IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2012) 3-1

Research article
erdCommunity Participation in Saline Soil Restoration Using a
Diverse Tree Planting Technique: A Case Study of Nongsim
Sub-district, Borabue, Mahasarakam, Thailand
ADCHARAPORN PAGDEE*
Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
E-mail: adcpag@kku.ac.th
Received 19 December 2011

Accepted 2 April 2012(* Corresponding Author)

Abstract: This research aims to restore saline soil areas using a diverse tree planting
technique: a case study of Nongsim sub-district, Borabue, Mahasarakam, Thailand. The
study focuses on community participation aspects in the restoration attempt, including
community perspectives toward the research project, participation motivations andcommunity’s   use   of   saline   soil   areas.   Diverse   trees   both   native   and   introduced   species  were planted in an approximate 1.6 ha experimental plot adjacent to a village reservoir in
2008. Community surveys were conducted on a yearly basis since 2009 to examine
villager perspectives toward the project, together with workshops to inform the community
about research findings and get their feedbacks. In the 4-year period, 23 tree species,
including eight fast-growing natives, four fast-growing introduced and 11 coastal habitat
species, over 2,000 individuals were planted, but 20 species survived. Consideringsurvival and growth rates, potential species for saline soil restoration are Combretum
quadrangulare Kurz., Casuarina equisetifolia J. R.&G. Forst., Pandanus odoratissimus  L.f. and Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Community surveys, including group interviews of 11
village leaders and questionnaires of over 350 villagers from all villages in Nongsim subdistrict, reveal that the community strongly agreed with the research project because theywanted crop yield improvement by restoring saline soil. Planting trees could also help
increase community green areas. The majority of villagers were willing to plant trees intheir farmlands, but limited land and amounts of seedlings hinder them from doing so.
Furthermore, the majority of farmers (94.7%, n=76) encountering saline soil problems,
used their farmland especially for rice cultivation, despite low yields because of limited
amount of land. The economic value estimated in 2010 from use of saline soil paddies forrice growing is 45,577.12 Baht/household/year (n = 66)  or 4,245.22 Baht/Rai (1 ha = 6.25
Rai).
Keywords community participation, saline soil, restoration, diverse tree planting
technique, Borabue

INTRODUCTIONThe United Nations Environment Program estimates that approximately 20% of agricultural landand 50% of cropland in the world is salt stressed (Flowers and Yeo, 1995). Salt-affected soils occur
in more than 100 countries of the world with a variety of extents, nature and properties(Rengasamy, 2005). Worldwide, they cover a total area of about one billion hectares (Toth et al.,2008). Table 1 summarizes the potential risks of salinisation in all over the world. Salts, mostly
NaCl accumulate at the soil surface and a saline crust is formed during the dry season throughcapillary action (Quantin et al., 2008). The excessive salt amounts adversely affect soil physicaland chemical properties, as well as microbiological processes (Lakhdar et al., 2009). Subsequently,
salinity and sodicity affect plant growth and crop yields because of osmotic effects and sodium
toxicity (Marschner, 1995).

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Table 1  Percentage of salt-affected soils  in different countries worldwide
Country
Australia
Egypt
Hungary
Iran
Kenya
Nigeria
RussiaSyria
ThailandTunisiaUSA

Salt-affected area
30% total area
9.1% total area
10% total area
28% irrigated land
14.4% total area
20% irrigated land
21% agricultural land
40% irrigated land
30% total area
11.6% total area
25–30% irrigated land

References
Rengasamy (2005)
Mashali et al. (2005)
Varallyay (1992)
Khel (2006)
Mashali et al. (2005)
FAO (2000)
Dobrovol’skii and Stasyuk (2008)
FAO (2000)
Yuvaniyama (2001)
Mashali et al. (2005)
Wichelns (1999)

