February, 2024

GENDER AND CORRUPTION
IN THE ACCESS TO
NATURAL RESOURCES:PRELIMINARY FINDINGS

Organization for Security andCo-operation in Europe

Published by the OSCE Secretariat/Gender Issues
Programme under the “WIN - Women and Men
Innovating and Networking for Gender Equality” project.

AUTHORS:
Ortrun Merkle
Researcher at Maastricht University and the United Nations University-MERIT
Matthew Price
Independent Expert
COORDINATION AND SUPERVISION:
Giulia Sechi
OSCE/Secretariat, Gender Issues Programme, Office of the Secretary Generalequality@osce.org
www.osce.org/secretariat/gender

The OSCE Gender Issues Programme works towards the implementation of the 2004 OSCE Action Plan for the Promotion of
Gender Equality and relevant Ministerial Council decisions. It supports systematic efforts to mainstream gender equality acrossthe Organization in all its policies, programmes, projects, and activities in the three dimensions of comprehensive security, namely
politico-military, economic and environmental, and human.
Under its multi-year, comprehensive project “WIN - Women and Men Innovating and Networking for Gender Equality”, theGender Issues Programme is striving to advance gender equality as a prerequisite for achieving and maintaining stable, prosperous,and peaceful societies in the OSCE area, in line with the 2004 Action Plan and other OSCE commitments.
The information, views, opinions and conclusions presented in this document are not provided by nor necessarily endorsed by the
OSCE, unless explicitly stated otherwise.
© OSCE 2024

KEY LESSONS AND COMMON THEMESIMPACT OF SOCIAL NORMS:
Gender dynamics in natural resource management are in some cases heavily guided by existing
gender and social norms. Societal expectations for women’s employment can, in some cases, prevent
women from pursuing relevant higher education and more lucrative roles in the natural resource
sector. Legal frameworks in certain countries still prohibit women from accessing hazardous roles
in both the mining and hydrocarbon sector.

SEXTORTION:
Sexual extortion, also known as ‘sextortion’, a type of corruption in which sexual favours aredemanded in exchange for access to resources and/or services, disproportionally affects women.
While studies exist on the broader issue, limited research is available on sextortion in context of thenatural resource sector. Given the male-dominated nature of the sector and the higher dependenceof women on public services, however, it is likely that sextortion has a considerable impact thatshould be further researched.

OPEN AND GENDER-DISAGGREGATED DATA:
Key information on the gendered impacts of natural resource management often remain
unavailable. Improved data transparency for natural resource contracting, ownership and domestic
resource allocation have become pillars of current anti-corruption advocacy, leading to an increaseof available data at national and local levels on natural resource management. Not all data, however,is publicly accessible, and in some cases access to previously accessible data is lost, such as in thecase of certain beneficial ownership registries. There is also a distinct lack of gender-disaggregatedinformation in the available data. Given these challenges with data accessibility and disaggregation,
it can be difficult to determine with certainty how women and men are uniquely impacted by thevarious parts of the natural resource value chain.

NETWORKING ACCESS:
Women and men do not have equal access to networking opportunities, which means that they do
not have the same access to resources and resource management. This puts women at a higher riskof experiencing corruption, poverty and sexual violence, but it also hinders anti-corruption efforts
as women in powerful positions have been shown to have a positive impact on anti-corruption,
especially in service delivery.

LACK OF RELEVANT RESEARCH:
Much of the existing research on this topic examines cases in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, orSouth and South-east Asia. While many of the lessons from these countries are likely also applicableto the OSCE region, much of it is very context-specific. Therefore, more research is needed within the
OSCE to understand the gendered effects of corruption in different countries, the role of gendered
forms of corruption, such as sextortion, and the role of gender norms, roles and laws. To achieve a
better picture of the specific issues within the region, more data should be collected, both throughsmall scale case studies and larger quantitative research.

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HIGHLIGHTS BY SECTOR

WATER
Corruption in the water sector leads tomismanagement and depletion of water
resources. Women, who bear the primary
responsibility for water collection, suffer
disproportionately when faced with water
scarcity. Inadequate access to clean waterjeopardizes their well-being, restricts
educational opportunities and hampers
economic
empowerment.
Ensuring
women’s active participation in water
governance is paramount in mitigatingthese challenges.

FORESTRY
Corruption within the forestry sector
contributes to illegal logging andenvironmental degradation. Women, whorely heavily on forests for their livelihoods,
endure severe consequences as forest
resources dwindle. This limits their economic
opportunities,
heightens
vulnerability
to poverty and undermines sustainable
development. Inclusive decision-making
processes that genuinely involve women
are indispensable in addressing these
critical issues.

LAND
Corruption in the land sector results inunjust land rights distribution and access.
Discriminatory inheritance laws and cultural
practices marginalize women, depriving
them of land ownership and impeding theireconomic prospects and decision-making
influence. Corruption further amplifies thesedisparities by enabling powerful individuals
to manipulate and control land tenuresystems. Measures to promote genderequality in land ownership and safeguard
women’s land rights are fundamental toaddress this pervasive problem.

EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIESCorruption within the oil, gas and mining
industries can produce a range of socialand environmental challenges. Women
employed in these industries facedistinctive forms of corruption, such as
sexual harassment and exploitation.
Environmental degradation resulting from
corruption
disproportionately
affects
women, who bear the primary responsibility
for managing household resources.
Ensuring women’s participation in decisionmaking processes, protecting them fromgender-specific corruption and promoting
sustainable practices within extractive
industries are imperative.

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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY-MAKERS

1

Conduct targeted research on gendered impacts of corruption in the natural
resource sector, focusing on the OSCE region.

2

Ensure women’s participation in decision-making processes for natural resource
management.

