results from the interview
survey in which more than 90 percent of the farmers were satisfied with the irrigation
management performance. However, 37 percent reported to have experienced water
shortages. This is due to the heavy distribution losses by damaged pipes and leaking water
valves. The irrigation system is in dire need for rehabilitation to minimize water losses.
Keywords performance assessment, water demand, water supply, relative water supply

INTRODUCTION
Irrigated agriculture is the most effective way of reducing crop failure, hunger and malnutrition in
Africa and has the potential to increase the competitiveness of smallholder farming in most parts ofAfrica (World Bank, 2008). Despite these potential benefits of irrigation, smallholder irrigation
schemes in most developing countries, including Zimbabwe have proved to be unsustainablebeyond external assistance (Mutambara and Munodawafa, 2014). They showed that thesustainability of small-holder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe was being affected by a complex
interaction of a variety of factors which include; limited access to agricultural inputs, low
educational level and/or lack of training in appropriate farming skills, lack of collateral whichenables farmers to access loans or working capital and erratic irrigation water supply.
To achieve higher crop yields from irrigated agriculture it is necessary to supply the amount ofwater required by the crops. The amount of water required by the crops is determined by the area
under cultivation, the crop water requirements and any inevitable losses incurred during theapplication of the water to the field (DFID, 1997).
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According to Sakthivadivel et al., (1993), the two most crucial factors in irrigation planning,
design and operation are the available water supply and the water demand. The two authors defined
Relative Water Supply (RWS) as the ratio of water supply to the water demand associated withcrops grown with the cultural practices used, and for the actual irrigated area. They underscored theusefulness of the RWS as a tool for understanding the performance of irrigation systems.
OBJECTIVES
The objective of this study is quantitatively and qualitatively assess the on-farm water management
performance to identify the current problems for the small irrigation scheme, Fuve-Panganai
Irrigation Scheme, Zimbabwe.
METHODOLOGY
Study Site
Fuve-Panganai irrigation scheme is in ward 15 of Zaka district, 131 km south of Masvingo City,
Zimbabwe. The nearest meteorological station; Buffalo Range Airport, records a minimum temp of
8.7 oC in July and a maximum of 32.9 oC in January. Average annual rainfall received is 584 mm.
The irrigation Scheme is 283 hectares in extent comprising of four blocks, designated, A, B, C
and D each with 9; 70; 54 and 150 hectares respectively. Irrigation water is conveyed by gravity
from Siya dam by a 14.5 km conveyance canal that discharges into Murerezi stream and ultimately
to Chiredzi River and Manjirenji Dam through a water catchment transfer. The design capacity ofthe main canal is 3.5 m3/s. There is an off-take to blocks C and D at 11.5 km from the dam and it isfrom this off-take that a branch canal with a design capacity of 0.25 m3/s supplies water to blocks C
and D. Both the main and branch canals are lined in concrete. The off-take to block C regulation
pond is 3.5 km along the branch canal. The branch canal eventually discharges into block D
regulation pond at 7.5 km from the main off-take and there other two regulation ponds for the othersubsections of block D. Figure 1 shows the layout of the irrigation system.
The regulation ponds receive water from the branch canal for 24 hours and store it overnight,
since irrigation is practiced during the day time. Water is conveyed from the regulation pond to thefield by an underground pipeline system. Farmers take water from the field hydrants using hose
pipes and direct it into furrows. Each farmer is entitled to one hectare of irrigated land.

Fig. 1 Layout map of blocks C and D of Fuve Panganai Irrigation SchemeⒸ ISERD

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Sections C and D with a total area of 204 ha were purposely selected as the study site because
they share the same branch canal. Maize, groundnuts and sugar beans are the main crops grown.
Maize and groundnuts are grown in the summer whilst sugar beans is grown in winter. It wastherefore assumed that sugar beans was continuously grown in winter for the period underconsideration.
Water Demand and Supply
The irrigation water demand for 204 ha of dry beans for the winter irrigation season was calculatedusing the FAO CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows which is a computer program for the calculation ofcrop water requirements and irrigation requirements based on soil, climate and crop data.
The average monthly climate data for Buffalo Range Airport was accessed from FAO
CLIMWAT 2.0 which is a climatic database to be used in combination with the computer program
CROPWAT. The average monthly water supply for April to August which is the winter/dry season
was calculated from daily irrigation water supply data for 5 years (2012-2016). The Relative Water
Supply (RWS) index was calculated for dry season using the formula;
RWS＝S/D(1)

Where, S is an amount of water supply and D is an amount of water demand
Quessionaire Survey
A sample of 38 randomly selected farmers were interviewed to get their perception on the water
management performance with 80 percent confidence interval and 10 percent margin error. The
waters user’s association members and key informants from Zimbabwe National Water Authority(ZINWA), Department of Irrigation (DOI) and Agricultural Research and Extension Services(AGRITEX) department were also interviewed to understand the decision-making and water
allocation process.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Stakeholders
There are five key stakeholders in the irrigation scheme; the farmers, the Water Users Association(WUA), ZINWA, DOI and the AGRITEX department. Their roles and responsibilities are in shownin Table 1.
The Water Allocation and Irrigation Practice
The water allocation process is in three stages; the planning stage, the negotiation stage and theimplementation stage.
During the planning stage the farmers make the irrigation season plan; i.e. they come out withcrop(s), the total hectarage, the planting dates, the tentative water requirements and amount ofmoney needed to buy the water from ZINWA, etc. The WUA coordinates this process and they
may also consult the AGRITEX and or the DOI officers for technical advice.
The WUA on behalf of the farmers engage the ZINWA in the negotiation stage to agree on thewater contract. The water contract includes the crop, the total hectarage, the irrigation season, theamount of water needed and the payment plan amongst other factors.
During the implementation stage ZINWA supplies irrigation water to the farmers throughout
the irrigation season as per the agreement in the water contract. The farmers order water as per
demand by calling the ZINWA offices, the ZINWA through its resident technician, who stays inⒸ ISERD

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the farm, supplies a canal water depth for a certain number of hours and or days to meet the farmers
water requirements. The process of ordering and receiving water is 24 hours.
Table 1 The roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders
Name ofstakeholder

Roles and responsibilities

Farmers

The main beneficiaries of the irrigation scheme. They are autonomous, and run thescheme independently. They are responsible for the operation and maintenance of the
branch canal and other farm level irrigation facilities

WUA

The farmers’ committee which coordinates the irrigation activities on behalf of the
farmers e.g. making contract with ZINWA, collecting water fees from the farmers andholding meetings.

ZINWA

A quasi-government body managing irrigation facilities such as dams and the main
canal. They supply the farmers with water based on the contract with WUAs.

DOI

A government department responsible for the supervision of irrigation projects
including the operation and maintenance of the irrigation structures.

AGRITEXThe government department responsible for extension services; such as advising
farmers on the best agronomic practices including irrigation scheduling

The farmers are charged by ZINWA 4.36 USD/hectare/month. Of the 4.36, 1 USD is taken by
the Save Water Catchment Council and the remaining 3.36 USD is for ZINWA. This means thateach farmer on average pays 22 USD per irrigation season per hectare.
As seen from the water allocation process ZINWA water supply is not limiting; the farmers
can order as much as they need and since this can be done within 24 hours there is less risk ofwater shortage. The farmers can irrigate during the day from 0800 hours to 1600 hours, there is nostrict time table hence all the farmers can irrigate whenever they need but in practice in sections
where the water pressure is low, they follow a flexible irrigation time table.
The Water Supply and DemandFig. 2 shows the annual branch canal water discharge for the five years. The highest amount ofwater supply was observed in 2013 and the least amount in 2014. There is a relatively stable watersupply with a coefficient of variation (CV) of 0.2. This means the ZINWA’s water supply to thefarmers is reliable.
The RWS for the mid-irrigation period (May, June and July) was shown in Fig. 3. It ranges
from 1.28 to 2.12 with an average of 1.59. Although the irrigation season is five months from April
to August, the first and last months of the irrigation season were not included in the analysis to
avoid the error margin.
The RWS values at different locations of a system are closely linked to the management
behavior of water managers and farmers (Sakthivadivel and Merry, 1993). Levine (1991) gave
general recommendations (based on observations) that for a RWS of approximately 2.0, monitoring
and control to secondary channels, daytime monitoring, limited communication between the systemmanagers and farmers would still permit relatively high yields. Levine recommended that for a
RWS of 2.5 or greater, minimal operational control at the main distribution level is enough toensure that water will not be the limiting factor in crop production. However, considering the pipeline system is installed in the study scheme, this RWS is very high since the conveyance anddistribution efficiency is theoretically very low under pipe line system.

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Fig. 2 Annual canal water discharge

Fig. 3 Water demand and supply during mid-irrigation period
Farmers’ Perceptions on Irrigation PerformanceFig. 4 shows the farmers perceptions as far as irrigation performance is concerned. Over 90 percentof the farmers are generally satisfied with the water delivery service by ZINWA. Although most of
the farmers are satisfied, about 37 percent of the farmers have experienced periodical water
shortages. Field observations revealed water leakages from damaged hydrants and pipes whichmight be the major reason for the water shortage. The high value of RWS are caused by thedamaged hydrants and pipes in the study irrigation scheme. The rehabilitation of these will go along way in improving the availability of water to all farmers.

Fig. 4 Farmers’ perception on irrigation performanceⒸ ISERD

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CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of water demand and supply revealed that the water supply from ZINWA is reliably
stable as shown by a CV of 0.2. The scheme received more water than the IWR as shown by the
RWS of 1.6. The water allocation system is efficient with the farmers being able to order andreceive water within 24 hours. Although more than 90 percent of the farmers are generally satisfied
with the water delivery performance, 37 percent are experiencing some water shortages. There arewater losses due to damaged hydrants and pipes. The results of this study can contribute to theoverall evaluation of the performance of the irrigation scheme and therefore help in making thenecessary recommendations for improvement e.g. increasing the water supply and or rehabilitation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was conducted under the “Development of crop husbandry technology in marginal rain
fed environment using dryland plant resources” Project by Tottori University and was partially
supported by International Platform for Dryland Research and Education, Tottori University.
REFERENCESDFID (Department for International Development). 1997. Smallholder irrigation: Ways forward. Guidelines
for Achieving Appropriate Scheme Design, Volume 2, Summary of Case Studies, Chancellor, F.M. andHide, J.M., Report OD 136, August 1997.
Mutambara, S. and Munodawafa, A. 2014. Production challenges and sustainability of smallholder irrigation
schemes in Zimbabwe. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, 4, 15.
Sakthivadivel, R. and Merry, D.T. 1993. Cumulative relative water supply: A methodology for assessing
irrigation system performance. Irrigation and Drainage Systems, 7, 43-67.
World Bank. 2008. Mobilizing public-private partnerships to finance infrastructure amid crisis is the focus of
the World Bank Conference. World Bank Press Release, No: 2008/175/WBL.

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Research article
erd

Sustainable Development through Environmental
Education: From the Perspectives of Past and PresentGroup and Individual Rainforestation Adopters
GUIRALDO C. FERNANDEZ, JR.*Visayas State University, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines
Email: guiraldo.fernandez@vsu.edu.ph

MARLITO JOSE M. BANDE
Visayas State University, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines
Received 5 January 2018

Accepted 20 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Rainforestation is a Visayas State University (VSU) technology designed as analternative method to Philippine Government’s thrust for massive reforestation.
Rainforestation’s purpose is to plant denuded lands with Philippine Native Trees together
with high value crops and fruit trees. With this, ecological functions could be re-establishedwhile subsistence farmers would be provided with a stable and sustainable income. For the
past twenty plus years, the first batch of individual and group adopters have toiled tosucceed in their Rainforestation efforts and are, at present, already reaping the fruits of theirlabors. Moreover, said adopters are also inspiring new groups of adopters to also adopt
Rainforestation. Yet, such things would not be possible without environmental educationthat has been provided by VSU, Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), andthe Environment Leadership Training Initiatives (ELTI). Hence, this study aims tounderstand how Rainforestation has affected the adopters’ lives for the past twenty years,
examine how environmental education has contributed to sustainable development, anddecipher how environmental education has influenced new sets of adopters to go into
Rainforestation. In order to achieve the said objectives, this study makes use of hermeneutic
phenomenology and focus group discussions to arrive at the adopters’ points of views andsentiments towards the connection between environmental education, sustainable
development, and Rainforestation. Furthermore, this study concludes that the adopters havealready enjoyed economic benefits, sustainable source of water, and biodiversity restoration
through Rainforestation adoption. This study also concludes that environmental education is
one of the main factors why individuals and groups have adopted Rainforestation by
informing them that growing native trees together with fruit trees is doable and possible.
Lastly, this study further concludes that the spread of Rainforestation has been an offshootof the greater reach of education and information dissemination.
Keywords sustainable development, environmental education, rainforestation, adopters

INTRODUCTION
The question on whether or not the natural environment could sustain the needs of the world’s
growing population has already been felt for quite some time. In the Philippines, Mother Nature’s
capacity to support the future generations of Filipinos has been challenged by indiscriminate andgross exploitation of the country’s natural resources. One of the effects of this environmental abuseis the lost of biodiversity in the country which comes as an offshoot of large and small scale
deforestation activities. According to Haribon foundation, biodiversity in the Philippines is one of
the richest in the world. It is part of the 17 mega diverse countries which collectively claim two
thirds of all global species. Yet, 70% of Philippine forests have vanished from the 1930s to 1988
(Haribon Foundation, 2016). There are two major causes of Philippine forests loss. They refer tothe conversion of primary forests to secondary forests by both legal and illegal logging and theⒸ ISERD

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removal of secondary forests cover by expansion of upland agriculture (Fernando, 2005). In the
Visayas Region in the Philippines, the effects of environmental degradation have also been felt.
To address this problem, Visayas State University (VSU) in cooperation with the Gesellschaft
für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) and the Environment Leadership Training Initiatives(ELTI) introduced and continued to propagate environmental education to interested adopters
through rainforestation. Rainforestation is a technology designed to make use of unproductive
lands by planting native tree species which are not widely used in the Philippine government’s
reforestation program (Milan and Ceniza, 2009). This technology found its way to Visayas State
University since in 1990, the Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) started to look
into possibilities of rehabilitating former forested areas to get back the ecological functions of thedegraded areas needed for poverty alleviation through sustainable rural development. This program
was directed for the promotion of biodiversity rehabilitation and conservation of remaining primary
forests and natural resources. The directives of the program were formulated so that Rainforestation
could replace the wide spread slash-and-burn practices and protect and enhance biodiversity byusing indigenous trees only. In 1994 the hypothesis was formulated that a farming system in thehumid tropics would increasingly be more sustainable the closer it was in its species composition tothe original local rainforest (Goltenboth and Tropentag, 2005).
Hence, at the start of the early 1990’s, a number of Rainforestation sites had been establishedin the different parts of the country. This came as a result of massive environmental education
initiatives disseminated by Visayas State University and the Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). It was during these times that people, predominantly farmers, wererecruited to adopt Rainforestation technology. At present, the first batch of group and individual
adopters in the Visayas region in the Philippines are already reaping the fruits of their labors. Yet,
Visayas State University’s thrust to disseminate environmental education continued up to thepresent since it again partnered with Yale University’s Environment Leadership Training Initiative(ELTI) to recruit and educate more rainforestation adopters so that a large number of people would
be given a chance to realize the importance of environment conservation so that Mother Nature
could sustain the needs of every Filipino for many years to come.
OBJECTIVE
In the thrust to determine environmental education’s contribution to the attainment of sustainable
development, this paper aims to understand how Rainforestation has affected the adopters’ lives forthe past twenty years, examine how environmental education has contributed to sustainable
development, and decipher how environmental education has influenced new sets of adopters to go
into Rainforestation.
METHODOLOGY
In the thrust to wholistically decipher environmental education’s contribution to sustainable
development, this research makes use of the qualitative research method of hermeneutic
phenomenology. This phenomenological method is characterized by Martin Heidegger’s
interpretative approach which focuses on researcher involvement through on going interpretation
which bridles researcher assumptions through questioning and critically reflecting upon one’s preunderstanding and involvement in the phenomenon (Dahlherg, 2006). Hermeneutic
phenomenology aims at producing rich textual descriptions of the experiencing of selectedphenomena in the life world of individuals that are able to connect with the experiences of people
collectively. From identification of the experience of phenomena, a deeper understanding of themeaning of that experience is sought (Smith & Vandenburg, 1997). Hence, in order to have a fullunderstanding of what this study’s respondents want to convey, the use of any language that the
respondents are most comfortable with is utilized. As Langdridge (2005) puts it: to understand thelife world, people need to explore the stories that others tell of their experiences (Langdridge,2005). Hence, it is in this sense that the above-mentioned method would challenge the researcher toⒸ ISERD

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reflect deeply on what it is that the texts of the field have to say. Nevertheless, this researchmethod’s goal is to invite its readers to enter the world that the texts would disclose and open up in
front of themselves (Kafle, 2011). With this at hand, this study could come with a broader
understanding of the significance of environmental education to sustainable development
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Effects of Rainforestation Adoption to the Lives of Group and Individual Adopters
The pioneering group and individual rainforestation adopters refer to the Cienda-San Vicente
Farmers Association (CSVFA) of Barangay Gabas, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines and Mr. ManuelPosas of Barangay Marcos, Baybay, Leyte. These adopters were the first to adopt rainforestation in
the early 1990s and have since inspired younger generations of adopters because they havedemonstrated that rainforestation would eventually lead to a development that is sustainable.
Moreover, the presence of the pioneering adopters’ rainforestation demonstration farms have also
served as models and have educated the younger generations of adopters that there is a need toeducate a large number of people in order for them to arrive at a realization that conserving andprotecting the natural environment would lead to sustainable development.
These things have positively affected the lives of the pioneering group and individual adoptersfor the past twenty plus years in the sense that it gives them a variety of benefits. For instance, theCienda-San Vicente Farmers Association has reaped economic benefits from rainforestation
adoption. In their thrust to save the trees from indiscriminate and illegal logging, they were able topreserve Philippine native mother tree species in their area. With this, the association members
were able to establish a nursery for native trees which gave them the opportunity to enter into
contract with the Philippine’s Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) as asupplier for native tree seedlings for DENR’s National Greening Program (NGP). According toVictoriano Catalan, one of the pioneering members of CSVFA:“At first, we adopted rainforestation because we only wanted to protect our trees that had
been illegally and indiscriminately cut by illegal loggers. As a group, the members of ourcommunity decided to adopt the technology offered to us by Visayas State University andGesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) which we later know as rainforestation. With
this, we organized ourselves into a people’s organization and were able to convince a land ownerto convert his almost empty and denuded nine thousand square meters piece of land into ademonstration farm. The owner eventually became a member of the CSVFA. Our training in
Dendrology made us familiar with the characteristics of the native trees found in our area and wewere also taught how to collect wildlings and establish a nursery of our own. This nursery
provided us with income that was sufficient enough to compensate for our sacrifices in protecting
the environment. With our contract with the DENR national Greening Program and other native
tree seedling buyers, we were able to collect a sum of more than a million pesos”.
Aside from economic benefits, the members of CSVFA have also noticed the return of
biodiversity in their area. For Agustino Valenzona, a CSVFA member: “A few years after westarted protecting our trees in the forest near our community, we noticed the return of native birds
in our area. We also experienced colder temperatures since the trees have started to grow. The fishin our rivers also returned which enabled community members to have access to free source offood. With this, I realized that if we just protect and care for Mother Nature, Mother Nature would
also take good care of us in return”.
Moreover, rainforestation has also positively affected the life of the pioneering individual
adopter, Mr. Manuel Posas, an Assistant Professor of Visayas State University, of Barangay
Marcos, Baybay, Leyte. Having been invited to a meeting on rainforestation in the early 1990s, Mr.
Posas took the opportunity to attend with the intention of just making his denuded and empty pieceof land useful and productive. Yet, years after he implemented his rainforestation demonstration
farm, Mr. Posas reaped a lot of benefits that he even did not think of before. First, after twelve
years of establishing his rainforestation farm and planted it with a variety of more than six hundredⒸ ISERD

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Philippine native trees and a few fruit trees, he noticed that a source of water emerged inside his
demonstration farm. After retiring from government service, Mr. Posas established a water systemthat supplied him with safe and potable water all year long. Not only that, Mr. Posas also gave hisneighbors access to his water system with a minimal and reasonable fee. Hence, this also gave him
economic benefits. Furthermore, since Mr. Posas also planted fruit trees together with his native
trees, the trees’ fruits during the fruiting season gave him another additional income. According to
Mr. Posas: “When I adopted rainforestation, I only had the intention of making use of a piece ofland that has been unproductive for a couple of years. Yet, years after establishing myrainforestation farm, I did not expect to gain things that nature has provided like the source ofwater in my demonstration farm as well as the sale of the fruit trees during the fruiting season. My
newly built water system also irrigated my rice field near my demonstration farm all year long insuch a way that my rainforestation did not only provide me with water, it also enabled me toregularly plant rice all year round.”Hence, from the stories of the pioneering group and individual adopters of rainforestation, it iscommon among them that they already are reaping the fruits of their labors. All of the adoptershave economically benefitted from rainforestation. Yet, most important of all, the adopters havemade it possible to restore biodiversity in their respective areas.
The Contribution of Environmental Education to Sustainable Development
From the experiences of the group and individual rainforestation adopters, it is quite obvious thatenvironmental education is the key element that inspired them to adopt rainforestation From thevery start, the thrust of Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) and Visayas State
University has paved the way for the Cienda-San Vicente Farmers Association (CSVFA) and Mr.
Manuel Posas to adopt rainforestation. To this day, their demonstration farms have served as amodel that inspired a number of aspiring environmentalists and rainforestation adopters duringcross visits conducted in different trainings. Yet, CSVFA’s success is not only an offshoot offormal education provided to them by GTZ but also through informal environmental education thathave been practiced in farmers’ individual households. In fact, during the early years of
establishing the CSVFA, Visayas State University assigned the then community organizer Dr.
Marlito Bande to the village to facilitate the establishment of a pilot Rainforestation site. Dr. Bandedecided to live with the community and conducted regular discussions and consultations to build
consensus on key issues, strategize a plan of action, and mobilize the members based on increased
awareness and commitment (Bande, Consunji, Bloomfield, and Labastilla, 2016).
Dr. Bande assisted in restructuring the group and registering them as a people’s organization
with the Department of Labor and Employment under the name, Cienda San Vicente Farmers’
Association (CSVFA). In order to stop the destructive logging and slash and burn practices, themembers trained to be deputized forests wardens, giving them the right to apprehend violators intheir watershed areas. The organization came up with their organizational structures and came up
with their constitution and by laws. They also came up with the outline of different environmental
activities and cost-benefit scheme. CSVFA then signed a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) with
VSU, the local government unit, and the owner of the land where the Rainforestation farm would
be developed. The MOA legalized the lease of the land to CSVFA for 50 years, formalized thepartnership among the different stake holders, and specified the roles and responsibilities of eachstake holder (Bande, Consunji, Bloomfield, and Labastilla, 2016). With this, the CSVFA
Rainforestation farm was established, and at present, is one of the most successful Rainforestation
Demonstration farm in Region 8, if not, the whole country.
According to Dr. Marlito Bande: “The success of the CSVFA Rainforestation farm is a resultof a collaborative efforts among the farmers themselves. It was really the farmers who initiative themove since they were the ones who were affected by the negative effects brought about byenvironment degradation. When I was assigned to work with the farmers, I saw their sincerity andcommitment so I decided to live with the community in order to help them achieve their goal toprotect their forest and at the same time teach them to establish a Rainforestation demonstration
farm by teaching them the basics like the collection of wildlings from the forest, the establishmentⒸ ISERD

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of a nursery, the identification of a potential Rainforestation site, and the planting of native tree
seedlings. In fact, during the early years, I also helped the farmers in negotiating for the use of the
lot for the demonstration farm. All in all, I can say that the success of the CSVFA Rainforestation
efforts is brought about by the collaborative efforts of the farmers themselves”.
One unique characteristic of CSVFA is that it gives importance and priority to family
membership. This means that it is not only the father and the mother who are considered membersof the association but also their children. With this, the children have been instructed at home on
the significance and necessity to protect the natural environment. This is one way of inculcating to
the minds of the young the importance of nature conservation. In fact, Bernie Tabaranza, an
employee of the Institute of Tropical Ecology and Environmental Management and a son of one ofthe pioneering members of the Cienda San Vicente Farmers Association (CSVFA) also stressedthat Rainforestation succeeded in Cienda since the organization’s adoption of the Rainforestation is
not only about the community, it is also about family involvement. According to Bernie:“Household forms of membership by Rainforestation adopters ensures social sustainability sincechildren are involved in the planning and are assigned task in taking good care of the existing
Rainforestation demonstration farm. With this, the children are given the opportunities to feel thatthey also possess the Rainforestation farm since they also have invested their time and efforts intaking care of it. Family members involve in CSVFA are also actively involved in theimplementation and monitoring of forest restoration activities”
At present, GTZ’s mission to proliferate environmental education to a large number of people
has already ended after almost twenty years of supporting environment education related activities.
Yet, this mission has been continued by the Environment Leadership Training Initiatives (ELTI)
through its Leadership Program where ELTI graduates have been mandated to re-echo what theylearned from the leadership training. In Leyte, ELTI has trained adopters in the town of Inopacan.
It also has new adopters in Cabugcayan, Biliran Province and has established rainforestation
demonstration farms in the area. This is ELTI’s thrust to continue what GTZ has started so thatsustainable development would be achieved through environmental education. Hence, there is no
doubt that one of the potent weapons in the thrust to conserve and protect of what is left of thenatural environment is environmental education. For the new sets of adopters, rainforestation havegiven them hope that their efforts could have a significant contribution to nature conservation.
Through environmental education, people from all walks of life would be given a chance to realize
Mother Nature’s importance to the lives of each and every person including the future generation.
The Influence of Environmental Education to the Generation of Rainforestation Adopters
Environmental education has indubitably played a great role in protecting and conserving of what
is left of the natural environment. The efforts of the Environment Leadership Training Initiatives(ELTI) have paved the way for a greater awareness of the significance of each and every person’srole in taking good care of nature so that it could sustain the needs of people for a longer period oftime. The establishment of a ten hectare rainforestation demonstration in Inopacan, Leyte as well as
the establishment of the same demonstration farm on an eight hectare property in Cabugcayan,
Biliran Province are offshoots of rainforestation leadership trainings conducted and sponsored by
ELTI. These trainings have educated people of all ages on the importance of protecting Mother
Nature since it is also an indirect way of protecting oneself. According to Ricardo Cabulan, a new
rainforestation adopter from Cabugcayan Biliran:“I am convinced by the ELTI Rainforestation
training that taking good care of the environment is very important. My exposure to the different
rainforestation farms in Baybay, Leyte has given me a strong belief that planting native trees fornature conservation is possible and very doable.”This sentiment is re-echoed by Gerald Matinao, an adopter from Inopacan, Leyte who also
happened to live within the vicinity of the Inopacan rainforestation site. According to Mr.
Matinao:“The ELTI environmental education and rainforestation training has greatly affected themind sets of the Inopacan rainforestation adopters. The ELTI training has given them insights that
it is not difficult to do our share in taking good care of Mother Nature. My and my neighbors’
exposure to the different vibrant rainforestation farms in Baybay, Leyte have given us hope thatⒸ ISERD

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some day, a large parcel of our unproductive and denuded land would become a green lush forest
in the very near future. We believe in this since someone has already proven that rainforestation isdoable and possible. Yet all this is not possible without the ELTI rainforestation training since it
educated us to value what is left of Mother Nature”.
CONCLUSION
This study concludes that all group and individual rainforestation adopters in the Visayas region in
the Philippines have benefitted from the good things that rainforestation has given them. Economic
benefits as a result from rainforestation adoption is shared by the group and individual adopters.
For instance, the Cienda-San Vicente Farmers Association became a supplier of native tree
seedlings to the Philippine government’s National Greening Program that enabled them to earnover a million pesos in income. Not only that, rainforestation farms also serve as a good source ofwater as demonstrated by Mr. Manuel Posas. This not only give Mr. Posas non-stop supply ofwater, it also give him the opportunity to earn from his newly installed water system. Above all,rainforestation brings back and restore biodiversity which is the essence of environment
conservation.
Moreover, this study also concludes that environmental education is one of the main factors
why individuals and groups have adopted Rainforestation. The formal education provided by
Visayas State University, Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), and theEnvironment Leadership Training Initiatives (ELTI) has changed the mind-sets of therainforestation adopters in such a way that it gave them meaningful realizations that Nature
conservation is each and every person’s moral obligation. Furthermore, the experience of the
CSVFA members has also proven that informal environmental education in one’s home is also
effective in inculcating to the minds of the youth the importance of the natural environment to
one’s life. This enables the youth to care for Mother Nature by heart which leads to a developmentthat is sustainable. Lastly, this study further concludes that the spread of Rainforestation has been
an offshoot of the greater reach of education and information dissemination.
REFERENCES
Bande, M., Consunji, H., Bloomfield, G. and Labastilla, P. 2016. Rainforestation case study: The Cienda San
Vicente farmers' association experience. Smithsonian Topical Research Institute, Yale University, CT
and Panama City, USA and Panama.
Dhalberg, K. 2006. The essence of essences: The search for meaning structures in phenomenological analysis
of lifeworld phenomena. International Journal of Qualitative Studies of Health and Well Being, 1 (1), 1119.
Fernando, E. 2005. Restoring the Philippine rainforests. Haribon Policy Paper, No. 2, Manila, Philippines.
Goltenboth, F. and Tropentag. 2005. Ecosystem approach. Lecture presented at the Conference on
International Agricultural Research for Development in Palo, Leyte, Philippines, October 13, 2005.
Haribon Foundation. 2016. Classifying natural and restored forests containing primary, secondary growth, or
residual forests. PANAO Rain Forest Restoration Initiative, 3, Philippines.
Kafle, N.P. 2011. Hermeneutic phenomenological research method simplified. Bodhi. An Interdisciplinary
Journal, 181-200.
Langdridge, D. 2005. Phenomenological psychology. Theory, Research, and Methods, Pearson, London, UK.
Milan, P. and Ceniza, M.J. 2009. Rainforestation trainers manual. Institute of Tropical Ecology, Visayas
State University, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines.
Smith, S.J. 1997. Phenomenology of educating physically. Vandenburg, D. (Ed.) Phenomenology and
Educational Discourse, 119-144.