Source: Lakhdar et al., 2009

Salt affected soil is a serious problem in Thailand, especially in the Northeast Plateau where
salt bearing rocks are common (Mahasarakam formation). Yuvaniyama (2003) reported that saline
soils cover areas of approximately 38.7 million Rai (6.25 Rai = 1  ha)  of  the  region’s  land  area,  of  which 1.5 million Rai was classified severely saline soil, while 19.4 million Rai was considered
areas of potentially affected saline soil. Usually saline soils appear in lowlands or discharge areasin which lands are suitable for rice cultivation. Arunin (1987) stated that the reason for the spreadof salinisation is primarily the removal of forest cover leading to increased groundwater recharge.
This factor has been exacerbated by anthropogenic activities including dam construction, lowtechnology salt extraction, groundwater use and irrigation.
Soil salinity partly contributes to a major agricultural, economic and social problem in the
Northeast. It drastically affects soil fertility and rice productivity (Quantin et al., 2008), which inturn affects farmer’s   income   since   the   majority   of   northeasters   are   rice   farmers.   Rice   yields   and  economic returns are about one third when grown in saline soil compared with nearby unaffectedareas (Hall et al., 2004). Furthermore, the Research Institute for Thailand Development (2007)
estimated the average economic costs of saline soils in 2,518 million Baht each year. Saline soil
restoration is therefore very crucial for rice productivity improvement, which means possible
increase of  farmer’s  income.    
Many different methods are used on reclamation, as physical amelioration (deep plowing, subsoiling, sanding, and profile inversion), chemical amelioration (amending of soil with various
reagents: gypsum, calcium chloride, and limestone), and electro-reclamation (treatment withelectric current) (Raychev et al., 2001). Alternatively, growing salt tolerant species represents the
only cost effective means of revegetation although this means a significantly different species mix
to that which existed before disturbance (Ho et al., 1999; Abdelly et al., 2006). Although many ofthese salt tolerant species can survive in saline soils and transpire sufficient water to lower watertables (Barrett-Lennard, 2002), they are not often used by farmers. Therefore the farmers are
discouraged from participating in revegetation activities, which require long-term care. Many
revegetation areas are abandoned after the restoration project is over while saline soils remain
unsuccessfully treated. This research aims to restore saline soil areas using a diverse tree planting
technique: a case study of Nongsim sub-district, Borabue, Mahasarakam, Thailand. The study
focuses on community participation aspects in the restoration attempt, including community
perspectives  toward  the  research  project,  participation  motivations,  and  community’s  use  of  saline  soil areas.
METHODOLOGYDiverse tree species planting
This research project began in 2008 by planting diverse tree species in the approximate 1.6 ha
experimental plot in a discharge salt affected soil area, adjacent to Akkasatrsuntorn Reservoir,Ⓒ ISERD

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Nong Sim Sub-district, Borabue District, Mahasarakham Province, Thailand. The land is stateowned under the Royal Irrigation Department authority, but villagers are allowed to access the land
for grazing and fishing at the Reservoir. A workshop was conducted prior to the planting in which
village leaders, Nongsim Sub district Administrative Organization (SAO) officials, governmental
authority representatives and villagers participated in to discuss on tree species selection andpossible participation in the research project. Two main criteria for the selection are survival
potential and possible use of trees by the locals. Diverse trees both native and introduced species
were planted in the late rainy season of 2008 with a planting space of 2x2 m. New trees wereplanted the following years to replace dead trees and to maintain the area with tree coverage. Treemonitoring, consisting of estimates of survival Eq. (1) and growth Eq. (2) rates, was done twice ayear in March and September from 2008 to 2011.
Survival rate of a species =(1)

Where Nt = number of individuals of a species counted from the current monitoring period
N0 = number of individuals of a species counted from the previous monitoring period
Growth rate of a species =(2)

