The Mindset of Japanese Engineers within the field of Care Robotics - Robotics inAging Japan
Martin RATHMANN (martin.rathmann.1@gmail.com)
Karl Jaspers Centre for Advanced Transcultural Studies, Heidelberg University
1. Introdcution
Japan is known for being a technology-loving country – a country of robots.
Since the Meiji Restoration (1868-1912), change has been linked with technology.
Due to the adaption of Western technology, it was possible to progress from a
feudal state to an industrialised country. Furthermore, with the help of newtechnology, it was possible to not only repair the damages sustained during thewar, but also to achieve extensive prosperity. This trend of using technology
continued in the seventies with the large scale implementation of industrial robots.
For this reason, it is not surprising, that Japan is called the “Robot Kingdom”(Schodt 1988).
Aside from technological advancements, there are other factors, mainly
cultural, that can explain the Japanese penchant for robots. An early example iskarakuri, which are mechanic dolls from the 17th century that were used to servetea. Shintoism and modern pop culture, including anime and manga, have lead toa very relaxed environment for the development of robotics in Japan.
The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) itself has declared
robotics as a key industry for the future (JETRO 2006). This, however, wasprobably primarily motivatied by the issues associated with an overageing society.
Not only Japan’s society getting older, but it also experiencing the longest life
expectancy and on eof the lowest birth rates in the world. No efforts have been
made to compensate for the aging population and because of complex
relationships with foreigners throughout Japanese history, no reforms to thestrictly regulated immigration laws are expected. Furthermore, the birth rate isalso not likely to increase in the near future.
Against this background, it is not surprising that robots are discussed as atechnical solution for a social problem and a strong incentive for the further
development of robotics. Therefore, a broad discussion about the application1

potential of service and entertainment robots has been taking place. This leads to a trendof new developments being considered quickly and without reserve. Robots are evenbeing developed to interact directly with people, i.e. in nursing homes.
Even if there is a wide debate in the media, service and entertainment robots arestill being developed and designed by universities, research institutes and companies.
Here a particularly interesting aspect to explore is to what extent are these robots
created and do certain factors, such as culture influence specific concepts.
There are only a few publications about the state of research regarding robots inJapan. The most famous is from the late eighties: Frederik Schodt’s “Inside the Robot
Kingdom”. Schodt deals primarily with industrial robots in his publication. This isbecause the research field of service and entertainment robots did not exist at this time.
In 2006, Timothy Hornyak the science and technology journalist, published his book
“Loving the Machine”, which refers to Schodt’s content, but does not discuss industrial
robots in detail. In contrast to Schodt, Hornyak emphasizes the latest developments inthe field of entertainment robots. Both publications provide a solid overview on thestate of research on Japanese robotics.
There are also a few other publications from English and German speaking
countries which deal with the phenomenon of robots. Here Cosima Wagner should be
mentioned, given that her focus is on the cultural aspects and use of robotic-assisted
therapy (Wagner 2009a, 2009b).
Apart from the rather narrow literature selection in English and German, there area variety of publications in Japanese, which should be introduced briefly as an overview
of different approaches. Since the seventies, Masahiro Mori has been dealing with theeffects of machine design on humans (Mori 1970). Hiroshi Ishiguro paid particularattention to humanoid robots and their interaction with humans (Ishiguro 2007, 2009).
Takanori Shibata, the inventor of the robot seal Paro, is focusing on robot applications
specialised for the elderly (Shibata 2007).
A detailed study of the mindset of Japanese engineers and researchershas not yet
been conducted. The upcoming study is intended to fill this gap and shed light on
Japanese robot development in detail.

22. History of Robotics
The term robot, as we use it today, goes back to the play R.U.R. (1920) by Karel Capek.
His play was written when fascism and communism were gaining strength in Europe atthe beginning of the nineteeth century. He derived the word robot from the Slavic wordrobota, which means labor or forced labor. The play is about machines that work forhumans, but at some point start to revolt against their creators and eventually eradicate
them (Capek 2009).
Religions with their own understanding of technology also have an impact on how
robots are perceived. From a creationist religion’s perspective such as Christianity,
Judaism or Islam, the creation of artificial life is seen as competition with God.
According to this understanding, the creation of a robot interferes with the divine order,
which attracts punishment as consequence (Ichibiah 2005: 34). This could be one
possible explanation for the fact that Europeans are only playing a minor role inhumoniod robot development.
Literature and media were affected by Capek’s robot term. In the past there have been
many negative publications of robots, which in turn have influenced the present
negative associations with robots. In current literature and media, robots are usually
hostile towards humans or act destructively, which conforms to the above mentioned
influence of Carpek and religion.
A few examples are the movies Frankenstein (1931) and The Terminator (1984).
Capek’s term robot has also been used by science fiction author Issac Asimov, but in
his work they are viewed in a positive light, and had a huge influence on robotics withhis robotic ethics (1938). His novels are about the issues which arise from his three lawsof robotics:
1.

