ISSN 2185-159X

erd

International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Volume 5 Number 2

October 2014

International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

Institute for the Advanced Studyof Sustainability
All articles and reports published in this journal were accepted through a peer-review process. However,most articles and reports published in this journal were presented at the International Conference on
Environmental and Rural Development that was co-organized by United Nations University, Institute for
the Advanced Study of Sustainability.

IJERD –Environmental and Rural Development

Vol. 5 No. 2

October 2014

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

erdInternational Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development
Official Journal of the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

Aims and Scope:
The International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, IJERD, is an interdisciplinary journal
concerning environmental and rural development research in the education for sustainable development, ESD.
The IJERD is devoted to publishing peer-reviewed research article, review article and technical report in thefields of environmental and rural development, such as education for sustainable rural development, ruraldevelopment, environmental management or agricultural systems. Every article or report in IJERD must be
accepted by at least 2 reviewers and an editorial member.
The aims of IJERD are to publish the latest research development and achievements, to strengthen
education systems, to promote cooperation in environmental and rural development and to contribute to theprogress in sustainable development. The editorial board of this journal covers a variety of scientificdisciplines.
Thematic Areas:
The following areas are envisioned in IJERD.
Education for Sustainable Rural Development:
Environmental Education, Food and Agricultural Education, Participatory Approach, Capacity Building,Community Empowerment, Agricultural Extension, etc.
Rural Development:
Marketing, Partnership, Value Added Product, Community Development, Access to Technology,
Cultural Preservation, etc.
Environmental Management:
Bio-Diversity, Soil Degradation and Land Conservation, Water Quality Conservation, Deforestation andSustainable Forest Management, Environmental Management, etc.
Agricultural Systems:
Organic Farming, Conservation Tillage, Mechanization, Irrigation and Drainage, Nutrient and Pest
Management, Cattle Breeding, Agro-Forestry, Indigenous Technology, etc.
Infrastructural Systems:
Water Resource Development, Land Reclamation, Road Construction, etc.
Editorial Board:
Editor in Chief:
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture / Institute of Environment Rehabilitation andConservation, Japan
Managing Editors:
Dr. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Dr. Julian Torillo, Jr., Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Carlos Onan Tovar Mendoza, Honduras Embassy in Japan, Japan
Editorial Advisory Board:
Dr. Venkatachalam Anbumozhi, Asian Development Bank Institute, Japan
Dr. Robert J. Farquharson, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Prof. Dr. Keishiro Itagaki, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Arata Koga, University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Pakistan
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Prof. Dr. Salvador Catello, University of the Philippines, Philippines
Dr. Rajendra P. Shrestha, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute for the Advanced Study of
Sustainability, Japan
Dr. Vidhaya Trelo-Ges, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Editorial Secretariat:
Dr. Aya Ikawa and Mr. Sergio Azael May Cuevas

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

Contents
Perceptions of Rural Tourism Development Potential in South-Eastern Bosnia
Hamid El Bilali, Aleksandra Despotovic, Adriana Radosavac,
Sinisa Berjan, Aziz Abouabdillah, Tamara Rodic
and Dusan Petrovic

1

The Flowering Capabilities of Three Water lily Hybrids
Purin Akkarakultron, Dowroong Watcharinrat
and Tongmee Mosom

7

Governance of Agricultural and Rural Development in Serbia: A Review
Sinisa Berjan, Hamid El Bilali, Aleksandar Stojanovic,
Huanita Milutinovic, Aziz Abouabdillah, Dusanka Paspalj,
Stefan Kocic and Jelena Petrovic

11

Rural Livelihood Diversification in South-Eastern Bosnia: Influence of Household Financial
Management
Sinisa Berjan, Miomir Jovanovic, Vesna Mrdalj, Miodrag
Paspalj, Filip Matovic, Noureddin Driouech, Hamid El Bilali
and Aziz Abouabdillah

17

A Preliminary Survey of Insect Pests at the Community Forests of Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
Duangrat Thongphak and Siriporn Khongthawie

23

Organic Food Production as a Development Opportunity for Serbia
Jelena Petrovic, Noureddin Driouech, Adriana Radosavac,
Stefan Kocic, Aleksandar Stojanovic, Sinisa Berjan,
Vesna Mrdalj and Hamid El Bilali

28

Comparative Assessments of Ecosystem Services between Rural and Urban Areas
Makoto Ooba and Kiichiro Hayashi

35

Engineering Properties of Adobe Brick for Earth Structures
Napat Sriwattanaprayoon

41

Gas Chromatography with Vacuum-Assisted Sampling System in the Analysis of Hydrogen-Balanced
Nitrogen Gas
Somporn Pleanjai, Yongyuth Seansuphan,Singto Sakulkhaemaruethai, Wannasiri Srevarit,
Chawisa Pinsuwan and Thidarut Laochai

47

Evaluation of Nitrate Pollution in River Water at Agricultural Watershed
Toshimi Muneoka, Yuri Yamazaki, Sachiyo Wakou,
Masato Kimura and Osamu Tsuji

51

Metals and Nutrient Seasonal Variations in the Namphong River NE Thailand and Land Use Practices
Tatiana Komarova, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Atcharaporn
Somparn, Natsima Tokhun and Barry Noller

57

Assessment of Rice Assistance Program for Institutional Development in Selected Municipalities of
Bohol, Philippines
Hermil Emelie T. Ocliasa and Jose T. Travero

63

Evaluating Participation Level of Farmers in Project on Promoting Sustainable Farming Systems in
Samroung Commune of Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia
Jun Fujihira and Machito Mihara

68

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

Cheese in a Suck: Exploring History, Production Area and Production Process of a Typical
Herzegovinian ProductSlavica Samardzic, Hamid El Bilali, Sabahudin Bajramovic,
Vera Kanlic, Aleksandar Ostojic, Sinisa Berjan
and Ana Savkovic

74

In vitro Cultures and Colchicine-Induced Tetraploidy of Sundew (Drosera spatulata Labill.)
Piyavadee Charoenwattana

80

Using of Para-rubber to Develop Properties of Concrete Block Mixed with Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Plasticin Masonry
Prachoom Khamput and Kittipong Suweero

86

Fundamental Solutions to the Process of Labour Restructuring in Svay Rieng Province, Cambodia
Mardy Serey and Nguyen Phuc Tho

93

Variation of Important Nutrients Proportion on Phytoplankton Distribution in Bang-tabun Bay,
Phetchaburi Province, Thailand
Boontarika Thongdonphum, Shettapong Meksumpun,
Charumas Meksumpun, Nissara Thawonsodeand Banthita Sawasdee

100

Public Participation on Water Resources Management in Lao PDR: Case Study Banhome Village,
Hadsayfong District
Khambai Phunthavongsa, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai andNaruemol Kaewjampa

105

Potential of Native Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria Isolated from the Rhizosphere of Economic Crops
and Vermicast in Northeast Thailand to Solubilize Insoluble Phosphates under in vitro Conditions
Kiriya Sungthongwises, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai,
Anan Wongcharoen, Arunee Promkhambut and Didier Lesueur

110

Effect of Storage Duration in the Quality of Vermicompost
Nattira Kleawklaharn and Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai

116

The Effect of Heating on Vitamin E Decomposition in Edible Palm Oil
Nattawan Kuppithayanant, Pisit Hosapand Nuchtida Chinnawong

121

Acute Toxicity of Tea Seed Cake on Climbing perch (Anabas testudineus (Bloch))
Kittima Vanichkul, Visitsak Hamthanon andThaworn Siripong126

Land Degradation Assessment in El Jicaral Village, Mixteca Region, Mexico
Sergio Azael May Cuevas and Machito Mihara

130

Mega Construction in Panglao Island, Philippines: The Magnitude of the Possible Biodiversity Losses
Rumila C. Bullecer, Tomas D. Reyes Jr., Marina A. Labonite,
Reizl P. Jose, Noel T. Lomosbog, Eunice Kenee A. Labonite,
Agustin B. Ancog, Jose T. Travero and Bernardo A. Bautista Jr.

137

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

Research article
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Perceptions of Rural Tourism Development Potential inSouth-Eastern Bosnia
HAMID EL BILALI*
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Valenzano, Bari, Italy

ALEKSANDRA DESPOTOVIC
Biotechnical Faculty, University of Montenegro, Podgorica, Montenegro

ADRIANA RADOSAVAC
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia

SINISA BERJAN
Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Email: sinisaberjan@yahoo.com

AZIZ ABOUABDILLAH
National School of Agriculture, Meknès, Morocco

TAMARA RODIC
Business Economics Academy, Cacak, Serbia

DUSAN PETROVIC
Business Economics Academy, Cacak, Serbia
Received 19 November 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract About 61% of the Bosnian population lives in rural areas. Meanwhile almost
95% of the Republika Srpska entity’s territory is rural where 83% of the population lives.
Rural tourism includes tourism products and services in rural areas in which the rural
culture is a key component. The paper aims at analyzing the perceptions of villagers,
service providers and rural tourism structures managers on rural tourism development
potential in south-eastern Bosnia. Suggestions of local actors to attract more tourists torural areas were discussed as well. The paper includes both secondary and primary data. A
questionnaire survey was performed in summer 2012 with 120 rural tourism operators,
service providers and villagers in 11 municipalities in the Republika Srpska (RS). Bosnia
in general and the RS in particular have great potential for rural tourism development but it
remains largely unexpressed. Rural tourism can provide new windows of opportunities forrural areas. Rural tourism is perceived by local actors as sustaining and creating local
incomes, employment and growth; contributing to the costs of providing local economic
and social infrastructure, amenities and services; encouraging the other sectors
development; and contributing to environmental and cultural heritage conservation. Rural
communities have increasingly turned to tourism as an alternative means of achieving
sustainable economic growth and development through restructuring and greater
diversification of economic activity. Rural tourism operators’ individual satisfaction isgained from interchange with visitors. Tourist feedback positively enhances locallyexerted effects and stimulates operators to recognize local opportunities and potential
within their rural communities. In order to transform local stakeholders’ enthusiasm into
concrete and viable investments and ventures, the financial and institutional support of theentity government, especially ministries of tourism and agriculture, as well as international
donors is highly needed.
Keywords rural tourism, development potential, perceptions, BosniaⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

INTRODUCTION
Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) consists of two governing entities i.e. the Federation of Bosnia andHerzegovina (FBiH) and Republika Srpska (RS). Tourism is a growing sector in many rural areasand can create new employment opportunities and increase the overall attractiveness of these areas(MoFTER, 2007). Bosnia and Herzegovina has unlimited capabilities to develop rural tourism in its
rural areas (Vujovic, 2007 in Ćejvanović et al., 2013). About 81% of total Bosnian area and 61% of
its population can be qualified as rural. According to the OECD criteria, 114 out of the 143
municipalities in BiH can be qualified as rural (Ćejvanović et al., 2013). From a diversification
point of view the types of tourism that BiH could consider focusing on include: cultural heritage,
religious heritage, soft adventure, and eco-tourism. BiH is already well positioned especially ineco-tourism. Eco-tourism has been recognized as an area for strategic development for the RS andFBiH (FAO-ROECA, 2012).
The Republic of Srpska has many comparative advantages that can be exploited for rural
tourism development (Radovic et al., 2013): beautiful nature; variety of village types; traditional
hospitality; authentic gastronomy; rich cultural and historical heritage; preserved tradition of old
crafts; and various events held in rural areas.
Primary producers and rural communities have increasingly turned to tourism as an alternativemeans of achieving sustainable development through diversification of economic activity. Rural
tourism is considered as a form of alternative tourism. It encompasses a huge range of activities,
natural or manmade attractions, amenities and facilities, transportation, marketing and information
systems (Sharpley and Sharpley, 1997 in Irshad, 2010). Tourism is termed rural when the rural
culture is a key component of the product on offer (Gopal et al., 2008). Rural tourism is not justfarm-based tourism; it also comprises special interest nature holidays and ecotourism, walking,climbing and riding holidays, adventure, sport and health tourism, hunting and angling, educational
travel, arts and heritage tourism, and ethnic tourism (Irshad, 2010).
The paper aims at analyzing the perceptions of villagers, service providers, and rural tourism
operators on rural tourism development potential in south-eastern Bosnia.
METHODOLOGY
The paper is based on an extended literature review and primary data collected by structured
questionnaires carried out in summer 2012 with 120 rural tourism stakeholders (45 rural tourism
structures owners and managers - RTSM, 26 local service providers - LSP, and 49 villagers andmunicipality dwellers - VMD) in eleven municipalities of the Republika Srpska entity: Vlasenica,
Han Pijesak, Milici, Zvornik, Kalinovik, Rogatica, Visegrad, Pale, Bratunac, Sokolac and Foca.
Apart from data about respondents (name, age, level of education, occupation, municipality)
different issues were addressed with different actors of the rural tourism industry:
RTSM: opinions and perceptions about rural tourism in the area; main reasons for which
visitors choose the rural tourism structure and locality; suggestions to attract more tourists;
willingness to invest more in rural tourism activities.
LSP (e.g. post officers, medical doctors, etc.): experience with the tourists utilizing services;
opinions about rural tourism and its potential; and suggestions to attract more tourists to the area.
VMD: assessment of local government activities in rural tourism field; opinions on rural
tourism; potential contribution of rural tourism to local economy; suggestions to attract moretourists; willingness to engage in tourism activities; training needs.
This exploratory study is intended to provide a better understanding of perceptions of rural
tourism. Interviews qualitative analysis allows identifying differences and similarities in responses.
The study results should help bridge what is perceived to be a gap in communication and mutual
understanding among public officials, business owners, and other stakeholders with a connection torural tourism. Improved understanding of interview respondents’ perceptions may be helpful inplanning for a growing rural tourism sector and in maximizing its economic benefits while
minimizing its negative environmental and social impacts.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Rural Development Strategic Plan 2009-2015 of the Republika Srpska, predicted improvementof the quality of life and diversification of rural economy, particularly through improvement anddevelopment of rural tourism services (FAO-ROECA, 2012; Draganic, 2011). Rural tourism is a
novelty within the tourism sector and touristic offer in RS and BiH (Draganic, 2011; Radovic et al.,2013). It is considered one of the important strategies for the diversification of rural livelihoods andeconomies in Bosnia. The competencies over rural and tourism development are completely withthe entity level (Draganic, 2011). Support to rural tourism development in RS is secured throughthe Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management and the Ministry of Commerce andTourism. In addition to entity financial allocations, additional financial resources for rural tourism
development come from the budgets of local municipalities (Radovic et al., 2013).
Different types of rural tourism establishments and structures can be found in the surveyed
area. These include: cottages, houses / apartments, restaurants, small hotels, camping sites, motels,
horse farms, youth hotels, travel agencies. The clientele include foreign tourists as well as locals
and visitors from other Bosnian municipalities. For most of the interviewed RTSM (86.7%) rural
tourism is the primary activity and the main source of income. In addition, for a large share of them
(45.5%) rural tourism is a family business.
Perceptions of rural tourism development potentialy changed not only from an actor category(i.e. RTSM, LSP, VMD) but also from a municipality to another depending, among others, on thelevel of development of the rural tourism industry as well as its impacts on the local economy. For
instance, among the surveyed municipalities, tourism in general and rural tourism in particular ismore developed in Foca and Visegrad.
According to the RTSM, visitors are attracted by: typical food and drinks, diversified services
offer, natural surroundings and landscape beauty, quality of services, food quality, architectural andcultural heritage. According to them, the main resources that could be used in the future for thedevelopment of rural tourism are: traditional villages; agricultural resources; natural resources(forests, streams, rivers, lakes, mountains, caves); cultural heritage (rural folklore) and old
buildings (churches, monasteries, traditional houses); existing tourism facilities (hotels, ski centers,
horse farms); traditional food and cuisine. Some RTSM think that there are few tourist attractions
at the level of municipalities as many were destroyed during the civil war. Moreover, there aresome current problems that hinder tourism development (e.g. low quality of infrastructure andservices). Many of these problems are due to the general legal and legislative framework as well associo-economic context so state and/or entity coordinated actions are needed.
Only a few rural people dare to dealing with rural tourism as it is perceived as a riskybusiness. This is confirmed also by the fact that less than a half (47%) of the interviewed villagers
would like invest in tourism activities. Moreover, only about a third of RTSM would like to be
more invested in tourism activities. Risk is probably also the reason for which 75.5% of RTSM do
not think about expanding their businesses in the coming years. The remaining plan to offer otherservices: more rooms, passenger transport services with personal vehicles, sports facilities(soccer/tennis playgrounds), tourist guiding, food services, direct sale of local products to tourists,
riding schools, conference rooms, cottages, mini ethno villages, sale of air tickets.
Many of the interviewed LSP (54%) have not had any contact with foreign visitors. This ismaybe due to the fact that the number of foreign tourists is limited and that most of them do not use
many local services. In fact, most of them have short stays and they prefer going to neighboring
urban centers for many services. Those that have more contact with tourists are physicians.
The majority of LSP think that the level of tourism development in the municipality is in linewith the current tourism development in the Entity. They also believe that there is a big potential
for rural tourism development in their municipalities. However, they are aware that any kind of
success takes a lot of investment, innovation, learning and money. Resources are available but
good will and long-term vision are needed. The main problems are the lack of outstanding tourist
offers and accommodation facilities such as hotels, hostels and private houses. In fact, there is asmall number of available beds and quality of existing accommodation is rather low. Moreover,tourism is still mainly a seasonal activity. Tourism could be an important economy sector for smallⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

municipalities. LSP in Visegrad believe that tourism is on the rise but more investments areneeded. The municipality is perceived to have large resources for rural tourism development.
As activities of rural tourism have become diverse, the demand for rural tourism is becoming
more and more experience oriented. Rural tourism operators’ individual satisfaction gained frominterchange with visitors and direct feedback can positively enhance locally exerted effects that
stimulate operators to recognize opportunities within their community and raise the potential for
local resource use (Ohe et al., 2009). Operators gain satisfaction through providing services byreceiving immediate feedback from consumers (Wilson, 2007).
All the interviewed LSP and most of VMD (92%) think that tourism can help increasing
income and generating more employment opportunities. However, many of them think that this is along-lasting process and requires good investments. Others highlighted the need for a long-term
local rural tourism development strategy in order to reap these benefits. Tourism is seen also tocontribute to gender equity as it can create more jobs for women. They further emphasized themultiplier effect that tourism can have on other sectors of the local economy especially agriculture.
To capitalize on this effect some of the interviewees proposed to set up small tourist spots in rural
areas where farmers could sell their products to tourists and visitors. Moreover, local authorities
should consider tourism as a priority sector. Those think that tourism has no positive effect alleged
the fact that it is still underdeveloped and there are no rural tourism strategies at local level.
There is a great potential through tourism, for resolution of many chronic dilemmas faced byrural communities (Knowd, 2001). Even if rural tourism may be minor in relation to the overall
tourism market its importance to the development of specific rural areas may be critical. Thus, themultiplier effect is often more impacting in rural areas where the entire rural lifestyle is looked foras the main attraction (Gopal et al., 2008).
Tourism has a wide range of positive livelihood impacts, many of which go beyond monetary
benefits. Tourism in rural areas offers a viable option for livelihood diversification. Moreover,tourism considerably expands household economic prospects by improving education, health,physical amenities and financial assets (Shakya, 2011). Many studies dealt with social and cultural,
economic and environmental impacts of rural tourism. Cohesive effect of the development of rural
tourism includes tourism as a mechanism for developing a balanced regional development. The
development of rural tourism significantly affects the preservation of local identity, traditions andcustoms, and other values in rural areas (Mrdalj and Todić, 2012). Rural tourism supports
development of new tourist destinations giving special contribution to the development of thecontinental tourism. It is a way for family-owned farms to provide additional income byengagement of members of family (Ćejvanović et al., 2013).
Most of the interviewed villagers think that their municipalities have great potential for rural
tourism that is still not properly exploited. This is especially the case in the municipalities of Foca,
Milici, Bratunac, Kalinovik, Han Pijesak and Zvornik. Inhabitants of Visegrad, Sokolac and Pale
have more positive perceptions about rural tourism in their municipalities. Generally speaking,almost all the interviewees think that municipal councils should do more to develop rural tourism
in their municipalities. The most critical ones are the inhabitants of Foca, Milici, Bratunac,
Kalinovik, Han Pijesak, Sokolac and Zvornik. Meanwhile, dwellers of the municipalities ofVlasenica, Visegrad and Pale were somehow more benign.
Key findings from other contexts (San Juan County, Utah, USA) show that rural community
members have mostly positive perceptions of tourism, show general support for future tourism
development, and are optimistic about the future role of tourism. They also highlight that the
tourism industry is perceived to provide positive economic benefits and mostly positive social
benefits. Some residents’ lack of support for tourism may be related to attitudes and especially theirfears of changes to their communities (Burr et al., 2007). In fact, scholars have also exposed arange of unwanted economic, socio-cultural and environmental side-effects of tourism, such as thepromotion of inequality, inflation, import dependency, over-exploitation of natural resources,
environmental damages and cultural alienation (cf. Shakya, 2009).
Rural tourism structures managers, local services providers and local people made manysuggestions to develop rural tourism in their municipalities (Table 1).
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

Table 1 Suggestions for developing rural tourism
Respondents’ suggestions
Increasing investment in rural tourism and rural socio-economic development
Better promotion and marketing of tourism using different media
Creation of new tourist attractions (ethno villages, ski resorts, festivals, sport andcultural events, open days)
Improvement of service delivery and quality in rural areas
Paying more attention to environment protection and natural (rivers, forests,
waterfalls, springs) and cultural (monuments, historical sites, folklore, water
mills) heritage preservation
Renovation of hotels and tourism facilities (old village houses, ski centers)
Improving human capital especially skills related to rural tourism services
management through training courses, thematic workshops and seminars
Development of new tourism services in some municipalities (e.g. running trails,
cycling, excursions, hiking, hunting, fishing, horse riding, adventure tourism)

Type of respondents
RTSM LSP
LD
D
D
B
B
D
C
C

D

C

B

D

A

A

D

D

D

D

B

C

B

C

D

B

D

Source: Authors’ elaboration based on questionnaire survey results.
Legend: A: very significant (answer frequency > 50%), B: significant (25-50%), C: average (10-25%), D: poor (<10%).

All the interviewed villagers declared that local people especially young ones need training
regarding rural tourism. Training should allow the trainees to know more about the resources of
their municipalities and ways to valorize them through tourism activities. All require increasing
municipality, entity and state funding to rural tourism. Suggested activities include also a betterorganization of the rural tourism sector through categorization of rural households, making an
inventory of rural accommodation facilities, and preparing a register of rural tourism services
providers. The establishment of local tourism organizations and agencies would help better
coordinate and organize the rural tourism offer. Some tourist organizations already exist but
coordination between them can be further improved. Many interviewees pointed also to theimportance of engaging young people in the rural tourism sector.
CONCLUSION
Bosnia and the Republika Srpska have great natural, cultural, gastronomic, religious and historicpotential for rural tourism development. Rural tourism could be a strategy for sustainable
development of rural areas and also a tool for product differentiation. Rural tourism has a highpotential for the diversification of rural households’ livelihoods.
Most of the interviewees think that tourism development is going ahead slowly but in the right
direction. That being said, they believe that there is still wide room for improvement. That requires
adopting an integrated approach for designing local strategies for rural tourism development with
the involvement of all relevant actors. The expansion of tourism in rural areas is perceived as
designed to sustain and create local incomes, employment and growth.
The specific identification of residents’ desires and expectations of the tourism industry can
assist in the development of a plan to meet tourism development objectives while protecting
important characteristics of rural communities and their surrounding environments. Developmentof rural tourism requires improving tourism standards, services and infrastructure; creating a morefavorable environment for investment in rural tourism; strengthening support structures andfacilities capabilities; and improving integration with general rural development plans.
It should be highlighted that the opinions and perceptions of tourism and tourism development
among the tourism operators and the rural population are not sufficiently understood. Future
research should attempt to discern resident preferences for different management and development
objectives. Improved understanding of residents might be achieved through surveys or participatory
processes such as community meetings and collaborative workshops.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

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Research article
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The Flowering Capabilities of Three Water lily Hybrids
PURIN AKKARAKULTRON*
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Pathum Thani, Thailand
Email: Purin4907@yahoo.com

DOWROONG WATCHARINRAT
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Pathum Thani, Thailand

TONGMEE MOSOM
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Pathum Thani, Thailand
Received 21 January 2014

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This research aims to examine the yields of water lilies belonging to the
Nymphaea sp. (hybrid) for flowering capabilities purposes: Nymphaea ‘Chalongkwan’,
Nymphaea ‘Khaomongkol’, and Nymphaea ‘Chompoomamiew’. The randomized
complete block design (RCB) was implemented in which three sets of five experiments
each were carried out. The data were collected three months after the cultivars had beengrown for one month at the experimental plot of Rajamangala University of Technology
Thanyaburi. The research results revealed that N. ‘Chalongkwan’ was the cultivars withthe highest monthly yield, i.e. 14.48 flowers per clump, each with a flowers diameter of
18.89 cm and a stalk diameter of 1.56 cm. This was followed by N. ‘Chompoomamiew’,
which produced a monthly yield of 11.86 flowers per clump, each with a flower diameterof 16.06 cm and a stalk diameter of 1.31 cm. The cultivars with the lowest yield was N.
‘Khaomongkol’, i.e. only 9.91 flowers per clump, each with a flower diameter of 15.09 cm
and a stalk diameter of 1.35 cm. In addition, N. ‘Chalongkwan’ produced the highest yield
per rai of 5,792 flowers, followed by N. ‘Chompoomamiew’ at 4,741 flowers, and N.
‘Khaomongkol’at 3,962 flowers.
Keywords Nymphaea, water lily, lotus

INTRODUCTION
Lotuses and Water lilies or Bua (Thai), aquatic plants commonly found in Thailand, have long beenclosely connected to the lifestyle of local people (Lekhakul, 1992). They are used for several
purposes, such as treatment of diseases, consumption, commercial cutting, and decoration.
Particularly notable is their use for paying respect to the Triratna, or the Three Jewels, namely the
Lord Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha, as lotuses represent sacredness and purity.
Farmers nationwide grow lotuses for commercial cutting, being able to supply yields to themarket all year round, since they are easy to grow and maintain. Lotuses in the genus Nelumbo,
including Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn, are more popular than those in the genus Nymphaea, including
Tropical water lily, Hardy water lily, Australian Giant water lily, N. ‘Jongkolnee’, and N.
‘Nangkwaug’.
As for water lilies in the Nymphaea sp. cultivars, they grow in varied beautiful colors and are
fragrant, some with many layers of petal and strong stems, such as N. ‘Chalongkwan’, N.
‘Khaomongkol’, N. ‘Chompoomamiew’ and N. ‘Director George T. Moore’ Such qualities makethem suitable for ornamental functions. It would be of interest, therefore, to examine how to
maximize the yields of these three cultivars of water lily in the genus Nymphaea.

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OBJECTIVE
To examine the yields per plot of three cultivars of water lily belonging to Nymphaea sp., the sizeof flower for each cultivars.
METHODOLOGY
Three sets of five experiments each were conducted following the randomized complete block
design (RCB). The three cultivars of water lily, namely Nymphaea ‘Chalongkwan’, Nymphaea‘Khaomongkol’, and Nymphaea ‘Chompoomamiew’, were grown in flowerpots for 1.5 months
before they were transferred to the experimental plot in which four rows of water lilies were grown
per 80 m2 sub-plot. The growing interval, i.e. distance between rows and distance between trunks,
was 2x2 m.
Prior to growing, the soil was prepared by ploughing once, and two tons of manure fertilizer
was then added per rai. Fourteen days after planting the water lilies, three packs of 30 g 25-7-7chemical fertilizer were added for each trunk in opposite directions. Then three packs of 30 g 25-77 and of 30 g 8-24-24 chemical fertilizer were added for each trunk at 30, 60, and 90 days after theplanting. During this period, blemished leaves were removed, and pesticides were sprayed every 15
days. The data were collected one month after the water lilies were planted. Their growth, flower
diameter, and stalk diameter, yield per month were recorded. The data analysis was carried out
following the RCB. Additionally, Duncan’s new multiple range test (DMRT) was done todetermine the differences between the three cultivars).
RESULTSAs shown in Table 1, the flower diameter of N. ‘Chalongkwan’ was the largest with an average sizeof 18.89 cm, followed by that of N. ‘Chompoomamiew’ (16.06 cm) and N. ‘Khaomongkol’ (15.09cm). In terms of stalk size, the numbers were 1.56 cm, 1.35 cm, and 1.31 cm for N. ‘Chalongkwan’,N. ‘Khaomongkol’, and N. ‘Chompoomamiew’, respectively. Regarding to the yield, N.
‘Chalongkwan’ produced 14.48 flowers per clump per month. In second time, N.
‘Chompoomamiew’ produced 11.86 flowers per clump per month. The observed cultivar with thelowest yield was N. ‘Khaomongkol’, producing 9.91 flowers per clump per month. DMRT
indicated statistical significant between the three cultivars in all aspects.
Table 1 Flower diameter, stalk diameter and no. of flowers/clump/month
Cultivars
N. ‘Chalongkwan’
N. ‘Khaomongkol’N. ‘Chompoomamiew’
F-test
C.V. (%)

Flower diameter
18.89 a1
15.09 c16.06 b**
1.81

Stalk diameter
1.56 a11.35 b
1.31 c**1.00

No. of flowers/clump/month
14.48 a1
9.91 c11.86 b**2.69

1Similar vertical numbers indicate no statistical significant at df = 0.95.

Table 2 Average yield of flowers 1 to 3 month after plant/rai
Cultivars
N. ‘Chalongkwan’
N. ‘Khaomongkol’N. ‘Chompoomamiew’
F-test
C.V. (%)

Yield of flowers after plant
1 month after plant
2 month after plant
3 month after plant
5776.0 a1
5696.0 a15904.0 a1
3712.0 c
4192.0 c
3984.0 c
4448.0 b
4816.0 b
4960.0 b
**
**
**
5.99
4.34
3.39

1Similar vertical numbers indicate no statistical significant at df = 0.95.

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Table 2 shows that each cultivar had a relatively high yield. The cultivar with the highest
yield was N. ‘Chalongkwan’, producing between 5,696.00 and 5,904.00 flowers per month. N.
‘Chompoomamiew’ produced the second highest yield of between 4,448.00 and 4,960.00 flowers
per month. N. ‘Khaomongkol’ was the least productive cultivars, producing only 3,712.00 to
4,192.00 flowers per month. DMRT demonstrated that the yields of the three cultivars were
statistically different.
DISCUSSION
According to the study, the flowering capabilities of three hybrids water lily. The results indicatethat N. ‘Chalongkwan’was the cultivars with the largest flower diameter and stalk diameter, as wellas the highest number of flowers per clump per month, i.e. 18.89 cm 1.56 cm and 14.48 flowers.
The N. ‘Khaomongkol’ was the least flower diameter and number of flowers per clump per month, i.e.
15.09 cm and 9.91 flowers. The results that average yield of flowers per rai, the N. ‘Chalongkwan’ wasthe cultivars with the highest average yield of flowers per rai, followed by N. ‘Chompoomamiew’
and N. ‘Khaomongkol’. This experiment shows that the water lily flowers of three cultivars grownin the same environment. The flowering indicated statistical significant between the three cultivars.
This is consistent with Techapinyawat (2001) found that the process was flowers are factors
involved in the regulation of flowering many factors. Different species and even in the sameenvironment with the ability to create a different flower, depending on the plant itself and external
factors also contribute to the promotion and inhibition of flowering. Also Qichao and Xingyan(2004) found that lotus plants are long day, and the intensity of the light affects the growth andflowering. The hardy water lily varieties Gladstone when adding the aperture will be extended andaccelerated the bloom (Kelly and Frett, 1986). This is consistent with Wasuwat (1997) found thatthe water lily or lotus is the need of a period of full bloom and the sun varies.
N. ‘Chalongkwan’ is propagated from shoots or rhizomes. As one shoot or rhizome can growinto several clumps, it is necessary to plant them separately; otherwise, the flowers will become
smaller in size. In contrast, N. ‘Khaomongkol’ and N. ‘Chompoomamiew’ are bred from shoots
growing in the middle of leaves. Such leaves need to be trimmed in order to allow new shoots todevelop. In addition, if left to grow in an uncontrolled manner, the leaves will get densely layered,leading to possible damage from pests such as Erionotathrax.
CONCLUSION
Based on the findings, the N. ‘Chalongkwan’ was cultivars with the largest flower diameter andstalk diameter equaled 18.89 and 1.56 cm, respectively. Additionally, the number of flowers perclump per month was 14.48, and the average yield of flowers per rai was 5,792 flowers.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to offer our gratitude to the staff and workers at the Lotus and water lily
Museum, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, for growing and looking after the
lotus during the experimental period. We are most grateful to the Faculty of Agricultural
Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, without whose 2013 grant thepresent research would not have been possible.
REFERENCES
Lekhakul, K. 1992. Lotus: the queen of aquatic plants. The Suanluang Rama IX, Foundation.Darnsutha
Printing Company. Bangkok (in Thai).
Chaiya-Lawan. 2004. Growing lotuses. Thankasettakam Publishing House. Bangkok (in Thai).
Charnsilp, N. N. 2005. Lotus growing in Thailand. Journal of Landraces of Cultivated Plants, 1(1), 8-10 (inThai).
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Chomchalow, N. 2007. Lotus terminology. Thailand Network for the Conservation and Enhancement ofLandraces of Cultivated Plants in collaboration with the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental
Policy and Planning (in Thai).
Kanchanacharoen, D. 1990. Cost and return on investment of lotus cultivation for cut flowers. Chulalongkorn
University.Department of Accounting (in Thai).
Kelly, J.W. and Frett, J.I. 1986. Photoperiodic control of growth of waterlilies. Hort Science, 21 (11), 151.
Dolkij, P. and Akkarakultron, P. 2010. Development of an image database for learning about Nymphaea
species. Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi (in Thai).
Qichao, W. and Xingyan, Z. 2004. Lotus flower cultivars in China. China Forestry Publishing House, China.
Techapinyawat, S. 2001. Plant physiology. Kasetsart University, Bangkok. 237 (in Thai).
Wasuwat, S. 1997. Lotus or waterlily. Ornamental Publishing ban and suan, Bangkok. 297 (in Thai).

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Review article
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Governance of Agricultural and Rural Development in
Serbia: A Review
SINISA BERJAN*
University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Email: sinisaberjan@yahoo.com

HAMID EL BILALI
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Valenzano, Bari, Italy

ALEKSANDAR STOJANOVIC
Agricultural Extension Service, Pozarevac, Serbia

HUANITA MILUTINOVIC
Agricultural Extension Service, Vrsac, Serbia

AZIZ ABOUABDILLAH
National School of Agriculture, Meknes, Morocco

DUSANKA PASPALJ
Faculty of Economy, European University of Brcko, Bosnia and Herzegovina

STEFAN KOCIC
Business Economics Academy, Cacak, Serbia

JELENA PETROVIC
Business Economics Academy, Cacak, Serbia
Received 30 November 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Agriculture still ranks among the most important sectors of Serbia’s economy,
with significant contributions to economic and social stability. Primary production
accounts for about 10% of the gross domestic product. Over half of the population is rural.
Serbian agriculture and rural areas face many problems including an underdeveloped
institutional infrastructure. The paper aims at analyzing governance of agricultural andrural development (ARD) in Serbia. The work is based on an extensive secondary data
review. It focuses on ARD policy design, implementation and evaluation andorganizations dealing with ARD in each phase of the policy cycle. Agricultural policy
objectives are set by the Law on Agriculture and Rural Development (LARD). The LARD,
implemented through specific measures included in the Agricultural and Rural
Development Strategy, also provides a general rural policy framework. ARD policy
effectiveness and efficiency is linked also to governance arrangements and coordination
mechanisms adequacy. Many national, regional, provincial and local public institutions are
involved in the ARD arena. The range of key actors includes also some civil society
organizations. Bilateral and multilateral donors implemented many projects during lastyears. However, the ARD policy framework needs further adjustments to be aligned with
the European legal framework. The Serbian agricultural policy requires fundamental
reforms at all levels and in all stages of the policy cycle. More attention should be given torural development. Collaborations between the sectors dealing with rural development canlead to substantial improvements and push for more innovation and cross-sectoral
participation. Governance levers require government leadership at all levels - fromnational to local. Improved policies should maximize complementarities between public,
civil society and private stakeholders.
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Keywords rural development, agriculture, governance, Serbia

INTRODUCTION
The Western Balkan region is now in a phase of consolidation and overall economic growth.
Economic development went hand-in-hand with rising agricultural productivity (Volk, 2010). The
countries of the Western Balkans face different challenges in transforming and modernizing theiragriculture. Their rural sectors have lagged behind the rest of the economy in growth and poverty
reduction, their agro-food sectors are undercapitalized and highly fragmented, and their agroprocessing capacities limited. Added to this scenario are the challenges and opportunities ofadopting the European Union (EU) acquis relating to agriculture (Lampietti et al., 2009).
Agriculture is still an important sector of Serbia’s economy, with significant contributions tooverall economic development and social stability (EC, 2011a; Volk, 2010; Bogdanov and Bozić,
2010). Primary production from agriculture, hunting, forestry and fisheries accounted for over 10%
of GDP in 2009 (EC, 2011a). The share of the food, beverage and tobacco industry in GDP is 5.5%
on average (Bogdanov and Bozić, 2010). Agricultural exports contributed about 24% of total
Serbian exports in 2009 (EC, 2011a). About 43% of the total population lives in rural areas(RDNS, 2010). Around a third of the active population depends at least partly on agriculture for
their livelihood (EC, 2011a). In rural areas more than 45% of the active population is employed inagriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing (Stevanović et al., 2005). Rural areas have suffered from
intensive migrations and low levels of economic diversification. They lag behind urban areas interms of service delivery and household incomes. Rural businesses lack access to affordable credit
for investment and support services (European Integration Office-Serbia, 2011).
Effectiveness of agricultural and rural development (ARD) policy is linked, among others, tothe adequacy of the policy system and governance arrangements put in place. The term governancehas been deployed and used in the scientific literature with different meanings (Rhodes, 1996;
Lewis et al., 2002). According to FAO (2012), the concept of governance is built around notions
such as transparency, participation, consensus orientation, accountability, responsivity, efficacy andthe rule of law. The World Bank distinguishes between an analytical and an operational use ofgovernance thus referring to three aspects of governance: (i) the form of political regime; (ii) theprocess by which authority is exercised; and (iii) the capacity of governments to design, formulate,and implement policies (World Bank, 1992). Governance is also defined as ‘the process ofdecision-making and the process(es) by which decisions are implemented’ (UNESCAP, 2009).
Governance analysis focuses on the actors involved in decision-making and implementing thedecisions made and the structures that have been set in place to arrive at and implement decisions(Sheng et al., 2007).
The review paper aims at analyzing governance of ARD in Serbia. In particular, it analyses thelegal and political framework (policies, laws, strategies) in the field of ARD and identifies the main
public and civil society institutions dealing with ARD policy in Serbia.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Actors Dealing with ARD in Serbia
The design and implementation of ARD policies involves several different supra-national, nationaland sub-national actors (regional and local) (OECD, 2006). In order to define the key public,
private and civil subjects who have influence on and interest in supporting the rural development
process, an analysis of key stakeholders was implemented by the Rural Development Network of
Serbia (RDNS). The range of stakeholders identified by the founders of the RDNS is very wide andvaried. The main stakeholders include (RDNS, 2010): Ministry of Agriculture; Ministry of
Economy and Regional Development; Provincial Secretariat for Agriculture - Vojvodina; regional
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education and scientific research; local governments; public companies and institutions; tourism
organizations; agricultural expert services; donor organizations; religious communities; rural local
communities; agricultural and rural development associations; media; registered farms; and privatecompanies.
Agricultural and rural development policy is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry ofAgriculture; the key government body developing and implementing legislation for the sector. The
Ministry of Agriculture set up a new Department for Rural Development in 2005 (Arcotrass et al.,2006). Nevertheless, many other ministerial departments - such as those in charge of environment,
regional development, tourism, health, etc. - have been dealing with rural development (Tar, 2007).
Agricultural and rural development design and, especially, implementation, have been
increasingly decentralized during the last decade. The opportunity is given to the Autonomous
Province of Vojvodina (APV) and local governments to implement agricultural policies in theirterritories (RDNS, 2010). Significant funds were invested by the APV in support formechanization, land amelioration, introduction of food quality standards, and promotion of local
products and events in Vojvodina region (Bogdanov and Bozić, 2010). Local governments mainly
have active offices to assist the village and/or offices to support agriculture. After adopting the Law
on Agriculture and Rural Development, local governments have begun with the establishment oflocal funds for agricultural development (RDNS, 2010).
Since 2007 the strengthening of local partnerships and the capacity of local rural stakeholders
has been supported (Bogdanov and Bozić, 2010). The Ministry of Agriculture established the Rural
Development Support Network of 16 regional and 140 local offices to prepare local communities
for LEADER (Liaison Entre les Actions de Développement de l'Économie Rurale)-type programs(European Integration Office-Serbia, 2011). Different associations are active in the field ofagricultural and rural development at local and regional levels. These include the members of the
Rural Development Network of Serbia (RDNS, 2010). Nevertheless, as for the area of ruraldevelopment, it seems that strong links between the administration and stakeholders through theextension service and rural finance institutions have yet to be put in place (EC, 2013).
The ARD sector in Serbia is also characterized by the presence of many bilateral andmultilateral donors and financial institutions. The most significant donors in the ARD sector,
according to the amount of disbursed funds in 2011, are the European Union (EU), the World
Bank, the USA and Denmark (Serbian European Integration Office, 2012). Apart from the EU,
other donors are also contributing to the adoption of agro-environment and agri-business schemes,
and rural development, with support from Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Romania, Spain,
Sweden, the United Nations and the USA (USAID) (European Integration Office-Serbia, 2011).
The main specialized agencies of the United Nations System operating in Serbia are FAO, ILO and
UNDP.
Coordination and programming of the assistance at country level is the responsibility of the
Department for Planning, Programming, Monitoring and Reporting on EU Funds and Development
Assistance (DACU) within the Serbian European Integration Office (SEIO). Other donor
coordination capacities at central level include the high-level Commission for Programming andManagement of EU Funds and Development Assistance and Sector Working Groups (Forum on
Aid Effectiveness, 2011).
ARD Policy-Making and Governance
Agricultural and rural development policy-making in the Western Balkan region in general andSerbia in particular has often been dictated by ad-hoc considerations and lacked a clear orientation
towards the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (Volk, 2010). In Serbia, the institutional frameworkof agricultural policy was not transparent, lacked continuity and often resulted in conflicting
solutions. From 2007, the implementation of agricultural policy has been continuously changing(Bogdanov and Bozić, 2010).
The Law on Agriculture and Rural Development (LARD) was adopted in May 2009. The
LARD regulates the objectives and implementation of agricultural policies, forms of incentives inagriculture and rural areas, the eligibility for incentives and its beneficiaries. Major parts of theⒸ ISERD

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LARD in terms of rural development policy are related to the adoption of the Rural Development
Program and establishment of a new structure of the Sector for Rural Development (RDNS, 2010).
As regards rural development, the LARD put in place a strategic framework that largely resembles
the one established under the current EU legislation (EC, 2011b).
Implementation of the policy is based on the Strategy of Agriculture and Rural Development,
the National Program for Agriculture and the National Program of Rural Development (RDNS,
2010). The Agricultural and Rural Development Strategy for the period 2011–2020 has not yet
been adopted (EC, 2012, 2013). A clear policy direction for agriculture is provided in the
Agricultural Strategy (2005) and re-iterated in the National Agricultural Program 2010-2013(2010), which aims at production and institutions restructuring; market development; andimproving rural development and environmental protection (European Integration Office-Serbia,
2011).
The EU has funded a technical assistance project titled Support to Rural Development
Programming and Payments System (2006-2008), managed by the European Agency for
Reconstruction. The project introduced the Ministry of Agriculture staff to the preparation,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of rural development programs, as well as planned
procedures and tools to support these actions. Some of these skills have been developed, andNational Rural Development Strategy Plan 2008-2013 and National Rural Development Programfor 2008-2013 were prepared (Bogdanov and Bozić, 2010).
The National Rural Development Program 2011-13 identifies different strategic objectives:
improvement in food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary activities; and, sustainable developmentof the rural economy and rural areas by encouraging diversification (European Integration OfficeSerbia 2011).
In addition to the Law on Agriculture and Rural Development, a whole set of laws regulating
specific issues related to agriculture and rural development was adopted (RDNS, 2010). In fact,
thirty new primary laws have been adopted in 2009-2010 to harmonize with the acquis
communautaire, and 94 regulations were passed in 2010 alone, addressing the implementation of
the requirements for agriculture, food safety and phytosanitary issues, water, forestry and ruraldevelopment sectors (European Integration Office-Serbia, 2011).
Other key national strategies affecting the agricultural and rural development sector include:
Energy Development Strategy of the Republic of Serbia; the Biomass Action Plan for the Republicof Serbia 2010-2012; the National Sustainable Development Strategy (2008); the Strategy for
Regional Development (2007-2012); the National Employment Strategy 2005-2010; the Strategy
for the Development of Tourism of Serbia (2005-2010); the National Program for Environmental
Protection (2010); and the Poverty Reduction Strategy of the Government of the Republic of Serbia(2003) (European Integration Office-Serbia, 2011).
Main Governance Challenges
The biggest challenge for Serbia will be the institutional changes and the capacity building that will
be necessary for creating a system in ARD field comparable to the EU countries (Arcotrass et al.,2006). Harmonization in the area of agriculture is particularly demanding, especially for countries
whose agricultural policy usually has a different role than that in the EU (Erjaveć, 2008). In orderto achieve all this, Serbia needs effective governance and coordination in the design andimplementation of ARD policies.
In Serbia, the institutional framework of agricultural policy was not transparent, lacked
continuity and often resulted in conflicting solutions. From 2007, programs and regulations werechanged and/or abolished several times during the year, and payments to the users were delayed(Bogdanov and Bozić, 2010).
The agricultural policy in Serbia is only partly designed on a strategic basis and in recent years
it has been characterized by the increasing estrangement from the EU model of support. The
current strategy has not been supported by the accompanying program documents, so the measures
for its implementation inconsistently followed the goals. Frequent changes in administrative
structures brought radical changes in the system of support (Bogdanov and Bozić, 2010).
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Agricultural policy is still implemented mostly based on annual programs of budget allocation,
which are not stable in terms of funds, support measures and eligibility criteria (Volk, 2010).
Implementation of agricultural policy is done through the following types of subsidies (RDNS,
2010): direct subsidies (bonuses, subsidies for production, recourse and support to non-commercial
farms), market incentives (export subsidies, storage costs and credit support) and structural
incentives (measures of rural development, improvement and protection of agricultural land quality
and institutional support).
In relation to State aid, apart from market-related subsidies and rural development measures,
Serbia applies a number of additional measures. Direct aid payments are currently granted for
Serbia’s key production sectors: dairy, meat and crops (EC, 2011b). In addition to a substantial
drop in total support, dramatic change in the structure of direct producer support can be seen inrecent years – a switch from direct payments to input subsidies. The prevailing direct producer
support form is input subsidies (Volk, 2010).
In the 2012 agricultural budget direct aid payments account for more than 90% of the support
measures. There was an increase in the allocation for rural development measures in the budget.
Support measures continue to be reviewed and revised on an annual and ad-hoc basis. This does
not provide security and predictability for producers and processors to engage in the required
investments (EC, 2012).
Generally speaking, in the last decade, there have been quite substantial changes toagricultural policy. Rural development policy is generally subordinate to production support. Funds
aimed at supporting rural development are much lower, although show an increasing tendency.
These funds are mainly intended for restructuring agriculture through investment support. Serbia
has been preparing to implement rural development policy according to EU rules. However,progress has been relatively slow, since rural development is a demanding policy, and also because
the country has different sectoral and development priorities (Volk, 2010).
CONCLUSION
The agricultural and rural situation has gradually improved in Serbia but the country lacks a stable
ARD policy and a true strategy of reforms. The main problem of the existing legal framework isthat it is not fully developed and doesn’t have adequate action plan and strategy for enforcement.
Policy-making and measures definition has often been dictated by short-term ad-hoc considerations
rather than long-term strategic goals. Problems regarding rural development span over the wholepolicy cycle. Rural development policy is subordinate to production support. Funds aimed at
supporting rural development are still low. While there were some attempts to decentralize theimplementation of ARD policy, most of local and regional development strategies, including
measures regarding ARD, have not been transformed in concrete and time-bound action plans dueto the lack of human and financial resources.
Serbian ARD policy requires fundamental reforms at all levels. More attention should begiven to rural development, which should gradually become a central policy. Integrated rural policy
design and implementation requires changes in relations between governance levels and among thegovernance actors (public structures, the private sector and the civil society). Overcoming
weaknesses and setting the conditions for an increasingly harmonized policy approach will be
crucial for moving closer to EU accession. Among the necessary steps towards this goal are themodernization of agricultural policy administration and the implementation of appropriate policy
monitoring and evaluation systems. With this respect, strengthening the capacity and modus
operandi of the Ministry of Agriculture, Trade, Forestry and Water Management is a priority. A
systematic implementation of the ARD strategies and the modernization of public services
regarding agriculture and rural development are also necessary elements. Increased capacity formonitoring, analyzing, evaluating and programming policy is another important part of agriculturaland rural development policy reform process.