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Research article
erd

Determination of Lethal Concentration of Copper
Compounds on Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus
Linnaeus, 1758) Larvae
NATSIMA TOKHUN*
Environmental Science Program, Faculty of Science and Technology, Valaya Alongkorn
Rajabhat University under the Royal Patronage, Pathum Thani, Thailand
Email: natsima@vru.ac.th

KANITTHA PAMONPOL
Environmental Science Program, Faculty of Science and Technology, Valaya Alongkorn
Rajabhat University under the Royal Patronage, Pathum Thani, Thailand

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Integrated Water Resource Management Research and Development Center in Northeast
Thailand, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

ATCHARAPORN SOMPARN
Environment Division, Office of General Education, Udon Thani Rajabhat University, Udon
Thani, Thailand
Email: somparn_a@yahoo.com
Received 8 December 2017

Accepted 20 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Copper is an essential element for cell organisms. However, irregularity copperlevel could have effect on the growth of organism. In this research, we aim at considerationof copper compounds toxicity against larvae of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus
Linnaeus, 1758) by statistic assays. Four days old of test fish had an average 7.10+0.03 mmof length and 9.72+0.04 mg of fresh weight. All experiments were carried out for a periodof 48 to 96 hours at 27–30oC. The number of dead fish was counted every 24 hours and themortality rate was determined after 96 hours. The statistical data was evaluated by Finney’s
probit analysis method. The fish died 50% (LC50 95% confidence limits) after 48, 72, 96
hours of concentration copper chloride (CuCl2) 595.75, 231.11, 124.64 µg/L, respectively,
and copper nitrate (Cu (NO3)2) 1,025.40, 588.79, 456.50 µg/L, respectively. The LC50
results clearly show that copper compounds toxicity for fish increased with increasing
concentration and exposure time. The percentage of survival decreased with increasing ofboth copper compound concentrations and it was significantly different from control(p<0.01). This study showed that Nile tilapia larvae were more sensitive to copper chloride
than copper nitrate. Further study needs the processes by which these chemicals affectbiochemical changes of the fish.
Keywords copper, lethal concentration, LC50, tilapia, toxicity

INTRODUCTION
The copper-gold (Cu-Au) has been consumed for a large quantity in Thailand. The internal main
supply could be found in Loei province (Yang et al., 2014). Due to high demand, it was imported invarious forms i.e. pure copper, copper matt, copper anode, unwrought and copper products in alarge amount for 422,619 metric tons in 2012 (Office of Industrial Economics, 2012). Copper andits compounds has been used in various industries such as electrical products, building construction,
chemical and pharmaceutical manufacturing (National Pollutant Inventory, 2014). They are directly
discharged from industrial effluents and also from polluted runoff in urban and agricultural areas(FAO, 1992; Yirgu, 2011). Therefore, surface water and groundwater are being polluted from theseⒸ ISERD

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effluents and runoff that contains copper and its compounds. Copper has been detected in water
range from 1 to 5 mg/L, which is classified as small amounts or not generally considered to be
toxic. However, gradually accumulation of copper in body could become large doses enough tocause sickness, and could lead to liver damage in extreme cases. The distribution of copper ions has
been determined in the aquatic system to assess the influence of biological processes on the copper
estuarine behavior. The copper chloride prominently affects the fish muscles as some amino acids(Histidine, Proline, Glycine, Alanine, Methionine and Valine) are found to be reduced or evencompletely missing (Alkesh, 2016). Aquatic life is more sensitive 10–100 times to the hazardous
effects of copper than mammals (Shah and Vyas, 2015).
Lethal concentration test measure the susceptibility and survival potential of organisms to aparticular toxic substances such as heavy metals. Pollutants with higher median lethal
concentration (LC50) values are required to induce mortality in organisms (Eaton et al., 2005;
Zahedi et al., 2012). Nile tilapia is one of the most common freshwater fish used in toxicologicalstudies (Figueiredo-Fernandes et al., 2006a, b, 2007; Garcia-Santos et al., 2006) because it is easy
handling, culture and maintenance in laboratory (Alkobaby and El-Wahed, 2017). Moreover, it
promptly responds to environmental alterations so this species is also a well-established model for
toxicological research (Almeida et al., 2002; Figueiredo-Fernandes et al., 2006a, 2007). Hence, theaim of this study is to determine the value of copper as chloride and nitrate lethal concentration for
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758) larvae in order to determine specific times.
MATERIALS AND METHODSThe experiment was conducted at Environmental Science Laboratory, Faculty of Science andTechnology, Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University under the Royal Patronage, Pathum Thani
province, Thailand. The acute toxicity of copper compounds for Nile tilapia larvae was determinedin terms of 48, 72 and 96 hours LC50 and lethal concentrations. The determination of lethal
concentration of copper compounds on Nile tilapia larvae was the following.
Test Organism
Two days old of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis nileticus Linnaeus, 1758) fish larvae were obtained fromthe Pathum Thani Inland Aquaculture Fisheries Research and Development Center, Thailand for
toxicity testing in an oxygenated plastic bag (Fig. 1). The test was conducted at the Environmental
Science Laboratory, Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University under the Royal Patronage in January,
2017. The tested fish were acclimatized in distilled water. Each holding tray was aerated by using a
portable pump and air stone for a period of 48 hours at a room temperature before experiment use. If
survival rate was <10%, the entire stock was discarded (Boonsomboone, 2004). Test fish fused or
toxicity tests had an average 7.10+0.03 mm of length and 9.72+0.04 mg of wet weight.

Fig. 1 The test organism, Nile tilapia (Oreochromis nileticus Linnaeus, 1758) larvaeⒸ ISERD

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Test Media
Analytical grade copper chloride (CuCl2·2H2O) and copper nitrate (Cu(NO3)2·3H2O) form SigmaAldrich were used for preparation of stock solutions that were diluted as desired concentrations.
Fish were exposed for 24 to 96 hours, separately, against different concentrations of two copper
compounds at 0, 10, 50, 100, 300 and 500 µg/L. The investigation was performed in laboratory
conditions at dissolved oxygen (8.06+0.05), temperature (27.77+0.76oC) and pH (6.50+0.50). All
physico-chemical parameters were performed by following APHA-AWWA-WEF (1998) on daily
basic.
Determination of Lethal Concentration
Four-day static acute toxicity test was performed at five different concentrations (10, 50, 100, 300
and 500 µg/L of copper chloride and nitrate) were used in the test series (10 fish for each). A
control group (10 fish) was maintained in deionized water container throughout entire experimental
period, the fish were not fed. Fish mortalities were record at 48, 72 and 96 hours after starting oftests, and dead fish were removed immediately from test media. Mortality was assessed in the
different copper concentrations along with the control group to determine the 96 hours medianlethal concentration (LC50) value by the use of Finney’s probit analysis method (Finney, 1971).
Statistical Analysis
The entire experiment was analyzed using a completely randomized design (CRD) method.
Mortality data for 48, 72 and 96 hours was calculated for LC50 values (95% confidence limits) byFinney’s probit analysis (Finney 1971) using the Statistical Analysis System (SPSS) version 11.5
program. Standard error of mean value (SEM) of replication sampling (n=12) was taken for eachanalysis. A significantly different result was established by a one-way ANOVA, and mean
comparisons of different treatments were carried out by least significant difference (LSD) on
Duncan multiple test of Statistix 8 Software (Analytical Software, Tallahassee, FL). The
acceptance level of significance was a probability value less than 0.05 (p<0.05).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONMedian lethal concentration (LC50, 95% confidence limits) for copper chloride and copper nitrateon the larvae of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis nileticus Linnaeus, 1758) calculated by Finney’s probit
analysis method and SPSS Statistical Software at 48, 72 and 96 hours of exposure was shown in
Table 1 and Fig. 2.
Table 1 LC50 value with 95% confidence limit of copper chloride and copper nitrate on fish
Exposure times(hour)
48
72
96

Lethal concentration (µg Cu/L, lower-upper values)
Copper chloride (CuCl2)
Copper nitrate (Cu (NO3)2)595.754
1,025.395(391.083 – 1,118.644)(668.913 – 2,207.740)
231.110588.785(171.199 – 335.477)(418.447 – 988.509)
124.637456.504(94.508 – 167.266)(322.974 – 755.933)

Note: LC50 is concentration of copper compounds that caused dead 50% of the exposed fish at a specific time ofobservation (e.g. 48 hours LC50), (expressed as µg/L of copper concentrations)

Results showed that the 48 hours LC50 (lower–upper values) for copper chloride was 595.754(391.083–1,118.644) µg/L which sharply declined to 231.110 (171.199–335.477) and 124.637(94.508–167.266) µg/L at 72 and 96 hours, respectively. LC50 value for copper chloride was lower
than copper nitrate at exposure times. At 48, 72 and 96 hours LC50 values for copper nitrate on fish
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were 1,025.395 (668.913–2,207.740), 588.785 (418.447–988.509) and 456.504 (322.974–755.933)µg/L, respectively. This study showed that copper chloride was more toxic than copper nitrate on
Nile tilapia larvae.

Fig. 2 Shown LC50 value of both copper compounds on fish
The 96 hours LC50 value for copper chloride in Nile tilapia larvae was found 124.637 µg/L in
the present work, and here we report copper chloride to be highly toxic to fish. The Material Safety
Data Sheet (MSDS) reports copper chloride acute toxicity to carp fish (Cyprinus carpio) inlaboratory tests, in the average range LC50 value of 120–230 µg/L (Sigma-Aldrich Corporation,2014). Our result is in good agreement with this report. These values are considerably lower than
96 hour LC50 (900 µg/L) of Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), indicating higher vulnerability tocopper chloride in the former two species (Sigma-Aldrich Corporation, 2014; NTU chemistry
Deportment, 2017). Conversely, Warrin et al. (2009) found that copper chloride in sediment media
had higher toxic on Chironomus tentans than copper sulfate and copper nitrate. The results wereobtained by Taweel et al. (2013) reported that mean of 48, 72 and 96 hours LC 50 value for copper
sulfate in fingerlings of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis nileticus) were 1,863 (1,031–5,194), 1,368 (741–
2,802) and 1,093 (581–1,613) µg/L, respectively. According to Iwai et al. (2016) estimates of 48,
72 and 96 hour LC50 value for copper sulfate to Nile tilapia (Oreochromis nileticus) larvae were1,869 (1,157–5,235), 1,740 (–) and 1,383 (859–2,718) µg/L, respectively, these results are higher
than present study (Table 1). On the other hand, LC50 for copper oxide on Barnacle (Balanus
improvises) was 350, 140 and 20 µg/L for 48, 72 and 96 hours, respectively (U.S.EPA, 2009a). For
copper sulfate, the larva was the most sensitive stage of development of cobia (Rachycentron
canadum): eggs, larvae (one-day-old fish), juveniles (20 days old) and young fish (40 days old) in
toxicity tests, with an 96 hours LC50 of 91 (56–134), 60 (29–96), 87 (49–133) and 240 (119–378)µg/L, respectively as the early stages were more sensitive than the later stages, (Le et al., 2005). In
addition, copper was most toxic to fingerling tilapia fish and the toxicity ranking of four heavy
metals was copper > lead > cadmium > zinc (Taweel et al., 2013). Also, copper was more toxic
than cadmium for common carp (Cyprius carpio L.) embryos and larvae (Jezierska et al., 2009).
The observed percentage of Nile tilapia mortality for copper in static tests continuous fordifferent hours and different concentrations were shown in Table 2. There was positive relationshipbetween the mortality and concentration levels; when concentration increased, the mortality rateincreased as well. Similar, the percentage of survival decreased with increasing of both copper
compound concentrations and exposure times. The result showed significant decreased percentage
of fish survival in copper chloride and copper nitrate when compared with control (p<0.01). The
fish tests significant responded to both copper concentrations (50 µg/L) in percent survival (72.0–
85.6%) at specific times in Table 2. The copper concentrations that caused 50% of the exposed fishat 96 hour were found 100 µg/L of copper chloride and 300 µg/L of copper nitrate. Similar to
Howell et al. (1984) reported that copper (94 µg/L) reduced the filtration rate of mussels (Mytilus
edulis) by half, probably through reducing the ciliary beation via the bronchial nerves. Chen et al.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2(2012) reported that even short-term pulsed exposure to low levels of copper (1.6–2.0 µg/L)
reduced growth rate of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) larvae. Shah and Vyas (2015) reported
that at 2 mg/L of copper chloride concentration caused damage to cell membrane and vaculation ofLabeo rohita on 15 day, nucleus was affected on 30 days and on 45 days the cell membrane waswrinkled and damaged.
Table 2 Percent survival of exposed Nile tilapia larvae at specific times
Concentrations(µg /L)
0
10
50
100
300
500
LSD
CV (%)% Survival for Nile tilapia larvae (n=120)
Copper chloride (CuCl2)
Copper nitrate (Cu (NO3)2)
48 h
72 h
96 h
48 h
72 h
96 h
94.7 + 4.2a 90.2 + 3.5a87.4 + 4.2a
100.0 + 0.0a 100.0 + 0.0a
98.9 + 3.3a
90.1 + 5.2ab 84.7 + 3.8a 79.0 + 6.3b
98.9 + 3.3ab 95.6 + 5.3ab 92.2 + 6.7ab
85.6 + 5.1b 77.3 + 7.2b 72.0 + 5.0c
92.2 + 6.7bc 85.6 + 7.3b 81.1 + 9.2bc
79.0 + 6.1c 68.6 + 8.5c 56.6 + 9.9d
92.2 + 8.3bc 88.9 + 7.8b 82.2 + 10.9c
61.2 + 7.0d 47.3 + 6.1d 39.4 + 8.7e
88.9 + 7.8c 73.3 + 13.2c 66.7 + 14.1d
47.1 + 9.8e 31.8 + 9.7e
21.8 + 3.9f
57.8 + 13.0d 43.3 + 19.4d 37.8 + 17.2e
**
**
**
**
**
**
8.56
11.11
11.40
8.71
13.24
14.67

Note: ** showed significantly different from control (p<0.01)

CONCLUSION
Based on the acute toxicity tests performed in this study, Nile tilapia larvae was shown to be moresensitive to copper chloride than copper nitrate which reducing LC50 value and survival rate of fish
tests in copper chloride concentrations. The LC50 determination of copper compounds on fishlarvae was copper toxicity increased with increasing concentration and exposure time. The copper
concentrations that caused 50% of the exposed fish at 96 hours were found 100 µg/L of copper
chloride and 300 µg/L of copper nitrate.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Environmental Science Program, Faculty of
Science and Technology, and Research and Development Institute, Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat
University under the Royal Patronage, Environment Division, Office of General Education, Udon
Thani Rajabhat University, and Integrated Water Resource Management Research andDevelopment Center in Northeast Thailand, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University,
Thailand for financial support.
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Alkobaby, A.I. and Abd El-Wahed, R.K. 2017. The acute toxicity of copper to Nile tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus) fingerlings and its effects on gill and liver histology. J. Aquac. Res. Development, 8 (1), 1-6.
Almeida, J.A., Diniz, Y.S., Marques, S.F., Faine, L.A., Ribas, B.O., Burneiko, R.C. and Novelli, E.L.B. 2002.
The use of the oxidative stress responses as biomarkers in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) exposed toin vivo cadmium contamination. Environ. Int., 27, 673-679.
APHA-AWWA-WEF. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 20th ed.
American Public Health Association, Washington DC, USA.
Boonsomboon, S. 2004. A selection of appropria test conditions for whole effluent toxicity testing withjuvenile Nile tilapia (Orecochromis niloticus). M.Sc. Thesis, Graduated School, Mahidol University,
Thailand.
Chen, W.Y., Lin, C.J., Ju, Y.R., Tsai, J.W. and Liao, C.M. 2012. Coupled dynamics of energy budget andpopulation growth of tilapia in response to pulsed waterborne copper. Ecotoxicology, 21 (8), 2264-2275.
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FAO. 1992. Committee for inland fisheries of Africa. Report of the third Session of the Working Party on
Pollution and Fisheries, Accra, Ghana, 25-29 November 1991. FAO Fisheries Report, 471, Rome, FAO.
Figueiredo-Fernandes, A., Fontaínhas-Fernandes, A., Monteiro, R.A.F., Reis-Henriques, M.A. and Rocha, E.
2006a. Effects of the fungicide mancozeb in the liver structure of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticusAssessment and quantification of induced cytological changes using qualitative histopathology and thestereological point-sampled intercept method. Bull. Environ. Contam.Toxicol., 76 (2), 249-255.
Figueiredo-Fernandes, A., Fontaínhas-Fernandes, A., Peixoto, F., Rocha, E. and Reis-Henriques, M.A. 2006b.
Effect of paraquat on oxidative stress enzymes in tilapia Oreochromis niloticus at two levels oftemperature. Pest. Biochem. Physiol., 85 (2), 97-103.
Figueiredo-Fernandes, A., Ferreira-Cardoso, J.V., Garcia-Santos, S., Monteiro, S.M., Carrola, J. and Motos,
P. 2007. Histopathological changes in liver and gill epithelium of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus,
exposed to waterborne copper. Pesq. Vet. Bras, 27 (3), 102-109.
Gadagbui, B.K.M., Addy, M. and Goksøyr, A. 1996. Species characteristics of hepatic biotransformation
enzymes in two tropical freshwater teleosts, tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and mudfish (Clarias
anguillaris). Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 114 (3), 201-211.
Howell, R., Grant, A.M. and Maccoy, N.E. 1984. Effect of treatment with reserpine on the change infiltration rate of Mytilus edulis subjected to dissolved copper. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 15 (12), 436-439.
Iwai, C.B, Soeung, L. and Houng, T. 2016. Acute toxicity testing of copper on four species of tropicalfreshwater biota (Moina macrocopa, Chironomus javanus, Ctenopharyngodon idella and Oreochromis
niloticus). Khon Kaen Agr. J., 44 (Suppl. 1), 1006-1013.
Jezierska, B., Sarnowski, P., Witeska M. and Ługowska K. 2009. Disturbances of early development of fish
caused by heavy metals (a review). Electron. J. Ichthyol., 5 (2), 76-96.
Le, Q.D., Nguyen, M.C., Nguyen, T.H. and Nguyen D.C. 2005. Acute toxicity test to determine the effects ofcopper, zinc and cyanide on cobia (Rachycentron canadum) resources in North Vietnam. Australasian J.
Ecotoxicol., 11, 163-166.
National Pollutant Inventory 2014. Copper and compounds. Department of the Environment and Energy,
Australia Government, http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/copper-and-compounds (retrived on 27 October,2017).
Office of Industrial Economics. 2012. Copper industrial situation 2012. http://www.oie.go.th/sites/default/
files/attachments/industry_ overview/copper-industrialsituation-2555.pdf
Reddy, P.P., Jagadeshwarlu, R. and Devi, G.S. 2015. Determination of lethal concentration (LC50) of copper
to Sarotherodon mossambica. Int. J. Fish. Aqua. Stud., 4 (1), 172-175.
Shah, A.I. and Vyas, B.M. 2015. Relative study of copper toxicity on aquatic life and human health. J.
Environ. Res. Develop., 9 (34A), 884-888.
Taweel, A., Shuhaimi-Othman, M. and Ahmad, A.K. 2013. In vivo Acute toxicity tests of some heavy metals
to Tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus). J. Biol. Sci., 13 (5), 365-371.
Yang, S., Wang, G., Du, W. and Huang, L. 2014. Remote sensing and GIS-based prediction and assessmentof copper-gold resources in Thailand. The 35th International Symposium on Remote Sensing ofEnvironment (ISRSE35), 22-26 April, 2013, Beijing, China, IOP Publishing: IOP Conference Series,
Earth and Environmental Science, 17 (1), 1-4.
Yirgu, Z. 2011. Accumulation of certain heavy metals in Nile tilapia (oreochromis niloticus), Fish species
relative to heavy metal concentrations in the water of Lake Hawassa. M.Sc. Thesis, Graduate School,
Addis Ababa University.
Zahedi, S., Mehrpoosh, M., Vaezzade, H., Dagesaracki, M.S. and Hosseini, S.M. 2012. LC50 determinationand copper and cadmium accumulation in the gills of Kutum (Rutilus frisii kutum) fingerlings. Terr.
Aquat. Environ. Toxicol., 6 (2), 71-76.

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Research article
erd

Antioxidant Activity of Crude Extract from Raw and Heattreated Moringa oleifera
NAWAPORN LAPSONGPHON*
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Phathum Thani, Thailand
Email: nawaporn_l@rmutt.ac.th

MONSICHA PINTHONG
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Phathum Thani, Thailand

PIYADA SUKDEE
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Phathum Thani, Thailand
Received 31 December 2017

Accepted 20 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The aim of this research was to investigate the effect of heat treatment on
antioxidant properties of crude extract from Moringa oleifera (peel, pulp, and seed). Total
phenolic content and antioxidant properties based on 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
radical scavenging, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and metal chelating activity
were investigated. Results revealed that crude extract obtained from raw moringa peel
showed the highest total phenolic content and DPPH radical scavenging activity (3.65 mg
gallic acid eq./g DW and 1.35 mg Trolox eq./g DW), followed by pulp (3.44 mg gallic acideq./g DW and 1.25 mg Trolox eq./g DW) and seed (2.80 mg gallic acid eq./g DW and 0.91
mg Trolox eq./g DW), respectively. The highest FRAP were obtained from the raw moringa
peel extract (3.62 mg ferrous eq./g DW), whereas the highest metal chelating activity was
found in raw moringa pulp extract 0.42 mg EDTA eq./g DW). All samples with heat
treatment at 100 °C for 15 min showed lower total phenolic content and antioxidant
properties than crude extract from raw moringa samples (P<0.05).
Keywords Moringa oleifera, heat treatment, antioxidant activity

INTRODUCTION
In recent years, attention has been focused on antioxidants derived from natural sources, due to thefact that antioxidative activity of extracts from plants or animals, in some cases, is similar or higher
than that of commonly used synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHA) andbutylated hydroxylanisole (BHT), which are quite unsafe and their toxicity is a problem of concern(Hossain et al., 2008). Plant and its products are rich sources of a phytochemicals and have beenfound to possess a variety of biological activities including antioxidant potential in various
oxidative reaction systems have been discovered. The antioxidant properties include scavenging or
quenching of reactive oxygen species (ROS)/free radicals and inhibition of ROS induced oxidationof biological macromolecules such as lipids, proteins, and DNA. Other mechanisms of antioxidant
activity include transition metal chelating activity and ferric reducing power (Arabshahi-Delouee etal, 2007).
Moringa oleifera is a widely cultivated tree considered as a multi-purpose plant which can befound in tropical and subtropical climates and contains various phytochemicals such as carotenoids,
vitamins, minerals, amino acids, sterols, glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids and phenolics(Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003; Upadhyay et al., 2015). Almost all the parts of this plant such asroot, bark, gum, leaf, fruit (pods), flowers, seed and seed oil have been reported as source ofdifferent biochemical compounds with anticarcinogenic, antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, antioxidant,Ⓒ ISERD

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and antimicrobial effects (Chuang et al., 2007; Upadhyay et al., 2015). M. oleifera leaf was foundto have high source of protein, beta-carotene, vitamin C, iron, potassium, and other nutrients(Jongrungruangchok et al., 2010). Extracts from M. oleifera roots and flowers were found to have asignificant hepatoprotective effect (Ruckmani et al., 1998).
The effect of food processing procedure on the antioxidant activity of foods are generally the
result of different processing. Thus, the evaluation of processing factors influencing the antioxidant
activity is imperative to increase or preserve their lability (Nicoli et al., 1999). Several studies havereported the antioxidant potential of M. oleifera leaf (Jongrungruangchok et al., 2010; Sreelatha andPadma, 2009; Verma et al., 2009; Vongsak et al., 2013). Only a few studies have reported theantioxidant activity of Moringa peel, pulp, and seed and their ability after heat process. Therefore,
this research aimed to investigate the effect of heat treatment on antioxidant properties of crude
extract from Moringa oleifera (peel, pulp, and seed).
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of heat treatment on antioxidant propertiesof crude extract from Moringa oleifera (peel, pulp, and seed).
METHODOLOGY
The Moringa oleifera pods were purchased from a commercial market in Phathumtani province,
Thailand and then separated into Moringa oleifera peel, pulp, and seed samples and cut into small
pieces (Fig. 1). Each sample was divided into raw and heat-treated samples (in a boiling water bathfor 15 min.). All samples were incubated at 60 ºC for 24 hours. The dried samples were powderedand passed through sieve no. 18 and analyzed for moisture content (AOAC, 2000). Each sample
was extracted with 50% ethanol at a ratio of 1:20 (w/v). The mixture was then shaken at room
temperature for 24 hours with a shaking speed of 150 rpm. Supernatant was collected and filteredthrough Whatman No.1 filter paper. Then, this crude extract was subjected to total phenolic content
and antioxidant activity assays.

(A)

(B)

(C)

Fig. 1 Moringa peel (A), pulp (B), and seed (C) samples used in this study
Total phenolic compound was determined by Folin-Ciocalteu method (Kähkönen et al., 1999).
Briefly, 500 μL of each sample were mixed well with 2.5 mL of 0.2 M Folin–Ciocalteu reagent,followed by the addition of 2 mL of 7.5% (w/v) sodium carbonate. The mixture was allowed atroom temperature for 60 min and absorbance was measured at 7650 nm. The total phenolic content
was calculated from the calibration curve, and the results were expressed as mg gallic acidequivalents/g dry weight (mg gallic acid eq./g DW).
2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity assay (DPPH assay) was performed
according to Burits and Bucar (2000) with some modifications. Sample (1 mL) were mixed with 1
mL of 0.1 mM DPPH solution. The reaction tubes were wrapped in aluminum foil and incubated atⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

room temperature for 10 min in dark. The absorbance was monitored at 517 nm. DPPH assay was
expressed as mg Trolox equivalents/g dry weight (mg Trolox eq./g DW).
Ferric reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP assay) was performed according to Benzie
and Strain (1996) with some modifications. Sample (100 μL) were mixed with 1900 μL of FRAP
reagent. The absorbance of the reaction mixture was monitored at 593 nm after incubating at 37 ºC
for 10 min. FRAP value of each sample was expressed as mg ferrous equivalents/g dry weight (mgferrous eq./g DW).
Metal chelating activity assay was performed according to Decker and Welch (1990) withsome modifications. Sample (100 μL) were mixed with 1,400 μL of distilled water and 100 μL of 2
mM FeCl2.4H2O. The reaction mixture was incubated at room temperature for 3 min. Then, thereaction mixture was added with 400 μL of 5 mM ferrozine and incubated at room temperature for10 min. The absorbance was monitored at 562 nm. Metal chelating activity of each sample wasexpressed as mg EDTA equivalents/g dry weight (mg EDTA eq./g DW).
All the extraction processes and the analyses on each sample were done in duplicate. The
experiments followed a completely randomized design (CRD) comprising six crude extract
samples. Differences among mean values were established using Duncan Multiple Range Test
(DMRT) at P<0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Moisture content of raw moringa peel, pulp, and seed powder were 9.13, 9.90, and 9.97,
respectively. Whereas, moisture content of heat-treated moringa peel, pulp, and seed powder were
8.65, 8.88, and 8.92, respectively. Total phenolic content and DPPH radical scavenging activity of
raw and heat-treated moringa peel, pulp, and seed extracts were shown in Table 1. The results
showed that the highest total phenolic content was found in moringa peel (3.65 mg gallic acid eq./g
DW), followed by pulp (3.44 mg gallic acid eq./g DW) and seed (2.85 mg gallic acid eq./g DW),
respectively. After heat treatment, moringa peel, pulp, and seed samples showed lower total
phenolic content than their respective raw samples. Siddhuraju and Becker (2003) reported that themain phenolic compounds in drumstick leaves and its extracts are flavonoid groups such as
quercetin and kaempferol. They also contained 3-caffeoylquinic and 5-caffeoylquinic acid. The
whole pods are reported to contain nitriles, isothiocyanate and thicarbamates (Faizi et al., 1995)
and has antioxidant activity, which is due to the presence of carotenoid compounds (Kumar et al.,2007).
Table 1 Total phenolic content and DPPH radical scavenging activity of raw andheat-treated Moringa oleifera peel, pulp, and seed extracts
SampleRaw moringa peel
Raw moringa pulp
Raw moringa seed
Heat-treated moringa peelHeat-treated moringa pulp
Heat-treated moringa seed

Total phenolic content(mg gallic acid eq./g DW)
3.65a ±0.03
3.44b ±0.25
2.80c ±0.02
1.38d ±0.01
1.19de±0.02
0.91e ±0.01

DPPH radical scavenging activity(mg Trolox eq./g DW)
1.35a ±0.02
1.25b ±0.03
0.91c ±0.04
0.78d ±0.03
0.41e ±0.04
0.23f ±0.01

Means of the same column with different superscripts indicate significant difference (P<0.05).

The antiradical activity was measured as ability to reduce DPPH radical by crude extract fromraw and heat-treated M. oleifera (peel, pulp, and seed). As shown in Table 1, raw moringa peel
showed the highest DPPH radical scavenging activity (1.35 mg Trolox eq./g DW), followed bypulp (1.25 mg Trolox eq./g DW) and seed (0.91 mg Trolox eq./g DW), respectively. The lower
DPPH radical scavenging activity was also found in heat-treated samples. These results are inagreement with Arabshahi-Delouee et al. (2007). Incubating moringa leaves extract at 100 ºC for
15 min resulted in a significant decrease in inhibition of lipid peroxidation by 17% usingⒸ ISERD

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thiobarbituric acid (TBA) assay. Heat processing may have resulted in degradation of antioxidants
present in moringa leaves extract, thereby decreasing the activity.
FRAP of raw and heat-treated moringa peel, pulp, and seed extracts were shown in Table 2.
FRAP of raw moringa peel (3.62 mg ferrous eq./g DW), seed (3.32 mg ferrous eq./g DW), and pulp
extracts (3.28 mg ferrous eq./g DW) was comparable (P>0.05) and showed higher FRAP than allheat-treated samples (P<0.05). This method is based on the ability of a compound to donate one
electron to Fe3+ to reduce it to Fe2+, whereas DPPH radical scavenging assay is involved hydrogen
atom transfer.
Table 2 Ferric reducing antioxidant power and metal chelating activity of raw andheat-treated Moringa oleifera peel, pulp, and seed extracts
SampleRaw moringa peel
Raw moringa pulp
Raw moringa seed
Heat-treated moringa peelHeat-treated moringa pulp
Heat-treated moringa seed

Ferric reducing antioxidant
power (mg ferrous eq./g DW)
3.62a ±0.08
3.28ab±0.25
3.32ab±0.09
2.13c ±0.28
2.87b ±0.30
2.05c ±0.01

Metal chelating activity(mg EDTA eq./g DW)
0.41a ±0.04
0.42a ±0.06
0.19b ±0.01
0.15b ±0.01
0.13b ±0.01
0.01c ±0.00

Means of the same column with different superscripts indicate significant difference (P<0.05).

Metal chelating activity of raw moringa pulp (0.42 mg EDTA eq./g DW) showed the highest
content and was comparable with the raw moringa peel (0.41 mg EDTA eq./g DW) (P≥0.05).
Heating proceed resulted in a significant decrease in metal chelating activity of all samples(P<0.05). Transition metals act as catalysts that promote the generation of the first few radicals,
which initiate the oxidative chain reaction. Thus, the chelating of transition metal ions by these
extracts would reduce available transition metals, rendering the inhibition of the radical-mediatedoxidative chain reactions (Zaid et al., 2012).
The decrease in FRAP and metal chelating activity of all samples might be due to the loss ofnaturally occurring antioxidants present in the extract or formation of novel compounds havingprooxidant activity upon heat processing at 100 ºC for 15 min. These results demonstrated thatantioxidant activities including DPPH radical scavenging activity, FRAP, and metal chelating
activity of moringa peel, pulp, and seed samples depends on heat treatment.
CONCLUSION
Crude extract obtained from raw moringa peel showed the highest total phenolic content and DPPH
radical scavenging activity followed by pulp and seed, respectively. The highest FRAP wereobtained from the raw moringa peel extract, whereas the highest metal chelating activity was foundin raw moringa pulp extract. Moringa peel, pulp and seed samples with heat treatment at 100 °C for
15 min showed lower total phenolic content and antioxidant properties than crude extract from raw
moringa samples.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University ofTechnology Thanyaburi (RMUTT). The author would like to thank all the staff members of thedivision of food science and technology for all supports and assistance.