A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm.

2.

A robot must obey the orders given to it by human beings, except where suchorders would conflict with the First Law.

3.

A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does notconflict with the First or Second Laws (Ichibiah 50-51).

3

This sophisticated and positive understanding of robots had a strong influence on
science fiction literature during the last few decades. The book I, Robot by Asimov(1950) was adopted into a film of the same title in 2005 (Ichibiah 80~).
Originally, robots were something we would mainly associate with science fiction
literature, but since the seventies they have become part of reality. With the progress of
automation and, thereby, the development of industrial robots, a great number ofautonomously acting machines have found their way into production. Joseph Engelberg
and George Devol are said to be the inventors of the first industrial robot, Unimate.
Devol recognized early that a large amount of tasks in fabric production consisted ofsimple mechanical actions and that these tasks could easily be automated (Schodt 1988:
30-35). The Unimate’s design resembles that of a tank with an arm on top. Even today a
lot of industrial robots are created with this arm-based design.
Due to industrial robotics, extensive mass production without a compromise of quality
became possible and led to considerable economic growth in industrial nations. Despite
these benefits, in Europe and the U.S., there is a fear that robots are replacing humans(Sone 2009). This fear results from a negative image of robots spread through the media
and a working environment in which lifetime employment has became an exception.
This negative view on robots presents an obstacle for the development andimplementation of service and entertainment robots.
Already, in the seventies, Masahiro Mori
started to pay attention to the effect of theapperance of machines and also robots andits effect on their acceptance by humans. His“uncanny valley” theory (Mori 1970) is stillused today as an important criterion in robot[Figure 1: The Uncanny Valley (IRL 2013)]

development. His theory states that the moreclosely a robot resembles a human in movement and form, the more likely it will be
accepted; however, the acceptance does not infinitely increase. At a certain point, even
if the similarity is continually increasing, the sense of familiarity will suddenly decrease
and the design will be rejected by humans.
It’s for this very reason that during the development process, a machine-like design isoften chosen. This is not only the result of the influence of the media or religion; but

4also by the fact that a lot of engineers, especially in Germany, think that functionality ismore important than design (Gräfe 2010). This may be true for the industrial robots, but
it is not applicable to service or entertainment robots, which are used in an environment
with humans. In the field of service and entertainment robotics, acceptance is a key
factor for the applicability of robots and in that context; the design determines the
success of a specific robot.
Another factor may be the state of technology in the field of humanoid robots inGermany. Japan is the worldwide leader in the field of bipedalism and will not be
overtaken any time soon. For this reason, Germany is avoiding direct competition
through an alternative design approach. In Germany, some well known service robot
projects are: Care-O-Bot, CASERO and HERMES.

[Figure 2: Care-O-Bot][Figure 3: CASERO][Figure 4: Hermes
http://www.unibw.de/fir/roboter/hermes (accessed 14.11.2014)]

2.1 Robotics in Japan
In contrast to Europe and the U.S., the development of robots in Japan is more geared
towards a human-like appearance. The reason for this choice lies in a different culturalenvironment and understanding of technology. This different way of thinking is evenmore apparent when talking about the implementation of robots; especially when
considering issues connected with demographic change. Here, among other factors, thedeclining working age population and the increasing number of people needing care has
lead to a shortage of health care professionals and, therefore, an increased demand for5