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period 2011-2013. European Integration Office, Government of the Republic of Serbia, Belgrade.
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FAO. 2012. Sustainability assessment of food and agriculture systems (SAFA): Guidelines. Natural
Resources Management and Environment Department, FAO, Rome.
Forum on Aid Effectiveness. 2011. Aid effectiveness in Serbia. Fourth High Level Forum on Aid
Effectiveness (HLF-4), 29 November - 1 December 2011; Busan, Korea, (Available online at:
http://www.aideffectiveness.org/busanhlf4/en/countries/europe-and-the-cis/656.html.) .
Lampietti, A.J., Lugg, D.G., Van der Celen, Ph. and Branczik, A. 2009. The changing face of rural space:
agriculture and rural development in the Western Balkans. The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development. Washington DC.
Lewis, N., Moran, W., Barker, J. and Perrier-Cornet, P. 2002. Territoriality, enterprise and réglementation inindustry governance. Progress in Human Geography, 26(4), 433-462.
OECD. 2006. The new rural paradigm - Policies and governance. OECD Rural Policy Reviews; Organisation
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http://www.ruralinfoserbia.rs/dokumenta/action plan 2011 - 2015 - rural development network of serbia.
pdf.).
Rhodes, R. 1996. The new governance: governing without government. Political studies, 44, 652-667.
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2011. Belgrade, (Available online at: http://www.evropa.gov.rs/Documents/Home/DACU/12/83/84/
ReportonInternationalAssistancetoSerbiain2011.pdf.).
Sheng, Y.K. et al. 2007. Access to basic services for the poor: the importance of good governance. United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). Study published by the
UNESCAP/UNDP/ADB joint project on MDGs in Asia and the Pacific.
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Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade.
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mountain. Project for Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development in Mountain Regions (SARD –M),(Available online at: http://www.eurac.edu/en/research/institutes/regionaldevelopment/Projects/
Documents/SARD-M/SARDMcountryassessmentSerbiafinal.pdf.).
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Volk, T. 2010. Agriculture in the western Balkan countries. Studies on the Agricultural and Food Sector inCentral and Eastern Europe; volume 57. Leibniz Institute of Agricultural Development in Central andEastern Europe (IAMO), Halle (ISBN 978-3-938584-51-4).
World Bank. 1992. Governance and development. The World Bank, Washington DC.

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Research article
erd

Rural Livelihood Diversification in South-Eastern Bosnia:
Influence of Household Financial Management
SINISA BERJAN*
University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Email: sinisaberjan@yahoo.com

MIOMIR JOVANOVIC
Biotechnical Faculty, University of Montenegro, Podgorica, Montenegro

VESNA MRDALJ
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Banja Luka, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina

MIODRAG PASPALJ
Belgrade Business School-Higher Education Institution of Applied Studies, Belgrade, Serbia

FILIP MATOVIC
Belgrade Business School-Higher Education Institution of Applied Studies, Belgrade, Serbia

NOUREDDIN DRIOUECH
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Valenzano, Bari, Italy

HAMID EL BILALI
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Valenzano, Bari, Italy

AZIZ ABOUABDILLAH
National School of Agriculture, Meknès, Morocco
Received 19 November 2013

Accepted 1 March 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract A growing body of evidence shows that agriculture is no more sufficient toensure sustainable rural development in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) therefore rural
livelihoods diversification is crucial. Farm activity diversification issue can be considered
in terms of resources (land, labor or capital), location (on-farm or off-farm) and output(farm or non-farm). Well-developed financial systems are associated with more rapid andinclusive rural development and foster rural economy diversification. The paper aims atanalyzing rural livelihoods diversification in south-eastern BiH with a particular focus on
the influence of household financial management. The paper is based on an extended
literature review and a questionnaire survey performed in March 2013 with 147 randomly
selected rural households from nine municipalities in south-eastern BiH. The majority ofthe surveyed rural households (68.7%) have mixed (farm and non-farm) livelihoods.
Household sources of income are quite diversified and many rural households havedifferent non-farm income sources. More than two-fifths of the surveyed households had
an activity on development or started new non-farm businesses in the last five years.
However, about a half of these gave up because of many problems such as the lack offinancial resources and time. Weak business skills are also a limiting factor. Financial
literacy is often lower in rural areas. Moreover, it is positively associated to educationlevel and negatively correlated to age. It comes no surprise that well educated and young
rural people are those who started more new diversification businesses during the last five
years. They find it less difficult to deal with paperwork, bureaucratic procedures andadministrative documentation needed to make request for loans. Effective household
financial management, depending mainly on household head financial skills, plays asignificant role in determining livelihoods strategies and diversification endeavors success.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

Keywords rural finance, household financial management, livelihood diversification,
BosniaINTRODUCTION
Agriculture is no more sufficient to ensure the sustainable development of rural areas that’s why
rural economy should be diversified (Antonelli et al., 2009; Haggblade et al., 2007; OECD, 2006).
The framework provided by OECD (2009) considers the issue of farm household diversification bydifferentiating between activities in terms of resources (factors of production: land, labor or
capital), location (on-farm or off-farm) and output (agricultural or non-agricultural). The majordifferentiation between activities is made on the basis of the location of the activities, either onfarm or off-farm. Within each location, diversification activities are further differentiated as to thetype of output, whether agricultural production or continuation (e.g. processing of food orproviding contracting services).
Rural dwellers involved in activities related to economic diversification have different
investment needs. Generally speaking investment needs can be categorized as follows (FAOROECA, 2012): investment in new technologies (e.g. equipment, storage facilities); investment in
new tourism facilities (e.g. restaurants and accommodation facilities in order to meet European
Union’s standards); investment in marketing (e.g. marketing materials, websites and marketingstrategies). Therefore, they use often loans and have different needs in terms of financial services.
One cause of poverty is the lack of access to credit, especially among rural households(Coleman and Wynne-Williams, 2006). A growing evidence body shows that well-developed andinclusive financial systems are associated with more rapid growth and better income distribution.
Finance helps extend the range of individuals, households, and firms that can get a foothold in themodern economy (Basu, 2006). According to Richter (2011), rural finance is the provision offinancial services in rural areas that support a wide range of economic activities and households ofvarious income levels. Rural communities could make use of a wide range of financial services likesavings, money transfer services, insurance products, loans, leasing, factoring, loan guarantees,
venture capital, and investment funds.
Budgets for agriculture and rural development of the Bosnian Entities - Republika Srpska (RS)and Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) - remain low. Subsidies to farmers are mainly
product-based. The lack of an efficient administration and effective rural credit schemes hamper
the efforts to increase the productivity and competitiveness of the sector (EC, 2012).
The paper aims at analyzing the influence of household financial management on rural
livelihoods diversification in south-eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH).
METHODOLOGY
The paper is based on secondary data from an extended literature review and primary data collectedby a questionnaire survey carried out in March 2013 with randomly selected 147 rural households
in nine municipalities of south-eastern Bosnia: Vlasenica, Han Pijesak, Milici, Zvornik, Rogatica,
Pale, Bratunac, Sokolac and Foca.
The questionnaire dealt with different issues including:- General information about the interviewees: age; gender; role in household (head or member).
- Household characteristics: type of household (agricultural, non-agricultural, mixed); number ofmale and female members; age structure; level of education of household members.
- Household livelihood diversification: household sources of income; main occupations ofhousehold members; sources of household primary income; significance of income fromagriculture (main income, additional income, no income from agriculture); attempts to start new
non-agricultural businesses to improve household financial situation; kinds of businesses tried out;
main problems and constraints faced.
- Financial management of rural households: household financial manager’s age, gender,
educational level and occupation; membership in saving/credit groups.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

The average age of the interviewees was 47.4 (minimum: 19; maximum: 70). The majority of
the respondents were males (91.2%). Almost all the interviewees were rural households’ heads(89.2%). Nevertheless, 15 respondents were not but they deal with financial management in theirhouseholds so they were entitled to answer the questions. Regarding household structure, thenumber of household members ranges from one to 14. As for education level, 4.7% of household
members are illiterate while the rest have different education levels (primary school: 26.9%,
secondary school: 17.7%, high school: 37.6%, and high education diploma: 13.1%).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Livelihood Diversification Strategies
The majority of the households considered in the present field survey (68.7%) were mixed
households that’s to say that their livelihoods are based on both farm and non-farm incomegenerating activities. Meanwhile, 6.8% of the target households consider themselves as nonagricultural.
Household livelihood strategies are quite diversified and many rural households have different
farm and non-farm income sources. Nevertheless, the most important sources of income are crop
production and animal husbandry, pensions, salaried work and wage labor (Table 1).
Table 1 Sources of income of rural households
Source of income
Crop and animal production
Pensions
Salaried work
Wage labor
Services provision
Forestry

%*
62.6
36.7
34.7
26.5
16.3
8.8

Source of income
Non-farm self-employment or businesses
Handicraft
Trade
Land and property renting
Social aid and assistanceIndustry

%*
5.4
4.8
2.7
1.4
0.7
0.7

*Multiple answers were possible.
Source: Authors’ elaboration based on the field survey results.

Despite the fact that about two-thirds of the surveyed rural households deal with agriculture(crop production and animal husbandry) the percentage of households whose primary income
source is outside of agriculture is quite high. In fact, about a third of the target households (33.2%)
declared that income from self-employment or business ownership is their primary income source.
Other important primary income sources are salaried work (48.2%) and income from wage labor(18.6%). However, it should be highlighted that salaried work, and to a certain extent, also wage
labor, includes also agriculture-related activities. In fact, income from agriculture is the mainincome for 24.5% of the surveyed households and additional income for 63.3% of them.
More than two-fifths of the surveyed households (40.8%) had an activity on development or
started new non-farm and off-farm businesses and activities in the last five years to improve theirfinancial situation and livelihoods. Of these, only about a half (51.7%) still deal with the non-farmactivities that they have started up. The main off-farm and non-farm activities that the surveyed
rural households tried out during the last years are handicraft (23.3%) and trade (23.3%). Other
developed income-generating activities include: food processing, transport, rural tourism, timberand non-timber forest products collection, services provision (equipment and machines), teaching
and wood processing.
Effect of Access to Credit and Household Financial Management on Livelihood
Diversification
About a half of the surveyed rural households in south-eastern Bosnia that invested in new
diversification activities gave up because of many problems especially lack and/or difficult accessⒸ ISERD

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to funding and loans and lack of time to deal with new activities. According to FAO-ROECA(2012), the barriers to starting additional income generating activities in Bosnia are mostly
economic. The lack of funding and access to credit is the barrier that most frequently mentioned by
Bosnian farmers. Rural dwellers and enterprises are not seen as attractive customers and banks do
not have enough experience of the risks surrounding diversification activities and so are unable toevaluate business plans and credit requests. This makes interest rates very high. The conditions are
better for microloans; that is, the interest rates are lower.
One reason for which some loans requests were rejected was age of applicants. The age of thesurveyed households’ financial managers ranges from 22 to 71 (average: 48.1 years). Females
represent just 8.8% of the household financial managers. According to FAO-ROECA (2012),
women and young people in BiH face difficulties in getting loans since they are rarely the ownersof the land or assets on which they want to make investments.
Another important loans rejection reason is also the lack of collaterals. Many Bosnian
mentioned lack of access to financing (including savings) as the main obstacle to livelihood
diversification. Farmers mention mortgages and having to find guarantors as other obstacles (FAOROECA, 2012).
Nevertheless, many rural households’ heads do not even apply for loans because theapplication procedure is too complicated for them. This is true not only regarding loans but also forother administrative procedures (e.g. for getting subsidies). Another rejection reason is thepresentation of bad quality business plans. This also explains why many diversification endeavors
are hampered by the lack of market since most rural people do not carry any feasibility study. All
showed the importance of the human capital of the household financial manager.
Only 7.5% of the interviewed household financial managers have high education diploma,
most of them have secondary school levels while 12.9% stopped their education at primary school.
Only a very small percentage of the financial managers (2.1%) are illiterate. Regarding theoccupation of household financial managers, 23.8% are government employees, 25.9% are retired,
15.6% are self-employed, and 11.6% are private company employees. Others are unemployed andhousekeepers.
Many factors influence the diversification of farm households into non-farm activities,
including government intervention (OECD, 2009). Prerequisites for encouraging private
investments include improving the business climate, and providing business development andfinancial services suited to the needs of small rural entrepreneurs. Acquiring a labor force withappropriate skills is crucial. Strengthening the rural people’s capabilities to take advantage ofopportunities in the rural non-farm economy is essential. Education and skills are particularly
important (IFAD, 2010).
According to the Working Group on Diversification of the British Department forEnvironment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA, 2007), key barriers to farm diversification include
validity of market research, capacity to develop a considered business case, quality of businessskills and training, availability of appropriately skilled personnel and regulatory controls, andaccess to specialist business advice. Access to finance was also identified as a potential barrier.
According to Richter (2011), in general, levels of financial literacy are often low in rural areas
so it is important to promote a finance culture among rural populations through awarenesscampaigns, financial education trainings or experience/testimony-sharing.
Diversification endeavors success is influenced by financial literacy. Control of financial
resources can improve good management practices. By learning how to manage their enterprises
better, women, as well as men, can become more capable of controlling their economic activities
and thereby better able to evaluate their resources (Sudan, 2007).
Rural people tend to operate not just with one but with several livelihood activities. They often
switch from one to the other even within the same day and also by seasons. Diversification makes
even more complicated financial management as households with mixed livelihoods should
manage variable cash flows and match income and expenditure requirements by saving andborrowing from different sources (CARE India & FAO, 2007).
Lack of experience is another problem that was faced by many Bosnian rural households that
tried to diversify their livelihoods. In fact, many rural Bosnian people were forced to start newⒸ ISERD

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businesses for which they had no experience prior to the civil war, or were faced with highcompetition and were selling their products almost at a loss to the food processing factories. They
would have needed skills to start something new that the market needed. Bosnian rural households
are nowadays aware of the fact that also in agriculture it is especially important to follow
technology and to obtain technical assistance so as to be able to develop a business plan, minimizerisks and put aside profit from the business. Education on how to run such businesses is of utmost
importance. Risk in agriculture is always high and one has to gain experience so as to minimize its
impact once it occurs (Matul & Tsilikounas, 2004).
Difficult access to funding is aggravated by the fact that only 12.9% of the surveyed rural
households are members in saving/credit groups such as “Mali akcionari” (small shareholders) and“Mali poljoprivrednik” (small farmers) organizations, microcredit foundation “EKI”, and Mikrofin.
Micro-credit in BiH stimulated household reconstruction as it provided an efficient and long lasting
coping mechanism for households after the war. For most clients micro-credit helped at least to
sustain their household self-employment activities (Matul & Tsilikounas, 2004).
Membership in local financial groups helps developing financial management skills. As Sudan(2007) points out, regular micro-credit clients adopt good management practices more
substantially, in particular with regard to calculating profits on the basis of records. In fact, theclients are more inclined to use costs and earnings records than are non-client group. The clients
appear better able to estimate their sales, expenditure and profits than those in the non-client group.
The main management practices in use are: capacity to keep enterprise money separate from money
for personal expenses and ability to calculate profits based on records and to estimate profits.
Rural households got in touch with saving/credit organizations to get loans but also for saving
purposes. The choice of these groups and organizations is based on many reasons including thatthey trust the members of the group or they are friends with some of them. The other rural
households never applied for joining saving and credit groups or their applications were rejected.
One of the reasons for not applying was that the application procedure is considered quite
complicated especially for those that have low education levels. Moreover, apart from the lack ofcollaterals another reason for rejecting some applications was that they were badly prepared.
Evidence from India shows that credit groups must have sufficient knowledge and skills todeal with the organizational and technical issues related to various aspects of the economic
activities, in addition to relevant management skills. Therefore, training meant for grassroots
organizations must deal with formation and structure of credit groups, their roles andresponsibilities, and account-keeping and financial management (Sudan, 2007).
CONCLUSION
Most of the surveyed rural households in south-eastern BiH have mixed livelihoods as they rely on
both farm and non-farm income-generating activities. More than two-fifths of the surveyed
households started new non-farm businesses and activities such as services provision and on-farmprocessing in the last five years. However, they faced many problems and constraints such as thelack of financial resources. Weak business skills are also a limiting factor. Well educated andyoung rural people are those who started more new diversification businesses during the last years.
They find it less difficult to deal with paperwork to get loans and subsidies. They are also better
informed about availability, terms and conditions of specialized credit lines. Moreover, thefinancial management skills of the borrowers are taken into consideration by lending institutions
when analyzing loan requests. Educated rural people are also more likely to perform somebookkeeping, which is positively valued by financial institutions.
Harnessing farm diversification, especially in the non-farm economic activities, requires
improving the environment, thus strengthening incentives and reducing risks. Fully exploiting rural
economy diversification potential in Bosnia requires also upgrading rural people’s human capital(including financial management skills), strengthening rural social capital and improving access of
the rural population to finance. Access of rural households to financial services is crucial for
creating an enabling environment for fostering Bosnian rural economies diversification. However,Ⓒ ISERD

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that depends not only on the existence of a good institutional and political environment thatharnesses diversification and makes easier access to loans but also on rural people’s financial
management skills. Therefore, future projects and initiatives dealing with livelihood diversification
should also address this issue. This can be done by organizing training sessions about financial
management and bookkeeping for rural people. Moreover, extension services should include
training about soft financial management skills in their activities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The questionnaire used in this research is mainly based on a similar one used by Thi Minh Chau Le(Hanoi University, Vietnam), Philippe Lebailly (University of Liege, Belgium), and Nguyen Tuan
Son (Hanoi University) to analyze access to credit of farm households in Hai Duong province,
Vietnam.
REFERENCES
Antonelli, A., Pugliese, P. and Beassaoud, O. 2009. Diversifying rural activity. In: Hervieu, B. and Thibault,
H.L. (eds.), Mediterra, Rethinking rural development in the Mediterranean. International Centre forAdvanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (CIHEAM) and Blue Plan; Presses de Sciences Po, Paris.
297-331.
Basu, P. 2006. Improving access to finance for India’s rural poor. Directions in Development. International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development / World Bank; Washington D.C.
CARE India and FAO. 2007. Moving from microcredit to livelihood finance. A report prepared by CARE
India in collaboration with the FAO Livelihood Support Programme, January 2007. (available from;http://www.ruralfinance.org/fileadmin/templates/rflc/documents/1180094858455_CARE_India_LSP_report.pdf.)
Coleman, B.E. and Wynne-Williams, J. 2006. Rural finance in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic:
demand, supply, and sustainability. Results of Household and Supplier Surveys. Financial Reform andStrengthening Initiative; Asian Development Bank, Manila.
DEFRA. 2007. Barriers to farm diversification. Report of the Joint Industry-Government Working Group.
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), London.
EC. 2012. Bosnia and Herzegovina: 2012 progress report. European Commission (EC), Brussels.
FAO-ROECA. 2012. Analysis of economic diversification in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Preparation of
IPARD Sector Analyses in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia (ROECA), (Available online at: http://www.fao.org/europe/publications/documents-and-reports/IPARD-BiH).
Haggblade, S., Hazell, P. and Reardon, T. 2007. Transforming the rural non-farm economy. International
Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and Johns Hopkins University Press, Washington D.C.
IFAD. 2010. Rural poverty report 2011 - New realities, new challenges: new opportunities for tomorrow’s
generation. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Rome.
Matul, M. and Tsilikounas, C. 2004. Role of microfinance in the household reconstruction process in Bosnia
and Herzegovina. Journal of International Development, 16, 429-466.
OECD. 2006. The new rural paradigm: policies and governance. OECD Rural Policy Reviews; Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Paris.
OECD. 2009. The role of agriculture and farm household diversification in the rural economy: evidence andinitial policy implications. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Paris.
Richter, P. 2011. Empowering rural communities through financial inclusion. Rural policy briefs. Rural
Finance Team, Social Finance Programme; International Labour Organisation (ILO), Geneva.
Sudan, F.K. 2007. Livelihood diversification and women empowerment through Self-Help Micro Credit
Programme: Evidence from Jammu and Kashmir. Indus Journal of Management & Social Science, 1 (2),90-106.

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Research article
erd

A Preliminary Survey of Insect Pests at the Community
Forests of Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
DUANGRAT THONGPHAK*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
E-mail: duathg@kku.ac.th

SIRIPORN KHONGTHAWIEFaculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 19 November 2013

Accepted 1 April 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract A survey of insect pest from community forests including Kok Soke Hin (Ban
Fang district) and Phu Wat (Mancha khiri district) community forests, Khon Kaen
province, were carried out from May to September 2013. Insect samples were collected bymanual collecting and light trap. Fifty eight species were identified representing 34
families relating to 9 insect orders. The diversity of insects in Kok Soke Hin community
forest consisted of Coleopterans (3.63%), Lepidopterans (3.63%), Hemipterans (0.52%),
Homopterans (3.63%), Orthopterans (0.36%) and Hymenopterans (3.63%). The diversityof insects in Phu Wat community forest consisted of seven orders of insect including
Orthopterans (29.49%), Coleopterans (24.36%), Lepidopterans (24.36%), Hemipterans(3.85%), Homopterans (16.67%), Dipterans (3.63%) and Hymenopterans (1.28%). Amongthe insects identified, insect pests were about 61.54 percent. The community forests of thisstudy are considered to have a low diverse and numerous insect fauna in the area. Order
Coleoptera was found abundant and dominant among other orders.
Keywords survey, insect pest, community forest

INTRODUCTION
The community forest area of Kok Soke Hin (Ban Fang district) and Phu Wat (Mancha khiri
district are lowland semi-deciduous forests as the community forest in the northeastern Thailand(Zhu T. et al., 2011) in a central agricultural production area in Khon Kaen Province. Kok Soke
Hin (Ban Fang district). Kok Soke Hin was declared as a community forest in 2005 and the forest
covered about 440 ha. The Phu Wat forest area covers about 560 ha, and it has been managed as acommunity forest since the 1970s. Over 1 million species of insects have been described, butcurrent estimates of total insect diversity vary from 5-80 million species of insects. Beetles(Coleoptera) make up 40% of described insect species. Five orders of insects stand out in theirlevels of species richness such as the Hymenopterans, Dipterans, Coleopterans, Lepidopterans, andHemipterans. In ecosystems, biodiversity is instrumentally important not only for the production offood, but for other ecological services, including the recycling of nutrients, regulation of
microclimate and local hydrological processes, suppression of undesirable organisms anddetoxification of noxious chemicals. However, some of them become pests in forest (Triplehorn
and Johnson, 2005). These areas have been chosen because of the less known diversity andabundance of insects in these forests. Therefore, identification of insects around the area will give
more insight on the species richness of insect diversity in forest ecosystems, the structure of their
populations, their interrelationships and interaction with their habitats. The objective of this study
was to determine the diversity and abundance of the insect fauna at the Kok Soke Hin and Phu Wat
community forests.

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METHODOLOGY
Insect specimens were collected around the community forests (Fig.1) including Kok Soke Hin(Ban Fang district) and Phu Wat (Mancha khiri district) community forests, Khon Kaen province.
Sampling was conducted during May to September 2013 in the wet season. Sampling methods
in this study were based on Triplehorn and Johnson (2005), Insect specimens were collected using
light trap and manual collecting. In each area, light trap were set up from 7.00 pm until 11.00 pm
and manual collecting were done for 3 h during the day time. All of the collected specimens were
preserved in 70% ethyl alcohol in the multipurpose containers, and were brought back to thelaboratory for pinning and identification. Identification of insects to order, family, genus andspecies was based on the keys by Triplehorn and Johnson (2005). However, the detailed
identification was based on comparison with specimens in the Insect Museum in the Entomologicalsection, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University and several taxonomic references. The
percentage of insect samples was used by combination two sampling methods.
The Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index (Krebs, 1999), was used to calculate the diversity of
insect collected. The formula of the Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index used is presented below
𝑆

𝐻′ =  𝑝𝑖 (ln 𝑝𝑖)

(1)

𝑖=1

Where H´ = Species diversity index, s = Number of species, pi = Proportion of the total
sample belonging to ith species.
The evenness index (Krebs, 1999) was calculated to determine the equal abundance of ants ineach study site as follows:
𝐸′ =𝐻′
𝐻′𝑀𝐴𝑋′(2)

Where H´ = Observed index of species diversity, H´MAX’ = Maximum possible index ofdiversity.
The diversity values for Shannon-Weiner were classified based on scale developed by
Fernando (1998) and is presented in Table 1.

Fig. 1 Study area at the Kok Soke Hin (blue dot) and Phu Wat (red dot) community forest in
Khon Kaen Province in Northeastern Thailand
Table 1 Classification of species richness indices (adopted from Fernando 1998)
Relative values
Very highHigh
Moderate
Low
Very low

Species diversity>3.50
3.00 – 3.49
2.50 – 2.99
2.00 – 2.49
<1.99

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Evenness>0.75
0.50 – 0.74
0.25 – 0.49
0.15 – 0.24
< 0.14

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

Table 2 Classification of insects surveyed at the Kok Soke Hin (Ban Fang district) and Phu
Wat (Mancha Khiri district) community forests, Khon Kaen province
Order
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Hymenoptera
Hymenoptera
Hymenoptera
Hymenoptera
Hymenoptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Homoptera
Homoptera
Odonata
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Isoptera
DipteraFamilyScarabaeidae
Scarabaeidae
Scarabaeidae
Scarabaeidae
Scarabaeidae
Scarabaeidae
Scarabaeidae
Scarabaeidae
Scarabaeidae
Hydrophilidae
Lucanidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
MeloidaeStaphylinidae
Passalidae
Cicindelidae
Curculionidae
Lampyridae
Tenebrionidae
Buprestidae
Gryllotalpidae
Gryllidae
Gryllidae
Gryllidae
Acrididae
Acrididae
MantidaeBlattellidae
Tetrigidae
Tettigoniidae
Tettigoniidae
Plasmatidae
Xylocopidae
Formicidae
Formicidae
Formicidae
Vespidae
Notonectidae
CydnidaePentaomidae
Pentaomidae
Coreidae
Cicadellidae
Cicadidae
CoccidaeLibellulidae
Noctuidae
Arctiidae
unknown
Chiromomus

Genus/species
Copris nevinsoni
Xylotrupes gideon
Amomala grandis
Anomala sp.
Catharsius molossus
Copris magicus
Gymnopleurus aethiops
Lepidiota stigma
Orcytes rhinoceros
Hydrous cavistanum
Aegus amplus
Batocera rufomaculata
Batocera rubus
Celosterna pollinosa sulphurea
Cyriopatus wallacei
Aristobia approximator
Plocaederus ruficornis
Xytrocera globosa
Xoanodera striata
Rhaphuma mutabilis
Dorysthenes granulosus
Dorysthenes buquetElectica castanea
Paederus sp.
Tiberioides sp.
Calochroa flavomaculata
Sepiomus sp.
Luciola brahmina Bourgeois
Tribolium sp.
Sternocera ruficornis
Gryllotalpa orientalis
Gryllus bimaculatus
Gryllus testaceus
Acheta domesticus
Cyrtacanthacris tatarica
Oxya japonica
Tenodera sinensis
Pycnoscelus indicus
Paratettix sp.
Holochlora nigrotympana
Conocephalus longipennis
unknown
Xylocopa sp.
Pheidole sp.
Solenopsis saevissima wagneri
Camponotus sp.
Vespa sp.
Anisops sp.
Stibaropus molginus
Nezara viridula
Tessaratoma papillosa
Anoplocnemis plasiana
Nephotettix sp.
Meimuna opalifera
Pseudococcus sp.
Crocothemis servilia (Drury)
unknown
Creatonotos sp.
unknown
Chiromomus sp.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
In this study, fifty-eight insect species were identified as shown in Table 2. A total of 914
individuals of insects from nine orders and thirty-four different families were collected. They arefrom the orders of Orthoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Homoptera Hymenoptera, Diptera, Isoptera,
Lepidoptera, Odonata, and Diptera (Table 3). The order Hymenoptera had nine species of fivedifferent families. The Coleopterans had thirty species of eleven families, while the order
Orthoptera had eleven species of nine families. The order Hemiptera had six species of fourfamilies, while the order Hymenoptera had five species identified in three families. The orders
Homoptera and Lepidoptera had two species belonging to two families. The specimens from theorder Isoptera were not identified. The family Cerambycidae had the highest number of 11 insect
species followed by the family Scarabaeidae (9 spp.). The results showed that Coleoptera (39.39%)
had the most dominant insects in both forest communities, followed by Hemiptera (29.54%),
Orthoptera (11.38%) Hymenoptera (7.98%) and Isoptera (5.69%), the following insect orders got
lower than 2% (Table 3), Isoptera, Odonata and Diptera. The generally low species diversity
observed is due to the very few species recorded in the present study.
Table 3 Taxonomic distribution of insects at the Kok Soke Hin (Ban Fang district) and
Phu Wat (Mancha Khiri district) community forests, Khon Kaen province
Order
Orthoptera
Coleoptera
Hemiptera
HomopteraHymenoptera
Lepidoptera
Isoptera
Odonata
DipteraPopulation
104
360
270
2
73
41
52
2
10
914

Taxonomic distribution
No. of families
No. of species
9
11
11
30
4
6
2
2
3
5
2
2
1
*
1
1
1
1
34
58

Percentage of order
11.38
39.39
29.54
0.22
7.98
4.48
5.69
0.21
1.09
100

*unidentified

Among the insects identified, forty- eight species of insects in 13 families and eight orders
were found as insect in the community forests. The highest number of species was recorded in the
Kok Soke Hin community forest (27 species) and the Phu Wat community forest found only
fourteen species of insect pest (Table 4).
Table 4 Percentage of insect pest at the Kok Soke Hin (Ban Fang district) and
Phu Wat (Mancha khiri district) community forests, Khon Kaen province
InsectPest
Order
FamilySpeciesNumber of insect pest
KSH
PW
5
3
8
5
27
14

Total
8
13
41

Percentage of insect pest (%)
KSH
PW
38.46
23.08
28.57
17.86
42.86
22.22

Total
61.54
46.43
65.08

Note: KSH= Kok Soke Hin community forest, PW = Phu Wat community forest.

The diversity of insect in this study is presented in Table 5. Overall, the results show that
insect diversity value for the community forest was very low with H´=1.55 while the specie
evenness values show that the community forest had the highest with E´=0.70. The diversity oforder Coleoptera is the higher than the others in this study with H´ = 0.37, this is because of scarabbeetles were commonly collected in the forest areas. Furthermore, majority of the timber trees werein the forest where the greatest number of cerambycid occurred. The survey revealed that, theinsect species include insect pests, insect pollinators, saprophytic insects, parasitoids, andpredators. Not many of the insect species identified are major pest to the forest pest in the area
except scarab and cerambycid beetles that is a major pest. This implies that the trees in the forestⒸ ISERD

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area could be conducted with less insect pest problem in the areas. However, lower diversity instudy areas were influenced by the condition during the time of study. This is because samplings
were conducted during raining season. Wardle and Barker (1997) indicate that rainfall leads todirect death to larvae and egg and causes the development of insect to shift. Furthermore, insects
will seek protection by reducing foraging activity and finding shelter during this wet duration.
Table 5 Diversity index and Evenness index of the insect community at the Kok Soke Hin(Ban Fang district) and Phu Wat (Mancha Khiri district) community forests
Order
Orthoptera
Coleoptera
Hemiptera
HomopteraHymenoptera
Lepidoptera
Isoptera
Odonata
Diptera
Total

Diversity index (H´)
0.25
0.37
0.36
0.01
0.20
0.14
0.16
0.01
0.05
1.55

Evenness index (E´)
0.11
0.17
0.16
0.01
0.09
0.06
0.07
0.01
0.02
0.71

CONCLUSION
From this study, the community forests of Khon Kaen province including Kok Soke Hin and Phu
Wat are considered to have a low diverse and numerous insect fauna in the area. Order Coleoptera
was found abundant and dominant among other orders. However, the results which were being
presented in this paper might be the first comprehensive list of insects in the community forest. It istherefore recommended that, similar survey should be conducted during dry season of the year tohave a list of insect occurring at every particular season of the year and the economic importance ofinsects surveyed should also be investigated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Khon Kaen University funding 2013. The authors thank to the
Plant Genetics Conservation Project under The Royal Initiative of Her Royal Highness Princess
Maha Chakri Sirindhorn for permission of conducting the research.
REFERENCES
Fernando, E.S. 1998. Forest formations and flora of the Philippines: Handout in FBS 21. (Unpublished).
Krebs, C.J. 1999. Ecological methodology, Addison-Educationall Publishers, California, 581. USA.
Triplehorn, C.A. and Johnson, N.F. 2005. Borror and delong’s introduction to the study of insects. 7th ed.
Brooks/Cole. 864.
Wardle, D.A. and Barker, G.M. 1997. Competition and herbivory in establishing grassland communities:
Implications for plant biomass, species diversity and soil microbial activity. Oikos, 80, 470-480.
Zhu, T., Chen, H., Ganesh, S., Roland C. and Kanokwan, H. 2011. Revisit to community forest in northeastof Thailand: changes in status and utilization. Environ. Dev. Sustain., 13, 385-402.

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Research article
erd

Organic Food Production as a Development Opportunity
for Serbia
JELENA PETROVIC*Business Economics Academy, Cacak, Serbia
Email: jelena1809976@gmail.com

NOUREDDIN DRIOUECH
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Valenzano, Bari, Italy

ADRIANA RADOSAVAC
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia

STEFAN KOCIC
Business Economics Academy, Cacak, Serbia

ALEKSANDAR STOJANOVIC
Agricultural Extension Service, Pozarevac, Serbia

SINISA BERJAN
Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

VESNA MILIC
Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

HAMID EL BILALI
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Valenzano, Bari, Italy
Received 19 November 2013

Accepted 1 April 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Serbia doesn’t have many competitive advantages in relation to the competition
it faces. The growing demand for food has led to the fact that agricultural production relies
mostly on the use of chemicals, which endanger human health and disrupt nature balance,
and all in order to achieve a higher yield and profit. However, in the process ofglobalization, the only thing Serbia could rely on, except trained staff, are the natural
resources. Favorable climate, large areas of arable land and forests, a healthy environment
are the main prerequisites for the development of organic production (OP) in Serbia. This
paper aims at giving an overview of the current situation of the Serbian organic sector
especially potential, animal and crop production, governance, legal framework and market.
Some solutions to overcome the main barriers to OP development are discussed. This
paper is based on a secondary data review and exploratory semi-structured interviews dealing mainly with reasons for converting to organic; marketing channels; problems;
impacts; access to agricultural extension - conducted in summer 2013 with 40 organic
producers randomly chosen from cities/municipalities all over Serbia. Statistical methods,
SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis, induction anddeduction, as well as the technique of comparative analysis were used. The results indicate
the advantages which increase in the organic production could bring to Serbia, such as
economic growth, increased exports, reduced trade deficit, sustainable natural resourcesmanagement and rural development. For allowing OP to express all its potential, domestic
market should be further developed, legal framework and governance enhanced andinstitutional and financial support secured. Due to high prices of organic food in the world
market organic production can be a key generator of economic growth and socio-economic
development in Serbia, especially in rural areas.
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Keywords organic production, economic development, Serbia

INTRODUCTION
In developed countries, where modern agriculture with the aggressive use of all available chemicals
has led to degradation of the quality of air, water, land, is almost impossible to establish organic
production, resulting with a huge lack of organic products. Therefore, the developing countries,
where the agricultural system is still preserved, have a chance to increase their exports throughorganic products. In the European Union (EU), sales of organic products have tripled in the period
2001 to 2008 (FiBL, 2010). The largest European market for organic products is in Germany. It isestimated that the share of these products in the food market will continue to grow in the coming
years.
Serbia has 5.11 million hectares of agricultural (60% of the territory) and 4.1 million hectaresof arable land (Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Serbia, 2013). Serbian agriculture is facing
many problems, such as the small size of the private households, unorganized farmers, reduced
state subsidies, inability to achieve sales, etc. Even so, Serbia has conditions and outstanding
opportunity in the production of organic food.
The fact that over 80% of land in Serbia is in uncontaminated soil, that there are areas that are
not still exploited, which could be used for organic production (OP) without major investments, aswell as a high percentage of rural population, can be pointed out as the important prerequisites forthe successful development of the OP in Serbia (Ćurkovic, 2013). Inglorious facts about the lowlevel of industrial production in Serbia, gives to this country, in terms of the development oforganic agriculture, an incomparable advantage in relation to the EU, due to the lower
concentrations of pollutants in the environment. Organic agriculture is focused on the future andimprovement of the environment and human health; therefore the benefits of investing in it havetimeless character.
Today’s state of Serbian agriculture, its potentials and limitations, still have the same trend that in agriculture are used less inputs than are really needed - and therefore the results are lower
than desired. The last 10 years, agriculture is going through a transition phase, and the entire
Serbian economy as well, which involved privatization process that has been implemented without
adequate and clearly defined measures of agricultural development policy. Currently the only
competitive advantages of Serbia are the natural resources, low labor costs and low land prices(Tomic & Tomic, 2011).
However, available resources (favorable natural and climatic conditions) are not sufficient forthe survival of agriculture and sustainable rural development. It is necessary to support thedevelopment of agricultural and rural policy with adequate and intensive budget allocation.
Organic farming achieves more stable and better yields (Kilrcher, 2007). The market of foodproducts has greater earning power through higher selling prices, and thus provides greater
economic benefits in the form of profit and long-term economic benefits.
The most important organic agro-food products in Serbia are wild or cultivated berries, frozen
and dried plums, sour cherries, organic certified jams, sweets, apple concentrate, vinegar andjuices, and salted and dried wild mushrooms. The main regions for organic fruit production are
Central and South Serbia.
Certified organic vegetable production is relatively small. While fresh, frozen and preserved
vegetables, especially ground red peppers, are mainly exported, some fresh vegetables find their
way to domestic market as well. In Vojvodina, organic cereals are well developed. There are few
examples of organically certified livestock production.
The Serbian market is still largely dominated by conventionally produced products. There is aslight growth of demand for organic products, but still consumers are skeptical and confused, since
there have been many products on the market with labels for “healthy food” like natural, bio, eco,organic, but none of them is certified organic product. Market channels of the organic products in
Serbia are on-farm selling, farmers green markets, large supermarket chains and specialized shopsof healthy food.
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This paper aims at giving an overview of the current situation of organic farming (legal
framework, production, market) in Serbia and highlighting its potential as a development
opportunity for Serbian rural areas.
METHODOLOGY
The work is based on a secondary data review and exploratory semi-structured interviews. The
main secondary data sources were ministries (Ministry of Agriculture), professional organizations(Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Serbia, Serbia Organica association), universities(Belgrade, Novi Sad), the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM),
Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), the Mediterranean Organic Agriculture Network(MOAN), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), etc.
Semi-structured interviews (SSI) were conducted in summer 2013 with 40 organic producers
randomly chosen from several cities/municipalities all over Serbia: Sombor, Kraljevo, Novi Sad,
Negotin, Kovacica, Vrsac, Pozarevac, Cacak, Subotica, Zrenjanin, Soko Banja, Bojnik, Barajevo,
Bela Crkva, Pecinci, Petrovac na Mlavi, Kursumlija, Becej, Sremski Karlovci, Kanjiza, Vrbas,
Zagubica, Srbobran, Krusevac, Kikinda, Alibuna and Zabalj. The checklist prepared for SSI
included 24 questions dealing mainly with: reasons for converting to organic farming; organic
animal and crop production as well as beekeeping; main marketing channels; problems andconstraints; main economic, social and environmental impacts of organic agriculture; access toagricultural extension and subsidies; main sources of information about organic agriculture;
involvement in organic agriculture projects and initiatives; social capital of organic producers;
collaboration and contact with other institutions and actors; etc. Some solutions andrecommendations to overcome the main barriers to organic production development are discussed.
The average age of the interviewed organic operators is 48.3 (age range: 29-73). In the total
number of interviewees, 75% are men and 25% are women. Among the interviewees there are no
illiterate, 80% have secondary education, while 20% of them have high education. The surveyed
rural households generate income mainly through farming, pensions and salaries from the public
sector. Farm surface ranges from less than one to about 2000 hectares. Land use is dominated byarable crops mainly cereals and vegetables.
It should be pointed out that the lack of a central database system makes it very hard to give
precise figures about the size of organic production in Serbia.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
For the last ten years, production and processing of organic products in Serbia became more
popular and economically more important, considering the first steps made in OP in late 70’s
(GAIN, 2009). According to the MOAN, with a view to further development of organic farming in
the Mediterranean countries, Serbia is at the very top as the country with the largest number of
hectares intended for organic production, immediately after Italy. As Serbia is full of regions thatare practically “untouched nature”, there is a chance for these areas to be immediately engaged inorganic farming without wasting time for conversion (which is a big advantage in terms of costsaving and profit) (MAIB, 2008).
The Serbian Law on Organic production and a number of regulations control the production ofagricultural products and other methods of organic production and processing, storage,transportation, marking, labeling and sale of these products, their certification and recertification,
as well as other important issues in this area (Republic of Serbia, 2010). The goal is to obtain aproduct with documented production procedure, contributing to sustainable socio-economic ruraldevelopment, consumer protection, sustainable natural resources management, soil fertility, etc.
Nevertheless, the process of harmonization of Serbian legislation with the EU acquis in the field oforganic farming is still pending. For this reason, there is an ongoing initiative for amending theexisting Law from 2010.

