IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

Research article
erdComparative Assessments of Ecosystem Services between
Rural and Urban Areas
MAKOTO OOBA*Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: ooba.makoto@nies.go.jp

KIICHIRO HAYASHI
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Received 16 November 2013

Accepted 1 April 2014(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract From the last century, landuse was drastically changed in both urban and ruralareas. Design and planning are needed for sustainable development in not only rural area
but also urban area kept being harmony with ecosystems and biodiversity. Ecosystemprovides various goods and services for the human society. We carried out quantitative
assessments of ecosystem services in both urban and rural areas in Japan. In a rural area,material circulations (water, carbon and wood) were estimated by a process-based
ecosystem model. In an urban area, ecosystem services were estimated calculated by mapsof land use classified from digital maps. From the results, both rural and urban ecosystems
study areas were deeply affected by land use, provisioning service changes directly related
to societal demands. Urban ecosystems might provide complementary functions for urban
area residents in the condition of decreased value of provisioning service. Types of ruralecosystem services also may change for social and economic reasons. The information
may be useful for environmental planning for each area but also for more large regions
including urban and rural areas.
Keywords ecosystem modeling, ecosystem services, GIS, land use, urban area

INTRODUCTION"Ecosystem Services" is a crucial keyword for sustainable development and society. After thestudies of Costanza et al. (1997) and following the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), ourperspective on ecosystems has changed. Ecosystems are essential to human society because they
provide food, materials, and moreover services such as carbon absorption, water supply
management, water quality control, disaster control, biodiversity conservation, and culturalservices.
In Japan, forest and agricultural ecosystems cover over 60% and 10% of the total land area,
respectively, most of which is located near urban areas that have become highly developed with therapid Japanese economic growth. However, these ecosystems have some serious problems.
During the 1960s in Japan, a policy of converting natural forests to artificial forests wasimplemented (referred to as the “forest conversion policy” in this study). Today, a large portion ofthese artificial forests are mature. However, owing to economic reasons, these artificial forests havenot been optimally managed. Imported timber and wood materials have an economical advantage
when competing with Japanese forestry products. Depressed domestic forestry results indepopulation of rural areas, where forestry is the main industry, and also degrades plantation forest
ecosystems.
In urban area in Japan, many cities gradually recover green space (parks, agricultural fields,and secondary forests) in contrast to the serious issues of air and water pollution experienced
during rapid economic growth. The big Japanese cities of Tokyo and Osaka exceed 10% green
space, and Nagoya, the chief central Japan city, exceeds 20% green space.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

Over the last decade in Japan, many evaluations of ecosystem services have been conducted.
Various types of ecosystems were assessed, i.e., the Sub Global Assessments (Japan Satoyama
Satoumi Assessment, 2010). Several studies have also been conducted on urban green spacefunctions (i.e., Dobbs, 2011, Ishimatsu et al., 2012, Plieninger, 2013). However, a comparison of
the ecosystem type and temporal change between urban and rural areas has been lacking in theseecosystem service studies. Urban residents need more cultural and biodiversity ecosystem services
and rural residents need more economic support for nearby ecosystems.
OBJECTIVESIn this study, ecosystem services assessments were conducted in both rural and urban areas. Thecase study areas were an upstream region of rural Toyota city and urban Nagoya city. Geographical
Information Systems (GIS) data sets were compiled from various sources. Rural ecosystemservices were estimated from a biogeochemical forest model. On the other hand, urban ecosystemservices were estimated from land use maps and also served as preliminary results for future
analysis. A comparison of these estimation results suggested that sustainable ecosystem services
can be maintained in both urban and rural regions.
METHODOLOGYStudy Areas
The forest areas in Toyota city and Nagoya city were selected as the rural and urban study areas,respectively (Fig. 1). The annual averaged temperature and precipitation for these areas are 15.8°Cand 1535.3 mm and 11.5°C and 1964.0 mm, respectively.
The rural study area of Toyota city (ca 18,000 ha), located upstream of the Yahagi River,includes the two communities of Asahi and Inabu. The annual averaged temperature andprecipitation were 11.5°C and 1964.0 mm, respectively. The artificial and other forest (secondaryor natural) covers were about 11,000 and 3,600 ha, respectively. The 2013 population was about
5,600.
With a population of about 2,260,000, nearby Nagoya (ca. 32,600 ha) represents urban Japan,
and is the fourth largest city in Japan. The averaged temperature and precipitation were 15.8°C and1535.3 mm, respectively.