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REFERENCES
AOAC. 2000. Official methods of analysis. 15th ed. Wilson Boulevard Arlington, Verginia, USA.
Arabshahi-Delouee, S., Devi, D.V. and Urooj, A. 2007. Evaluation of antioxidant activity of some plant
extracts and their heat, pH and storage stability. Food Chem., 100, 1100-1105.
Benzie, I.F.F. and Strain, J.J. 1999. Ferric reducing/antioxidant power assay: Direct measure of total
antioxidant activity of biological fluids and modified version for simultaneous measurement of total
antioxidant power and ascorbic acid concentration. Methods Enzymol., 299, 15-27.
Burits, M. and Bucar, F. 2000. Antioxidant activity of Nigella sativa essential oil. Phytother Res., 14, 323328.
Chuang, P.H., Lee, C.W., Chou, J.Y., Murugan, M., Shieh, B.J. and Chen, H.M. 2007. Anti-fungal activity ofcrude extracts and essential oil of Moringa oleifera Lam. Bioresour. Technol., 98, 232-236.
Decker, E.A. and Welch, B. 1990. Role of ferritin as a lipid oxidation catalyst in muscle food. J. Agri. Food
Chem., 38, 674-677.
Faizi, S., Siddiqui, B.S., Saleem, R., Siddiqui, S., Aftab, K. and Gilani, A.H. 1995. Fully acetylated
carbamate and hypotensive thiocarbamate glycosides from Moringa oleifera. Phytochemistry, 38, 957963.
Hossain, M.B., Brunton, N.P., Barry-Ryan, C., Martin-Diana, A.B. and Wilkinson, M. 2008. Antioxidant
activity of spices extracts and phenolics in comparison to synthetic antioxidants. Rasayan J. Chem., 4,751-756.
Jongrungruangchok, S., Bunrathep, S. and Songsak, T. 2010. Nutrients and minerals content of elevendifferent samples of Moringa oleifera cultivated in Thailand. J. Health Res., 24, 123-127.
Kähkönen, M.P., Hopia, A.I., Vuorela, J., Rauha, J.P., Pihlaja, K., Kujala, T.S. and Heinonen, M. 1999.
Antioxidant activity of plant extracts containing phenolic compounds. J. Agri. Food Chem., 47 (1), 39543962.
Kumar, S., Kumar, D., Singh, N. and Vasisht, B.D. 2007. In-vitro free radicals scavenging and antioxidant
activity of Moringa oleifera pods. J. Herb. Med. Toxicol., 1, 117-122.
Nicoli, M.C., Anese, M. and Parpinel, M. 1999. Influence of processing on the antioxidant properties of fruits
and vegetables. Trends Food Sci. Technol., 10, 94-100.
Ruckmani, K., Kavimani, S., Anandan, R. and Jaykar, B. 1998. Effect of Moringa oleifera Lam onparacetamol-induced hepatoxicity. Indian J. Pharm. Sci., 60, 33-35.
Siddhuraju, P. and Becker, K. 2003. Antioxidant properties of various solvent extracts of total phenolicconstituents from three different agro-climatic origins of drumstick tree (Moringa oleifera Lam.). J. Agr.
Food Chem., 51 (8), 2144-2155.
Sreelatha, S. and Padma, P.R. 2009. Antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of Moringa oleifera
leaves in two stages of maturity. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr., 64, 303-311.
Upadhyay, P., Yadav, M.K., Mishra, S., Sharma, P. and Purohit, S. 2015. Moringa oleifera: A review of the
medical evidence for its nutritional and pharmacological properties. Int. J. Res. Pharm. Sci., 5 (2), 12-16.
Verma, A.R., Vijayakumar, M., Mathela, C.S. and Rao, C.V. 2009. In vitro and in vivo antioxidant propertiesof different fractions of Moringa oleifera leaves. Food Chem. Toxicol., 47, 2196-2201.
Vongsak, B., Sithisarn, P., Mangmool, S., Thongpraditchote, S., Wongkrajang, Y. and Gritsanapan, W. 2013.
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Research article
erd

Contribution of Organic Agriculture to Gross National
Happiness (GNH): Bhutan
SERKI WANGMO
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: serkiwangmo9@gmail.com

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: chulee_b@kku.ac.th; chuleemas1@gmail.com
Received 31 December 2017

Accepted 20 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The objective of this review was to study the contribution of organic agriculture(OA) to the development paradigm of Bhutan, Gross National Happiness (GNH). This
study examined contributions of OA on GNH on each of the domains under four pillars.
The impacts of OA on GNH were assessed using the GNH Project Screening Tool of
Agriculture. The tool was developed based on four pillars and nine domains of GNH by
Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS). Each of the screening variable consists of a 4-pointerscale: 1 (negative), 2 (uncertain), 3 (neutral), and 4 (positive). We found that OA and GNH
share comparable principles. The principles focusing on the sustainability, well-being of thepeople, and natural ecosystem while enhancing the economic growth. Further, the result
showed a positive score of 120 out of 136 scores. This is way beyond the neutral score of102. Scoring was from judgement based on the available literature. The apparent resultshows that Bhutan has chosen a viable option.
Keywords Bhutan, development, GNH, principles of OA, IFOAM norm

INTRODUCTION
Bhutan pursues Sustainable Development through GNH (National Environment Commission
Secretariat, 2012). GNH is a holistic development philosophy build upon four pillars consisting ofnine domains and 33 indicators. Bhutan is promoting organic agriculture (OA) due to the entailed
sustainable qualities of OA that is socially acceptable, economically sound, and environmentallybenign (Tashi and Wangchuk, 2016). The former Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y. Thinleystated, “going organic is living GNH” indicating the wisdom of Bhutan pledging to be 100%organic by 2020. Furthermore, researchers claimed that the principles of OA are in alignment with
GNH (Tashi and Wangchuk, 2016). Thus, Bhutan is promoting OA following the guideline ofInternational Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) definition (McCraeHokenson, 2014),
OA is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems, and people relying
on ecological processes, biodiversity, and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the useof inputs with adverse effects. OA combines tradition, innovation, and science to benefit theshared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.
Bhutan had been into OA practice since 2003 (Tashi, 2015). Since then, the various literatureand the talk by the leaders of Bhutan reveals the potential contribution of OA to GNH (Halberg andMüller, 2013; Setboonsarng and Gregorio, 2017; Seufert, 2012). However, no empirical studies
were done on the topic. Thus, the study was conducted to quantify the contributions of OA on
GNH based on the available literature.
METHODOLOGYⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

The study was examined based on the performance of OA in terms of four pillars and nine domains.
The pillars are (1) Sustainable and Equitable Socio-economic Development, (2) Preservation andPromotion of Culture, (3) Conservation of the Environment, and (4) Good Governance. The
domains are (1) Living Standard; (2) Education; (3) Health; (4) Time Use; (5) Cultural Diversity
and Resilience; (6) Community vitality; (7) Psychological Well-being; (8) Ecological diversity, and(9) Good Governance. The impacts of OA on GNH was assessed using the GNH Project Screening
Tool of Agriculture consisting of 34 variables (Table 1). The tool was developed based on fourpillars and nine domains by CBS. Each of the screening variable consists of 4-pointer scale: 1(negative), 2 (uncertain), 3 (neutral), and 4 (positive). The score was given based on the concept of
OA inscribed in IFOAM norm 2014, National Framework for Organic Farming in Bhutan, and thefindings from the scientific papers at our disposal.
Table 1 Variables of GNH project screening tools and the scores

3
4
5
6
7
8

Variables
Traditional resource management
knowledge
Traditional resource management
institutions
Farmland availability
Fallow land
Land degradation
Urban migration
Voluntary reciprocal labor
Labor-saving devices

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

Rural credit
Manure and biomass inputs
Herbicide use
Pesticide use
Genetically modified species
Traditional crops
Traditional practices
Nutrition
Food self-sufficiency
Cereal self-sufficiency
Agricultural productivity
Crop damage
Agricultural biodiversity
Mono-cropping
Agricultural exports
Value-addition

25
26
27

Farmer income
Ecological impact
Values28
29

Water supply
Water quality

30
31
32
33
34

Water demand
Water pollution
Air pollution
Employment
Equity1
2

Scores4 (Will enhance traditional natural resource management
knowledge)
4 (Will enhance traditional natural resource management
institutions)
1 (Will encroach on farmlands)
4 (Will decrease the number of fallow agricultural acres)
4 (Will reduce soil erosion and land degradation)
4 (Will decrease rates of rural-urban migration)
4 (Will strengthen voluntary reciprocal labor practices)
2 (Do not know the effects on the availability of labor-saving
Devices)
4 (Will increase availability of rural credit)
4 (Will favor farmyard manure and biomass inputs)
4 (Will decrease the use of herbicides)
4 (Will decrease the use of pesticides)
4 (Will decrease importation and use of GM seeds and crops)
4 (Will favor the use traditional crop varieties)
4 (Will promote this variable)
4 (Will result in an improvement in nutritionally balanced diet)
2 (Do not know the effects on rural food self-sufficiency)
2 (Do not know the effects on national cereal self-sufficiency)
2 (Do not know the effects on the productivity of crop)
4 (Will result in a net decrease in crops lost to wildlife damage)
4 (Will result in an increase in agricultural biodiversity)
4 (Will result in a decrease in monocropping)
4 (Will result in increased diversification of agricultural exports)
4 (Will increase value addition through organic marketingstrategies)
4 (Will result in a net increase in rural income levels)
4 (Will enhance surrounding biodiversity)
4 (Will strengthen traditional values of respect for the naturalenvironment)
4 (Will result in greater availability of water supply for irrigation)
4 (Will result in an improvement in the quality of watersupply for irrigation)
4 (Will decrease the demand for water)
4 (Will decrease levels of water pollution)
2 (Do not know the effects on levels of air pollution)
4 (Will generate local employment)
4 (Will address rural equity)

Calculation: the score calculation was done based on the following equations:
Positive score = 4 X Number of screening questions
Neutral score = 3 X Number of screening questionsⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
We found that OA has positive impact on GNH as per the examination through GNH Project
Screening Tool. OA contributes to enhancing GNH with the positive score of 120 out of 136 scores.
This is way beyond the neutral score of 102. This highly significant result could be due to thecomparable principles between the OA and GNH. This indicates that the adoption of organic
agriculture in Bhutan is the right choice. The food self-sufficiency, cereal self-sufficiency,
agricultural productivity, labor-saving devices, requirement of more farmland, and air pollution
remained as contentious issues. Some studies revealed positive while some revealed negative
impacts on these topics.
Sustainable and Equitable Socio-Economic Development
Living standard: OA is climate resilient and gives better yield to the changing climate (Reganold
and Wachter, 2016; Seufert and Ramankutty, 2017). Moreover, the production is feasible at theminimal cost (Department of Agriculture, 2007) on which the farmers fetch premium priceresulting the higher income (Annunziata and Vecchio, 2016; Cocka et al., 2016; Jouzi et al., 2017;
Meng et al., 2017). The labor-intensive nature of OA has provided employment opportunities in therural areas building financial security (Department of Agriculture, 2007; Finley, Chappell et al.,2018; Jouzi et al., 2017; Seufert and Ramankutty, 2017; Tashi and Wangchuk, 2016). Further, OA
restore the degraded land (Jouzi et al., 2017) and improving other social issues (e.g., public health)(Migliorini and Wezel, 2017). The creation of accessibility to the diversity of crops is anotheradvantage of OA (Reganold and Wachter, 2016). Thus, it will minimize the risk of having todepend on a single crop (Seufert and Ramankutty, 2017). Collectively, these studies showed its
contribution to the sustainable local economy and thus, enhancing the living standard. However,the potential of OA to feed the growing population (Reganold and Wachter, 2016) and its impact
on the environment (Gomiero, 2018) still remains controversial debate among researchers.
Education: OA is a knowledge-intensive system (Siddique et al., 2014). It lures participation of
farmers with the other actors such as researchers, farmers’ associations, consumers etc., forcollective management (Ortolani et al., 2017). This encourages social learning on the values,
tradition, culture, and the environment (Mercati, 2016; Padel et al., 2015). Thus, OA provides aholistic educational platform to all involved in the system. The concept is still evolving with theconstant search for multiple solutions to the challenges (Migliorini and Wezel, 2017; Rahmann etal., 2017).
Health: OA has an opportunity to enhance physical, mental and social wellbeing (IFOAM, 2017;
Tashi and Wangchuk, 2016). It produces safe and nutritious food (Gomiero, 2018; Seufert andRamankutty, 2017). The risk of farmers exposure to the chemical is also reduced due to the bannedof chemical inputs (Brantsæter et al., 2017; Jouzi et al., 2017). However, the production of safe andnutritious food depends on the management practice (Jouzi et al., 2017; Mie et al., 2017).
Preservation and Promotion of CultureTime use: Since OA is a labor-intensive farming system (Finley et al., 2018; Siddique et al., 2014),
the family and leisure time will have to be compromised if there is labor shortage. However, thepeople working together on the farm will have enough time to get together. We conclude thatpeople working together will get more time to exchange knowledge from each other.
Cultural diversity and resilience: As per the IFOAM norm 2014, the diverse and unique sets ofcultural and traditional practices should be embraced with innovation and science (IFOAM, 2017).
Moreover, locally adapted cultivars are conserved which are highly adaptable to changing climate(Migliorini and Wezel, 2017; Tashi and Wangchuk, 2016). Thus, OA can ensure cultural diversity
and resilience.
Community vitality: OA has an opportunity to increase the sense of belongingness to the groupⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2(Annunziata and Vecchio, 2016; Reganold and Wachter, 2016). It provides an opportunity to work
together, and exchange knowledge and experiences among the wider stakeholders (Taheri et al.,2017; Tashi and Wangchuk, 2016). Also, the farmers are able to gain customers’ trust once theproduct is certified (Rahmann et al., 2017).
Psychological wellbeing: It is an intrinsically valuable and desired state of being defined byreflective and affective elements (Ura et al., 2012). OA addresses the (1) health of the soil, plants,
animals, humans for a healthy planet; (2) protect natural systems; (3) provide equity, respect andjustice for those involved in OA; and (4) care for the current and future generations, and theenvironment (IFOAM, 2017; Migliorini and Wezel, 2017). Thus, we conclude that OA has thepotential to address both reflective and affective elements (IFOAM, 2017).
Conservation of Environment
Ecological diversity and resilience: OA is the environmentally friendly practices that protect the
public goods such as prevention of air and water pollution, and enhance water quality (Jespersen etal., 2017; Mercati, 2016). Also restores degraded land, increases biodiversity and ecosystemservices (Markuszewska and Kubacka, 2017; Mercati, 2016; Seufert and Ramankutty, 2017; Taheri
et al., 2017). OA creates favorable conditions for living organisms to thrive which are good for soil
formation (Meng et al., 2017). However, so far no studies were conducted for the impact of OA andwildlife damage to the crops.
Good GovernanceGood governance: IFOAM norm of version 2014 requires OA to inculcate transparency,
autonomy, equity, and equality (IFOAM, 2017). Also, OA can promote empowerment of the smallscale farmers and women (Jouzi et al., 2017; Parrott et al., 2006; Rahmann et al., 2017; Taheri et al.,2017). Also, every individual can work in the farm irrespective of age and gender. Even the
pregnant women and children can work on the farm since the exposure to the chemicals is reduced(Parrott et al., 2006). Further, the transparency is ensured through certification (Parrott et al., 2006;
Rahmann et al., 2017).
CONCLUSIONOA is expanding progressively despite some contentious issues. The third phase of OA “Organic
Agriculture 3.0 is Innovation with Research” is in place to address the challenges of OA byincorporating the principles of OA. The principles which are comparable to GNH principle. The
study revealed various contributions of OA to every domain of GNH. OA scoring positive scoresof 112 from Screening Tool and further indicate that AO has the high potential to contribute to
GNH. The positive impact of OA on GNH will ultimately benefit the country. However, Bhutan
should work more on contentious issues: productivity, requirement of more farmland, organic
manure production and reduction of air pollution.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors would like to thank Thailand International Cooperation Agency (TICA) for the funding
and Integrated Water Resource Management Research and Development Center in Northeast
Thailand, Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
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Research article
erd

Survey on the Slope Protection Method for Sloped
Farmland Aimed at Conservation of Regional UniqueLandscape
SHOKO NISHIWAKI*
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Email: 7063598150@edu.k.u-tokyo.ac.jp

KENJI OKAJIMA
Graduate School & Faculty of Bioresources, Mie University, Mie, Japan

EIJI YAMAJI
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Received 13 January 2018

Accepted 20 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Japan's National land has many steep mountains and few flat lands. We
performed slant ground use for a long time to secure farmland, in Japan. In slope protection
methods of the sloping farmland, there are fundamental two types of “slope tamping” and“stone wall”. The slope protection methods of the sloping farmland are one of the elementscharacterizing a scene including sloping farmland as a thing peculiar to area. In this paper,
we analyzed the type of the slope protection method of sloping farmland in the point of“one hundred selection of Japanese sloping farmlands” and the representative sloping
farmland in Japan using a subsurface geological map drawn on a scale of 1 to 200000. The
geology in each point of target area was classified into three main groups as volcanic rock,sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock. Three main groups were further classified by rocktypes or geological timescale. We formed clear that rock types or geological timescale ofthe subsurface geology in the point was related to the choice of the slope protection methodof sloping farmland. We conducted a field survey based on this classification. As a result, inregion where two or more subsurface geologies are adjacent, the rock of the subsurface
geology next to each other in domains from the subsurface geological feature border toaround 200m is used as materials of the protection method of sloping farmland.
Keywords sloping farmland, rice terrace, terraced field, stone wall, slope protection method

INTRODUCTION
Japan's National land has many steep mountains and few flat lands. We performed slant ground use
for a long time to secure farmland, in Japan. In Japan, farm village landscapes with rice terrace orterraced fields are cultural landscape. The slope protection methods of the sloping farmland are oneof the elements characterizing a scene including sloping farmland as a thing peculiar to area.
Typical ones in the slope protection method of rice terraces and Terraced fields are stone walls andslope tamping.
In slope protection methods of the sloping farmland, there are fundamental two types of“slope tamping” and “stone wall”. Some research suggested that the type of the slope protection
method of sloping farmland depended on the presence or absence of unearthed rocks at the time ofthe paddy field reclamation; however, these are not describe detailed the kind of stones. When theslope protection methods are broken for some reason or to deteriorate over time, we may notchoose appropriate slope protection method or materials. It shows the possibility that a traditionallandscapes fails.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

METHODOLOGY
We performed documents investigation and a field survey. In this paper, we will express Riceterrace and terraced field with sloping farmland.
Documents Investigation
In this paper, we focused on relationship between the rock types of the subsurface geology and theslope protection method and revealed tendency in choosing slope protection method. We basicallyused subsurface geological map drawn on a scale of 1 to 200000 published by AIST Geological
Survey of Japan. In this map, the discontinuous boundaries between neighboring quadrangles wereresolved using a unified legend.
We chose 464 areas registered in a prefecture or country of Japan as the sloping farmland
which represented an area. Fig.1 shows the locations of the 464 areas. In the analysis, we used
information on registered sloping farmland. The black dots in Fig. 1 are the target area. The rockclassification and geologic time classification of the subsurface geology we used are shown in Fig.
2 (Arai et al., 2005; Itoh, 1982; Itoh and Nishiki, 1985).

Fig. 1 Distribution of Documents investigation target area

Fig. 2 Rock classification and geological time classification of subsurface geology
Field Survey
We did a field survey to more quantitatively show the relationship between the subsurface geology
and the choice tendency of the slope protection method. The purpose of the survey is to clarify
what kind of stone were used for stone wall of slope protection method. We grasped the subsurface
geology of the target area by subsurface geological map, and we investigated how far thegeological boundary of the subsurface geology affects the stone used in stone wall.
The boundary between Arita City and Yuasa Town in Wakayama Prefecture of Japan was
selected as a target area where surface geology is changing within the region. We investigated theⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

outcrop of the geological indicator as an indicator of the survey site. And the survey point was
decided by changing the distance from the outcrop. The distance between the survey points was set
within 100 m. We gathered the following data at each survey point. Location data by GPS(GARMIN OREGON 300), stone used for material of stone wall types classified by reference tosubsurface geological map, and photographic data as material of stone wall. From theseinformation, the relationship between distance from outcrop or geological boundary, or elevationdifference and stone used in stone wall was considered.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Documents Investigation
Among the sloping farmlands in 464 areas, 293 areas selected stone wall as slope protection
method, 171 areas selected slope tamping as slope protection method. In the rock classification,
157 areas have volcanic rocks, 45 areas have plutonic rocks, 115 areas have sedimentary rocks, 80
areas have accretionary prism, and 54 areas have metamorphic rocks as subsurface geology.
Fig.3 (a) shows the proportion of rock classification and geologic time classification in the
study area. The rock classification and geological time classification of 464 areas and the
distribution area ratio of rocks in Japan have the same tendency. Fig.3 (b) shows distribution area
ratio of rocks in Japan.
Fig.4 shows the relationship between the rock classification and the slope protection method thesloping farmlands of the survey target area.

Fig. 3 Rock classification and geological age classification of survey target area andDistribution area ratio of rocks in Japan

Fig. 4 Relationship between rock classification of surveyed area andslope protection method of sloping farmlandⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

Field Survey
Table 1 shows the types of stone used at each survey points. In Table 1, ① to ④ and No.1 toNo.29 correspond to numbers in Fig. 5. Fig. 5 shows the subsurface geological map around thesurveyed area. In the Fig. 5, the same type of subsurface geology exists in places where the same
numbers are applied. In Fig. 5, It is believed that sedimentary rocks that were made into the
Holocene existed in ①. Likewise, it is supposed that ② in Fig. 5 has the accretionary prism thatwere made into Mesozoic Era, ③ the metamorphic rocks of about 230 million to 160 million
years ago, and ④ the Mesozoic sandstone and conglomerate. Specifically, the rocks present in ②
are cherts. It must be sedimentary rock in ①, but because it is somewhat unstable at the geologicalboundary of the surface geological map, it is the reason why the outcrop of chert exists in ①. In
this survey, we considered the chert (②) as the subsurface geology at the survey points near theoutcrop of the chert. The survey points were set up to traverse three subsurface geologies such as
accretionary prism, metamorphic rock, sandstone and conglomerate.
Table 1 Results of each survey point

①

②

③

④

No.

North latitude

East longitude

Limestone

No.1
No.2
No.3
No.4
No.5
No.6
No.7
No.8
No.9
No.10-1
No.10-2
No.11
No.12
No.13
No.14
No.15
No.16
No.17
No.18
No.19
No.20
No.21
No.22
No.23
No.24
No.25
No.26
No.27
No.28
No.29

34°4′00.71″
34°03 ′57.5″
34°03′54.6″
34°03′50.6″
34°3′46.7″
34°03′43.6″
34°03′41.9″
34°03′38.5″
34°03′35.9″
34°03′34.7″
34°03′34.0″
34°03′33.6″
34°03′32.7″
34°03′28.8″
34°03′27.2″
34°03′24.4″
34°03′23.9″
34°03′23.6″
34°03′19.6″
34°03′18.3″
34°03′16.2″
34°03′14.3″
34°03′14.4″
34°03′12.3″
34°03′9.6″
34°03′5.2″
34°03′00.9″
34°02′54.7″
34°02′49.7″
34°02′45.7″

135°10′40.56″
135°10′39.5″
135°10′39.6″
135°10′39.7″
135°10′40.6″
135°10′38.6″
135°10′40.4″
135°10′45.8″
135°10′45.6″
135°10′47.7″
135°10′48.6″
135°10′46.7″
135°10′47.5″
135°10′47.9″
135°10′46.6″
135°10′46.5″
135°10′49.0″
135°10′49.0″
135°10′53.0″
135°10′55.1″
135°10′56.8″
135°10′57.0″
135°10′59.3″
135°11′00.4″
135°10′59.7″
135°11′00.9″
135°11′01.6″
135°11′04.0″
135°11′03.9″
135°11′02.3″

0
0
0
1
0
0
0
5
0
0
47
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Crystalline
schist
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Chert
100
97
97
92
97
98
100
92
95
100
53
100
100
71
98
34
98
100
100
100
0
55
81
1
0
0
5
1
0
0

Sandstone Conglomerate Mudstone
0
3
3
6
1
2
0
3
5
0
0
0
0
16
2
3
2
0
0
0
100
35
11
99
100
100
88
99
40
80

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
0
0
0
7
0
16
20

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0

Total
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
87
100
39
100
100
100
100
100
91
100
100
100
100
100
100
58
100

In Fig. 5, it is considered that the time of sedimentation is new and it is thought that ① is not
sufficiently consolidated as rocks, but the rocks of ②, ③, ④ is considered to be used as thematerial of stone wall. Through on the field survey, the outcrops of the chert at the subsurface
geology of ① and ② was confirmed (triangle dots in Fig. 5), ③ and ④ confirmed sandstone
outcrops (white triangle dots in Fig. 5 ). It must be sedimentary rock in ①, but because it issomewhat unstable at the geological boundary of the surface geological map, it is the reason why
the outcrop of chert exists in ①. In this survey, we considered the chert (②) as the subsurface
geology at the survey points near the outcrop of the chert.
At the 20 survey points in ① and ②, the chert was used as material of stone wall at a rate of
53 to 100%. Also, at all the survey points in ④, over 90% of the material rocks of stone wall wereⒸ ISERD73

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

sandstone and conglomerate. In addition, both stone materials were used at the three survey pointsof the survey spot (within ③) within 200 m from the geological boundary of ② and ④.

Fig. 5 Subsurface geological map around survey area and survey spot
CONCLUSION
From the above results, the following can be considered. As a result of documents investigation,
when the subsurface geology is plutonic rocks, accretionary prism, or metamorphic rocks, the stone
wall is strongly selected as slope protection methods. On the other hand, when the subsurface
geology is volcanic rocks, slope tamping were selected in nearly half of the sloping farmland and in
the case of sedimentary rocks the stone walls are selected in nearly 30% of the sloping farmland. In
addition, the area where the subsurface geology is pyroclastic flow deposit among volcanic rocks
selects slope tamping as slope protection methods.
Among districts where the subsurface geology is a pyroclastic flow deposit, there is atendency to select slope tamping when the pyroclastic flow is formed in the Holocene or Neogene
period. Sloping farmlands where older pyroclastic flows are located in the subsurface geology tend
to select stone walls. Moreover, in the area that consolidated volcanic rocks are there to thesubsurface geology, the area where the former geologic formations of the Miocene volcanic rocks
where the Green Tuff is formed will tend to select the slope tamping as slope protection methods
for Regardless of its composition. Among mafic volcanic rocks, there is a tendency to select slope
tamping as slope protection method if the subsurface geological districts were made in the
Quaternary Period, otherwise it seems to choose stone walls.
When the subsurface geology is plutonic rocks, we found out the following. When theplutonic rocks of the subsurface geology were felsic, stone walls were chosen in general, although
the slope tamping was selected with 27% of the slope farm depending on the weathering degree ofrocks.
Districts where sedimentary rocks in the Quaternary or New Tertiary are located in thesubsurface geology select the slope tamping, but in the area with rocks consolidated where thealtitude in higher than the sloping farmland, there possibility to choose stone walls. It was foundfrom the field survey in the other area that there is a possibility of choosing stone wall as a slope
protection method even if consolidated rocks located in a place where the altitude is high andsloping farmland are separated by a horizontal distance of 500 m or more.
When the surface geology is an accretionary prism, the slope tamping concentrate in thesubsurface geological areas formed in the middle or late Jurassic centers called the Mino - Tanba Ⓒ ISERD74

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

Ashio Belt. In the sloping farmland where the subsurface geology is an accretionary prism andexists outside the Mino - Tanba - Ashio Belt, there is a tendency to choose stone wall as a slope
protection method.
In sloping farmland whose subsurface geology is metamorphic rocks, it turned out that in mostcases would choose stone wall.
In the field survey, basically we could actually confirm that stones of subsurface geology areused on the ground. Furthermore, within about 200 m of the geological boundary of the subsurface
geology, it is possible that adjacent rocks will be used as materials for stone walls. In other words,
in sloping farmland where several subsurface geologies are located nearby, not only the rocks of
the just below subsurface geological structure but also the rocks of adjacent subsurface geology are
used.
REFERENCES
Arai, T., Futatsugi, S. and Imamura, R. 2005. 2 The formation of Japanese ground. In Geology Learned by
Case, The Japanese Geotechnical Society, 17-61. (in Japanese).
Geological Survey of Japan. Seamless Digital Geological Map of Japan (1:200,000). 2015. https://gbank.
gsj.jp/seamless/index.html?lang=ja&
Itoh, S. 1982. Surface geological classification and its application to agricultural land conservation. Jour. of
JSIDRE, 50 (6), 505-510. (in Japanese).
Itoh, S. and Nishiki, T. 1985. Surface geological map and its application to development and conservation of
farmland. Jour. of JSIDRE, 53 (10), 877-884. (in Japanese).
Kamata, Y. 1977. Subsurface geology. In Nagasaki Prefecture Southern Region Integrated Development
Area Land Classification Basic Survey, Land Management Office of Nagasaki Prefecture, 18-23. (inJapanese).
Kondo, Y., Kishimoto, S. and Kakuta, S. 1997. Stone. In New Edition Civil Engineering Materials Science,
Corona Publishing Co., 48-89. (in Japanese).
Matsuo, K. 1953. Studies on the sloping farm-land. Journal of the Agricultural Engineering Society, 21 (4),36-43. (in Japanese).
Mekata, M. 1973. Kitakami, Subsurface geology. In Mountains Development Area Land Classification Basic
Survey, Iwate Prefecture, 18-22. (in Japanese).
Murata, Y. and Kano, K. 1995. The areas of the geologic units comparing the Japanese Islands, calculated byusing Geological Map of Japan 1:1,000,000. The 3rd Edition CD-ROM Version.
Nakagawa, C. and Kanamaru, F. 1969. The factor of landslide in Shikoku. Journal of the Japan LandslideSociety, 41-1, 25-33. (in Japanese).
Nakashima, M. 2002. Distribution and characteristics of rice terraces. Jour. of JSIDRE, 70 (3), 195-198. (inJapanese).
Okajima, K., Kaburagi, R. and Iida, T. 2012. Analysis of disaster factors in stone wall of paddy fields andactual situation of restoration based on the field survey. Journal of Rice Terrace Research Association, 13,
57-71. (in Japanese).
Sasaki, N. 1973. Kitakami, Soil. In Mountains Development Area Land Classification Basic Survey. Iwate
Prefecture, 1973. 23-27. (in Japanese).
Sato, T., Ishimaru, T., Sugihara, K. and Shimizu, K. 1992. Data collection by literature survey on rockphysical properties in Japan. Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation, PNC TN7410
92-018, 1-37. (in Japanese).
The National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. 2015. GeomapNavi. Geological map
display system of Geological Survey of Japan, https://gbank.gsj.jp/geonavi/Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erdCurrent Postharvest Management of Sesame Farmers in
Selected Area of Myanmar
HNIN THIDA NYO*
Department of Agronomy, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar
Email: hninnyo@gmail.com