3

Strengthen legal frameworks to protect women’s rights and prevent
corruption within the natural resource sector.

4

Address gender inequalities by reforming resources access, land rights,
and inheritance laws.

5

Improve transparency, accountability and integrity within natural resource
governance.

6

Provide capacity-building activities to raise awareness among relevant groups.

7

Mitigate climate change’s disproportionate impact on women, including accessto healthcare and protection from gender-based violence.

8

Integrate gender-responsive strategies into anti-corruption initiatives andlegislative procedures. This includes tackling sector-specific issues – e.g.,
sextortion prevention, providing legal protection for individuals facing genderspecific corruption, and recognizing distinct impacts on men and women.

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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................7
Gender, natural resource corruption and security......................................................................8
Methodology...............................................................................................................................9
Limitations.................................................................................................................................9
Literature review.............................................................................................................................10
Gender and corruption............................................................................................................10
Gender and natural resources................................................................................................10
Common themes on gender and corruption...............................................................................11
Gender norms and laws...........................................................................................................11
Role of sextortion as a form of corruption............................................................................12
Importance of open and gender-disaggregated data..........................................................12
Lack of research in OSCE region.............................................................................................13
The role of large corporations in the OSCE region in natural resource
corruption abroad....................................................................................................................13
2. CORRUPTION AND GENDER IN FOUR SELECTED SECTORS.................................................14
Water................................................................................................................................................14
Water governance....................................................................................................................14
Water access.............................................................................................................................15
Hydropower..............................................................................................................................15
Forestry............................................................................................................................................16
Forest management.................................................................................................................17
Illegal logging............................................................................................................................18
Land..................................................................................................................................................19
Land governance......................................................................................................................19
Land tenure...............................................................................................................................20
Urban planning.........................................................................................................................20
Extractives.......................................................................................................................................21
Decision to extract....................................................................................................................21
Revenue collection and expenditure.....................................................................................22
Mining........................................................................................................................................22
Environmental impact.............................................................................................................23
Corporate responsibility and due diligence .........................................................................23
3. CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................................24
BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................................................................................25

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1. INTRODUCTION
The OSCE has repeatedly highlighted corruption as asignificant threat to security and stability.
The OSCE participating States have recognized that“corruption represents one of the major
impediments to the prosperity andsustainable development of the participating
States that undermines their stability andsecurity and threatens the OSCE’s sharedvalues”1.
The dangers of corruption include weakened rule oflaw, the undermining of democracy and democratic
institutions, and reduced economic and social
development.
Within a country, these negative effects are notexperienced evenly by the population. A growing
body of research has highlighted that there is agendered component to how corruption affects
men and women, boys and girls. Corruption’s worst
impacts are often felt by the most vulnerable insociety, and nowhere is this seen more than in the
management of natural resources, where the use of
and access to natural resources is highly dependent
on gender roles and norms (Dejene & Ogega, 2021).
As is well documented, states rich in natural
resources are more prone to higher levels of both
corruption and conflict. Improved transparency innatural resource management and more equitable
distribution of natural resource revenues are
key measures for reducing the risk of conflict inresource-rich states. Here gender, and particularly
the relationship between gender and corruption in
the natural resource sector, plays a central role inpromoting security and creating more just societies
in the OSCE participating States.
While corruption in natural resource management
and gender and corruption have been examined by

1

OSCE papers as separate topics, to date no study
has been done to better understand the gendered
dynamics in natural resource corruption. This reportseeks to fill that space, while at the same time
identifying opportunities for new data-driven andgender-responsive policies.
Women play an important role in ensuring foodsecurity for their households and on a national
level, by producing food, managing household foodsupplies and as consumers (Agarwal, 2018). Yet,their access to land and other natural resources isoften limited by structural inequalities and gendernorms (Dejene & Ogega, 2021).
Understanding how gender interacts with corruption
and natural resources is also essential for climatechange adaptation and intervention (Rahman,2022). Research has shown that women are more
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due totheir socially constructed roles and responsibilities.
Women are often responsible for collecting water,
firewood and food, and in many regions are
disproportionately often employed in the agricultural
sector. Women are also more likely to suffer thehealth consequences of climate change, less likely toaccess assistance and more vulnerable to genderbased violence, trafficking, child marriage and otherforms of violence (UN WOMEN, 2022).
In the context of natural resource management,
women’s participation is often essential for resource
efficiency as well as effective climate change
adaptation and mitigation. For example, in many
countries, women are the primary producers offood crops and therefore key actors in promoting
sustainable agricultural practices. However, women’s
access to natural resources and their ability toparticipate in decision-making processes related tonatural resource management are often limited due
to discriminatory norms and practices.

1 MC Decision No. 11/04 on Combating Corruption, 7 December 2004

7

Furthermore, corruption in the natural
resource sector can exacerbate the negative
impacts of climate change on vulnerable
populations, particularly women. For
example, corrupt practices can result inthe misallocation of resources intended forclimate change adaptation and mitigation,
leading to vulnerable communities being
inadequately protected.

In summary, understanding the gendered dynamics
of corruption in natural resource management isessential for promoting security, reducing conflictand creating more just and sustainable societies in
the OSCE participating States. It is also critical for
effective climate change adaptation and mitigation,
particularly in vulnerable communities where women
play a central role in natural resource management.