Where Ht = average height of a species measured from the current monitoring period
H0 = average height of a species measured from the previous monitoring period
Community participation survey
Community participation is one of the keys to effective natural resource management (Pagdee et al.,2006). The study aims to examine community perspectives toward the research project,participation motivations,   and   community’s   use   of   saline   soil   areas.      Community   surveys   were  conducted on a yearly basis from 2009, including village leader interviews and semi-questionnaire
surveys. At the end of each research fiscal year (in September) a workshop was organized at
Nongsim SAO office to inform the community about research findings and obtain their feedbacks.
Data analysis is descriptive-based, including evaluation of community participation and economic
valuation of saline soil areas used by the locals.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
During four years (2008-2011), 23 tree species, including eight fast-growing natives, four fastgrowing introduced, and 11 coastal habitat species, over 2,000 individuals were planted and 20
species survived with an overall survival rate of 82.27% (Table2). Considering survival and growth
rates, potential species for saline soil restoration are Combretum quadrangulare Kurz., Casuarina
equisetifolia J. R.&G. Forst., Pandanus odoratissimus   L.f., and Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. In
addition to high survival and growth rates, villagers can use these trees for firewood, fodder andfiber. Furthermore, these planted trees help revegetate the area in which about 30% was barren
land and the rest was only covered with grasses and forbs when the planting was started in 2008.
The survey conducted in March 2011 showed that 100% of the experimental plot is now vegetated
and the maximum tree height reached 3m (Fig. 1).
The community surveys (2009-2011) involved group interviews of all 11 village leaders andquestionnaires of over 350 household representatives from all villages in Nongsim sub-district. The
questionnaire surveys in 2008 and 2010 revealed that the majority of participants (55.5%, n=200 in2008 and 50.3%, n=171 in 2010) did not recognize the project, and even those who did so did not
clearly   understand   the   project’s   main   objectives.   The   number   had   decreased   because of more
persistent attempts to inform villagers about the project through village leaders, Nongsim SAO,
village broadcast and project post. Nevertheless, the community strongly agreed with the researchⒸ ISERD

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project because they wanted crop yield improvement by restoring saline soil. Planting trees could
also help increase community green areas. Table 3 presents villager perspectives toward theresearch project. Providing sufficient tree seedlings and distributing them throughout a group ofvillagers scored the highest   number   of   “disagreement”. Villagers expressed that they were notinformed of when and where tree seedlings would be distributed. As a result, only a small group ofvillagers, especially those who lived in a coordinating village received seedlings, while villagers infarther away villages did not. Furthermore, the majority of villagers were willing to plant trees intheir farmlands for saline soil restoration, but limited land and amounts of seedlings hinder themfrom doing so.
Table 2 Tree species, number of individuals survived and average tree heightNo.

SpeciesNumber of individuals
survived (%)
1
Acacia auriculiformis Cunn.
77 (100.00)
2
Acacia mangium Willd.
123 (87.86)
3
Acacia tomentosa Willd.
1 (1.28)
4
Calphyllum inophyllum L.
17 (36.96)
5
Cassia siamea Lam.
169 (64.26)
6
Sesbania grandiflora Desv
22 (95.65)
7
Barringtonia asiatica (Linn.) Kurz
1 (14.29)
8
Cerbera odollam Gaertn.
6 (60.00)
9
Pandanus odoratissimus L.f.
15 (100.00)
10
Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz
10 (100.00)
11
Hibiscus tiliaceus L.
11 (100.00)
12
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.
152 (100.00)
13
Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa
8 (100.00)
14
Tamarindus indica Linn.
26 (96.30)
15
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
188 (78.99)
16Casuarina equisetifolia J.R. & G. Forst.
50 (47.62)
17Casuarina  junghuhniana  Mig.
0 (NA)
18
Combretum quadrangulare Kurz.
475 (99.16)
19
Azadirachta indica Juss. var. siamensis Valeton
89 (91.75)
20
Melaleuca cajuputi Powell
5 (NA)
21
Heritiera littoralis Ait.
2 (100.00)
22
Derris indica (Lamk.) Bennet
10 (83.33)
23
Simarouba glauca DC
0 (NA)
Total
20 species survived
1,457 trees survived
Note: data recorded on March 27, 2011, NA = not applicable for calculation