NYEIN NYEIN HTWE
Department of Agricultural Extension, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar

KYAW KYAW WIN
Department of Agronomy, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar

THEINGI MYINT
Department of Agricultural Economics, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar

MOE KYAW THU
Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar
Received 29 December 2017

Accepted 25 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study was conducted at Pwintphyu and Pakokku Townships, Magway
Region, Myanmar in September 2016 and January 2017. The objectives of this study wereto identify the farmers' perception and knowledge about postharvest handling practices of
sesame and to compare the postharvest handling practices of sesame farmers between
different areas of Myanmar. Total of 136 respondents were interviewed to understand thefarmers' practices for postharvest management of sesame. The results showed that all
respondents harvested and threshed the seeds manually in both areas. In Pwintphyu
Township, postharvest operations were done in the fields, however, in Pakokku Townshipfarmers worked on the threshing floor harden by the pasted cow dung and soil. The
postharvest practices: such as stacking, stalks drying and storage methods were different
between two areas. Regarding the awareness of postharvest management, stages at which
the highest postharvest losses occur were different between two townships due to different
management. Good quality seed, high yield, low labour cost and easy to work were also
pointed as the advantages of postharvest technology in both areas. Using the plastic net or
tarpaulin under the stacking and stalks standing, making threshing floor, harvest in righttime, using enough labour, using harvester and covering threshing floor with tarpaulin werethe management practices mentioned by respondents as methods to reduce postharvest
losses. The farmers are weak in knowledge about storage management such as store pest
control and packaging materials. Although farmers have the knowledge of the advantagesof postharvest technology and how to reduce the losses, they have not tried to carry out.
Therefore, it is needed to train the sesame growers to improve their postharvest practices,and private sector should support to mechanize in postharvest operation.
Keywords sesame, postharvest, stacking, stalks drying, losses

INTRODUCTION
Postharvest food loss (PHL) is defined as measurable qualitative and quantitative food loss along
the supply chain, starting at the time of harvest till its consumption or other end uses (Hodges et al.,2011). The largest PHLs usually occur on or near the farm, where the initial choice of crop typeand variety and the success of harvesting and consolidation methods are fundamental in keeping
losses low (World Bank, 2010). Agricultural commodities produced on the farm fields have toⒸ ISERD

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undergo a series of operations such as harvesting, threshing, winnowing, bagging, transportation,
storage, processing and exchange before they reach the consumer, and there are appreciable losses
in crop output at all these stages (Basavaraja et al., 2007). In less developed countries where thesupply chain is less mechanized, larger losses are incurred during drying, storage, processing and intransportation (FAO, 1980).
Developing postharvest systems has the potential to raise living standards in urban and rural
areas. In urban areas, it makes food available more efficiently and at a lower cost. In rural areas,
postharvest activities can benefit the poorest members of society in particular, through its
contribution to farm and non-farm income (Goletti and Samman, 2002). Educating and training thefarmers on post-harvest operations would greatly help in reducing the post-harvest losses in foodgrains (Basavaraja et al., 2007). At present, improved postharvest technology is essential to ensurehigh yield, quantity and quality of products in Myanmar. Minimizing postharvest losses of foodcrops is a very effective way of reducing the area needed for production and/or increasing foodavailability. And there was no previous statistical study in Myanmar on postharvest handlingpractices of sesame farmers.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this study are to determine farmers' perception and knowledge about postharvest
handling practices of sesame, and to compare the postharvest handling practices of farmers
between the different areas of Myanmar.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Sites and Methods of Data Collection

Fig. 1 Map of study sites in Magway Region, Myanmar
This study was conducted in Pwintphyu and Pakokku Townships in Magway Region, located incentral Myanmar (Fig. 1). These two study areas are the largest cultivated areas of pre-monsoon
and post-monsoon sesame in Myanmar. A total of 136 sesame farmers from in two townships wereinterviewed by using structured interview questionnaires to elicit information from farmers.
Random sampling procedure was used in this study. The structured interview questionnaire wasamended based on the information collected from pilot survey, and main survey was conducted in2016 - 2017. The data concerning with demographic data of the sample respondents in selectedareas such as age, educational status, family size, landholding size and their farming experience
were collected. Postharvest management of respondents, problems encountering during postharvest
handling and farmers’ perception and suggestion on postharvest handling practices were alsocollected in order to determine sesame postharvest management system in study areas.
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Data Analysis
The data were transferred and analyzed by the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS)
version 16.0 software. Descriptive statistics were used to identify demographic characteristics andpostharvest handling practices of sample respondents. In order to compare the demographic andpostharvest practices of different areas, student t distribution was used.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Demographic Characteristics of the Sample Respondents
Among 136 respondents, 92% was male and the remaining was female farmers. In this study, theaverage age of the respondents was 50 years with the minimum of 19 years and maximum of 75
years. The average schooling year of respondents was 6 years. The minimum and maximum school
years were 2 years and 14 years. Average farm size of sample respondents was 5.03 hectares withthe minimum of 0.24 hectare and maximum of 28.34 hectares. The farm experience of farmers inthis study was 27 years in the range of 2-60 years.
Postharvest Management of Sample Respondents
All respondents harvested and threshed the seeds manually in both areas. The harvested stalks of
sesame require to be piled up to a height of four to five feet. In Pwintphyu Township, the mostcommon time for stacking was 7 days and 8 days but 5-6 days and 7 days were common in
Pakokku Township and some respondents took long time (>10 days) for stacking (Table 1).
Therefore, t test showed that the stacking duration (<7 days, 8 days, 10 days and >10 days) werehighly significant between two study areas. Although only a few percent of respondents used theinsecticide in Pakokku Township, half of the respondents used insecticide to control pest during
stacking in Pwintphyu Township (Table 1). There were significant differences between theinsecticide usage practices during stacking of two study areas. When piling the sesame after harvest,
sometimes the insecticides are sprayed for termite control on the ground (JAICAF, 2018).
Table 1 Stacking practices by sample respondents in study area, 2016-17

Duration

Insecticide usage

5-6 days

Pwintphyu(N=73)
2 (2.74)

Pakokku(N=63)
24 (38.10)

5.47***

7 days27 (36.99)

21 (33.33)

0.44ns8 days26 (35.62)

5 (7.94)

4.93***

10 days18 (4.66)

2 (3.17)3.08***>10 days-

11(17.46)-3.62***

31 (42.47)
6 (8.22)36 (49.32)

1 (1.59)
62 (98.41)

7.82***
2.54**-8.05***

Beside & under the pile
Beside, under & inside the pileNilt-testNote: Numbers in the parentheses represent percentage. *** significant at 1% level; ** significant at 5% level;
ns = non- significant

In Pwintphyu Township, 98.63% of the sample respondents practiced the threshing operation
manually on the field and only 1.37% of respondents threshed on the threshing floor covered withtarpaulin. In Pakokku Township, all sample respondents made threshing floor by pasting with cow
dung and soil mixture. There were two methods for drying sesame stalks: stalks standing andspreading before threshing in study areas. All respondents dried their crop by stalks standing in
Pwintphyu Township but both methods were practiced in Pakokku Township (Table 2). SomeⒸ ISERD

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farmers in Pakokokku Township took long time for stacking and stalk drying because they madethreshing floor near the house and postharvest operations were done in that place. In Pwintphyu
Township, stacking and drying the stalks was done in the field where sunlight was enough to dry
the stalks quickly, and it was needed to thresh the seeds as quickly as possible to reduce the losses.
The t test showed that stalk drying duration (2 days, 5-7 days and >7 days) were highly significant
difference between Pwintphyu and Pakokku respondents.
Table 2 Stalk drying practices by sample respondents in study area, 2016-17

MethodStanding
Spreading

Pwintphyu(N=73)
73 (100)-

Pakokku(N=63)
41 (65.08)
22 (34.92)

t-test5.77***
5.77***

Duration

2 days56 (76.71)

1 (1.59)

14.37***

3-4 days
5-7 days

15 (20.55)
2 (2.74)

8 (12.70)
23 (36.51)

1.23ns-5.27***>7 days-31 (49.21)-7.75***

Note: Numbers in the parentheses represent percentage. *** significant at 1% level; ns=non-significant

Table 3 Seed storage practices by sample respondents in study area, 2016-17

MethodDuration

Pest
control

Pwintphyu(N=73)
68 (93.15)

Pakokku(N=63)
63 (100)-2.04**

Woven polypropylene bag withthin plastic layer
Metal tin

3 (4.11)-1.76*

1 (1.37)-

0.93nsOthers1 (1.37)-

0.93ns2 months

6 (8.22)3 (4.76)

0.41ns

3-4 months

4 (5.48)

3 (4.76)-0.18ns

5-6 months

5 (6.85)

1 (1.59)

1.84*

8 months

58 (79.45)

55 (87.30)-1.62nsNil

9 (12.33)

1 (1.59)

1.56nsAgrochemical

6 (8.22)5 (7.94)

0.06ns-6 (9.52)-2.56**

Others1 (1.37)

4 (6.35)-1.47nsNil

66 (90.41

48 (76.19)

2.21**

Woven polypropylene bag

Organic materials

t-testNote: Numbers in the parentheses represent percentage. ** significant at 5% level; * significant at 10% level;
ns = non-significant

Regarding to storage practices, farmers in Pakokku Township used the woven polypropylenebags for seed storage (Table 3). However, there were some farmers who used woven polypropylenebags with thin plastic layer and metal tins for seed storage in Pwintphyu Township. Eight months
storage was common in both townships and farmers stored until next crop. In Ethiopia, about 61%of the respondents explain that they use polypropylene bag to store their sesame grain followed byware houses (40%) and jute bag (28.6%). Other storages like fertilizer bags, balcony, and plasticbags are also used by few respondents. About 73% of the respondents in Ethiopia put their sesame
grain in storages not for more than 3 months (The Feed the Future Innovation Lab, 2014). Duringstorage, the majority of respondents did not control store pests except 8.22% and 7.94% of farmers
who used the chemicals in Pwintphyu and Pakokku Townships respectively. About 10% of farmers
used organic materials (hot pepper, neem leaves) as control measure in Pakokku Township. OtherⒸ ISERD

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store pest control practices, such as frequent winnowing and sun-drying during storage were also
found in both areas (Table 3).
Sesame growers in both townships decided the seed dryness by hand feeling and there was no
significant difference in seed moisture determination method between in both townships (Table 4).
Moisture content of seed is one of the important criteria for storage, therefore, extension service
should provide the knowledge regarding minimum moisture content of sesame to store safely.
Table 4 Seed dryness testing method by sample respondents in study areas, 2016-17

By visual
By hand
By visual & hand
By hand & others

Pwintphyu(N=73)
3 (4.11)46 (63.01)
23 (31.51)
1 (1.37)

Pakokku(N=63)
6 (9.52)
46 (73.02)
10 (15.87)
1 (1.59)

t-test-1.23ns-1.08ns
2.18**-0.10ns

Note: Numbers in the parentheses represent percentage. ** significant at 5% level

Awareness of Postharvest Management by Respondents in the Study Area
In Pwintphyu Township, the highest postharvest loss was occurred in threshing time whereas
harvest time loss was highest in Pakokku Township (Table 5). In Pwintphyu Township, farmers
dried and threshed in the field, but sesame stalks were dried and threshed on the threshing floor in
Pakokku Township. Therefore, postharvest stage which causes the highest losses was significantly
different between two areas (Table 5). In Ethiopia, more than 50% of the respondents explainedthat weather condition such as winds and intensive rainfall, insects in field, shattering, threshing,theft, harvesting, and rodents in storage are the losses causing factors (The Feed the Future
Innovation Lab, 2014).
Table 5 Stages at which the highest postharvest losses occur in study area, 2016-17

HarvestStacking
Standing/spreading
Threshing

Pwintphyu(N=73)
4 (5.48)
22 (30.14)
47 (64.38)

Pakokku(N=63)
43 (68.25)
2 (3.17)
7 (11.11)
11 (17.46)

t-test-10.47***-1.43ns
3.01***
6.64***

Note: Numbers in the parentheses represent percentage. *** significant at 1% level; ns=non-significant

Table 6 Awareness of the advantages of postharvest technology by the respondents, 2016-17

Reduce losses
High yield
Good quality seedHigh income
Easy to work by using machine
Low labour cost
No answer

Pwintphyu(N=73)
52 (71.23)
9 (12.33)
14 (19.18)
2 (2.74)
6 (8.22)3 (4.11)6 (8.22)

Pakokku(N=63)
33 (52.38)
17 (26.98)
4 (6.35)
8 (12.70)
3 (4.76)
1 (1.59)
9 (14.29)

t-test2.65***-2.14**
2.30**-2.14**
0.65ns
1.56ns-1.39ns

Note: Numbers in the parentheses represent percentage. ns = non-significant

Most of the respondents in Pwintphyu and Pakokku Townships mentioned that postharvest
technology can reduce losses (Table 6). Good quality seed, high yield, low labour cost and easy towork were also pointed as the advantages of postharvest handling in both areas. Therefore, there
was no significant difference in awareness of farmers on the advantages of postharvest handlingbetween Pwintphyu and Pakokku Townships (Table 6).

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Respondents' Suggestions to Minimize Postharvest Losses in the Study Area
In Pwintphyu Township, more than half of the respondents, (61.64%) reported that using the plastic
net or tarpaulin under the stacking and stalks standing to reduce losses. Making threshing floor was
suggested by 36.99% of farmers. To harvest at right time, to use enough labour and to use thresher
were also pointed by 5.48%, 4.11% and 1.37% of respondents, respectively. In Pakokku Township,
34.92% of respondents believed that using harvester reduced losses while other 31.75% supposedthat covering threshing floor with tarpaulin was good practice to reduce losses. Harvest at righttime, make good threshing floor and use enough labour were the suggested practices of reducing
postharvest losses by 23.81%, 6.35% and 1.59% of respondents. The results showed that there aresmall number of respondent who mentioned the storage methods, such as packaging materials andcontrol measures to reduce losses. Hence, respondents were weak in knowledge about improved
storage practices, and extension services should provide improved storage methods to them.
CONCLUSION
All respondents in study areas were practicing their traditional postharvest handling practices anddid not use any machinery. Although farmers have the knowledge and awareness of postharvest
technology, they have not tried to carry out. Their storage behavior disregarded quantity andquality losses during storage. Educating and training the farmers on improved storage technologies
such as biological pest control or controlled atmosphere storage would greatly help in reducing thepostharvest losses in food grains. Changing attitude is one of the important steps to adopt
innovation in farming community of Myanmar. Therefore, it is needed to train the sesame growers
for the advancement of postharvest practices, and public and private partnership should support totake action.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was financially supported by Technical Cooperation Program of Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA-TCP).
REFERENCES
Basavaraja, H., Mahajanashetti, S.B. and Udagatti, N.C. 2007. Economic analysis of postharvest losses infood grains in India: A case study of Karnataka. Agri. Econ. Res. Review, 20, 117-126.
Food and Agriculture Organization. 1980. Assessment and collection of data on post-harvest food grain
losses. FAO Economic and Social Development Paper, 13. Rome.
Goletti, F. and Samman, E. 2002. Storage losses. In Golob, P., Farrell, G. and Orchard, J.E. (Eds.) PostHarvest: Science and Technology, Volume 1: Principles and Practice, Oxford: Blackwell Sciences, Ltd.
1-34. UK.
Hodges, R.J., Buzby, J.C. and Bennett, B. 2011. Postharvest losses and waste in developed and lessdeveloped countries: Opportunities to improve resource use. J. Agri. Sci., 149, 37-45.
JAICAF (Japan Association for International Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestry). 2018. Technicalcooperation project for agricultural productivity and quality improvement in Myanmar. Project Report.
The Feed the Future Innovation Lab. 2014. Sesame postharvest loss study in Ethiopia. Baseline Survey
Report. Project: Alliance for Food Security through Reduction of Post- Harvest Loss and Food Waste.
World Bank. 2010. Missing food: The case of postharvest grain losses in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington,
DC: The World Bank.

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Research article
erd

Farmers’ Perception of Fertilizer Management Practices for
Cotton Production in Magway Region of Myanmar
KHIN KHIN MU*
Yezin Agricultural University, Research Based Ph.D. Course, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
Email: Khinkhinmu96@gmail.com

KYAW NGWE
Yezin Agricultural University, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar

THANDA MIN
Yezin Agricultural University, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar

AUNG NAING OO
Yezin Agricultural University, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar

SWE SWE MAR
Yezin Agricultural University, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
Received 27 January 2018

Accepted 25 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Cotton production is one of the main agricultural activities in the dry zone of
Myanmar. Understanding the farmers’ fertilizer management practices for cotton
production was important to develop appropriate technology in order to increase cottonyield and quality. The main objective of the study was to evaluate the farmers’ fertilizer
management practices on cotton production in Magway Region. The survey was conductedin eight villages from four districts; Magway, Minbu, Pakokku and Thayet during May toJune 2017. Totally 160 famers from survey region were chosen by simple random sampling
method and individually interviewed with structured questionnaires. Data were analyzed byusing descriptive methods. Most of the farmers generally applied the urea fertilizer (65.6%),
NPK-compound fertilizer (93.13%) and foliar fertilizers (82%) as well as farmyard manure(97.5%) in this study area. Most of the farmers interested combine application of compoundand foliar fertilizer more than single nutrient fertilizer application. According to the resultsfrom the study, the cotton yields were directly related with fertilizer application practices.
So, lower crop yield and less profit in cotton production were found due to inadequate
amount of fertilizer applied by respondent farmers. Farmers were needed to improve theperception of fertilizer management practices in cotton production for increasing crop yieldand household incomes. Farmers’ agricultural knowledge is an immensely valuable
resource that provides farmer-to-farmer training or local technology transfer. Therefore, theextension stuffs should be upgraded the awareness of farmers for increasing seed cottonyield and agricultural knowledge on cotton production.
Keywords nutrient management, foliar fertilizer, chemical fertilizer, cotton

INTRODUCTION
Cotton is a principal fiber crop in Myanmar. Cotton lint quantity and quality depended upon
availability of nutrients and weather conditions of cultivated site. Most of the cotton grows farmers
sown during monsoon and post monsoon within June – July and August –September. Harvesting
practices were on October - November and December – January. Fertilizer application was animportant factor in profitable cotton production in Myanmar. The main activities of cotton
cultivation and production were found in Sagaing, Mandalay, Magway and Bago divisions. About
52 percent of total cotton sown area was occupied in Magway Region (DoA, 2016). The targetⒸ ISERD

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yield of seed cotton was 1600 kilograms per hectare (MCSE 2012). Modern agriculture provides
improved technology, breeding and using most viable hybrid seed. Then optimum use of fertilizer
has made waste saving in agricultural production (Nyein, 2000). Urea, triple super phosphate andmuriate of potash containing major nutrients N, P and K, respectively, were mainly used for cotton
production at the recommended rate ranging from 62 - 62 - 62 kg ha-1 for fertile soil to 124 - 62 62 kg ha-1 for poor soil depending on soil type and availability of irrigation water in Myanmar. Pye
Tin (2006) reported that although only 50 percent of cotton area applied fertilizers, an average of
30 to 40 percent practiced the recommended rate for cotton production. This result pointed out thatthe inadequate and imbalance fertilizers application in cotton productivity.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to evaluate the farmers’ fertilizer management practices on cotton
production in Magway Region.
METHODOLOGY
The survey was conducted in eight villages from four districts such as Magway, Minbu, Pakokku
and Thayet during May to June 2017. Totally 160 famers from survey region were chosen bysimple random sampling method and interviewed individually with structured questionnaires.
Descriptive statistics of demographic characteristics such as age, education level, farm size,
fertilizer application practices on their cotton production fields were recorded. These data wereanalyzed by using SPSS (Version 16).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mayway Region situates approximately between north latitude 18° 50' to 22° 47' and east longitude
93° 47' to 95° 55'. These location is the second largest among Myanmar's seven divisions, with anarea of 44,820 square kilometer (17,306 sq. mi).The demographic characteristics of the sample
respondents showed that the majority of cotton farmers were male (97.5%) whereas female wasonly (2.5%). This indicate that women participation in cotton cultivation is low while they
participate more in harvesting and post-harvest activities such as processing and marketing of farm
product. Sixty one percent of total respondents were 41-60 years old. The educational level of the
farmers was primary education (72%) and middle education (18%) in survey areas (Table 1).

Fig. 1 Cotton cultivated areas in the Myanmar 2015-2016 (DoA, 2016)
Among the sample respondents, 95% of them cultivated cotton in which Gossypium hirsutum
cultivated farmers were (85.63%), G. arboreum cotton farmers were (13.75%) and two varieties
cultivated farmers were (4.37%). Ninety four percent of the cotton farmers applied fertilizer.
Among them, 88.67% of the farmers practiced only basal application and a few percentagesⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2(11.33%) were used at seedling stage. Forty four percent of the farmers applied only one time atflowering stage and (6.67%) applied two times at squaring and flowering stage (Table 2). In the
study area, urea, compound fertilizer, farm yard manure and foliar fertilizer were applied by 65.6%,
93.13%, 97.5% and 82% of the sample respondents respectively (Fig. 2). Sixty five percent of thesample farmers commonly followed mono cropping (cotton) and 30% practiced intercropping withsesame, pulse, and pigeon pea.
Table 1 The demographic characteristics of the sample respondents in survey area
Item
GenderAge (years)

Education Level

Characters
Male
Female
20-40
41-60
61 <
Primary
MiddleHigh
Graduate

Frequency
156
4
21
96
41
116
29
9
6

Percent of Respondents
97.5
2.5
13.0
61.0
26.0
72.0
18.0
6.0
4.0

Source; Survey data

Table 2 The cotton production and input application management in farmers’ practices
No

Distribution categories

1

Cotton cultivation
G. hirsutum variety cultivatedG. arboreum variety cultivatedTwo varieties cultivatedFertilizer using
Basal application
DAE application
Side dress once time
Side dress two time
Urea using
Compound fertilizer using
Foliar fertilizer using
F.Y.M using
Cropping pattern
Mono cropping
Inter cropping

2

3
4
5
6
7

Used practices
Percent of
frequency
respondents
152
95.00
137
85.63
22
13.75
7
4.37
150
93.75
133
88.67
17
11.33
66
44.00
10
6.67
105
65.60
149
93.13
131
82.00
156
97.50
104
48

65.00
30.00

Unused practices
Percent of
frequency
respondents
8
5.00

10

6.25

55
11
29
4

34.40
6.87
18.00
2.50

56
112

35.00
70.00

Farmers’ Perception of Fertilizer Management Practices
Total cotton cultivated area possessed by sample respondents were ranging from 1.05 to 2.23 ha
and 1.87% of the respondents occupied above 4.86 ha. Urea (62-124 kg ha-1) and 15:15:15
compound fertilizer (124-248 kg ha-1) was mostly used by respondents. In Table 4, it was observedthat compound fertilizer usage (92.5%) with the rate of 18.52 to 248 kg ha -1 and unused (7.5%).
Although the recommend rate of 15:15:15 compound fertilizer for cotton was 248 kg ha-1 (MCSE2012), most of the fields applied the rate less than 248 kg ha-1. Foliar fertilizer spraying frequency
was 1-7 for the whole crop season and mostly applied 3 times. The foliar fertilizers commonly usedwere cotton special (11.45%), Armo 1 and 2 (23.66%), Comet plus (27.48%) and golden lion
products (10.69%). Farmyard manure (5 - 7 tons ha-1) was mainly used by 46.87% of the
respondent farmers.

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Fig. 2 Farmer’s perception of fertilizers management practices in the study region
Table 3 Distribution of respondents by fertilizer management practices [n = 160]
No
1

Features
Cotton cultivated area (ha)2

Urea application (kg ha-1)

3

Compound application(kg ha-1)

4

Foliar application (time )5

F.Y.M application (ton ha-1)

6

Farmers’ owned area (ha)Categories
0.2 - 1
1.1 -2.2
2.4-4.8
4.8 - above
Below 62
62 -124
124 - 248
248 above
Below 62
62 - 124
124 -248
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
Below 1.5
2-3
3.5 – 4.5
5 and above
0.4-2.0
2.4-4.0
4.4-6.0
6.4-8.0
8.5-10.0
10.5-12.0
12.5 & above

frequency
52
73
24
3
25
76
3
1
22
111
13
1
24
51
42
10
1
2
41
75
20
24
30
63
34
13
6
8
6

Respondents %
32.50
45.63
15.00
1.87
15.60
47.60
1.90
0.10
13.75
69.38
8.12
0.60
15.00
31.90
26.30
6.30
0.60
1.30
25.63
46.87
12.50
15.00
18.75
39.37
21.25
8.13
3.75
5.00
3.75

Source: Survey data

Descriptive Statistics Information of Farmers’ Perception in Survey Area
The mean value of the age of respondent farmers was 53 years. Farmers’ individually owned area
was range from 0.6 ha to 16.19 ha. The ranges of total cotton cultivated farm size were 0.2 ha to
7.3 ha and the mean farm size was 1.59 ha. The mean value of urea usage was 55.58 kg ha-1 incotton crop production in study areas. Some of the sample farmers applied as recommended rate

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whereas some of them used less than it. Moreover, the mean value of compound fertilizer was
92.63 kg ha-1 (Table 4.).
The mean seed cotton yield was 1280 kg ha-1 while national target yield was 1600 kg ha-1.
Therefore, farmers’ actual yield was less than that of target yield. Perhaps, it might be due to theapplication of fertilizer less than recommended rate. The proportion of farmers’ income to price of
seed cotton revealed that 2010 kyats per kilogram. The mean value of farmers’ income was2,152,215 kyats. Depending on cultivated area, cotton variety, seed cotton yield, and price of seedcotton in the survey areas, farmers’ income was ranging between 1,782,335 kyats and 2,522,096
kyats.
Table 4 Descriptive Statistics information of farmers’ perception in survey area (N =160)
Characters
Age (years)
Education level
Total ownership area (ha)Cotton cultivated area (ha)Urea (kg ha-1)
Compound (kg ha-1)
Foliar (spraying frequency)
Farm yard manure (ton ha-1)
Seed cotton yields (kg ha-1)
Seed cotton’s Price (Kyats kg-1)

Minimum
30.00
1.00
0.60
0.20
3.71
18.53
1.00
2.47
161.341306.40

Maximum
79.00
4.00
16.19
7.29
370.50248.007.00
14.82
3226.812939.40

Mean
53.27
1.39
4.95
1.59
55.58
92.63
2.75
6.66
1280.88
2010.63

Std. Deviation
10.933
0.761
8.106
3.049
0.482
0.463
1.590
2.677
210.263328.602

Source: Survey data

CONCLUSIONAs the study area was situated in dry zone, farmers willing to grow cotton than other crops during
dry season. Most of the respondent farmers cultivated G. hirsutum variety and cotton sole cropping
pattern in the study area of Magway Region. The results indicated that combine application oforganic and inorganic fertilizers response to higher cotton yield especially cultivating G. hirsutum.
If weather is favorable, the farmers realized that fertilizer application could increase crop yields.
Results of this survey provided some valuable and applicable ideas for further fertilizer appliedresearch. Cotton is very sensitive to fertilizer management practices. For this reason, farmers
should apply fertilizers carefully and precisely. Only a few respondent aware fertilizer application
management and effective application of fertilizer in crop production. It is required not only to
reduce crop yield losses but also cotton quality should be improved. Therefore, fertilizers
application management practices should be systematically trained to farmers in cotton production.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my appreciation to Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation, Director,
Department of Industrial Crops Development, and Department of Agriculture for their support in
my study. I would like to thank to Magway, Minbu, Pakokku, and Thayet District municipality
Agricultural Manager and staff as well as to all the farmers who participated in this interview. A
Lot of thank to the Magway Division Manager and staff who kindness and careful in this study
survey’s journey transportation. I wish to express my mostly thank to my supervisor committee
their kindness and good suggestion for way of education.

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REFERENCES
Department of Agriculture (DoA). 2016. Statistical yearbook. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Irrigation, Myanmar.
Myanmar Cotton and Sericulture Enterprise (MCSE). 2012. Good agriculture practices in cotton production.
Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation, Myanmar.
Nyein Zin Soe. 2000. The role of agriculture in the development of Myanmar economy. Thesis submitted to
School of Public Policy and Management, Korea Development Institute, 51. Korea.
Pye Tin. 2006. Cotton in Myanmar. Myanmar Cotton and Sericulture Enterprise, 45, Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock and Irrigation, Myanmar.