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An increase of about 30% of plant area with organic production as well as a complete growthof organic livestock production has been recorded in Serbia from 2011 to 2012. Arable land used
for organic farming occupies an area of over 11,000 hectares, dominated by fruit (46.36%) andcrops (41.31%), with the constant growth in production of grains and oilseeds, meadows andpastures (7.57%), while the vegetables are grown on 4.77% of organic area. Most of these products
are exported, especially in the EU, as the domestic market is underdeveloped due to lack ofpurchasing power. Legislation for organic food harmonized with EU regulations is the basis forsuch food production and its export, but as itself is not enough. State support in the placement ofgoods to foreign markets and to small producers of organic food is essential. If considered thatorganic food is 30-50% more expensive than conventional, and the standard of living in Serbia isvery low, it can be concluded that the only secure sales that can be provided to organic foodproducers, are sales across national borders.
Although in recent years the production of organic food is gaining importance in Serbia, thenumber of people engaged in this branch of agriculture is extremely low. In this area it is necessary
to possess the adequate knowledge and skills to deal with the OP, as well as the knowledge ofapplying fairly strict standards and controls. The problems faced by the OP in Serbia are primarily
low social and political awareness of the importance of organic agriculture to life and health of thenation, as well as the economic benefits of this type of agriculture. Due to the lack of adequate,
understandable and easily accessible literature, actors involved in organic agriculture are poorly
informed. High cost of certification, lack of state support to organic agriculture, a declining budget
for agriculture, underdeveloped markets and sales channels are the main difficulties faced by
farmers entering the sector of organic production.
With less than 0.01% of the products consumed in Serbia being organic, compared with 3-4%
within Europe, growth is inevitable (GAIN, 2009). Almost 90% of organic products in Serbia are
aimed at the export market (e.g. EU, U.S., Japan). As the demand on the world market increases, it
is expected that in the future period the production in Serbia will find more customers - both abroad
and in the country - thus fostering economic strength and competitiveness of the Serbian economy.
As the organic farming does not use harmful synthetic chemical substances in the form of
pesticides, requires more labor force participation, i.e. this type of production can be very
supportive in reducing unemployment in rural areas. In Serbia there is still a trend of migration of
population from rural to urban areas, so that rural areas become economically depressed anddevastated. The potential that has organic farming and its benefits can significantly improve
employment and thereby reduce the gap in living standards between the big cities and rural areas,
as well as keep population growth in agricultural Serbian areas (Berber et al., 2011).
The exploratory field survey showed that the main reasons for converting to organic farming
are: economic profit; environmental protection; personal satisfaction and healthy production. Mostof the interviewees consider that organic agriculture has generated multiple economic benefits totheir rural households and communities thanks to higher prices (premium prices) and income,lower production costs and local economy revitalization. The main social impacts of organic
agriculture are the level of trust and solidarity achieved within society, physical and psychicalsatisfaction, and social capital strengthening. Meanwhile, the main environmental impacts are
reduced soil and water pollution and the conservation of biodiversity (e.g. local and traditionalvarieties).
All the interviewed organic operators were crop and animal producers. However, some ofthem deal also with other activities such as processing (67.5%), retail sale (17.5%) or beekeeping(7.5%). The field survey showed that a wide range of crops is grown organically in Serbia. The
most common organically grown crops are: onion, pepper, carrot, potato, tomato, rye, maize,
buckwheat and barley. As for livestock, the most important reared species are bovines, goats, sheep
and poultry. The interviewed organic operators have about 46 beehives.
The main marketing channels used by the interviewed organic producers are on-farm sale andfarmers’ markets. Also, supermarkets, exhibitions and fairs are relevant marketing channels.
Most of the interviewed organic operators (82.5%) think that the decision to convert to organic
was appropriate as production of healthy food is a good way to increase household income and to
make agricultural production more sustainable. The main problems faced by the interviewedⒸ ISERD

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organic operators are difficulties in finding organically allowed inputs in the market, highcertification costs and absence of support. They mentioned also other constraints such as highprices of organically allowed inputs, marketing/sale difficulty, very rigid regulation, lack oftraining on organic farming.
According to the organic operators, institutions that should make more efforts to solve theproblems they face are: the State, municipalities, cooperatives and the extension service. It is clear
from the provided answers that a joint effort of many institutions is necessary.
Half of the interviewed organic operators declared that they received subsidies and 45% didn’t
receive them. The main subsidies and incentives needed by the interviewed Serbian organic
operators are for certification, input procurement, equipment and more financial resources meaningeasier access to funds and loans with low interest rates. However, additional requests concern
support for organic farms mechanization and for storage, processing and irrigation facilities.
As for the social capital of organic operators, 70% of the interviewees are members ofagricultural and/or rural associations and cooperatives. Some organic producers are also membersof other participatory and civil society groups or organizations. Only 10% of the interviewees do
not have any ongoing collaboration with other institutions. The remaining, 90%, deal with thefollowing institutions: municipalities, Ministry of Agriculture; cooperatives (e.g. Ekoland herbs,
Spice Germany), research institutes (e.g. Veterinary Institute of Serbia, Institute of Field andVegetable Crops, Institute for Nature Conservation of Serbia, SP Laboratory Becej), certification
bodies, extension service, etc.
The interviewees get information about organic agriculture through magazines andnewspapers mostly and via Internet; a significant number of organic operators are informed
through courses and conferences, trips and visits to other organic farms as well as through TV andradio. More than a half of the interviewed organic producers (60%) has contact with theagricultural extension staff and uses services provided by them. Used extension services andinformation are related to fruit and vegetable growing technologies, subsidy possibilities, soil
fertility management and certification. According to MAIB (2008), most organic producers andprocessors in the Western Balkan Countries (WBC) complain about the lack of adequate advisory
services which are crucial for the well-functioning of the whole organic supply chain. The creationand improvement of supporting structures and services for production and market development is
crucial.
Around 70% of interviewees do not know anything about organic agriculture programs andprojects, but would like to know more, while only 20% of them have been involved in previous
ones. According to the National Association for Organic Production - Serbia Organica (2013), withthe aim of further promoting and reaching a higher share of organic food at the greenmarkets,“Serbia Organica” launched in July 2011 - in cooperation with the Public Utility Company “CityMarkets” - the project “Organic Food Greenmarket”, currently implemented on one of the Belgrade
greenmarkets. Stalls with organic products are present at other Belgrade greenmarkets as well. In
view of the success of the project and interest shown by both buyers and sellers, organic food stallsshould be part of permanent offer at the city greenmarkets.
EU Member States in their own significant production still show the need for imports oforganic products. Serbia can take advantage of this opportunity and provide the foreign market
with important amounts of organic products. Production and economic impact of agriculture in
Serbia are not at the level of the opportunities provided by rich natural resources and the country
lags behind competitor countries in the region. The world market for organic food is ruled by thesame economic principles as well as in other sectors. Demand is growing much faster thandomestic supply, and it is this trend that can lead one economy to transform its potential of organic
food production into export opportunities. With this possibility and opportunity Serbia could easily
strengthen export and domestic market as well. The increase in exports is one of the most important
prerequisites for increasing economic activity in every country, especially in small developing
countries. The increase in exports contributes to macroeconomic stability of the country, increasing
production, and therefore employment and living standard of citizens and allows service of external
debt.
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The interviewed organic producers provided many recommendations for improving thedevelopment process of OP in Serbia: more active involvement and support of the Ministry ofAgriculture and other state institutions, higher level of state subsidies, favorable loan conditions
and better support from the financial institutions, faster and easier certification, more strict State’scontrol on traffic of pesticides in organic production and in regulating markets, implementing ofappropriate strategy for development of organic farming, etc.
CONCLUSION
The economics of the current food system are unfavorable for many food chain actors including
producers and consumers. Many studies highlight the potential of organic agriculture as asustainable development opportunity for developing and transition countries. Organic agriculture
development brings about multiple and multifaceted benefits to rural economies, urban consumers
and the society as a whole. It contributes also to farmer livelihoods improvement, environmental
protection and public health enhancement. Organic farms have economic multiplier effects that go
beyond the farm boundary. They support local economies in rural communities by providing jobs
for community members and purchasing local products. Short supply chains initiatives (e.g.
farmers markets, food cooperatives, community-supported agriculture) allow consumers to put
their money directly into farmers’ pockets thus strengthening sustainable regional food systems.
Organic production is very important for Serbia as it has always been an agricultural country
with rich natural resources and a long production tradition. As more consumers consider theenvironmental, health and social consequences of industrial food production, demand forsustainably raised foods is growing. Contemporary trends and awareness of the necessity of ahealthy society and preservation of the environment fostered an organic production as analternative to conventional agriculture. Farmers are dedicating more and more land to organic
production in response to consumer demand.
Organic farming has a significant role in rural areas as it allows developing economies,
diversifying activities and attracting financial resources therefore it is an integral part of rural andagricultural development strategy. Organic agriculture provides opportunities for the developmentof family farms and small producers in Serbia, the promotion of eco- and agro-tourism and thepreservation of traditions. In this sense, the contribution of the state, in the form of proper funding
and subsidies to organic producers, is invaluable and important for the whole national economy. At
the same time, state’s interventions should also aim at improving the access of organic producers to
information and communication of organic food products properties and features to consumers.
REFERENCES
Berber, N., Đokic, N., and Kocic Vugdelija, V. 2011. Organic agricultural production as an element of thestrategy of sustainable development in Serbia. Faculty of Economy, Novi Sad.
Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Serbia. 2013. Privredne Vesti: Hrana donosi šest milijardi dolara(Serbian Business News: Food returns six billion dollar), (Available from; http://www.pks.rs/
Vesti.aspx?IDVestiDogadjaji=7792, accessed on 20.09.2013.).
Ćurković, V. 2013. Finansijska podrška države proizvodnji organske hrane - velika razvojna šansa Srbije(State's Financial Support for production of organic food - a development opportunity for Serbia),
Belgrade.
FiBL. 2010. Organic farming in Europe. Organic Europe: European section of the Organic Word website.
Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), (Available from; www.organic-europe.net, accessedon 20.09.2013.).
GAIN. 2009. Organic agriculture in Serbia. GAIN (Global Agriculture and Information Network) report
number RB9002. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service.
Washington DC.
Kilcher, L. 2007. How organic agriculture contributes to sustainable development. Journal of Agriculture andRural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics (JARTS) Germany, Supplement 89, 31-49.
MAIB. 2008. Organic agriculture in the Balkan area: a comparative analysis. Mediterranean Agronomic
Institute of Bari (MAIB), Bari, Italy.
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National Association Serbia Organica. 2013. Organic agriculture in Serbia at a glance. Belgrade.
Republic of Serbia. 2010. Law on organic production. Official Gazette No 30/2010, Belgrade.
Tomić, R. and Tomić, D. 2011. Proizvodni potencijali agroprivrede Srbije - faktor unapredjenja
konkurentnosti (Production potential of agrarian sector in Serbia - a factor of improvement ofcompetitiveness). School of Business 3/2011, Belgrade.
Vittuari M. 2011. Organic Balkans. Stakeholders, policies, and institutions: a regional perspective.
Osservatorio Balcani e Caucaso, Trento.

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Research article
erdComparative Assessments of Ecosystem Services between
Rural and Urban Areas
MAKOTO OOBA*Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: ooba.makoto@nies.go.jp

KIICHIRO HAYASHI
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Received 16 November 2013

Accepted 1 April 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract From the last century, landuse was drastically changed in both urban and rural
areas. Design and planning are needed for sustainable development in not only rural area
but also urban area kept being harmony with ecosystems and biodiversity. Ecosystemprovides various goods and services for the human society. We carried out quantitative
assessments of ecosystem services in both urban and rural areas in Japan. In a rural area,material circulations (water, carbon and wood) were estimated by a process-based
ecosystem model. In an urban area, ecosystem services were estimated calculated by mapsof land use classified from digital maps. From the results, both rural and urban ecosystems
study areas were deeply affected by land use, provisioning service changes directly related
to societal demands. Urban ecosystems might provide complementary functions for urban
area residents in the condition of decreased value of provisioning service. Types of rural
ecosystem services also may change for social and economic reasons. The information
may be useful for environmental planning for each area but also for more large regions
including urban and rural areas.
Keywords ecosystem modeling, ecosystem services, GIS, land use, urban area

INTRODUCTION"Ecosystem Services" is a crucial keyword for sustainable development and society. After thestudies of Costanza et al. (1997) and following the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), ourperspective on ecosystems has changed. Ecosystems are essential to human society because they
provide food, materials, and moreover services such as carbon absorption, water supply
management, water quality control, disaster control, biodiversity conservation, and cultural
services.
In Japan, forest and agricultural ecosystems cover over 60% and 10% of the total land area,
respectively, most of which is located near urban areas that have become highly developed with therapid Japanese economic growth. However, these ecosystems have some serious problems.
During the 1960s in Japan, a policy of converting natural forests to artificial forests was
implemented (referred to as the “forest conversion policy” in this study). Today, a large portion ofthese artificial forests are mature. However, owing to economic reasons, these artificial forests havenot been optimally managed. Imported timber and wood materials have an economical advantage
when competing with Japanese forestry products. Depressed domestic forestry results indepopulation of rural areas, where forestry is the main industry, and also degrades plantation forest
ecosystems.
In urban area in Japan, many cities gradually recover green space (parks, agricultural fields,
and secondary forests) in contrast to the serious issues of air and water pollution experienced
during rapid economic growth. The big Japanese cities of Tokyo and Osaka exceed 10% green
space, and Nagoya, the chief central Japan city, exceeds 20% green space.

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Over the last decade in Japan, many evaluations of ecosystem services have been conducted.
Various types of ecosystems were assessed, i.e., the Sub Global Assessments (Japan Satoyama
Satoumi Assessment, 2010). Several studies have also been conducted on urban green spacefunctions (i.e., Dobbs, 2011, Ishimatsu et al., 2012, Plieninger, 2013). However, a comparison of
the ecosystem type and temporal change between urban and rural areas has been lacking in theseecosystem service studies. Urban residents need more cultural and biodiversity ecosystem services
and rural residents need more economic support for nearby ecosystems.
OBJECTIVESIn this study, ecosystem services assessments were conducted in both rural and urban areas. The
case study areas were an upstream region of rural Toyota city and urban Nagoya city. Geographical
Information Systems (GIS) data sets were compiled from various sources. Rural ecosystemservices were estimated from a biogeochemical forest model. On the other hand, urban ecosystemservices were estimated from land use maps and also served as preliminary results for future
analysis. A comparison of these estimation results suggested that sustainable ecosystem services
can be maintained in both urban and rural regions.
METHODOLOGY
Study Areas
The forest areas in Toyota city and Nagoya city were selected as the rural and urban study areas,
respectively (Fig. 1). The annual averaged temperature and precipitation for these areas are 15.8°C
and 1535.3 mm and 11.5°C and 1964.0 mm, respectively.
The rural study area of Toyota city (ca 18,000 ha), located upstream of the Yahagi River,includes the two communities of Asahi and Inabu. The annual averaged temperature andprecipitation were 11.5°C and 1964.0 mm, respectively. The artificial and other forest (secondaryor natural) covers were about 11,000 and 3,600 ha, respectively. The 2013 population was about
5,600.
With a population of about 2,260,000, nearby Nagoya (ca. 32,600 ha) represents urban Japan,
and is the fourth largest city in Japan. The averaged temperature and precipitation were 15.8°C and1535.3 mm, respectively.

(a)

(b)

NagoyaToyotaYahagi R.

Inabu
Asahi

Ise
Bay
Fig. 1 Location of Japan and studied areas (a) and the studied rural and urban areas(Nagoya and two areas in Toyota) (b) (Note: Green areas represent forest area)
Rural Assessment
Ecosystem services related to material cycles (water, carbon, and nitrogen) were quantitatively
estimated using detailed forest maps and an ecosystem model. Forest inventories, yield tables, andⒸ ISERD

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forest maps of Aichi prefecture were compiled. Using the methods outlined in our previous study(Ooba et al., 2010), we developed a forest GIS database that included detailed forest type andlocation attributes at the semi-compartment level. The total forest area has changed slightly since
the forest conversion policy began (ca. 1960), but forest polygons were not changed in this study.
The BGC-ES model (version 1.1; Ooba et al., 2010, 2011) was used to simulate daily water
cycles and annual carbon and nitrogen cycles. In this model, biomass growth is limited underinsufficient light and low nitrogen availability conditions.
The forest ecosystem simulation unit was assumed to consist of homogeneous tree species andunderstory vegetation was ignored. Mixed forest stands (e.g., stands of broadleaf and needleleaf ormixed-age stands) were classified into homogeneous forest units based on crown area.
Mass cycle simulation for 1980-2060 was conducted based on current forest distribution.
Before the simulation, a spin-up procedure achieved the initial condition for the model. The
following proxies of forest ecosystem services were the main model outputs: timber accumulation,water runoff, carbon sequestration, and nitrogen leaching from the forest.
More detailed information about this simulation is available in our previous publications(Ooba et al., 2010, 2011, 2013).
Urban Assessment
Urban ecosystems were very disturbed by human activities. Consequently, ecosystem hysteresis
effects (history) may be minor. We chose a simple and understandable urban assessment method
using land use maps instead of a detailed, complicated ecosystem model. We assumed that theurban land use type (agricultural field and secondary forest) determined the type and extent of
ecosystem services.
Digital land use maps from 1977 and 1997 at 10 m mesh level were obtained (Japan Map
Center). Maps showed fifteen land use types that we aggregated into five types: urban area,
agricultural field, forest, road, water surface. A paper land use map from 1955 was obtained fromthe Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, converted into digital format, and classified into
five land use types using the maximum likelihood method (ArcGIS 10.1, ESRI). We manuallycorrected minor errors in the digitized land use map caused by the classification method.
Table 1 Ratios of land use types in Nagoya city at 3 different years (%)
Year
Water surface
Residential and industrial area
Road
Agricultural field
ForestGreen area

1955
5
36
2
38
17
55

1977
6
53
17
10
13
23

1997
5
57
19
6
10
16

Green area = Agricultural field + Forest

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Rural Ecosystem Services
Time series of timber accumulation, water runoff, carbon sequestration, and nitrogen leaching fromthe all forests in the studied area are shown in Fig. 2.
The accumulated trunk (timber) volume of the study area forests was averaged over 10 years
to represent a saturated level. However, the 10 year average carbon sequestration rate was the
maximum at the 1990s, and then continuously decreased. This was caused by the extensive
conversion from natural to artificial forests. Young artificial forests are strong carbon sinks (Oobaet al., 2010). Post-1970s, low forestry disturbance (thinning and regeneration rates) provided
effective carbon accumulation. The models predict that the carbon sequestration rate will not riseⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

again after 2050, due to forest aging and lack of plantation forest regeneration. Model-predictedspatial distributions of carbon sequestration for three decades are shown in Fig. 3.
(b) Water runoff(a) Accumulated volume
1800

400
300

1700

200
1600

100

m3 ha-1
0
1980

2000

2020

2040

mm y-1(10 m3-H2O ha-1 y-1)
1500
1980

2060

2000

2020

2040

2060

(d) Nitrogen leaching(c) Carbon sequestration
1500

3

kg-CO2 ha-1 y-1
1000

2

500

1

kg-N ha-1 y-1
0
1980

2000

2020

2040

0
1980

2060

Year

2000

2020

2040

2060

Year

Fig. 2 Time series estimated by the BGC-ES model from 1980 to 2060 in the all forests ofstudies areas (Inabu and Asahi areas)
The results were averaged for 10-years at a unit area(a) 1980

kg-CO2 ha-1 y-1(c) 2050(b) 2000

Fig. 3 Carbon sequestration rate in forests of studies areas (Inabu and Asahi areas)(a) 1980 (b) 2000 (c) 2050 at 250 m meshNo remarkable variation in water runoff or nitrogen leaching from the forest was observed
among the model scenarios (Fig. 2b and 2d), similar to our previously published results (Ooba et al.,2010, 2011, 2013).
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Urban Ecosystem Services
A comparison of the urban land use in 1955 and 1977 showed that green space decreased
drastically (Figs. 4a and 4b), including agricultural fields and forests in Nagoya city. In contrast,
the urban green space slightly decreased between 1977 and 1997 (Figs. 4b and 4c, Table 1).
28% of agricultural fields were converted into urban area in northern and western parts of
Nagoya city. The largest land use change from 1955 to 1977 affected provisioning services(agricultural products). However, valuation of agricultural ecosystem services in urban area
obviously declined during rapid economic growth, resulting in economic benefit from residential,
or industrial, land use.
Urban forest area also decreased from 1955 to 1977 (4%), reducing ecosystem services related
to carbon sequestration. Urban forests had been an important fuel source before the end of WorldWar II. After the war, firewood and charcoal use gradually declined in favor of fossil fuel use.
Urban forests were also converted to urban land use for economic reasons. It is notable that area offorest decreased (3%) from 1955 to 1977, in contrast to the change in agricultural field.
(a) 1955

Water surface
Residential and industrial area
Road
Agricultural field
Forest(c) 1997(b) 1977

Fig. 4 Land use types in Nagoya city at 3 different years(a) 1955 (b) 1977 (c) 1997

Ecosystem Services Comparison between Rural and Urban Study Areas
Ecosystem characteristics essentially differ between the rural and urban study areas. Rural
ecosystems have broad spatial and temporal extents, contribute such regional mass cycles ashydrological and climatological circulations, and provide such goods as water, wood, andagricultural products. Urban ecosystems are relatively small and fragmentized.
Initially, both rural and urban ecosystems study areas were deeply affected by land use
provisioning service changes directly related to societal demands on estimating ecosystem services.
The shift from wood to fossil fuels as an energy source resulted in large carbon emissions in theⒸ ISERD

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urban study area, but more carbon storage in the rural study area. From this, we deduce thenecessary ecosystems services for residents of both the rural and urban areas have changed since1955. Urban ecosystems might provide complementary functions for urban area residents,
including aesthetic, cultural, and biological values. Types of rural ecosystem services also change,
for social and economic reasons.
This study indicates both rural and urban areas undergo spatial distribution and temporalchanges in ecosystem services. A future study incorporating the systematic and integrated
evaluation of ecosystem services would improve upon this study’s shortcomings.
CONCLUSION
Rural forest ecosystems provide many ecosystem services; demand is less to provisioning services
such as wood biomass and carbon sequestration. In urban areas, needed ecosystem services shiftedfrom provisioning to other services. Our results are useful for rural and urban area environmental
planning, particularly on a regional scale.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the funding program for next generation world-leading researchers(MEXT, Japan) and the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund (K113002,
MOE, Japan). The authors thank R. Li, T. Suzuki, and Y. Inagaki.
REFERENCES
City of Nagoya. 2011. The 2050 Nagoya strategy for biodiversity: Popular edition. (Available from;http://www.city.nagoya.jp/en/cmsfiles/contents/0000032/32724/17_The_2050_Nagoya_Strategy_for_Bi
odiversity.pdf, in Japanese).
Costanza, R., dArge, R., deGroot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., ONeill,
R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P. and van den Belt, M. 1997. The value of the world’s
ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387, 253-260.
Dobbs, C., Escobedo, F.J. and Zipperer, W.C. 2011. A framework for developing urban forest ecosystemservices and goods indicators. Landscape Urban Plan., 99, 196-206.
Ishimatsu, K., Ito, K. and Mitani, Y. 2012. Developing urban green spaces for biodiversity: A review.
Landscape Eco. Manage., 17, 31-41.
Japan Satoyama Satoumi Assessment. 2010. Experiences and lessons from clusters, (available from;http://www.ias.unu.edu/sub_page.aspx?catID=111&ddlID=1485).
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and human well being: Synthesis. Island Press,
Washington DC., 137.
Ooba, M., Hayashi, K., Machimura, T. and Matsui, T. 2013. Assessments of regional carbon circulation by abiogeochemical model from multi aspects: A case study of forests in Toyota city. Agric. Meteolor, (inpress).
Ooba, M., Fujita, T., Mizuochi, M., Murakami, S., Wang, Q. and Kohata, K. 2011. Biogeochemical forestmodel for evaluation of ecosystem services (BGC-ES) and its application in the Ise Bay basin. Procedia
Environ. Sci., 13, 274-287.
Ooba, M., Wang, Q., Murakami, S. and Kohata, K. 2010. Biogeochemical model (BGC-ES) and its basinlevel application for evaluating ecosystem services under forest management practices. Ecol. Model.,221, 1979-1994.
Plieninger, T., Dijks, S., Oteros-Rozas, E. and Bieling, C. 2013. Assessing, mapping, and quantifying cultural
ecosystem services at community level. Land Use Policy, 33, 118-129.

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Research article
erdEngineering Properties of Adobe Brick for Earth
Structures
NAPAT SRIWATTANAPRAYOON*
Faculty of Architecture, Rajamangala, University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Email: Napat_sr@rmutt.ac.th
Received 16 January 2014

Accepted 1 April 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The aim of this research is to investigate basic engineering properties of soil
mixture materials and adobe bricks for earth structures. The soil mixture materials consistof soil, sand and rice husks. Samples of soil mixture materials and adobe bricks werecollected from three villages (i.e. sources) in northeastern Thailand with adobe brick earth
structures. The raw materials obtained from the three sources are: (1) soil, sand and ricehusks from Baan Sikha Thai village of Nakhon Ratchasima province, (2) soil and ricehusks from Baan Sai Rung village of Chaiyaphum province, and (3) soil and rice husks
from Baan Thep Pana village of the province of Chaiyaphum. The physical properties ofsoil mixture materials and the mechanical characteristics in terms of adobe bricks and wall
bearing strength (prism strength) were carried out. According to ASTM D-2487 of the
Unified Soil Classification System, the soils from the three sources are of sand-poorly
graded (SP) type. PI of soils and the horizontal compressive strength (c) of adobe bricks
from the first, second and third sources were 7.93, 6.02 and 2.88%; and 21.76, 15.76 and13.48 kg/cm2 (ksc), respectively. The findings indicate a positive relationship between
plasticity index (PI) from Atterberg’s limits test and horizontal c. A comparison wasmade between the horizontal c of adobe bricks of three sources and those specified in the
Uniform Building Code (UBC) Standard 21-1. The horizontal c of the first, second andthird sources relative to the UBC standard (17.6 ksc) were 21.76, 15.76 and 13.48 ksc,
equivalent to 123.65%, 89.57% and 76.57% of the standard, respectively. The horizontal
flexural strengths (fb) of adobe bricks from the three sources were 5.86, 3.24 and 4.27 ksc.
Thus, no indefinite relationship exists between fb and PI as well as horizontal c. In
addition, a comparison between the horizontal c of adobe bricks from three sources andthe wall bearing strength (prism strength) of walls made from the identical three sources
was performed. The wall bearing strength values of the first, second and third sourceswere 9.44, 6.39 and 3.63 ksc, respectively. The results show a positive relationship ofprism strength to PI and to horizontal c. The performance of adobe bricks in terms ofgreater strength and lower shrinkage could be enhanced by inclusion of appropriatequantities of sand and rice husks in the mixture.
Keywords earth structure, adobe brick, engineering properties

INTRODUCTION
A form of architectural work, earth structures harmoniously coexist with the environment and are
perfectly suitable for the tropics. In addition, most earth structures have been designed andconstructed in line with the livelihoods of local inhabitants. Raw materials of adobe bricks which
are subsequently used to construct earth structures are mostly natural materials, e.g. clay, sand andplant fibers, and can be acquired locally and inexpensively. Besides, several reused items, e.g. glass
bottles, wooden windows and frames, are used in the construction of earth structures. Thus, earth
structures are a viable alternative to meet the housing demand of low-income earners and in linewith the concept of self-sufficiency economy, which in turn promotes the community sustainability.
The current practices of adobe brick-making are nevertheless varied by which local residents
make adobe bricks relying on their past experience and rough estimation. This leads to substandardⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

adobe bricks in terms of horizontal compressive strength, horizontal flexural strength and wall
bearing strength.
Although previous research studies on improvement of adobe brick-making exist, the local
villagers prefer the traditional local brick-making methods to the improved ones. Therefore, thisresearch paper attempts to examine the engineering properties of raw materials and adobe bricks.
The findings could be adopted as a guideline in building of earth structures to guarantee thestability and safety of the final constructions.

METHODOLOGY
Determination of variables: Types of raw materials and mixing ratios are factors that affect thestrength of adobe bricks. To obtain the results that adequately represent actual outcomes, the raw
materials and their respective quantity in this research work are: 10 kg each of soil and sand fromthree sources (30 kg of soil and 30 kg of sand in total); and 35 finished adobe bricks each fromthree sources (105 ready-to-use bricks in total). The dimensions of adobe brick are 20x40x10cm(WxLxH). Figure 1 illustrates a photograph image of an adobe brick and a drawing of its
dimensions.
L=40 cm
W=20 cm
H= 10 cm

Fig. 1 Image of an adobe brick and a drawing of its dimensions
Selection criteria of sources for collection of raw materials and bricks: The selection criteria oflocations for collection of raw materials and adobe bricks are that: (1) there are a number of adobe
brick earth structures in the area; and (2) local residents are economically self-reliant. The areasfrom which the sample collection were carried out are: (a) Baan Shikha Thai village, Nhong Bua
Sala sub-district, Muaeng Nakhon Ratchasima district of Nakhon Ratchasima province; (b) Baan
Sai Rung village, Tha Mafai sub-district, Khang Kroa district of Chaiyaphum province; and (c)Baan Thep Pana village, Baan Rai sub-district, Theb Satit district of Chaiyaphum province.
Test methods: Tests were carried out on the raw materials and on adobe bricks. The raw materials,
i.e. soil, sand and rice husks, were examined according to ASTM standards of the Unified Soil
Classification System. The soil grain size was classified by sieving according to the ASTM D422
standard. Atterburg’s limits of soils were performed according to ASTM D4318, while Atterburg’s
limits of soils mixed with sand were conducted according to ASTM D4318. The soils mixed withsand were obtained by crushing adobe bricks from the three sources. Soil specific gravity values
were determined according to ASTM D854. In addition, the ASTM C128 standard was used todetermine sand specific gravity and absorption values, while the sand grain size was classified bysieving as per ASTM C136. The separation of sand and rice husks from adobe bricks was carriedout using the wet sieve method.
Table 1 Physical requirement of adobe brick
Minimum compressive
strength (ksc)
21.13
17.60
(Average)(Minimum)Water absorption(%)
2.5

Source: Table 24-B: Uniform Building Code, 1994

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42

Mowasture content(%)
4.0

Minimum modulus ofrupture (ksc)
3.52
2.46
(Average) (Minimum)IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

The strength of finished adobe bricks was tested according to the American Standard for
Testing Material (ASTM) and referenced to the UBC Standard 21-9 (Table 1). The horizontal cand horizontal flexural strengths (fb) of adobe bricks were determined according to ASTM C67-13a.
The wall bearing wall strength was tested according to the Standard Test Methods for Compressive
Strength of Masonry Prisms (ASTM E447 – 74).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Engineering Properties of Soils
Based on the ASTM D2487 standard of the Unified Soil Classification System, soils from the threesources are of coarse grain, poorly-graded soil and sand. Their coefficients of uniformity (CU) andof concavity (CC) are presented in Table 2.
Table 3 summarizes Atterberg’s limits of soil and soil mixed with sand according to the
ASTM D4318 standard.
The specific gravity of soils from the three sources belongs to the SP group. In addition, thecomposition of soils from the province of Chaiyaphum (i.e. 2nd and 3rd sources) is 50% sand, acondition that enables adobe brick-making without additional sand required. However, soils from
Nakhon Ratchasima province (i.e. first source) contain much less sand, thereby necessitating an
addition of sand to the mixture for brick-making. Thus, the specific gravity of sand of the firstsource (i.e. Nakhon Ratchasima province) was determined.
The findings also show that types and ratios of raw materials contained in adobe bricks
influence the brick strength. For example, if the bricks were made of purely or mostly soil, theywould easily disintegrate under the horizontal compressive strength and flexural strength. To
improve the brick performance, sand and rice husks should be added to the mixture because theadditional raw materials (i.e. sand and rice husks) increase the cohesiveness and strength resistance.
Table 4 presents the specific gravity values and material proportions by weight of the raw materials.
Table 2 Characteristics of soil and sand of three sources under study
SourceBaan Sikha Thai
Baan Sai Rung
Baan Thep Pana

Avg. passing
No.4# (%)
93.78490.71599.327

Avg. passing No.200#(%)
2.06<5
5<6.396<12
5<7.435<12Avg. Cu

Avg. Cc

2.852
6.621
3.333

0.772
0.641
1.071

Group
symbolS
S
S

Table 3 Atterberg’s limits of soil and soil mixed sand as per ASTM D4318
Properties
Liquid Limit, LL (%)
Plastic Limit, PL (%)
Plasticity Index, PI (%)
Shrinkage Limit, SL (%)
Unified Soil Classification, U.S.C.

Baan Sikha
Thai
21.17
18.84
2.32
9.93
SP

Baan Sikha Thai
(Soil+Sand)
30.84
22.91
7.93
9.37
SP

Baan Sai
Rung
28.47
22.45
6.02
9.39
SP

Baan Thep
Pana
20.68
17.80
2.88
7.77
SP

Table 4 Specific gravity and material proportions by weight of the raw materials
SourceBaan Sikha Thai
Baan Sai Rung
Baan Thep Pana

Specific gravity
Soil
Sand
2.681
2.53
2.513
2.542
-

Material proportion by weight (%)
Soil
Sand
Rice husk
74.75418.8006.346
90.4059.595
88.94711.053Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

Engineering Properties of Adobe Bricks
With respect to the effects of rice husks and sand proportions on the horizontal c, the horizontal
compressive strength values of adobe bricks for different proportions of sand and rice husks areillustrated in Table 5 and Fig. 2.
Based on Fig. 2, the relationship between the proportion of rice husks and the adobe brickhorizontal c; and that between the proportion sand retained with No.4 sieve and the horizontal cof adobe bricks can be expressed by equations (1) and (2), respectively.
Horizontal compressive strength rice husks=-1.7737(% of rice husks) + 32.96(1)

Horizontal compressive strength sand=0.2154(% of sand) + 7.3919(2)

The relationship of PI and the horizontal c is depicted in Figure 3. The figure indicates a
positive correlation between PI and the horizontal c.
Table 5 Effects of rice husks and sand proportions on the horizontal compressive strength
Propertion of mixeture materials
by weight (%)
Percent of sand retained sieve No.4#
Percent of Rice husk
Horizontal c (ksc)

Baan Sikhathai

Baan Sairung

Baan Theppana

56.09
6.35
21.76

51.44
9.60
15.76

26.30
11.05
13.48

Fig. 2 Horizontal compressive strength of bricks for different sand and rice husk proportions

Fig. 3 Plasticity Index (PI) and horizontal c of samples from the three sources
The relationships of PI of soils to the horizontal c of adobe bricks from the three sources canbe determined by equations 3, respectively.
Horizontal c=where PI denotes plasticity index.
Ⓒ ISERD44

1.5492PI + 8.3092(3)

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

The horizontal c, fb and minimum strength according to the UBC 21-9 standard of adobe
bricks are depicted in Figure 4. The horizontal c of adobe bricks from the first, second and thirdsources and the minimum standard strength are 21.76, 15.76, 13.48 and 17.6ksc, respectively. Thisvalidates the positive relationship between the horizontal c and PI.
Although adobe bricks from the three sources outperform the minimum standard strength withregard to fb, the bricks performed less satisfactorily relative to the horizontal c. fb of the first,
second and third sources and the minimum standard strength are 7.40, 3.36, 4.27 and 2.46ksc,
respectively. The low fb are normal since no additives, e.g. cement or rubber milk, were included in
the mixture.
The relationship between the horizontal c and the wall bearing strength (prism strength) is
illustrated in Figure 5. The figure shows a strong correlation between the prism strength and thehorizontal c, which is similar to that of PI and the horizontal c. The prism strength of adobe
bricks of the first source is highest. The relationship between the horizontal the horizontal c andthe prism strength can be written as:
Prirm strength= 1.4346c + 7.6943(4)

Prism strength (ksc)Fig. 4 Horizontal compressive and flexural strengths of adobe bricks from three sources andthe minimum standard strengths

Horizontal compressive strength,c(ksc)Fig. 5 Relationship between horizontal compressive strength and Prism strength ofadobe bricks from three sources
CONCLUSION
The experimental results show that prism strength is subject to PI of soil and the horizontal c ofadobe bricks. The proportion of sand in the brick mixture affects the horizontal c, while anaddition of rice husks into the mixture reduces the brick shrinkage.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

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B.Eng. Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok.
Khamput, P. 2008. Using rice hush ash for development strength of adobe. Department of Civil Engineering,
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, PathumThani, Thailand.
Promchote, W. 2008. Effect of clay types on strength of unburned brick a sample method for strength test.
B.Eng. Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Rungsit University,
Bangkok.
International Council of Building Officials. 1994. Uniform building code volume 3 materials, testing andinstallation standards. New Jersey, USA.
Das, B.M. 2008. Soil mechanics laboratory manual 7th ed. Oxford University Press, USA.

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Research article
erd

Gas Chromatography with Vacuum-Assisted Sampling
System in the Analysis of Hydrogen-Balanced Nitrogen Gas
SOMPORN PLEANJAI*
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand
Email: spleanjai@gmail.com

YONGYUTH SEANSUPHANAir Liquide (Thailand) Company Limited, Nongkhae, Saraburi, Thailand

SINGTO SAKULKHAEMARUETHAI
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand

WANNASIRI SREVARIT
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand

CHAWISA PINSUWAN
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand

THIDARUT LAOCHAI
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand
Received 30 December 2013

Accepted 1 April 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract A vacuum-assisted (VA) sampling system in gas chromatography (GC) with athermal conductivity detector has been developed to analyze low-pressure hydrogenbalanced nitrogen gas (H2/N2) sample. The objective is to determine hydrogen-balanced
nitrogen gas by GC assembled with the vacuum-assisted (VA) gas sampling systemcomparison to the conventional system, pressure reduced to zero (PRZ) gas samplingsystem. The results show that both systems were not significantly different at the 95%
confidence level. The developed sampling system was applied to analyses the quality of
the low-pressure-volume gas.
Keywords vacuum-assisted sampling system, pressure reduced to zero sampling system,
gas chromatography

INTRODUCTION
Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless and tasteless substance. It present in the atmosphere at aconcentration of 78.1%. It is used widely in commercial and technical applications. As liquid
nitrogen, it is used for cooling in many industrial processes and in the food industry. As gaseous
nitrogen, it is used to form an inert blanket over substances that would otherwise be oxidized by theair. It can be distributed as a cryogenic liquid or as a gas in cylinders (Greenwood, and Earnshaw,
1997, Kaganer et al.1967).
Gas chromatographic methods have been utilized for determination of many compounds
present in air and gaseous mixtures (Slemer et al. 2004, Taverniers et al. 2004). In the conventional
method, the GC with the pressure reduced to zero (PRZ) gas sampling system (or pressure flow
sampling system) is used. This system allows the compressed gas in cylinders or containers flow
into the analysis system of GC as shown in Fig. 1. Unfortunately, this method is available for thegas sample with appropriate volume and pressure. In this work, the vacuum-assisted (VA) gas
sampling system in GC, as shown in Fig. 2, was developed for the analysis of low-pressure gas.
Therefore, the gaseous sample was easily collected by using a gas bag and conveniently transported
to the laboratory.
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The present work describes a developed VA sampling system of GC for determination of low
pressure - volume hydrogen-balanced nitrogen (H2/N2) gas. The result obtained through the use ofthis newly developed sampling system was statistically compared to the conventional samplingsystem of GC.
Flow controller

Sampling system

Column oven

ColumnSample in
Detector

Gas Chromatograph

RecorderSample vent

SampleCarrier gas

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the GC equipped with pressure reduced
to zero gas sampling system

Flow controller Sampling system

Column oven

Sample in
Detector
Gas Chromatograph
Sample bag Sample vent

RecorderVacurm pump

Carrier gas

Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the GC equipped with vacuum-assisted sampling system
OBJECTIVES
Followings are the objectives of this study.
1. To developed the vacuum-assisted sampling system in gas chromatography
2. To analyze the hydrogen-balanced nitrogen gas sample by gas chromatography equipped withthe developed sampling system
METHODOLOGY
The gas chromatograph (GC) with a thermal conductivity detector (TCD) (Agilent, CA, USA) wasused for quantitative analyses of the H2/N2 gas. Ultra high purity argon (Ar) gas cylinder with apurity of 99.99% as the carrier gas was connected to the GC. Separation was carried out in an HPPLOT Molesieve (5Å zeolite molecular sieve, porous layer open tubular) column (30 m  0.25 mm
i.d., and film thickness 0.25 m). The oven temperature was isothermal at 30 C. The detector
temperature was maintained at 250 C.
The standard gas was 49.66% mol H2/N2 gas certificate reference material (CRM).
The working standard H2/N2 gases with different concentrations were individually prepared.
Then the calibration gas mixture was introduced and a chromatogram was recorded. The values ofpeak area (y) were plotted against the concentration (x) of H 2/N2 to obtain a calibration curve.
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Regression analysis for a calibration line, y = ax + b, was carried out by Deming’s least square
method (International Organization for Standardization, ISO6143:2001, 2001).
Analysis of H2/N2 was conducted with a GC- TCD. A vacuum-assisted gas sampling system
and a pressure drop to zero gas sampling system were tested. The results obtained from the analysisof both sampling systems were compared.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The response linearity of the gas analysis by GC equipped with the developed sampling system andthe conventional sampling system were determined by analyzing different concentrations of themixed standard gas containing 10-50% mol of N2. The response factor of the standard solutions
was calculated.
For the GC equipped with VA sampling system, the peak area of N2 gas response was plottedagainst the concentration of standard gas to obtain the calibration curve (Fig. 3(a)) and was foundto be linear over the concentration range of 1-50% mol and the values of correlation coefficient (r2)0.9984. Linear regression least squares fit data are given in Table 2. Mean recovery was estimatedto be 98.45%. The limit of detection (LOD), evaluated as three times the signal-to-noise ratio, wasestimated to be 3.4 mol/mol. The limit of quantification (LOQ) of the method, as theconcentration that produced a signal 10 times the baseline noise, was calculated as 4.2 mol/mol.
The results of precision as relative standard deviation (RSD) of the proposed sampling system aresummarized in Table 2.
For the GC equipped with PRZ sampling system, the obtained calibration curve (Fig. 3(b) was
found to be linear over the concentration range studied with the values of correlation coefficient(r2) 0.9997. Linear regression least squares fit data are given in Table 1. The LOD was estimatedto be 3.2 mol/mol. The LOQ of the method was calculated as 5.3 mol/mol. The results ofrelative standard deviation (RSD) of the PRZ sampling system are summarized in Table 2. The
results indicating that there was no significant difference at 95% confidence level between thedeveloped sampling system and conventional sampling system.
The optimum experimental conditions were used to assess applicability of GC equipped with
developed and conventional sampling systems for quantitative determination of H2/N2 gas sample
analysis. The average analytical concentrations and %recovery of the nitrogen gas samples were
determined by GC. The results, as shown in Table 3, showed that the values of average analyticalconcentration of N2 gas samples (n=3) for GC(VA) and GC(PRZ) were 9.62%mol and 9.70%mol,
respectively. The percentage recovery of gas analysis determined by GC(VA) and GC(PRZ) givevalues in the acceptable range, 100±2% (AOAC Peer-Verified Methods. Nov. 1993). The analysisof the test system and vacuum sampling system is created that can use analyzing. The analysis iscorrect and is in an acceptable range.

Fig. 3 Calibration curves for the standard gases with different concentrations analyzed by
GC equipped with (a) vacuum-assisted (VA) and (b) pressure reduced to zero (PRZ)
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Table 1 Equations, correlation coefficients, and recovery percentage of the N2 in the mixtures
standard
Sampling
system of GC

Calibration curve
equation

VA
PRZ

y = 460,571x + 291,050
y = 491,451x + 11,154

Correlation
coefficient(r2)
0.99840.9997

Mean
recovery
(%)
98.45
97.27

LOD
(mol/mol)

LOQ(mol/mol)

3.4
3.2

4.2
5.3

Table 2 Standard deviation, t-value, and percentage standard deviation of the N2 in the
mixtures standard
SD
tcal
tcrit
%RSD
%RSDr

VA
0.0058-0.1632
4.3
0.05951.1880PDZ
0.0200-0.28454.3
0.10501.1880

Table 3 Analytical concentrations and %recovery of the H2/N2 gas sample analyzed by
GC(VA) and GC(PRZ)
Sampling system of GC
GC (VA)
GC (PRZ)

Analytical concentration (%mol)
9.62
9.70

% Recovery
99.95
99.15

Note: VA = vacuum-assisted sampling system and PRZ = pressure reduced to zero sampling system.

CONCLUSION
In this study, the vacuum-assisted sampling system for GC was developed. It was considered as anefficient sampling system for the determination of H2/N2 gas. The GC equipped with vacuumassisted sampling system compared to the GC equipped with pressure reduced to zero samplingsystem were not significantly difference with a statistical type F-test and t-test at confidence levelof 95%.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was conducted under the Cooperative Education Program-Rajamangala University ofTechnology Thanyaburi (RMUTT) and the Air Liquide (Thailand) Co., Ltd., Nong Khae, Saraburi.
The authors wish to thanks the Air Liquide (Thailand) Co., Ltd., for the provision of all chemical
standards and GC instrument for this work.
REFERENCES
Greenwood, N.N. and Earnshaw, A. 1997. Chemistry of the elements, Second ed. Butterworth-Heimann, U.K.
Kaganer, M.G., Kozheurov, V. and Levina, Zh. L. 1967. Vessel for the storage and transport of liquid oxygenand nitrogen. Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, 3 (12), 918-922.
Slemer, J., Slemer, F., D’Souza, H. and Partridge, R. 2004. Study of the relative response factors of various
gas chromatograph-flame ionization detector systems for measurement of C2-C9 hydrocarbons in air.
Journal of Chromatography A, 1061, 75-84.
Taverniers, I., De Loose, M. and Van Bockstaele, E. 2004. Trends in quality in the analytical laboratory. II.
Analytical method validation and quality assurance. Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 23, 535-552.
International Organization for Standardization, ISO6143:2001. 2001. Gas analysis comparison methods fordetermining and checking the composition of calibration gas mixtures. International Organization forStandardization, Geneva.

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Research article
erd

Evaluation of Nitrate Pollution in River Water atAgricultural Watershed
TOSHIMI MUNEOKA*
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Email: muneoka@obihiro.ac.jp

YURI YAMAZAKI
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, JapanSACHIYO WAKOU
Department of Agriculture, Forestry & Fishery, Ibaraki Prefectural Government, Ibaraki,
Japan

MASATO KIMURA
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, JapanOSAMU TSUJI
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
Received 30 October 2013

Accepted 1 April 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Nitrate pollution of river water and groundwater in agricultural areas is a serious
problem in many countries, and many people are unconcerned with, or ignorant of, theproblem. In recent years, environmental education on the relationship between agriculture
and water has been provided to the general public in many areas in Japan. In this report,
the nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) concentration in river water at the normal water level was
evaluated in two agricultural areas in Eastern Hokkaido. The concentration results
obtained using an official analytical method were compared with those obtained using
simplified methods. By focusing on the differences in the results of the measurement
methods, the applicability of simplified methods for NO3-N concentration to water
environmental education was examined. The investigation was carried out in two
agricultural areas in Eastern Hokkaido in late August 2006. NO3-N concentration wasmeasured using an official method and two simplified methods. The comparison between
the two results showed the NO3-N concentration values measured by using the simplified
methods to be 64% to 72% of those measured by using the official analytical method. The
values obtained from the simplified methods were slight underestimates. However, there
was a significant positive correlation between the two sets of values. Even though someconsideration is necessary regarding the accuracy of the simplified methods, it can be said
that the use of such methods in water environmental education is sufficiently effective. It
is also expected that by actively introducing experience-based environmental education inwhich river water quality is measured by learners using simplified methods, it will bepossible to make environmental education truly useful in the conservation of desirable
watersheds in which sustainable agricultural and forestry are developed and desirable
water quality is maintained.
Keywords NO3-N concentration, simplified method, official analytical method, environmental
education

INTRODUCTION
It is well known that nitrate pollution of river water and groundwater in agricultural areas hasgrown to become a serious problem in many countries of the world. Another fact is that there areⒸ ISERD

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many people who are unconcerned with, or ignorant of, the problems on nitrate pollution of riverwater. In considering the problem of agriculture and water in terms of environmental education andlearning experiences for basic knowledge, it is necessary to evaluate nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N)
concentration in river water in a watershed with agriculture and forestry.
In Japan, there are two major water quality standards that use nitrogen as indices. “TheEnvironmental Standards Concerning the Protection of the Human Health” specifies 10 mg/L as
the highest acceptable combined concentration of NO3-N and nitrite nitrogen (NO2-N). “TheEnvironmental Standards Concerning the Conservation of the Living Environment” specifies
1 mg/L as the highest acceptable concentration of total nitrogen (T-N).
The authors have been investigating the concentration of NO3-N in river water at the normal
water level for many years in two agricultural areas with different land-use characteristics inEastern Hokkaido, which possesses valuable regional characteristics as a part of the region that is
influenced by Asian monsoons (Yamazaki et al, 2013; Muneoka et al, 2013; Yamazaki et al,2014). It is anticipated that investigations that lead to the development of measures for controllingthe amount of nitrate flowing into river water in watersheds in agricultural and forestry areas will
progress by using the basic data accumulated in such activities.
In recent years, university faculties have been providing environmental education to thegeneral public as outreach activities for local communities. One theme is the problem of agriculture
and water (Muneoka et al, 2007; Muneoka et al, 2012).
When researchers and engineers measure the NO3-N concentration in river water for theirinvestigations and studies, they generally follow official analytical methods, such as the Japan
Industrial Standards (JIS). Such measurements involve burdens such as time and expense forobtaining and maintaining facilities and equipment for measurement. Training to foster technicalskills that guarantee the accuracy of measured values is also indispensable.
Currently, a simplified method which makes use of inexpensive and easy-to-use water test kits
is widely available in Japan. These make it possible for lay citizens to perform environmental
surveys and for educators to use them in environmental education for children, who will be themain players in the environmental conservation activities of the future and in lifelong learning
programs for adults. Few studies have tested the accuracy and reliability of these simplified
methods.
This report discusses the evaluation of nitrate pollution in river water in two areas withdifferent agricultural land uses in Eastern Hokkaido, based on the perspective of environmental
education. The NO3-N concentration in river water at the normal water level analyzed using theofficial analytical method and that measured using the simplified methods were compared.
Examination was done on the applicability of simplified methods in water environmental
education, focusing on the difference between the two types of measurement methods.
METHODOLOGY
The two investigated areas are outlined in Fig. 1. The Tokachi area, which has 24 watersheds (No.
1 to 24), is in the northwestern part of the area under the jurisdiction of the Tokachi General
Subprefectural Bureau and is an area with upland and dairy farming. The Nemuro area, which has
11 watersheds (A to K) located in the western part of the jurisdiction of Nemuro Subprefectural
Bureau, is an area mainly of dairy farming.
For the years 1981 to 2010, the annual mean air temperature and the yearly precipitation were
5.9 ˚C and 840.7 mm at Komaba in the Tokachi area, and 5.4 ˚C and 1158.0 mm at Nakashibetsu in
the vicinity of the Nemuro area. Both areas have a relatively cold climate with less rainfall thanother agricultural areas in Japan.
The proportion of land use were determined in the two watersheds, and the investigation of theriver water quality was conducted at the normal water level at 35 sampling points in the two
investigated areas in late August 2006. Later, NO3-N concentration was measured in the laboratory,
using the above-described official analytical method and two simplified methods. The details of thecompared methods are shown in Table 1.
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One simplified method for measuring NO3-N is Pack Test, which use is extremely easy. First,
the sampled water is put in a plastic tube that contains a reagent, and it is shaken several times tomix it well. After 3 minutes, the color of the contents of the plastic tube is compared with the color
in the test kit chart, to determine which color in the chart is closest to the sample color. The closest
color is the NO3-N value for the sample. When the sample color is in between two colors in thechart, the value between the two colors is read. In this way, measurers can visually obtain the
NO3-N value at the range from 0.23 mg/L to 10 mg/L.