quick and feasible solutions for this labor shortage - here is where the application ofrobots is being considered.
Since the Meiji Restoration (1868-1912) technology has been connected to change.
Through the adaption of Western technology it was possible to modernize the country ina very short period of time. Furthermore, after the loss of the Second World War, Japan
was totally destroyed. Technology made it possible to rebuild the country and regain its
prosperity. Since the seventies the bulk of the world’s industrial robots have been usedin Japan (Schodt 1988: 15-16) and to this day it’s still a pioneer in the field of robotics.
Aside from the modernization and industrialization of Japan, Shintoism has had a great
influence on the attitude towards inanimate objects, such as machines and robots.
According to Shintoism, it is assumed that even inanimate objects have a soul withspecific attributes. Therefore, there is a discrepancy between the Japanese and Christianunderstanding of an object`s existence, where Christians believe only living creatures
have autonomy and God is the sole creator of life.
In this context, the karakuri are another reason for the Japanese enthusiasm towards
robots. Karakuri are machines or automats that can independently perform specificmovements (Wißnet 2007: 19-34). During the Edo Period (1603-1868), they were
invented using the basics of foreign watch technology. The Edo Period is remembered
as a time of isolationism, during which nearly all trade and technology transfer wassuspended for 200 years. The karakuri were an exception since they were allowed to beresearched for entertainment uses. These mechanical dolls enjoyed great popularity at
festivals and are still partly in use today.
Furthermore, robots play a special role in modern pop culture, especially in manga andanime. In Europe and the U.S., films like The Terminator and Frankenstein transmit anegative view on robots. In contrast to this, there is a positive view on robots in Japan,
where robots are often portrayed as friends or seen as helping humans. Some examplesof this are Astro Boy (1951-1968), Doraemon (1970-present), and Mobile Suit Gundam(1979-present).
Astro Boy is a manga written by Osamu Tezuka which depicts a story about a robot
with a soul that wants to be as human as possible. The story often incorpuratesthe
positives and negatives of technology and their relation to humans, where Astro Boy

6stands up for the humans and gets into complex and difficult situations (Hornyak 2006:
48-53).
It is important to note that Astro Boy was released right after the war was lost and abelief in reconstruction through technology was very strong (Schodt 2007:17-33; Kenji
2010: 69~). It could be seen as an analogy of Japan catching up with the West throughtechnology during the Meiji Restoration.
Doraemon is another anime and manga character. The manga and anime are both still in
production today after over 40 years. Doraemon is a 22th century robot from the futurethat asists its owner in various situations. Doreamon uses various futuristic tools that hepulls from his pocket, which sometimes makes the situation even more difficult for hisclumsy master. In Japan and most of Asia, Doraemon enjoys a large popularity, which
is similar to the popularity of Mickey Mouse in Europe and the U.S..
Mobile Suit Gundam (often referred to as just “Gundam”) is an ongoing Japanese anime
series from the late seventies which has been adapted into many forms, including mangaand movies. The story is about the war between human space colonies, developed dueto the overpopulation of the Earth and their rebellion against the Earth for autonomy.
Action is centered on gundams, giant robots that are used as weapons (Hornyak 2006:
61-69). Gundam is particularly popular among teenagers and young men.
These anime and manga have shaped a lasting positive image towards robots in Japan.
They influence both the developers and the public attitude towards robotics. Overall, it
is safe to say, that through the combination of specific cultural factors like Shintoism,
karakuri and pop culture, a positive environment for the acceptance and development ofservice and entertainment robots exists. Therefore it is no surprise that robotics are put
forth as an approach to solve problems that are associated with the demographic change(Nakayama 2006, NEDO 2009).
2.2 Robotics and Demographic Change in JapanDue to cultural and economic changes in the early seventies, the birthrate in Japanbegan to fall under to a level of 2.1 children per woman (Ishii 2008). Currently thebirthrate is around 1.3 children per woman and furthermore the population has declined
slightly between 2005 and 2009. Forecasts state that the population will decrease by
25% by 2050. During the same period, the population over 65 years is expected to7