Mar. 2008

Jul. 2008

Average height in cm(% change)
125.06 (145.22)
116.72 (25.50)
0.00 (NA)
15.02 (0.14)
46.31 (78.11)
5.68(-18.93)
1.50 (50.00)
61.08 (1.79)
87.21 (40.66)
66.45 (44.47)
183.17 (46.53)
51.13 (21.74)
61.93 (-8.92)
8.04(-10.62)
72.63 (23.10)
192.51 (27.49)
0.00 (NA)
42.39 (11.56)
9.11 (13.83)
105.33 (NA)
13.00(-59.38)
38.72 (-9.95)
0.00 (NA)Mar. 2009170 cmlevel line

Mar. 2011

Sept. 2010

Mar. 2011

Fig. 1 Change of vegetation cover in the experimental plot (2008-2011)Ⓒ ISERD

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Table 3 Community perspectives toward the saline soil restoration project (n=171 in 2010)
Item

Percent of respondents
(3)  

(2)  

(1)  

(0)  

1) Effectively inform villagers about the project

51.2

39.5

8.1

1.2

2) Clear research objectives and activities

36.0

38.4

20.9

4.7

3) Providing equal opportunity for villagers toparticipate in the tree selection meeting

44.2

27.9

20.9

7.0

4) Tree species planted can be used by villagers

32.6

53.5

12.8

1.2

5) The project encouraged the community to startsimilar saline soil restoration activities in otherareas in the sub district6) Trees planted could help reduce soil salinity in thecommunity7) Community participation in tree planting andmonitoring was one of the keys to project success

32.6

52.3

11.6

3.5

43.0

43.0

11.6

2.3

44.2

44.2

11.6

0.0

8) Providing enough tree seedlings and thendistributing them to a large number of villagers

55.3

20.0

14.1

10.6

9) Villagers gained knowledge about soil salinity

36.0

53.5

9.3

1.2

Note: (0) = disagree, (1) = slightly agree, (2) = moderately agree, (3) = strongly agree

In addition, the workshops got positive feedbacks from the community. Villagers expressed abetter understanding about saline soils and reclamation techniques. Moreover, they could exchange
ideas and experiences with researchers and villagers from other villages, which helped broaden
their visions. Some villagers expressed their interests in participating in salt-affected soil
restoration. They would start planting trees in their farmland, but needed supports fromgovernmental agencies, especially in providing tree seedlings. Finally, the majority of villagers(94.7%, n=76) encountering saline soil problems used their farmland, especially for rice cultivation
despite low yields because of limited amount of land. The economic value estimated in 2010 fromuse of saline soil paddies for rice growing is 45,577.12 Baht/household/year (n = 66)    or 4,245.22
Baht/Rai (1ha = 6.25 Rai).
CONCLUSIONS
Soil salinity is one of the main land resource problems in the Northeast of Thailand. This research
illustrates that planting diverse tree species can help to revegetate areas affected by salts. The
selection of tree species needs to consider not only survival potential but also possible use by the
locals. The latter will encourage villagers to participate in restoration activities since they canperceive some benefits gained from doing so and not the burden instead. Finally, informing thecommunity on a regular basis about the restoration project, including research findings will help
villagers to better understand about soil salinity as well as making them feel being part of the study.
As a result, a long-term care and commitment can be possible when local communities involve inthe restoration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was funded by Khon Kaen University Research Funds (2007-2011). Time andcontributions from all villagers, village leaders and Nongsim Sub-district Administrative
Organization are greatly appreciated. Special thanks go to Somsanook Village leader who helps tocoordinate with the locals and looks after the experimental plot throughout four years of the study.
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