Fig. 1 Outline of the Tokachi and Nemuro areas
Table 1 Measurement methods on the NO3-N concentration
Measurement
methodSimplified method

Official analytical method
Chromotrope acid method

Pack Test

Digital Pack Test

Measurement
Equipment

Test tube / Reagents/ Deionized water etc.
(Absorptiometer)

Water Test Kit

Water Test Kit(Test kit chart)(Original absorptiometer)

Measuring range

0.2-30 mg/L

0.23-10 mg/L

0.2-5.0 mg/L

Sensitivity

0.1 mg/L

coarse precision

0.1 mg/L

Coloring time

5 minutes

3 minutes

5 minutes

Measuring value

Numerical value(Digitalized value)Comparison with
"Test kit chart"

Numerical value(Digitalized value)cf:
Naphthylethylene diamine
methodafter zinc reduction

cf:Naphthylethylene diamine
absorptiometry
after zinc reduction

N.B.

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Another simplified method is Digital Pack Test, which is an improved version of theconventional Pack Test, this method (absorptiometer) gives digitized value with an accuracy of 0.1
mg/L to 5.0 mg/L.
In this report, the values of NO3-N concentration in river water obtained from both two
simplified methods and the official analytical method were compared.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Relationship between NO3-N Concentration and Proportion of Agricultural Land Use
From the 35 sampling points in the two watersheds, a positive correlation has been found between
the proportion of agricultural land in the watershed and the NO3-N concentration in river water ineach area as measured by the official analytical method (Fig. 2 (a), (b)). For the area with a highproportion of upland fields, the NO3-N concentration in river water was found to exceed thatspecified in various water quality standards (i.e., total nitrogen concentration of 1 mg/L or lower).
When we consider the problem of agriculture and water and the effect of hands-on learning inenvironmental education, in which the learners actually measure the water quality, it is desirable
that the NO3-N concentration obtained using simplified methods have as high measurement
accuracy as possible.
8.0

Y = 0.055 X
r = 0.89(b) Nemuro area
Y = 0.031 X

3.0

NO 3 -N (mg/L)

6.0

NO 3 -N (mg/L)

4.0(a) Tokachi area

※※

4.0

2.0

r = 0.96

※※

2.0

1.0

0.0

0.0
0

20

40

60

80

100

0

Proportion of agricultural land (%)

20

40

60

80

100

Proportion of agricultural land (%)

Fig. 2 Relationship between NO3-N concentration and Proportion of Agricultural land use(Tokachi and Nemuro areas, 2006)

Difference of Measurement Methods in Relation to the NO3-N Concentration
To compare the NO3-N concentration in river water as measured by the official analytical method(X axis) with that measured by the simplified methods using Pack Test and Digital Pack Test (Yaxis), the regression line that represents the relationship between the two sets of values (Y＝aX)
and the coefficient of correlation r were obtained (Figs. 3 (a), (b) and 4 (a), (b)).
The comparison found a correlation with a significance level of about 1% between Y and X
for both of the investigated areas. The NO3-N concentrations in river water as measured by thesimplified methods were 64% to 72% of those as measured by the official analytical method. The
values as measured by the simplified methods were underestimates. However, it is sufficiently
effective for water environmental education that using the simplified methods to objectively
evaluate the water quality by actually measuring it to determine whether nitrogen levels are safe ornot.
It is hoped that effective education of the general public of a wide range of ages will bepossible by implementing water environmental education that combines conventional lectureoriented learning of basic knowledge on problems of agriculture and water with hands-on learningⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

in which the learners measure the NO3-N concentration of river water. The simplified methodsPack Test, in particular-are very beneficial, because the general public is able to visually determine
the NO3-N concentration in river water easily and at low cost.
4.0(a) Tokachi area
Y = 0.64 X

6.0

Pack test (mg/L)

Pack test (mg/L)

8.0

r = 0.93 ※※
4.0

2.0

(b) Nemuro area
Y = 0.68 X

3.0

r = 0.92 ※※
2.0

1.0

[NO3-N concentration][NO3-N concentration]

0.0

0.0
0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

0.0

Official analytical method (mg/L)

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

Official analytical method (mg/L)

Fig. 3 NO3-N concentration obtained by Pack Test and Official analytical method(Tokachi and Nemuro areas, 2006)
4.0(a) Tokachi area

Digital pack test (mg/L)

Digital pack test (mg/L)

8.0

Y = 0.72 X

6.0

r = 0.95 ※※
4.0

2.0

(b) Nemuro area
Y = 0.68 X

3.0

r = 0.93 ※※
2.0

1.0

[NO3-N concentration][NO3-N concentration]

0.0

0.0
0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

0.0

Official analytical method (mg/L)

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

Official analytical method (mg/L)

Fig. 4 NO3-N concentration obtained by Digital Pack Test and Official analytical method(Tokachi and Nemuro areas, 2006)

Desirable conservation of watersheds in agricultural and forestry areas that takes into
consideration the realization of sustainable agriculture and the conservation of river water quality isalso expected to be possible through the active introduction of hands-on environmental educationin which river water is measured by using simplified methods.
CONCLUSION
In improving the effectiveness of water environmental education such that it combines lectureoriented learning of basic knowledge with experience-oriented learning in which the participantsmeasure river water quality, further improvement in the water measurement methods and theaccuracy of such methods is an indispensable issue to be addressed. It is necessary to examine theapplicability of the simplified methods to environmental problems related to agricultural activities
and water quality indices other than NO3-N concentration.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our gratitude to the research assistance provided by the students, Obihiro
University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine.
REFERENCES
Muneoka, T., Kimura, M. and Tsuji, O. 2012. Outreach activities for irrigation, drainage and rural
engineering in Tokachi district, Hokkaido. Water, Land and Environmental Engineering, 80 (1), 19-22(in Japanese).
Muneoka, T., Tsuji, O. and Ashizawa, M. 2007. Water environmental education in Tokachi district,
Hokkaido. Applied Hydrology, 20, 54-61 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Muneoka, T., Yamazaki, Y., Wakou, S., Shimura, M., Yoshino, K., Tsuji, O. and Tabuchi, T. 2013. The
nitrogen runoff characteristics in agricultural watersheds after enforcement of animal waste regulation.
IJERD, 4 (2), 56-61.
Yamazaki, Y., Muneoka, T., Wakou, S., Shimura, M., Yoshino, K., Tsuji, O. and Tabuchi, T. 2013. The
difference of agricultural land use in watersheds and long term fluctuation on the river water quality.
IJERD, 4 (1), 152-157.
Yamazaki, Y., Muneoka, T., Wakou, S., Kimura, M. and Tsuji, O. 2014. Evaluation of the ion components
for the estimation of total nitrogen concentration in river water based on electrical conductivity. IJERD,
5 (1), 160-164.

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Research article
erd

Metals and Nutrient Seasonal Variations in the NamphongRiver NE Thailand and Land Use Practices
TATIANA KOMAROVA*
Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Inorganic Chemistry Division,
Coopers Plains, Brisbane, Australia
Email: Tatiana_Komarova@health.qld.gov.au

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

ATCHARAPORN SOMPARN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

NATSIMA TOKHUN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

BARRY NOLLER
The University of Queensland, Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation (CMLR), Sustainable
Minerals Institute, Brisbane, Australia
Received 17 January 2014

Accepted 2 May 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The Namphong river catchment in NE Thailand, part of the Mekong River
catchment, has agro-industrial activities, dry land farming, rice cultivation and river cageaquaculture. Most utilize irrigation while larger industrial activities extract groundwater.
The tropical wet and dry seasons cause variation in river flow. Potential effects of water
quality may arise annually from constituents introduced by agricultural and other practices.
Nutrients are added to soil to improve agricultural production and directly to the river incage aquaculture from fish feed. The seasonal variations were considered from heavy
metals (cadmium, copper, iron, manganese, lead and zinc) and nutrients in the NamphongRiver during one annual cycle and their relationships to water quality. Water samples werecollected from 10 sites along the Namphong River in January 2012 (dry season mean flow
8 sec/m) and 9 sites in September 2012 (wet season mean flow 28 sec/m). Labile metals
estimated by the Diffusive Gradient in Thin Films (DGT) technique showed no toxicity toaquatic biota. Most metals showed concentration and location consistency in both seasons.
Iron and manganese in pulp mill discharge and vegetable cultivation downstream showed
high concentrations in September indicating a groundwater or saturated soil seepage
source from reducing conditions. Nutrients decreased by half from January to September;
total N was higher at upstream sites in January while nitrate and orthophosphate were notsignificant and pH and electrical conductivity were consistent for both seasons. Hardness
and alkalinity increased in September and were highest in pulp mill discharge indicating agroundwater source. Total and suspended solids were affected by wet season runoff.
Variations in metals and nutrients in January and September were attributed to differencesin Namphong River flow and from seasonality and agricultural activities. Large agroindustries, particularly pulp, contributed the highest concentrations of nutrients and metals
to the river.
Keywords metals, nutrients, seasonal, variations, river flow, land use practicesⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

INTRODUCTION
The Namphong River in the NE part of Thailand is within a sub-catchment of the Mekong River(Fig. 1). The Namphong River flows to the Chi River and via the Mun River to the Mekong River.
Below Ubolratana Dam, there are extensive agro-industry and farming activities along theNamphong River. The wet-dry agricultural activities use irrigation from dam storage and some
supplementary groundwater supply. A key question is: what are the effects of seasonal variations ofheavy metals and nutrients in the Namphong River and their relationships to other water quality
parameters associated with agro-industry and farming activities. The prevailing tropical wet anddry seasons cause variation in river flow. The background water quality is influenced by water
seepage through geological strata and soil before entry to the main river channel. Nutrients areadded to soil to improve agricultural production and in river cage aquaculture are transferred
directly from fish feed to the river water. Potential effects are therefore possible from constituents
added to river water during the annual cycle that may arise from heavy metals and nutrients
introduced by agricultural, aquaculture, urban discharges from Khon Kaen to tributaries and otherpractices.
OBJECTIVE
This study aimed to understand the effects of seasonal variations of heavy metals and nutrients in
the Namphong River during one cycle and their relationships to other water quality parameters
associated with land use practices comprising agro-industry and small-scale farming activities
along the Namphong River, a sub catchment of the Mekong River located in NE Thailand. The
study compares water quality data with existing water quality criteria during one annual wet-dry
season cycle.
METHODOLOGY
Water samples were collected from 10 sites along the Namphong River in 19-23 January 2012 and9 sites 20-24 September 2012 (Fig. 1). Site C is on a small tributary less than a few km to theNamphong River from the pulp and paper mill (Fig. 1.C). Water quality parameters including
heavy metal and nutrient concentrations were measured using standard techniques (APHAAWWA-WEF, 1998). Concentrations of labile metals were estimated by the Diffusive Gradient inThin Films (DGT) technique (Komarova et al. 2012, 2013). The DGT accumulates labile metal
species in waters (Davison and Zhang, 1994; Davison et al. 2000; Zhang and Davison, 1995; Zhang
and Davison, 2000). The DGT technique incorporating passive sampling gives an integrated
concentration measurement (Davison and Zhang 1994) and was previously described formeasurement of labile metal forms in water and predicting their toxicity to aquatic biota(Komarova et al. 2012, 2013).
The DGT passive samplers were deployed to accumulate labile heavy metals at the 10 sites(Fig. 1) and were used to measure labile metal forms in waters at sub-nanogram per liter levels.
Passive samplers are defined as human-made devices where sample collection is completely
passive (Komarova et al. 2012). Measurements were made of pH, electrical conductivity (EC),temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration in river water using field equipment. Active(direct) sampling was employed to collect water samples (1L) before and after DGT deployment at
each site in January and September for total dissolved solids (TDS), suspended solids (SS), total
alkalinity (mg/L CaCO3), hardness (mg/L CaCO3), nutrients [total N and P, nitrate (NO3-) andortho-phosphorus (P)] and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). All measurements on the active water
samples were undertaken in the field or at the Division of Land Resources and Environment,
Department of Plant Sciences and Agricultural Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen
University. Following deployment, DGTs were sent by air courier to the Queensland HealthForensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), Inorganic Chemistry laboratory at Coopers Plains,
Australia, for the extraction of the heavy metals from the gel and analysis by inductively-coupledⒸ ISERD

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plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS). The time-averaged concentration of dissolved heavy metal
species in the bulk solution, C, is then calculated using the DGT equation derived from Fick’s firstlaw of diffusion (Komarova et al. 2012, Zhang and Davison, 1995).

Fig. 1 Location of study site in the Mekong River basin NE Thailand (Maps A and B) andsampling sites along the Namphong River (Map C)
Sites A – Ubolratana Dam; B – fish cage (in-river cage aquaculture for Tilapia production); C – pulp/paper industrial
plant (discharge via small tributary to main river); sugar industrial plant; C2 cucumber culture; C3 corn culture; Dovegetables culture; D vegetable culture and paddy fields; E vegetables culture; and F – vegetables culture, residential
discharge to Chi River just upstream from confluence with Namphong River

Water quality was assessed by comparison with the Water Quality Standards of the Pollution
Control Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Thailand and the protectionof the aquatic ecosystem of the Australian ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000) decision tree process forassessing heavy metal toxicity in water. Site-specific trigger values for metals were calculated byusing a correction for hardness (mg/L CaCO3) to the default ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000) heavy
metal guideline value. Aquatic metal toxicity decreases with increasing water hardness as soluble
metal is precipitated. The metal concentrations in labile or bioavailable forms (DGT technique) andmetals in particulate and insoluble colloidal fractions were also measured following filtration(<0.45µm membrane) and were shown to be much higher compared with the bioavailable fractionsof metals in Namphong river water (Komarova et al. 2013).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Tables 1 and 2 give average water quality and nutrient data for January and September at the 10
sampling sites (Fig.1). The Namphong River mean flow was 3.6 times lower in January (dry season
mean flow 8 sec/m) compared with September (wet season mean flow 28 sec/m). Table 3 gives
average labile metal concentration data using DGTs [cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), iron (Fe),manganese (Mn), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn)] for each sampling period at the 10 sampling sites.
The water quality shows little difference in pH, DO and DOC between January and September.
Temperature was lower in January (mean 24 0C) compared with September (mean 32 0C) (Tables 1
and 2). Mean EC (TDS) in January was 65% of September and indicated wet season flushing ofsalts or groundwater contribution to the river; both alkalinity and hardness showed the same feature.
Mean SS in January was 51% of September indicating wet season runoff of solids and anⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

association with EC. DOC was higher in September showing the effect of runoff or biologicalactivity in the river. Total N in January and September were similar but in January the contribution
from upstream was higher and was subsequently diluted moving further downstream. Nitrate waslower in September indicating dilution with wet season flow. Total (not shown) and ortho-P wereboth similar in January and September but localized additions to river water were apparent. Water
quality standards for Thailand (Tables 1 and 2), excepting SS, were not exceeded.
Table 1 Seasonal variations of water quality in the Namphong River
Sampling site

pH
Jan
7.4

Sep
7.4

EC(µS/cm)
Jan
Sep
94
116

Temp (0C)Jan
Sep
23.0 31.9

DO (mg/L)
Jan
Sep
6.28 5.20

SS (mg/L)
Jan
Sep
53
213

TDS (mg/L)
Jan
Sep
46
59

A. Ubolratana
B. River cage
7.7
7.4
86
106
23.0 32.3 5.45 5.78
80
274
47
52
aquaculture
1790
C. Pulp mill
8.2
8.4
1250
1040
25.0 31.7 5.88 4.60
1067
672
508
C1.Sugar mill
7.8
7.4
97
143
25.0 32.8 5.29 5.18
360
314
52
62
C2.Cucumber
7.9
7.5
80
154
23.0 32.2 7.65 6.20
107
264
47
76
C3. Corn
7.7
7.4
99
122
23.0 32.7 7.31 5.62
80
290
51
61
Do.Vegetable
7.9
7.3
102
164
25.0 32.6 5.46 5.20
133
210
55
80
D. Vegetable/
7.9
7.4
106
191
25.0 33.1 5.75 5.44
120
287
55
95
paddy field
E. Vegetable
7.7
7.5
109
171
25.0 33.4 5.54 5.05
150
244
57
84
F. Vegetable
7.8
7.4
110
181
25.0 30.8 5.47 4.72
150
317
57
89
Note: Water Quality Standards Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Thailand
Freshwater animal Temperature (0C) 23-32, pH 5-9, Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) 3 min., Suspended solids (mg/L) 25 max.

Table 2 Seasonal variations of water quality and nutrient content in the Namphong River
Hardness(mg/L CaC03)
Jan

Sep

Jan

Sep

Jan

Sep

Jan

Sep

A. Ubolratana

18

64

684

2.3

4.6

23

10

1.8

1.2

B. River cageaquaculture31

Sampling site

65

DOC
(mg/L)

Total N
(mg/L)

NO3(mg/L)

Alkalinity(mg/L
CaC03)
Jan
Sep

Ortho-P /Total P (mg/L)
Jan
0.04/
0.34

Sep
0.004/
0.40

0.05/
0.002/
0.36
0.26
0.22/
0.024/
C. Pulp mill
131
190
227
1289
2.3
22.5
28
8
2.5
0.5
1.31
2.6
0.05/
0.002/
C1.Sugar mill
24
59
70
532
3.4
3.7
19
11
3.1
1.1
0.39
0.25
0.04/
0.008/
C2.Cucumber
29
74
69
613
1.9
5.3
23
12
2.9
1.4
0.37
0.88
0.04/
0.008/
C3. Corn
12
65
67
412
1.8
4.0
12
10
2.0
1.1
0.33
0.94
0.04/
0.007/
Do.Vegetable
18
70
65
839
1.3
4.1
13
12
1.9
1.1
0.35
0.72
D. Vegetable/
0.04/
0.006/
23
55
69
549
3.6
6.2
12
12
3.0
1.0
paddy field
0.33
0.64
0.04/
0.006/
E. Vegetable
30
61
61
377
2.9
5.9
12
10
2.2
0.8
0.36
0.53
0.03/
0.006/
F. Vegetable
30
65
66
499
3.1
3.2
7
9
2.4
1.2
0.36
0.68
Note: Water Quality Standards Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Thailand
protecting Water Source Class 3 (applies to Namphong River). NO3-N 5 mg/L; Effluent Standard B Point Source Total
TKN (mg/l) 35, Total N (mg/L) 410, Total P (mg/L) 0.5.
63

66

745

1.9

8.8

26

11

2.8

1.0

The labile metal DGT concentrations for Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn are very low and do not exceed
the Water Quality Standard Class 3 (Table 3). Comparison of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn labile
concentrations against the ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000) criteria adjusted for hardness (Table 3)
indicates that these metals are not likely to be toxic to aquatic biota in the Namphong River.
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Table 3 Seasonal variations of labile metal concentrations using DGT (passive) sampling(average of before and after DGT sampling for 19-23 January and 20-24 September
2012, respectively)
Sampling site

Cd (µg/L)
DGT conc.
JanSep

Cu (µg/L)
DGT conc
Jan
Sep

Fe (µg/L)
DGT conc
JanSep

Mn (µg/L)
DGT conc
Jan
Sep

Pb (µg/L)
DGT conc
Jan
Sep

Zn (µg/L)
DGT conc
Jan
Sep

A. Ubolratana
B. River cageaquaculture
C. Pulp mill

0.021

0.00

0.39

0.37

0.68

1.19

9.17

0.032

0.00

2.96

3.86

0.021

0.01

0.30

0.40

2.43

4.03

6.76

27.9

0.024

0.00

2.75

2.90

0.020

0.00

0.24

0.41

34.3

31.5

269

106

0.049

0.00

2.16

4.08

C1.Sugar mill

0.021

0.00

0.22

0.02

2.19

1.39

13.0

8.62

0.026

0.00

2.08

2.04

C2.Cucumber

0.021

-

0.19

-

27.8

-

21.5

-

0.040

-

1.68

-

C3. Corn

0.021

0.01

0.23

1.71

15.5

35.2

20.6

66.7

0.042

0.05

3.82

6.08

Do.Vegetable
D. Vegetable/
paddy field
E. Vegetable

0.020

0.00

1.45

0.23

8.23

18.5

23.9

126

0.031

0.00

1.42

2.65

0.020

0.00

0.25

0.36

4.84

5.26

30.8

32.1

0.13

0.00

9.25

0.93

0.020

0.00

0.21

1.17

3.00

9.23

16.9

36.4

0.17

0.05

8.53

1.40

F. Vegetable

0.027

0.00

0.28

0.19

8.00

3.31

26.9

16.8

0.50

0.00

1.47

1.33

4.80

Note: Water Quality Standards Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Thailand
protecting Water Source Class 3 (applies to Namphong River): Cd 5 µg/L (hardness <100 mg/L CaCO 3) or 50 µg/L
(hardness >100 mg/L CaCO3); Cu 100 µg/L, Pb 50 µg/L and Zn 1000 µg/L. Trigger value (µg/L) 95% of aquatic species
protection (adjusted for hardness) Cd (0.5 µg/L), Cu (3.5 µg/L), Fe (-), Mn (-), Pb (13.6 µg/L) and Zn (20.0 µg/L)(ANZECC/ARMCANZ, 2000).

The Mn and Fe DGT concentrations show high levels in the pulp mill effluent at Site C and atdownstream Namphong River Sites C2, C3 and Do (Fig. 1.C). Below Site Do labile Fe decreases tolevels similar to upstream while labile Mn decreases but remains higher than found upstream. It isclear that the source of labile Fe and Mn at and below Site C2 is different from Site C and thelocation of Site C2 is more than 20 km downstream from Site C (Fig 1.C). Thus there is a different
source of labile Fe and Mn at and below Site C2 which may be shallow seepage from watersaturated soil, including paddy fields as there is no increase in total alkalinity and hardness asobserved at Site C (Table 2). The Cu DGT concentrations are low but show some increase at Sites
C3 (September), Do (January) and Site (E) (September) (Fig. 1.C).
Wet season transfer of particulate and soluble constituents is a key feature of the water quality
data from this study. The industrial area (Sites C and C1 - pulp and sugar mills) was a major
potential source of contamination of the Namphong River associated with increased levels of labile
heavy metals in both sampling periods. The increase of total alkalinity, hardness and EC (Tables 1
and 2) for both periods confirms that groundwater was being used in the pulp mill (Site C). The
release of Cu and Pb in the Namphong River occurred in the area of rice and mixed vegetable
cultivation (Sites C3 - E) and was most likely related to extensive pesticide use (metals in thepesticides used such as carbamates). At Site F in the Chi River labile metal levels were low,
excepting for Fe and Mn, and were similar to the Namphong River at the upstream Site A (Fig 1.C).
The overall finding is that there is little effect on the water quality of the Namphong River
from upstream to downstream, from the extensive river cage aquaculture and vegetable farms, andpaddy fields and taking account of dilution removing observed additions of suspended solids andlabile metals from the major agro-industrial activities located upstream.
CONCLUSION
Variations in the levels of heavy metals and nutrients were observed in the Namphong River inJanuary and September 2012. These variations could be attributed to differences in river flow andassociated with seasonality and agricultural activities in the catchment. Although the industrial area
(pulp and sugar industries) is a major source of contamination of the Namphong River with heavy
metals, there is sufficient dilution from the Namphong River to give safe levels downstream forprotection of aquatic species. The outcome of this study will help to develop more focusedmonitoring of specific toxic heavy metals at particular locations on the Namphong River.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Integrated Water Resource Management Research and Development
Center in Northeast Thailand, Khon Kaen University, Thailand. We thank Clinical and Statewide
Services (CASS), Queensland (Australia) for the financial support and staff of Inorganic Chemistry
Division of QHFSS (Australia) for assistance with sample analyses and data interpretation. Aung
Naing Oo, Suraden Chason, and Pantakarn Wanciaen from Khon Kaen University assisted withfield work. Dharawan Noller prepared the maps.
REFERENCES
APHA-AWWA-WEF. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 20th Ed.
American Public Health Association, Washington.
ANZECC/ARMCANZ. 2000. Australian water quality guidelines for fresh and marine water quality.
Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource
Management Council of Australia and New Zealand.
Davison, W., Fones, G., Harper, M., Teasdale, P. and Zhang, H. 2000. In situ monitoring of aquatic systems:
Chemical analysis and speciation. J. Buffle, G. Horvai (Eds.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 495.
Davison, W. and Zhang, H. 1994. In situ speciation measurements of trace components in natural waters
using thin-film gels. Nature, 367, 546-548.
Komarova, T., Boonthai Iwai, C., Somparn, A., Tokhun, N. and Noller, B. 2013. Passive sampling approach
to identify contaminants in a tropical freshwater river system. Int. J. Environ. Rural Devt., 4, 154-159.
Komarova, T., Olszowy, H., Noller, B. and Golding, G. 2012. The diffusive gradients in thin films technique(DGT) for trace metals versus active sampling. Int. J. Environ. Rural Devt., 3, 169-174.
Zhang, H. and Davison, W. 1995. Performance characteristics of diffusion gradients in thin films for the insitu measurement of trace metals in aqueous solution. Anal. Chem., 67, 3391 -3400.
Zhang, H. and Davison, W. 2000. Direct in situ measurements of labile inorganic and organically boundmetal species in synthetic solutions and natural waters using diffusive gradients in thin films.
Anal.Chem., 72, 4447-4457.

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Research article
erd

Assessment of Rice Assistance Program for Institutional
Development in Selected Municipalities of Bohol,
Philippines
HERMIL EMELIE T. OCLIASA
Agricultural Technologist, Local Government of Balilihan, Bohol, Philippines

JOSE T. TRAVERO*
Bohol Island State University, Bohol, Philippines
Email: jose_travero@yahoo.com
Received 1 November 2013

Accepted 9 July 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study evaluated the performance of the Rice Assistance Program for
Institutional Development (RAPID) in selected municipalities of the province of Bohol,
Philippines. There were 240 farmer beneficiaries of the program who served as
respondents for the normative survey conducted. Seed was commonly availed by thebeneficiaries and respondents revealed that delivery of inputs was on time and repayment
was also on time. During the implementation of the program beneficiaries observed
problem which is the failure of the Community Organizers to visit farmer’s field. With
regards to the performance of the farmer beneficiaries, majority affirmed that theirattendance to meetings and involvement in the activities have increased after the program
was implemented. There was also an observed increase of members in the organization.
On the impact to the environment majority affirmed that the project resulted to having
increased soil fertility and fewer pest incidences in their crops. On the economic aspect,
respondents revealed that there was an increase of their yield and income after the
program. The results of the study made the researchers to recommend the following: 1) the
project should be institutionalized in the Municipal Local Government Unit. This means
the local government must allocate funds for its sustainability especially for the travelling
expenses of the technicians who will do the monitoring and evaluation of the project. Once
institutionalized, 2) the project shall not be confined to the irrigated and compact areas sothat farmers with small landholdings and those in rainfed areas can also avail of theassistance of the project.
Keywords community organizers, respondents, sustainability, compact areas, landholdings

INTRODUCTION
Rice Assistance Program for Institutional Development (RAPID) was a project of the province of
Bohol, Philippines which was implemented in 2008-2011 in response to the food crisis byproviding high quality rice seeds to the farmers as a strategy to increase production. RAPID wasdesigned to strengthen the campaign for farmers to use hybrid or certified seeds, empower such
farmers in the management of the business of their accredited association and strengthen the riceseed system in the province (Bohol Rice Industry, 2005).
For decades, agricultural science has focused on boosting production through the developmentof new technologies. It has achieved enormous yield gains as well as lower costs for large-scalefarming. But this success has come at a high environmental cost. Further, it has not solved thesocial and economic problems of the poor in developing countries, which have generally benefitedthe least from this boost in production (Sundstrom, 2013).
Various studies on different Rice production Programs have been conducted to discuss thefactors that affect implementation of these programs (OPA, 2006). The national programs were thelocal version of the Green Revolution which had been promoted in many developing countries inⒸ ISERD

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the early part of the 1970s. Farming modernization created ecological, economic and socio-cultural
impacts (Quirog, 1994).
A study revealed that during the implementation of the Rice Action Program (RAP) in Bohol,
rice yield increased from 2.60 tons per hectare to 3.48 tons per hectare. This was primarily broughtby the increase in fertilizer usage and the use of high quality seeds (Quirog, 1994).
This study was done to assess the performance of the Rice Assistance Program for
Institutional Development (RAPID) in the province of Bohol.
METHODOLOGYThis study was conducted in 2012 in the ten (10) selected municipalities of Bohol province where
RAPID was implemented in the year 2008-2011. The sites included the towns of Balilihan,
Alburquerque and Catigbian (first district); Dagohoy, Trinidad, San Miguel and Ubay (second
district); and Alicia, Batuan, Bilar (third district). There were 240 randomly selected farmer
beneficiaries who participated in the research process using the normative survey method whichcollect the information through the knowledge of individual members of the farmer group with theaid of the questionnaire, interview and observation techniques. The questionnaire was translated
into the dialect to facilitate easy understanding by the respondents. Research protocol was properly
observed before the data gathering was done. This means necessary permits were secured at theprovincial and municipal levels to ensure coordination and assistance of concerned agriculture
officials in the study sites. Questionnaires were distributed and retrieved personally by the
researchers to ensure that all items are properly answered.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Farming Socio-Demographic Profile of the Respondents
Profile of the respondents in terms of area of rice farm, tenurial status, and number of years infarming, trainings and seminars attended related to rice farming and availment of the assistance of
RAPID was documented.
Area of rice farm: Survey proved that 190 or 79.2% of the farmers owned 0.25 to 1 hectare ofriceland, 39 or 16.3% owned 1.1 to 2 hectares and 11 or 4.6% of the farmer beneficiaries owned a
2.1 to 3 hectares of riceland.
Tenurial status: A total of 140 or 58.3% respondents were owner-operators, 108 or 45% were
tenants while 35 or 14.6% were part-owners and 13 or 5.4% were leases.
Number of years in farming: Survey showed that of the total respondents 129 or 53. 8% haveexperienced 11 to 25 years in farming, 46 or 19.2% has an experience of 1 to 10 years in farming
while 46 or 19.2% have experienced 26 to 40 years in farming, 17 or 7.1% have experienced 41-55
years in farming and only 2 or 0.8% have an experience of 56 years and above. Survey showed thatthe average year of farming experiences for most of the respondents was twenty-two (22) years.
Trainings and seminars related to rice farming: The findings showed that one hundred sixty
seven (167) or 69.6% of the total population have attended trainings on rice production and,Farmers Field School (FFS) using palaycheck system; (12) or 5% attended Integrated Pest
Management seminar; nine (9) or 3.8% have attended integrated farming system palayaman andtechnical briefing on rice production; twelve and; four (4) or 1.7% on System of RiceIntensification (SRI). Of the respondents, forty eight (48) or 20% have not attended any seminars
or trainings. at all.
Availment of the assistance of RAPID: There were three components of assistance that the
program provided. These include the following; seed assistance, fertilizer assistance and crop
insurance assistance. Among the respondents, one hundred sixty seven (167) or 69.6% availed of
the seed assistance only in RAPID; forty eight (48) or 20% availed of the seeds and fertilizer
assistance while twenty three (23) or 9.6% availed of the three item assistance which is the seeds,Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

fertilizer and crop insurance and only two (2) or 0.8% farmers availed of the seeds and crop
insurance assistance.
Significant Impact of the Program to the Environment
Fertility of soil: In the survey conducted, good/fertile soil was being rated by three categories
namely fair, good and very good: at the rate of ten (10) where 10 was the highest five (5) was fair,eight (8) was good and ten (10) was very good. When asked to rate the fertility of their soils before
RAPID was implemented, forty three (43) or 17.9% said that the fertility of their paddies was poor;
One hundred fifty four (154) or 64.1% believed that their soil was fair; thirty four (34) or 14.1%
stated that their soil was good enough and nine (9) or 12.8% affirmed that their soil was very good.
After the implementation of the program, eight (8) or 3.3% said that their paddies were poor and
not fertile; ninety six (96) or 40% pointed out that their paddies were fair in fertility; One hundred
twenty one (121) or 50.4% claimed that there paddies was good in fertility and fifteen (15) or
23.1% asserted that their paddies were very fertile.
Occurrence of pest: Before the implementation of the program, study shows that six (6) or 2.5%of the total respondents have not experienced pest infestations in their rice farm; while one hundred
fifty five (155) or 64.5% said that it seldom happen to have pests in their farm; on the other hand
sixty nine (69) or 28.7% said that their farms was always infested by pests and fifteen (15) or 6.2%
revealed that their farms was frequently attacked by pests. After the program was implemented, ten(10) or 4.1% revealed that there was no infestation of pests in their farm; One hundred fifty (150)or 62.5% said that their farm was seldom attacked by pests and eighty (80) or 33.3% proved that
their farm was often infested with pests.
Occurrence of diseases: Survey showed that before the program was implemented, five (5) or
2.1% said that it never happen to have a disease infestation in their rice farm; one hundred fifty five(155) or 64.5% have experienced that their farm was rarely attacked by diseases; seventy (70) or
29.1% declared that their farm was always infested with diseases and ten (10) or 4.1% stated that
their farm was frequently attacked by diseases. After the implementation of the program study
revealed that of the total respondents ten (10) or 4.1% did not experienced any occurrence ofdiseases in their farm; one hundred fifty seven (157) or 65.4% seldom experienced disease
infestation in their farms; sixty five (65) or 27.1% stated that their farms have always experiencedisease infestation and eight (8) or 3.3% said that they frequently experienced their farm being
attacked by diseases.
Nutrient management: Before the program was implemented thirty (30) or 12.5% of the total
respondents used animal manure as fertilizer to enhance the growth of rice while after the program
was implemented a number of farmers using animal manure increased to thirty nine (39) or 16.2%.
Using green manure as fertilizer was practiced by twenty eight (28) or 11.6% of the total
respondents before the RAPID implementation and the practice were continuously done by thirty
five (35) or 14.5% after the program. Usually farmers plowed back rice straws to their rice fields as
fertilizer for the next crop and survey showed that before the program was introduced one hundred
eighteen (118) or 49.1% of the total respondents do the practice and one hundred twenty eight(128) or 53.3% still continue to do the practice after the implementation of the program.
Survey revealed that of the total respondents two hundred thirty (230) or 95.8% appliedcommercial/inorganic fertilizers in their farms even before RAPID was implemented and two
hundred twenty nine (229) or 95.4% applied the same after the program. Of the total respondents,
there was one farmer who did not apply any fertilizers before and after the program was
implemented.
Pests and diseases management: Before the implementation of RAPID, the farmers used different
methods to manage pests and diseases in their farms. In the management of weeds, farmers havealways appreciated the efficiency of the human factor to pull the weeds growing with the rice
plants. One hundred eighty two (182) or 75.8% practiced hand weeding throughout the earlyvegetative part of the rice plants before the RAPID program was introduced and one hundred
eighty six (186) or 77.5% do the same after the program was implemented. Use of herbicides was
not encouraged in the introduced POT during the technical briefing prior to the delivery of inputs.
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However survey showed that before the program started it was found out that of the total
respondents forty one (41) or 17.1% applied herbicide in their farms and thirty five (35) or 14.5%
still continue to apply herbicides after the program was implemented. It is evident that the presenceof insects and snails were most common in rice farming and one way to manage this was byhandpicking of the pests and other diseased plant parts to control the spread of these diseases to thenon affected plants. Study confirmed that that the practice of handpicking insects and snails weredone before and after the RAPID program was implemented. Before the program was introduced it
was practiced by one hundred fifteen (115) or 47.9% and one hundred sixteen (116) or 48.8% of
the total respondents do the same after the program. Though using of chemical insecticides was notpromoted by the POT introduced by the program but still it was widely used by most of the
respondents before and after the program was implemented. One reason why they would stillinsists to apply chemicals was because farmers want to make things easy for them. Applying
chemicals was for them the very easy way to control insects and diseases. Assessment showed that
one hundred fifty seven (157) or 65.4% used chemical insecticides before the program wasintroduced and one hundred fifty three (153) or 63.7% after the program was implemented.
Social Performance of the Farmer Beneficiaries before and after the Program
With regards to attendance to meetings, 75%-100% attendance was done by 15 or 6.2% before
RAPID and 50 or 20.8% after RAPID; 51%-75% attendance by 55 or 22.9% before RAPID and
128 or 20.8% after RAPID; 26%-50% attendance by 107 or 44.5% before RAPID and 47 or 19.5%
after RAPID and a 0-25% attendance by 63 or 26.2% before RAPID and on the performance of thebeneficiaries on every activities done by the organization, 100% involvement was made by 12 or
5% prior to the program and 50 or 20.8% after the program; 75% involvement by 57 or 23.7% prior
to the program and 119 or 49.5% after the program; 50% involvement by 108 or 45% prior to theprogram and 59 or 24.5% after the program and a 25% involvement by 63 or 26.2% prior to theprogram and 12 or 5% after the program.
Increase in number of members and activities of the IA / FA. Findings of the survey showedthat all the respondents affirmed an increase in the number of members and activities in theirassociation after implementation of the program. Reason for this was the interest of the farmers tohave privilege to avail of the benefits of the program.
Economic Performance of the Farmer Beneficiaries before and after the Program
It was found out that the average income of the farmers was 19,333.65 before the program and it
increased to an average of P31, 503.70 after the program. This was attributed to an increase in yieldfrom 1.57 tons per hectare before the program to 2.36 tons per hectare after the program
Statistical test revealed that there is a highly significant difference on the social performanceof the farmer beneficiaries before the program and after the implementation of the program at 1%
level of significance at computed T at 21.80 (attendance to meetings), 20.85 (participation toactivities), 19.86 (increase in number of members) and 39.62 (increase in number of activities ofthe organization). This implies that the difference in the social performance of the farmer
beneficiaries before and after the program is highly significant.
Statistical test revealed that there is a significant difference on the farm performance of the
farmer beneficiaries on the environment aspect before the program and after the implementation of
the program at 5% level of significance at computed T at 9.68 (soil fertility), 2.48 (pest infestation)and 2.04 (disease infestation). This implies that the difference in the farm performance of the
farmer beneficiaries on the environment aspect before and after the program is statisticallysignificant.
Statistical test revealed that there is a highly significant difference on the social performanceof the farmer beneficiaries before the program and after the implementation of the program. Thisimplies that the difference in the social performance of the farmer beneficiaries before and after the
program is statistically highly significant.
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Statistical test revealed that there is a significant difference on the performance of the farmer
beneficiaries on the environment aspect before the program and after the implementation of the
program at 5% level of significance. This implies that the difference in the performance of the
farmer beneficiaries on the environment aspect before and after the program is statisticallysignificant.
Statistical test revealed that there is a highly significant difference on the performance of the
farmer beneficiaries on the economic aspect before the program and after the implementation of the
program at 1% level. This implies that that the difference in the farm performance of the farmer
beneficiaries on the economic aspect during and before the program is statistically highly
significant.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Majority of the farmer beneficiaries of RAPID were male whose age ranges from 46-60 years oldand mostly owner-operators of their farm. Most of them were married, high school graduate andhad 11-25 years of farming experience in an area that ranges from 0.25 to 1.0 hectare. Most of
RAPID beneficiaries have attended seminars related to rice farming. Seed assistance was the
RAPID component mostly availed by the farmers.
Majority of the respondents revealed that there was a timely delivery of seeds and fertilizers
and farmer-beneficiaries paid their obligation on time. An increase on the attendance of meetings
and their involvement on other activities of their association were observed after the program.
Majority of respondents revealed having fertile soil and fewer pest and diseases incidence
after the program. Use of commercial fertilizer and hand weeding were common practices evenafter the program. Respondents revealed that they observed increase in average yield and income.
There was a highly significant difference on the economic, social and environmental
performance of the farmers before and after the program.
One major problem identified by the respondents on the implementation of RAPID was thefailure of some technicians to visit farmer’s fields.
It is recommended that RAPID be institutionalized at the municipal level by allocating ayearly budget to include travelling expenses of agricultural technicians and shall be extended evento farmers with rain feed rice areas.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was made possible through the financial support of Agricultural Training InstituteVII, Department of Agriculture, Philippines.
REFERENCES
Bohol Rice Industry. 2005. Value chain analysis and development Plan 2006-2012. Bohol. Philippines.
Office of the Provincial Agriculture Bohol Province. 2008. Narrative year-end accomplishment report, Officeof the Provincial Agriculture Bohol Province. Philllipines.
Quirog, L.M. 1994. The effects of rice action program on Bohol on the agricultural practices of the farmer
beneficiaries and its implications to agricultural promotion administration as a basis for a proposed
alternative sustainable rice production program. Master Thesis in Public Administration, University of
Bohol. Tagbilaran City, Philllipines.
Sundstrom, L. 2013. What challenges does agriculture face today. (Available from; http://www.
greenfacts.org/en/agriculture-iaastd/l-2/1-agriculture-challenges.htm June 2013).

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Research article
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Evaluating Participation Level of Farmers in Project on
Promoting Sustainable Farming Systems in Samroung
Commune of Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia
JUN FUJIHIRA
Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Email: hq-erecon@nifty.com

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 26 October 2013

Accepted 9 July 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In Cambodia, 71% of labor force engage in agricultural sector and contribute
36% on 2010 of Gross Domestic Products. Recently, conventional farming based on agrochemicals application is a major farming practice in the country. However, the applicationof agricultural inputs, especially chemical pesticides are not appropriate from a point ofview of sustainable farming practice. As the mainstream farming systems based on agrochemicals are not only deteriorating natural environment and ecosystem but also affecting
human health. For preventing these impacts, attention has been paid to sustainable farming
systems. For promoting sustainable farming systems based on natural resource circulation,
Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON) and Tokyo
University of Agriculture implemented project in Samroung commune of Kampong Champrovince, Cambodia since April 2011. From previous studies, it was concluded that
extension approaches which are applied in Samroung commune is effective in order tochange farmer’s awareness for converting their farming system. In addition, the farmers inSamroung commune have motivation and potential for converting from conventionalfarming systems to sustainable farming systems. However, for understanding participationlevel of farmers properly, this study evaluate participation level of farmers from 2011 to2013 and examine appropriate incentive for improving participation level based on thequestionnaire and interview survey. This study concluded that participation level offarmers was improved through project activities year by year and there are someincentives for improving farmer’s participation level. It can be said that participation level
was improved according to change of interests and build incentives related to project
activities.
Keywords participation level, sustainable farming systems, sustainable agriculture basedon natural resource circulation

INTRODUCTION
According to Ngo and Siriwattananon (2009), agriculture has utmost important role for reducing
poverty and improving the capacity for human resource development in rural area. On 2010,
Cambodia has population of 14 million and 71% of labor force engages in agricultural sector andcontributes 36% of Gross Domestic Products (Asian Development Bank, 2011). In this country,
conventional farming systems based on agro-chemicals become a mainstream to meet market’s
demand. But chemical pesticides effect not only positive but also negative for the environment andhuman. It is also a problem that farmers do not have enough knowledge about applying agrochemicals.
For producing foods and fiber materials on a sustainable basis harmonizing agricultural
production with the natural environment, the conversion from conventional farming systems tosustainable farming systems is considered. In this study, sustainable farming systems is defined as a
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system that can evolve indefinitely toward greater human utility, greater efficiency of resource use
and a balance with the environment which is favorable to humans and most other species(Harwood, 1990).
For promoting sustainable farming systems based on natural resource circulation, Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON) and Tokyo University of Agriculture
implemented project in Samroung commune of Kampong Cham province, Cambodia since April
2011. For 450 local farmers as well as students and teachers in 10 elementary schools, the project
not only extended techniques for sustainable agriculture but also supported to form farmers’ group,
organize project team on agricultural market survey and product sales, educate teachers throughleader training, and establish Pellet Compost Center in Samroung commune. From previous studies,
it was concluded that extension approaches which are applied in Samroung commune is effective inorder to change farmer’s awareness for converting their farming system. In addition, the farmers inSamroung commune have motivation and potential for converting conventional farming systems tosustainable farming systems. However, for understanding awareness of farmers properly,
participation level also needs to be studied.
According to Chambers (2005) cited in Beatrice (2008), participation enables people to realize
their rights to participate in and access information related to the decision-making processes which
affect their lives. Pretty (1995) stated that participation is one of the critical components of success.
His analysis also revealed that the outcome is seen as participation when people’s ideas andknowledge are valued and power is given to them to make decisions independently of external
agencies. On the other hand, Beatrice (2008) studied that development program with top-down
initiatives hardly reach the people which the programs are meant for.
In order to understand participation level of farmers properly, this study evaluate participationlevel of farmers and examine appropriate incentive for improving participation level based on thequestionnaire and interview survey conducted in Samroung commune of Kampong Cham province,
Cambodia. This study defines incentive as something that encourages people to do something(Oxford dictionary, 2005).
STUDY SITE
Study site of the study comprised of 11 villages which are located in Samroung commune, Phrey
Chhor district, Kampong Cham province, Cambodia. This commune is located 83 kilometers from
Phnom Penh city (Fig. 1). The commune has population of 8,111 people on 2011 (ERECON, 2011).
Main agricultural product is paddy rice mainly for both of sales and self-consumption, meanwhile,
several kinds of vegetables also produced by farmers In Samroung commune, agro-chemicals areapplied for production in order to increasing yield.

Kampong Cham province

Cambodia

Phrey Chhor district

Kampong Cham province

Samroung commune
Phnom Penh
0

0

20km

100km

Fig. 1 Location of Samroung commune in Kamong Cham provinceⒸ ISERD

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METHODOLOGY
In this study, incentive of improving participation level of farmers in Samroung commune wasstudied. For achieving objective, the study was advanced through 1) questionnaire survey, 2)interview and 3) field investigation. Through questionnaire survey and field investigation, 9farmers who have high participation frequency compare to other farmers were selected forunderstanding their incentives through questionnaire survey (Fig. 2). The questionnaire wasdesigned to measure 1) farmer’s time sharing for agricultural activities including technical training,meeting, etc. and 2) comparison of their former and present interests related to agriculturalactivities. Besides, some farmers who not only participates activities such as meeting frequently but
also considers improving their circumstances voluntarily were interviewed for detail information.