GENDER, NATURAL RESOURCE CORRUPTION AND SECURITY

CORRUPTION, commonly defined as “the abuse of entrusted power for private gain”(Transparency International — What Is Corruption?, n.d.) can involve the highest politicaldecision makers (grand or political corruption) as well as all policy implementationlevels (bureaucratic corruption) (Andvig et al., 2000). There are many different forms ofcorruption, such as bribery, patronage, fraud, conflict of interest problems, nepotism
and official theft (Johnston, 2005). A corrupt act always has at least two parties that are
not necessarily both equally willing participants. While the corrupt act can be willing
co-operation between the bribe receiver and payer, it can also be a bribe payer who
is anticipating future benefits or a forceful extraction of bribes (Davis, 2004). Whentaking a gender perspective, it is essential to use a broad definition of corruption that
includes these more traditional forms of corruption, as well as more recently discussed
ones such as ‘sextortion’ (sexual extortion), where a sexual act is the payment of thebribe. Sextortion takes place at the intersection of corruption and gender-based
violence and disproportionately affects women (Caarten et al., 2022; Eldén et al., 2020;
Feigenblatt, 2020).

“GENDER refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being maleand female, the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, and therelations between women and between men“ (UNOCHA, 2012, p. 5). When looking
at corruption and natural resources, gendered power imbalances play an importantrole. Studies show that on the one hand, women often do not have the same means
to be involved in networks that benefit from corruption, while on the other hand they
are also frequently more exposed to corruption due to their assigned roles in society(Goetz, 2007).

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Methodology
The study is based on a desk review of academic andpolicy literature and semi-structured interviews with
content experts within the OSCE and civil society
organizations. The review includes literature about
the key thematic areas of corruption, gender andnatural resources (in general, land, forestry, waterand extractives). Relevant policy documents wereidentified through a general search and by searching

the publications of relevant non-governmental,
governmental and international organizations.
The articles identified were added to a systematic
database of resources. The search was conducted in
English and supplemented with relevant literature in
Russian, covering the situation in OSCE participating
States.

Limitations
Most academic and policy literature specificallyexamining the intersection of gender and natural
resource corruption focuses on countries outside
the OSCE region. Most papers look at developing
countries in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa.
The latter is especially well-represented in studies
on gendered dynamics of corruption in the mining
sector.

context-specific aspects can be noted for muchof the literature. While some issues highlighted
at a global level may help to shed light on larger
trends and issues in the intersection of gender andcorruption in the natural resource sector, readers
should keep in mind that there is currently a limited
amount of relevant material that focuses specificallyon contexts relevant to the OSCE’s target audiences.

Corruption is often context-specific, and as such therelevance of some of these studies on the OSCE canbe called into question. The outsized role of artisanaland small mining among women, for example, is an
important issue in sub-Saharan Africa, while thesame cannot be said for the OSCE region. Similar

This report primarily surveys English-language
academic and policy documents. It is noted thatthe subject matter is also being researched in local
languages within the OSCE participating States;
however, such studies were not included here due
to time and capacity restraints.

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LITERATURE REVIEW
Corruption
contributes
toenvironmental
degradation. For example, bribes and kickbacks
in exchange for resource extraction permits orland-use rights can result in unregulated andunsustainable exploitation of natural resources. Thiscan lead to deforestation, soil degradation, waterpollution and other forms of environmental harm.
In recent years, research on natural resources andon corruption has highlighted the importance ofincluding gender considerations. The importanceof what role corruption playing in natural resources
has received a lot of attention from policy makers
and academics alike. Surprisingly, how gender plays
into this relationship is still not sufficiently explored.
This review will give an overview of the different
streams of literature that show the importance ofunderstanding the nexus of corruption, gender andnatural resources in more detail.

Gender and corruption
Research clearly shows the importance of gender inanti-corruption policies and measures (OSCE, 2021).
While initial research focused on the relationshipof women in parliament and levels of corruption ina country (Dollar et al., 2001; Swamy et al., 2001),
attention has since shifted to the gendered impacts
of corruption and different forms of corruption men
and women might encounter.
Early studies focused on how a larger number ofwomen in parliament leads to lower corruption
levels (Dollar et al., 2001; Swamy et al., 2001), andwhile this has since been confirmed on national and(sub)regional level (e.g. Bauhr et al., 2019; Grimes &Wängnerud, 2012; Jha & Sarangi, 2018; Stockemer,
2018), as well as in local councils (Sundström& Wängnerud, 2016) and for cabinet positions(Stockemer & Sundström, 2019), it was also quickly
discovered that this is not a linear relationship but
several mitigating factors play a role.
Both grand and petty corruption affect men andwomen differently, directly and indirectly. Whilecorruption impacts the parties participating in

the corrupt act itself, it also affects “third parties,
including the general population, taxpayers, specificprofessions, or communities” (Boehm & Sierra, 2015,p. 2). Research clearly shows that men and women
have different levels of exposure to corruption,
which is largely due to the different responsibilities
and roles either have in society.
The understanding that corruption is closely linked togender norms is gaining increasing attention (Echazu,
2010; Esarey & Chirillo, 2013; Kubbe & Merkle, 2022;
Merkle, 2018). What roles and responsibilities men
and women have in society impacts what corrupt
resources they have access to, how they are affectedby corruption, and which forms of corruption theyencounter. In the context of natural resources, muchhas been written about the role of gender-based
discrimination but this has so far not been linked tocorruption. In the following section, this link will behighlighted wherever possible but still needs to befurther discussed.

Gender and natural resources
Gender and natural resources are deeply intertwined.
The access to and control over natural resources,
such as land, water and forests, is often determinedby gender roles and power dynamics within societies.
Women and men have different relationships withnatural resources due to traditional gender rolesand cultural norms. For example, in many societies,
1

men are responsible for agricultural production
and control of land, while women are responsible
for collecting water and firewood. This division oflabour can limit women’s access to resources andopportunities to participate in decision-making
processes related to natural resource management.