(a)(b)

NagoyaToyotaYahagi R.

Inabu
Asahi

Ise
BayFig. 1 Location of Japan and studied areas (a) and the studied rural and urban areas(Nagoya and two areas in Toyota) (b) (Note: Green areas represent forest area)
Rural Assessment
Ecosystem services related to material cycles (water, carbon, and nitrogen) were quantitatively
estimated using detailed forest maps and an ecosystem model. Forest inventories, yield tables, andⒸ ISERD36IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

forest maps of Aichi prefecture were compiled. Using the methods outlined in our previous study(Ooba et al., 2010), we developed a forest GIS database that included detailed forest type andlocation attributes at the semi-compartment level. The total forest area has changed slightly since
the forest conversion policy began (ca. 1960), but forest polygons were not changed in this study.
The BGC-ES model (version 1.1; Ooba et al., 2010, 2011) was used to simulate daily water
cycles and annual carbon and nitrogen cycles. In this model, biomass growth is limited underinsufficient light and low nitrogen availability conditions.
The forest ecosystem simulation unit was assumed to consist of homogeneous tree species andunderstory vegetation was ignored. Mixed forest stands (e.g., stands of broadleaf and needleleaf ormixed-age stands) were classified into homogeneous forest units based on crown area.
Mass cycle simulation for 1980-2060 was conducted based on current forest distribution.
Before the simulation, a spin-up procedure achieved the initial condition for the model. The
following proxies of forest ecosystem services were the main model outputs: timber accumulation,water runoff, carbon sequestration, and nitrogen leaching from the forest.
More detailed information about this simulation is available in our previous publications(Ooba et al., 2010, 2011, 2013).
Urban Assessment
Urban ecosystems were very disturbed by human activities. Consequently, ecosystem hysteresis
effects (history) may be minor. We chose a simple and understandable urban assessment method
using land use maps instead of a detailed, complicated ecosystem model. We assumed that theurban land use type (agricultural field and secondary forest) determined the type and extent ofecosystem services.
Digital land use maps from 1977 and 1997 at 10 m mesh level were obtained (Japan MapCenter). Maps showed fifteen land use types that we aggregated into five types: urban area,agricultural field, forest, road, water surface. A paper land use map from 1955 was obtained fromthe Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, converted into digital format, and classified into
five land use types using the maximum likelihood method (ArcGIS 10.1, ESRI). We manuallycorrected minor errors in the digitized land use map caused by the classification method.
Table 1 Ratios of land use types in Nagoya city at 3 different years (%)
Year
Water surface
Residential and industrial area
Road
Agricultural field
ForestGreen area

1955
536238
1755

1977
653
17101323

1997
557
1961016

Green area = Agricultural field + Forest

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Rural Ecosystem Services
Time series of timber accumulation, water runoff, carbon sequestration, and nitrogen leaching fromthe all forests in the studied area are shown in Fig. 2.
The accumulated trunk (timber) volume of the study area forests was averaged over 10 years
to represent a saturated level. However, the 10 year average carbon sequestration rate was themaximum at the 1990s, and then continuously decreased. This was caused by the extensive
conversion from natural to artificial forests. Young artificial forests are strong carbon sinks (Oobaet al., 2010). Post-1970s, low forestry disturbance (thinning and regeneration rates) provided
effective carbon accumulation. The models predict that the carbon sequestration rate will not riseⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2

again after 2050, due to forest aging and lack of plantation forest regeneration. Model-predictedspatial distributions of carbon sequestration for three decades are shown in Fig. 3.
(b) Water runoff(a) Accumulated volume
1800