Fig. 2 Conducting questionnaire survey
Table 1 A typology of participationNo.
1

Typology
Manipulative Participation

Characteristics of each typeParticipation is simply a presence, with "people's" representatives on
official boards but who are unelected and have no power.
2
Passive Participation
People participate by being told what has been decided or has alreadyhappened. In involves unilateral announcements by an administration or
project management without any listening to people's responses.
3
Participation by Consultation
People participate by being consulted or by answering questions. External
agents define problems and information gathering processes, and so control
analysis.
4
Participation for Material
People participate by contributing resources. They may provide the fields
Incentives
and labor, but are involved in neither experimentation nor the process oflearning.
5Functional Participation
Participation seen by external agencies as a means to achieve project goals,
especially reduced costs. People may participate by forming groups to meet
predetermined objectives related to the project.
6
Interactive Participation
People participate in joint analysis, development of action plans andformation or strengthening of local institutions. Participation is seen as aright, not just the means to achieve project goals.
7
Self-Mobilization
People participate by taking initiatives independently of external
institutions to change systems.
Source: Pretty (1995) , Mihara and Yamaji (2004)

In addition, participation level of farmers was evaluated and compared from 2011 to 2013
based on the participatory level developed by Pretty (1995) which is cited in Mihara and Yamaji(2004). The typology of participation is divided into seven types as Table 1. It is because that highparticipation of farmers is essential for sustaining output of the project.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Typology of Participation
Through observation of farmer’s contribution and participation frequency toward project activities
and interview, participation level was measured by authors based on typology of participation
composed by Pretty (1995). In initial stage of the project on 2011, typology of participation of
farmers was level 2, participation by consultation. It is because interviewees mainly answeredquestions and consulted by project implementer. But on 2013, farmer’s participation level was
marked as level 5 or 6 because members of farmers’ group start to communicate and shareknowledge each other. Moreover, key farmers especially committee members of farmers’ group
started to participating decision making on action plan and expanding techniques for sustainableagriculture to other farmers. However, some farmers who have high participation level evaluated aslevel 7 because they consider problems by themselves and improve their environment voluntary.
For example, some farmers set irrigation system in vegetable farm, expand their vegetable field byfill up pond with soil, start collaboration with private company for vegetable selling, and dick big
pond near vegetable field without recommendation from implement organization. They also try to
improve agricultural techniques of other farmers based on natural resource circulation throughshowing, explaining and accepting visitors at their farm.
Result was similar to the studies of Siriwattananon and Mihara (2006), and Ngo andSiriwattanannon (2009). Their studies described that participation level at the 1st workshop wasvery low at level 2 or 3 but it changed to level 6 in the 3rd workshop after farmers understood wellabout benefits of introduced technique.
Change of Time Sharing for Agricultural Activities after the Project Implementation
For promoting sustainable agriculture based on natural resource circulation, the project
implemented several activities. For example, from April 2011 to March 2012, 41 technicaltrainings about techniques for sustainable agriculture were implemented and totally 414 farmers
were participated. Project team meeting and additional training such as pellet compost making werealso conducted for key farmers such as committee members of farmers’ group occasionally. In
addition, technical trainings were also conducted at Thailand and Japan in order to learn advanced
agricultural techniques, management system of farmers association, etc. Totally 20 farmers
participated in these trainings in 2012 and 2013. (ERECON, 2012 and 2013).
By asking change of working time on agricultural activities, it was revealed that many farmers
became busy after project started because project implementer organized many kinds of technicaltraining, meeting, and etc. Normally, technical training organized by two hours and meeting at least
an hour. However, some farmers who have incentives participated these kinds of activities properly
even they were busy with their own activities.
By asking reasons of their participation, 100% of interviewee answered 1) learning knowledge
and techniques related to sustainable agriculture, 2) holding the relationship with international
Non-Governmental Organization (ERECON), 3) taking materials for conducting sustainableagriculture by ERECON, and 4) contributing improve farming way in Samroung commune werereasons of their time sharing (Fig. 3).
It can be said that farmers hope to learn and improve knowledge and technique to sustainableagriculture because it will be contribute to improve farming way in their commune. Michael (1997)
mentioned one of issues on participation is acceptability of implementer. For proving it, good
relationship with project implementer, international Non-Governmental Organization, is also
answered as reason for farmer’s time sharing.
Beatrice (2008) found that lacking of funds to start up business after training is one oflimitation for improving participation level. As same as Beatrice, result of questionnaire shows that
distribution of necessary materials for conducting sustainable agriculture is also important
incentive for farmers. In addition, all of trainees of technical training at Thailand and Japan fromⒸ ISERD

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target group answered these kinds of technical training were surely one of incentives for keeping
their time sharing. Therefore, project activities and relationship with implementer seems importantfactor to change participation level of target farmers.

Fig. 3 Making compost with supported compost box (left) and farmers learned
how to make bio-fertilizer through technical training in Thailand (right)
Changes in Interests in Sustainable Agriculture of Farmers before and after the Project
Implementation
For understand project impact toward awareness of farmers on sustainable agriculture, theirinterests in sustainable agriculture before and after the project implementation were compared(Table 2). Results of questionnaire survey showed that it was obvious that interest in sustainableagriculture of interviewee seems to change after the project implementation. As mentioned before,
farmers increased their interest on sustainable agriculture through project activities such as meeting,technical training and practicing of techniques for sustainable agriculture.
Although almost all of farmers had interest to increase crops yield by conventional farming
systems before the project, nobody hope to increase yield by conventional farming systems after
the project implementation. It is because that farmers start to care more about their health andreduction of expense for agro-chemicals.
Table 2 Interests of farmers before and after the project implementation on April 2011
No.

Interest related to agricultural activities

1

To increase yield of crops by applying chemical fertilizer
and pesticide2
To sell many kinds of crop to middleman3
To grow crops with lower chemical input
4
To make higher quality compost
5
To use bio-fertilizer with higher quality
6
To use bio-pesticide with higher quality
7
To build up collaboration with private company
8
To build up collaboration with NGO (ERECON)
Source: Questionnaire survey in 2013, ERECON

Answer (N = 9)
(Before)(After)
8
0
7
5
2
2
2
1
1

3
8
9
8
9
7
9

In addition, almost all of interviewee increased their interest on improving technique forsustainable agriculture such as compost, bio-fertilizer and bio-pesticide. Target farmers also
increased interest on build up collaboration with private company and NGO. It can be consideredthat farmers start to think collaboration with private company because the project tries to expand
collaboration with private company in order to sell agricultural products widely. Some privatecompanies visited and observed some farmers for checking possibility of further collaboration.

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CONCLUSION
According to the results and discussion done in this study, participation level was level 2 on 2011
because target farmers just answered questions and consulted by implementer. Farmers also
participated in activities after contents and schedule decided by implementer. However, it waschanged to level 5 or 6 on 2013 and members of farmers’ group start to communicate and shareknowledge each other. In addition, key farmers especially committee members of farmers’ group
started to participating decision making on action plan and expanding techniques for sustainableagriculture to other farmers. Some farmers became participation level 7 because they consider andtry to improve their circumstances by themselves.
Besides, it can be concluded that there are some incentives for improving farmer’s
participation level. These are 1) build motivation for learning, 2) relationship with implementer, 3)
distribution of materials and 4) participation to technical training in other countries. In addition,
project activities seem to change interest of farmers from conventional farming systems tosustainable farming systems.
It can be said that participation level was increased according to change of interests and build
incentives on project activities from 2011 to 2013. So, for promoting sustainable farming systems
effectively, further project needs to be designed for improving farmers’ interests and incentives
through various activities and communication between target farmers and project implementer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors would like to express their appreciation to all of colleagues at the Institute of Environment
Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON) and related organizations.
REFERENCES
Asian Development Bank. 2011. Key indicators for Asia and the pacific 2011. (Available from;www.adb.org /statistics).
Beatrice, O. 2008. Strengthening rural agricultural training program through participation and training needs
assessment. Netherlands.
ERECON. 2012. Annual report 2011 of program on promoting sustainable agriculture at Kampong Champrovince in Cambodia. Consortium of Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation andTokyo University of Agriculture, Japan.
ERECON. 2013. Annual report 2012 of program on promoting sustainable agriculture at Kampong Champrovince in Cambodia. Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan.
Harwood, R.R. 1990. The history of sustainable agriculture. In Sustainable Farming Systems. Edwards et al.
(eds), 3-19.
Michael, K. 1997. Participation in development: The question, challenges and issues. A Symposium
Background Paper. Symposium on participation in development; the question, challenges and issues.
Mihara, M. and Yamaji, E. 2004. Participatory strategy for soil and water conservation. Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation, 231-240, Japan.
Ngo, B. and Siriwattananon, L. 2009. Suitable timing of application of pelletized compost and farmers’
acceptance in Cambodia. J. ISSAAS, 15 (1), 91-100.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (Seventh Edition). 2005. Oxford University Press. UK.
Pretty, J. 1995. Participatory learning for sustainable agriculture: International Institute for Environment andDevelopment, World Development, 23 (8), 1247-1263.
Royal Government of Cambodia, et al. 2002. Integrated pest management farmer training project Cambodia.
Royal Government of Cambodia, Cambodia, 1-7.
Siriwattananon, L. and Mihara, M. 2006. Granular compost development and farmers’ adaptability in Khon
Kaen, Northeast Thailand. Journal of Arid Land Studies, 154, 483-486.

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Research article
erd

Cheese in a Suck: Exploring History, Production Area andProduction Process of a Typical Herzegovinian Product
SLAVICA SAMARDZIC*
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of Republic of Srpska, Banja Luka,
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Email: slavica92000@yahoo.com

HAMID EL BILALI
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Valenzano, Bari, Italy

SABAHUDIN BAJRAMOVIC
Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

VERA KANLIC
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of Republic of Srpska, Banja Luka,
Bosnia and Herzegovina

ALEKSANDAR OSTOJIC
Univercity of Banja Luka, Agricultural Faculty, Banja Luka, 78000, Bosnia and Herzegovina

SINISA BERJAN
University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, 71123, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia andHerzegovina

ANA SAVKOVIC
Business Economics Academy, Cacak, 32000, Serbia
Received 19 November 2013

Accepted 10 July 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Traditional and typical products have gained during the few last decades animportant role in strategies for the development of remote rural regions. Herzegovina
region is widely recognized and well-known for a unique gastronomic product; cheese in asuck. Uniqueness of this product derives from one phase of the production process - theripening phase. The cheese ripens in sheep skin bags. Justification for choosing skin bag as
a container for ripening and keeping cheese lies in history. The present research was
carried out as the legal protection of a product with a Geographical Indication requires
proofs of the historical existence of that product on a certain territory as well as thedescription of production technology and the mapping of the geographical area where
product is made. The paper is based on an extended secondary data analysis and a fieldsurvey. Field research was carried out in 2011 using semi-structured interviews with asample of 35 producer households - with a particular focus on women and the elderly - inthe territory of Herzegovina. A checklist dealing mainly with the product history, theproduction area and the production technology and process of this typical Herzegovinian
product was prepared for semi-structured interviews. Obtained results have proved thatcheese in a suck has a long history and dates back to the 14th century in Herzegovina
region. Usage of sheep skin bag as a packing material during the ripening process is aunique method itself. Cheese in a suck is a typical product connected with Dinara
mountains in Herzegovina. Protection of cheese in suck will foster its contribution to thedevelopment of Herzegovinian rural areas.
Keywords cheese in a suck, history, production method, HerzegovinaⒸ ISERD

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INTRODUCTION
Among the leading trumps of the development of rural areas during the few last decades stand out
high quality products that have age-lasting production history in a certain region. Such products
have become a part of identity and cultural heritage of territories of origin. Probably the most
famous gastronomic product of Herzegovina territory is cheese in a suck. In 2006 this cheese wasinserted in a list of Presidia, products with unique characteristics, promoted by Slow Food.
With the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 1992 and the introduction ofrural development pillar, has been developed for the first time a clear framework and systematic
approach for local and traditional products valorization. In parallel with the establishment of legal
framework, has been developed academic literature on this topic. As a result of that typical
products are no more seen only like foodstuff but, as Giovannucci et al. (2009) state, as a“particularly interesting model for development”. Some countries have approached very seriously
the model of rural areas development based on typical products valorization. This is particularly thecase in countries such as Italy, France and Spain.
According to the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO, 2010), a geographicalindication (GI) is a sign used on goods that have a specific geographical origin and possess
qualities, reputation or characteristics that are essentially attributable to that origin. When GIs arelegally registered, they take such forms as Appellation of Origin (AO), Protected Designation of
Origin (PDO) and Protected Geographical Indications (PGI) (Belletti et al., 2011).
Products deriving from a limited geographical area undoubtedly contribute to increasing thequality of life, of both producers and consumers. The introduction of an institutional system ofprotection of Geographical Indications (GI) and valorization of systems in which they exist
contribute to faster and sustainable development of rural areas (Bramley, 2011).
Not any product can be considered as a typical one. Marescoti (in Brunori et al., 2006)
identified four elements for defining typicality: embedded specific local resources; history andtradition of production; presence of local collective know-how; and a defined geographical area.
From these guidelines it is clear how much is important to collect all historical proofs about
existence of some product on a certain territory. Also, it is of crucial importance to justify thereasons for the use of a specific local resource like sheep skin bag in the case of Herzegoviniancheese in a suck. Any product which pretends bearing a legal sign or label of known and protected
geographical origin, or to be a Presidium of Slow Food, should comply with some criteria such as:
to possess a distinctive quality that is defined by local practices and traditions; to be linked to thememory and identity of a producing group; and to be linked to a specific area. These facts gave abase for carrying out the present research on the elements of typicality for cheese in a suck.
The research was carried out with the purpose to prepare Bosnian-Herzegovinian typical
products to be protected with Geographical Indications. The paper aims at providing some insights
about the history, production area and production process of cheese in a suck.
METHODOLOGY
In order to protect a product with the name of a geographical area it is necessary, among otherrequirements, to create a product specification that includes: a) name to be protected, b) descriptionof the product including raw materials, c) definition of the geographical area, and d) description of
the production method (Regulation EU No 1151/2012).
The paper is based on an extended secondary data analysis and a field research carried out in2011 with the members of 35 farmer households - especially women and elders - in eightmunicipalities of Herzegovina region: Berkovici (7 households), Bileca (1), Konjic (4), Ljubinje(3), Ljubuski (1), Posušje (1), Prozor/Rama (5), and Nevesinje (13). Data were collected bycarrying out semi-structured interviews focusing on production history, area of production andtraditional production method. Herzegovina (22% of the country area) is the southern region of
Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is in general accepted that Herzegovina region’s borders are Croatia(southwest), Montenegro (east), the Maglić Mountain (northeast), and Ivan planina (north).
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Cheese in a suck belongs to the group of semi-hard cheeses. It is made from cow, sheep or goat
non-pasteurized milk, or milk mixture of these species. Written proofs from the 14 th century
confirm its presence since then in Herzegovina territory. The main uniqueness feature of thischeese derives from one producing phase, ripening, that is performed in a special sheep skin bag.
History of Production
For centuries the livelihood of inhabitants of Dinara Mountains was mainly based on livestock
rising. Nomads used to move with their herds of sheep, cows, horses and other livestock in Dinara
Mountains for more than six months per year. Since some centuries ago there were no means oftransport or good roads, the main shepherds’ and their families’ foodstuffs were milk and dairy
products. However, even so they did not manage using the whole produced milk. That was aserious problem especially in hot summer months as they had no coolers and other appliances thatthey could have used to store milk for a long period. So they could only rely on theirinnovativeness and ingenuity to find a solution to this problem and to avoid loosing milk, which
represents one of few resources that they had.
It is commonly known since the earliest times that milk in a sheep skin coagulates by itself due
to the action of existing ferments in sheep skin. It is assumed that people in ancient times wanted touse skin bag, not only for coagulation of milk, but also for keeping cheese for a longer period.
Sheep skin proved to be a good utensil and was kept up to the present time. Thanks to that cheese
in a suck has become a hallmark of Herzegovinian culinary heritage.
Existence of cheese in a suck in Herzegovina is evident in many written records, as well as
through oral stories that have passed on through generations. Thus, Sarić (2009) in a study in theframework of “Protection and valorization of agricultural products of interest for Herzegovina”
project states that there is written evidence of cheese production from the 14th century. According
to the same author “By the end of the 16th century Herzegovina donated cattle to Dubrovnik in
unlimited quantities and up to 800 kg of cheese in a suck". The same author further states: "Theearliest legal act in Turkish text for Branichevo province from 1487/8 listing the mandatory items
that each household has to provide to the Bey states: one tent, three ropes, six halter, one cheese ina suck and one sheep....”. In the same text it is also stated: “Cheese and cream are packed in sheep
skin bags and with horses and donkeys brought to the Herzegovinian squares."
History bears secrets and gives answers about production technologies and processes chosen
by communities at different times of their history. Scarce land resources, severe weather
conditions, and ingenuity in subsistence options and strategies are just some of the many
hypotheses that explain the emergence and survival of cheese production modes in Herzegovina as
well as in the whole Dinaric. About the choice of keeping cheese (“Sir”) into a skin bag, the Italianjournalist Carlo Macchi (2006) wrote an amazing article entitled “The Golden Fleece”. Here is aparagraph of the article: “…I had also found answers to many “mythological” questions. I always
wondered why the Argonauts were glad to risk their own lives searching for a golden mutton’sskin, and now I know: they were looking for the “Sir” and not for the golden fleece. How much
would a bunch of rough soldiers care for a simple, wrinkly (yet precious) skin? They were only
looking for something to feast on, please their senses with, and thus feel closer to the gods…”.
Looking at the global level, similar technology for cheese ripening in sheep skin bags wasobserved only in Turkey specifically in Tulum cheese production area. However, as written
evidence proves the presence of cheese in a suck in Herzegovina region before Ottomans empire
advent in Balkans (Sarić, 2009), there is no doubt that cheese in a suck is a unique product ofDinara Mountains and as such is unique and inseparable from this geographical area.
Area of Production
Through history the area of production of cheese in a suck was linked to Dinara mountains, which
stretches from Croatia through Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro to Serbia. However, theⒸ ISERD

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production of cheese in most of the areas where it was previously produced is almost entirely
abandoned. It is now largely concentrated in specific Herzegovinian sites. As Sarić (2009) states:"The area of cheese production is the whole region of Herzegovina. This area stretches from theborder with Montenegro to the east, to the area of Livno and Kupres to the west which are Livano
cheese producing areas. To the south the production area borders with Croatia, while on the northside includes Nevesinje, Konjic, Prozor-Rama and Kupres”.

Fig. 1 Territory of production
Traditional Method of Production
The main steps of the traditional method for the production of cheese in a suck are the following:
preparing sheep skin bag; curdling of milk; whey separation; stacking and salting cheese in the bag;and ripening and storage of cheese (Table 1).
Geographical Indication (GI) products have positive effects on social features of communities
from which they derive (Belletti et al., 2011). By improving market access, GIs can lead to higher
incomes. But GIs have a further potential income effect through the collective process of value
creation (Barjolle and Sylvander, 2000; Barjolle and Salvadori, 2010). The economic benefits ofgeographical indications come mainly from differentiation (Belletti et al., 2011; Moschini et al,2008). GI overcome the dimension of pure economic benefit for producers and expands the rangeof effects on consumers, rural areas, and to entire regions and countries (Bramley, 2011). It is
widely articulated that protected GIs may contribute to rural development (cf. Van de Kop et al.,2006; Zografos, 2008). Nevertheless, GI laws cannot by themselves guarantee benefits for ruraldevelopment (Hughes, 2009; Belletti et al., 2011). These effects depend strongly on the quality ofthe supply chain governance (Hughes, 2009).

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Table 1 Traditional production process
Production
step
Preparationof sheep skinbagCurdling of
milk

Whey
separation

Stacking andsalting
cheese in thebag

Ripening andstorage ofcheeseLast stage

Description
As the sheep skin bag is a basic element of uniqueness and typicality ofcheese in suck, its proper preparation is of extreme importance for ripen
cheese quality. Preparation of the suck is the phase that requires special
craftsmanship and attention. After slaughtering sheep, suck is washedtogether with wool. Thereafter, the wool is shaved and the suck turned
so that the inner part goes outside.
With strong rope should be shut all holes on the suck, and then thesuck is inflated and hanged and smoked for several days. When thesuck overnights in smoke, without changing its shape, it means that it is
not anywhere perforated and can be safely used for cheese ripening andstorage. When the outside part of the suck gets smoked, then holes on
the suck should be untied to let smoke get into inner parts. Smoked suckhas to be washed properly, then inflated again to the point when easy
handling during cheese inserting is possible (usually 1 to 2 days).
Immediately after milking, milk should be filtrated through a thickwoven cotton cloth and warmed to 35C. According to producers from
Nevesinje, in early cow lactation 10 liters of milk are needed to obtain 1
kg of cheese, while at the end of the lactation period only 5-6 liters are
required.
Rennet should be added to the filtrated and warm milk. The length ofthe curdling phase depends of strength of rennet and milk temperature.
It can last between 1 and 1.5 hours. During curdling it is necessary to
repeatedly stir the cheese mass. Curdling is complete when whey
reaches yellow-green color and cheese begins to settle on the bottom of
the pan.
When cheese is settled on the bottom of the pan, the portion of thewhey floating on the surface should be drained out. The remaining massof cheese and whey should be transferred to another pot on whose
surface has been previously put a cotton cloth. Then the edges of thecotton tissue have to be taken and gently squeezed by hands to remove
as much whey as possible.
After that, the wrapped and shaped cheese block has to be placed
under the press e.g. large stone. The cheese remains under the stone forabout 12 hours. Pressing should be done properly, as if in cheese pastry
remains whey, it may create holes and give bitter, unpleasant taste to
the cheese.
Just before inserting cheese in the bag, cheese blocks should be broken
by hands into smaller pieces and salted. To 30 kg cheese should be
added 1 kg salt. Once salted, cheese should be left to overnight in orderto drain out the rest of whey.
Then, the salted and dry small pieces of cheese should be inserted in
the skin bag through the “neck” hole of the suck, while all otheropenings should be closed. Several times during the insertion into thebag, cheese should be pressed with wooden beater or by hand, to avoid
any possible formation of air rooms in the suck. When the suck is filled
up, the neck should be tied and the suck transferred to the ripening
room.
Cheese should be stored in dark rooms, specifically designated for thispurpose, where the temperature is between 12C and 15C andhumidity between 60% and 70%. The sucks are placed on a wooden
plank in such a way that they do not touch each other during ripening.
Sucks should be turned daily at the beginning of ripening and then lessfrequently. The ripening takes a minimum of two and a maximum ofeight months. During the summer months it is necessary to maintain aconsistent room temperature (ideally 12-15°C).

Illustrations

Prepared sheep skin bag

Curdling of milk

Separation of whey

Inserting cheese pieces
into the suck

Ripening of cheese

At the end of the production process and after the removal of skins, the dry cheese takes the form of
lumps of various sizes with a diameter not exceeding 10 cm. Cheese paste is white to yellowish.

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CONCLUSION
Traditional and typical products are the result of complex production systems strictly interrelatedwith many territorial dimensions. Geographical indications have positive effects on producers andthe wider regions of origin. The legal protection of GI products is often conceived as a lever for
activating local development dynamics and defending territorial production systems with a highdegree of site specificity. However, achieving these dynamics is not a simple process and requires
concerted efforts.
Revival and valorization of typical products ensures not only their legal recognition andprotection and their economic development but is also a very promising model for the developmentof the region of origin. At the same time, it provides good benefits to different segments ofcommunities, not just producers. Development advantages range from the provision of new sociocultural values to the more tangible economic benefits (employment growth, higher incomes). In
addition to direct benefits, there is a number of indirect ones (e.g. tourism).
The uniqueness of cheese in a suck makes this product very appealing not only as a foodstuff,
but also as cultural heritage admired by all visitors of Herzegovina. The potential that this cheese
bears should be utilized as a driver for fostering rural development in Herzegovina region.
One of the practical results of this research is drafting specifications for the production of theauthentic traditional Herzegovinian cheese in a suck. This is a very important document formembers of the Association of producers. Also, these specifications are intended to be used as a
document for application to a protected geographical indication for cheese in a suck.
REFERENCES
Barjolle, D. and Salvadori, M. 2010. Geographical indications and international cooperation in developing
countries: an exploratory analysis of projects and institutions. FAO, Rome.
Barjolle, D. and Sylvander, B. 2000. PDO and PGI products: market, supply chains and institutions. Final
Report, FAIR 1-CT95-0306, June. European Commission, Brussels.
Belletti, G., Marescotti, A., Paus, M., Reviron, S., Deppeler, A., Stamm, H. and Thévenod-Mottet, E. 2011.
The effects of protecting geographical indications: ways and means of their evaluation. Publication No 7
(07.11); second, revised edition; Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property, Bern.
Bramley, C. 2011. A review of the socio-economic impact of geographical indications: considerations for thedeveloping world. Paper prepared for presentation at the WIPO Worldwide Symposium on Geographical,
Indications, June 22-24, 2011, Lima.
Brunori, G., Belletti, G., Cerruti, R., Marescotti, A., Pacciani, A., Rossi, A., Rovai, M. and Scaramuzzi, S.
2006. Guide for valorisation of typical agrofood products. Concepts, methods and tools. ARSIA,
Florence.
Hughes, J. 2009. Coffee and chocolate: can we help developing country farmers through geographicalindications? Report prepared for the International Intellectual Property Institute, Washington D.C.
Macchi, C. 2006. The golden fleece. Giornale on-line di Enogastronomia: Winesurf. (Retrieved on; 2.5.2006.
Available online at: http://www.winesurf.it/index.php?file=onenews&form_id_notizia=31&lang=en).
Moschini, G., Menepace, L. and Pick, D. 2008. Geographical indications and the provision of quality inagricultural markets. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 90 (3), 794-812.
Sarić, Z. 2009. Analysis of local production system for typical Herzegovinian product - Cheese in a suck.
Project: Protection and valorization of agricultural products of interest for Herzegovina, NGO UCODEP,Sarajevo.
Van de Kop, P., Sautier, D. and Gerz A. 2006. Origin based products: lessons for pro-poor market
development. Royal Tropical Institute (KIT) and CIRAD, Amsterdam.
WIPO. 2010. Geographical indications-an introduction. World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO),
Geneva. (Available from; http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/freepublications/en/geographical/952/
wipo_pub_952.pdf)
Zografos, D. 2008. Geographical indications and socio-economic development. IQSensato Working Paper,
No 3, Geneva.

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Research article
erd

In vitro Cultures and Colchicine-Induced Tetraploidy ofSundew (Drosera spatulata Labill.)
PIYAVADEE CHAROENWATTANA*
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand
Email: piyavadeec@yahoo.com
Received 20 January 2014

Accepted 21 July 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Sundew (Drosera spatulata Labill.) has become a favorite ornamental plant
because of their carnivorous nature, the beauty of their glistening traps and their value as
medicinal herb. It is also because of their low propagation rate in their natural environmentthat in vitro propagation of carnivorous plants is pursued. The objective of this research
was to cultivate sundew in vitro to increase its propagation rate. The tetraploid of D.
spatulata was induced by the colchicine treatment, providing valuable plant material forfurther breeding programs. Plantlets of D. spatulata were cultured on MS agar medium(pH 5.4-5.8), and growth and survival rates were observed. The results showed the highest
survival of 100 percent in an MS (pH 5.6) medium. Results observed after nine weeks
showed that a 1/3MS (pH 5.6) medium promotes the highest growth with an average plant
diameter of 25.95 mm. For tetraploids induction, plantlets were immersed in aqueous
solutions of colchicine (6 and 12 mg l-1) for the duration of one week. The effects ofdifferent concentrations on survival and growth were recorded. Putative polyploids wereidentified by stomata density and stomata size. The ploidy level was determined bychromosome counting. The survival rate of treated plantlets decreased in all treatments.
The most efficient colchicine concentrations were in the range from 6 to 12 mg l-1. The
chromosome number of the tetraploid plants was 2n = 4x = 40, while that of the control
diploid plants was 2n = 2x = 20. The diameter of the tetraploid plants increased, and thelength of the leaves and number of inflorescences were more than those of the diploid. The
tetraploid plants derived from exposure to colchicine exhibited variations, such as larger
stomata and lower density of stomata.
Keywords Drosera spatulata, colchicine, tetraploid, micropropagation, MS media

INTRODUCTION
The genus Drosera (Droseraceae), commonly called sundew, is the largest group of carnivorous
plants and consists of approximately170 species. Drosera spatulata Labill. is one of the mostwidespread sundews in nature. D. spatulata is a carnivorous species native to south-east Asia andAustralia (Junipers et al., 1989). It is a rosette-forming spoon-leaved sundew. This species iswidely variable, but generally plants are about 4 cm in diameter. Each leaf is attached to the central
rosette by a narrow 8 mm long petiole that is only glandular on the upper half. Individual leaf
laminae are typically 5 mm long and 4 mm wide. In early summer, plants will produce 8 cm tall
erect shapes with around six small white or pink flowers on each one-sided racemose inflorescence.
Each flower can be up to 6 mm across (International Carnivorous Plant Society, 2013).
Carnivorous plants are a phenomenon in the plant kingdom and are valued as ornamental
plants. They capture their prey by means of specialized trapping devices, which is an additional
way to obtain protein - a source of nitrogen that is essential for the proper development of allorganisms (Williams and Bennet, 1982). Apart from their ornamental value, the Drosera has
medicinal significance. Extracts of these plants, containing 1,4-naphthoquinones, are used as
antispasmodic agents in the treatment of respiratory tract ailments (Junipers et al., 1989). Due tothe pharmacological significance of Drosera spp., there is great demand for plant material that has
been met mainly through the exploitation of natural resources. As a solution for saving endangered
species as well as alternative sources of plant material for pharmacological purposes, in vitroⒸ ISERD

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culture of plants from the Droseraceae family has been employed (Jayram and Prasad, 2005).
For D. spatulata the chromosome numbers of 2n= 20, 40, 50 and 60 have been reported(Rivadavia and Preto, 2005).Changes in chromosome numbers may be induced via exposure ofplant tissue to various chemical preparations and forms of electromagnetic radiation (van Harten,
1998). Colchicine is an alkaloid derived from the bulbous plant Colchicum autumnale L. (autumn
crocus) (Ranney, 2003; Eigsti and Dustin, 1955). The chemical induces tetraploidy by disrupting
the metaphase stage of cellular mitosis through inhibition of the spinder fibers that segregate
replicated chromosomes into daughter cells (Eigsti and Dustin, 1955; van Harten, 1998; Recupero,
et al., 2005). Colchicine has been found to have a significant effect on polyploidy induction andthus has been widely used for inducing polyploidy in plants. Inducing polyploidy is an effectivemeans for the generation of innovative germplasm resources suitable for selective breeding.
From a single plant cultivated in vitro, many genetically identical clonal lines can be obtained
through vegetative propagation. This technique allows for an increase in the propagation rate ofvaluable plant material. In vitro micro-propagation offers a means of multiplication of ornamental
plants, rare and endangered species, as well as plants that are a source of secondary metabolites.
Mitotic polyploidization induced through chemical treatment was also used to increase the genetic
variability. Polyploids exhibiting valuable new phenotypic traits can occupy new niches andbecome agricultural and horticultural importance.
OBJECTIVE
The aim of this research was to develop the in vitro micro-propagation of D. spatulata throughoptimization of the culture medium and its pH to increase the propagation rate. The application ofcolchicine to induce tetraploidy in D. spatulata was also determined.
METHODOLOGY
Plant materials and growth conditions: The seeds of D. spatulata were surface sterilized andcultured on Murashige and Skoog (1962) for 18 months. Once the cultures were established, theseplantlets were used as initial materials in all experiments. The plants were maintained at 25±2 °C
under 8 h photoperiods with a light intensity of 3,200 lux. The experiments were carried out during
2012-2013 at the Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology
Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand.
Effect of pH levels: The plantlets were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium,
containing 3% (w/v) sucrose and 0.7% (w/v) agar at pH 5.4, 5.6 and 5.8. For each treatment four
replications of 16 plantlets were tested. The experiment was repeated two times and data wererecorded on survival rate, plant diameter, and the length and width of leaf for 7 weeks.
Effect of different strengths of MS medium: The experiment was carried out in a completely
randomized design (CRD) with four replications of 16 plantlets. The plantlets were cultured on the
different strengths of MS medium (1/3, 1/2 and full strength) at the optimum pH based on theprevious experiment. Their survival rate, plant diameter, and the length and width of leaf over thecourse of 9 weeks were observed and recorded.
Tetraploid induction: In order to compare the effect of colchicine on D. spatulata, the plantlets
were transferred to an MS medium for five weeks prior to the tetraploid induction. The experiment
was carried out in a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications of 12 plantlets.
For inducing tetraploidy, the plantlets were immersed in aqueous solutions of colchicine (0, 6 and
12 mg l-1) on a rotary shaker at 25±2 °C in the dark for one week. The plantlets were then cultured
on an MS medium at pH 5.6. The effects of colchicine on the survival and growth of plantlets wererecorded over the course of five weeks. Putative polyploids were identified by measuring thedensity and size of stomata. The ploidy level was determined by chromosome counting.
Morphological observation of diploid and tetraploid plants: A set of morphological characters
were measured. Plant diameter and the length and width of leaf were measured. The width andlength of stomata in the lower epidermis of mature leaves were measured using an eyepieceⒸ ISERD

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micrometer. The stomatal density was also observed.
Chromosome preparation: Root tips of 1.5 cm in length were excised and immersed in 0.002 M
8-hydroxy quinolone at 4 °C for 2-3 hours and washed with distilled water before fixing in 3:1
ethanol: glacial acetic acid at 4 °C for 24 hours. These were then digested in 10% HCl at 60 °C for
10 minutes and washed 3 times with distilled water. Root tips were stained with basic fuchsine at
4 °C for 30-45 minutes in the dark. Afterwards, the root tips were stained with 2% (w/v) acetocarmine and squashed. The number of chromosomes was observed under a light microscope(Olympus CX21, Japan).
Statistical analysis: Comparisons of quantitative data between two variable groups were madeusing student’s t-test and morphological variation rates were subjected to an analysis of variance(ANOVA) and multiple comparisons; these factors were analyzed using Duncan’s New Multiple
Range Test (DMRT) or Least Significant Difference (LSD).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of pH Levels
The pH levels had an effect on the plantlets at the second week after cultured in an MS medium.
Percentage of surviving plantlets was very low at pH 5.4 (18.75%) and was higher at pH 5.8(87.5%), while all plantlets survived at pH 5.6. Survival was severely inhibited in more acidic
media (pH 5.4).The results showed a highly significant difference on plants diameter and length ofleaf, but no significant difference on leaf width after 7 weeks. Plant diameter and length of leaf ofD. spatulata at pH 5.6 (23.22 and 14.09 mm) were observed to be higher than at pH 5.8 (17.19 and9.16 mm) (Table 1; Fig. 1). These results were similar to those of Jayaram and Prasad (2007),
which found that the highest percentage of shoot proliferation observed in D. indica were at pH 5.7.
However, the effect of pH levels on nutrient uptake and shoot proliferation has also been reported(Parliman et al., 1982).
Table 1 Effect of pH levels on plant diameter, length and width of leaf in D. spatulata
pH
Plant diameter (mm)Leaf length (mm)Leaf width (mm)MS pH 5.6
23.22±0.271/
14.09±0.65
4.79±0.08
MS pH 5.8
17.19±0.97
9.16±0.35
4.84±0.28
sig.(2-tailed)
0.006
0.001
0.798
t-test****ns*, ** indicate significant difference by student’s t-test at 5% and 1% levels of probability, respectively.
ns = not significant 1/Data represent means± S.D. of four replications each.

a

b

c

Fig. 1 D. spatulata after 7 weeks of culture in an MS medium at pH 5.4(a), 5.6(b) and 5.8(c)Effect of Different Strengths of MS Medium
The plantlets survived in all strengths of MS medium. Plant diameter and length of leaf exhibited
highly significant differences in the fourth week. The results showed no significant difference afternine weeks. Plant diameter and length of leaf were 25.95, 24.61, 25.81 and 13.31, 12.84, 13.57 mm
after 9 weeks in 1/3, 1/2 and full strength MS, respectively. The width of leaf showed a highly
significant difference after 9 weeks. The width of leaf were 5.65, 5.39, 4.50 mm after 9 weeks inⒸ ISERD

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1/3, 1/2 and full strength MS, respectively (Table 2; Fig. 2). The strength of MS medium was not
related to the survival rate of D. spatulata, but had an effect on growth and development of theplantlets during the first four weeks. According to Kim and Jang (2004), the shoot proliferation andtuber formation of D. peltata were most effective on 1/2 MS medium at pH 5.7. Carnivorous plants
usually grow in nutrient-poor environments and in poor soils; carnivore, therefore, has evolved as
an additional pathway to supplement nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus (Adamec, 1997).
Table 2 Effect of different strengths of MS medium on plant diameter, length and width ofleaf of D. spatulata after 9 weeks of culture at pH 5.6
MS strength
Plant diameter (mm)Leaf length(mm)Leaf width(mm)
1/3MS
25.95
13.31
5.65 a
1/2MS
24.61
12.84
5.39 a
MS
25.81
13.57
4.50 bF-testnsns**
CV (%)
7.61
6.18
7.25
Means in columns followed by different letters are significant difference at 5% level according to DMRT*, ** indicate significance at 5% and 1% levels of probability, respectively. ns = not significant

a

b

c

Fig. 2 D. spatulata on 1/3MS (a), 1/2MS (b), and MS (c) after 9 weeks of culture at pH 5.6
Induction and Identification of Tetraploid D. spatulata
Twenty-four out of 36 (66.7%) colchicine-treated plants survived after five weeks in all treatments.
The plant diameter and length of leaf of colchicine-treated plants (35.48, 35.28 and 20.76, 20.42mm) were significantly larger than those in not colchicine-treated (30.02 and 17.33 mm) (Table 3).
The numbers of stomata of colchicine-treated plants (4.40 and 4.40 cells) were significantly lessthan those not colchicine-treated (5.22 cells). The width and length of stomata of colchicine-treatedplants (38.75, 37.93 and 50.43, 46.37 µm) were significantly larger than those of not colchicinetreated (33.87 and 37.43 µm) (Table 3; Fig. 3). Furthermore, the earlier group matured with 2 ormore inflorescences in some colchicine-treated plants. The chromosome number from root tips of
D. spatulata in non-treated colchicine were 20 chromosomes, whereas 40 chromosomes resulted
from treated colchicine at 6 and 12 mg l-1.
Table 3 Effect of colchicine treatment on growth, number and size of stomata of D. spatulata
on MS medium at pH 5.6 after 5 weeks
Colchicine
Plant
Leaf
Leaf
Survival
Number ofSize of stomata
Concentration
diameterlengthwidth
ratestomata(µm)(mg l-1)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(%)
(cell)
width
length030.02 b17.33 b4.34
66.66
5.22 a33.87 b37.43 b6
35.28 a20.42 a4.68
66.66
4.40 b
37.93 a46.37 a12
35.48 a20.76 a4.81
66.66
4.40 b38.75 a50.43 aF-test
*
*
ns
**
*
*
CV (%)
4.87
6.21
7.91
7.16
6.83
10.92
Means in columns followed by different letters are significant difference at 5% level according to LSD*, ** indicate significance at 5% and 1% levels of probability, respectively. ns = not significantⒸ ISERD

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Hence, the tetraploid induction using colchicine treatment at 6 and 12 mg l-1 can double
chromosomes from 2n=2x=20 to 2n=4x=40 (Fig. 3). Increases in ploidy can affect very specifictraits, including plant diameter, length of leaf, number and size of stomata in D. spatulata. Key
morphological variations observed in tetraploid plants included larger and thicker leaves, darker
green coloration, larger stomata, lower stomata across the lower leaf epidermis, increased numbersof chloroplasts in the stomata guard cells and increased pollen diameter (Glowacka et al., 2010).

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i

Fig. 3 Effect of the colchicine treatment on chromosome number, size of stomata and growthof D. spatulata at 0 (a, d, g), 6 (b, e, h) and 12 (c, f, i) mg l-1after 5 weeks
CONCLUSION
A pH level of 5.4 had a highly significant effect on the rate of survival and growth of the plants.
More than 80% died after cultured in an MS medium for 2 weeks. The growth of D. spatulata waslimited due to sensitivity of low pH levels. The 1/3MS medium at pH 5.6 was the most effective
medium for the micro-propagation of D. spatulata. Moreover, the plants exhibited leaves with redcolor, which are valuable and popular phenotypic traits and have market demand. Tetraploid
induction affected plant diameter and length of leaf. A concentration of colchicine at 12 mg l-1 gave
the maximum plant diameter and length of leaf of 35.48 and 20.76 mm, respectively. The numbersof stomata decreased in all colchicine-treated plants in contrast to the sizes of stomata, which
increased. The chromosome number of colchicine-treated plants doubled (2n=40).Successful use ofcolchicine to induce tetraploids in D. spatulata demonstrate an effective means to explore new
characteristics by increasing genetic variability for plant breeding in agriculture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by a research grant from the University’s extra-budgetary revenue of theFaculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand.
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Adamec, L. 1997. Mineral nutrition of carnivorous plants: a review. Botanical Review, 63, 273-299.
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Eigsti, O.J. and Dustin, P. 1955. Colchicine-in agriculture, medicine, biology and chemistry. The Iowa State
College Press, Ames, Iowa, USA.
Glowacka, K., Jezowski, S. and Kaczmarek, Z. 2010. In vitro induction of polyploidy by colchicine treatmentof shoots and preliminary characterisation of induced polyploids in two Miscanthus species. Industrial
Crops and Products, 32, 88-96.
Jayram, K. and Prasad, M.N.V. 2005. Rapidly in vitro multiplied Drosera as reliable source of plumbagin forbioprospection. Current Science, 89, 447-448.
Junipers, D.E., Robins, R.J. and Joel, D.M. 1989. The carnivorous plants, Academic Press, London, UK.
Kim, K-S. and Jang, G-W. 2004. Micro-propagation of Drosera peltata, a tuberous sundew, by shoot tip
culture. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 77, 211-214.
International Carnivorous Plant Society. 2013. Growing the Drosera spatulata species group. (Available
from; http://www.carnivorousplants.org/howto/GrowingGuides/D_spatulata.php, September, 2013).
Murashige, T. and Skoog, F. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bio-assay with tobacco tissue
culture. Physiologia Plantarum, 15, 473-497.
Parliman, B.J., Evans, P.T. and Rupert, E.A. 1982. Tissue culture of single rhizome explants of Dionaea
muscipula Ellis ex. L., the Venus fly-trap, for rapid asexual propagation. Journal of the American
Society for Horticultural Science, 107, 305-310.
Ranney, T.G. 2003. Polyploidy: from evolution to landscape plant improvement. (Available from;http://fletcher.ces.state.nc.us/programs/nursery/metria/metria11/ranney/polyploidy.htm., May, 2013.)
Recupero, G.R., Russo, G. and Recupero, S. 2005. New promising citrus triploid hybrids selected fromcrosses between mono embryonic diploid female and tetraploid male parents. HortScience, 4, 516-520.
Rivadavia, F. and Preto, A.R. 2005. New chromosome numbers for Drosera L. (Droseraceae). Carnivorous
Plant Newsletter, 34, 85-91.
Van Harten, A.M. 1998. Mutation breeding. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Williams, S.E. and Bennet, A.B. 1982. Leaf closure in the venus flytrap: an acid growth response. Science,
218, 1120-1121.

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Research article
erdUsing of Para-rubber to Develop Properties of Concrete
Block Mixed with Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Plastic in Masonry
PRACHOOM KHAMPUT*
Faculty of Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathum Thani,
Thailand
Email: choomy_gtc@hotmail.com

KITTIPONG SUWEERO
Technology Licensing Office (TLO), Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Pathum Thani, Thailand
Received 21 January 2014

Accepted 21 July 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The aim of this research is to use Para-rubber (vulcanized latex) as an admixture
for improving the properties of EVA plastic waste concrete block. In mix design, cement
per EVA plastic waste per quarry dust per water ratio is 1:0.5:4:1.6 by weight, vulcanizedlatex per cement ratios are 0.00, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.35, 0.40, and 0.45
respectively (by weight of cement), no charge surfactant is 4% (by weight of vulcanizedlatex). The suitable ratio of vulcanized latex per cement in this testing is 0.15 (by weightof cement). The properties are obtained as follows. 1) The average density in 14 days is
1,169.59 kg/m3. 2) The average water absorption in 14 days is 9.33%. 3) The averagecompressive strength in 28 days is 25.74 ksc. 4) The coefficient of thermal conductivity is
0.1527 W/m.K. 5). The sound absorption coefficient at 2,000 hertz is 0.38. 6) The noise
reduction coefficient is 0.3. It can be seen that many properties are better than normal
EVA plastic waste concrete blocks.
Keywords vulcanized latex, EVA plastic waste, concrete block, thermal conductivity

INTRODUCTION
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA) is the one of light weight garbage, ex. slippers, sport shoe sole,
plastic cones etc. Even though the EVA can be reused by melting, the recycle product’s quality is
dropped more than the previous product. Then the additives need to be used in products so that the
products quality will be better. That affects to the costs in the industry, for example shoe productsthat produced in Thailand as the fifth largest exporter in the world. Because of low density, soundabsorption and thermal insulation properties of the EVA, the researcher did an experiment by
mixing the small crushed the EVA in concrete block. Then the result showed that the EVA withproper size and strength had good adhesion with cement. The concrete could hold together tightly
as single mass. Therefore this concrete had higher properties than the general concrete; their weightis only 3 kg per piece and the density is 640 kg/m3, while the general concrete has weight about 8
kg per piece and the density is 1,700 kg/m3. That is similar as light weight concrete and thisconcrete could be used together with plaster as same as general concrete block. However theconcrete block with the EVA will be complete and could be worked properly, if their properties
about low water imperviousness and tension and bending were developed by mixing with the Pararubber (vulcanized latex) (Khamput, 2007a). Then the using Para-rubber to develop the propertiesof concrete block mixed with plastic EVA scraps is the wall construction innovation which has
many outstanding properties as the user requires. Moreover, this innovation is friendly withenvironment, suitable price and could be produced to concrete block.

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OBJECTIVE
The objective of this research is to study about the physical properties, mechanical properties, andthermal insulation properties of the EVA, plastic waste concrete block mixed with the Para-rubber.
METHODOLOGY
Materials and Equipments
The materials and equipments are used as follows. (1) Vulcanized latex tense 60% preserved withhigh ammonia (HA). (2) Ethylene Vinyl Acetate scraps from shoe factories, crushed by plastic
grinder with sieve size no.4 (4.75 mm) as Fig. 1. (3) Sieved quarry dust from sieve no.4 (4) Normal
Portland cement (type 1) (5) Tap water (6) Nonionic Surfactants or Alkyl phenol polyethylene
glycol ether. (7) Weighing apparatus (8) Solid concrete block mold size 1.5x30x30 cm3. (9) Solidconcrete block mold size 7.5x20x60 cm3. (10) Hollow concrete block mold size 7x19x39 cu.cm.
(11) Automatic concrete mixer (12) Plastic grinder with sieve no.4 (13) Hydraulic Compactor (assame as producing the general concrete block) (14) Temperature testing room (size 1x2x2.5 m3). 2
rooms, walls lined with thermal insulation 5 sides in front of the wall using Acrylic and inside set
up heat sources (1,000 watt spotlight) temperature, humidity measuring tool, and stopwatch.