For a detailed overview of the current research on gender and corruption see OSCE (2021)
10Moreover, the impact of natural resource
management practices on men and women candiffer significantly. For example, the degradationof forests or depletion of water resources candisproportionately affect women, who often relyon these resources for household activities andincome-generating activities. Furthermore, women’scontributions to natural resource management
are often undervalued and overlooked. Women’s
knowledge and skills in sustainable resource
management, conservation and biodiversity
protection are often not recognized or utilized,
which can lead to less effective natural resource
management practices. Therefore, recognizing andaddressing gender inequalities in natural resource
management is essential for sustainable andequitable development.
The role of gender in extractive industries has been
increasingly highlighted by NGOs, donor institutions,development
institutions
andinternationalorganizations. The Natural Resource GovernanceInstitution’s 2021 publication “Gender and Extractive
Governance: Lessons from Existing Legal and Policy
Frameworks” highlighted how “[w]omen and genderminorities often face disproportionate harms fromoil, gas and mineral extraction and may be less likely

to access economic benefits or opportunities forpolitical engagement” (Menard and Moses, 2021, 1).
The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative has
also called for increased attention to gender-based
differences in the extractive industries, noting that“women tend to face greater barriers in accessing
information and decision-making spaces” (EITI, n.d.).
The initiative calls for increased participation by
women in extractive industry governance and a morebalanced gender distribution in industry employment
efforts. Country-level information on gender fromlocal EITI chapters, however, is inconsistent and canvary in scope and quality. This is true even within
the OSCE region. Recent reports from EITI chapters
in Armenia, Germany and Ukraine provide genderdisaggregated information on employment in the
sector. EITI Ukraine also provides information on
relevant legislation related to gender mainstreaming
and reporting. In contrast, the latest reports fromEITI offices in some of the OSCE countries provide
no coverage of gender in their respective national
sectors.

COMMON THEMES ON GENDER AND CORRUPTION
Gender norms and laws
Gender norms play an integral part in understanding
how women are affected by and involved incorruption (Kubbe & Merkle, 2022). At the sametime, gender norms and roles fundamentally impact
the use of and access to natural resources (Dejene& Ogega, 2021). To understand how corruption andgender are linked in the natural resource sector, itis therefore essential to take a close look at existing
gender norms and laws.
Several issues are universal, for example that rigidsocial gender norms prevent women from accessing
certain jobs or financial resources as well as joining
management positions. The same norms often makewomen responsible for providing food, water andfuel for their households and communities (IUCN,
2020). Hence, corruption in these sectors often

disproportionately affects women and exposes themto different forms of corruption, such as sextortion.
In several OSCE participating States laws remain
in force that prohibit women from performing
dangerous work in the oil, gas and mining industry.
One of these States expressly prohibits womenfrom working as drill operators or undergroundminers (World Bank, 2021). This is purportedly
done with the intention to safeguard women frombeing exploited or potentially injured in physicallydemanding and unsafe roles. Such discrimination,
while arguably well-intentioned, can still have theeffect of locking women out of networks, including
potential influence networks.

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While not expressly a result of corruption, thislegalized exclusion helps to perpetuate genderdivisions within the extractive sector and limit theearning potential of women.
Many norms and laws are highly context-specific;
hence it is important to conduct more case studies
looking at how individual norms and rules are
related to corruption and the gendered impacts inthe natural resource sector. At the same time, there
are other factors that intersect with gender, which
impact how an individual experiences discriminationand marginalization, such as age, disability, ethnicity
and religion. Therefore men and women should not
be treated as homogenous groups but research andpolicy must understand the layered inequalities in
the natural resources sector (IUCN, 2020).

Role of sextortion as a form of corruption
Corruption in the management of and access tonatural resources can take many forms, from bribery
to nepotism to embezzlement. All these formsof corruption undermine efforts to achieve thesustainable and equitable management of natural
resources, and can have significant social, economicand environmental consequences.
One form of corruption that has been neglected inmost research looking at the nexus of corruption
and natural resources is sextortion. Sextortion
disproportionately affects women, especially thosethat are most marginalized, e.g., those living inpoverty or with disabilities, or are irregular migrants(Caarten et al., 2022; Feigenblatt, 2020; Merkle
et al., 2017, 2023). Sextortion often occurs whenaccessing services, as recent studies show for thewater, sanitation and health sectors (e.g., Merkle
et al., 2023; UNDP-SIWI Water Governance Facility,2017). Similarly, when access to land and financial
resources is difficult for women, they are often
exposed to corruption, including sextortion (Mathot,2019). While no studies have looked at sextortionin resources management, the studies that doexist about sextortion in public sector employmentshow that women were exposed to sextortion in
the context of hiring, promotion and favourable
treatment (Feigenblatt, 2020). Given that natural
resource management is often a male-dominatedfield, one could expect that women in this sector
are also exposed to these practices. Overall, more
research is needed on how different forms ofcorruption impact men and women in the natural
resource sectors.

Importance of open and gender-disaggregated data
Lack of access to information can negatively impact
women and vulnerable populations. Many developing
countries are less likely to have access to informationon land and water rights, public debates on land andresource management, and the issuing of contracts
and licenses for extractive activities in the regions
they live. Lack of education and access to influence
networks can further hamper these groups’ ability
to access and digest information. Environmentsthat lack transparency in these processes can alsoenable corruption and hamper potential efforts by
local activists and whistle-blowers to uncover andfight corruption.
Improved transparency in contracting (NRGI and
OCP, 2018), ownership (Van Alstine and Smith,2018) and data (EITI, 2023) have become corepillars of anti-corruption advocacy; however, therole of gender in open information advocacy efforts