increase from the current 20% to 40% (Atoh 2008: 18-19). As a result of thedemographic change in Japan, it is assumed that it has lead to a labor shortage in thefield of elderly care.
Japan has to work out remedial measures to counteract the declining labor force and theshortage of nursing staff. This trend of dropping population can be alleviated bydifferent social approaches. For example, the labour shortage can be balanced with amore lax immigration policy, allowing a greater number of qualified individuals into
Japan. Also, having a higher percentage of women or older people in the working world
would help alleviate the labour shortage as well. In particular, hiring qualified
individuals from abroad will improve the healthcare and elderly care sector.
These social approaches aside, robots are also seen as a possible alternative. It appears
that there is a tendency to lean towards technological solutions and less towards social
reform. Japanese engineers and scientists have tried to design machines that resemble
and move like humans for a long time. One known example that resembles a human isthe bronze figure machine Gakutensoku that was introduced in 1928 at the World
Exhibition in Kyoto by Makoto Nishimura (Hornyak 2006: 35~). Gakutensoku was able
to change his facial expression and movie his head and hands via air pressure, whichallowed it to write words.
Industrial robots played a major role in the economic revival of Japan during the sixties.
Instead of easing strict immigration policies to help with the shortage of labor, they
introduced widespread automation through robotics - the very first industrial robot was
put into operation during this time (Schodt 1988: 113-114). Thanks to an employment
structure focusing on longterm success, there was no fear of labor replacement by robots.
Instead of replacing them, workers were simply transferred to other working fields if
their current field was replaced by robots.
The improvement of technology in the eighties helped the robots to become faster, more
precise and more applicable, which lead to their quick and broad extension. At thispoint 60% of the world’s existing industrial robots were in operation in Japan (Schodt
1988: 15). Currently 36% of industrial robots worldwide are used in Japan, and 80,000of the total 113,000 robot units built in 2008 were exported from Japan (Tanaka 2010).
Japan is not only using robots to compensate for the decreasing labor force, but also togain a foothold in the robotics market to acquire capital worldwide. The Japanese8government is providing substantial financial support for the development and researchof robots. The METI has proclaimed robotics as one of the key industries that will get
economic promotion in the future (JETRO 2006).
Japanese companies and universities, however, are not concerned with economicallyusable robots. They have focused their attention on the the development of robots that
can act like humans or interact in a natural way with humans. Many engineers often
refer to inspiring examples from manga and anime, especially Astro Boy. For them,
their development objective is to create robots that look and act like humans. A few
well known examples of anthropomorphic Japanese robot projects are thecommunication robot, wakamaru, the astronaut like robot, ASIMO, and the musician,Toyota Partner Robot series.

[Figure 5: wakamaru][Figure 5: ASIMO[Figure 6: Toyota Partner Robot

http://asimo.honda.com/gal

http://www.toyota-

lery (accessed 14.11.2014)]

global.com/innovation/partner_robot/
family_2.html (accessed 14.11.2014)]

2.3 The State and Future of Japanese Robotics
Worldwide, the matter of elderly care and care in general is becoming increasingly
important. Notably, Japan quickly and comprehensively needs to respond to its rapidly
aging society.
In the study and development of assistive robotic technology, Japan has already been
doing research for many years. An example is the research of Toshimitsu Hamada and
Mitsuru Naganuma, who analyse the effects and benefits of robot assisted therapy. In
their experiments they use AIBO and Paro in nursing homes to examine their effect on
the elderly (Hamada et al. 2006). AIBO is a dog-like robot, which is able to interact

9with his owner and be programmed through a remote control. Paro is a seal-like robot,
which can communicate through sound and is used for therapy. On a similar basis as
animal assisted therapy, it seems that by using Paro, it can help relieve stress anddiscomfort in the elderly (Shibata 2006). One advantage of robots in the field of healthcare is that there is no problem with hygiene regulations and the running costs and so, incomparison with a living therapy dog, costs are much lower.
Another Japanese robot that enjoys great media attention is the humanoid robot named
RI-MAN developed by RIKEN. RI-MAN is equipped with visual, olfactory, auditory
and tactile sensors (RIKEN BMC 2008). It has the ability to lift and carry people. RIMAN is expected to be used in hospitals and nursing homes in the near future. The
robot should relieve the physical burden of the nursing staff by moving people out of
bed and into wheelchairs, and vice versa. RI-MAN’s successor RIBA is a collaboration
between RIKEN and Tokai Rubber Industries, who together established the RIKENTRI Collaboration Center for Human-Interactive Robot Research. The most noticeable
difference to its predecessor is that its design was not inspired by a human but by apolar bear.
In Japanese society, the idea of using robots within the field of elderly care seems to behighly fixed. From an economic perspective, the government and many companies haveinvested huge amounts of money into robotics research. From an everyday perspective,
families are looking for ways to facilitate the care of their aging relatives. Noriko
Dethelfs and Brian Martin (2006) have examined Japanese politics on technology in thecontext of elderly care. They looked closely at the prospects of international standard
technology, robot technology and barrier-free technologies, such as wheelchair ramps orstairlifts. The result of their research revealed that after considering the advantages anddisadvantages a combination of the diverse options is the best strategy in terms of aging.
It is often said that Japanese society is very robot friendly. Intercultural studies,
however, indicate that the attitude towards robots in Japan might be more complex thanassumed. A study by Bartneck et. al. (2005), shows that in many areas the acceptance oftechnology in comparision to other robot technology countries, such as China, theNetherlands and Germany, is not very different. In all measured categories Japan had anequivalent acceptance towards robots as Germany. In another study (MacDorman et al.
2009) conducted in universities in the U.S. and Japan, considerable differences10