Fig. 1 Crushed EVA plastic scrap

Fig.2 EVA concrete block

Mixture Ratio Specification
Specify the ratio of EVA concrete block mixed with vulcanized latex by considering the proper
vulcanized volume per concrete block as Table 1.
Table 1 Ratios of EVA concrete block mixed with vulcanized latex for testing (by weight)
Pre-vulcanized latex
Nonionic surfactants(dried latex weight)
substances
NOR
1
10
0.9
P0.00
1
0.5
4
1.6
P0.05
1
0.5
4
1.6
0.050
0.002
P0.10
1
0.5
4
1.6
0.100
0.004
P0.15
1
0.5
4
1.6
0.150
0.006
P0.20
1
0.5
4
1.6
0.200
0.008
P0.25
1
0.5
4
1.6
0.250
0.010
P0.30
1
0.5
4
1.6
0.300
0.012
P0.35
1
0.5
4
1.6
0.350
0.014
P0.40
1
0.5
4
1.6
0.400
0.016
P0.45
1
0.5
4
1.6
0.450
0.018
Note: The ratio of civil engineering principles by considering to civil engineer who utilize from this research bycomparing from cement weight 1 part and dried latex weight tested from percent test of total solid content (TSC).
Ratio

Cement

EVA

Quarry dust

Water

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Concrete Block Forming
For forming of EVA concrete block mixed with vulcanized latex is focused on the forming process
as same as production process of general concrete block at most following. (1) Measure the mixtureof concrete block by a predetermined ratio. (2) Divide water for mixing to 3 parts and specify 2parts from 3 parts mixed with vulcanized latex and nonionic surfactants substances. (3) Prepare theconcrete mixer which could preserve the fresh concrete in the damp condition. (4) Divide thecement (binder) to 3 parts and bring the binder part 1 and water (without mixed with vulcanizedlatex and nonionic surfactants substances) in the mixing drum respectively. (5) Add the quarry dust
and EVA scrap about half of the total and mixed well. (6) After that add the rest of quarry dust and
EVA scrap with cement part 2 and spray the liquid (mixed with vulcanized latex and nonionicsurfactants substances) about a half of total liquid. (7) While mixing all materials add gradually therest of cement and spray the last liquid too. (8) Mix mixture well not more than 10 minutes (9) Do
forming the concrete block by hydraulic compaction machine. (10) Remove the concrete blockfrom mold and incubate the forming concrete in the air and indoor.
Property Test
The physical and mechanical properties of EVA concrete block mixed with vulcanized latex istested according the TIS standard 58-2533 (TIS, 1990) and ASTM (ASTM, 2010) (10 samples pertest) following. (1) Enlarge image by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) at period age 28 days.
(2) Density test at period age 14 days (3) Compression test at period age 7, 14, 21 and 28 days, test
30 examples per a ratio. (4) Water absorption test at period age 14 days (5) Drying shrinkage or
length changing test at period age 14 days (6) Thermal coefficient test by forming the concrete blockwith size 15x30x30 cu.cm at period age 14 days according to ASTM C177-10 (ASTM, 2010) (7)Thermal insulation test with room size 1x2x2.5 cu.m. 2 rooms the walls are made of plywood andzinc lined with thermal insulation 5 sides in front of the wall using Acrylic and inside set up heatsources (1,000 watt spotlight), temperature-humidity measuring tool, and stopwatch. (8) Burning
rate test at period age 14 days according to ASTM D635-10 (ASTM, 2010) (9) Sound absorption
test at period age 14 days according to ASTM C423-10 (ASTM, 2010).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Enlarging Image
Enlarging image by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) magnificent x 2,000, as in Fig. 3 that
aggregates and chemical bonding of concrete block as mortar, EVA plastic scraps, quarry dust were
coated and inserted in the cavity or gap by Para-rubber film (Ohama, 1987). As a result of the film
plate and rubber were inserted in the concrete block which affected to the reducing gap of EVA
concrete block.

30 ma )P0.00)

30 mb (P0.10)30 mc )P0.20)

Fig. 3 Enlarging image of EVA concrete block mixed vulcanized latexⒸ ISERD

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Density Test
From the Fig. 4, the vulcanized latex which was mixed in the EVA concrete block effected to the
reduced density. The EVA concrete block mixed much vulcanized latex had the low density. The
EVA concrete block mixed with less vulcanized latex or without vulcanized latex had the highdensity. The density of EVA concrete block mixed with vulcanized latex in the highest volume had
the low density about 1,150 kg/m3 while the EVA concrete block without mixing of vulcanizedlatex had the high density about 1,250 kg/m3. Because the Para-rubber or film plate fromvulcanized latex had the density much lower than the concrete (Ohama, 1987), the Para-rubber was
binding as a big lump. When the mixing volume of vulcanized latex in concrete was high, there
was much gap in the tract of concrete block.
Water Absorption Test
The results of water absorption of EVA concrete block mixed with the vulcanized latex in thevarious volumes could be summarized as Fig. 5. The adding of vulcanized latex volume in EVA
concrete block affected to the reduced water absorption. The EVA concrete block without mixingof vulcanized latex showed the value of water absorption about 13%. When the vulcanized latex
was added about 0.20 of the weight of the cement, the water absorption would be reduced about
9%. Because the film plate from the reaction of cement and vulcanized latex was inserted in the
texture of EVA concrete block, this film plate was the water denser material (Ohama, 1987).
However, from the testing of the water absorption all types of EVA concrete block had the water
absorption lower than TIS standard 58-2533. This limitation was not more than 25% in allconditions.
Drying Shrinkage Test
From the Fig. 6, the vulcanized latex could help to reduce the drying shrinkage value which was
occurred due to humidity loss through a capillary pore (Aly and Sanjayan, 2010). That affected tochanges of the length and volume of concrete block. Normally the EVA scrap was the water
absorbing material. Then the EVA concrete block had the drying shrinkage lower than normal
concrete block. When the vulcanized latex, whose characters were as film plate inserted in theconcrete block, was used for mixing in the concrete block, the water in concrete block was difficult
to lose. Therefore the drying shrinkage from water loss (Khamput, 2007b) was quite nearly
happened less than the concrete block without mixing the vulcanized latex. The particle of rubber
film inserted as film plate in various gaps could help for the difficult shrinkage and expansion.
Compression Test
From the results of the compression or compressive strength test of EVA concrete block mixed
with vulcanized latex that could be summarized by division of mixtures ratio as Fig. 7. The proper
mixing of vulcanized latex in EVA concrete block could develop the various properties. The
compression property was reached to TIS standard 58-2533. That was defined not more 25 ksc.
The highest limit of mixing the vulcanized latex was not more than 0.15 of cement weight and theircompression was still higher than 25 ksc because the mixing of vulcanized latex could make thecompression reduced (Khamput, 2007b). Because the Para-rubber film were the polymer material
which were cohesive, high flexible, not sturdy like aggregates, so the space for compressive
strength was reduced due to mixing of vulcanized latex in high volume.
Thermal Conductivity Test
The result of thermal conductivity, coefficient of EVA concrete block mixed with vulcanized latex
according to ASTM C177-10 (ASTM, 2010) operated the testing by Department of ScienceⒸ ISERD

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Service, Ministry of Science and Technology Thailand presented as Fig. 8. The vulcanized latex
could help to reduce the thermal conductivity coefficient of EVA concrete block by adding thehighest vulcanized latex volume. That was the best way for reducing the thermal conductivity
coefficient; from the mixing of vulcanized latex about 0.20 of cement weight. Their thermal
conductivity coefficient was lower than the adding of vulcanized latex volume at 0.05 of cement
weight and without mixing of vulcanized latex. Because the rubber film was the good material forthe thermal insulation (McCrum et al., 1997), and while mixing the vulcanized latex in concrete
block produced the air bubble in the flesh of concrete block (Khamput, 2007b), that made thedensity and the thermal conductivity, coefficient reduced.
Thermal Insulation Test
From the result of thermal insulation test in Fig. 9, the EVA concrete block mixed with vulcanizedlatex could reduce the temperature in the testing room lower than the EVA concrete block without
mixing the vulcanized latex about 1 degree Celsius. That was lower than general concrete about 2
degrees Celsius which were related with the result of the thermal conductivity coefficient test.

Fig.
4 The
Fig.4
Theresults
resultsofof density
densityFig.
The results
resultsofofwater
waterabsorption
absorption
Fig.55 The

Fig. 6The
Theresults
resultsofofdrying
dryingshrinkage
shrinkage
Fig.6

Fig. The
7 The
resulsofofcompressive
compressive
strength
Fig.7
results
strength

Fig.
8 The
Fig.8
Theresults
resultsofofthermal
thermalconductivity
conductivity

Fig.
Theresults
resultsofofthermal
thermalinsulation
insulation
Fig.99TheⒸ ISERD

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Burning Rate Test
From the test of fire according to ASTM D635-10 (ASTM, 2010) to find out the burn rate value,the EVA concrete block mixed with vulcanized latex had no fire property because the most tract ofconcrete block was not easy flammable. The vulcanized latex and EVA scrap inserted in the fleshof concrete block was not melt continuously, then that was not flammable and could be used usual.
The concrete block was practically used by laying brick wall and plastering with thick mortar about
1-2 cm. The flammability was difficult to happened because that depends on 3 factors; heat, fueland air. The plastering was the thermal and air insulation for the concrete block while burning.
Sound Absorption Test
From NRC of various concrete blocks as Table 2 that showed the efficacy of EVA concrete blockto prevent the noise on the medium level. The process to develop the efficacy of sound absorption
was the adding of much vulcanized latex volume because of the flexibility of polymer inserted
inside in concrete block; EVA scraps, rubber and film plate could help to absorb the sound energy
as good as compared them with using the thick carpet as sound absorbed materials.
Table 2 Results of sound absorption coefficient and the noise reduction coefficient
Thickness(cm)7.5
included
gaps

Ratio
NOR
P0.00
P0.05
P0.10
P0.15
P0.20

250
0.044
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.22
0.23

Sound absorption coefficient
500
1,000
2,000
0.054
0.097
0.082
0.19
0.36
0.38
0.25
0.36
0.37
0.24
0.36
0.37
0.25
0.36
0.38
0.26
0.35
0.38

NRC
0.07
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.31

CONCLUSION
Vulcanized latex could help to develop some property of the EVA concrete block; reducing of
density, water absorption, drying shrinkage and thermal conductivity coefficient and adding someproperty of sound absorption, thermal insulation and non flammability. Nevertheless the mixing ofvulcanized latex overmuch could make the compressive strength reduced and the costs of EVA
concrete block would be higher. The vulcanized latex volume about 0.05 of cement weight (ratio
P0.15) had a good property reached TIS standard 58-2533 (TIS, 1990) and the cost was not so high.
After comparing with the wall materials in the construction market; concrete block and lightweight, block the EVA concrete block mixed with vulcanized latex had better property than thegeneral concrete block. This EVA concrete block had similar property with light weight block but
their costs were less than light weight block. Moreover the vulcanized latex could reduce water
absorption problem. That made the EVA concrete block easy to plaster and mortar.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported from the Thailand Research Fund for the small research as topic of
Para rubber under contract number RDG5450087.
REFERENCES
Aly, T. and Sanjayan, J.G. 2010. Effect of pore-size distribution on shrinkage of concretes. Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, 22, 525-532.
ASTM. 2010. Annual book or ASTM standards. ASTM, Philadelphia.
Khamput, P. 2007a. Using of medium ammonia concentrate latex mixed in lightweight mortar. AnnualⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

Concrete Conference, 3, 168-175.
Khamput, P. 2007b. A study of physical and mechanical properties of concrete block mixed with para rubber.
National Research Project, Para Rubber Industrial department.
McCrum, N.G., Buckley, C.P. and BucknaIi, C.B. 1997. Principles of polymer engineering. Oxford
University Press. 2Ed. 447.
Ohama, Y. 1987. Principle of latex modification and some typical properties of latex-modified mortars
concretes. ACI Materials Journal, 84 (6), 511-518.
Thai Industrial Standards Institutes (TIS). 1990. TIS standard 58-2533 - hollow non load bearing concrete
masonry unit. Ministry of Industrial, Bangkok, Thailand.

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Research article
erdFundamental Solutions to the Process of Labour
Restructuring in Svay Rieng Province, Cambodia
MARDY SEREY*
Svay Rieng University, Svay Rieng Province, Cambodia
Email: sereymardy@gmail.com

NGUYEN PHUC THO
Vietnam National University of Agriculture, Hanoi, Vietnam
Received 7 October 2013

Accepted 21 July 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This paper explores the current labour restructuring in Svay Rieng province
which is basic for proposing main solutions to stipulate the process of labour restructuringof the study area. Results show that labour is the decisive factor in the organization andeffective use of sources of capital, natural resources and technologies. If it is not based on
the high development of physical labor, level of education, technical knowhow andmanagement experience, it can lead to a waste of money or depletion and destruction ofother resources. The province of Svay Rieng has the advantage of an abundant and young
workforce. However, in recent years the use and promotion of the workforce for economic
development has not really proved effective. One of the factors leading to this situation isthat the province’s labour restructuring is not identical with the provincial economic
restructuring; therefore, Svay Rieng province should take measures to take actions that
impacts on the processes of labour restructuring, marking contributions to the effective useof this workforce and the improvement of the province’s socio-economic development.
Keywords labour restructuring, economic restructuring, human resources, socio-economic
development, effective use of labour

INTRODUCTION
Svay Rieng province is located on Cambodia’s south-eastern border with Vietnam. It’s 125 kmfrom Phnom Penh. In recent years, Svay Rieng province has made great achievements in its socioeconomic development. The province’s GDP has continuously increased over the past few years. In
2012, its GDP was valued at 5.080 billion riel, nearly 1.57% higher than in 2007, an averageincrease of 8.6% per year (Svay Rieng Administration, 2012). However, compared with the wholecountry, Svay Rieng remains a poor province as its GDP per capita is still low. This indicates thatthe use of existing resources including the labour force in the province is not really effective. At thepresent, Svay Rieng province has an abundant young workforce. In 2012, there were approximately
585,571 labourers throughout the whole province. Nevertheless, its current labour restructuring is
still irrelevant in comparison with the economic restructuring, and this has caused negative effects
to the processes of socio-economic development in recent years.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of research are: 1) to identify the situation of labour restructuring in Svay Rieng
province in recent years; 2) to determine the basic solutions to promote labour restructuring in Svay
Rieng province.

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METHODOLOGY
The research was done by using both all available secondary data from Provincial Department ofPlanning and Provincial Department of Agriculture and its related information with direct
observation in the research area. This was in order to understand overall situation and propose
fundamental solutions to the process of labour restructuring in Svay Rieng province.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Situation of Labour Restructuring in Svay Rieng Province in Recent Years
Economic restructuring is always associated with the processes of Labour restructuring. There is ayoung and abundant workforce in Svay Rieng province. In recent years, although the structure oflabour has transformed more appropriately than before, the speed of labour restructuring has not
kept pace with economic restructuring; and high efficiency in the process of economic development
has not been achieved (comparing between Fig.1 and Fig.2).

Fig. 1 Labor restructuring distributed in terms of sectors over the past years
Labour restructuring has shifted with an increase in the number of works employed in the
sectors of service and industry. In 2012, by the economic growth rate, the service sector accounted
for 19.8%, an average increase of 0.64% or 3,747 labourers per year, the sector of industry
accounted for 16.3%, an average increase of 0.56% or 3,279 labourers per year, and the sector of
agriculture accounted for 63.9%, an average decrease of 0.27% or 1,581 labourers per year (Svay
Rieng Province, 2007-2012).

Fig. 2 Restructuring in economic sectors over the past yearsⒸ ISERD

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Economic restructuring has shifted with an increase in the proportion of services and industry.
In 2012, services accounted for 40% by the economic growth rate, an average decrease of 0.06%
per year, industry accounted for 38.5%, an average increase of 0.23% per year and agriculture
accounted for 21.5% an average decrease of 0.43% per year. It can be seen that the economic
restructuring and labour restructuring of the province have shifted, with an increase in the scale andproportion, towards industry and services. However, the labour restructuring and economic
restructuring is not identical; i.e, the structure of labour is ranged as follows: Agriculture - Services- Industry, but the economic structure is Industry - Services - Agriculture. In 2012, agriculture
productivity in Svay Rieng was valued at 6,080 million riel (at the comparative price and this was
also the sector that had the lowest productivity); however; 61.2% of the workers were employed inthis sector and its scale increased due to the effects of population size. This resulted in a shortage ofworkforce in industry and services, but a surplus of labour in agriculture. In this way,
disproportionate factors between labour restructuring and economic restructuring have affected thesocio-economic development of Svay Rieng province over the past few years. The main reason forthis disproportion is that:- The majority of Svay Rieng’s labourers live in the countryside so that they are influenced by ruralways of living and working with agriculture styles; hence, their adaptability and working manners
in new environment is restricted. The province’s labourers have low educational and professional
levels, so they face difficulties in production when employed in the industrial sectors that require
high professional and technological levels.
- The use of labour in economic sectors is not really effective. Even though industry and services
have created more jobs and attracted more workers than before, the labourers employed in these
sectors are largely in the form of unskilled workers, and small traders. Consequently, there is low
labour productivity. Svay Rieng’s agriculture is still in rural practices and it has a large number oflabourers. For this reason, there are still excessive labourers and low efficiency in production.
Basic Solutions to the Promotion of Labour Restructuring in Svay Rieng Province
The Public Investment Program, 3-year-rolling 2013-2015, of Svay Rieng province has brought
towards the target for 2015, labour restructuring will consist of more than 48% industry andservices and less than 20% agriculture (Provincial Department of Agriculture, 2012). To implementthat goal, the sectors of industry and services must improve, attract and use more workforce thanever before, accelerating industrialization and modernization. For this reason, agricultural
productivity can be improved and the number of labourers can be reduced in this rural area.
Efficient Use and Attraction of Labour in Industry and Services
Rapid development of industries leading to job creation and efficient use of labour: Most of
the industrial production in Svay Rieng province is currently focusing on product processing,which is considered to be a low-value sector. While the materials and inputs generate, the greatest
value are mainly imported from abroad. In recent years, those factors have been undergone large
fluctuations; therefore, Svay Rieng’s Industries have low value and stability. This significantly
influences the labourer income and productivity in this economic sector. In the future, Svay Rieng
province should focus on:- Developing additional key industries and create more jobs for workers; the current key industries
in the province include automobile assembling and manufacturing of windshield glass but theseindustries have not met the requirements of the development of industrial production in Svay Rieng
province. The province should use investment capital for key projects in proportion to thedevelopmental trends of an industrial province. The concrete manufacturing sectors includes textile
industry, manufacturing of machinery for agriculture, industry and services and production of highquality tiles and construction materials. These projects can generate “kernels” to attract investment
as they will create advantages for investors to invest in the projects that province inputs for the“kernel” projects or the projects that use the outputs of those project. As a result, investmentⒸ ISERD

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opportunities for many related projects in different sectors will be created and more jobs can begenerated, leading to an attraction to the workers from different sectors in the promotion of labour
restructuring.
- Expanding the development of small and medium industrial parks; to quickly deploy and develop
small and medium industrial parks, the province should focus on making a rapid and detailed
planning and investment in the construction of infrastructures for these industrial parks. There
should be specific details for each industrial park so that specialization and enhancement in the
productive cooperation of industrial enterprises can be ensured so as to save investment costs andreduce business operation costs. Normally, the units that intend in the construction of facilities in
the industrial parks are mostly small and medium enterprises with limited investment capital, so,they are unlikely to invest in modern technologies for hi-tech goods production.
Therefore, in order to create favorable condition for encouraging all private economic sectors
to invest in these industrial parks, Svay Rieng province should plan its industrial development
which encourages only investments in hi-tech and large-scaled projects with new breakthroughs
and in the sectors that the province’s small and medium enterprises can handle. As to theinvestments that do not require high technologies and a great deal of capital, priority should begiven to the investment in small and medium industrial parks.
- Developing supporting industries in order to serve the key industries in Svay Rieng province; theprovince should promote the development of new manufacturing sectors such as production ofmaterials of garment processing industry (zippers, buttons, high-taper necks, liners, labels),
manufacture of parts and some detailed and complex accessories for machinery, automobile
assembling (types of screws and bolts, wires, rubber, plastic and machine parts) for thedevelopment of industry in the Svay Rieng province. In addition, Manhattan Special Economic
Zone is adjacent to Tai Seng Special Economic Zone, so the development of supplementaryindustries for refinery industry is also an orientation that needs to be invested in.
- Development processing industry; the promotion of processing industry in the province inparticular can rely not only on the availability of local raw materials but also on the resources ofraw materials in other localities. However, there is now a popular tendency that each locality istrying to set up the plans that can use its available local materials, even though there is some
restricted ability to provide large amounts of materials in each locality. In this way, most of theprocessing factories are based on small-scaled production, so they are inclined to use cheap andbackward equipment and unable to resort to modern technologies. Moreover, since material
resources are subdivided, the competition in the consumption of materials has become severe. It is
for this reason that the cost of production increases and production quality declines, so thebusinesses in the region lose their advantages over competition and acquire low efficiency ininvestment. To solve this problem, the province should, apart from promoting regional
development of materials by changing the models of production and increase its investment inscience and technology to improve crop yields and livestock in a land area due to the rapidly
increasing the supply of raw materials. The province should immediately make a number ofpolicies to restrict the entry of some specific sectors, whose efficiency is significantly influenced
by the scale of production so as to help the remaining businesses to operate more effectively.
Expanding absolute supply of raw materials is an appropriate orientation in terms of thecurrent distribution of material resources. In this way, the province’s processing enterprises should
invest in advanced technologies and equipment to ensure the penetration of products into the mostdifficult markets. At present the businesses in Svay Rieng will establish active links with theenterprises in other localities, which are unable to use advanced technologies and modern
equipment and that they have no advantages over production scales. The province can entice theseorganizations to engage in a system of suppliers of primary products, semi-finished products andeven raw materials for provincial enterprises.
Intensive Development of Services
Mass and efficient utilization of workforce: The Svay Rieng province has two history cultural
heritages: Prasat Temple and the old lake of Prey Basac with typical cultural values of humanity.
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The natural aspects combined with the cultural heritages, historical traditions of Svay Rieng are
extremely valuable resources which create favourable conditions for the development of tourist
industry; however, the promotion of this potential has been so far limited and the advantages in theprovince have not yet been fully developed. The province should expand and develop high-quality
tourism, which attracts and employs more labourers and more skilled workers than before. In the
future the province should focus on:- Improving the environment to promote the development of high-quality tourist services; tourist
environment is a major concern. As for each business, it cannot manage itself, but it requires thestrong support from the functional agencies of the province in creating a tourist environment that
attracts not only investors but also visitors. Such a tourist environment must ensure social order andsecurity, good environment, beautiful urban landscapes and high-quality goods with reasonable
prices. All the activities conducted at the tourist points have not been really well prepared by the
tourist authorities in recent years. Now it is time to pay much attention to the improvement of
tourist environment because it is the survival and development of national tourism in general and of
the tourist points with international standards in particular. Through mass media, the image of
tourist in Svay Rieng can be propagated, the need for this type of service can be realized and theinvestment in various types of services with appropriate quality can be conducted so that this canmake contributions to the development of local tourism.
- Promoting the export of goods; apart from the attraction of investment and the access to modern
technologies, Svay Rieng province has to focus on the improvement of administrative procedures
reform in the export sector, creating extremely favorable conditions for businesses by shortening
tax payment time and, especially, clearance time for imported raw materials used in the production
and processing of exports. The province also have to deal with researches on production as well as
export markets and hold training sessions to extent the international commitments so thatenterprises can have accesses to export markets. It should depend on the national budget to enhancethe vocational training, especially job training for export processing workers. The province should
improve trade promotion activities for production, export and businesses, focus on supporting
businesses to conduct market research and take part in domestic and foreign trade fairs and help
them improve the quality management system in accordance with the ISO standards and create
trademarks online and the province’s export website so as to propagate, introduce products andexpand export markets, especially for the handicrafts, fine art products and agro-products which are
dominant in the province.
The province should gradually establish brands for the province’s key exports on the market.
It is also important to increase the competitiveness and efficiency of provincial export. To
overcome the shortage of capital for enterprises, the government has made policies in lending terms
and created favorable conditions for businesses to have an eligible access to preferential credit
loans offered by the Government. The commercial banks and credit unions in the province should
create favorable conditions for enterprises to borrow money to invest in production and businesses
for export.
- Shifting the structure of labour in the service sector; hindrance should be made to the infiltrationof child labour in the form of small traders, street traders. In the coming years, Svay Rieng willneed policies for investment attraction for development of large-scaled commercial and service
centers all over the province in order to persuade domestic and foreign businesses and large
entrepreneurs with modern trading style to engage in businesses. This will gradually attract
customers to shopping centers. The development of modern commercial and service centers, on the
one hand will create conditions for the number of young workers who enter the labour markets
annually have the opportunity to participate in the trade and services sectors on condition that they
have been given needed professional training.
Internal Labour Restructuring, Efficient Use of Labour, Industrialization and Modernizationin Agriculture
Efficient use of labour contributes to the acceleration of industrialization and modernizationin agriculture: With urbanization, industrialization and modernization and rural agriculture, aⒸ ISERD

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certain number of agricultural labourers, especially young workers will lose employment
opportunities in agriculture due to the limitation of land, the main production factor in agriculture.
They are the major objectives that need to be shifted to other sectors in the future. There should besome solutions to this problem. The basic measures taken can be reasonable investments,
application of technologies and new production methods in agriculture to improve the productivity
yield per unit of cultivated area, creating more jobs and attracting more workers.
A contradiction that arises in the process of transformation is that the transition will lead to thefact that a number of young workers will shift from the agricultural sector to other economic
sectors. This phenomenon can lead to an old workforce, affect the application of scientific andtechnological progresses to agriculture, slow down the process of industrialization andmodernization in rural agriculture and finally cause negative impacts to economic restructuring. To
settle this contradiction, the province should, in one hand, adopt policies to encourage educated andskilled workers in return to serve in the fields of agriculture, forestry, and on the other hand, createa mechanism that serves the interests of these qualified workers who have made achievements inagricultural production, thus the attraction of new workers will have positive impacts on theacceleration of industrialization and modernization in agriculture.
Transforming the structure in cultivation and animal husbandry: The concerning agencies
should complete the planning of agricultural production and rural village trades in the province assoon as possible on the basis of investment orientation, reorganition of production and arrangementof plants and animals in proportion to each region and sub-region to ensure more efficient
production. In the planning, it is necessary to combine production with preservation, processing
and consumption of products and to synchronize between objectives, policies and measures. Also
an immediate concern is to review and inspect the implementation of planning and productionplans in each sub-region so as to have appropriate adjustment and control in respect to the actual
situations. Only approved plans can be strictly implemented and production must be banned withspontaneous plans carried out in the past.
Concentrating on mobilizing investment resources to build irrigation systems, ensure irrigation
for crops, intensive cultivation and crop rotation and increase the number of crops, productivity andlivestock. Svay Rieng province should apply and replicate production models to achieve effective
and appropriate results in local production. The province should gradually shift the cultivation
workforce with low productivity, high risk and time-consuming labour and long crops, lowefficiency and difficulties in technological application due to fragmentary production to the sectorof animal husbandry which has high productivity and high value in accordance with a long-term
trend and that this sector does not rely on extensive use of land.
CONCLUSION
In the final analysis, in the course of economic and social development, effective use of resources
is a very important issue and workforce is the most important and decisive resource in the course ofprovincial development. With the current disproportionate factors in Svay Rieng province’s labour
structure, a requirement for labour restructuring is an inevitable phenomenon. For this reason, theimplementation of the measures proposed in view of influencing the process of labour restructuringmust be quickly and effectively carried out in the province.
REFERENCES
Economic Indicator. 2012. Economic Institute of Cambodia. (Access at: www.eicambodia.org., accessed on
18 July 2012).
Royal Government of Cambodia. 2007. Cambodia – European community strategy paper for the period
2007-2013. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Provincial Department of Agriculture. 2012. Annual report of agricultural development. Svay Rieng
Province.
Svay Rieng Administration. 2012. Public investment plan 3-years-rolling 2013-2015. Provincial
Development Plan Group, Svay Rieng Province, Cambodia.
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Svay Rieng Province. 2007. Annual result Rreport of Svay Rieng Province in 2007. Svay Rieng Province,
Cambodia.
Svay Rieng Province. 2008. Annual result report of Svay Rieng Province in 2008. Svay Rieng Province,
Cambodia.
Svay Rieng Province. 2009. Annual result report of Svay Rieng Province in 2009. Svay Rieng Province,
Cambodia.
Svay Rieng Province. 2010. Annual result report of Svay Rieng Province in 2010. Svay Rieng Province,
Cambodia.
Svay Rieng Province. 2011. Annual result report of Svay Rieng Province in 2011. Svay Rieng Province,
Cambodia.
Svay Rieng Province. 2012. Annual result report of Svay Rieng Province in 2012. Svay Rieng Province,
Cambodia.

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Research article
erd

Variation of Important Nutrients Proportion on
Phytoplankton Distribution in Bang-tabun Bay,
Phetchaburi Province, Thailand
BOONTARIKA THONGDONPHUM*
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Pathum Thani, Thailand
Email: Boontarika_T@exchange.rmutt.ac.th

SHETTAPONG MEKSUMPUN
Faculty of Fishery, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

CHARUMAS MEKSUMPUN
Faculty of Fishery, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

NISSARA THAWONSODE
Faculty of Fishery, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

BANTHITA SAWASDEE
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajabhat Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham,
ThailandReceived 4 January 2014

Accepted 11 August 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Bang-tabun Bay, the estuarine area is situated close to the Phetchaburi rivermouth, Phetchaburi Province. Petchaburi River flows in the west of the Kingdom and exits
into the Gulf of Thailand. This research study was conducted with sample collection of
aquatic environmental quality from September 2011 to May 2012. The results indicatedthe increasing level of NH4+, NO2-+NO3-, Si(OH)4 and PO43- in this area, which lead to thephytoplankton bloom phenomenon, thus, implied the mesotrophic to eutrophic status of
the area. Three phyta and 54 genera of phytoplankton were discovered in the river mouth.
The dominant groups were diatoms (Thalassionema), cyanobacteria (Trichodesmium), anddinoflagellates (Ceratium). In this study, Ceratium was classified to be the dominantgroup. Analysis of DIN:P and Si:P molar ratios of surface water were applied to examine
the factors influencing the abundance of phytoplankton in the estuarine systems. Thus, thechange of phytoplankton abundance should be considered to assess the water quality, andthereby more efficient aquatic environmental conservation of Bang-tabun Bay further.
Keywords nutrient proportion, phytoplankton, and Bang-tabun bay

INTRODUCTION
Bang-tabun Bay is located in the western part of the Gulf of Thailand. Petchaburi River isapproximately 118 kilometer in length with the catchment of 6,219 square kilometer. Runs fromPetchaburi province and flows toward the lower plain before discharging into the Gulf of Thailand(REO8, 2011). Pollution problems in the gulf can occur according to untreated municipal andindustrial wastewater, eutrophication, trace metals contamination and petroleum hydrocarbon(Cheevaporn and Menasveta, 2003). Eutrophication can be defined as excessive by algae growthwhen high concentration of nutrients, particularly phosphates and nitrates enrich in the water body
(Tantanasarit et al., 2013). The term 'harmful algal bloom' covers two characteristics that arecaused by microalgae and negative impact on anthropogenic activities (Zingone and Enevoldsen,
2000). Regional Environmental Office 8 (REO8, 2011) reported that utilization of land along theⒸ ISERD

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Petchaburi River was estimated to be 58% forest and 29% agricultural areas, in Phetchaburiprovince, respectively. Here, the river supports a resident population about 466,079 people or 1,772
people per square kilometer that related to the deterioration of water quality induced mainly by
sewage, domestic discharges, and agricultural utilization (REO8, 2011). Those activities could becontributed to phytoplankton bloom phenomena along the coastal zones of this area.
OBJECTIVE
This study aims to assess the aquatic environmental factors and related impacts by utilization to thevariation of phytoplankton. The findings could be used to estimate a dissolved inorganic nutrient
ratio that achieves levels for serious consideration of nutrient criteria for water resources
conservation management and thereby sustainable utilization of this area.
METHODOLOGY
Sampling Sites and Survey Plan
The surveys were conducted at 18 sampling stations covered Bang-tabun Bay, the stations of whichwere grouped into two different characteristics: sub-tidal channel (B1-B12) and bivalve culture flat
areas in the upper (U1 and U2), middle (M1 and M2), and lower (S1-S2) areas, spanning from
September 2011 to May 2012 (Fig.1). According to the rainfall patterns, Thailand is under the
influence of monsoon winds (TMD, 2012). The seasons can thus be divided into rainy season(May- September), and winter season (October-February).

1470000

B12
U11469000

U2

B11
B5

1468000

B2
B1

1467000
1466000

B10
M1B3

S1

B4

B6

M2

B7
S2

1465000

B9

B8

1 km

598000 599000 600000 601000 602000 603000 604000 605000 606000 607000 608000

sub-tidal channel (B1-B12) and bivalve culture flat areas in the upper (U1 and U2),
middle (M1 and M2), and lower (S1-S2)

Fig. 1 Survey stations of 18 major stations within two different characteristic of Bang-tabun
Bay, Petchaburi Province, Thailand
Sample Collection and Analysis
The general water quality factors, namely temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), salinity, and pH
were measured with a multi-parameter probe (YSI-6600 Sonde instrument) at the sampling sites.
Samples of surface water (30 cm deep) were pre-filtered through GF/F (Whatman) and then stored
at 4oC before transporting to the laboratory for analysis of nutrients, including ammonium (NH4+),
nitrite and nitrate (NO2-+NO3-), silicate (Si(OH)4), and orthophosphate (PO43-), with a SKALARⒸ ISERD

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segmented flow analyzer. The samples for chlorophyll a (Chl a) and total suspended solids (TSS)
measurement were analyzed by the spectrophotometric method and the freeze-dried technique,respectively. Phytoplankton samples were collected and preserved in formaldehyde buffered
solution before being classified and enumerated with a Sedgewick-Rafter counting chamber undera light microscope.
Data Analysis
Comparisons of water quality in terms of temperature, salinity, DO, pH, Chl a, and TSS among thesampling periods and zones were performed using average levels and distribution characteristics.
Least Significant Differences (LSD) or Tamhane's T2 of Post Hoc test of the one-way analysis ofvariance (ANOVA) was used for the environmental variation comparison, and the level ofconfidence greater than 95% (p < 0.05) was considered to indicate a statistically significant impact.
The Mann-Whitney test was used where a normal distribution was not observed. The relationships
between nutrients as dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN; NH4++NO2-+NO3-) and orthophosphate
phosphorus (P), Chl a, and total phytoplankton density were analyzed using the Spearman rankcorrelation coefficient (rs). In this study, a confidence interval of more than 95% (p < 0.05) was
considered to indicate a statistically significant impact.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Environmental Factors
The results indicated that freshwater runoffs had influence on water quality in the Bang-tabun Bay,
which in turn contributed to varying water quality by seasonal variation. Water temperatures was
slightly decreased with the seasons (p < 0.05), and low level of salinity was detected during
September 2011 due to the large freshwater discharges into the Bang-tabun Bay. The pH levelvaried from 7.22 to 8.67 for the entire study area. DO varied and was markedly decreased to
unsuitable levels (< 4 mg/l) during the rainy season. Levels of TSS and Chl a were between 5.40 to
147.65 mg/L and 3.58 to 29.64 g/L, respectively, with the both of highest levels in May 2012.
Thongdonphum et al. (2011) reported that Chl a of approximately 10 g/L has been regarded as theinitial level for eutrophication in the estuarine zone. The Mae Klong River (in the eastern part), had
Chl a levels 1.34 to 14.69 g/L (Thongdonphum et al., 2013), while the Tha Chin Estuary, locatedclosely to the study area, had a very high levels of Chl a in excess of 20 g/L and reached 535 g/L
when Noctiluca red tide outbreak is occurred (Meksumpun and Meksumpun, 2008).
Table 1 Water quality (mean±SD) in the Bang-tabun Bay during the study periods
Parameters
Temp (oC)
Salinity (psu)
DO (mg/L)pH
Chl a (g/L)
TSS (mg/L)
NH4+ (M)
NO2-+NO3- (M)
Si(OH)4 (M)
PO43- (M)

Study periods
December 201125.27 ± 0.64
21.70 ± 1.11
7.79 ± 0.95
8.49 ± 0.15
10.39 ± 5.07
15.68 ± 13.34
43.25 ± 13.98
2.78 ± 2.62
68.15 ± 28.47
2.00 ± 1.29

September 201130.65 ± 0.95
18.17 ± 5.17
6.03 ± 2.74
7.89 ± 0.31
11.98 ± 4.92
20.45 ± 16.37
30.71 ± 11.25
6.01 ± 4.17
126.65 ± 52.07
2.77 ± 1.58

May 2012
30.92 ± 0.63
21.64 ± 2.96
3.41 ± 0.58
7.47 ± 0.13
12.31 ± 5.83
78.98 ± 45.67
40.98 ± 8.82
8.00 ± 2.84
137.98 ± 32.88
3.53 ± 0.78

The levels of NH4+ and NO2-+NO3- varied significantly (p < 0.05) with seasons. Levels of
NH4+ varied from 13.89 to 71.86 M, with the highest level found in December 2011. NO2-+NO3concentrations ranged between undetectable to 15.82 M. High concentration levels were found inⒸ ISERD

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September 2011, which was probably the results of land utilization of agriculture, of which rice
fields and aquaculture areas that covering the river mouth (REO8, 2011). Si(OH) 4 concentrations
ranged from 24.94 to 241.72 M with high concentration levels particularly in the rainy season (p< 0.05). PO43- levels ranged from 0.63 to 5.65 M with noticeably higher levels than therecommended level of 0.48 M from the ASEAN marine water quality (Chongprasith et al., 1999).
Phytoplankton Distribution
Phytoplankton community variation was related to local nutrient loads and hydrographic condition,
turbulence and human impact (Álvarez-Góngora and Herrera-Silveira, 2006). The phytoplankton
community consisted of 54 genera, namely 4 Cyanophyceae, 7 Chlorophyceae, 33
Bacillariophyceae (diatoms), 1 Dictyochophyceae, and 9 Dinophyceae (dinoflagellate). The amountof phytoplankton varied from 180 to 1.37x105 unit cells/L with the highest density in December
2011. The results showed that dinoflagellate was the most dominant group. Other species, such as
Trichodesmium sp., Protoperidinium sp., and Noctiluca scintillans, were also found, while
Ceratium sp. was dominant species when the red tide phenomenon is occurred. The results ofstatistical analysis implied that dissolved inorganic nutrients had influenced on phytoplankton
density. Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rs) indicated that phytoplankton density highly
significant (p < 0.01) received enhancement from NO2-+NO3-, Si(OH)4, and PO43- (rs = -0.762, 0.745, and -0.484, respectively). Those nutrients play the key roles of phytoplankton blooming,
while NH4+ concentration were surplus for phytoplankton growth in this area.
Nutrients Proportion for Phytoplankton
The results of nutrient proportion were calculated for dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN;
NH4++NO2-+NO3-), orthophosphate (P; PO43-) and silicate (Si; Si(OH)4) and compared with
Redfield ratios of N:Si:P (16:16:1) based on the work of Brzezinski (1985). The results of DIN:Pand Si:P molar ratios varied by season and were mostly higher than Redfield ratios, especially in
December 2012 when there is an accumulation process in the water column. In this study, thelevels of DIN:P ratios had related to phytoplankton density with the power function of Y =828.1e0.109X in which r2 = 0.344, when Y = phytoplankton density and X = DIN:P levels (Fig. 2).
Such variation reflected high load of nutrients that involved the natural runoff and agricultural land
uses which was consequentially influence such nutrient loads (Thongdonphum et al., 2011). Thus,
PO43- levels could be monitored and used for managing water quality.

Fig. 2 Relationships between of DIN:P ratios and phytoplankton density found in the
Bang-tabun Bay during study periodsⒸ ISERD

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CONCLUSION
This study has revealed that phytoplankton can play an important role in nutrients, particularly
phosphate from the water column as the crucial influencing factor of phytoplankton growth. DIN
levels were surplus for the Bang-tabun Bay. The levels of phosphate could be used to monitor andmanage eutrophication and/or red tide phenomenon. The study results could be applied to estimate
the level of phytoplankton density for more efficient management of water resources andutilization.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express deep gratitude to all the staff members of the Marine
Environmental Laboratory (Department of Marine Sciences) and the Sediment and Aquatic
Environment Research Laboratory (Department of Fishery Biology), Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart
University, for their in valuable advice and assistance.
REFERENCES
Álvarez-Góngora, C. and Herrera-Silveira, J.A. 2006. Variation of phytoplankton community structure
related to water quality trends in a tropical karstic coastal zone. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 52, 48-60.
Brzezinski, M.A. 1985. The Si:C:N ratio of marine diatoms: interspecific variability and the effect of someenvironmental variables. Journal of Phycology, 21, 347-357.
Cheevaporn, V. and Menasveta, P. 2003. Water pollution and habitat degradation in the gulf of Thailand.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 47, 43-51.
Chongprasith, P., Wiliratanadilok, W. and Utoomprurkporm, W. 1999. ASEAN marine water quality criteria
for phosphate. ASEAN-Canada CPMS-II Cooperative Programme on Marine Science. Department of
Pollution Control, Thailand.
Meksumpun, C. and Mecsumpun, S. 2008. Integration of aquatic ecology and biological oceanographic
knowledge for development of area based eutrophication assessment criteria leading to water resource
remediation and utilization management: a case study in Tha Chin, the most eutrophic river of Thailand.
Water Science and Technology, 58 (12), 2303-2311.
REO8. 2011. Environmental status in the western report. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
Thailand.
Tantanasarit, C., Englande, A.J. and Babel, S. 2013. Nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon uptake kinetics bymarine diatom Chaetoceros calcitrans under high nutrient concentrations. Journal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology, 446, 67-75.
Thongdonphum, B., Meksumpun, S. and Meksumpun C. 2011. Nutrient loads and their impacts onchlorophyll a in the Mae Klong River and estuarine ecosystem: An approach for nutrient criteria
development. Water Science and Technology, 64 (1), 178-188.
Thongdonphum, B., Meksumpun, S., Meksumpun C., Sawasdee, B. and Kasemsiri, P. 2013. Predictivemodel for biochemical component of phytoplankton in the river and estuarine systems of the Mae Klong
River, Thailand. IJERD, 4 (1), 13-18.
TMD. 2012. Climate of Thailand. Thai Meteorological Department, Thailand. (available from; http://www.
tmd.go.th/en/archive/thailand_climate.php., Accessed on October 22, 2012)
Zingone, A. and Enevoldsen, H.O. 2000.The diversity of harmful algal blooms: a challenge for science andmanagement. Ocean and Coastal Management, 43, 725-748.

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Research article
erd

Public Participation on Water Resources Management in
Lao PDR: Case Study Banhome Village, Hadsayfong
District
KHAMBAI PHUNTHAVONGSA
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

NARUEMOL KAEWJAMPA*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: narue77@gmail.com
Received 30 January 2014

Accepted 11 August 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The public participation on resources management in Lao PDR: case study
Banhome village, Hadsayfong district, Vientiane. This area is very important for
promoting sustainable agricultural production, and tends to accelerate human health suchas the activation of financial securities, water supplies and how to avoid flood anddroughts in the future by introducing environment friendly policies close to theconservation area. The purpose of this study was to determine the level of public
participation and factors affecting participation of farmers in water resource managementin Vientiane, Lao PDR. The participation of villagers was very useful. This survey
research was carried out by using randomized model practices in relation to voluntary
participation and the Government to the water resource management and cooperative inrural development. Data were collected by questionnaires and descriptive statistics wereused to analyze the data. The results found that the level of public participation involved inwater resource management was low. Recommendations from this research are that theGovernment and community should cooperate together to manage water resources andallow farmers to join all processes of water management and solving problems.
Information and activities were promoted directly to people via well-selected media inorder to create a positive point of view in water resource management participations.
Moreover, in this area, the point of view for water resource management should be
improved starting with changing the ways that farmers make decisions.
Keywords public participation, water resources management, Lao PDR

INTRODUCTION
The water resources are an important sector in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR). Lao
PDR government planned to develop, modernize and industrialize in order to achieve a high qualityof life. The water resource management, one of which policy issue at the society-natural interface,pose governance challenge of Lao PDR and throughout the world. The estimated inland water
resources area totals approximately 723,500 ha, which 200,000 ha are from Mekong River region;
54,000 ha from other main rivers; 57,000 ha from reservoirs, 1,500 ha from swamps; 406,000 hafrom rice fields; and 5,000 ha from fish ponds. The rivers outside the Mekong River basin; theNam Ma, Nam Sam and Nam Neune flow through Vietnam into the South China Sea.
Public participation in integrated water resource management (IWRM) is needed to reachdecisions involving socio-economic and ecological groups, IWRM users, stakeholders and thegeneral public. The public participation is necessary because it decreases political tensions,Ⓒ ISERD

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promotes decision making by consensus and assists in finding reasonable and acceptable solutions.
The comprehensive management of the river basin is a new concept of WRM.
This study was designed to examine the public participation in the rural water resource
management project and to determine the problems and obstacles including flood, droughts, water
quality and other emergencies. But the biggest water management trend observed is thedevelopment of all Lao PDR’s rivers for social-economic development and a reduction in poverty.
The Country’s status should rise to developed country status by 2020. However, the lack of timeand knowledges of community is a big problem which related to low goverment supporting
towards public participation for WRM in this focus area. Therefore, this study was to determine thelevel of public participation and factor affecting participation of farmers on WRM in Lao PDR.
METHODOLOGY
Study area: The study was conducted case study Banhome villages, Hadsysong district, Vientiane
city, Lao PDR. (Fig.1). It is a plain region area of Vientiane capital. The total area of Hadsayfong
district is 25.8 ha, of which approximately 17.2% is covered by forest, 57.61% is covered by semi
natural and agricultural ecosystems (arable land, orchards, rice production, cassava, organic
agriculture and another land) and 24% is covered by settlements and surface-covering
infrastructures. As for the location of surveys to determine the zoning of agricultural and forestry“SDZAF and NAFRI” reference points, 31% is found in cultivated lands, 14.56% is water resource,
while 31% in other agricultural areas by annual cropping. Whereas water resource management hashistorically used the river or lake basin as its unit of management, the growth in population andurbanization has placed increasing pressure on water resources across multiple basins a 495 ha andtotal 2,752 ha of the areas (Lao government, 2012).
Sample determinations and research methods: Local residents in the study (2,531 households)
and local water resources 495 ha in areas are regarded as the core interest groups. Banhome village
was the focus area used to conduct the survey. Data was collected during August and September
2013 using a structured questionnaire and interview process. SPSS software was used to analyze
the results of the personal factors including gender, age, educational background, income and main
occupation. Membership of government organization is related directly with people participating inwater resource management in this questionnaire.