is often not considered in most policy documents.
This may be changing as there have been growing
efforts to incorporate gender mainstreaming
into transparency and open data efforts, mostrecently seen in civil society recommendations forincorporating gender into the updated 2023 versionof the EITI Standard (PWYP, 2022).
Several OSCE participating States have madeefforts to increase open data in natural resource
management. In addition, EU regulations now
require large oil, gas, mining and logging companies
registered or listed in EU member states to provide
country-by-country reporting of payments togovernments (Gavard et al., 2018). The concept of
having a “social licence” to operate is also growing in
the OSCE space, which focuses more on addressing
the local community impacts of extractive projects(Koivurova et al., 2015).
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Lack of research in OSCE region
Much of the existing research on gendered aspectsof corruption in natural resource governance isfocused on Latin America, South and South-East Asiaand sub-Saharan Africa. Only few case studies coverthese topics in the OSCE region. However, this should
not lead to the conclusion that corruption in natural
resource management does not play a role in theregion. The few case studies that do exist show thatseveral issues are also important to be addressed in
the OSCE region, while others need more research
to be understood properly. This report presents,

wherever possible, findings from the OSCE region,
and many of the findings presented from otherregions of the world are likely also applicable to
the OSCE participating States. However, it needs
to be highlighted that many issues around natural
resources include highly country- or context-specificelements. Therefore, this study should be used as astarting point to focus on more nuanced researchon gender and corruption in the natural resource
sector within the OSCE region.

The role of large corporations in the OSCE region in natural resource
corruption abroad
Frequently, corruption scandals in natural resource
management involve large corporations, manyof them with headquarters in OSCE countries.
For example, recent bribery cases involving large
corporations (Transparency International, 2023;
Serious Fraud Office, 2023) are just the latest
examples of natural resource companies based in
OSCE countries promoting corruption in the natural

resource sector in developing countries in otherregions. Given the global impact of such multilateral
corporations, OSCE participating States should
consider not only the role of gender and natural
resource management in the OSCE region, but also
the impact that companies based in the OSCE region
have on this relationship in other parts of the world.

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2. CORRUPTION AND GENDER IN FOUR
SELECTED SECTORSWATER

The important role of gender in the access to andgovernance of water has been well documented (e.g.
OSCE, 2020; Pouramin et al., 2020; UNESCO, n.d.).
Similarly, it is widely accepted that corruption in thewater sector is widespread and ranges from grandcorruption in water services and water infrastructure
to petty bribes when accessing water. Yet, howgender and corruption interplay in the water sector
has not been researched as widely.

This section will explore in more detail how men
and women are differently affected by corruption
in the water sector and will highlight the newly
emerging findings of sextortion in access to waterand sanitation services.

Water governance
Water governance in most countries is maledominated, which means that proceeds from
corruption go likely primarily to men, while womenand girls are disproportionately affected as they
are typically responsible for “water collection andhousehold and community sanitation” (Adams etal., 2021, p. 85). Importantly, as Crow and Sultana(2002) argue, “gender relations interact with material
inequalities to influence access to water” (p. 712)
in three ways. For one, the already mentioned
division of labour that typically puts the burden ofdomestic labour and childcare on women, who thenmust decide which tasks need to be prioritized or
potentially given to younger girls (e.g., the collectionof water). Secondly, most productive assets arecontrolled or owned by men, which not only limits
productive access to water for women but alsomeans that most decision making related to water
access continue to be dominated by men. Lastly, thefocus on the domestic role of women gives men moresocial and economic power, which also influenceswhere public investments are made, leaving thoseareas that are crucial or particularly dangerous for
women at the margins (Crow & Sultana, 2002).

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Water access
Women also encounter sextortion in accessing
water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services. This
is not surprising, as research has long shown thatwomen face an increased risk of violence whenaccess to WASH services is not adequate (Pommells
et al., 2018) and that the sector is often plagued bycorruption (Stålgren, 2015; Zinnbauer & Dobson,2008). Studies in South Africa, Colombia, Bangladesh
and Kenya show that sextortion is part of the lived
reality for many women when accessing WASH
services. In Colombia and South Africa, a study foundthat women were frequently demanded bribes
when they needed to access services or resources,
e.g., water delivery, or offered bribes in return for
not turning off the water supply or misreading thewater meter (UNDP-SIWI Water Governance Facility,2017). A study in the Kibera Project in Kenya similarly
found that two of 10 respondents have heard about
sextortion in the WASH sector (KEWASNET & ANEW,
2020). Case studies from East Africa document
other examples of sextortion regarding the accessto water, such as paying for water with sex if theuser cannot pay the fees, or for skipping ahead inqueues waiting for water (Pommells et al., 2018). A
recent study on Bangladesh shows that women areespecially vulnerable to sextortion when accessing
water and that living in a water-insecure household,poverty and illiteracy increase a women’s vulnerability
to experiencing sextortion in WASH services (Merkle
et al., 2023).

Hydropower
Hydropowerisasignificant
sourceofrenewable energy. Given the push towards
more environmentally-friendly energy sources,hydropower is an interesting investment for many
countries as they are able to receive significant
international funding (Panayotou, 2013). Yet, theimplementation of hydropower projects can bemarred by corruption, which can occur at different
stages, from the allocation of licences, permits andcontracts to the construction and operation of dams
and power plants. Since the implementation ofhydropower projects often involves large amountsof money and complex transactions, they areparticularly vulnerable to corruption. Corruption
affects both large or megaprojects (Mertha andLowry, 2006) and small (private) projects (Dogmus &Nielsen, 2020).
The introduction of hydropower itself has been
identified to have a range of negative social,environmental and economic impacts, such as
forced resettlement (Cernea, 2004), water grabbing(Dell’Angelo et al., 2018), and reduced access towater for local populations (Siciliano & Urban,2017). All these are exacerbated by corruption ine.g., the planning or licencing phase. In addition to
the loss of public trust and confidence, corruption
in the hydropower sector can lead to substandard
infrastructure, environmental degradation andsocial conflicts. Hydropower projects can also
displace local communities, disrupt livelihoods andhave long-lasting impacts on the ecosystem.
In some regions, hydropower plays a major role inrecent natural resource and energy development
trends. The hydropower industry is marked bysevere corruption and, as such, can impact local
communities in negative ways when environmental
and other laws are circumvented by corrupt means(Duri, 2021). Corruption in this sector incentivizes theconstruction of new dams without proper community
consultations or environmental impact reviews andignores the concerns of local communities during
the construction phase.
15