regarding the attitude towards robots were found. The most outstanding was thatJapanese students seemed to be much more familiar with robots than students in theU.S..
In recent decades advanced technologies, such as automation and robotics, have made asubstantial contribution to the successful development of Japan; and have assisted it inbecoming a prosperous and economically strong nation. Therefore, it is no suprise thatpoliticians, companies, and researchers are seeing technology as both a means ofassuring international competitiveness and also to address social issues, such as laborand nursing staff shortages. A high-tech nation with a leading position in the field of
robotics is additionally an important part of Japan’s self-created image.
One of the most famous humanoid robots is ASIMO, which is manufactured by Honda.
ASIMO is said to be one of the world’s most advanced robots ever. According to thewebsite for ASIMO, it is the result of two decades worth of research and has undergone
a huge number of changes. The latest ASIMO is 130 cm tall and weighs 54 kg.
Furthermore, he can walk, ride a bike, transport things and has 36 degrees of freedom(Honda 2011). Degrees of freedom refers to the number of freely selectable independent
motion capabilities of a system. Through extensive travels by ASIMO to different
countries, it has become an ambassador for Honda and advanced Japanese technology
in general.
The aim of many engineers and researchers is to eventually create a robot that cleans,cooks and can take care of aging parents at home (MacLeod 2009). Junichi Takeno of
Meiji University takes up the position that robots will be able to deal with complex
social tasks and will be able to simulate human emotions one day (Tabuchi 2008).
Hiroshi Ishiguro of Osaka University focuses primarily on the research of androids withthe aim of developing robots that look confusably similar to humans (Ishiguro 2009).
The main advantage of humanoid robots can be seen in the ease of usability in humanorientated environments. It is also natural for humans to deal with their own existence.
In this sense, robots serve as a kind of mirror (Ishiguro 2009). Ishiguro’s most famous
robot is the Geminoid, which has been designed according to Ishiguro’s own physicalmodel. The Geminoid is a remote-controlled robot used to communicate and work,
much like a human sized cell phone. Furthermore, the robot has body functions such as
breathing and facial expressions created by a hydraulic system. This leads to the11impression that it is a proper human being. One research article on the Geminoid
demonstrated that the distinction between humans and Geminoid is very difficult(Bartneck et al. 2009). Other developers are seeing robots as walking computers that
respond only to voice commands and can follow their users in their home environment.
Overall, there is a greatly diversified robot research landscape in Japan and regarding
the direct human-robot interaction the perceptions are open-minded. The origins of thiscan be found in the positive cultural environment where there are few reservations
towards technology and robots.
References
Atoh, Makoto (2008): Japan’s population growth during the past 100 years, Leiden: Brill, p. 5−24.
Bartneck, Christoph et al. (2005): Cultural differences in attitudes towards robots, In: Proceedings of
the AISB Convention: Symposium on Robot Companions: Hard Problems and Open Challenges
in Human-Robot Interaction, Hatfield
Bartneck, Christoph et al. (2009): My robotic doppelganger - A critical look at the uncanny valley
theory, In Proceedings of the 18th IEEE international Symposium on Robot and Human
Interactive Communication, Toyama, p. 269-276
Čapek, Karel (2009): Rossum‘s. Universal .Robots, Fairford: Echo Library
Dethlefs, Noriko & Brian Martin (2006): Japanese technology policy for aged care, In: Science andPublic Policy 33(1), p. 47-57
Gräfe, Volker (2010): Multimodale Interaktion zwischen Mensch und Roboter [multimodualinteraction between humans and robots], presentation within the Symposiums „Mensch-RoboterInteraktion aus interkultureller Perspektive: Japan und Deutschland im Vergleich“, 07.12.2010
BerlinHamada, Toshimitsu et al. (2006): Kōreisha wo taishō to suru robotto serapī no kenkyū [Robot
Therapy for Aged People], In: Tsukuba Daigaku kyo daiichichu, p. 111-123
Honda (2011): Inside ASIMO. Retrived 14.11.2014, from http://asimo.honda.com/inside-asimo/
Hornyak, Timothy N. (2006): Loving the Machine. The art and science of Japanese robots. 1.
Edition., Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Ichbiah, Daniel (2005): Roboter. Geschichte, Technik, Entwicklung [Robots. History, Technology,
Development]., German first edition, Munich: Knesebeck
IRL (2013): Andoroido kenkyū [Android Research]. Retrived 14.11.2014, fromhttp://www.irl.sys.es.osaka-u.ac.jp/home/research/android_science.pdf
Ishiguro, Hiroshi (2007): Andoroido saiensu [android science], Tokyo: Mainichi Communications