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Research article

Factors Affecting Farmers’ Attitudes on Hybrid Rice
Production in Nay Pyi Taw Area, Myanmar

erd

NAING KYI WIN*
Yezin Agricultural University, Zeyarthiri Township, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
Email: naing_kyi9@yahoo.com

KYAW KYAW WIN
Yezin Agricultural University, Zeyarthiri Township, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar

CHO CHO SAN
Yezin Agricultural University, Zeyarthiri Township, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar

NYEIN NYEIN HTWE
Yezin Agricultural University, Zeyarthiri Township, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
Received 30 December 2017

Accepted 25 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study focus on changing attitudes of rice farmers towards hybrid riceproduction from the view of the theory of attitude change. This study aims to determine
factors influencing the farmers’ attitude to hybrid rice production with regard to farmers’
personal characters, technological knowledge and access to extension services. Thisempirical study was conducted during May to September, 2017, in Nay Pyi Taw council
area, Myanmar. Data were gathered ten variables for farmer’s personal characters, fifteen
variables for the farmers’ technological knowledge and twelve variables for extension
contacts by using interview schedule from 198 randomly selected rice farmers and wereanalyzed by using multiple regression models. The study revealed that 64.6% of farmers
changed attitudes to hybrid rice production. It was observed that “education”, “source of
information from government and non government” organizations were positively
significant related but “family labor” was negatively significant influence to hybrid riceproduction. Besides, farmers’ technological knowledge such as “seed quality test”,“planting density”, “irrigation methods” and “pests and diseases control methods” werepositively significant related to hybrid rice production. Extension contact as “training” washighly significant related to farmers’ attitudes change. However, “field level extension
agents”, “farmer to farmer extension”, “NGO” contacts were negatively significant related
to attitude towards hybrid rice production. This study highlighted that most intervention
factors were high seed cost, technical knowledge, low rice price, cost of production andmachinery problems. Create opportunity to access micro finance and encourage to private
sector participation and also market opportunity. Moreover, clear policy implication isneeded and change to effective communication with training using practical design andparticipatory approach manner to farmers’ attitudes change in Myanmar.
Keywords attitudes, hybrid rice, influencing factors, rice farmers, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar

INTRODUCTION
Rice remains the world’s most important food commodity, particularly in Asia, but it is facechanging such climate change, degradation of farming areas, decrease water availability, andincrease population. In Myanmar, the agriculture sector is the largest contributor to the growth innational economy and contributes at least 24% to GDP, 25% to its export earnings and employs
60% of the labor force and rice is the most important commodity in the agricultural sector,(Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation, 2015). The ultimate goal of the rice sector
strategy is a food-secure nation where small holder farmers have tripled their household income,Ⓒ ISERD

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including income derived from rice and rice based farming, there by enjoying decent standard ofliving comparable to that of urban dwellers (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation,2015).
In Myanmar, total rice growing area was 17.17 million acres, around 1400 million baskets ofproduction and 74.37 baskets of yield per acre in 2016-17 growing season (Rice Division, DOA,
2017). Hybrid rice cultivation was initiated in 2011, monsoon and increased year by year up to
2.1% of total rice growing area shown in Fig.4 and 7.6% for study area Fig.3. Rice production
farmers’ income could be increased by altering production of hybrid rice which will be the yield of
hybrid rice is 15-20% better than the local variety and currently cultivated high yielding variety.
Besides it could be successful 200 baskets (potential yield) per acre if it had systematic and propercare and consequently resulting in alleviating of poverty and better living standard of Myanmar
farmers (DOA, 2015). Similar with other developing countries, agricultural sector, particularly therice sector is radically changing in Myanmar. Population is gradually increasing and riceproduction areas are decreasing due to the so many purpose. Now, climate change situation is startaffected to Myanmar rice growing farmers. Therefore, productivity of rice become low and quality
is not adequate. As a result of this, there will be serious to food security and decreasing income ofrice farmers. Therefore, farmer’s attitude that they need to be changed and grow commercial seeds
like hybrid rice seeds from inbred rice. Aims of study were: (1) to characterize farmers’ attitude
towards hybrid rice production with regard to personal factors, technological knowledge and accessto extension contacts, (2) to identify the influencing factors of farmers’ attitude towards hybrid riceproduction and also intervention factors.
METHODOLOGY
There was 53,876 rice growing farmers in total representing about 163,678 acres in Nay Pyi Taw
area. Out of which 51,597 farmers were inbred rice growing farmers and 2,279 farmers are hybrid
rice growing farmers (DOA, 2016). This study was conducted in Nay Pyi Taw council area
including Pyinmana, Lewe, Dekkhinathiri, Zabuthiri, Tatkone, Pobbathiri, Zeyarthiri, andOttarathiri Townships. Secondary data collection gathered from divisional office and townshipoffice in Nay Pyi Taw. A total 16 village tracts (two village tracts per each township) were selected
to characterize and identify the farmers’ attitudes towards hybrid rice production. One hundred andninety eight farmers were randomly selected based on list of the rice growing farmers from selectedvillage tracts, Fig. 1 (A and B).

Fig. 1 (A) Study area

Fig. 1 (B) Map of Myanmar

Attitudes are learned or established predisposition to response (Zimbardo and Leippe, 1991).
(Zanna and Rempel, 1988) viewed attitude as having many causes. Attitude is not directly
observable, but the action and behaviors to which they contribute may be observed (Bendar andLevie, 1993). There are factors that intervene between attitude and behavior which would cause
person’s behavior to be inconsistent with his or her attitude (Schafer and John, 1986). These factorsⒸ ISERD

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include a person’s habits, social norms and expected consequences of behavior. Theoreticalframework of attitudes and change to hybrid rice production was formed based on farmers’
personal factors which could be influenced to change the adoptive attitudes towards hybrid rice andother novel technologies. Moreover, the differences among rice farmers’ beliefs and behavior
intend to identify technological knowledge and way of communication with extension personal
specifically towards hybrid rice, through intervention factors as shown in Fig. 2.

Personal
Characterss

Technological
Knowledge

Extension
Contacts

Intervention Factors

Change toHybrid Rice
Production

Fig. 2 Conceptual Framework
A total of 37 independent variables having some bearing on the dependent variables wereidentified for inclusion in the study. Ten variables of the farmer’s personal characters; age, gender,
marital status, and level of education, family labor, income, membership in organization,
availability of credit, source of information including government and non government. Fifteen
variables of the farmers’ technological knowledge: varietal name, seed quality test, seed rate,
sowing method, cover of seeds after sowing, seedling age, seedling per hill, planting density,
fertilizer application method, irrigation method, weed control, treatment to get the effective tiller,
pests and diseases control, time of water drainage before harvest, harvest time, and twelve variablesof extension contacts; individual, group, mass media and farmers to farmers extension, contact with
NGOs and input dealers were collected to understand and attitude towards hybrid rice. Interview
schedule included open-ended and closed questions which were related to variables mentioned
above were prepared and data were analyzed by using multiple regression models with SPSS ver.
16.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Hybrid rice originated from breeding of two different parent types. In the process of hybrid seedproduction, two different parental strains bred artificially and the new generation is F 1. This
improved vigor is “hybrid vigor” or “heterosis”. Hybrid vigor is generally higher in agronomic
characteristics, therefore they generally more yield than their parents. Broadly speaking, hybrid rice
has two advantages: i) advantage in terms of high yields in comparison to inbred varieties and ii)
advantage in term of economic profitability due to higher total sales (more rice to sell) for thealmost the same capital investment (Pervez et al, 2016). The study revealed that 64.6% of farmers’
attitudes to hybrid rice production and 35.4% of farmers had no attitudes to hybrid rice production.
Adopted farmers were really accepted to hybrid rice production and non adopted farmers havegiven the top reasons as poor grain quality and lower market price for hybrid rice grain and lack ofawareness and high cost of seed, the results of study similarly pointed out by (Spielman et al.,2013).
Demographic Characteristics of the RespondentsⒸ ISERD

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The findings revealed that 84.4% and 15.6% of the respondents were male farmers and female
farmers. The average age of the sample farmers was 45 years in the range maximum 70 andminimum 25 years. An average farm size was 5 acres and majority of farmers have formal
education and 13.1% of them possessed Bachelor Degree and Diploma education level and 51.1%
of farmers were membership in organizations.

Fig. 3 Hybrid rice growing acre in Nay Pyi Taw

Fig. 4 Hybrid growing acre in Myanmar

Influential Farmers’ Personal Characters to Hybrid Rice Production
This study also revealed that among ten of farmers’ personal characters, “level of education” washighly significant to hybrid rice production. Therefore, more educated the farmer is, the more likely
he/she will adopt hybrid rice, possibly because he/she can get more information and understand on
hybrid production. This result was consistent with earlier literatures of (Nirmala et al., 2013). The
result showed that “source of information from government” was highly significant associated and“source of information from non-government” was also high significant related to hybrid riceproduction. In this context, DOA was the main information source because technology trickles
down to farmers and local NGO supported the awareness by doing the technical training. Thesefindings were (Cavane, 2011) also similarly indicated that source of information supported to learn
and raise awareness and particularly public extension to strengthen the farmers’ attitude change.
Similarly, Jegede et al., (2007) mentioned in their paper that farmers’ personal characters havesome influence on their perception of innovations and their decision to adopt or reject suchinnovation.

Table 1 Influential farmers’ personal characters to hybrid rice production
Statement

Coefficient

1. Age2. Gender
3. Marital status
4. Level of education
5. Family labor
6. Income
7. Membership in organization
8. Credit
9. Source of information fromgovernment
10. Source of information from nongovernment-0.0460.73-0.5270.476-0.2170.161-0.0660.352
1.507

Significant
0.83
0.13
0.331
0.009***
0.093**
0.192
0.845
0.556
0.004***

Expected Coefficient
0.955
2.074
0.59
1.609
0.805
1.174
0.936
1.423
4.512

1.066

0.065**

2.904

Note *** ** and * indicate statistically significant at (0.001), (0.01) and (0.05) respectively

Moreover, family labor was negatively high significant related toward hybrid rice, it impliedthat most of family labors were not engaged farming. Furthermore, no significant associated wasobserved in age, gender, marital status, income, membership organization and credit (Table 1).
These findings were similarly pointed out by Ghimire et al., (2015).
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Influential Farmers’ Technological Knowledge to Hybrid Rice Production
The findings indicated that farmers responded to technical knowledge as “water utilization method”
was highly significant and “planting density” was high significant, while “seed quality test” and“pests and diseases control” was significantly related to attitude of hybrid rice production. On theother hand, farmers could identify the “varietal name”, “seed rate”, “sowing method”, “cover theseed after sowing” and “seedling age”. Moreover, farmers have knowledge regarding as “seedlingper hill”, “fertilizer application method”, “weed control”, “time of water drainage before harvest”,“treatment to get effective tillers”, and “harvesting time” (Table 2). As a result, this study pointed
out that high-level professional training to get more knowledge on hybrid rice, farmers who
involved actively and sufficient technical assistant in the field were important factors in changing
adoption behavior. In this regard, (Pervez et al., 2016) showed that Hunan and Zhejiang provinces,in China, farmers participating in rice planting technology training were more involved in ricecultivation and got the higher yield.
Table 2 Influential farmers’ technological knowledge to hybrid rice production
Statement

Coefficient

1. Varietal name
2. Seed quality test
3. Seed rate
4. Sowing method
5. Cover the seed after sowing
6. Seedling age
7. Seedling per hill
8. Planting density
9. Fertilizer application method
10. Water utilization method
11.Weed control
12. Time of water drainage before harvest
13. Treatment to get the effective tillers
14. Harvest time
15. Pests and diseases control method-0.1040.771
0.001-0.7020.661-0.118-0.077
0.863
0.261
1.551
0.058
-0.778-0.054-0.0280.726

Significant
0.8
0.064*
0.998
0.265
0.283
0.839
0.86
0.048**
0.592
0.002***
0.896
0.124
0.9
0.953
0.081*

Expected
Coefficient
0.902
2.163
1.001
0.496
1.938
0.889
0.926
2.37
1.298
4.716
1.06
0.459
0.947
0.972
2.067

Note *** ** and * indicate statistically significant at (0.001), (0.01) and (0.05) respectively

Influential Farmers’ Extension Contact to Hybrid Rice Production
The study revealed that the “training” was highly significant related to attitude change of farmers
on hybrid rice production. Technical training provided to farmers to get the more knowledge andbelieved to extension personal and technology introduced by scientists. Similar finding wasreported by (Ngoc Chi and Yamada, 2002). Contrary to this, “meeting” was negatively highsignificant to attitude change, because meeting was not so effectiveness for farmers to accesshybrid rice technology. Next, the study indicated that the “farmer to farmer extension” wasnegatively high significant related to attitude change, even the farmers obtained the technologicalinformation from neighboring farmers they did not rely upon neighboring farmers for new
technology. Only consulting with neighbor farmers were not enough and they should start a trial
and consequently adopt the technology that finding was similarly indicated by (Shah et al., 2014).
Besides, farmers rely more on peer and relatives than extension offices (Rashid and Gao, 2016).
Moreover, “field level extension agents” who were negatively significant associated to attitudechange, extension agents contacted to farmers through extension activities but they have low
competencies in transfer of new technology. In particular, extension officers and field extension
agents might be farmers to select the right variety and go through recommended procedure werealso important to adopt the hybrid rice production as different finding to (Shah et al., 2014). In
addition, “NGO” contacts were also negatively significant related to attitude towards hybrid riceproduction. On the other hand, “demonstration” and “field days” that could not persued to farmersⒸ ISERD

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change attitude and also extension officer could not change farmers’ attitude towards hybrid rice.
“Input dealers” were not clear the technology who were only to sell out their products so they could
not change farmers’ attitude towards hybrid rice. In further analysis, research showed that there isno significant relationship both “radio” and “television” transmitted by broadcasting of public
sector. Therefore, it is suggested that the information and presentation components of the hybrid
rice programs need to be developed (Table 3).
Table 3 Influential farmers’ extension contacts to hybrid rice production
Statement

CoefficientSignificant

1. Extension officer
2. Field extension agents
3. Meeting
4. Training
5. Demonstration
6. Field day
7. Radio
8. Television
9. Leaflets/Pamphlets
10. Farmer to farmer
extension
11. NGO
12.Input dealers-0.513-0.379-0.874
1.105
0.258
0.123
-0.03
0.022
0.258
-0.5420.139
0.096*
0.035**
0.005***
0.522
0.81
0.891
0.929
0.189
0.029**

Expected
Coefficient
0.599
0.685
0.417
3.019
1.294
1.131
0.971
1.022
1.295
0.581

-0.337-0.0980.055*
0.618

0.714
0.907

Note *** ** and * indicate statisticalyl significant at (0.001), (0.01) and (0.05) respectively

CONCLUSION
According to the research, most intervention factors on farmers’ attitudes were high seed cost,
access to knowledge, low rice price in markets, cost of production and machinery to solve labors
scarcity problems. This study highlighted that the clear policy implication for enhancement ofhybrid rice in Myanmar. Create opportunity to access micro finance and encourage to private sector
to do the service providers and also market linkages are urgently needed. Hybrid rice seed Co. Ltds
have more intention to quality seed and contract farming with other associated partners and farmers
prefer to Public Private Partnership (PPP) approach. To get the key knowledge for farmers,
extension organization need to persuade by changing the effective communication with training
using practical design and participatory approach manner to farmers’ attitudes change, effective
and efficient training are needed to understand.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author is extremely thanks to Nay Pyi Taw Department of Agriculture and extension agents who
assist to data collection time. And also I would like to acknowledge to rice growing farmers forproviding their times and share their opinions to conduct this study.
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success. Journal of Agriculture and Ecology, Research International.
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Shah, M.M.I., Grant, W.J. and Stocklmayer, S. 2014. Adoption of hybrid rice in Bangladesh: Farm level
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Spielman, D., Deepthi, E., Kolady. and Ward, P. 2013. The prospects for hybrid rice in India. Springer
Science Business Media Dordrecht and International Society for Plant Pathology.
Truong Thi Ngoc Chi and Yamada, R. 2002. Factors affecting farmers’ adoption of technologies in farming
system: A case study in OMon District, Can Tho Province, Mekong Delta.
Zanna, M.P. and Rempel, J.K. 1988. Attitude: A new look at an old concept. In Bartal, D. and Wkruglanski,
A. (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Knowledge, Cambridge University Press, 315-334.
Zimbardo, P.G. and Leippe, M.R. 1991. The psychology of attitude change and social influence. McGrawHill, New York.

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Research article
erdSuitability of Groundwater Use for Drinking and Irrigation
Purpose, Case Study of Kien Svay District, Kandal Province,
Cambodia
NARETH NUT*
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: nnareth@rua.edu.kh

SONY SEREY
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: benaxodhis@yahoo.com

VIBOL SAO
E&A Consultant Co., Ltd, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Received 6 February 2018

Accepted 25 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In Cambodia, some studies found that groundwater in some areas was contaminatedby heavy metals and chemicals. Those contaminants can harm to human health if it is notproperly treated. The research aims to analyze groundwater quality to find out the suitabilityof parameters for drinking and irrigation purpose, and to understand the condition ofgroundwater quantity used by local farmers. The study was conducted in Sre Ampil II Village,
Chheu Teal Commune, Kien Svay District, Kandal Province in June 2017. Water samples
from 6 tube wells with the depth ≥ 20 m and ≥ 50 m were collected to analyze its water
quality. The sampling sites were done at the front-part, middle-part and rare-part of the village.
Some parameters of drinking water: pH, TDS, EC, turbidity, hardness, As, Fe, Mn, Cl-, F,NO3-, NO2-, SO42-, Escherichia coli and total coliform were collected to analyze its
concentration while the parameters such as pH, TDS, EC, hardness, salinity, As, Mn, Fe,SO42-, Cl-, NO3-, PO43-, NH4-, Ca2+, Mg2+, and Na+ were collected to analyze water quality
for irrigation purpose. The results showed that only three of fifteen parameters exceeded
desirable limit of FAO and the national standard of Cambodia as Mn concentration
averagely was surpassed the standard limits (0.4 mg/L), especially in well 6 (2.64 mg
Mn/L). For the concentration of harness, it was happened only in well 1 and 2 with its
concentration of 306 mg/L and 360 mg/L, respectively, which was above the national
standard (300 mg/L), yet it is below the standard recommended by FAO. E. coli and total
coliform were also presented in all wells while its concentration were highly exceeded theguideline. The results of parameters in irrigation water from three tube wells showed thatMn (2.64 mg/L) and K+ (5.19 mg/L) surpassed the guideline of FAO as it was only 0.2
mg/L and 2 mg/L, respectively, while other parameters were below the guideline.
Considering this value as standard, the waters in the well 2 and 3 could problematic forlong-term irrigation. Based on the groundwater testing, it could be concluded that water
quality in the study is good for drinking and irrigating purpose as most of the parameters
are below the guideline of Cambodia national standard and FAO.
Keywords groundwater quality, drinking water, irrigation purpose, Cambodia

INTRODUCTION
A fresh and reliable water supply is necessary for human, animal and plants to ensure a high qualityof life and to push a strong economical and agricultural development. Intensive cultivating andⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

urban development has caused a great demand on groundwater resources. There have been various
studies on assessment of suitable groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes (Aksever
et al., 2016; Ziani et al., 2016; Nag and Das, 2014; Kumar et al., 2014; Kaka et al., 2011).
Groundwater locates in the deep layer and penetrates into small pore space between the rocks. Dueto this natural flowing process, some mineral particulate components and hardness, Fe, Mn, As,
NO3- and other particulate components are transferred by the water movement to various places
depending on the groundwater flow direction.
The groundwater chemistry is an essential parameter for evaluating potential exploitable waterof an aquifer (Gallardo and Tase, 2007). The main factors influencing hydrochemical groundwater
quality are precipitation and dissolved minerals, ion-exchange and sorption and desorption in the
groundwater flow (Apodaca et al., 2002). This situation is compounded by the complexity of themineralogy saliferous, over exploitation of the aquifer and its low recharge, which limits the usable
capacity of the aquifer this because of the considerable variation in the concentration of ions andthe Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) (Belkhiri et al., 2012). At the same time, the environmental
impacts of human activity like unused fertilizers, pesticides, sewage water and discharge ofindustrial effluents are considered as potential anthropogenic sources responsible for contaminationof the groundwater (Venugopal et al., 2009). The presence of different chemical and physicalconstituents in excess of their permissible limits for various uses can create health hazards andenvironmental problems (Al-Zarah, 2007) and hence the water quality analysis is critical inensuring that water consumed by the population meets the required quality standards (Amfo-Otu etal., 2014). In Cambodia, some studies found that groundwater in some areas was contaminated byheavy metals and chemicals. Those contaminants can harm to human health if it is not properly
treated.
Having lived close to the Tonle Basac River, the main occupation of the people in Kien Svay
District, Kandal Province, Cambodia is agriculture and related labor. Mostly they are growing
vegetables with the application of heavy amount of chemical pesticide and fertilizers for increasing
crop yields. This practice leads to increased potential contamination of agro- chemicals inenvironment and the water sources, especially surface water and groundwater, due to the leakage ofagro-chemicals through precipitation and runoff.
OBJECTIVES
The research aims 1) To analyze groundwater quality to find out the suitability of parameters fordrinking and irrigation purpose and 2) To understand the condition of groundwater quantity usedby local farmers.
METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted in Phum II village located in Kean Svay District, Kandal Province where
the water quality in the tube wells is not yet identified for both irrigation and drinking purposes.
There are 214 families with the population of 862 people living in the village. The area ofhousehold is 20 ha while the paddy rice farming areas are 110 ha including dry and wet season
cultivation. Villagers in this village can do the farming third time per year.
Sampling and analysis: Six tube wells were selected to analyze groundwater parameters withdifferent depths of 20, 25, 30, 50, 55 and 60 m (for drinking purpose) and 50, 55 and 60 m (forirrigation purpose). The samples of water quality were chosen from the family whose tube wells
were used in both irrigation and drinking purpose and the samples were collected by classifying thevillage into three sites: the front-part, middle-part and rare-part of the village. Some parameters suchas pH, EC, TDS, hardness, turbidity and salinity were analyzed at the sites to avoid the error as
their values are quickly changed with the times, while the other parameters such as As, Cl -, F, Fe,
Mn, NO3-, NO2-, PO43-, Mg2-, K+, Ca2+, Escherichia coli and total coliform etc. were brought toanalyze in the laboratory at Resource Development International-Cambodia (RDI) by usingⒸ ISERD

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different method of water analysis based on each parameter. These samples were taken fromdrinking and irrigation water wells after 5 minutes of pumping, given sufficient time for the watertemperature to stabilize and become representative of the temperature of the aquifer. Those analyzed
parameters were compared with the drinking water standard guideline recommended by the FAO(2003) and World Health Organization (WHO, 2011) as well as the Cambodia Drinking Water
Quality Standardby the Ministry of Industry and Handicraft (MIH, 2004).
Statistical analysis: Statistical analysis was conducted in this study. Microsoft Excel program wasused to analyze describtive statistic and, standard deviation, while the statistical package was used
to determine Two Sample T-test in order to compare the significant differences of water quality
parameters with different depth of tube wells.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Water Quality for Drinking Purpose:
The quality of groundwater depends both on the substances dissolved in the water and on certain
properties and characteristics that these substances impart to the water (Heath 1982). The results of
the analyzed water quality of the 6 tube wells with different depths of 20, 25, 30, 50, 55 and 60 m
for drinking purpose mostly do not exceed two standard maximum allowable limit values. The
results of statistical analysis of the chemical compositions of the groundwater samples are shown in
Table 1. The table showed that most of the average values of those parameters are substantiallybelow the limited standards, yet Mn concentration is exceeded the standard limit.
The values of pH indicated low alkalinity in the groundwater. The pH of groundwater in the
study area is within the limits (6.5 to 8.8) of WHO guideline for drinking water quality. The
electrical conductivity of the water samples was rated in the category permissible to suitable (EC =484-801 μS/cm). The concentration of TDS ranged from 324 to 537 mg/L. The water with a TDS
level less than about 600 mg/L is generally considered to be good (WHO, 2011). Also, themaximum permissible limit of TDS for drinking water is 800 mg/L as per the MIH (2004) drinking
water standards. Thus, according to the WHO (2011), FAO (2003) and MIH (2004), the TDS
values of all wells are suitable for drinking. The concentration of harness ranged from 198 to 360
mg/L and was exceeded above the national standard limits (300 mg/L) only in well 1 and 2 with
their concentration of 306 mg/L and 360 mg/L, respectively. Ninety percent of analyzed samples
were not exceeded the desirable national limit (200 mg/L) of chloride (Cl -) according to WHO
guideline for drinking water. Only ten percent of samples exceed the desirable limit (250 mg/L) of
sulphate (SO42-) of WHO guideline for drinking water. The NO3-, NO2- and F could not be detectedby the machine. In Table 1, it is indicated that the concentration of Mn was very high above thestandard limits. Arsenic presented in all wells and above the recommended standard of the WHO(2011) which the maximum permissible limit for As concentration in drinking water is 0.01 mg/L.
The mean concentration values of Fe in the wells is 0.14 mg/L. According to the WHO (2011),
maximum accessible values for Fe concentration in drinking water are 0.3 mg/L. Considering thisas the standard value, the Fe contained in the water is still suitable for the drinking purpose, eventhough the well 5 reached to the peak of the limited standard (0.3 mg/L), following by well 6 (0.28mg/L). E. coli and total coliform were also presented in all wells while its concentration werehighly exceeded the guideline as the numbers of coliform were too numerous to count in themachine. However, the presence of these parameters do not cause serious illness to the humanhealth as they could be eliminated by boiling water before drinking (RDI, 2016), or by using
Biosand Filter-Zeolite, E. coli were completely removed during the first three trials after filtering
total volumes of 1120 L, 1140 L and 1220 L (Mwabi et al., 2012). Moreover, the stables or penswhich are located next to the wells should be removed to build at other place to avoid
contamination.

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Table 1 Summary of physical, chemical, and pollution parameters of drinking water
Mean
Parameters

Ave

Max

Min

SD

n

WHO
(2011)

MIH(2004)

Unit
Well 1(20m)

Well 2(25m)

Well 3(30m)

Well 4(50m)

Well 5(55m)

Well 6
(60m)

pH

-

7.30

7.10

6.90

7.10

6.90

6.80

7.01

7.30

6.80

0.07

3

6.5-8.8

6.5-8.5ECµs/cm

624.00801.00728.00491.00500.00558.00616.88801.00484.00

3.82

3

1500

-

TDS

mg/L

418.00537.00487.00329.00335.00374.00413.00537.00324.002.56

3600-1000

800

Turbidity

NTU

0.86

0.93

1.05

1.17

2.03

1.94

1.32

2.06

0.85

0.02

3

5

5

Hardness

mg/L

306.00360.00288.00234.00216.00198.00267.00360.00198.00

14.70

3

500

300

Cl-

mg/L

28.93

27.07

38.64

17.48

18.74

45.01

28.47

45.00

17.50

10.12

1

200

250

SO42-

mg/L

51.78

113.84

65.94

18.40

28.14

56.00

55.68

113.84

18.40

30.69

1

200

250

NO3

-

mg/L

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

1

50

50

NO2-

mg/L

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

1

3

3

Mn

mg/L

1.60

1.90

2.10

0.25

0.47

2.64

1.50

2.75

0.24

0.06

3

0.4

0.1

As

mg/L

0.013

0.021

0.016

0.021

0.036

0.027

0.021

0.030

0.010

0.005

3

0.01

0.05

Fe

mg/L

0.01

0.07

0.01

0.16

0.30

0.28

0.14

0.31

0.01

0.13

3

0.3

0.3

F

mg/L

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

1

1.5

1.5

E-coli

CFU/100mL

7.00

14.00

60.00

70.00

85.00

70.00

51.00

85.00

7.00

1

-

0

T-Coliform

CFU/100mL

TNTC

TNTC

TNTC

TNTC

TNTC

TNTC

870.002465.00

300.001-0Note: n= Frequency of the testing parameters of the drinking water
DL = Detection Limit, TNTC = Too Numerous To Count

Water Quality for Irrigation Purpose:Three wells with different depth of 50, 55 and 60 m were analyzed for its water parameter for theirrigation purpose. It is important to understand the pH in water supplies for the irrigation. As
indicated in Table 2, the pH values of the wells in the investigation area ranged from 6.80 to 7.10
with an average value of 6.95. According to FAO (2003), the pH value of irrigation water should
be between 6.0 and 8.5. Well 1 could be described as alkaline (pH > 7), while wells 2 and 3 areacidic (pH < 7), 6.90 and 6.80, respectively. All of the pH values of water in those wells are
suitable for irrigation water standard of FAO (2003). Also, according to the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) (Misstear et al., 2006), permissible limit pH ranged from 6.5 to 8.4 forirrigation water is suitable. The EC values of the wells ranged from 484 to 560 μS/cm with anaverage value of 516.44 μS/cm (Table 2). TDS values of wells were measured, and these values
varied from 324 to 375 mg/L with an average value of 345.88 mg/L (Table 2). The palatability ofwater with a TDS level of less than about 600 mg/L was generally considered to be good (WHO2011). Salinity represented by the TDS, varies between 0.20 and 0.30 mg/L. Higher concentrationsof salinity indicated that the ionic concentrations were more in the groundwater. The content of
Ca2+ in water samples collected from different depth of wells varied from 60 to 69 mg/L. Irrigationwaters containing less than 400 mg Ca2+/L is suitable for irrigating crops (Groeneveld and Meeden,
1984). Considering this value as standard, Ca2+ content in 95% water samples could safely be used
for irrigation and would not affect soils. The concentration of Na+ in water samples from wells
varied from 58 to 66 mg/L. Irrigation water generally containing less than 920 mg/L Na+ is suitablefor crops and soils. The observed Na+ content in all water samples had far below this specified limit.
The concentration of K+ present in the water samples ranged from 0 to 5 mg/L. According toGroeneveld and Meeden, (1984), the recommended limit of K + in irrigation water is 2.0 mg/L.
Considering this value as standard, the waters in the well 2 and 3 could problematic for long-term
irrigation. It is noted that the concentration of K+ value seemed increasingly parallel with the depthof the wells as the more deeper the wells are, the more K + concentration accumulates (Table 2).
The concentration of Mg2+ in water samples is within the range of 32-45 mg/L. Irrigation watersⒸ ISERD

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containing less than 60 mg Mg/L are suitable for irrigating crops while the analyzed water samples
are below this limit and may not have a negative impact on soils or irrigating water.
Water samples collected from three wells contained a chloride concentration ranging from 17
to 45 mg/L. Maximum permissible limit of Cl- in irrigation water is 1064 mg/L and all analyzed
water samples were far below the standard limit. The SO4-2 concentration in water samples ranged
from 18 to 56 mg/L, while the standard limit of SO4-2 in irrigation water is 960 mg/L and all water
samples collected from the wells are below this acceptable limit of irrigation water quality. PO43-,
NO3- and NH4- could not be detected by the machine as their concentration are very high exceeded
the desirable limit of the FAO guideline. Thus, the irrigation water may have negative impact fromthese elements and might be harmful for crop production.
Table 2 Summary of physical, chemical, and pollution parameters of irrigation water
Parameters

Units

Well 1(50 m)

Well 2(55 m)

Well 3(60 m)

Mean

Max

Min

Aver

FAO
(2003)

SD

n

pH

-

7.10

6.90

6.80

7.10

6.80

6.95

0.106

3

6-8.5

EC

µs/cm

491.00500.00558.00560.00484.00516.4430.07830-3000TDS

mg/L

329.00335.00374.00375.00324.00345.8820.19030-2000Turbidity

NTU

1.17

2.03

1.94

2.06

1.15

1.71

0.385

3

-

Salinity

ppt

0.20

0.20

0.30

0.30

0.20

0.23

0.047

3

-

Ca2+

mg/L

61.86

69.19

60.59

69.19

60.59

63.88

3.790

1

0-400

Na+

mg/L

60.43

66.14

58.59

66.14

58.59

61.72

3.214

1

0-920

K+

mg/L

0.00

2.63

5.19

5.19

0.00

2.60

2.118

1

0-2

Mg2+

mg/L

32.59

33.22

45.63

45.63

32.59

37.14

6.004

1

0-60

Cl-

mg/L

17.48

18.74

45.01

45.01

17.48

27.07

12.69110-1000

SO42-

mg/L

18.40

28.14

56.00

56.00

18.40

34.18

15.933

1

0-960

PO43-

mg/L

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

-

1

0-2

NO3-

mg/L

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

-

1

0-10

NH4-

mg/L

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

<DL

-

1

0-5

Mn

mg/L

0.25

0.46

2.64

2.75

0.24

1.12

1.081

3

0-0.2

As

mg/L

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.024

0.003

3

0-0.1

Fe
mg/L
0.16
0.30
0.28
0.31
0.15
0.24
Note: n= Frequency of the testing parameters of the irrigation water, DL = Detection Limit

0.064

3

0-5

Chemical elements in subsurface water come from geogenic and anthropogenic sources. The
weathering of minerals is one of the major natural sources. Ion exchange is also an important
process for elements. Anthropogenic sources include fertilizers, industrial effluent, and leakage
from service pipes. The elements as Mn, As and Fe of well samples were determined for water
quality in the study area. The maximum contents of Mn, As and Fe of well water samples were
determined as 2.75, 0.03 and 0.31 mg/L, respectively, while the average values of these elements
were 1.12, 0.024 and 0.24 mg/L. The Mn, As and Fe contents of the water samples are within thepermissible limit of FAO (2003) and WHO (2011). Thus, the irrigation water is in a good condition
for irrigating the crops. However, the suitability of groundwater for irrigation is conditional on theeffects of the mineral constituents of water on both the plant and soil. The excessive amount ofdissolved ions in irrigation water affects plants and agricultural soil physically and chemically, thus
reducing the productivity (Ziani et al., 2016). Agriculture and related labor are the main occupationof the rural people in the Kien Svay District, Kandal Province, Cambodia. Therefore, thedetermination of irrigation water quality in the ground is gaining importance.