400
300

1700

200
1600

100

m3 ha-101980

2000

2020

2040

mm y-1(10 m3-H2O ha-1 y-1)
1500
1980

20602000

2020

2040

2060

(d) Nitrogen leaching(c) Carbon sequestration
1500

3kg-CO2 ha-1 y-1
1000

2500

1kg-N ha-1 y-101980

2000

2020

2040

01980

2060

Year

2000

2020

2040

2060

Year

Fig. 2 Time series estimated by the BGC-ES model from 1980 to 2060 in the all forests ofstudies areas (Inabu and Asahi areas)
The results were averaged for 10-years at a unit area(a) 1980

kg-CO2 ha-1 y-1(c) 2050(b) 2000

Fig. 3 Carbon sequestration rate in forests of studies areas (Inabu and Asahi areas)(a) 1980 (b) 2000 (c) 2050 at 250 m meshNo remarkable variation in water runoff or nitrogen leaching from the forest was observed
among the model scenarios (Fig. 2b and 2d), similar to our previously published results (Ooba et al.,2010, 2011, 2013).
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2Urban Ecosystem Services
A comparison of the urban land use in 1955 and 1977 showed that green space decreased
drastically (Figs. 4a and 4b), including agricultural fields and forests in Nagoya city. In contrast,
the urban green space slightly decreased between 1977 and 1997 (Figs. 4b and 4c, Table 1).
28% of agricultural fields were converted into urban area in northern and western parts of
Nagoya city. The largest land use change from 1955 to 1977 affected provisioning services(agricultural products). However, valuation of agricultural ecosystem services in urban area
obviously declined during rapid economic growth, resulting in economic benefit from residential,
or industrial, land use.
Urban forest area also decreased from 1955 to 1977 (4%), reducing ecosystem services related
to carbon sequestration. Urban forests had been an important fuel source before the end of WorldWar II. After the war, firewood and charcoal use gradually declined in favor of fossil fuel use.
Urban forests were also converted to urban land use for economic reasons. It is notable that area offorest decreased (3%) from 1955 to 1977, in contrast to the change in agricultural field.
(a) 1955

Water surface
Residential and industrial areaRoad
Agricultural field
Forest(c) 1997(b) 1977

Fig. 4 Land use types in Nagoya city at 3 different years(a) 1955 (b) 1977 (c) 1997

Ecosystem Services Comparison between Rural and Urban Study Areas
Ecosystem characteristics essentially differ between the rural and urban study areas. Ruralecosystems have broad spatial and temporal extents, contribute such regional mass cycles ashydrological and climatological circulations, and provide such goods as water, wood, andagricultural products. Urban ecosystems are relatively small and fragmentized.
Initially, both rural and urban ecosystems study areas were deeply affected by land use
provisioning service changes directly related to societal demands on estimating ecosystem services.
The shift from wood to fossil fuels as an energy source resulted in large carbon emissions in theⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2014) 5-2urban study area, but more carbon storage in the rural study area. From this, we deduce thenecessary ecosystems services for residents of both the rural and urban areas have changed since1955. Urban ecosystems might provide complementary functions for urban area residents,including aesthetic, cultural, and biological values. Types of rural ecosystem services also change,for social and economic reasons.
This study indicates both rural and urban areas undergo spatial distribution and temporalchanges in ecosystem services. A future study incorporating the systematic and integrated
evaluation of ecosystem services would improve upon this study’s shortcomings.
CONCLUSION
Rural forest ecosystems provide many ecosystem services; demand is less to provisioning services
such as wood biomass and carbon sequestration. In urban areas, needed ecosystem services shiftedfrom provisioning to other services. Our results are useful for rural and urban area environmental
planning, particularly on a regional scale.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the funding program for next generation world-leading researchers(MEXT, Japan) and the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund (K113002,MOE, Japan). The authors thank R. Li, T. Suzuki, and Y. Inagaki.
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