12

Ishiguro, Hiroshi (2009): Robotto to wa nani ka ― hito no kokoro wo utsusu kagami [What are
robots? – A mirror of the human being?], Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Ishii Chihiro (2007): Japan’s Demographic Future, In: Pacific News, p. 18-21
JETRO (2006): New Possibilities for Japan’s Robot Industry. In: Japan Economic Monthly February
2006. Retrived 14.11.2014, from (http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/reports/market/pdf/2006_10_c.pdf
Kenji Ito (2010): Vor Astro Boy – Roboterbilder im Nachkriegsjapan [Robots images in post-war
Japan], In: Technikgeschichte, p. 353-373
MacDorman, Karl F., Vasudevan, Sandosh K. & Ho, Chin-Chang (2009) Does Japan really haverobot mania? Comparing attitudes by implicit and explicitmeasures. AI Soc 23(4), p. 485-510
MacLeod, Calum (2009): A glimpse of the future: Robots aid Japan's elderly residents. Retrived
14.11.2014, from (http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/robotics/2009-11-04-japanrobots_N.htm
Mori, Masahiro (1970): Bukimi no tani [The Uncanny Valley], In: Energy vol. 7, no. 4
Nakayama, Shin (2006): Robotto ga Nihon wo sukuu [Robots will rescue Japan], Tokyo: Toyokeizai
Shinposha
NEDO (2009): RT supirittsu [Robot Technology Spirits] - 1-han 2-satsu Kawasaki: NEDO Books
RIKEN BMC (2008): RI-MAN. Retrived 14.11.2014, from (http://rtc.nagoya.riken.jp/RIMAN/index_jp.html
Schodt, Frederik L. (1988): Inside the Robot Kingdom. Japan, Mechatronics, and the Coming
Robotopia., 1. Edition, Tokyo: Kodansha Internatational
Schodt, Frederik L. (2007): The Astro Boy Essays: Osamu Tezuka, Mighty Atom, and the Manga/
Anime Revolution, Berkeley: Stone Bridge Press
Shibata, Takanori (2006): Mentarukomittorobotto paro to robotto serapī no tenkai [Therapeutic
Robot “Paro” for Robot Therapy], In: JRSJ Vol.24, No.3, p. 319-322
Shibata, Takanori (2007): Hito no kokoro o yutaka ni suru mentarukomittorobotto paro [Paro – theMental Commitment Robot to enrich the Human Heart], In: Yobo Jiho 231
Sone Yuji (2008): Realism of the unreal – the Japanese robot and the performance of representation,
In: Visual Communication 2008, p. 345-362
Tabuchi, Hiroko (2008): Japanese robots enter daily life. Retrived 14.11.2014, from(http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/robotics/2008-03-01-robots_N.htm
Tanaka, Yasuharu (2010): Japan's industrial robots ratchet up 'people skills'. Retrived 02.06.2013,
from (http://www.asahi.com/english/TKY201003260322.html
Wagner Cosima (2009a): „Tele-Altenpflege“ und „Robotertherapie“: Leben mit Robotern als Vision
und Realität für die überalterte Gesellschaft Japans [‚Tele‘ Eldery Care and Robot Therapy: theLife with Robots as Vision and Reality for the Overaged Society], In: German Institut for Japan
Studies (DIJ) (Ed.): Japanstudien 21 - Altern in Japan. München: Iudicium. p. 271-298

13

Wagner Cosima (2009b): The Japanese Way of Robotics: interacting ‘naturally’ with robots as anational character?, In: IEEE International Symposium on Robots and Human Interactive
Communications, 27.9.-2.10.2009, Toyama, p. 169-174
Wißnet, Alexander (2007): Roboter in Japan. Ursachen und Hintergründe eines Phänomens [Robots
in Japan. Causes and Background of a Phenomenon], Munich: Iudicium

14