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Table 3 Statistical analysis of water quality in different depth (20-30 m and 50-60 m)
Parameters

Units

Well depth (m)20-30

Main-Whitney(P value)

50-60

pH

-

7.10

6.90

0.261

EC

µs/cm

717.00516.00

0.050

TDS

mg/L

329.00335.000.050

Turbidity

NTU

0.95

1.71

0.050

Harness

ppt

318.00216.00

0.050

SO4

2-

mg/L

77.19

34.18

0.127

Cl-

mg/L

29.88

27.07

0.513

Mn

mg/L

1.86

1.12

0.513

As

mg/L

0.017

0.024

0.077

Fe
E. Coli

mg/L

0.03

0.25

0.040*

CFU/100mL

27.00

75.00

0.046*

Note: * Significant difference at P<0.05

Statistical analysis of some parameters such as pH, EC, TDS, turbidity, hardness, SO42-, Cl-, Mn,
As, Fe and E. coli with the different depths of wells indicated that there is no significant difference(P<0.005) between the concentration of values pH, turbidity, EC, harness, TDS, Mn, SO42-, As, Cl-,
Mn, As in the groundwater of the study area (Table 3). However, the concentration of Fe and E.
coli in the tube wells with the depth of 20 to 30 m and 50 to 60 m illustrated that the twoparameters were significantly different as the P value are P=0.040 and P=0.046, respectively.
Based on this comparison, it can be concluded that the depths of the tube well are not highly relatedwith the water parameters as they would sometimes be changed. The findings of this study are
different from the RDI (2012), that collected over 1,000 water samples in five provinces since 2005
from tube wells (also known as boreholes) with the depth ranged from 15 to 80 m and open wells(also known as dug wells) with 3-15 meter depth to analyze some parameters such as pH, salinity,
hardness, turbidity, As, F, NO3-, NO2-, Mn, Fe and Cl-. The results showed that the more deeper the
tube wells are, the more good quality of water would be obtained without contaminating frommicro-organisms and bacteria, but it was effected from the chemical and hardness which occurs
naturally while the shallow tube wells and surface water always contaminated by bacteria.
CONCLUSION
Suitability of groundwater samples according to exceeding the permissible limits prescribed by
WHO and FAO for drinking purposes indicated that the groundwater in the study area arechemically suitable for drinking and irrigation purpose. Yet, Ca2+, Mn, E. coli and total coliform
were exceeded the standard limit. The Mn concentration in 6 tube wells was highly above thestandard (0.1 mg/L). Moreover, the presence of E. coli and total coliform in these wells were high.
Therefore, some measures should be applied to prevent diseases or other illness caused by thecontaminated water. The results of the comparison between different well depths showed that thedepth of the tube well does not clearly related with contaminant to the groundwater in the study
area as some parameters of drinking and irrigation water sometimes changed and affected by thecontaminant from other sources. In the study area, it can be noticed that some wells are locatedclosely to the stables or pens; as a result, some of water parameters are changeable unexpectedly. In
general, based on the observation in the village and results, the water quality in the study area isgood for irrigation even though some parameters are above the limited standard of FAO. For the
analyzed parameters of drinking water quality, some of them are above the standard limits of WHO(2011) and national standard of Cambodia, MIH (2004) which is not recommended to drink as itⒸ ISERD

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could harm the human health. However, E. coli and total coliform are easy to eliminate by boilingwater before drinking (RDI, 2016).
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https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9010139
Nag, S.K. and Das, S. 2014. Quality assessment of groundwater with special emphasis on irrigation anddomestic suitability in Suri I & II blocks Birbhum District West Bengal India. Am. J. Water Resour., 2(4), 81-98.
RDI (Resource Development International). 2012. Summary of groundwater in Cambodia. Data, Map andPriority Parameters. http://rdic.org/groundwater-summary-data/ (accessed on August 21, 2017).
RDI (Resource Development International). 2016. Water contaminates descriptions on health and aesthetic
handbook. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Spalding, R.F. and Exner, M.E. 1993. Occurrence of nitrate in groundwater-a review. J. Environ. Qual., 22,392-402.
Venugopal, T., Giridharan, L., Jayaprakash, M. and Periakali, P. 2009. Environmental impact assessment andseasonal variation study of the groundwater in the vicinity of River Adyar, Chennai, India. Environ.
Monit. Assess, 149, 81-97.
WHO (World Health Organization). 2011. Guidelines for drinking-water quality. The 4th Edn., World HealthOrganization, Geneva, Switzerland, ISBN: 9789241548151.
Ziani, D., Abderrahma, B., Boumazbeur, A. and Benaabidat, L. (2016). Water quality assessment for
drinking and irrigation using najor ions chemistry in the semiarid region: Case of Djacer Spring, Algeria.
Asian Journal of Earth Sciences, 10 (1), 9-21. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajes.2017.9.21Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Utilization of Atis “Annona squamosa Linn” Desserts
REGUCIVILLA A. POBAR*
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Philippines
Email: regupobar@gmail.com
Received 3 January 2018

Accepted 25 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Atis or Annona squamosa Linn or Sugar Apple in English is one of the top 10
tropical and exotic fruits but one of the forgotten fruits in the Philippines. It is a sweet andcreamy fruit with lots of seeds. Its flesh is sweet, white to yellow and resembles and taste
like custards. The edible portion coats the seeds generously. It has a distinct sweet smellingfragrance. It is high in energy, an excellent source of Vitamin C and manganese, a goodsource of thiamine and Vitamin B 6, and provides Vitamin B2, B3,B9, iron, magnesium,
phosphorus, and potassium in fair quantities. This study utilized this fruit as ingredient ofdifferent kinds of desserts such calamay, deep fried dessert, butter scotch and tart. These
desserts are prepared in different ways using tools, utensils and equipment which areavailable in rural communities. Dessert is important because it can enhance ones physicaland emotional wellness in numerous ways if approached properly. Hence, the objectives ofthis study is to determine the acceptability levels of different dessert products using atis as
main ingredient in the five sensory attributes such as appearance, taste, flavour, texture andoverall liking. It further aimed to determine the shelf life and the marketability of eachproduct. This is an experimental study with 100 participants composed of food experts tojudge the different products using the four point Hedonic Scale. It was found out that thefour products are all acceptable in the five sensory attributes. Each product has different
shelf life with calamay having the shortest shelf life and butter scotch and tart having thelongest. It was also found out that all the products are marketable. It can be concluded that
Atis “Annona squamosa Linn” can be used in producing different desserts. It is thenrecommended that these products be promoted so that the forgotten Atis can gain
recognition as a good ingredient for dessert and not only to be eaten as raw and so can be
fully utilized.
Keywords exotic, forgotten fruit, sensory attribute, acceptability

INTRODUCTION
Food is the basic necessity for all of living creature and they have to work hard to get this. It is thethird most important thing for living beings to live after air and water. This shows the importanceof food for life. Food can be taken through the three meals a day. Three meals a day is important tokeep the body running so that daily functions can be managed properly. A meal is composed of riceor carbohydrate-rich food, soup, vegetable, main dish, salad, and dessert. This meal composition
can vary depending on the choice of the diner, but usually a meal is ended with a dessert.
The tradition of eating a dessert after having a meal is being followed by many cultures acrossthe globe. This delectable dish served at the end of a dinner signifies completion of the meal andcreates a sense of goodness within a person. Apart from the cultural importance and the feel-goodfactor, a dessert can also offer a variety of health benefits. A healthy dessert aids in digestion, adds
extra vitamins and fiber to ones diet, boosts immunity, reduces blood pressure, balances hormonesin the body, lowers the levels of bad cholesterol, improves good cholesterol, and acts as an antidepressant (Benavides, 2016).
According to the dictionary, dessert is a confectionery course that concludes a main meal. It is
usually consists of sweet foods, and possibly a beverage such as dessert wine or liqueur, but may
include coffee, cheese nuts, or other savory items. The term dessert can apply to many confections
such as cakes, tarts, cookies, biscuits, gelatins, pastries, ice creams, pies, puddings, custards andⒸ ISERD

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sweet soups. Fruit is also commonly found in dessert courses because of its naturally occurring
sweetness. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts.
In this study, the researcher ventured to produce four kinds of desserts using Atis or Annonasquamosa Linn as an ingredient in producing them. Atis is used to promote the fruit which is one
among the top ten exotic or tropical fruit in the Philippines but is also among the forgotten fruits inthis country, forgotten because atis is one among the fruits which is only produced on backyard
scale and thus have limited and declining supply (Dy, 2016).
Atis fruit is from a small tree 3 to 5 meters in height with leaves which are somewhat hairy
when young, oblong, 8 to 15 centimeters long, with a petiole 1 to 5 centimeters long. Its fruit islarge, somewhat heart-shaped, 6 to 9 centimeters long, the outside marked with knobby polygonal
tubercles. When ripe the fruit is light yellowish-green. Flesh is white, sweet, soft, and juicy, with amild and very agreeable flavor. It is nutritious because it is rich in Vitamin C, manganese, B
Vitamins, iron, magnesium, phosphorus and potassium in fair quantities (Stuart, 2016).
This study ventured to produce Atis Calamay, Atis Butter Scotch, Atis Fried Dessert, and Atis
Boat Tart. Calamay is a sweet concoction of ground sticky rice, sugar, coconut milk, vanilla andsome peanuts (optional). It is sealed in smooth coconut shells that are sealed shut by acharacteristic band of red tape. Butter Scotch, on the other hand, is a type of confectionery whose
primary ingredients are brown sugar and butter, but other ingredients are part of some recipes, suchas corn syrup, cream, vanilla and salt. The earliest known recipes, in mid-19th century Yorkshire,
used treacle (molasses) in place of or in addition to sugar. The Fried Dessert in this study is a
modified doughnut, modified because it is with blended Atis pulp filling. According to Webster
dictionary doughnut is a small fried cake of sweetened dough, typically in the shape of a ball or
ring. Meanwhile a tart is a baked dish consisting of a filling over a pastry base with an open top notcovered with pastry. The pastry is usually short crust pastry; the filling may be sweet or savoury,
though modern tarts are usually fruit-based, sometimes with custard. A boat tart is a tart with acrust of a shape of a small boat.
OBJECTIVESThis study was conducted to produce four types of dessert such as Atis Calamay, Atis Butter
Scotch, Atis Fried Dessert, and Atis Boat Tart utilizing atis as ingredient, and determine theacceptability of the four desserts in five sensory attributes such as appearance, taste, odor, texture
and overall liking. It further aimed to determine the shelf life and the marketability of the products.
METHODOLOGYThis study is experimental, producing desserts with atis as ingredients. The finished products were
tasted by 100 participants who are food experts to judge the products using the four point Hedonic
scale. To ensure the reliability of the result in judging the taste of the products, the participants
were blindfolded because the appearance of the product can insinuate the judgment of the taste.
After tasting one product, the participants were asked to drink water before tasting another productto remove the taste of the next product. The rest of the sensory attributes were done removing theblind fold of the participants. The participants were asked to rate the products using the following
rating scale 4- Very Acceptable, 3- Acceptable, 2 - Less Acceptable and 1 - Not Acceptable as thelowest. For purposes of interpretation, the following range were used; 3.25 - 4.00 - Very
Acceptable, 2.50 - 3.24 - Acceptable, 1.75 - 2.49 - Less Acceptable and 1.00 - 1.74 - Not
Acceptable.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The researcher was able to produce the products by using the following recipes.

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Atis Calamay
In preparing Atis Calamay, the following ingredients were used; 1 kilograms blended Atis pulp, 3cups glutinous rice flour, 4 cans(400 ml each) coconut milk, 2 cans coconut milk for curd (latik), 3
cups brown sugar, 1 table spoon pandan or vanilla extract. This is prepared by following theprocedure; Blend the Atis pulp until fine, set aside. Then prepare a pan, pour coconut milk thencook in a low heat. Keep stirring until it curdles. Set aside. In a large pan, combine the blended atis
pulp, sweet rice flour, coconut milk, sugar and vanilla then cook in a low heat. Keep stirring until
thicken. Prepare the cleaned coconut shell, fill it with the mixture, sprinkle with coconut curd andseal the coconut shell with a red tape. Have it ready to serve.
Atis Butter Scotch
In preparing the Atis Butter Scotch the following ingredients were used; 1/2 cup granulated sugar,
1/2 cup packed brown sugar, 1/4 cup butter or stick margarine, softened, 2 large egg whites, 1
teaspoon vanilla extract, 1 1/4 cups all-purpose flour, 1/2 teaspoon baking powder, 1/4 teaspoon
salt, Cooking spray, 1/2 cup blended Atis pulp. The procedure in preparing the Atis Butter Scotch
are as follows: Preheat oven to 350 °C. Beat sugars and butter at medium speed of a mixer until
well-blended (about 4 minutes). Add egg whites, atis pulp and vanilla; beat well. Lightly spoon theflour into dry measuring cups, and level with a knife. Combine flour, baking powder, and salt; stir
well with a whisk. Add flour mixture to sugar mixture; beat at low speed just until blended. Spreadbatter evenly into an 8-inch square baking pan coated with cooking spray; sprinkle evenly withmorsels. Bake at 350°C for 28 minutes or until a wooden pick inserted in center comes out clean.
Cool in pan on a wire rack. Slice into squares then wrap in colored water cellophane.
Atis Fried Dessert (Doughnut)
In this product, two subproducts were prepared; first was for the filling and the second was for the
dough. For Atis filling, the following ingredients were used: ½ cup blended Atis pulp, ¼ cup
refined sugar, ¼ cup water, 1/8 teaspoon vanilla. The Atis Filling was prepared with the following
procedure followed; Mix all ingredients into a bowl and place in sauce pan. Cook under low fire
until thickened. Remove from fire and let it cool ready for filling the dough. The ingredients for
Atis Fried Dessert Dough are as follows; 4 cups bread flour, 1/3 cup refined sugar, ½ cup
margarine, 3 pcs. Eggyolk, 1 ½ teaspoon salt, 1 ½ cup water, 5 teaspoon yeast, ¼ cup lukewarm
water for yeast and 1 teaspoon sugar for yeast. The procedure in preparing Atis Fired Dessert are
the following; Dissolve yeast in ¼ cup lukewarm water. Stir. Sprinkle with 1 teaspoon sugar thencover and set aside to ferment. Sift flour, measure and set aside. Mix together in a mixing bowl
water, sugar, salt, eggyolk, margarine and foamy yeast. Add the flour into the mixture, mix
thoroughly and knead the dough until smooth and elastic and have it rest for 20 minutes. Punch therested dough, divide and weigh the dough into portion size. Flatten the dough with a rolling pin, fillwith Atis filling then roll to close the ends, its shape is like that of a dough nut. Allow to rest for 30
minutes. Fry the dough in hot oil until golden brown. When done roll into refined sugar then have it
ready to serve.
Atis Boat Tart
In preparing Atis Boat Tart, just like the doughnut two sub products were prepared the filling andthe crust. For the filling the following ingredients were also used; 1 cup Atis pulp, ½ cup refinedsugar, ½ cup cornstarch, ½ cup evaporated milk, 1 cup water, and 1 teaspoon vanilla. These
ingredients were mixed together and cooked in sauce pan under low fire, stirred constantly until
thickened. Then set aside for the crust. After the filling the next to be prepared is the crust which
needed 2 cups all purpose flour, ¼ cup butter, 1 piece eggyolk, ¼ cup water, 2 tablespoon refinedsugar and ¼ teaspoon salt. The following procedure was followed; Dissolve sugar and salt in ¼ cupⒸ ISERD

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cold water, then add eggyolk. Cut-in flour and margarine using pastry blender until pea size.
Gradually sprinkle cold water solution over it and continue cutting-in. Knead, divide the dough andplace in greased boat tart molder. Place the previously prepared filling and bake in a pre-heatedoven for 30minutes or until brown. Allow it to cool, when cold, wrap it in colored water cellophane.
In the preparation of the four desserts of Atis, the common tools, utensils and equipment usedwere measuring cup, measuring spoon, wooden ladle, mixing bowls, sauce pan, rubber scraper,
stove; boat tart molder and pastry blender (specific for boat tart), oven for butter scotch and boat
tart.
Table 1 Acceptability of the products in five sensory attributes
Sensory attributes
Appearance
Taste
Odor
TextureOverall Liking
Composite Mean
Rank

T1

T2

T3

T4

3.48
3.57
3.70
3.45
3.48
3.54
4

3.64
3.68
3.72
3.75
3.60
3.68
2

3.52
3.76
3.50
3.84
3.54
3.63
3

3.75
3.82
3.68
3.82
3.70
3.75
1

Composite
mean
3.48
3.69
3.65
3.65
3.58
3.60

Description

Rank

VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA

5
1
2.5
2.5
4

Legend: T1 - Atis Calamay T2 - Atis Butter Scotch T3 - Atis Fried Dessert T4 - Atis Boat Tart

Table 1 shows the acceptability levels of the four atis desserts in five sensory attributes suchas appearance, taste, odor, texture and overall liking. It clearly manifests that the four products
were rated Very Acceptable in all the five sensory attributes or in appearance, taste, odor, texture
and overall liking but they differed in the numerical rating or the mean. In terms of Appearance,
Atis Boat Tart ranked first with weighted mean 3.75, it was followed by Atis Butter Scotch, 3.64,
Atis Fried Dessert and Atis Calamay followed with a weighted mean of 3.52 and 3.48 respectively.
Boat Tart took a lead in taste and overall Liking whose weighted means are 3.82 and 3.70
respectively. On the other hand, Atis Butter Scotch emerged as number 1 in odor while Atis Fried
Dessert ranked first in texture. Atis Fried Dessert ranked first in texture because it has very soft
texture and Atis Boat Tart ranked next to Atis Fried Dessert. The flakiness, crunchiness and thetenderness of the crust of the tart were very evident in the product. These are the qualities of a goodtart crust. Butter Scotch ranked first in Odor because of the nice blend of the smell of theingredients.
Meanwhile, the overall rating of the product with reference to the composite mean of fivesensory attributes of the product, Atis Boat Tart ranked first with the composite mean of 3.75
followed by Atis Butter Scotch (3.68), Atis Fried Dessert (3.63) and Atis Calamay as the last with
3.54 as the composite mean.
When comes to the five sensory attributes, the composite mean of taste of the four products
was 3.69 so taste ranked first. Odor and texture of the four products got a tie with a composite
mean of 3.65, while fourth is the overall liking (3.58) and the last is the appearance with 3.48 as thecomposite mean.
Table 2 Shelf life of Atis desserts
Products
T1 - Atis Kalamay
T2 - Atis Butter Scotch
T3 - Atis Fried Dessert
T4 - Atis Boat Tart

1

2

3

4

5

6

No. of Days
7
8
9 10

11

12

13

14

15

/

/

/

/

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

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Table 3 discloses the shelf life of the four Atis Desserts. In knowing the shelf life of the
products, the products were observed daily while placed at room temperature. It shows that both
Atis Butter Scotch and Atis Boat Tart lasted for 15 days. On the sixteenth day, the crust of the Atis
Boat Tart started to soften, the Atis Butter Scotch also softened on the sixteenth day. Among the
products, Atis Calamay was the first to spoil. On the fifth day molds were found on the product. It
can be deduced that method of preparing the product is a factor that affect shelf life. Atis Butter
Scotch and Boat Tart were both baked, Calamay was boiled until a thick consistency was reachedwhile Fried Dessert as the name suggested, was fried. Baking can lessen the amount of moisture in
the product, thus making the product last longer.
Marketability
In terms of marketability all the four products were marketable. The products were displayed in theschool cafeteria of two nearby high schools in the City of Tagbilaran City, Bohol and also in theuniversity cafeteria of Bohol Island State University. It was found out that the products were soldout in the first three days of the week in one month of display. Atis Fried Dessert was saleable
while hot, Calamay, Butter Scotch, and Boat Tart on the other hand were not only eaten as snack
item in the cafeteria but were bought as a “pasalubong” for loved ones at home. It can be deduced
that these Atis Desserts were all marketable.
CONCLUSION
Based on the findings, it can be concluded that the Atis dessert are all acceptable. These can be agood part of one’s meal. These products can be a source of income of the people in ruralcommunity because the ingredients are available in the locality, the tools and utensils are present inones kitchen and the procedure of preparing the products are easy to follow. Although Atis Butter
Scotch and Boat Tart used oven, these products can be baked in a clay oven which are
manufactured in local community, thus it is still very much feasible for the rural community to
produce these products.
RECOMMENDATION
It is recommended that Atis products be introduced to the rural community through the extension
function of the university so that these can be used by them as another source of income. The
university may conduct training about the preparation of these products from Atis so that they will
be encouraged to produce and sell their products. Farmers should also be informed about theutilization of Atis as Desserts so that they will be motivated to plant more Atis trees in larger scalethus promoting the use of Atis and thereby excluding this fruit from the list of promising but
forgotten fruits.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher would like to express her thanks to the administration of Bohol Island State
University for the support given to her while conducting her study. She would like to thank the
personnel of the cafeteria of BISU for allowing her to conduct the study there. Her thanks andgratitude would also be for Mrs. Rosal M. Apatay for helping her in facilitating the display of the
products in the school where she (Mrs. Apatay) is teaching and in other school cafeteria formarketability test.

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REFERENCES
Benavides, R. 2016. The importance of desserts after a meal. http://johnodonnellart.com/2016/theimportance-of-desserts-after-a-meal (retrieved on August 12, 2017).
Davidson, M.J. 2011. The Importance of food in our life. http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Importance-of-Foodin-Our-Life&id=6541199 (retrieved on August 14, 2017).
Dy, R. 2016. Forgotten but promising fruits. http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section=Opinion&title=forgotten-but-promising-fruits&id=126524 (retrieved on October 12, 2017).
Manila Girl. 2009. Top 10 Exotic and tropical fruits in the Philippines. http://top10philippines.blogspot.
com/2009/07/top-10-tropical-fruits-in-philippines.html (retrieved on April 5, 2017).
Market Man. 2005. Calamay from Bohol. http://www.marketmanila.com/archives/calamay-from-bohol(retrieved on June 20, 2017).
Only Foods. 2016. Sugar apple. http://www.onlyfoods.net/sugar-apple.html (retrieved on July 28, 2017).
Ranga, N. 2011. Importance of food-in life & health. https://www.studyread.com/importance-of-food(retrieved on August 20, 2017).
Stuart, G. 2016. Atis, Annona squamosa linn sugar apple. http://www.stuartxchange.org/Atis.html (retrievedon September 22, 2017).

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Research article
erd

Evaluation of Soil Nutrient Level in Naypyitaw AgriculturalLand
SAN SAN MYINT*
Research Based Ph.D. Course, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar
Email: sanmyinthtila@gmail.com

KYAW NGWE
Department of Soil and Water Science, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar

KYAW KYAW WIN
Department of Agronomy, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar

SWE SWE MAR
Department of Soil and Water science, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar
Received 22 December 2017

Accepted 25 October 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Being one of the portions of land degradation, fertility depletion is a major barrierin crop productivity in agricultural sector. While we made attempt to increase crop
productivity for food security, this study focused on investigating the fertility status of thesoil and the major factors that influenced the nutrient level. The studies were carried out inNaypyitaw Union Territory during 2016 - 2017. The first study emphasized on major
nutrient level in Naypyitaw region. A total of 240 soil samples were collected from 8
townships of 2 districts and analyzed. Soil analyses were performed for soil acidity, organiccarbon, total Nitrogen, available P and K. Using descriptive statistic, the nutrient levels
were evaluated in study area. The objective of second study was to evaluate the major andminor nutrient status in prominent specific rice fields in two townships. (Pobbathiri and
Zeyar Thiri). Soil samples were collected from 22 farmer’s fields and analyzed to identify
soil macro and specific micro nutrients content. The Chi-square test was used to analyze fordifferent location and different cropping patterns. First study showed that about 50% of
Naypyitaw agricultural lands is low in Organic Carbon, 82% and 90% of land were also
deficient in total N and available P, respectively. The second study showed that the
deficiencies of total N, available P, S and Zn were detected in all rice fields. These nutrient
deficiencies are not totally dependent on grown crops. It may be due to insufficient
application of nutrients amount and type. It was also found that no farmers apply sufficientamount of organic and inorganic fertilizers. The results of the present study suggested thatthe effective education system was essential for farmers to adopt the advanced fertility
technology regarding balanced fertilization of macro and micro nutrient..
Keywords balanced fertilization, degradation, macro, micro, fertility depletion

INTRODUCTION
Being an Agricultural country, Myanmar tries to develop Agricultural sector through increased
crop productivity. Of the two approaches to achieve the crop productivity, where there are limitedin land for area expansion, increased yield is more common in Agricultural sector. Main pillar ofincreased yield are Varietal improvement, Agricultural practices, Systematic nutrient supply andProtection of pest and disease and post-harvest losses. Today the yield of crops especially in riceof Myanmar is lower than that of neighboring countries. The basic technique of systematic nutrient
management is balanced fertilization that for plant nutrient requirement in right time and right dose.
Although grower applied their land in high intensity, they never noticed removal amount of
nutrient from their land. It made the soil nutrient minus day by day resulting in nutrient depletionⒸ ISERD108

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in Agricultural land. At present, it may be great challenges for crop productivity and its negative
effect on future land too. Even growing soil improved crops such legumes need to supply required
macro and micro nutrient at right dose in right time. Today Myanmar face with land degradation
due to soil erosion and fertility depletion .Major causes of fertility depletion may be due toinsufficient apply of nutrient in Agricultural land.
Naypyitaw, in middle part of Myanmar, was selected for this study. It consists of 8 town ships,
namely Tatkon, Lewe, Pyinmana, Zeyar Thiri, Pobba Thiri, Dekkhina Thiri, Zabuthiriand Oattara
Thiri. The total land area is (706,009.72 ha) and net sowing area is about (135,978 ha). Major
crops grown in this area are rice, sugarcane and pulses. Most of lands are used for growing riceand cropping intensity of this area is above 150% and 176.51% in Oattara Thiri district and169.34% in Dekkhina Thiri. Some rice growing areas have Cropping Intensity (C.I) up to 300%
since farmers adopt triple cropping system where water is available. Majority of farmers depend on
rice growing in this area with high C.I and improved varieties including hybrid rice and cornwhich are those heavy eater crop in nutrient point of view. Even then, farmer didn’t apply
sufficient nutrients and amount on rice land let alone in upland crop resulting in nutrient depletionin soil. Although farmers apply fertilizer in substantial amount in rice field, it doesn’t cope withthe removal of nutrient by grown crops especially in minor nutrients. It may be remarkably
deficient. The Cropping Intensities of these area shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Cropping Intensity of Naypyitaw region
District

Crop land (ha)1st crop

2nd crop

3rd crop

Oattarathiri
DekkhinaThiri

71359.2

71359.2

53531.664619.664619.6

Total135978.8135978.8

Total

C.I (%)

1062.8125953.6

176.5139076.85752.8109427.6

169.3492608.4

6815.6235381.2

173.1

Source: –Department of Agriculture, Naypyitaw Region (2016)

OBJECTIVESThe study on nutrient status in Naypyitaw region was conducted in 2016, and study of macro andmicro nutrient status in rice field was conducted in Pobba Thiri and Zeyar Thiri in 2017. Two main
objectives are to evaluate the nutrient status in Naypyitaw Agricultural land, to assess the macroand micro nutrient level in rice growing area of two townships, and to assess the nutrient levelbased on cropping pattern.
METHODOLOGY
In this study, both primary and secondary data were collected. The primary data were collectedfrom the selected farmers who are growing rice in two town ships (Pobbathiri and Zeyar Thiri).
The survey was carried out with 22 farmers and soils from 4 kwins (cadastral boundary ofagricultural land parcels) of their rice field were analyzed. The study was conducted toinvestigate soil macro and specific micro-nutrient status in rice field in these townships. The
Chi-square test was used to analyze for different location and different cropping pattern.
The secondary data included land utilization of Naypyitaw, net sown area and cropping
intensity. The major source of secondary data was taken from soil analytical data of fertility
status in Naypyitaw. A total of 240 soil samples were collected and analyzed from 160 villages,
8 townships of 2 districts. Soil samples were analyzed for soil acidity, organic carbon, total
Nitrogen, available P and K. Using descriptive statistics, the nutrient levels were evaluated instudy area. Organic carbon ranged 2-4%, which was considered medium. Total N ranged 0.20.5%, considered medium, available P range was determined as medium (15-50 ppm) and level
for K2O was determined as medium (10-20 mg/100g).

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Nutrient Status of Soils in Naypyitaw Region
Forty seven percent of land was low in organic carbon content and 52% of soil had medium levelof organic carbon (Table 2) and Fig. 1. Eighty two percent of soils in Naypyitaw was low in total N
content as expressed in Fig. 2. And available P content was low in 90% of soil samples (Fig. 3). In
this area, level of available K was found to be medium in most soil samples (53%) as shown in Fig.
4. Also, nutrient status of study areas based on district were presented in Table 3 and Fig. 5.
Table 2 Nutrient status of soils in Naypyitaw region
No of Organic C level

No of Total N
level

No of Avail P
level

No of Avail K level

Low

MediumHigh

Low

MediumLow

MediumLow

MediumHigh

Dekkhina Thiri

40

47

2

68

21

78

11

24

43

22

Oattara Thiri

72

78

1

128

23

138

13

28

85

38

Total

112

125

3

196

44

216

24

52

128

60

Fig. 1 Organic carbon level of agriculturalland in Naypyitaw

Fig. 2 Total nitrogen level of agriculturalland in Naypyitaw

Fig. 3 Available P level of agriculturalland in Naypyitaw

Fig. 4 Available K level of agriculturalland in NaypyitawⒸ ISERD

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Fig. 5 Nutrient status of agricultural land in two districts in NPTTable 3 Nutrient level percent based on district% in O.C level% in N level% in avail P level% in avail K level

Low

Medium

High

Low

Medim

Low

MediumLow

MediumHigh

Dekkhina

45

53

2

77

23

88

12

27

48

25

Ottra

48

51.4

0.6

85

15

91

9

19

56

25

Macro and Micro Nutrients in Rice Field
The study was carried out in 2017 based on farmer survey and soil analytical data of their rice
fields located in Oattathiri District. There are 5 major soil types in rice growing areas.
Fertility status of study areas: Fertility level based on location is shown in Table 4. Moreover,soil fertility level based on cropping system is shown in Table 5. Total Nitrogen, available S and
Zn were deficient in all samples. Deficiency of organic carbon was significantly different in twoareas at 0.05% level. Available P were found in low level but not significantly different between
two locations. Available B was found to be in medium level in all soils of Zeyar Thiri and about
30 % of Pobba Thiri rice growing lands. Therefore, B deficiency varied with the regions and its
difference was significant at 0.01 level.
Table 4 Fertility level based on location
No.