Fig. 1 Study area of Hadsayfong district, Vientiane city, Lao PDRⒸ ISERD

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Descriptive Statistic
The characteristics of the samples showed that the heads of the households were mainly male. The
age of samples ranged from 29 to 69 years with a mean of 44 years and the range of family size
was from 3 to 6 persons with a mean of 4.3 persons. The most education background waselementary school and diploma. 80% of respondents in this study are farmer while, 13.3% and6.7% are government employer and business. The range of income was from lower than 150 tomore than 400 US dollars per month. There were randomized 15 samplings of households, fordetails see Table 1.
Table 1 Basic characteristic of the samples
Gender

Education level

Sampling
numberMale

FemaleElementary
school15
Percentage (%)

14.0
93.3

1.0
6.7

5.0
33.3

Juniorhighschool
2.0
13.3

High
schooldiplomadegree

2.0
13.3

5.0
33.3

1.0
6.7

IncomeOccupation

Sampling
number<150

151-200

201-300

301-400>400

15Percentage (%)

2.0
13.3

2.0
13.3

6.0
40.0

2.0
13.3

3.0
20.0

Government
employer
2.0
13.3

FarmerBusiness

12.0
80.0

1.0
6.7

Public Participation in Water Resource Management
Public participation is known as the most effective way in promoting and achieving sustainabilityof rural development projects, particularly in developing countries (Livingstone and McPherson,1993). In this study area, it has been recognized that the water resource management project users
or beneficiaries do not appreciate the projects since the projects are provided by the government for
free of charge that related to lack of sense of ownership and sharing responsibility to the projects.
Furthermore, the participation rate of water resource management in this area also was low. In all
stage of a project development such as project decision making process, project construction,
operation and maintenance, monitoring and evaluation, the local stakeholder participation was low
which lead to water resource management project failure (Table 2).
Table 2 Stakeholder participation in water resource management
Statement
Stakeholder’s participation in water resource situation, cause
and water demand of village
Stakeholder’s participation share the opinion in decision
making about water problem and resolve water problem
Stakeholder’s participation in water resource management
lead to effective decision plan/project
Stakeholder’s participation in monitoring and evaluation ofwater resource management projectNote: N = 15High (%)

Average (%)

Low (%)

20.0

40.0

40.0

13.3

26.7

60.0

13.3

26.7

60.0

0.0

33.3

66.7

Therefore, for success project, government should be increase the rate of stakeholder
participatory approach have been evidence through a series of consultative and discuss among
project related stakeholders (Uraiwong and Watanabe, 2012). The promoting of water resource
management knowledge and information is also important which the result found that the level ofchannel obtaining water resource management project information was low (Fig.2). All television,
radio and newspaper media, which average’s to higher than 66.7 percent and government work
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reports, were not able to gain more stakeholders understanding and participation. The education
function of the media in rural areas may be the cause for the lack of opportunity to obtain water
resource information (Liu et al., 2010).

Fig. 2 Source of media and level of obtaining the information
on water resource management
Problems and Obstacles in Water Resource Management by Public Participation in Lao
As shown in Table 3, the respondent rated eight items as problems or obstacles of their village. The
stakeholders do not know the goal of participation in water resource management project leads tolack of understanding in the project. Therefore, the water resource management project
development should be considered as demand driven and identified by the local stakeholder who
involved in all stages of a project development (Uraiwong and Watanabe, 2012).
Table 3 Problems and obstacles for publics’ participation in water resource management
Problems and obstacles
Ignorance on the goal of projects
Incompatible with others
Contrary to the community culture and traditional
Afraid of the self-troublesome
Lack of time
Lack of chance to public participation attending
Lack of knowledge
Lack of government support

No (%)
20.0
40.0
100
100
93.7
86.7
73.3
60.0

Yes (%)
80.0
60.0
0
0
6.3
13.3
26.7
40.0

Note; N=15

CONCLUSION
The overall objective of this study was to explore the areas where people’s awareness and generalknowledge on the scheme were low due to lack of ownership and responsibility on the water
resource management program. Also as an income source it is still limited. Thus, lower income
households are unaware of the program. The result from group analysis shows the statement of
stakeholder’s participation in the water resources situation, cause and water demand of the villagers
are low, sharing in the opinion that decision making and water problem issues is low, due to the
low rate of attention, acceptance and feedback of water resource management information.
Therefore, publicity on water management knowledge should be strengthened and the government
activities should be given the chance to expand in rural participation from the start.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank IDRC-SEARCA scholar and the participants of the Hadsayfong district for
their kind collaboration and openness. Special thanks to Integrated Water Resource Management
Research and Development Center in Northeast Thailand, Khon Kaen University and Thailand forsupporting the scholarship in this research.
REFERENCES
Liu, J., Luan, Y., Su, L., Cao, Z., and Zeng, B. 2010. Public participation in water resourcesmanagement of Haihe river basin, China: The analysis and evaluation of status quo. Proc.
Environ. Sci., 2, 1750-1758.
Livingstone, A., and McPherson, H.J. 1993. Community management of rural water supplies:
Lesson for developing countries from a western Canadian experience. Water International, 18,
225-232.
Lao Government. 2012. Providing of land resources and local used in Hadsayfong district,
Vientiane capital, Lao PDR.
Uraiwong, P., and Watanabe, T. 2012. Small-scaled water resources project in Thailand: Failure analysis andimprovement of stakeholder involvement. (Available from; http://management.kochitech.ac.jp/ssms_
papers/sms12-6080_c59b4be872a44fbf2139d47492a9d037.pdf. Search date: 6 January 2014).

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Research article
erd

Potential of Native Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria Isolated
from the Rhizosphere of Economic Crops and Vermicast in
Northeast Thailand to Solubilize Insoluble Phosphates
under in vitro Conditions
KIRIYA SUNGTHONGWISES*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: skiriy@kku.ac.th

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Integrated Water Resource Management Research and Development Center in Northeast
Thailand, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

ANAN WONGCHAROEN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

ARUNEE PROMKHAMBUT
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

DIDIER LESUEUR
CIRAD, UMR Eco&Sols (CIRAD-IRD-INRA-SupAgro), Land Development Department,
Office of Science for Land Development, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Deakin University, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science,
Engineering and Built Environment, Melbourne, Australia
Received 3 November 2013

Accepted 11 August 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Although soils generally contain a large amount of total P, only a small
proportion is immediately available for plant uptake making it a major constraint on crop
production in many tropical countries. Free-living bacteria and fungi can mobilize
orthophosphate from either organic or inorganic P sources such as Phosphate Rock (PR).
These phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms (PSM) are characterized by their capacity tosolubilize precipitated forms of P, the main P ingredient in PR and could be good biofertilizers for improving phosphorus plant nutrition. The present study examined
phosphate solubilising bacteria (PSB) isolated from cassava, groundnut, rubber tree,
sunchoke, rice, rice-soybean, rice-soybean-corn and rice-chili fields and vermicast ofearthworm varieties in Northeast of Thailand, where soils are mainly sandy and Pdeficient. PSB isolates were tested by using different P sources [Tri-calcium Phosphate(Ca3(PO4)2), Ferric Phosphate (FePO4) and Aluminium Phosphate (AlPO4)] on specificculture media (National Botanical Research Institute Phosphate Growth Medium, NBRIP).
Our results showed that five of the PSB isolates from economic crops and vermicast ofearthworm varieties solubilised a significantly (P  0.01) higher amount of AlPO4 andFePO4 over the uninoculated control. The highest activity of solubilization was achievedfor AlPO4 followed by FePO4 which are the main forms of insoluble phosphates in acidic
sandy soils. We found that PSB isolated from vermicast of earthworm varieties Pheretima
posthuma and Eudrilus eugeniae were able to solubilize both AlPO4 and FePO4 at
relatively high rates (up to 1,918.49 mgP/l), in contrast, PSB isolated from cassava, ricesoybean and groundnut field soil tended to have lower solubilisation rates for FePO4. Noneof the isolates tested were able to solubilize CaPO4. Finally, IAA production was observed
only in PSB isolated of E. eugeniae vermicast and rice-soybean field soil. These results
highlight variability of specific PSB isolates from different rhizospheres and vermicast ofearthworm varieties and provide essential information for the management of soil fertility.

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Keywords crop productions, phosphate solubilization, phosphate-solubilizing
bacteria, vermicast

INTRODUCTION
Phosphorus (P) is an essential element in plant development. Photosynthesis, changing sugar to
starch, genetic inheritance, nitrogen fixation, flowering, fruiting seed production (Mehrvarz et. al.,2008) and resistance to plant diseases are the attributes associated with phosphorus nutrition (Khanet al., 2009). Although soils generally contain a large amount of total P, only a small proportion isimmediately available for plant uptake. Phosphorus deficiency is the main problem to plant growthin tropical and subtropical areas (Bonser et al., 1996). Especially, in the Northeast Thailand the soil
are acidic with highly reactive of Fe3+ and Al3+ (Gyaneshwar et al., 2002), low phosphorus contents
in the parent material and low soil moisture affects the availability of phosphorus (Karmakar et al.,
1997; Raychaudhury et al., 2003). To meet the crop demand, farmers apply up to 3-4 times therequired amount of P to crops, causing a substantial increase in production costs. There are strong
evidences showed soil bacteria are capable of transforming soil P to the forms available to plant.
Recent studies reported that plants and microorganisms play a key role in soil P dynamics
which catalyze the hydrolysis of organic phosphate esters to orthophosphate anions by using
phosphatases. Free-living bacteria and fungi can mobilize orthophosphate (predominantly as
HPO42- and H2PO4-) from either organic or inorganic P sources for improving P availability.
Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) become a source of P to plants upon its release from theircells. The phosphatase efficiency is related to the microbial fauna, the soil temperature andhumidity as well as the associated bacteria communities (Zahran, 1999). Other factors that can playa significant role are the physiological state of the plant, the type of rooting system, the age of theplant and the location of ectomycorrhiza on the root (Antibus et al., 1997).
Vermicast, also called worm manure originates from the breakdown of organic matter by
earthworms. Its microbial activity is 10 to 20 times higher than in the soil (Chaoui, 2010).
Vermicast contains reduced levels of contaminants and a higher saturation of nutrients than organic
materials do before vermi composting (Ndegwa et al., 1998). Moreover, vermicast is also believed
to contain hormones and enzymes which it acquires during the passage of the organic matter
through the earthworm gut. The hormones and enzymes are believed to stimulate plant growth anddiscourage plant pathogens (Gajalakshmi and Abbasi, 2004). The analysis of the ability of bacterial
isolates to solubilize insoluble P form to available P form will enable to create a highly valuablebasis for the use of these isolates as bio-inoculums or bio-fertilizer to increase crops yield and forsustaining crop production. The objectives of this research were to isolate phosphate-solubilizing
bacteria (PSB) from cassava, groundnut, rubber tree, sunchoke, rice, rice-soybean, rice-soybeancorn and rice-chili fields and vermicast of earthworm varieties in the Northeast of Thailand wheresoils are mainly sandy and P-deprive.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sampling Site and Soil Sample Collection
The experiment was conducted within Khon Kaen, Mahasarakham and Roi Et provinces, Northeast
Thailand. Northeast Thailand is characterized by a tropical climate with an acid sandy soil. Soilsamples (20 points) were collected from cassava, ground nut, rubber tree, sunchoke, rice, ricesoybean, rice-soybean-corn and rice-chili fields while those plants were growing from the soil
surface at a depth of 10 cm. Collected soil samples were preserved in plastic bag at 4 C forphosphate solubilizing bacteria isolation.
Isolation of Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria by Enrichment CultureⒸ ISERD

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To extract PSB from soil, 5 g of soil samples and vermicast of earthworm varieties were transferredto the NBRIP growth medium. Per liter, this growth liquid medium contains 10 g glucose with 5 g
MgCl2·6H2O, 0.25 g MgSO4·7H2O, 0.2 g KCl and 0.1 g (NH4)2SO4. Additionally, modified NBRIP
media, containing either FePO4 or AlPO4 or Ca3(PO4)2 as the sole source of insoluble P, were also
used for the initial screening step. The pH of the agar medium was adjusted to 7.0. The sources of
insoluble P were autoclaved separately and the other sterile ingredients were aseptically mixed
after autoclaving. Erlenmeyer flasks containing 50 ml of the medium with inoculants wereincubated for 7 days at 30 °C on incubator shaker at medium speed (150 cycles min −1). For thefollowing week, 5 ml of this incubated medium with inoculants were transferred into 50 ml
Erlenmeyer flasks again with new liquid medium for 7 more days at 30 °C on incubator shaker at
medium speed (150 cycles min−1). At the end of each week in NBRIP growth liquid media, aliquotsof each dilution were spread on NBRIP medium and incubated at 30 °C for 14 days. After PSB
isolation for 6 weeks, colonies were selected from the plates on the basis of the appearance of aclear halo; the clones were further purified on minimal medium based on each insoluble phosphateforms. Once purified, each isolate was stored as a glycerol stock at -20 °C.
Mineral Phosphate Solubilization Assays
The phosphate solubilizing (PS) activity of each of the isolates was determined by molybdenumblue method (Land Development Department, 2005). The isolates were grown in NBRIP liquidmedium containing different insoluble forms of phosphate (AlPO4, Ca3(PO4)2 and FePO4) for 3-7
days at 30 °C on incubator shaker at medium speed (150 cycles min−1). The solubilization
efficiencies were determined by reaction with ammonium molybdate for phosphorus compounds asammonium phosphomolybdate and reduced with a compound ascorbic acid to molybdenum blue.
Then, the isolates were incubated for 30 min at room temperature for color development. Finally,
the absorption of light in the wavelength range 880 nm was measured by Shimadzu UV-120-01
Spectrophotometer.
Indole Acetic Acid Production
Selected PSB strains based on their ability to solubilize P were analyzed for IAA production(Nuntagij, 1997). The selective bacterial strains were grown in 45 ml of Lysogeny Broth medium(LB) contains 10 g/l Tryptone with 5 g/l NaCl and 5 g/l yeast extract at 30 °C for 2 days. The 5 l
PSB solution were determined by reaction with 1 ml of Tris-TMRT reagent contains 10 g/l Dmanital, 0.2 g/l yeast extract, 0.2/l CaCl2. 2H2O, 0.2 g/l MgSO4.7H2O, 1.21 g/l Tris-base and 0.061
g/l L-Tryptophane 28 °C for 10 days. The 2 ml mixture was determined by 0.01 M FeCl 3 in 35%
HClO4 for 30 min at 25 °C in the dark. The positive isolated were showed red color for indole
acetic acid production.
Statistical Analysis
An analysis of variance was done on data obtained from each parameter in each treatment. Allanalyses were carried out using Statistical analysis version 8.0. Least significant differences(L.S.D.) were calculated at p < 0.05 and Duncan’s multiple-range test was used to test significant
differences between treatments. Standard deviation was also calculated for the variance.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Isolation of PSB from the Rhizosphere and Vermicast of Earthworm Varieties
The screening strategy employed during this research enabled the identification of PSB colonies on
NBRIP medium containing different insoluble forms of phosphate (AlPO4, Ca3(PO4)2 and FePO4)
as sole P source. No colonies exhibiting a clear halo were observed on agar plates supplementedⒸ ISERD112

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with AlPO4, Ca3(PO4)2 and FePO4 for rubber and cassava from Roi Et, rubber tree, cassava and ricefrom Mahasarakham, sonchoke, rice-soybean-corn and rice-chili from Khon Kaen provinces andfrom vermicast of P. peguana and E. foetida (not shown). Five bacterial isolates from cassava andrice-soybean field at Khon Kaen province, ground nut field from Mahasarakham province and fromvermicast of earthworm varieties showed clear halos of AlPO4 and FePO4 solubilization (Table 1
and Fig. 1). Some obvious differences in the size of the halos of different isolates were observed(not shown). This preliminary observation suggests the existence of bacterial isolates exhibiting
different degrees of PS efficiencies in the soil samples and vermicast of earthworm varieties
collected. This preliminary observation suggested the existence of bacterial isolates exhibiting
different degrees of PS efficiencies in the soil samples collected (not shown). Yahya and Azawi(1998) reported that in general high abundances of PSB are found in agricultural and rangelandsoils. Furthermore, Kim et al. (1989) showed that the cultural activities and different soil properties
such as soil physical and chemical properties, organic matter and soil phosphorus content all playroles in determining the abundance of PSB in soils.
Table 1 Phosphate solubilizing effectiveness of tested bacteria, 10 days after inoculation
IsolateCassava (Khon Kaen)
Rice-Soybean (Khon Kaen)
Groundnut (Mahasarakham)
Eudrilus eugeniae
Pheretima posthuma

Solubilized phosphate (mgP/l) from
FePO4
AlPO4
959.53b1,860.00 a
682.13b1,789.71 a
741.17b1,605.09 a
1,582.46a
1,834.96 a
1,405.00a
1,918.49 a

Ca3(PO4)2
0
0
0
0
0

Efficiency of Phosphate Solubilization by NBRIP
To confirm this observation, the 5 purified isolates were tested following the protocol of Land
Development Department (2005), a method previously shown to be a reliable and qualitative
indicator of the PS activity of different bacterial isolates. Table 1 shows the OD880 nm shift of theculture supernatants of each of the 5 PSB isolates after a 3-7 day cultivation period in NBRIP
medium. Indeed, some isolates did not show any significant change in the absorbance of thesupernatant while others exhibited OD880 nm changes in the absorbance. After evaluating their P
solubilization capacity, the results showed that all of the 5 isolates can solubilize AlPO4 and FePO4
better than Ca3(PO4)2 especially the PSB isolates from the vermicast of earthworm varieties (Table1). Moreover, PSB isolate from the cassava and rice-soybean at Khon Kaen province andgroundnut at Mahasarakham province, look interesting for solubilizing FePO4 and AlPO4, which
are the main forms of insoluble phosphates in acid sandy soils.

Fig. 1 Appearance of a clear halo from PSB isolates
Indole Acetic Acid Production of PSB Isolates
The plant growth promoting effect of selected PSB was evaluated by analyzing IAA production(Table 2). The IAA production was observed from the isolates of rice-Soybean field and vermicastⒸ ISERD

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of E. eugeniae (Fig. 2), indicating that these strains could utilize l-tryptophan as a precursor for
growth. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria isolated from rice-Soybean field and vermicast of E.
eugeniae showed the highest IAA production (111.30-111.34 mg/L). Generally, bacteria canenhance plant growth directly or indirectly by increasing available P, fixing nitrogen, sequestering
iron by siderophores, producing antibiotics and plant hormones (Glick et al., 1998 and Mantelin
and Touraine, 2004). This group of bacteria is known as plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB).
Moreover, PSB have been widely used as inoculants to increase P uptake and crop yield (Chen etal., 2008). IAA production contributes to phytostabilization by increasing root and shoots biomass(Liphadzi et al., 2006). In the context of sustainable agriculture with bio-fertilizers (phosphatesolubilizing bacteria) to supply phosphorus at a favorable level for enhance plant growth byproviding nutrients in a readily absorbable form. The application of inoculants provided from thesemicroorganisms seem to increase an abundant population of active and effective microorganisms to
the root activity zone which increases plant ability to uptake more nutrients.
Table 2 Plant growth promoting properties of isolates
IsolateCassava (Khon Kaen)
Rice-Soybean (Khon Kaen)
Groundnut (Mahasarakham)
Eudrilus eugeniae
Pheretima posthuma

Phosphate solubilization
+
+
+
+
+

IAA production++-

Fig. 2 IAA production from PSB isolates
CONCLUSION
The native PSB isolated from cassava, rice-soybean and groundnut field soil, vermicast of P.
posthuma and E. eugeniae seems to have the capacity to solubilize insoluble forms of AlPO4 andFePO4 which are the main forms of insoluble phosphates in acid sandy soils. The PSB isolates fromvermicast of earthworm varieties P. posthuma and E. eugeniae show the highest P solubilization
capacity in vitro conditions follow by the PSB isolated from cassava and rice-soybean field soil
from Khon Kaen province and groundnut field soil from Mahasarakham province. However, the
PSB isolates from vermicast of earthworm variety E. eugeniae and rice-soybean field soil from
Khon Kaen province look interested for IAA production. This work provides a first step towards byusing bio-fertilizers (phosphate solubilizing bacteria) for improving plant nutrient uptake, soil
fertility and sustainable crop production in nutrient poor systems.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Khon Kaen University under Incubation Researcher Project andKnowledge Development of Rubber Tree in Northeast Research Group. The Research Institute of
Molecular Genetics and the North East Agriculture Research and Development Center at Faculty ofAgriculture Khon Kaen University (Thailand) and the partnership Land Use changes and Soil
Ecosystem Services (LUSES) are also thanked.
REFERENCES
Antibus, R.K., Bower, D. and Dighton, J. 1997. Root surface phosphatase activities and uptake of 32Plabelled inositol phosphate in field-collected gray birch and red maple roots. Mycorrhiza, 7, 39-46.
Bonser, A.M.Y.M., Lynch, J. and Snapp, S. 1996. Effect of phosphorus deficiency on growth angle of basalroots in Phaseolus vulgaris. New Phytol, 132, 281-288.
Chaoui, H. 2010. Vermicasting (or Vermicomposting): Processing organic wastes through earthworms.
Factsheet. 1-7.
Chen, Z., Ma, S. and Liu, L.L. 2008. Studies on phosphorus solubilizing activity of a strain ofphosphobacteria isolated from chestnut type soil in China. Bioresour. Technol, 99, 6702-6707.
Gajalakshmi, S. and Abbasi, S.A. 2004. Earthworms and vermicomposting. Indian Journal of Biotechnology,
3, 486-494.
Glick, B.R., Penrose, D.M. and Li, J. 1998. A model for the lowering of plant ethylene concentrations byplant growth-promoting bacteria. J. Theor. Biol., 190, 63-68.
Gyaneshwar, P., Kumar, G.N., Parekh, L.J. and Poole, P.S. 2002. Role of soil microorganisms in improving
P nutrition of plants. Plant Soil, 245, 83-93.
Karmakar, S., Mittra, B.N. and Ghosh, B.C. 1997. Comparative efficiency of organic and industrial wastes in
improving productivity of acid lateritic soil under rice-groundnut cropping system, 24-27. In First All
India Peoples Technology Congress, February 21-23, Calcutta, India.
Khan, A.A., Jilani, G., Akhtar, M.S., Naqvi, S.M.S., and Rasheed, M. 2009. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria:
Occurrence, mechanisms and their role in crop production. Journal Agriculture biology science, 1, 4858.
Kim, K.Y., Jordan, D. and McDonald, G.A. 1989. Effect of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and in Iranis providing with organic matter in desperately VAM on tomato growth and soil microbial activities.
Biology of fertility Soils, 26, 79-87.
Land Development Department. Office of Science for Land Development. 2005. The analysis of the soil,
water, fertilizer, soil and plant analysis for certification. W.J property press, Bangkok.
Liphadzi, M.S., Kirkham, M.B. and Paulsen, G.M. 2006. Auxin-enhanced root growth for phytoremediationof sewage-sludge amended soil. Environ. Technol, 27, 695-704.
Mantelin, S. and Touraine, B. 2004. Plant growth-promoting bacteria and nitrate availability: impacts on root
development and nitrate uptake. J. Exp. Bot., 55, 27-34.
Mehrvarz, S., Chaichi, M.R. and Alikhani, H.A. 2008. Effects of phosphate solubilizing microorganisms andphos-phorus chemical fertilizer on yield and yield components of Barely (Hordeum vulgare L.). AmEuras. Journal Agriculture and Environmental Science, 3, 822-828.
Ndegwa, P.M., Thompson, S.A. and Das, K.C. 1998. Effects of stocking density and feeding rate on
vermicomposting of biosolids. Bioresource Technology, 71, 5-12.
Nuntagij, A., Abe, M., Uchimi, T., Seki, Y., Boonkerd, N. and Higashi, S. 1997. Characterization ofbradyrhizobium strains isolated from soybean cultivation in Thailand. J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol., 43, 183187.
Raychaudhury, M., Ngachan, S.V., Raychaudhury, S. and Singh, A.L. 2003. Yield response of groundnut todual inoculation and liming of an acid hill Ultisol of Manipur. Indian Journal Agriculture Science, 73,
86-88.
Yahya, A. and Azawi, S.K.A. 1998. Occurrence of phosphate solubilizing bacteria in some Iranian soils.
Plant and Soil, 117, 135-141.
Zahran, H.H. 1999. Rhizobium-legume symbiosis and nitrogen fixation under severe conditions and in anarid climate. Microbiol. Molecu. Biological Reviews, 63, 968-989.

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Research article
erd

Effect of Storage Duration in the Quality of Vermicompost
NATTIRA KLEAWKLAHARN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: chulee_b@kku.ac.th
Received 12 October 2013

Accepted 11 August 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract A trend of demand for organic products in both domestic and international has
dramatically grown in both rate and expansion. Organic agriculture does not only provide
rich nutrition and toxic free soil but is also have low in production cost. The use ofvermicompost is an alternative way to add organic material in farming and alter the soil
properties in a positive way; for instance, by increasing the soil nutrient availability. To
make use of vermicompost efficiently, it is important to recognize that the quality of thevermicompost may change due to the duration of its storage. This study utilizedvermicompost, which had been maintained for different periods (0, 1 and 3 months) tostudy changes in its biological and chemical qualities. The study found that the amount ofliving bacteria and fungi when storing the vermicompost at a 1 month period and thestorage would remain stable until the third month. The changes in soil chemistry indicatedthat the pH and EC values decreased during storage in the first month from 8.53 to 7.50
and from 1.25 ds/cm to 0.84 ds/cm respectively, and increased again during storage in thethird month, which were 8.33 and 2.18 ds/cm respectively. The changes in amount of
nutrients indicated that nitrogen (TN) and calcium (Ca) were not different throughout thestorage period of three months. On the other hand, the amounts of potassium (TK) andmagnesium (Mg) decreased during storage in the first month and increased in the third
month whereas the amount of phosphorus (TP) increased during the first month of storage
period and stabled in the third month. The changes in both biological and chemicalparameters proved that the vermicompost could be kept up to 3 months with good quality.
Keywords vermicompost, storage, chemical and biological properties

INTRODUCTION
The trend of demand for organic products in both domestic and international agriculture has
increased by a 20 growth rate of percent per year due to the fact that manufacturers and consumers
in turn pay much more attention to hygiene, safety, and environmental pollution (Somkhit, 2006).
Organic agriculture is a farming system that uses the principles of the ecological balance of natural
application to manage agricultural production by incorporating biodiversity of crops, livestock,
forestry, fisheries etc. in a supportive and renewable resource in the ecosystem for maximum
benefit and by avoiding using inputs imported from outside the farm. This includes the use ofsynthetic chemical inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, antibiotics, etc. In addition,organic agriculture provides high yielding soil, rich nutrient and non-toxic together with low
production cost. Using vermicompost is another alternative input in organic farming. The use ofvermicompost in the planting phase will result in better soil structure and is also efficient withwater and air drainage, greater moisture retention and creates incoherency in soil so that plant roots
can thread and spread widely (Edwards et al., 2011). Vermicompost provides a greater variety of
microorganisms than in other normal compost. These microbes act to decompose detritus into
useful organo-nutrients for plant growth. Compost and worm tea have humic acids which containnutrients that are essential to many plants such as phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca),iron (Fe), and copper (Cu) and will be released when needed by plants.
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Production of vermicompost is a simple technological process, which uses a mixture oforganic sludge with earthworms to change the composition of the waste and produce the biomodified materials that are useful for crops (Iwai et al, 2013). Vermicompost possesses a moldygrain, fine, brown, and light characteristic material; but its quality inevitably changes with time. In
order to obtain optimum efficiency, it is thus important to know how the quality of vermicompost
may change due to different storage times.
OBJECTIVE
The aim of this study is to follow and understand the change in quality of vermicompost due to theduration of its storage
METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted at the Center for Learning and Development of Earthworms for
Agriculture and Environment Faculty of Agriculture Khon Kaen University. To explore the scopeof vermicomposting and sampling vermicompost, the vermicompost produced from Eudrillus
eugeniae worm species commonly called the African Night Crawler were fed a blend of cassava
waste, soil, and cow dung at 7:2:1 ratio. The vermicompost was filled into polypropylene wovenbags which were bound tight. The bags were kept in room at a temperature range of 24◦C to 35◦C
with no humidity control, for storage periods of 0, 1, and 3 months, for 3 repetitions each before
sampling for analysis of chemical and biological properties. The completed randomize design
experiment is used for analysis of variance of the data (analysis of variance) and analysis of thedifference between the mean by DMRT (Duncan's Multiple Range Test)
Table 1 Chemical properties of individual blend based used in vermicomposting
PropertiespH
EC (mS/cm)
Organic Matter (OM %)Total nitrogen (% N)Total phosphorus (% P)Total potassium (% K)

Cassava waste
4.95
0.67
78.88
0.24
0.025
0.36

Cow dung
9.20
3.57
54.25
1.35
0.664
0.495

Soil (sandy soil)
5.0
0.35
0.45
0.021
0.008
0.121

Analysis of Chemical Properties
The study of some chemical properties was carried out in the laboratory at the Development andMonitoring Crop and Inputs Group, the Office of Agricultural Research and Development Region 3
Khon Kaen province has analyzed the chemical properties. The pH was measured using a pH meterwith a 1:2 ratio of fertilizer to water, electrical conductivity (EC) by using an electricalconductivity meter, total of nitrogen (total N) by using the Kjeldahl method, total phosphorus (total
P2O5) by using the spectrophotometric molybdovanadophosphate method, total of potassium (total
K2O) by using the flame photometric method and the total calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) byusing atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Analysis of Biological Properties
Fungi: The samples of vermicompost are put into the Erlenmeyer flask with 90 mL of sterile
distilled water before shaking off the microbes and leaving the sediments to settle. Concentration of
the samples is 10-1. The samples are further diluted with sterile distilled water to obtain 10-2 and 103
concentrations. The diluted soil solution is then taken for a spread plate technique on the rose
Bengal-streptomycin agar supplemented with streptomycin antibiotic of 30 μg/ml concentration.
The dilution is made 3 times with repetitions of each before being fermented at 30 oC for 5-7 days
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and counting all organisms.
Bacteria: Ten grams of vermicompost samples are put into the Erlenmeyer flask with 90 mL ofsterile distilled water before shaking off the microbes (mixed with sterile distilled water) andleaving the sediments to settle. Dilution of water samples with sterile distilled water is carried out
to obtain 10-3, 10-4, and 10-5 concentrations. The diluted solution is then taken for a pour platetechnique by using the soil extract agar. The dilution is made 3 repetitions each before being
fermented at room temperature for 3 days and counting all microorganisms.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Chemical Quality Changes at Different Storage Periods
The vermicompost has the following retention periods: 0 (new fertilizer), 1 and 3 months. The
results of chemical analysis are shown in Table 2 below.
Acidity and alkalinity (pH): The pH values decreased in the first month and increased in the third
month. The decrease in the first period may be caused by the activities of microorganisms, which
are greater in number and relatively to its increasing population. These activities cause acid tooccur such as via the nitrification process or mechanism for changing potassium into a soluble
form. However, again, the increase in the third month is because of higher amounts of calcium andpotassium.
Electrical conductivity (EC): The EC values provided the same analysis results as the pH. The
decreased in the first month from 1.25 to 0.84 and again increasing in the third month period from
0.84 to 2.18 may be due to the amount of increasing microorganisms which was affected to thedecomposition of organic matter results in an increasing of ion causing the EC values to rise.
Total of potash (T-K2O): The total of T-K2O provides a decrease in the first month but increasingin the third month as observed for pH and EC. The increase of EC from 0.63 to 1.13 may be due tothe amount of increasing microorganisms. Some groups of microorganisms may produce microbial
acid which is the proper pH value in primary mechanism for changing potassium into the soluble
form (Payal et al, 2005).
Total of phosphorus (T-P2O5): The amount of T-P2O5 increased in the first month from 0.30 to
0.66 due to pH value being in the proper range for changing into soluble form. However it
decreased in the third month from 0.66 to 0.30 which is to the same at new fertilizer. The reduction
may be due to the immobilization. Amount of increasing microorganisms in the compost takes
phosphorus in greater quantities for growth.
Total of nitrogen (TN): The TN values slightly increase from 0.33 to 0.47 but not differ
statistically during the study. However increased value indicates that there is nitrogen fixation, aprocess of combining atmospheric nitrogen with other elements to form useful compounds. In
nature, nitrogen is fixed by some microorganisms and by lightning, so the greater number ofmicroorganisms in the third months made TN values rise.
Magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca): The amount of magnesium decreased in the first month from
0.27 to 0.22 but increased later in the third month period from 0.22 to 0.31 like Ca slightly
increased in the third month from 0.65 to 0.68. The changing of values is an affected of greaternumber of microorganisms, relate to nutrient release from organic matter (mineralization).
Table 2 Chemical properties of vermicompost at various storage periods
Periods of storage
0 (New fertilizer)
1 month
3 monthes
F-TestCoefficient ofvariation %pH
8.53 a7.50 c8.33 b**EC (ds/cm)
1.25 b
0.84 c2.18 a**TN (%)
0.33
0.43
0.47
ns

T- P2O5 (%)
0.30 b
0.66 a0.30 b
**T- K2O (%)
0.97 b
0.63 c1.13 a**Ca (%)
0.65
0.65
0.68
ns

Mg (%)
0.27 b
0.22 c0.31 a
**

0.58

4.8

19.86

7.89

6.34

8.17

3.73

Note: Mean (n=3) in the same column followed by the same lower case letters are not significantly different at p≤0.05Ⓒ ISERD

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Biological Quality Changes at Different Storage Periods
The results from analysis of biological properties showed that the number of fungi and bacteria has
increased more in the first month of storage. This may be due to microbial activities that are still on
going after fermentation ends. However, when stored for a period of three months, the amounts offungi and bacteria do not differ from the first month. This may be a result of the activity called
extracellular enzyme when storing or fermenting the vermicompost. The first step wascharacterized by a decrease in microbial populations, which resulted in a reduction in the synthesisof new enzymes. The second step was the degradation of the pool of remaining enzymes (Manuelet al, 2007) as shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Biological properties of vermicompost at various storage periods
Periods of Storage
0 (New fertilizer)
1 month
3 monthes
F-TestCoefficient of variation %Number of microorganisms (cfu/g)
Bacteria
Fungi
2.67 x 106 b
2.67 x 102 b
4.00 x 106 a
4.00 x 102 a
64.00 x 10 a4.67 x 102 a
**
**
9.38
12.48

Note: Mean (n=3) in the same column followed by the same lower case letters
are not significantly different at p≤0.05

CONCLUSION
The study on the quality change of vermicompost is the study of changes in chemical andbiological properties of vermicompost preserved in different periods (0, 1 and 3 months). It was
found that the chemical properties of the vermicompost are changing differently, and yet there is noclear trend in the changes of pH, EC, total potash and magnesium. Magnesium decreased in thefirst period of storage and increased again in later periods while the total nitrogen and total calcium
were not significantly different throughout the study. For biological properties, it was found thatthe numbers of fungi and bacteria were greater in the new stored compost. However, there is nodifference in the amount when storing at 1 and 3 months. These results showed that microbialactivities had still continued. Therefore, it can be concluded that the fertilizer stored for 3 months isstill in the good quality.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research project was funded by The National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) andNational Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Integrated Water Resource
Management Research and Development Center in Northeast Thailand, The Research Developingand Learning Centre on Earthworm for Agriculture and Environment and Groundwater ResearchCentre, Khon Kaen University, Thailand. Thanks are extended to the Division of Land Resourceand Environment, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University for the support and equipments inlaboratory test. Thank you to Prof. Barry Noller for his kind editing of the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Edwards, C., Arancon, N., and Sherman, R. 2011. Vermicomposting technology. CRC Press. 601.
Iwai, C.B., Ta-oun, M., Chuasavatee, T. and Boonyotha, P. 2013. Management of municipal sewage sludge
by vermicomposting technology: Converting a waste into a bio fertilizer for agriculture. International
Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 4 (1), 169-174.

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Manuel A., Monroy, F., and Dominguez, J. 2007. Microbial biomass governs enzyme activity decay during
aging of worm-worked substrates through vermicomposting, Journal of Environment Quality, 36, 448452.
Payal, G., Gupta, A. and Satya, S. 2005. Vermicomposting of different types of waste using Eisenia foetida:
A comparative study. Bioresource Technology, 97, 391-395.
Somkhit, D. 2006. International organic agricultural standard in Thailand. Chamchulee Product Publishers.
Thailand.

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Research article
erd

The Effect of Heating on Vitamin E Decomposition in
Edible Palm Oil
NATTAWAN KUPPITHAYANANT*
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand
Email: kuppithayanant@yahoo.com

PISIT HOSAP
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand

NUCHTIDA CHINNAWONG
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand
Received 11 March 2014

Accepted 28 August 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Currently, palm oil is popular in consumption, and vitamin E in palm oil has
been used to indicate the quality. In addition to complexity processing of crude palm oil toedible oil that loses vitamin E, the use of high-heat for cooking, can cause vitamin decay.
Therefore, this research aims to study the limit of how much heat affects on vitamin E
decomposition; and this result will bring useful information to apply in cooking. This
investigation was performed with oil having vitamin E concentration at 80 mg l-1 to beheated. Samples were collected when the oil was heated and started smoking and samples
were collected every 15 minutes. Then, the samples were analyzed for the vitamin E
through the extraction process of a solid phase extraction (SPE), which uses C18 as solid
sorbent and dichloromethane as eluent Gas chromatography equipped with flame
ionization detector (GC- FID) was operated under the temperature programming mode forquantitative analysis. The results show that the percentage of vitamin E degradation would
continuously increase in temperatures ranging from 210 °C to 278 °C and this degradation
rate still constant after a half of hour expansion for oil heating at 278 °C. So, it’sconcluded that longer time used in the heating process could affect less to the vitamin E
decomposition than increasing the temperature.
Keywords edible palm oil, vitamin E decomposition, SPE, GC - FID

INTRODUCTION
Vitamin E under the term of α - tocopherol is a powerful biological antioxidant. The major
biological role of vitamin E is to protect unsaturated fatty acids contained in vegetable oils fromoxidation by free radicals (Gordon and Kourimska, 1995). It’s believed to reduce the risk ofcardiovascular diseases and of certain types of cancer. The main sources of vitamin E in the humandiet are vegetable fats and oils. Due to that palm oil contains more saturated fatty acids (up to 50%)and is rich in vitamin E, it can be resistant to the high heat and is resistant to oxidation (Burton andTraber,1990). So for this reason, palm oil is currently the most consumed edible oil in the world.
The refining process of edible palm oil industry affects the breakdown of vitamins, so industrial
palm oil has added vitamin E before bringing it to the market (Clegg, 1973). Although, vitamin E isrelatively resistant to heat and insoluble in water, the high heat cooking such as frying oil can causea loss of vitamin E. In addition the cooking time and cooking method affect loss vitamins E as
well.
Sample treatment for vitamin E analysis often includes saponification, of an isolated lipid
fraction. Saponification prior to the extraction is classically performed by heating with potassiumhydroxide in ethanol or methanol and analyzed directly. Solid phase extraction (SPE) is a wellestablished method for the concentration and extraction of matrices in various samples. In addition,Ⓒ ISERD

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the use of SPE has also proven to be an efficient technique for simplifying sample clean- up(Bonvehi, Coll and Rius, 2000).
The tocopherol content of oil and fat can be determined by a wide range of analyticaltechniques such as spectrophotometer, chromatographic techniques such as supercritical fluid
chromatography (Manninen, Laakso and Kallio,1995), gas chromatography (Lechner, Reiter andLorbeer,1999; Demirkaya and Kadioglu,2007), high performance liquid chromatography (Rupe´rez
and et. al., 2001; Schwartza and et. al., 2008). Gas chromatography with flame ionization detection(GC-FID) has been used at a lesser extension to determine vitamin E compare with highperformance liquid chromatography. The GC analysis of tocopherols normally implies warm
saponification prior to the chromatographic injection (Rupe´rez and et. al., 2001).
This research aims to study the limit of how much heat affects vitamin E decomposition andthis result will bring useful information to apply in cooking.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this study are;
1. To determine Vitamin E from heated oil using SPE and GC-FID
2. To identify of how much temperature affects vitamin E decay
METHODOLOGY
Reagents and Standard Solutions
Vitamin E (DL- α – tocopherol), n - hexane, methanol and dichloromethane were purchased from
Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). Standard stock solution of vitamin E was prepared in hexane to aconcentration 500 mg l-1 and stored in the dark under refrigeration. Working standard solutions at
30, 40, 50, 80, 100 and 120 mg l-1 concentrations were prepared freshly by diluting with hexane.
Commercially edible palm oil sample was bought from the local market.
Sample Preparations
Due to the complex composition of edible oil, it was necessary to eliminate large molecularcompounds via saponification method for investigation of the performance of analysis method. For
saponification, 21.25 g of edible palm oil was placed in an Erlenmeyer flask to which the mixtureof 15.5 g l-1 800 ml ascorbic acid solution and 10% w/v potassium hydroxide in 200 ml ethanol
were added. After heating the mixture solution to 70 °C in oven for 30 min, the saponification
solution was allowed to cool down and 25 g NaCl was added to accelerate phase separation. The
upper layer was extracted repeatedly with n–hexane and an aliquot of n–hexane was spiked of 70
mg l-1 vitamin E before analysis method that included of SPE followed by GC–FID.
For the study of heat affect to vitamin E decomposition, 0.3333 g. of vitamin E was directly
added to 500 ml of edible palm oil (approximately 80 mg l-1 concentration). The oil sample washeated until start to smoke and immediately collected 1.2 ml of oil and then diluted to 10 ml. withhexane. Thereafter the sampling was done in the same manner by continuing to keep every 15
minutes until the oil temperature remains constant and the sampling continued for another 3 times
then each sampling oil was analyzed method for vitamin E determination.
Instrumentation and Analytical Conditions
Chromatographic analysis was carried out on Varian CP 3800 gas chromatography systemequipped with a flame ionization detector. ZB - 5 capillary column (30 m x 0.25 mm I.D. x 0.25
μm. film thickness, USA) was used. H2 gas was used as carrier gas at a flow–rate of 4 ml min-1 andsplitless injection was used. The injector and detector temperatures were 255 °C and 300 °C. Theoven temperature set at 200 °C held for 1 min then increase to 300 °C at rate 25 °C min-1 and held
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at 300 °C for 5 min. Quantitative analysis of vitamin E in edible palm oil was performed using
standard addition technique, from the standard curve of peak area vs. concentration.
In all SPE experiments, C18 cartridges were conditioned with 6 ml of distilled water,
methanol, isopropanol and dichloromethane, respectively. The amount of 1 ml of edible oil solution
with 70 mg l-1 of vitamin E concentration was twice loaded to SPE cartridge (1 ml per each) andsoaking for about 5 minutes and then letting it flow out under the atmospheric flow rate. Afterloading oil sample, the cartridge was dried under vacuum, to elute vitamin E from cartridge withthe same manner as in loading step except soaking time was performed at 30 min. Then thissolution was injected to GC – FID for analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Validation of the Analysis Method
For GC - FID analysis, the chromatogram show the retention time of vitamin E in standard solution
at 5.735 min. The linearity of the peak area response versus concentration was obtained in theconcentration range between 30 to 120 mg l-1 (r2 = 0.995). Precision was determined both withinday and between-day. Repeatability or within - day precision was tested by 7 times analysis of
100mg l-1 standard vitamin E solution. The intermediate precision (between – day) was set 3 times
analysis of the same concentration as above. The repeatability express as relative standard deviation(% RSD) was 3.11% and the intermediate precision (% RSD) was 2.84%. The limit of detection(LOD) was determined from the intercept of the regression line of the calibration graph using a 30 to
120 mg l-1 concentration range. The LOD was set equal to three times the standard deviation of thearea at the intercept and illustrated approximately 8.01 mg l-1.
For the evaluation of the extraction recovery, palm oil was spiked with 70 mg l-1 vitamin E. The
recovery was calculated by comparing the quantitative results obtained by SPE - GC analysis andactual spiked concentration. The percentage recovery was found between 80.1- 86.9% with relative
deviations 3.1 (n=5). The results of recovery and validation values are shown in Table 1.
Quantification of Vitamin E in edible palm oil was determined via standard addition method and thevitamin E content found in oil was 25.36 mg l-1.
Table 1 Linearity, precision (%RSD), LOD of GC – FID analysis and %recovery of theanalysis SPE – GC-FID analysis
Concentration
range ofLinearity(mg l-1)
30 - 120

GC – FID analysis
% RSD
% RSD
Within – day
Between – day(n=7)(n =3)
3.11
2.84

SPE – GC-FID analysis
LOD(mg l-1)% Recovery% RSD( n= 5)8.01

80.1 – 86.9

3.1

Heat Affecting Decomposition of Vitamin E in Edible Palm Oil
The results of vitamin E decomposition on heating oil was found that the first sampling of oilsample start at 210 ºC. Vitamin E was reduced approximately 6.38% compare with the amount ofvitamin E before heated. The heating oil sample still collected continuity every 15 minutes until
reach to constant temperature (278 ºC). At this temperature, the sample was further collected for 3
times (15 minutes/each). The decay rate of vitamin E increased rapidly up to 60.70% at the highest
temperature (278 ºC) and the decay rate of vitamin E did not significantly increase after expansionof heated time (Table 2). Fig. 1 shows the vitamin E concentration at various heating temperatureand sampling time. This result illustrated that oil heated to 278 ºC is not sufficient to completely
decompose vitamin E. From the previous research, thermal decomposition of vitamin E in edible
oil was completely at about 773 K (500 ºC) (Arora, Bagoria, and Kumar, 2010). It can be noticed
that the heating temperature is a more significant factor than the heating time. Generally, the mostof food cooking needs high heat, which influences the breakdown of vitamin E during the cookingⒸ ISERD

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process.
Table 2 Heating time, heating temperature and Vitamin E decay after heatedSampling number
and time(min)Temperature(°C)

1 (Spiked solution)
2 (0 min)3(15 min)
4 (30 min)
5 (45 min)
6 (60 min)
7 (75 min)

30
215
255
261
278
278
278

Vitamin E
concentration(mg l-1)
79.9
74.8
64.1
46.7
31.4
30.9
30.3

Concentration ofvitamin E decay(mg l-1)
0
5.1
15.8
33.2
48.5
49
49.4

% Vitamin E
decay (mg l-1)
0
6.4
19.8
41.6
60.7
61.3
61.8

90

(mg/l)
concentration(mgVitaminE E
l-1)
concentration
Vitaminbefore heated
beforeheated80

startsmoking
smoking
startoil, oil,00 min.min

30 °C

30℃
70

215
°C
215℃

min.
1515
min
255 °C
255℃

60

50

30 min.

30 min261 °C
261℃

40

45min.

60min. 75min.

45 min60 min75 min30
278 °C

278℃

278℃
278 °C

278℃
278
°C

20

Fig. 1 Vitamin E concentration at various heating temperature and sampling time
1

0.94
0.9

0.84
0.8

0.8

/ Ao
AxAx/Ao

0.7

0.68

0.7
0.6

0.5

0.53

0.53

0.54
0.5

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.35

0.35

0.2
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Heating times
Heatingtimes(min.)(min)Fig. 2 Comparison of the ratio of the peak area of vitamin E in oil after heated (Ax) to a peakarea of vitamin E in oil before heated (Ao) of oils with and without vitamin E addedⒸ ISERD

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This work was created in the trial to confirm that vitamin E that is already present in edible
palm oil has degraded as well by heating palm oil samples without added vitamin E. The results
were expressed by using the ratio of the peak area of vitamin E in oil after heated (Ax) to a peakarea of vitamin E in oil before heated (Ao) of both oils (with and without vitamin E added). Thoseof experiments were shown in Fig. 2 and it can be noticed that vitamin E decay rate of oil with andwithout vitamin E added were similar.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the analysis method to determine vitamin E in edible palm oil was completely
validated by using linearity, precision, limit of detection and accuracy in term of percentage ofrecovery. Vitamin E in edible palm oil can be decomposed during high heat cooking process andthe time used to heat oil was less affect to vitamin E decomposition than temperature increasing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University ofTechnology, Thanyaburi (RMUTT) for financial support.
REFERENCES
Gordon, M.H. and Kourimska, L. 1995. Effect of antioxidants on losses of tocopherols during deep-fat.
Using. J. Food Chem., 52 (2), 175-177.
Burton, G.W. and Traber, M.G. 1990. Vitamin E: antioxidant activity, biokinetic, and bioavailability. Annual
Review of Nutrition, 10, 357-382.
Manninen, P. Laakso, P. and Kallio, H. 1995. Method of Characterization of Triacylglycerol and Fat –Soluble Vitamin in Edible Oil and Fat by Supercritical Fluid Chromatography. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc.,
72, 1001-1008.
Lechner, M. Reiter, B. and Lorbeer, E. 1999. Determination of tocopherols and sterols in vegetable oils bysolid-phase extraction and subsequent capillary gas chromatographic analysis. J. Chromatogr. A., 857,
231-238.
Demirkaya, F. and Kadioglu, Y. 2007. Simple GC-FID method development and validation for determinationof α-tocopherol (vitamin E) in human plasma. J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods, 70, 363-368.
Rupe´rez, F.J. Mart´ın, D. Herrera, E. and Barbas, C. 2001. Chromatographic analysis of a-tocopherol andrelated compoundsin various matrices. J. Chromatogr. A., 935, 45-69.
Schwartza, H. Ollilainenb, V. Piironenb, V. and Lampib, A.M. 2008. Tocopherol, tocotrienol and plant sterol
contents of vegetable oils and industrial fats. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 21, 152-161.
Arora, S. Bagoria, R. and Kumar, M. 2010. Effect of alpha – tocopherol (vitamin E) on the thermal
degradation behavior of edible oils “multiple – heating rate kinetics. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim, 102 (1),375-381.