FORESTRY

Wood and its by-products are becoming increasingly
more profitable, making forests and trees a soughtafter commodity. At the same time, the forestry sector
often has weak governance and law enforcement,
the combination of which make it a breeding groundfor corruption (Interpol, 2016). A recent largescale quantitative study finds that “the amount of
deforestation (in both absolute and relative terms)
is positively influenced by the level of economic andfinancial crime in a country (by both corruption andshadow economy), as well as other determinants
like the democratic governance quality, the press
freedom, the wood export share, and the culture ofthat country” (Cozma et al., 2021, p. 17).
While the relationship of female political participationand corruption on national, regional and cabinet
level has received a lot of attention, surprisingly
little research to date has looked at the relationshipbetween gender and specifically women’s
participation and corruption at the sectoral level,
including the forestry sector (Kirya, 2019). Whileboth gender and corruption do receive attention
individually in research about the forestry sector, theintersection has been studied only tangentially.

While research clearly shows that corruption has
detrimental effects in the forestry sector (Cozma etal., 2021), the focus mainly remains on countries in
Latin America, Africa and Asia.
Corruption plays a fundamental role in illegal logging
and deforestation. The situation has worsened
during the COVID-19 pandemic when donor
attention for anti-corruption programmes shiftedto pandemic-related public procurement, social
distancing and a reduction in the number of patrols,
while rules and regulations are being relaxed in thename of supporting economic development (WWF,2020). Women are impacted disproportionally by
deforestation, being obliged to travel further to getwhat they need and therefore facing a higher riskof poverty, income loss and lack of personal safety(Marin & Kuriakose, 2017).
How forest products are used, managed andaccessed also differs by gender; however, as a
global study shows, this is not universal and differs
by geographical and other factors (Sunderland etal., 2014). The study also shows how important it is
to conduct research in different areas since genderroles and tasks are not the same everywhere.

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Forest management
Forest management is a crucial aspect of sustainable
development, and gender plays an essential role inensuring its success. Gender influences how people
use and benefit from forests and the different roles
they play in forest management activities. Researchshows that the most profitable forest resources are
typically in the hands of men (Agarwal, 2009; FAO,
2015), while “women’s control over resources may
be more commonly centered on management anduse of fuelwood, fodder and non-timber products”(Marin & Kuriakose, 2017, p. 2). At the same time,socio-cultural norms often create barriers for womento participate in forest management unless projects
are designed to focus on equal participation of men
and women (Marin & Kuriakose, 2017).
Forest management plays an important role in
the preservation of forests and therefore the fightagainst environmental degradation. Corruption canhave a significant impact on forest management
and exacerbate gender inequalities. In many cases,
corrupt practices result in the mismanagementof forest resources, leading to environmental
degradation and loss of biodiversity. Corruption
also affects the equitable distribution of benefits
from forest resources, disproportionately impacting
women who often rely on forest resources for theirlivelihoods. Corruption can lead to the exclusion of
women from decision-making processes, denying
them access to forest resources and perpetuating
gender inequalities. Corruption is a frequentobstacle to proper government control. Studies on
Indonesia, for example, show that rich individuals
can use their wealth to impact legislation in theirfavour, often to the detriment of the poorer local
population (Fadli* & Purnomo, 2019), and thatthe fragmentation of governance structures leads
to more illegal exploitation of forests (Smith et al.,2003). Similarly, Irland (2008), analysing 46 countries,
finds that absent or dysfunctional governments leadto dysfunctional forest policies.
Women often face challenges in accessing forest
resources due to cultural and social norms that
limit their mobility and decision-making power.
Development aid often focuses on communitybased natural resource management to empower
rural communities in managing their own natural
resources and to improve conservation efforts(Dressler et al., 2010; Otto et al., 2013). However,even in these efforts “inequitable access to andcontrol over resources, conflict within communities,
unsustainable resources use, and weak participationof significant stakeholders such as the poor andwomen” continue to be a problem (Leisher et al.,2016, p. 2). Several factors have been identified to
improve the success of such initiatives if women are
included in the forest management group (Agarwal,2009). Data collected in a global study also showsthat despite efforts to increase the number ofwomen in forest management groups, these remain
dominated by men (Sunderland et al., 2014).

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Illegal logging
The primary manifestation of corruption in theforestry sector comes in the form of illegal logging(Kirya, 2019), which is estimated to account for 15
to 30 per cent of the global logging activity (Interpol,2016). Corruption is an essential part of the illegal
logging supply chain; from cutting to selling thetimber, corruption is needed for each step (WWF,2020). Corruption makes it possible to log morethan the legal limit (Pellegrini, 2011), to avoid forest
laws (Robbins, 2000), or to export or transport illegal
timber (Milledge et al., 2007; Miller, 2011). It has also
been shown that corruption takes place at different
levels (Sundström, 2016).
Illegal logging can have serious gendered impacts
on local communities, especially indigenous ones.
The illegal removal of timber can lead to a loss of
livelihood for women who rely on forest products to
support or feed their families. Local health, educationand social services can potentially be uprooted aswell, with those individuals least able to relocate
forced to bear the brunt of the impact of these lost
services. In some cases, families themselves may be
forcibly removed to allow for illegal logging.