Parameter

No of soil sample Pobba Thiri

No of soil sample Zeyar Thiri

MediumLow

MediumLow

6(8.18)6(3.82)9(6.82)1(3.18)

1

O.C

2

Total N

-

12

-

10

3

Avail P2(2.18)10(9.82)2(1.81)8(8.18)4

Avail K

12

-

10

-

5

Avail S

-

12

-

10

6

Avail Zn

-

12

-

10

7

Avail B4(7.64)8(4.36)10(6.36)- (3.64)χ2 test

4.01*

ns

7.81**

Findings of this study indicate that fertility status in rice fields of Naypyitaw is not totallydependent on the cropping pattern. Major factors that influence fertility level may include highcropping intensity and insufficient application of nutrients as it is shown in Table 5. Bacon et al.
Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2(1990) stated that balanced input and output is important in long-term sustainability. Althoughpulses help improved soil fertility, remaining nutrient is not enough to maintain fertility levelunless nutrients were not applied to cover its use. Pattanayak et al. (2008) pointed out that applying
inadequate and unbalanced nutrient is a major factor responsible for low productivity.
Table 5 Fertility level based on cropping patternNo.

Parameter

No of soil sample
Rice, Pulses system

Rice, Rice system

Rice, Pulses, Rice system

X2

M

L

M

L

M

L

test

9(8.86)4(4.14)1(1.36)1(0.64)5(4.77)2(2.23)

ns

1

O.C

2

Total N

_

13

_

2

-

7

3

Avail P3(2.36)10(10.64)_(0.36)2(1.64)1(1.27)6(5.73)

4

Avail K

13

_

2

_

7

_

5

Avail S

_

13

_

2

_

7

6

Avail Zn

_

13

_

2

_

7

7

Avail B8(8.27)5(4.73)1(1.27)1(0.73)5(4.45)2(2.55)ns

ns

The findings showed that all farmers are lack of knowledge in soil fertility. They never know
nutrient removal and recommended fertilizer rate for their crops. They apply substantial amount of
fertilizers in rice field but in pulses in general. Organic matter utilization has been never met theneeds of plant’s micronutrients.
CONCLUSION
This study showed that about 50% of Naypyitaw Agricultural lands were low in Organic Carbon.
In terms of major nutrients, 82% and 90% of land were also deficient in total N and available P
respectively. It contained only K in substantial amount. In the study, Total N, available P, S and Zn
were deficient in all fields. Rice fields in Zeyar Thiri had more O.C and B compared to that of
Pobba Thiri. Some nutrient deficiencies were significantly different in two locations but notdependent on cropping pattern. Deficiency of nutrient in study area was not totally dependent on
grown crops. It may be due to insufficient application of nutrients amount and type. According to
the study no farmers apply sufficient amount of organic and inorganic fertilizers and the results ofthe present study pointed out that the effective education system was required for farmers to adopt
the advanced fertility technology regarding balanced fertilization of macro and micro nutrients.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author(s) thank U Soe Win (Director, land use Division), Daw Khin Win Mar, Deputy Director,
and staffs (Soil Lab), U Tun Tun Lin (Regional Officer, land use) and Extension Agents(Naypyitaw) (2016, 2017), Department of Agriculture for their valuable supporting and assistance.
REFERENCES
Bacon, S.C., Lanyan, L.E. and Schlander, R.M.Jr. 1990. Plant nutrient flow in the management pathways ofan intensive dairy farm. Agron. J. 82, 755-761.
Department of Agriculture. 2016. Annual report of NPT region. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Irrigation, Myanmar.
Landon, J.R. 1984. Booker Tropical Soil Manual.
Land Use Division. 2016. Annual soil survey report. Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture,Ⓒ ISERD112

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2018) 9-2

Livestock and Irrigation, Myanmar.
FAO. 2010. Proceeding of national seminar on pulses crops for better economy. 26-27 May, 2010, FAO
Myanmar.
Pattanayak et al. 2008. K unlocks the potential for hybrid rice. Better Crops, 92 (2), 2.
World Bank Group. 2016. Myanmar: Analysis of farm production economic. World Bank.

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Research article
erd

Issues of Disaster Recovery Management and Application of
GIS and UAV for Resilience in Agricultural Land andInfrastructure
KOJI MIWA
Extension Center, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan

AYAKO SEKIYAMA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: a3sekiya@nodai.ac.jp

TORU NAKAJIMA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

TAKAHIKO KUBODERA
Faculty of Engineering, Osaka Sangyo University, Osaka, Japan

CHIKAHIRO EGAMI
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

HIROMU OKAZAWA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 9 April 2018

Accepted 1 November 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Natural disasters have caused enormous impacts on rural societies in bothdeveloped and developing countries for the recent years. Due to climate change, thefrequency and intensity of extreme weather have increased and it is predicted to be more
rampant for the coming decades. As rural societies are mainly dependent on agriculture, therapid recovery and reconstruction of damaged agricultural lands and infrastructure is crucial
to enhance their resilience. The rapid measures and actions in the post-disaster can reducethe impacts and can help farmers save their livelihoods as well as consumers ensure theirprovisions. This paper focuses on administrative issues in the recovery management in the
post-disaster period in Japan. Especially, it takes up the underlying issues that impede thedisaster recovery process and the application of Geographic Information System (GIS) andUnmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) in case of earthquake and flood disasters includingstorms and heavy rainfall. The data was collected through questionnaire survey to theagricultural departments in all the prefectural offices in Japan. From the results, theadministrative issues were attributed to the complexity of project procedures anddocumentation, human resources, rural planning, the lack of capacity in construction
companies, in most of the prefectures. The use of GIS and UAV was limited in many
prefectures due to the lack of knowledge or experience. However, GIS could help therecovery processes quicken for some prefectures. Based on the findings, it is suggested tomake a manual about GIS database building which can be shared among prefectural offices
and farmers to inherit the past lessons and enhance resilience for the future.
Keywords disaster recovery, resilience, rural society, GIS, UAVINTRODUCTION
The impacts of natural hazards have increased due to climate change and caused disasters all over
the world. At the same time, due to the excessive land development and population increase invulnerable areas have also increased the disaster risks. These have brought an urgent need in ourⒸ ISERD

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society to enhance resilience. Paying attention to resilience in rural society, the rapid recovery inagricultural land and infrastructure stricken by disasters is a key to reduce the impacts, saving
farmers’ livelihoods and provisions to market. This paper focuses on the administrative issues fordisaster recovery in agricultural land and infrastructure, and the application of Geographic
Information System (GIS) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) in Japan. In Japan, GIS databaseon agricultural information system was prepared by the Ministry of Agricultures, Forestry and
Fisheries of Japan (MAFF) from 2006 to 2010 and started operating by an association of farmers ineach prefecture called the Land Improvement Association since 2011. UAV has been increasingly
applied in the field of civil engineering, environmental measurement and geographic survey.
In Japan, when agricultural land and infrastructure are damaged by natural disasters above thecertain standards, there is a governmental system called “the Rehabilitation Project of Disaster
Stricken Agricultural Land and Facilities” to support a part of the cost of disaster rehabilitation.
The prefectural offices need to collect disaster information from affected municipalities and apply
to the government for funding before launching the rehabilitation works. Therefore, it is important
to conduct swiftly the whole process of the project for the early recovery. For this, MAFF has tried
to simplify the project procedures and has worked out in some cases (Yoshikawa et al., 2007; Arita
et al., 2008; Senda et al., 2013). There has been one case reported that GIS was successfully
applied to the rehabilitation project for simplification of the process (Senda et al., 2013). However,there have been issues which caused the delay and lengthening of the rehabilitation project, due tovarious reasons such as, the inaccessibility in remote areas (Asahiro et al., 2014), the lack of
capacity and limited number of construction companies (Arita et al., 2008), the lack of personnel
and experience of staff in the municipality office (Miyasato, 2007; Arita, 2008), the loss ofmotivation of local farmers and making agreement with them about reconstruction plan (Arita et al.,2009).
These previous studies focused on one single case of a disaster rehabilitation project.
Therefore, there is a need to study which covers more widely to identify the general existing issues
in the rehabilitation project.
OBJECTIVES
The objective of this research is to identify the existing delay issues including the application state
and usefulness of GIS and UAV in the Rehabilitation Project of Disaster Stricken AgriculturalLand and Facilities by the administration of Japan. From the results, it aims to form a suggestive
method for improvement of the rehabilitation management. Japan is targeted as a research site as
one of the world-leading countries in the disaster prevention and mitigation measures. It is
expected that the results of this research is applied to other disaster-prone countries. The kind ofdisaster was focused on earthquake including tsunami and flood disasters including heavy rainfall
and storm.
METHODOLOGY
The research applied questionnaire survey for data collection and statistically analyzed the results.
The questionnaire survey sheets were distributed to a section of the agricultural department, whichis in charge of the rehabilitation project, in all the forty-seven prefectural offices and prefecturalLand Improvement Association offices for a few prefectures in Japan. The questionnaire sheet wasconsisted of two versions, earthquake disaster including tsunami, and flood disaster including
heavy rainfall and storm. The questions were mainly concerned about the existing issues that cause
the disaster recovery projects delayed or lengthened in case of the last disaster that each prefecture
experienced since 2000, the application state of GIS and UAV, and the useful GIS data for the
rehabilitation.
The questionnaire sheets were made in Japanese and distributed by email between September
and November 2017 and responded by thirty-one prefectures out of forty-seven prefectures, that is65.9%. Among them, thirty respondents are from prefectural offices and one is from LandⒸ ISERD

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Improvement Association. Prefectures which experienced the rehabilitation project for earthquake
since 2000 were nineteen, and all of the thirty-one prefectures experienced the project caused byflood disasters. The number of valid response was low for some questions due to the lack of
information or still being under the investigation.
The limitation of this research can be attributed to the target of respondents and the limit of theobjective disasters. In Japan, each municipality including city, town or village rather than theprefectural office is more directly in charge of the rehabilitation project. Therefore, there is apossibility to obtain more detailed and accurate data from municipalities than prefectural offices. In
addition to that, the questions about the cause of delay were intended to inquire only about thelatest case that each prefecture experienced after 2000. As the situation and issues vary fromdisaster to disaster, the results can differ depending on the case of disaster selected in eachprefecture.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Cause of Delay and Lengthening in the Rehabilitation Project
The launching time of the first and last rehabilitation project among all the projects in each case ofdisaster after a disaster occurrence is as shown in Fig. 1. For the case of earthquake, most of thefirst disaster project is launched within four months. On the other hand, for the case of flood
disasters, although many cases are implemented within fourteen days, it becomes low in ‘within
one month’ and ‘two months’ but high again in ‘within four” or ‘six months’. For the last project,most of the cases are launched later than six months. Hence, it takes a long period to implement all
the rehabilitation projects in most of the cases.

Fig. 1 Launching time of the first (left) and last (right) rehabilitation project in each caseNote. *1 Commencement of rehabilitation due to the lack of labor force in construction company*2 Commencement of rehabilitation due to the lack of available construction company

Fig. 2 Procedure taken longer than expectedⒸ ISERD

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The procedures which took longer than predicted were as shown in Fig. 2. Collection ofdisaster information takes long in many prefectures for both disasters. Preparing the application
document of the rehabilitation project plan also takes long due to its complexity especially in thecase of earthquake. Launch of rehabilitation works also takes a long time due to the lack of
capacity or availability of construction companies for both disasters. Compared to the cases ofearthquake, the cases of flood are attributed to more variety of issues. It may be related to the delayof launching time of the rehabilitation work as seen in Fig. 1.
The causes of delay in the project were identified as seen in Fig. 3. Most of the causes are
attributed to the limit of capacity of officers such as the lack of, knowledge about the rehabilitation
project, and labor force in municipalities, and difficulty to control the project team in the time of
emergency. Other main factors are response to the affected farmers such as making agreement withthem for rehabilitation plans and individual response to each farmer where farmer’s association is
not formed. Damage which cannot be found immediately after the occurrence of disaster was also
raised.

Fig. 3 Cause of delay in rehabilitation project

Fig. 4 Difficulty of municipalities in the disaster measures in the rehabilitation project

Fig. 5 Issues to be solved to make the rehabilitation project smooth and fasterⒸ ISERD

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Difficulties that municipalities face to cope with disasters in the rehabilitation project variedamong many factors as shown in Fig. 4. The difficulty which most of the prefectures face was thelack of experience by officers in the rehabilitation project. The second highest was theunpredictability of natural disasters. Lack of capacity or availability of construction companies
were also the reasons of delayed. The limit of budget in administration is also a difficulty for themto implement the project and to respond to affected farmers who were exempted from it due to thesmaller scale of damages than the standard of the project regulation.
The issues that officers consider that should be solved to make the rehabilitation projectsmoother and faster were also identified as seen in Fig. 5. From the main answers, it can be divided
into three large groups: 1) simplification of the rehabilitation project process; 2) rural planning thattakes account of disaster occurrence; and 3) introduction of GIS and UAV and development of
human resource in these technology.
Use of Geographic Information System and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
Many prefectures did not apply GIS for the rehabilitation project in both earthquake and flood
disasters. As seen in Table 1, the reasons whether they used GIS or not are attributed to theirexperience of preparedness in the pre-disaster time or the presence of skilled human resource in
GIS. As the results, the number of skilled officers in GIS is still limited in the administration offices
and capacity building of officers is highly needed.
Table 1 Reasons of GIS usage/non-usage in rehabilitation project by prefectures

Used

No used/almost not

Reasons of GIS usage/non-usage in rehabilitation

Response rate
Eq (n =9) Hy (n =18)

The limited number of skilled officers in GIS

22.2%

5.6%

There was no need to use GIS

55.6%

66.7%

Use of GIS was limited in the pre-disaster time

22.2%

11.1%

There was no experience to use GIS in rehabilitation

44.4%

22.2%

GIS data was not owned

11.1%

0.0%

GIS was not popular at the time of disaster

11.1%
0.0%
Eq (n =5) Hy (n =10)

There were enough experts on GIS

0.0%

30.0%

GIS was regularly used in the pre-disaster time

60.0%

30.0%

There was experience to use GIS in rehabilitation

20.0%

50.0%

Difficulty for field survey

20.0%

0.0%

To make report of the disaster damages

0.0%

10.0%

GIS data which were applied in the project and regarded as important to collect before andafter disasters by officers are shown in Table 2. The required data were relatively similar between
both disasters. Information of farmland owner, utilization of agricultural water, farmland andcadastral map, facility of agricultural water, topographical map, aerial photograph and farmland
area are highly needed to collect in the pre-disaster time. To collect disaster information andidentify whom to contact after the disaster occurrence, the information of farmland owner is
expected to obtain in the pre-disaster and updated regularly. To identify the extent of damage, it isimportant to have information about the state of agricultural water utilization and the water use
facilities, and farmland such as farmland map, cadastral map, and farmland area before disasters.
Topographical map is also useful to compare the affected area between the pre- and post- disastertime as disasters can change topography and the surrounding environmental condition. Therefore
most of these data were also recognized as the data which should be obtained immediately after thedisasters. Images obtained by UAV was relatively high. In the post-disaster, some areas are notaccessible immediately and it is difficult to obtain satellite images of objective area soon. Therefore,
UAV is considered very helpful to collect information of various damages to humans andagricultural infrastructure. The prompt data collection is also expected to enable us to avoid thesecond or third disasters by finding underlying issues. In the real situation in sites, agriculturalⒸ ISERD

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conditions are directly affected by disasters and the pre-disaster state is not measureable anymore
after stricken. Therefore, it is considered very important to obtain various related data since the predisaster time to identify the impact of damage and avoid the unequal treatment or relief to farmers
or arguments among farmers as it causes delay in rehabilitation.
Table 2 GIS data used and considered useful in the rehabilitation project
GIS data that should
GIS data that should
be collected
be prepared in the preimmediately after
disasterdisasterType of GIS data/No. of respondents Eq (n =14) Fl (n =30) Eq (n =5) Fl (n =12) Eq (n =4) Fl (n =7) Eq (n =12) Fl (n =20) Eq (n =11) Fl (n =21)
GIS data that had
GIS data used tobeen owned in the pre- collect disasterdisaster time
information

Farmland gradientState of farmland improvement
Information of planting crops
Farming history
Information of land owner/cultivator
State of irrigation and drainage water
Irrigation and drainage facilities
Topographic map
Soil map
Land-use map
Farmland and cadastral map
Farmland area
Hazard map
Landslide prevention area
Laser profilerdata
Digital orthophoto
Satellite image
Aerial photograph
UAV image

0%
7%
0%
0%
7%
0%
14%
14%
7%
0%
21%
14%
0%
0%
7%
7%
7%
21%
0%

3%
43%
7%
0%
13%
23%
60%
60%
13%
17%
33%
27%
13%
17%
0%
3%
0%
57%
3%

0%
20%
0%
0%
40%
0%
40%
60%
20%
0%
80%
40%
0%
0%
20%
20%
0%
60%
0%

GIS data usedrehabilitation andreconstruction

0%
17%
0%
0%
8%
8%
25%
50%
0%
8%
33%
25%
0%
0%
0%
0%
8%
67%
17%

0%
25%
0%
0%
25%
0%
50%
50%
0%
0%
75%
50%
0%
0%
25%
25%
0%
75%
0%

0%
0%
0%
0%
14%
14%
14%
43%
0%
14%
29%
43%
0%
0%
0%
0%
14%
71%
14%

8%
25%
33%
8%
67%
42%
42%
42%
8%
8%
42%
42%
0%
25%
0%
0%
0%
25%
0%

10%
25%
5%
5%
50%
55%
30%
45%
10%
15%
40%
55%
10%
15%
5%
0% s
15%
45%
10%

9%
27%
9%
0%
27%
27%
36%
27%
9%
18%
18%
18%
0%
27%
9%
9%
36%
9%

14%
19%
0%
10%
29%
29%
29%
33%
10%
19%
43%
33%
10%
14%
5%
0%
14%
43%
24%

Table 3 Reason why prefectures do not introduce UAV
Eq (n =25)
Flood (n =22)

No budget
28%
36%

No experts No experience
36%
56%
45%
45%

No need
8%
14%

Other
4%
0%

UAV was not introduced in most of prefectures. Among thirty-one prefectures, only threeprefectures use it for improvement of agricultural productivity, management of agricultural
facilities, disaster mitigation, collection of disaster information or disaster rehabilitation andreconstruction. Although many prefectures understand the usefulness of UAV for the disastermanagement, they do not have a plan to introduce at the moment. Most of the reasons were no
skilled human resource, no experience and the lack of budge as seen in Table 3. On the other hand,most of prefectures did not know the usefulness of UAV for evaluation of agricultural productivity.
Therefore, if farmers, farmers’ association or prefectures understand the usefulness and apply UAVin the daily basis, the data can be accumulated regularly and useful for the time of disaster recovery.
CONCLUSIONAs the results are shown above, the prefectures have faced many administrative issues for disasterrecovery in agricultural land and facilities. For the improvement in the administrative process, thefollowing measures as disaster preparedness in the pre-disaster time are suggested.
1. Creation of opportunities for officers to enhance their knowledge and technique about therehabilitation project and GIS/UAV;
2. Improvement of the rehabilitation project systems such as simplification of documents anddispatch of experienced officers from other prefectures;
3. Rural planning on the premise that disasters occur at any occasion and dissemination of theprocedure of the rehabilitation project to local farmers;
4. Understanding the capacity of construction companies in each local area;
5. Preparation of manual for GIS database application for the rehabilitation project.
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These measures are expected to support officers to conduct the rehabilitation process moresmoothly and quickly. In the post-disaster time, as collection of disaster information needs to bedone effectively and rapidly, it is suggested to collect important data quickly by field survey, GIS
database, satellite image and aerial photograph, and furthermore, UAV in case that the disasterstricken areas are not immediately accessible. In addition, to continuously improve the disasterrehabilitation process and use the past experiences, it suggests to make a GIS database manual in
the model of GIS database building as shown in Fig. 6. It can be improved in a way of Plan-DoCheck-Act (PDCA) cycle as the red arrows indicate. During the pre-disaster time, information arecollected in GIS database (Plan). The database is used during the rehabilitation project (Do). Afterthe project, the method needs to be reviewed (Check) and improved and published (Act). Thismodel and manual can be useful for not only Japan but also many countries to enhance rural
resilience by expediting rehabilitation process. Capacity building of not only officers but also
farmers in GIS and UAV will also be important as these technology help them for both disasterrehabilitation and the daily management of agricultural land and facilities to improve theproductivity.
The future study will need to cover not only prefectural offices but municipality offices toobtain more accurate answers and abundant samples.

Fig. 6 Flow of a suggestive model of building a GIS database manual
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by Daigaku-senryaku-kenkyu project from Tokyo University of Agriculture.
We would like to thank the prefectures which cooperated with participating the questionnaire
survey.
REFERENCES
Arita, H., Tamai, E. and Iida, S. 2008. Issues on administrative function in the restoration stage of a local
government stricken by the Mid Niigata Prefecture Earthquake. Journal of the Japanese Society of
Irrigation, Drainage and Rural Engineering, 76 (5), 437-440. (in Japanese with English abstract).

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Arita, H. and Yuzawa, K. 2009. The characteristics of the small damages and the restoration measures ofagricultural infrastructure in the Mid-Niigata Prefecture Earthquake in 2004. Journal of the JapaneseSociety of Irrigation, Drainage and Rural Engineering, 77 (4), 417-422. (in Japanese with English
abstract).
Asahiro, K., Kanekiyo, H. and Tani, M. 2014. Research into the distribution of damage to farmland in Yame
City, Fukuoka Prefecture, from the heavy rains in the northern part of Kyushu in 2012, and difficulties
for the recovery. Journal of the Japanese Institute of Landscape Architecture, 77 (5), 649-654. (inJapanese with English abstract).
Chida, H., Sasaki, K. and Inoue, N. 2013. Utilization of the Midori information system of the Great East
Japan Earthquake Disaster assessment. Journal of the Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage and RuralEngineering, 81 (3), 191-194. (in Japanese with English abstract).
Miyasato, K. 2007. Damage and restoration of agricultural facilities and farmland affected by the 2004
Niigata Chuetsu Earthquake. Journal of the Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage and RuralEngineering, 75 (3), 189-192. (in Japanese with English abstract).
Yoshokawa, N., Tamai, E., Misawa, S. and Arita, H. (2007). Simplified method for damage assessment
introduced in the Niigata Chuetsu Earthquake. Journal of the Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage andRural Engineering, 75 (3), 205-209. (in Japanese with English abstract).

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Research article
erd

Wheat Market Instability in Afghanistan: A Case Study ofKabul, Mazar-e-Sharif, Bamyan and Ghor Provinces
ZAIGHAM KAZIMI*Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: s.z.kazimi@gmail.com

MOHAMMAD ESHAQ RASEKHTokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanSAYED REZA HASHEMI
Bamyan University, Bamyan, Afghanistan

SAYED JALIL HASHIMI
Bamyan University, Bamyan, Afghanistan
Received 4 January 2018

Accepted 1 November 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Wheat is the major crop and staple food in Afghanistan. Though it is a strategic
crop in the country, the nation has never been self-sufficient in wheat domestic production.
Yet as a wheat deficit country, it has been highly reliant on wheat and flour imports
together with international humanitarian food aids. Thereby, such tremendous dependency
on external sources has often led to considerable wheat price fluctuations in Afghan wheatmarkets associated with imports superfluity or distortions over the years. However, despite
the overall weak performance of wheat market in Afghanistan since 2001, the country has
got somehow relative stability in this regard over the recent years. Therefore, this study was
conducted to address the hurdle through a holistic fashion focusing on both wheat domestic
production as well as market aspects in Afghanistan. For production, the study was
designed to detect the key underlying factors behind wheat domestic production shortfalls,
and for market analysis, wheat price trend was evaluated to determine better policy options
so that Afghanistan can achieve better functioning wheat markets in the long run. After all,the findings of this study suggest that there are five mutually exclusive key common factors(invisible factors) behind wheat domestic production quantity and quality failure.
Moreover, regarding wheat market stability, Pakistan has been identified as the key
disruptive player in the beginning while the Central Asian countries particularly Kazakhstan
has recently been the key contributor to wheat market stability in Afghanistan. Therefore,
beside concrete policies to boost wheat domestic production within the country, stronger
trade ties with Kazakhstan certainly ensure better wheat market performance inAfghanistan.
Keywords Afghanistan, wheat market, fluctuations, price stability

INTRODUCTION
According to CSO (2016-17), with an area of 2.9 million ha under cultivation, cereals production
encompasses approximately 37 percent of the country’s total arable land from which nearly 79
percent (2.3 million ha) is allocated for wheat production. Furthermore, with a per capita
consumption of 170 kg per year mostly in the form of flatbread called “Nan” and contributing toroughly 60 percent of national daily calorie intake in average, wheat plays a vital role in terms offood security in the country (FAO and EU 2013).
Currently, food security is tremendously subject to families’ access to wheat all across thenation, hence, any policy adoption to ensure its year-round availability seemingly achieves foodsecurity to a great extent in the country. A study conducted by D’Souza and Jolliffe (2012)Ⓒ ISERD

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suggests that due to shortcomings with their own production and weak purchasing power from themarket, most of the afghan families adjust themselves by wheat consumption quantity and quality
decline approach in order to deal with food shortage pressures. Therefore, such adaptations entail
serious food insecurity exposures particularly among the most vulnerable population portions suchas pregnant and breastfeeding women, the elderly and children.
Afghanistan has been a wheat deficient country over the decades. Thus, to fill the market
supply-demand gap, the country has been highly dependent on wheat and flour imports from anumber of countries in the region mostly Kazakhstan and Pakistan together with huge amounts ofinternational humanitarian food aids. Therefore, such enormous dependency has often led toconsiderable wheat price fluctuations in Afghan wheat markets associated with imports superfluity
or distortions from the external sources especially from Pakistan.
Exerting insincere trade policies on wheat and flour exports, Pakistan has been a hypocriticaltrade partner with Afghanistan for many years. Dumping its old stocks to Afghan wheat markets
discouraged local producers off-site. As well as, imposing politically driven frequent trade bans
Pakistan has often disrupted wheat market functionality in Afghanistan (Samim, 2016). For
instance, Pakistan’s strong ban on wheat and flour export to Afghanistan in 2008 led to wheat
price extreme inflation (AFN 28.8/ kg) a price increase greater than a100 percent compared to its
preceding year (AFN 13.7/ kg) (WFP VAM, 2017). According to WFP’s monthly report, theoverall trend of wheat retail price tends to be very low from 2001 to 2007 (a disincentive to local
producers), highly volatile from 2008 to 2014 (a big concerns for consumers), and yet relatively
stable from 2015 onwards. Hence, this study is to investigate the key underlying factors behind
wheat markets failures as well as the recent relative stability.
OBJECTIVE
This research was designed to break the problem (Wheat Market Instability) down into two distinct
but interlinked aspects defined as Wheat Domestic Production and Wheat Market in Afghanistan.
Hence, within the scope of this study, we tried to target the problem through a holistic fashion
targeting both of the research aspects concurrently in order to detect the most fundamental factors
behind the problem as well as the most potential policy options for further progress in the long run.
Therefore, this study was conducted to answer the following two questions.
1. What are the key underlying factors leading to wheat domestic production quantity and quality
failure?
2. How can Afghanistan ensure a stable wheat market in favor of both consumers and producers in
the long run?
METHODOLOGYFor data collection, we applied semi-structured questionnaires for our interviews and discussions
with wheat farmers, wheat and flour traders and wheat consumers. Hence, using multistage
sampling and focus group methods, in total, we interviewed with 62 wheat farmers, 31 wheat
traders (Wholesalers and Retailers) and 69 wheat consumers in the provinces mentioned earlier.
For data analysis, using SPSS, we ran Factor Analysis (Xk = bk1F1 + bk2F2 + . . . bkmFm + Ek) to
detect the core underlying factors (Invisible Factors) behind wheat domestic production
malfunction given the predominant challenges (Symptoms) against wheat farmers in Afghanistan.
For market analysis, we ran Pearson Correlation Coefficient to examine wheat markets integration
between Afghanistan and its trade partners as well as the central and local ones within the country.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Wheat Production in AfghanistanⒸ ISERD

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Wheat production in Afghanistan is closely subject to precipitation circumstances of the year.
Given high uncertainty of spring rainfall and the concomitant variability of yield from the rain-fed
areas, output from the irrigated lands is considered as the main source of wheat domestic supply inthe country. A study carried out by Rajiv et al (2011) argues that in a normal year, nearly 45
percent of land allocated for wheat production is brought under irrigation which contributes toroughly 70 percent of national wheat production while the remaining 55 percent of the area highly
depends on spring rainfall and accounts for the rest 30 percent of the domestic wheat supply.
Wheat production in Afghanistan faces a number of natural calamities and man-induced
challenges leading to its poor functionality in terms of both quantity and quality. Thus, since we got
too many similar and mutually inclusive feedbacks from wheat farmers during our interviews anddiscussions, we came up with factor analysis application so that we can categorize these challenges(symptoms) into bunches of the same root, thereby, discovering the key underlying common
factors (invisible factors) inducing these hindrances. Table 1 shows that there are five majorcommon factors from which these challenges arise.
Table 1 Total variance explained
Initial eigenvalues

Extraction sums of squared
loadings

Rotation sums of squared loadings

Component
Total

% of
variance

Cumulative
%

Total

% of
Cumulative
variance
%

Total

% of
variance

Cumulative
%

1

3.660

28.15328.1533.660

28.15328.1533.536

27.19927.1992

2.832

21.78749.9402.832

21.78749.9402.494

19.18646.3863

1.844

14.18164.1201.844

14.18164.1201.822

14.01260.397

4

1.291

9.930

74.051

1.291

9.930

74.051

1.515

11.65572.053

5

1.081

8.312

82.363

1.081

8.312

82.363

1.340

10.31082.363

6

.814

6.262

88.625

7

.525

4.041

92.666

8

.299

2.297

94.963

9

.268

2.059

97.022

10

.186

1.433

98.456

11

.119

.915

99.370

12

.061

.468

99.838

13

.021

.162

100.000

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. n = 62
Source: Own calculation

Although Table 1 explicitly detects five underlying factors behind the challenges against
wheat production in Afghanistan with their respective and total explaining power, it does notprovide any precise details on each of the factor’s nature and existence. Hence, in order to knowwhat the factors are exactly, Table 2 gives the ultimate response to this question.