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Research article
erd

Acute Toxicity of Tea Seed Cake on Climbing perch(Anabas testudineus (Bloch))
KITTIMA VANICHKUL*
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Pathum Thani, Thailand
Email: kittima.va@gmail.com, kittima_v@exchange.rmutt.ac.th

VISITSAK HAMTHANON
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Pathum Thani, Thailand

THAWORN SIRIPONG
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Pathum Thani, Thailand
Received 15 November 2013

Accepted 21 September 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Tea seed cake is common used in fish and shrimp farms in Thailand forcontrolling pond predators such as fish, shellfish or tadpole due to its applicable andaffordable price. Climbing perch (Anabas testudineus (Bloch)) is one of several problems
in aquaculture because it can lead to threatening diseases, the displacement of native
species, causing changes to the water quality. Moreover they may effect as destroy ordecrease of the productivity. So, acute toxicity of tea seed cake on climbing perch wasstudied. Statistic bioassay method (48-hr LC50) was a technique to determine the medianlethal concentration of the tea seed cake to kill climbing perch within 48 hours. The results
showed that limitation of the 48-hr LC50 concentration at 95% confidence of tea seed cakeon climbing perch (size of approximately 5±2 cm) was 33 (31.16-36.10) ppm. The slope
function was 1.361(0.88-2.11) ppm and safe concentration was 1.65 ppm. This result canbe used to apply for controlling of fish predator as fish which have accessory respiratoryorgans for farming application.
Keywords acute toxicity, tea seed cake, climbing perch

INTRODUCTION
Fish predator is one problem of aquaculture farming because it can lead to bring about disease, thedisplacement of native species, and causing changes quality of product. Similarly, it can cause of
decreasing of the production due to raise or mortality. Climbing perch (Anabas testudineus(Bloch)) often found in the shrimp pond or fish farming. It is an omnivorous species (Trung, 1999)
and consumes various kinds of food such as detritus, aquatic plants, crustaceans, worms, mollusks
and insects. Thus, it has been described as carnivore or an insectivore and plays a role of predator(Yakupitiyage et al, 1998). In addition, it is a fast growing species which is able to live in deep orshallow water and can survive in low oxygen condition (Khatune-Jannat et al., 2012). It is also able
to migrate between ponds (Trieu and Long, n.d.). Therefore, large numbers of climbing perch inponds cause slow growth rate or decrease in average productivity. The farmers have tried toeradicate climbing perch with chemicals but many are harmful to the products and also users. Tea
seed cake is the residue of Camellia sp. seeds after oil extraction that contains 5.2-7.2% of saponin(Minsalan and Chiu, 1986) which is a toxin giving haemolysis of blood. Owing to the eradicableeffectiveness of the tea seed cake, many farmers apply it to eliminate predator fishes, shellfish or
tadpoles in the fish and shrimp ponds. The effective dosage of crude saponin for eradicating
predatory fishes depends on the proportion of body weight, pond’s salinity level (Terazaki et al.,Ⓒ ISERD

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1980) and fish species. In order to provide a guidance of using the tea seed cake, the study of its
acute toxicity on climbing perch (A. testudineus (Bloch)) is useful for farming application.
OBJECTIVE
An objective of the study was to determine the median lethal concentration of tea seed cake thatwould result in the eradication of climbing perch (A. testudineus (Bloch)) at 48 hours.
METHODOLOGY
Animal preparation: One thousand climbing perch (A. testudineus (Bloch)) (size of
approximately 5 ± 2 cm) were transported from climbing perch farm in central Thailand tolaboratory. They were reared in 500 liter fiber glass tanks that was contained treated fresh waterand added aeration for 7 days to acclimatize before bioassay testing. Food did not add over for 24hr
before the experiment and throughout testing period.
Chemical preparation: Power tea seed cake that contains saponin 12% as active ingredient is usedin the experiment. The tea seed cake solution was prepared in distilled water to dilute concentration
for range finding test and definitive test. Each tea seed cake concentration was added one time at
the beginning of each test.
Acute toxicity of tea seed cake to climbing perch: Static bioassay method was used to assess thetea seed cake concentration that caused 50% death of climbing perch within 48 hr test period (48-hr
LC50) which consist range finding test and definitive test (Rand, 2003).
Range finding test was the determination of the range concentration from the lowest that 100%of test animals dead to the highest that 100% of test animals survived. Variation of the tea seedcake concentration was added at 8 liter of water into 10 liter glass tanks which stocked 10 random
selected test animals, and then each treatment was run three replications. Fish were observed andrecorded the number of mortalities for 48 hr when they did not have operculum movement and did
response while touching with a glass rod. The result of concentration in the first step was used todetermine the further concentration in the next step. The experiment for the definitive test wasdetermination of concentration range from the result of previous step on logarithmic scale. The
behavioral response and mortality of climbing perch were recorded within 48 hr. Dead fish wasimmediately removed after recorded.
Temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen were determined with YSI 550A and Sartorius Basic
pH Meter PB-11 before and after toxicity test.
Data analysis: 48-hr LC50 values and slope function were calculated at 95% confidence limits
according to Litchfield and Wilcoxon (1949). Data were plotted on logarithmic-probability paper.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
No mortalities were observed in controls and concentration of 19 ppm concentration of tea seedcake during the 48 hr test period. However, mortalities started within 18 hr in the concentration of
25.69 and 34.74 ppm. Meanwhile, the 47 ppm caused mortality of test fish approximately
10.00±1.00% after 6 hr exposure and 100% after 48 hr in all replications. The mortalities wereobserved increasingly in the high concentration during almost the end of experiment (Table 1). In
addition, the 33 ppm (31.16-36.10) was calculated as the 48-hr LC50 with 95% of confidence limit
for climbing perch (A. (Bloch)) of size approximately 3-7 cm in the tea seed cake (Table 2). The
result showed high concentration when it was compared with general concentration for usage infresh or low saline water at 25-30 ppm (Hongkanarat et al., 2011). This is probably due to thetolerance levels of climbing perch in the hard conditions that is an ability to survive in a wide rangeof chemicals and temperatures owing to its accessory respiratory organs such as a labyrinth organ.
The slope function and safe concentration showed that 1.361 (0.88-2.11) and 1.65 ppm,
respectively.
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Table 1 Accumulative mortality percentage of climbing perch (A. testudineus (Bloch))(mean±SD) after tea seed cake exposure
Duration of
exposure to tea
seed cake (hr.)
0
6
12
18
24
30
36
42
48

% Accumulative mortality
0 ppm

19 ppm

25.69 ppm

34.74 ppm

47 ppm

0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00

0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
3.33±0.58
10.00±0.58
13.33±0.58
16.67±0.58
20.00±0.58
23.33±0.58

0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
0.00±0.00
30.00±0.58
36.67±1.15
40.00±1.15
40.00±0.58
43.33±0.58
43.33±0.58

0.00±0.00
10.00±1.00
16.67±0.58
36.67±1.15
83.33±1.15
96.67±1.53
96.67±0.00
96.67±0.00
100.00±0.00

Table 2 48-hr LC50 values and slope function with lower and upper limit of 95% of tea seedcake on climbing perch (A. testudineus (Bloch))
48-hr LC50(ppm)

slope function

33 (31.16-36.10)

1.361(0.88-2.11)

In addition to the mortality, exposed climbing perch to the tea seed cake also showed increasein excretion and released more mucus in high concentration treatment. The nearly died fish has an
opaque body color compared with normal fish and slow response or movement. For those of
mortality experiencing, no movement of fin and operculum at all and they were observed at thebottom of the ponds. The response is in agree with El-Murr et al. (2014) that is likely due toreflection increase of oxidative stress that showed revealed normocytic normochromic anemia andsignificantly increases level of SOD and CAT activities and gene expression. The damaged ofgeneral tissues in various organs was also detected with high doses of tea seed cake (El-Murr et al.,2014). According to Boyd (1990), saponin compound in tea seed cake could destroy erythrocytes
and was highly toxic to fish. Also saponin acts chiefly with lowering the surface tension between
water and gills of fish and induces haemolysis, so preventing oxygen uptake by fish and leading toslow dead by oxygen deprivation (Lamba, 1970). Moreover, Roy and Munshi (1989) reported thatthe perch A. testudineus that were exposed for 24 hr with 2-5 mg/l saponin showed increasing of
20% oxygen uptake and increased its number of erythrocyte, amount of hemoglobin andhematocrit.
Temperature and pH in all treatments are not different before and after test. Meanwhile
dissolved oxygen showed optimum level before the test and decreasing later after the test (Table 3).
Nevertheless, these parameters are not likely a cause of climbing perch mortality because the fish
can thrive well in deficient dissolved oxygen waters. Moreover, it has better ability of breathing
due to its special organs and tolerance of adverse environmental conditions (Trieu and Long, n.d.).
For this reason, the fish mortality in the experiment is more likely caused by the tea seed caketoxicity.
Table 3 Temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen levels before and after toxicity test
Concentrationof tea seedcake (ppm)
0.00
19.00
25.69
34.74
47.00

Temperature (๐C)

pH

Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)

BeforeAfter

BeforeAfter

BeforeAfter

28.1±0.00
27.9±0.00
27.9±0.00
27.8±0.00
27.9±0.00

28.3±0.10
28.3±0.06
28.3±0.06
28.2±0.06
28.2±0.06

7.7±0.00
7.7±0.00
7.6±0.00
7.7±0.00
7.7±0.00

7.5±0.00
7.5±0.00
7.5±0.00
7.5±0.00
7.6±0.00

5.08±0.29
5.01±0.25
4.95±0.09
5.33±0.27
5.07±0.14

2.69±0.16
2.48±0.09
2.21±0.06
2.17±0.08
1.27±0.19

However, different fish species showed different tolerances. The species as highest mortality
in 24 hr of tea seed cake exposure was observed in Puntius gonionotus, followed by CyprinusⒸ ISERD

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carpio, Gambusia sp. and Clarias sp., whereas tea seed cake toxicity ended after 12 hr(Chiayvareesajja et al., 1997). Terazaki et al. (1980) reported that the toxicity of saponin weakened
with time. In agree with, Hongkanarat et al. (2011) reported that 48-hr LC50 of tea seed cake on
Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) post larvae 10 (PL10) was 416.14 ppm at salinity of
30 ppt that showed less toxicity to shrimp larvae. The results of this experiment showed that tea
seed cake could be use to control climbing perch in farms. Further study is suggested to study moreon the toxicity to other aquatic species for farming application.
CONCLUSION
The study indicates that tea seed cake is a natural product that can be used for eradication ofclimbing perch (A. testudineus (Bloch)) in aquaculture farming. The solution is very applicable
control of fish having accessory respiratory organs. Moreover, it is environmental friendly used
when apply it following the guideline and thus, giving sustainable utilization.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University ofTechnology Thanyaburi which was supported some budget in this experiment.
REFERENCES
Boyd, C.L. 1990. Water quality in ponds for aquaculture. Birmingham Publishing Co., Birmingham, AL,
482.
Chiayvareesajja, S., Rittibhonbhun, N., Hongpromyart, M. and P. Wiriyachitra. 1997. Toxicity of the Thai
piscicidal plant, Maesa ramentacea, to freshwater fishes in ponds. Aquaculture, 158, 229-234.
El-Murr, A., Ali, H.A. and Eldeen, N.A.M.N. 2014. Molecular, biochemical and histological effects of tea
seed cake on different organs of Oreochromis niloticus. Global Veterinaria, 13 (5), 711-719.
Rand, G.M. 2003. Fundamentals of aquatic toxicology: Effects environmental fate and risk assessment.
Second Edition. Taylor & Francis Ltd., USA., 1120.
Khatune-Jannat, M., Rahman, M.M., Bashar, A., Hasan, N., Ahamed, F. and Hossain, Y. 2012. Effects ofstocking density on survival, growth and production of Thai climbing perch (Anabas testudineus) under
Fed Ponds. Sains Malaysiana, 41 (10), 1205-1210.
Lamba, S.S. 1970. Indian piscicidal plants. Econ. Bot., 24, 134-136.
Hongkanarat, L., Limsuwan C. and Chuchird, N. 2011. Acute toxicity of tea seed cake on Nile Tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus), giant seaperch (Lates calcarifer) and Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus
vannamei), Proceedings of 49th Kasetsart University Annual Conference: Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand,
49-56.
Litchfield, J.T. and Wilcoxon, F. 1949. A simplified method of evaluating dose-effect experiments. J.
Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 96 (2), 99-113.
Minsalan, C.O. and Chiu, Y.N. 1986. Effects of tea seed cake on selective elimination of finfish in shrimp
ponds. In; J.L. Maclean, L.B. Dizon and L.V. Hosillos (Editors), The First Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian
Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines, 79-82.
Roy, P.K. and Munshi, J.P. 1989. Effect of saponin extracts on oxygen uptake and hematology ofanbreathing climbing perch, Anabas testudineus (Bloch). J. Freshwater Biol., 1, 167-172.
Terazaki, M., Thambuppa, P. and Nakayama, Y. 1980. Eradication of predatory fishes in shrimp farms inutilization of Thai tea seed. Aquaculture, 19, 235-242.
Trieu, N.V. and Long, D.N. 2001. Seed production technology of climbing perch (Anabas testudineus): A
study on the larval rearing. Institute for Aquaculture and Fisheries Sciences, College of Agriculture, Can
Tho University.
Trung, N.M. 1999. Some biological characteristics and reproduction of climbing perch (Anabas testudineus
Block). Master thesis in Nha Trang Fisheries University. Vietnam.
Yakupitiyage, A., Bundit, J., and Guttman, H. 1998. Culture of climbing perch (Anabas testudineus): A
review. AIT Aqua outreach. Working Paper, New Series No. T-8, 9.

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Research article
erdLand Degradation Assessment in El Jicaral Village,
Mixteca Region, Mexico
SERGIO AZAEL MAY CUEVAS
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: azaelmay@gmail.com

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 18 December 2013

Accepted 21 September 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Mixteca Region’s land resources are being affected by several degradation
processes caused by mismanagement of farming systems, deforestation and cattle
overgrazing. For assessing the land degradation conditions in a local level, this study was
carried out in El Jicaral Village based on the analysis of several variables observed on
topographical maps and satellite images. To confirm the reliability and accuracy of theanalysis, in the present study a land degradation assessment was carried out through fieldobservation. Along with the assessment, a questionnaire survey was conducted forunderstanding more the local situation. The questionnaire survey consisted of 24 questions
which were divided into three sections: the basic information of local farmers, theapplication of agricultural chemicals and the current problems in the farming systems.
There were 69 households interviewed. Although the results of both assessments werecompared, significant difference was not observed between the remote and the field
assessments. In addition, it was considered that land degradation information obtained
through the remote assessment may be useful for small areas as an alternative method
when a field assessment is not possible to be conducted. According to the remoteassessment as well as the survey in the research area, it may be concluded that El Jicaral
Village is facing a serious land degradation process due to land use conditions in thevillage, such as crop cultivation under steep slope conditions, deforestation and cattle
overgrazing. Furthermore, no soil conservation practices are applied and chemical
products are being used without understanding of their negative effects. Due to these
conditions, land degradation is a continuing process in El Jicaral Village.
Keywords local farming, land degradation, Mixteca, Mexico, field survey

BACKGROUND AND OBJETIVES
Mixteca Region is one of the poorest regions in Mexico with land degradation and water scarcity
situation. The Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales, SEMARNAT) estimated around 500,000 hectares in the region presented highlevels of land degradation in 1998 (SEMARNAT-CP, 2003). Mixteca Region is located in Oaxaca
State in the southern part of Mexico, with a surface of 15, 600 km2 (INEGI, 2005) and around 450,000 habitants (INEGI, 2010).
Land degradation is a natural and socioeconomic cause-effect phenomenon (Hammad, 2012).
Demand on the land for economic development from an increasing population is driving unsuitableland use changes; hence land degradation through soil erosion, nutrient depletion, salinity, water
scarcity, soil pollution, disruption of biological cycles and loss of biodiversity. The causes are
multiple and complex, such as the expansion of cattle raising, the over-exploitation of forest
resources, deforestation through slash and burn for agricultural practices and for energy needs(UNEP, 2010). Severity of land degradation has been increasing in many parts of the world, wheremore than 30% of forests, 20% of all cultivated areas and 10% of grasslands are undergoingⒸ ISERD

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degradation (Bai et al., 2008).
In order to assess the land degradation conditions in a local level, a study was conducted in El
Jicaral Village based on the analysis of several variables observed on topographical maps andsatellite images (May and Mihara, 2013). The results of this assessment showed that more than
35% of the study area was under severe land degradation. To confirm the reliability and accuracyof the remote assessment, in the present study a land degradation assessment was conducted bymeans of field observation. At the same time a questionnaire survey was carried out forunderstanding more the local situation. Accordingly, the objectives of this study are to evaluate theviability of the land degradation assessment based on remote assessment compared with the field
assessment and to understand better the causes of land degradation through the results of aquestionnaire survey on land degradation assessment.
METHODOLOGYLand Degradation Assessment
According to Kapalanga (2008) soil erosion represents the most extensive areas of degraded land
worldwide, as more than 83% of the areas have been affected. In the classification of the landdegradation, the processes of soil erosion dominated for rating the degree and extent of the landdegradation. Based on this statement, land degradation assessment was conducted in El Jicaral
Village through the field observation in the study area divided into a mesh of 50 meters by 50
meters, the same mesh used in the previous study for the remote assessment (May and Mihara,2013) covering an area of around 0.5 km2 (Fig. 1). The results of land degradation assessment
through this field observation were compared with that through the remote assessment carried out
in the previous study.

Fig. 1 Land degradation assessment in the study area
In the field assessment, GPS was employed for clarifying the location in every cell. Thendetailed observation was conducted based on Morgan Coding System (Morgan, 1995) with rating avalue from 0 to 5 at the assigned cell. The Morgan Coding System constituted with several
parameters developed for integrated soil erosion appraisal in the field as shown in Table 1. Afterobtaining a value based on Morgan Coding System for each mesh, a comparison was done betweenⒸ ISERD

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the field assessment and the remote assessment done in the previous study. For the comparison,statistical method using a correlation analysis was employed.
Table 1 Coding system for soil erosion appraisal in the field
Code
0
1
2
3
4
5

Indicators
No exposure of tree roots; no surface crusting; no splash pedestals; over 70% plant cover(ground and canopy)
Exposure of tree roots, formation of splash pedestals, soil mounds protected by vegetation, all todepths of 1-10 mm; slight surface crusting; 30-70% plant cover
Tree root exposure, splash pedestals and soil mounds to depths of 1-5 cm; crusting of thesurface; 30-70% plant cover
Tree root exposure, splash pedestals and soil mounds to depths of 5-10 cm; 2-5 mm thickness of
surface crust; grass muddied by wash and turned downslope; splays of coarse material due towash and wind; less than 30% plant cover
Tree root exposure, splash pedestals and soil mounds to depths of 5-10 cm; splays of coarse
materials; rills up to 1-8 cm deep; bare soil
Gullies; rills over 8 cm deep, blow-outs and dunes; bare soil

Questionnaire Survey Conducted in Study Area
Along with the field assessment, the questionnaire survey was conducted in El Jicaral Village,
Coicoyán de las Flores Municipality, Mixteca Region, Mexico as additional information for theland degradation assessment. This village was chosen because the degree of poverty is high, as wellas it locates in the most land degraded region of the country (PNUD, 2008). El Jicaral Village is anindigenous community with around 1,000 inhabitants, in which people speak in Mixtec, ancientlanguage in the area. The main crops in the village are rain-fed corn, chilly and bean. It locates in
the coordinates 17º 07’ 34.6” Latitude North and 98º 11’ 48.9” Longitude West. The questionnaire
survey consisted of 24 questions, divided into three sections such as ‘Basic information of local
farmers’, ‘Application of agricultural chemicals’ and ‘Current problems in farming systems’ asshown in Table 2.
Table 2 Questionnaire survey for land degradation assessment
Basic information of local
farmersName, Age, Gender
Number of family members
working in agricultural sector
Crops, area cultivated,
destination of production
Water source, breeding ofanimals

Application of agriculturalchemicals
Application of chemicalfertilizers, formula, quantity
Amount of money expend
for chemical fertilizers
Application of pesticides
and herbicides
Application frequency

Current problems in farming
systemMain problems in thefarming system
Soil erosion awarenessAttendance to soil
conservation workshops
Concrete information about
cropsFig. 2 Workshop and survey conducted in El Jicaral VillageⒸ ISERD

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The survey was conducted in July, 2013 in the village with the assistance of a Spanish-Mixtec
translator at the workshop on ‘Soil conservation for sustainable agriculture’ (Fig. 2). The targets
were local farmers, being older than 18 years old, who have been conducting agriculture in thevillage. From one household, only one representative was invited to attend the workshop. There
were 69 household interviewees in the workshop and it counted 35% of all 200 households in thevillage. Due to their local customs, the survey must be divided into several times for each groupwith around 10 persons.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Land degradation assessment: Field observation, based on the coding system for erosion
appraisal, was conducted in the study site. The observation was supported by the use of GPS, inorder to make the evaluation inside every cell (Fig. 3)

Fig. 3 Land degradation assessment in the field
The results of the field observation were summarized in the map called “field assessment”. On
the other hand, there was the map made with “remote assessment” (May and Mihara, 2013), where
the identification and classification were carried out based on several variables, such as steepness,slope, vegetation density and land use. In the process to make the map with “remote assessment”,
these variables were integrated for evaluating land degradation as shown in Fig. 4.
2

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Fig. 4 Comparison between land degradation assessments by remote and field methodsⒸ ISERD

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After obtaining the land degradation maps with both methods; “field assessment” and “remoteassessment”, a confidence interval at 99% significant level was selected for evaluating thecorrelation between both assessments (Fig. 5).
The results of statistical analysis indicated that there was the correlation between bothassessments at 99% significant level. It means that the remote assessment based on several
variables, such as steepness, slope, vegetation density and land use may be enough for assessing theland degradation in a small scale. This technique is useful when the land degradation assessment isnecessary in small areas and not possible to conduct an on-site assessment.
5

Remote assessment

4

3

2

y = 0.7586x + 0.7056
R² = 0.3868**

1

y=x
0
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Field assessment

Fig. 5 Correlation between land degradation assessments
Outcomes from questionnaire survey: The results of the questionnaire survey in the village aresummarized in the following charts as shown in Fig. 6.

16%
Other
activities
49%

Agriculture
51%

84%

Family members engaging inFamilymembers
engaging in
agriculturalactivities
1%
Agricultural activities(average)
7%

Yes

No

Breeding of animals
Yes 2%No4%

Breeding of animals

13%

79%

94%

Peanuts

BananaMaizeCrop
Beans
Peanuts
cultivation

Corn

Bean

Banana

Rain

River

Rain Water

River

Ground water
Ground water

Source of water

Source of water

Crop cultivation

Fig. 6 Basic information of local farmers

It was observed that 35% of the interviewed households dedicated to agricultural activities
were between 31 to 40 years old and that 65% was female, this is due to the strong social
phenomenon of migration for male. Also, around half of all members at interviewed households
were engaged in agricultural activities. The interviewed households at 84% did not breed animals,Ⓒ ISERD

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and the main crop was corn. It counted at 79% of all cultivated areas hold by interviewed
households, followed by beans at 13%. In addition, the main water source for the crop cultivation
was rain water at 94%, and followed by river and ground water.
6%

4%

14%

80%

No

46-0-096%

Herbicides and pesticides

OthersUse
fertilizers
No of46-0-0
OthersNo

UseHerbicidesof agriculturalchemicalsand Pesticides
noof agricultural
Fig.
7 Application ofUse
agriculturalchemicals chemicals
Use offertilizers
Concerning the usage of agricultural chemicals, 80% of the interviewed households appliedchemical fertilizers and 96% applied herbicides and pesticides to their farmlands as shown in Fig. 7.
Some parts of these products are promoted in the Mexican governmental programs.
4%
2%

1%
9%

5%

13%

28%
16%

20%

72%

68%

Plagues

Strong Wind

62%

Landslide

Pest
Strongwind
Low fertility
Slope

Landslide
StonesSlope Stones

Yes

Yes

No

No

Nutrient Loss
DegradationNutrientof soil loss

Decrease in productivity
noDecrease of productivity

Low fertility
Degradationof soilNowindknowledge
Slash-and-burn practice Soil erosion
Problems
in the farming system

Problem in the farming system

Slash-and-burn practiceLand degradation awarenessFig. 8 Current problems in farming systems
Among the problems that farmers face in the village, the main one is pest problem that 68% of
the interviewees responded. Especially, the damage by worms like ‘gusano cogollero’ (Spodoptera
frugiperda) is severe in the village. The main insecticide applied for the worm is chlorpyrifos. Also,
for controlling weeds, the herbicide entitled Paraquat is the most common in the village. Howeverin the village, slash-and-burn farming is not common, as only 28% of the interviewees have been
conducting.
Also, the results of questionnaire survey for land degradation assessment indicated that theinterviewees had certain awareness on land degradation as well as nutrient loss associated with soil
erosion. They also know that the processes of land degradation cause low in land productivity (Fig.
8).
The results of questionnaire survey also indicated that farmers have a perception on landdegradation accelerating in the village. Nevertheless, under the current conditions of poverty andless knowledge on sustainable agriculture or land conservation, the farmers have no otheralternatives of farming systems. They just continue the same farming even in sloping upland fields
for obtaining short-term benefits to survive.
All the interviewed farmers are willing to join land conservation program for sustainableagriculture if there are any opportunities.

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CONCLUSION
This study dealt with land degradation assessment through field observation, in addition to remoteassessment based on topographical maps and satellite images. Along with the assessment, aquestionnaire survey was conducted for understanding more the local situation. According to theremote assessment as well as the field observation through the survey in the research area, it may
be concluded that El Jicaral Village is facing a serious land degradation process due to land use
conditions in the village, such as crop cultivation under steep slope conditions, deforestation andcattle overgrazing. Furthermore, no soil conservation practices are conducted and chemical
products are being used without understanding of their negative effects. Due to these conditions,land degradation is a continuing process in El Jicaral Village.
Although farmers have a perception on land degradation accelerating in the village, they haveno other alternatives of farming systems, but just continue the same farming even in sloping uplandfields for obtaining short-term benefits to survive. All the interviewed farmers in the village arewilling to join land conservation program for sustainable agriculture if there are any opportunities.
REFERENCES
Bai, Z.G., Dent, D.L., Olsson, L. and Schaepman, M.E. 2008. Global assessment of land degradation andimprovement. 1 Identification by remote sensing. ISRIC Report 2008/01, 70. Wageningen, Netherlands.
Feras, M. 2007. Land suitability classification using different sources of information: Soil maps andpredicted soil attributes in Jordan. Geoderma, 140 (1-2), 73-80.
Hammad, A.A. and Tumeizi, A. 2012. Land degradation: socioeconomic and environmental causes andconsequences in the eastern mediterranean. Land Degrad. Develop. 23, 216-226.
INEGI. 2005. Marco Geoestadístico Municipal, México.
INEGI. 2010. Censo de Población y Vivienda, México.
Kapalanga, T.S. 2008. A review of land degradation assessment methods. Land Restoration Training
Programme. Iceland.
May Cuevas, S.A. and Mihara, M. 2013. Land use assessment for proposing sustainable development in El
Jicaral, Mixteca Region, Mexico, International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 4 (2),21-26.
Morgan, R.P.C. 1995. Soil erosion and conservation. Cranfield University, Ed. Longman, UK.
PNUD 2008. Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo. Informe sobre desarrollo humano 20072008.
Semarnat-CP. 2003. Evaluación de la degradación del suelo causada por el hombre en la República
Mexicana, escala 1:250 000. Memoria Nacional 2001-2002. México.
Semarnat-UACh. 2003. Evaluación de la pérdida de suelos por erosión hídrica y eólica en la República
Mexicana, escala 1: 1 000 000. Memoria 2001-2002. México.
United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP. 2010. Integrating tradeoffs between supply of ecosystemservices and land use options into poverty alleviation efforts and development planning in Mixteca.
Annex 1: Project document.

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Research article
erd

Mega Construction in Panglao Island, Philippines: The
Magnitude of the Possible Biodiversity Losses
RUMILA C. BULLECER*
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Philippines
Email: mslling@yahoo.com

TOMAS D. REYES JR.
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Philippines

MARINA A. LABONITE
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Philippines

REIZL P. JOSE
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Philippines

NOEL T. LOMOSBOG
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Philippines

EUNICE KENEE A. LABONITE
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Philippines

AGUSTIN B. ANCOG
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Philippines

JOSE T. TRAVERO
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Philippines

BERNARDO A. BAUTISTA JR.
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, Philippines
Received 13 January 2014

Accepted 21 September 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract To support the needs of the booming ecotourism of Bohol province, constructionof an international airport across four island villages was to commence in the latter part of2013. The mega structure would reduce into concrete some 233 hectares of natural habitatand displace its dependent fauna in the impact zones. A biodiversity assessment is one of
the requirements in securing the Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC). This study
primarily aimed to assess the biodiversity status in the site. Data were gathered throughfield surveys employing purposive sampling techniques. The global positioning system(GPS) device was used to get the exact location and elevation of the 350 floral plots andfaunal sampling stations. Faunal surveys involved mist-netting and light traps. Ecologicalparameters analyzed included species diversity, dominance and evenness. Floral results
yielded a total of 167 species of plants in 136 genera and 41 families in the project site.
Out of 167 plant species, 76 were trees species; 28 shrubs; 24 herbs; 18 grasses; 14 vines;
6 sedges and 1 fig species. Threatened species include Vitex parviflora and Diospyros
pilosanthera. Some 51 species of weeds belonging to 42 genera under 16 families wereidentified. Results showed a total of 26 avifauna species, 4 bats species and 6 anurans. Of
the 26 birds, 20 were endemics. The arthropods survey yielded a total of 84 insect species
in 14 Orders and 49 families. It was concluded that species diversity of both flora andfauna was moderate to high. There is an urgent need of an enrichment tree planting of
indigenous trees in the rest of the island to harbor the fauna that would soon be displaced
from the “wipeout zone”.
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Keywords biodiversity, endemic, species diversity, species richness / evenness

INTRODUCTION
The Philippine Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) System requires projects to secure an
Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) prior to its implementation. It involves acomprehensive EIS (Environmental Impact Statement) that would assure the ecological feasibilityof the proposed project. Among the information needed are the biodiversity status of the area andthe realistic possible impacts of the proposed project to this natural life-support system.
Municipality of Panglao is composed of ten villages where four of these are part of the
proposed 233-ha international airport. The proposed airport site has plain to slightly rolling
topography and is largely comprised of Maribojoc limestone, the youngest of the limestone units
found in the western area of Bohol. All sites have scrubland type of vegetation characterized withlow shrubs, mixed with grasses, herbs, and geophytes. The sites were a mixture of pioneer species
and remnants of advanced vegetation. The presence of so many stumps and the coppicing growthof trees/shrubs are evident of the massive cutting during the last decade and a half.
What would be the magnitude of the species and ecosystem biodiversity losses that will beaffected with the construction and ensuing operation of the new airport? More importantly, what
mitigating plans can be proposed to save the remnant species and their habitats?
OBJECTIVESThis study sought to determine the species composition and assess the diversity, dominance andstatus of flora and fauna of the proposed Bohol Airport Site in Panglao, Bohol which covers thefour villages of Bolod, Danao, Lourdes and Tawala; and to recommend several activities to be
included in the environmental management plan of the proposed project.
METHODOLOGY
Flora: Purposive (preferential) sampling technique was employed to obtain quantitative
information on the structure and composition of terrestrial plants in the project area. Data collected
include plant species names, number of individuals and growth habit. Basal diameter, total height,
crown diameter, and the plant’s current stature were taken in plots established in scrubs andwooded areas
A total of 120 plots (with a dimension 10 m x 10 m each) were established along the proposed
runway across the 4 villages. These were laid mostly on dense scrub thickets where varied speciesof plants are evident. Some plots were also laid in areas with few scattered small trees and shrubs
to have a total picture of the whole area. A 1m x 1m subplot was also established within each plot
to assess the associated undergrowth plants.

Fig. 1 Sampling plots for higher vegetation

Fig. 2 Sampling plots for weeds assessmentⒸ ISERD

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Ecological parameters: Species dominance was determined by computing the species importancevalue (IV). Importance value considers, not only the density per unit area of a certain species ofplants like in the usual faunal assessment, but also includes frequency and cover/basal dominanceof all species recorded. It is the sum of the relative density, relative frequency and relative
dominance combined as one. The IV was derived using the following formulas:
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑(1)

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =× 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =× 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =× 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =× 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 (𝐼𝑉) = 𝑅𝑒𝑙. 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝑅𝑒𝑙. 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒𝑙. 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

Indices of species diversity and dominance: Diversity indices were also determined using therichness and dominance computation following the formula of Magurran (1988). Richness
measures include Shannon diversity index (H’) and Evenness index (E). The former assumes that
individuals are randomly sampled from an indefinitely large population. It equally considers that all
species are represented in the sample. The latter is the ratio of observed diversity to maximum
diversity. Dominance measure, on the other hand, weighs towards the abundances of thecommonest species rather than providing a measure of species richness. This, in particular, iscomputed by the Simpson’s index (D). Simpson’s index gives the probability that any two
individuals drawn at random from an infinitely large community may belong to different species.
Species diversity (H’), evenness (E) and Simpson’s dominance (D) were assessed using thefollowing formulas:
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐻′) = −  𝑝𝑖 (ln 𝑝𝑖)(8)where:𝐼𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑖 ==𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑉𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝐸 = 𝐻′ / ln 𝑠

(9)where: 𝑠 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑠𝑜𝑛′𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝐷 =  𝑝𝑖

2

(10)
The species diversity index is the ratio between the number of species or importance values
that may be expressed as the number of individuals, biomass productivity and the like. A highindex value usually means a large number of rare species – “rare” in the sense that, it is represented
by a low number of individuals as opposed to high counts for a few common species.

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The index of dominance expresses the degree to which the dominance is concentrated in one,several, or many species (Odum, 1971). This is measured using several factors such as the numberof individuals, biomass, productivity and others.
Arthropods: The techniques employed in arthropod assessment were pan and light trapping.
Twenty-four (24) pan trapping sites were set for eight hours during the day while four lighttrapping sites at night in the four areas were laid out.
Table 1 Ordinal classification of species richness and dominance indices(adopted from Fernando, et al. 1998)
Relative Values
Very highHigh
Moderate
Low
Very low

Species Diversity
3.50 – 4.00
3.00 – 3.49
2.50 – 2.99
2.00 – 2.49
1.00 – 1.99

Evenness
0.75 – 1.00
0.50 – 0.74
0.25 – 0.49
0.15 – 0.24
0.05 – 0.14

Dominance
0.75 – 1.00
0.50 – 0.74
0.25 – 0.49
0.15 – 0.24
0.05 – 0.14

Agricultural crops: Most farms were given up or abandoned a decade ago when the lands wereexpropiated for the Project. A few remained and these were just listed and given a a cursory
inspection.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Flora
Floral results yielded a total of 167 species of plants belonging to 136 genera under 41 families in
the project site. The most represented families were Fabaceae, Poaceae, and Euphorbiaceae withmore than 10 species and genera. Out of 167 plant species, 76 were trees species; 28 shrubs; 24
herbs; 18 grasses; 14 vines; 6 sedges and 1 strangling fig species. The shrub-layer contained 90
species of plants under 77 genera and 33 families while the undergrowth had 92 plants, belonging
to 78 genera and 31 families. Threatened species include Vitex parviflora and Diospyros
pilosanthera. Buchanania arborescens was found to be the most common in the shrub layer. Thiswas followed by Glochidion lutescens and Myrsine philippinensis, all are indicators of a karst
environment including Vitex parviflora. Chromolaena odorata and Imperata cylindrica were thecommon undergrowth species. Bambusa blumeana (kawayan-tinik) dominated based on its
cumulative basal diameter. Imperata cylindrica dominated the undergrowth. The diversity anddominance values in the shrub-layer showed a moderate to high species diversity. Its species
dominance was very low. The undergrowth had very high species diversity values andconsequently a low species dominance.
The implication of moderate and high species diversity and evenness in the shrub layer of thewooded thickets means that there were many species of plants recorded in the sampling plots. The
result of the analysis was expected since all types of plants (trees, shrubs, vines and herbs) werenoted as long as the shrub-layer minimum limit of 1 meter in height is met. Many literatures also
attested to the fact that early succession forests and scrubs similar with the wooded thickets in the
project area definitely have high species diversity and consequently have low species dominance.
The wooded thicket undergrowth also had very high species diversity and evenness values and low
species dominance value since most of the trees, shrubs and vines had dispersed their seeds which
now flourished in the floor in addition to several species of grasses and broadleaves which
normally grow under partial shade provided by the canopy of trees.
For the weeds, some 51 species belonging to 42 genera under 16 families were identified.
Family Poaceae (grass family) was the most represented group. Chrysopogon aciculatus(amorseko) was the most dominant weed followed by Imperata cylindrica. The mean diversity
value for weeds in the entire project site is moderate while evenness was high. On agricultural
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identified. The major agricultural crop species under cultivation were coconuts and bananas.
Coconuts, through copra sales, yielded the most family income among the crops grown. The
species diversity of the agricultural crops in the project site was very low due to a few species that
dominated in the count.
Fauna
Faunal survey results revealed a total of 26 avifauna species, 4 bats species and 6 anurans. It wasvery remarkable that out of the 26 birds, 20 were endemics. Distribution status was mostly
Common. The most commonly bird species observed were Lonchura jagori and Aplonis
panayensis. The Lanius nasutus (Long-tailed Shrike) birds made an adaptation to the degradedenvironment by like building their nests on the ground grasses due to the absence of higher
vegetation. The bats were the only conspicuous wildlife mammals in the area. The degraded
vegetation and habitat conditions could not support the presence of other mammals like monkeys,
tarsiers, civet cats, flying lemurs and squirrels. All the six anuran species identified were under the
status of Least Concern based on the IUCN status list. Two were endemics. A land crab underfamily Gecarcinidae was encountered during the search for anurans in Barangay Bolod.
Anurans: All the six (6) species caught in the entire study area are under the status of Least
Concern based on the IUCN status list. However, Limnonectes leytensis is one of the two endemic
anurans which usually thrive in a good habitat like forests with water bodies. The other endemic
species, Kaloula picta, is commonly found in cultivated agricultural lands. Although the species
had the highest number of capture, still, the figure did not indicate a good population of the sites.
Avifauna: Out of the 26 species identified, it was very remarkable that 20 were endemics whichsuggest an urgent need for conservation through habitat rehabilitation. The most commonly bird
species observed were Lonchura jagori and Aplonis panayensis which are commonly known tothrive in marginal areas like the scrubby study sites. There were endemics like Lanius nasutus(Long-tailed Shrike) species which were also common and had made peculiar adaptations likebuilding their nests on the ground grasses due to the absence of higher vegetation.
Mammals: Only bats were conspicuous in the area. The kind of existing vegetation could notsupport the presence of other mammals like monkeys, tarsiers, civet cats, flying lemurs andsquirrels. Out of the four (4) fruit bat species captured, two were endemics. Cynopterus brachyotis,
a Widespread species and most commonly caught, is believed to mainly roost in or near the study
sites. This was evident with the observed “leaf-tent” formation that served as roosting place. There
were insect bats in the area but were not captured due to their ability to echolocate and easily evadethe mist nets. The bats need higher vegetation for roosting and food source.
Arthropods: The arthropods survey yielded the following data: a total of 84 insect species
belonging o 14 Orders and 49 families; 6 arachnids belonging to 1 order (Araneae) and 6 families;
and 1 Diplopod were positively identified. Identification is still to be made with 17 insects and 3
arachnids. The diversity, evenness and dominance varied with different sites from very low to low.
However, for nocturnal arthropods, 3 of the 4 sites had high diversity. The dominant species in allsites were the Hymenopterous insects which include the ants, wasps and the bees which mostly
useful as pollinators, predators, decomposers, parasites and predators of insect pests.
CONCLUSION
From the results, it was concluded that species diversity was moderate to high in terms of higher
vegetation (trees and shrubs), undergrowth and weeds. Buchanania arborescens dominated thescrubby layer while Chromolaena odorata and Chrysopogon aciculatus dominated the weeds.
Arthropods’ diversity varied from low to very low in the sites. Avifauna or birds dominated thefaunal component. Species diversity was low among the birds, anurans and bats, but there was highendemicity among the birds. Of the arthropods dominant species in all sites were theHymenopterous insects which include the ants, wasps and the bees which are important pollinators.
Coconuts and bananas dominated the plantation and agricultural crops.
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RECOMMENDATIONSThere should be an enrichment planting of high vegetation (trees) and shrubs to cover theinevitable losses of species and species populations during the airport development. Other
indigenous tree species endemic to the island should be planted to save the affected faunal species
which are in dire need of food sources and roosting places. Dipterocarps which are native to theisland-province like narig, white lauan, apitong, yakal, manggachapui, manggasinoro, palosapis
and mayapis can be used. These are already known to thrive in open plantations in the island like inthe neighboring town of Dauis, as well as tree endemics like bagalunga, dao, kalumpit, bitanghol,aniam-gubat and many others can be used too. For food sources, in addition to the existing shrubs,
fruit trees like antipolo, breadfruit (kolo), mangoes, Ficus spp. (balete), manzanitas and others canalso be planted. The existing molave and sineguelas should be sustained. A minimum of a 20-m
wide tall vegetation (with dense crowns) should be established as noise barrier in the immediate
periphery of the airport.
Special conservation sites and/or wildlife sanctuaries maybe established away from thenoisiest part of the airport. Furthermore, the people particularly the farmers as well as thetechnicians of the municipality should be ready to understand and prepare for the massive transfer
or swarm of the arthropods to the different routes which may include their farms. Conservation andutilization of the plant species already growing in the area like bignay, molave, pandakaki andmore should be considered to make sure that the food and host plants will still be available andaccessible to the species. These plant species can be used in the avenue planting along the road
network within the Panglao island like “bignay boulevard” , “molave avenue” or pandakaki grove”.
The municipal local government unit s of Panaglao and Dauis through their respective Municipal
Agriculture Office should prepare a pest management plan for the island a year ahead of the New
Airport project implementation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Project was commissioned by the national government of the Philippines to the University
through the provincial government of Bohol and was funded by the Japan International
Cooperating Agency (JICA).
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Rojo, J.P. 1999. Revised lexicon of Philippine trees. Forest Products Research and Development Institute.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

erdInternational Society ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Philosophy of ISERD:
Recently, in developing countries, subsistence agriculture is being converted to export-oriented mono-culture,and the amounts of agricultural chemicals applied to the farmland are increasing every year. The appliedchemicals in farmland cause serious environmental problems downstream such as eutrophication, unusual
growth of aquatic plants, decrease in dissolved oxygen and accumulation of bottom mud in water resources.
Also, there seem to be many cases in which people apply agricultural chemicals without understanding its
impact to health and food safety. Therefore, it is necessary to promote and enhance understanding ofsustainable rural development among local stakeholders including farmers.
Sustainable rural development aims to meet human needs while preserving the natural environment. As
it should cover not only social and economic development but also natural environment conservation, no
single organization can achieve sufficiently the aspirations of sustainable rural development. Collaboration
among international, governmental and non-governmental organizations, together with the academe andscientific sector, is indispensable.
The knowledge and intelligence accumulated in universities and research institutions are also expected
to make the programs facilitated by the international, governmental and non-governmental organizations
more adequately implemented and meaningful to societal development. However, these cases especiallythose implemented locally have been scattered without having been summarized well or recorded in annals
academic or scientific societies.
So, the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development founded in 2010, aims to discussand develop suitable and effective processes or strategies on sustainable rural development focusing on
agricultural and environmental aspects in developing countries. The ultimate goals of the society are tocontribute to sustainable rural development through social and economic development in harmony with thenatural environment, and to support the potential or capacity building of local institutions and stakeholders in
the rural area with academic background.
Purposes of ISERD:
The primary purposes of ISERD are to contribute to sustainable rural development through social andeconomic development in harmony with the natural environment and to support the potential or capacity
building of local institutions and stakeholders in the rural area with academic background.
In order to enhance the realization of the primary purposes of ISERD, the secondary purposes are;- to facilitate interaction among international, governmental, non-governmental organizations and local
communities,- to hold conferences or symposia on environmental and rural development,- to publish the International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, and- to encourage and develop local awareness concerning sustainable rural development.
Membership:
There shall be two categories of membership.
(a) Individual(b) Organizational
An application for membership of ISERD shall be submitted to the secretariat of ISERD, Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation (Japan) or Association of Environmental and Rural
Development (Thailand) by writing or by other appropriate means.
Council of ISERD:
The affairs of ISERD shall be governed and managed by the ISERD Council. The councilors are as follows.
President
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute for the Advanced Study of
Sustainability, Japan

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development

Deputy Presidents
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Anan Polthanee, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Eiji Yamaji, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Executive Secretary / Editor-in-Chief of IJERD
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture / Institute of Environment Rehabilitation
and Conservation, Japan
Managing Editors
Dr. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Dr. Julian Torillo, Jr., Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Carlos Onan Tovar Mendoza, Honduras Embassy in Japan, Japan
Treasurer
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Regional Vice Presidents
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Mom Seng, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Dieter Trautz, University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Dr. Siaw Onwona-Agyeman, African Program on Field Oriented Leaders in Environ. Sectors, Ghana
Dr. Sri Wahyuni, Islamic University of Riau, Indonesia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Dr. Elpidio T. Magante, Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Dr. Vo Quang Minh, Cantho University, Vietnam
ISERD Secretariat:
Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON)
2987-1 Onoji Machida-Shi, Tokyo 195-0064, Japan
Tel/Fax: +81-42736-8972
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
Webpage: www.iserd.net
Collaborated with
Association of Environmental and Rural Development (AERD)
93/64 Moo.3, Sinsab village 2, Bungyeetho sub-district, Thanyaburi district,Pathum Thani 12130, Thailand
Tel/Fax: +66-2957-8064
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
Webpage: www.iserd.net