The influx of a typically male labour force canalso alter community dynamics and lead to anincrease in gender-based violence, such as sexualassault, domestic violence and forced prostitution(Castañeda Carney et al., 2020). Given that suchlogging is done illegally, (migrant) workers also do
not have protection and are vulnerable to different
labour rights abuses, such as child labour, dangerous
working conditions or the withholding of wages offorced labour (WWF, 2020).
Illegal logging and its connections to organized crime
are a major issue in some of the OSCE countries.
These activities can have an outsized impact on
marginalized communities, including women andgirls (Bullock and Jenkins, 2020).

18

LAND

Issues of corruption in land tenure and its impact
on women have been well-studied in sub-SaharanAfrica; however, similar studies in the OSCE region
are scant.

Land holdings owned by women are often of lower
quality and smaller than those of men (Dejene &Ogega, 2021).

Land governanceLand governance, also known as land administration,refers to the policies and practices by which publicauthorities administer land tenure and land use in acountry.

could help them improve their livelihood. This lackof access to resources further marginalizes women,
making it difficult for them to escape poverty andeconomic dependency.

Corruption in land governance can have severe
impacts on women, particularly on those who rely
on land for their livelihood and housing. Women areoften denied access to land ownership and control
due to discriminatory cultural and legal practices,which makes them vulnerable to land grabbing
and displacement. Corruption exacerbates thisvulnerability by facilitating the illegal acquisition ofland by powerful individuals or companies. Womenare often excluded from decision-making processes,leaving them without any legal recourse to defend
their land rights.

Furthermore, corruption in land governance can leadto environmental degradation and loss of natural
resources, which can have a significant impact on
women who rely on these resources for their dailyneeds. Women often have a closer relationship withthe environment and are more likely to be affectedby environmental disasters and resource depletion.

Corruption in land governance can also perpetuate
gender inequalities, as women are often notrecognized as legitimate landowners and are denied
access to credit, training and other resources that

Overall, corruption in land governance reinforces
gender inequalities and undermines women’s
access to resources and opportunities. To address
this issue, it is essential to promote women’s
participation in decision-making processes related
to land governance, as well as strengthen legal
frameworks to protect women’s land rights andprevent corruption.

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Land tenure
Land tenure refers to the legal and social frameworks
that govern the use, ownership and transfer ofland. It encompasses the rules and regulations that
determine who has access to land, how it is usedand how disputes are resolved (UN-HABITAT, 2008).
Land tenure systems vary widely across different
regions and countries, and they can have significant
impacts on social and economic development,
environmental sustainability and gender equality.
Corruption in land tenure systems can have severe
impacts on women, particularly when it comes toinheritance issues. Women often face discrimination
in inheritance laws and cultural practices, which deny
them the right to inherit land and other property (Grayand Kevane, 1999). This exclusion from inheritancecan have far-reaching consequences for women,
limiting their access to economic opportunities,
social status and decision-making power (Kandiyoti,
2003).
Corruption can exacerbate this exclusion by allowing
powerful individuals or groups to control andmanipulate land tenure systems, denying women

their rightful inheritance. This can lead to land
grabbing, where women are forcibly removed fromtheir land or coerced into selling it at a low price.
In addition, women’s lack of legal recognition as
landowners can make them vulnerable to exploitation
and abuse, as they have no legal recourse to defend
their land rights.
Furthermore, corruption in land tenure systems
can reinforce gender inequalities by perpetuating
cultural norms that limit women’s access to land andproperty. Women are often excluded from decisionmaking processes related to land tenure, leaving
them without a voice in how land is allocated andmanaged. This can lead to the prioritization of maleinterests and the perpetuation of patriarchal norms
that deny women’s agency and autonomy.
Finally, the lack of security in land tenure inhibits
the options of more sustainable land management
practices, contributing to further environment
degradation and climate change (Nkonya et al.,2016).

Urban planning
Urbanization is increasing and by 2045 six billion
people are expected to live in urban areas (World
Bank, 2023). Hence, understanding the gendered
impact of corruption in the development of urban
areas will play an important role in future. Whileurbanization can lead to various opportunities
for individuals, the negative effects, such asenvironmental hazards, crime and poverty, doaffect men and women differently (OSCE, 2017). For
women, urbanization is frequently linked to greater
employment opportunities, lower fertility rates, lessstrict social values and norms, and better access toservices; however, they also face more threats to theirpersonal safety and security, as well as inequalities
in financial and physical assets, access to decent
work, and representation in formal structures (Tacoli& Satterthwaite, 2013).
Corruption in urban settings, “can perpetuate
poverty, inequality and injustice” (Nkula-Wenz, 2023,
para. 1) and can, particularly for women, shrink
opportunities and exacerbate risks. Especiallycorruption in urban planning can lead to a lack ofaccess to essential services, such as hospitals andschools, and infringe on people’s right to individual
property (Nkula-Wenz, 2023).

20

EXTRACTIVES

The oil, gas and mining industries can produce
immense wealth for private shareholders,
governments and – in theory – society. Translatingthese profits into accessible, effective benefits forthe most vulnerable members of society, however,is in some cases easier said than done.
Corruption is unfortunately commonplace in theextractive industries. One recent review found thatnearly one-fifth of all documented bribery cases
occurred in the extractives sector (OECD, 2014).
Corruption occurs at every point along the extractive
value chain, from the initial decision to extract, to theawarding of licences, the management of operations,and in the collection and management of revenues(OECD, 2016). In addition to the increased impact on
women, corruption in the sector can also uniquely

impact men as well, given that men make up theprimary workforce in the extractive industries andare therefore uniquely impacted by lax safety or
environmental standards on the job sites.
The relationship between gender and corruption
in the extractive sector is not well-explored in thecurrent literature.
Some gendered aspects of corruption are common
across all extractive industries, while others may be
specific to the hydrocarbon or mining sectors. We
will first consider common issues before examining
the oil and gas sector, which has received only limited
coverage in the literature, and afterwards the better
explored mining sector.