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Table 2 Rotated Component Matrixa

12Component
3

4

5

Wheat loss induced by shortage of irrigationwater on a Jerib of land (kg)

.212

.903

.063

.183

-.097

Wheat yield loss associated with land problems
on a Jerib of land (kg)

-.094

.465

.182

.733

035

Potential yield increase given credit services
are available (kg/ Jerib)

.739

-.091

-.257

.293

.462

Enough access to certified seeds

.057

-.218

-.272

.839

.127

Potential yield increase given enough certified
seeds are available (kg/ Jerib)

.926

-.067

.149

-.005

-.100

Total amount of fertilizers wheat farmers apply
on a Jerib of land (kg)

-.144

.888

-.156

-.202

.060

Enough application of fertilizers

-.038

.085

.679

.046

.353

Pesticides application by wheat farmers

. 885

-.161

-.166

-.137

.181

Wheat farmers membership to any farmers'organization

-.008

-.065

-.032

-.089

.950

Wheat farmers receiving extension services

-.818

-.239

-.392

-.192

.131

Wheat farmers market motivation

-.738

-.030

.305

.073

.059

Wheat farmers having off-farm jobs

.236

-.786

.028

.186

.065

Wheat farmers' formal education

.039

.459

.742

.087

-.048

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. n = 62
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a. Rotation converged in 6 iterations.
Source: Own calculation

As shown in bold in Table 2, three symptoms fall under factor 1, two symptoms fall underfactor 2, two symptoms fall under factor 3, two symptoms fall under factor 4 and finally, one
symptom falls under factor 5. Thus, considering the linkage among the symptoms under eachcategory, we can interpret that the factors are seemingly going to be weak financial status,
irrigation water use inefficiency, farmers’ low level of knowledge, low land productivity andfarmers’ individuality respectively. Principally, the symptoms (existing hindering challenges)
shown in Table 2 are mostly collinear with each other and have loading coefficients somehow withall of the recognized factors. However, factor analysis categorizes them into same groups andintroduces mutually exclusive factors containing the symptoms with the highest loadings.
Wheat Market in Afghanistan
Afghanistan has been a wheat deficit country associated with domestic production shortfalls. Thus,
to fill the supply-demand gap, the country has been highly dependent on wheat imports from anumber of countries in the region such as Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Iran and others
together with huge amounts of international humanitarian food aids for many years. Although
wheat production has significantly increased over the recent years in Afghanistan, still domestic
supply is far below its market demand in the country. Figure1 shows that even during the mostfavorable year (2016) for domestic production, still the country imports more than 2.5 million MTof wheat and flour from the external sources.

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6,000

Production

Imports

1000 MT

5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0

Fig. 1 Wheat production and import trends in Afghanistan
Source: USDA, PSD online database

AFN/ kg

After the collapse of Taliban regime in 2001 and the establishment of interim government in
Afghanistan, Pakistan used to be the major supplier of wheat and flour to Afghanistan due tohistorically close transactions background coupled with the long shared borderline of 2,640 km
between the two nations. However, exerting hypocritical trade policies over the years as explained
earlier, the country was a major player of wheat market instability in Afghanistan, too. Therefore,
its consistent exploitive trade policies led to stronger trade ties between Afghanistan and theCentral Asian countries particularly Kazakhstan, and as a consequence, wheat price relative
stability over the recent years. Fig. 2 illustrates average wheat retail price fluctuations in
Afghanistan since 2003.
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Fig. 2 Average wheat retail price in Afghanistan
Source: WFP VAM, Food Security Analysis

As shown in Fig. 2, Pakistan’s double-faced trade policies drove significant fluctuations inwheat price over more than one decade with unprecedented shock in 2008. On the other hand,
Afghanistan’s access to Kazakhstan’s (one of the top ten wheat-exporting countries in the world)
wheat stocks through trade negotiations has recently ensured relative stability in this regard.
Pakistan lost its wheat market concentration in Afghanistan in favor of Kazakhstan due to two main
reasons: First, Kazakhstan has the least wheat export variability in the region, and second, its
products are by far better in quality and flow safety compared to those of Pakistan.
To confirm the scenario, we considered wheat markets integration through linear correlation
between Afghanistan and some of its major trade partners. Table 3 shows that since 2009 onwards,
in general, wheat markets in Afghanistan move more closely with those in Kazakhstan rather thanin Pakistan. Therefore, it explicitly implies that any positive or negative changes in Afghan wheatmarkets since 2009 are more because of wheat exports from Kazakhstan rather than Pakistan.

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Table 3 Afghanistan’s wheat market integration with its trade partners (2009 – 2016)
Afghanistan

Kazakhstan

Afghanistan

1

Kazakhstan

.582

1

Pakistan

.349

.258

Pakistan

Iran

1

Iran
.331
-.159
-.395
1
Source: For Afghanistan wheat price (WFP VAM) and for the others (FAOSTAT)CONCLUSION
Unless food diversification policies and programs in the long-run, for the time being, wheat is themainstay of food security in Afghanistan. Hence, any policy option to ensure its year-roundavailability, achieves food security to a great extent in the country. Despite significant progressover the recent years, still wheat domestic production is far below its market demand and as a result,
Afghanistan imports huge amounts of wheat and flour annually to fill the market supply-demand
gap. There are five key underlying factors namely, weak financial status, irrigation water use
inefficiency, farmers’ low level of knowledge, low land productivity and farmers individuality
respectively leading to wheat production malfunction in the country. Therefore, unless these factors
are addressed concretely, Afghanistan will never reach self-sufficiency in this regard. Moreover,regarding wheat imports, Pakistan’s unfair trade policies mostly due to politics has been one of the
key factors behind wheat market instability in Afghanistan while the Central Asian countries
particularly Kazakhstan has recently emerged as an effective trade partner with Afghanistan bysupplying more stable and higher quality products to Afghan wheat markets.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our special thanks go to Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for providing thescholarship. We express our gratitude to Tokyo University of Agriculture specially Prof. Dr.
Tsutomu Takane who supervised this study. Our sincere thanks to all our respondents for theirexperience sharing and eventually, we are humbly grateful to ISERD for helping us share ourfindings with other fellows around the world through its 9th ICERD held in Myanmar.
REFERENCES
CSO. 2016-17. Agriculture development. https://tinyurl.com/ybbdok6z
D’Souza, A. and Jolliffe, D. 2012. Food security and wheat prices in Afghanistan: A distribution-sensitive
analysis of household-level impacts. https://tinyurl.com/yabpfllx
FAO and European Commission Humanitarian Aid. 2013. Wheat markets and food security in Afghanistan.
https://tinyurl.com/y8wjjce7
FAOSTAT. Online database. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home
Rajiv, K., Sharma, Osmanzai, M. and Ward, R. 2011. Wheat research: A crucial prerequisite to food security
in Afghanistan. https://tinyurl.com/y98qxc6a
Samim, M. 2016. Pakistan: Afghanistan’s unreliable breadbasket. The diplomat, https://thediplomat.com/201
6/08/pakistan-afghanistans-unreliable-breadbasket/
USDA. PS & D Online Database, https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/app/index.html#/app/home
WFP VAM. 2017. Food security analysis. http://vam.wfp.org/CountryPage_overview.aspx?iso3=AFGⒸ ISERD

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Research article
erd

The Impact of Mimosa pigra on Local Livelihood in the
Stung Sen Core Area, Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve
SOMALY CHAN*
National Council for Sustainable Development, Ministry of Environment, Cambodia
Email: somalychan.ca@gmail.com

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan /Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Received 25 Februry 2018

Accepted 13 November 2018(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The Stung Sen Core Area is situated at the southeastern end of the Tonle Sap
Lake, and comprises an area of 6,355 ha. It was created under the Royal Decree on theestablishment of the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve (TSBR), dated 10 April 2001, and aims
to protect unique evergreen riverine forests and associated vegetation assemblages. Stung
Sen is the buffer zone of the three core zones within the TSBR, and provides the mostimportant inland wetland in Southeast Asia, both for biodiversity conservation and forlivelihoods based on the harvesting of aquatic resources and agricultural farming in thesurrounding areas. This core area has been interrupted by an invasive alien plant, namely
Mimosa pigra (M. pigra), which has had significant physical and economic impacts upon
the natural habitat, local community livelihoods, animals and plants, human health, jobs andthe ecosystem. This study discusses the negative impacts of the invasive M. pigra on local
livelihoods. It uses economic analysis to calculate the cost of its impact and the cost forrecovery; and then provides recommendations on how these impacts can be mitigated. The
distribution of M. pigra in core areas has been mapped, and only those areas, which have ahigh-density of M. pigra, are identified for economic analysis in this study. Face to faceinterviews were carried out with local authorities, rangers, community members, andfarmers within the Stung Sen Core Area, Phat Sonday District. The data analysis is focusedon the impact on farming land, fishing yields, local income generation, and natural habitat
distruction. This paper is developed on the basis of the results of a pilot site experiment on
methods of removing M. pigra to explore the best option for mitigating the spread of M.
pigra, and removing existing M. pigra from the Stung Sen core area.
Keywords Mimosa pigra, impact, local livelihood, Stung Sen Core Area, Cambodia

INTRODUCTION
Invasive alien species (IAS) is non-indigenous plant, animal and microorganism that have beendelivered or accidentally introduced into new areas beyond their native ranges by people, or as aresult of their activities; as well as through natural means such as wind, water, or animal movement,
and which then spreads, impacting negatively on the biodiversity, the ecosystem and economic
development (Chornesky and Randall, 2003). Mimosa pigra is a thorny invasive alien plant which
originates from tropical South and Central America and has been spreading into all tropical regions(Heard, 2009). Richard (2007) indicated that M. pigra is a branched prickly bush that can grow up
to 6 meters and can withstand low nutrient levels and a wide range of soil types. M. pigra has
invaded and subsequently become invasive across Southeast Asian countries. It is one of the mostcommon invasive species found in Cambodia, and it spreads through many parts of wetland areas,lakes and river edges, canals, ponds, floodplains and wherever water flows with its seeds.
The Royal Government of the Kingdom of Cambodia (RGKC) recognizes the Tonle Sap and
Mekong rivers as priority inland water ecosystems for management due to their significant role infood security and agricultural productivity (NBSR, 2016). The Tonle Sap is a primary source forⒸ ISERD

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jobs and incomes and around 3 million people live on or beside it. Approximately 750,000 people
live in the flooded villages, 40% of them live on the floodplains, with the remainder living
dependently on the lake (Mak, 2005). The priority occupation for those living on or beside theTonle Sap is fishing, either as a whole family business or on a smaller scale.
Stung Sen Core Area (SSCA) is one among many core areas of the Biosphere Reserve locatedin Kampong Thom Province on the lower part of the Stung Sen. Stung Sen River receives waterfrom 3 major sources: 57% from the Mekong mainstream, (52% through the Tonle Sap River, and
5% from overland flooding), 30% from tributaries of Tonle Sap Lake, and 13% from direct
precipitation (Kosal, 2011). A population of 5,252, equals to 1,164 households is living in the
SSCA, and their major incomes are from fisheries and seasonal vegetable farming. However, thechange in land use in the region, in particular an increase in rice cropping, has been a significant
factor in the spread of M. pigra, with neglected or abandoned fields being particularly susceptible
to invasion. Recently, the major pathway and spread of M. pigra surrounding the Tonle Sap Lake,especially within the SSCA, has resulted in negative impacts on the biodiversity, the ecosystem,
agriculture, socio-economic, health, and other economic activities. Therefore, this study explores
the negative impact of M. pigra on local livelihoods and the ecosystem in SSCA.
OBJECTIVE
This study aims to assess and analyse the methodologies and strategies for interrupting andeliminating the negative impacts of M. pigra that are harming the economic growth of local
communities. The study also aims to introduce applicable methods to remove barriers to invasive
species management in the production and protection of wetland ecosystems in Cambodia; with theultimate goal of enhancing biodiversity conservation and management within protected areas
through local livelihood improvements.
METHODOLOGY
Data and information about the M. pigra in SSCA and around the Lower Mekong Basin (Fig.1)
was mainly collected through conducting face-to-face interviews with 80 key local authority
representatives, community members, rangers and the director and deputy director of the SSCA.

Fig. 1 M. pigra distribution map in SSCA
The consultation process for selecting these specific stakeholders was underpinned by thisstudy. Survey questionnaires and interview questions were developed to focus on the status of M.
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pigra and its distribution, the socio-economic impact, local income generation and the impact of M.
pigra on that. Best practice and/or methods used by the local community to prevent/remove M.
pigra was also taken into account. The secondary data collection focused on previous or similar
projects from scientific publications, case studies, relevant literature, the media, books, websites,
documents and other related publications, and was used to support or confirm the findings of thisstudy. A distribution map of M. pigra within the SSCA was produced according to data obtained
from GPS The dataset on the income generation status and land occupancy by M. pigra wasutilized to assist analysis of the negative impacts on socio economics and natural habitats in the
SSCA. The study also draws upon experimental results from existing projects for policy
recommendation on methods to remove M. pigra.
RESULTS
Distribution of M. pigra
M. pigra has encroached into Cambodia for decades from its neighboring countries. It was
originally considered to be a wild plant and was introduced from Indonesia to Thailand forcontrolling riverbank erosion, covering tobacco crops, and producing natural fertilizer (Napompeth& Wara, 1983). In 1949, the M. pigra was found in northern Thailand and had spread into Vietnam,
most likely before 1970 (Thi et al., 2004); it continued its advance into Long An province by 1979
(Triet et al., 2004). The weed spread into Cambodia from 1980 around the Tonle Sap Great Lakeand especially along the Mekong Rivers where it occupied thousands of hectares of flooded
wetlands and abandoned fields (Samouth, 2004). Around 1997, M. pigra had encroached into many
provinces of Cambodia, including Steung Treng, Kratie, Kampong Cham, Kandal, Kampong
Chhnang, Kampong Thom, Pursat, Battambang, Siem Reap, Prey Veng, Svay Rieng, Takeo andsome parts of Kampong Speu (GSSD, 2013). Fig. 1 shows the distribution of M.pigra within the
SSCA, however the target site for this study is Phat Sonday Commune in Kampong Thom Provine,which has a high density of M. pigra.
Socio Economics and Income Generation in the SSCA
According to the field interviews with 80 families in the SSCA and 90 families in Phat Sonday
Commune, their major income is earned from the fisheries sector. Their secondary income is basedon farming the surrounding SSCA (Table 1).
Table 1 Occupation and income generation
Major Income of Phat Sonday/SSCA

Occupation of Phat Sonday/SSCA

SourceNo. of family

Percent (%)

Occupation

No. of family

Percent (%)

Fisheries

53

66

Fisherman

48

53

Farmer17

21

Farmer

34

38

Animalhusbandry

3

4

Animalhusbandry

5

6

Other

7

9

Other

3

3

Total

80

100

Total

90

100

Impact Analysis of M. pigra
Table 1 shows that more than 50% of local income depends on fishing activities whilst the second
main income comes from farming. Four major factors have been identified as reasons for theⒸ ISERD

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negative impact to the fisheries yields: invasive species (M. pigra), climate change, illegal fishing,and poisoning from chemical usage in agriculture. The results of the survey suggest that M. pigra
has the most significant impact factor (60%), while illegal fishing is the secondary factor (20%),and climate change & poisoning present around 20% of the impact. Therefore, this section analyses
the impact of M. pigra on local livelihoods especially in relation to incomes earned from fishingactivities.
Two indicators “Time Spent” and “Income” earned from fisheries have been identified tomeasure the impact of M. pigra on local income generation. Data on both indicators “before” and“after” presentation of M. pigra have been collected by category. As shown in Figs. 2 and 3, “timespent” for fishing was classified into 4 categories (G1 = 1-2 hrs, G2 = 2-5 hrs, G3 = 5-8 hrs, and G4 =8-10 hrs), and “income” received from fishing was grouped into five categories represented by C1 =2.5-5 $, C2 = 5-10 $, C3 = 10-20 $, C4 = 20-30 $, and C5 > 30 $. The average income “benchmark”
has been set at 17 $ per day per fisherman in accordance with the data received from the interviews
with 50 fishermen as shown in Table 2. The results in Fig. 2 clearly indicated that as M. pigra
continued to spread, the fisherman had to engage in fishing activities for at least 7 more hours toearn an income at the benchmark level. Previously they had only needed to fish for 2-5 hrs toachieve that benchmark figure. This result is evidence that M. pigra has disturbed the fish habitatand its ecosystems that and has led to fish stock shortages. Fig. 3 shows the trend of local incomesfrom fisheries before and after M. pigra presented. The “before” graph represents incomes received
from fisheries before M. pigra presented, and the “after” graph represents the post M. pigra
situation. The “before” graph represents a high proportion of fishermen who received a good daily
income of between $15-$25, whilst the “after” graph clearly shows quite dramatic reductions in
the fishermen’s incomes to between just $5 and $10 per day.
25

30

b**
Number of Fisherman

Income in USD

25
20
15

Before

10

After

a**

5

Daily Income (17$)

0

20

15

a*

10

Before

5

After

b*
0

1-2 hrs

2-5 hrs

5-8 hrs

Working hours

8-10 hrs

2-5 $5-10 $** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05

Fig. 2 Change in time spent on fishing

10-20 $

20-30 $

> 30 $

IncomeFig. 3 Change in income from fishing

Table 2 Daily and annual profit loss after presentation of M. pigra in the SSCA
Description Income earned from fisheries by category Total family

IncomeC1=5$ C2=10$ C3=20$ C4=30$ C5=50$ Survey SSCA Family
SSCA
Before (family) 1
11
18
15
5
50 1,164
After (family) 16
23
7
40
50 1,164
Daily income
Income before$5 $110 $360 $450 $250 $1,175$24$27,936.00
Income after $80 $230 $140 $120
0
$570
$11
$12,804.00
Daily and annual profit loss
Daily income loss
$13.00 $15,132.00
Annual income loss
$4,745.00 $5,523,180.00Ⓒ ISERD

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Table 2 shows daily and annual incomes from the fisheries sector and the profit loss of the
1,164 families in the SSCA. This figure is based on the results of the interviews with 50 selectedfamilies in the target area.
DI=Nf1x + Nf2xC2 + NfxC3 + Nf4C4 +Nfx5C5
TNf

Eq. (1)

Where DI = daily income; Nf = Number of family/category
C = Value/category; TNf = Total number of family for survey

Income generation

50%
40%
30%

a*

20%

Before M. Pigra invasion

10%

After M. Picra invasion

b*
0%
2-5 $

5-10 $

10-20 $

20-30 $

> 30 $* p < 0.05

IncomeFig. 4 Change in daily income from fishingThis assignment used the Eq. 1 to estimate local incomes in each category identified in Table
2. According to this calculation, when M. pigra had not yet presented, each family in around 3035% of the total population, was able to generate a daily income of between $ 20 to $ 30; but after
M. pigra had presented, each family in nearly half of the total population was only able to earn $ 10
per day. Therefore, each family had experienced a loss of more than 50% of their income to a rateof $ 13 per day and an overall loss of $ 4,745 annually due to the fish habitat being interrupted by
M. pigra. In addition, the total profit loss for the SSCA amongst 1,164 families has been the hugeamount of more than 5.5 million dollars annually.
RECCOMENDATIONS
Experiment and Control Methods to Remove M. pigra
Several methods have been applied in the developed countries to control the quick invasion of M.
pigra, including physical controls, chemical controls, re-vegetation, and biological controls (Marko,
1999). Each method has always had its pros and cons. In Cambodia, three methods have been
applied and one method is currently under assessment.
1. Physical methods: Hand clearance was the first method used by local people to deal with M.
pigra; this included cutting stumps, uprooting seedlings and stumps, and burning them. Thismethod was very labor intensive and thus expensive, because a significant seed store in the soil
appeared and the plants would geminate in the next rainy season and re-infest the cleared areas; somore labor was required to go back and deal with the new emerging seedlings. The longer the plant
was allowed to grow, the more costly it became to clear them because the plants just grew bigger
which made it more difficult every time, and it took much longer to destroy them. According to theresults of an experiment conducted by the biodiversity department team (BDB) of General
Secretariat of the National Council for Sustainable Development (GSSD) in 2013, this form ofcontrol can only be cost effective when undertaken on a small scale.

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2. Chemical methods: Foliar spraying of herbicides, specifically glyphosates, on weeds like M.
pigra is a method that is often used in Cambodia. However, this method has been attempted within
the SSCA by applying glyphosates onto the cut stumps of the plant, which is a combination
technique of both physical and chemical methods. This technique is also very labor intensive but it
provides significant results in terms of destroying the M. pigra compared to just using the physicalcontrol method alone. The chemical method is usually applied during the dry period, when bark
spraying, stem injection and soil treatments are followed by burning. Unfortunately, due to the
SCCA being located inside the Tonle Sap Protected Areas, herbicide usage is not recommended,and this method could provide negative impacts on the water quality and natural habitat, especially
if there is over-usage of the herbicides or their use is uncontrolled.
3. Biological controls methods: Biological control is the use “Bio-Agene” to destroy the stems,
flowers, leaves, seeds, or roots of M. pigra. These agents include phytophagous insects, species that
attack roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits, either as larvae or as adults or in both stages, andfungal pathogens. Four hundred and forty-one phytophagous insects have been found on M. pigra
in Central and South America (Harley et al., 1995; Marko, 1999). Based on a survey report (DBD,
GSSD/MoE, 2013), even though this method has been applied in Thailand and Vietnam on M.
pigra, there is no evidence that biological controls succeed in eliminating the weed. When DBD,
GSSD conducted a survey of insects in the SCCA and the 8 provinces that surround the Tonle Sap
Great Lake, the results showed that different insects and larvae are damaging the stems, leaves andflowers of M. pigra, but there is no proof that those insects are bio-agene to M. pigra and thisrequires further research.
4. Re-vegetation methods: This is a method of rehabilitating native species or installing
plantations of local vegetation in degraded land to prevent the sunlight reflecting on the buried M.
pigra seeds. It can be rehabilitation of degraded ecosystem, plantations of fast grow vegetables andplantations of native trees. Re-vegetation produces better results with fast growing species. Part ofthis method includes local people using water hyacinth and water spinach to suppress new
seedlings and the sprouting of M. pigra on their agricultural land. This practice is very common
and costs less through just capturing and keeping water hyacinth and water spinach in agriculturalland during the flooding season. When the water recedes, all of the trapped water hyacinth dies
before it is able to spread and cover the agricultural land. People are then able to grow crops suchas maize and pumpkins by cultivating small patches of the land.

Fig. 5 Re-vegetation through native plant
5. Policy recommendations: This study demonstrates that M. pigra negatively impacts not only on
natural habitats, but also on local income generation. Although there are four methods that can be
introduced to tackle the weed, very few of the methods have been effective in its complete
eradication. The re-vegetation method proved to be the more feasible option for larger scaleattempts to suppress and kill M. pigra, and this method was the least costly; while physicalⒸ ISERD

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methods have proven to be too expensive and unsustainable. Chemical methods have been effective
but have produced negative side effects and result in negative consequences on the ecosystem andwater quality. In this regard, any policy recommendation should consider both short and long termsolutions. Supporting and encouraging local people to continue their practice of using water
hyacinth and water spinach to suppress new seedlings and the sprouting of new M. pigra on
agricultural land can only be a short term solution to the problem. Longer term solutions should
concentrate on the development of plantations and the planting of native species to rehabilitate
degraded ecosystems and land.
CONCLUSION
According to the results and discussions conducted through this study, it can be concluded that the
SSCA is not only rich in biodiversity, but it has contributed enormously to national and local
economic growth. Each family living in Phat Sonday commune has the ability to earn around$8,760 annually from fisheries alone; and they are also able to generate an additional income fromagriculture and farming the surrounding areas. Unfortunately, the SSCA has been effected by theInvasive alien species M. pigra which was introduced into Cambodia from 1980 and which has
rapidly spread, surrounding the Tonle Sap Great Lake as well as along the Mekong Rivers. The
impact of this IAS on the ecosystem and fish stock at the SSCA has led to profit losses of at least
5.5 million dollars annually; and this does not include the impact on agricultural production andfarming yields. In order to respond to the rapid invasion of M. pigra, four methods of control havebeen introduced in an attempt to eradicate M. pigra. These have included physical controls,chemical controls, biological controls, and re-vegetation controls. Based on the geographical areaof the SSCA and the limited research available on bio-agenes, chemical and biological controls are
not a recommended method going forward. Therefore, only the physical and re-vegetation controls
should be applied, even though the physical method can be costly and M. pigra is not permanently
removed through utilising that method.
Aware of serious impacts from the spread of M. pigra to local livelihoods, ecosystems, andnatural habitats, this study highlights two possible policies recommendations: 1) for the short term
strategy, continue use local methods to suppress new seedlings and sprouting of M. pigra on
agricultural land with local vegetable cover such as water hyacinth and water spinach to suppress
growth; and 2) develop and implement rehabilitation programs to replant native species onabandoned agricultural land and degraded ecosystem areas as a long term strategy.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the General Secretariat of the National Council for Sustainable
Development, Ministry of Environment for supporting this study, and recognizes the participationof local community in the SSCA in providing information during the survey. Thanks also go tocolleagues from the Biodiversity Department for their support during the field study and sincere
thanks to the Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation as well as Tokyo
University of Agriculture, for the support on this paper.
REFERENCES
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DBD, GSSD/MoE. 2013. Survey of insects on M. pigra in the Tonle Sap Great Lake and the surrounding
provinces with reference to Natural Enemies. 2.
GSSD. 2013. Baseline study on biodiversity & socio-economic prior management investment on M. pigra at
SSCA National Pilot Site. 1.
Harley, K., Gillett, J., Winder, J., Forno, W., Segura, R., Miranda, H. and Kassulke, R. 1995. Natural
enemies of M. pigra and M. berlandieri and prospects for biological control of M. pigra. https://academic.
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oup.com/ee/article-abstract/24/6/1664/499992?redirectedFrom=fulltext
Heard, T.A. 2009. Application to release the tip weevil, T. debilis a potential biological control agent of
M.pigra. www.researchgate.net/profile/Tim_Heard
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gs%20-%20Cambodian%20Team.pdf: 4Mak, S. 2005. Sustainability, livelihoods, and development in Tonle Sap. Fisheries Action Coalition Team.
Marko, M. 1999. Restoration and reclamation review: Controlling invasion of the exotic shrub (M. pigra) intropical Australian wetlands. Student On-Line Journal, 4 (6), 1-10.
Napompeth, Wara, A. 1983. Modelling integrated weed management of an invasive shrub in tropical
Australia.
NBSR. 2016. National biodiversity status report. Department of Biodiversity, National Council for
Sustainable Development, Ministry of Environment, Camboda. www.researchgate.net/publication/37617697_Modelling_Integrated_Weed_Management_of_an_Invasive_Shrub_in_Tropical_Australia
Richard, B. 2007. Adaptive management of the invasive shrub M. pigra at Gorongosa National Park,
Department of Scientific Services.
Samouth, C. 2004, Mimosa pigra infestation and current threat to wetlands and floodplains in Cambodia,
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erdInternational Society ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Philosophy of ISERD:
Recently, in developing countries, subsistence agriculture is being converted to export-oriented mono-culture,and the amounts of agricultural chemicals applied to the farmland are increasing every year. The appliedchemicals in farmland cause serious environmental problems downstream such as eutrophication, unusual
growth of aquatic plants, decrease in dissolved oxygen and accumulation of bottom mud in water resources.
Also, there seem to be many cases in which people apply agricultural chemicals without understanding its
impact to health and food safety. Therefore, it is necessary to promote and enhance understanding ofsustainable rural development among local stakeholders including farmers.
Sustainable rural development aims to meet human needs while preserving the natural environment. As
it should cover not only social and economic development but also natural environment conservation, no
single organization can achieve sufficiently the aspirations of sustainable rural development. Collaboration
among international, governmental and non-governmental organizations, together with the academe andscientific sector, is indispensable.
The knowledge and intelligence accumulated in universities and research institutions are also expected
to make the programs facilitated by the international, governmental and non-governmental organizations
more adequately implemented and meaningful to societal development. However, these cases especiallythose implemented locally have been scattered without having been summarized well or recorded in annals
academic or scientific societies.
So, the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development founded in 2010, aims to discussand develop suitable and effective processes or strategies on sustainable rural development focusing on
agricultural and environmental aspects in developing countries. The ultimate goals of the society are tocontribute to sustainable rural development through social and economic development in harmony with thenatural environment, and to support the potential or capacity building of local institutions and stakeholders in
the rural area with academic background.
Purposes of ISERD:
The primary purposes of ISERD are to contribute to sustainable rural development through social andeconomic development in harmony with the natural environment and to support the potential or capacity
building of local institutions and stakeholders in the rural area with academic background.
In order to enhance the realization of the primary purposes of ISERD, the secondary purposes are;- to facilitate interaction among international, governmental, non-governmental organizations and local
communities,- to hold conferences or symposia on environmental and rural development,- to publish the International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, and- to encourage and develop local awareness concerning sustainable rural development.
Membership:
There shall be two categories of membership.
(a) Individual(b) Organizational
An application for membership of ISERD shall be submitted to the secretariat of ISERD, where is located in
the Research Center at Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation (Japan) by writing or byother appropriate means.
Also every presenter who attends the International Conference on Environmental and Rural
Development (ICERD) is registered as an Individual Member of ISERD.

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

Council of ISERD:
The affairs of ISERD shall be governed and managed by the ISERD Council. The councilors are as follows.
President
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute for the Advanced Study of
Sustainability, Japan
Deputy Presidents
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Anan Polthanee, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Eiji Yamaji, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Executive Secretary / Editor-in-Chief of IJERD
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan /Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan
Managing Editors
Dr. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation /Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Dr. Shinobu Terauchi, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan
Dr. Toru Nakajima, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Treasurer
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Regional Vice Presidents
Dr. Abdul Malik Dawlatzai, Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, Afghanistan
Prof. Dr. Barry N. Noller, The University of Queensland, Australia
Prof. Dr. Sinisa Berjan, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Dr. Buntong Borarin, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Dieter Trautz, University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Dr. Sri Wahyuni, Islamic University of Riau, Indonesia
Prof. Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Prof. Dr. Myo Kywe, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Prof. Dr. Regucivilla A. Pobar, Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Dr. Nguyen Khoi Nghia, Cantho University, Vietnam
ISERD Secretariat:
Research Center, Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON)
2987-1 Onoji Machida-Shi, Tokyo 195-0064, Japan
Tel/Fax: +81-42736-8972
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
Webpage: www.iserd.net
Collaborated with

Association of Environmental and Rural Development (AERD)
93/64 Moo.3, Sinsab Village 2, Bungyeetho Sub-district, Thanyaburi District,Pathum Thani 12130, Thailand
Tel/Fax: +66-2957-8064
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
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Institute for the Advanced Studyof Sustainability
All articles and reports published in this journal were accepted through a peer-review process. However,most articles and reports published in this journal were presented at the International Conference on
Environmental and Rural Development that was co-organized by United Nations University, Institute for
the Advanced Study of Sustainability.