Decision to extract
The initial decision to extract resources is a crucial
stage that sets the tone for the entire value
chain. As previously discussed, women are often
underrepresented in decision-making bodies andprocesses, which can result in their needs andperspectives being overlooked. This imbalance canexacerbate the gendered dynamics of corruption, as
male-dominated decision-making processes may be
more susceptible to biased interests, exclusionary
practices and self-serving motives.

The lack of women’s participation in these criticaldecisions not only limits the diversity of perspectives
but also hampers efforts to address any potentialsocial and environmental impacts the planned
projects may have on local communities.
The impact of displacement or environmental
degradation may not be as closely considered,or more easily overlooked, in the face of powerfulinterests advocating for the supposed economic
benefits of the proposed projects (Kojola, 2019).

21

In addition, in cases where corruption is prevalent in
the initial decision-making process, the distributionof benefits and resources may be skewed, with adisproportionate share being allocated to thosewith power and influence. This further marginalizes
women and other vulnerable populations,perpetuating gender inequalities and hindering
sustainable development.

Revenue collection and expenditure
When revenue generated from the extraction ofnatural resources is embezzled or diverted topersonal accounts, it deprives local communities
of much-needed funds for social services, including
healthcare, education and infrastructure. Women,
serving often as the primary caregivers and providers
for their families, bear the brunt of this deprivation,
as they are disproportionately affected by poor social
services. Additionally, when revenue is not spent
effectively or efficiently, women are often left out of

the benefits, as they are already marginalized andunderrepresented in decision-making processes, as
discussed above. This perpetuates a cycle of genderinequality and poverty, as women are unable toaccess resources that could help them thrive andcontribute to their communities. In situations where
local revenue spending is already limited due tocorruption in the planning and contracting stages,
corruption in the management and spending phasealso eats away at already depleted and limited funds.

Mining
The mining sector is uniquely exposed to corruption
risks. Mining projects can involve large amounts offunds, repeated interaction between the private andpublic sector, and are often located in remote areas
where regulatory monitoring and enforcement canbe difficult. Limited access to relevant political andplanning processes, as well as fewer resources
further hinder the possibility for the community
living near mining projects to counter illegal activity.
Corruption in the mining sector can negatively impact
women’s economy, health and safety, and social
well-being. The lack of women’s voices in politicalparticipation and decision-making is worsened bycorruption, and in turn further decreases women’sability to advocate and benefit from mining sector

resources. They are also disproportionately affectedby the results of corruption, such as increased
environmental damage due to a failure to follow
regulations.
As with other natural resource topics, current
research on gender and mining centres on thedeveloping world, with a particular focus on central
and southern Africa and Latin America. In addition,
women are generally more involved in artisanaland small-scale mining (ASM) than in large-scale
mining projects. As a result, research on gender andcorruption in the mining industry focuses primarilyon the experiences of women in ASM in regions
outside the OSCE region.

22

Environmental impact
When corruption enables mining companies to
bypass environmental regulations, it can lead tosevere consequences for local ecosystems andcommunities. Women are often worst affectedby these consequences as they are primarily
responsible for managing household resources,
including water and food. The degradation of water
sources through contamination or depletion can
increase the time and effort women must spend
on collecting water, limiting their opportunities forother activities such as education, working outside
the home, or social engagements. Furthermore, thedestruction of arable land and traditional livelihoods
may force women to seek alternative sources ofincome, increasing their vulnerability to exploitationand gender-based violence. The exacerbationof poverty, malnutrition and diseases causedby the degradation of the environment can also
disproportionately affect women via their role as theprimary caregivers for the sick and elderly. Overall,the environmental impact of corruption in the mining
industry amplifies existing gender inequalities andundermines women’s well-being and opportunities
for advancement.

Corporate responsibility and due diligence
OSCE participating States have a role to play evenin countries outside the OSCE region. Much of the
ASM performed by women in developing countries
is part of larger global supply chains which linkback to companies within the OSCE area. A global
understanding of the interplay between genderand corruption in the mining sector is therefore
important for all OSCE participating States, to insist
that local companies perform proper due diligence

to ensure responsible mineral supply chains(OECD, 2016). Reviewing data released under local
EITI publications and via EU-mandated reportingby mining companies at the country level can help
researchers identify companies based in OSCE
participating States that are involved in mining
ventures highlighted in the research mentioned
above.

23

3. CONCLUSIONS
The relationship between corruption and natural
resources is complex and multifaceted, particularlyin the areas of water, forestry, land and extractive
industries. In each of these sectors, corruption canhave severe environmental, social and economic
consequences. However, the impact of corruption
on men and women can vary significantly, and agender-sensitive approach to policy-making in the
management of natural resources can prevent or, atleast, mitigate its effects.
In the water sector, corruption can lead to themismanagement and depletion of water resources,
which can have a particularly negative impact on
women. Women are often responsible for collecting
water for their households, and when water isscarce, they may have to walk long distances toaccess it. This can have significant consequences fortheir health, education and economic opportunities.
Women are also often excluded from decisionmaking processes related to water management,
which further marginalizes them and makes themmore vulnerable to corruption. Ensuring women’s
participation in water governance and decisionmaking can help address some of these issues.
In the forestry sector, corruption can lead to theillegal logging of forests, which can have significant
environmental consequences. Women who rely
on forests for their livelihoods, such as throughcollecting non-timber forest products, can beparticularly affected by this. When forests aredegraded, it can reduce the availability of theseproducts, which can impact women’s economic
opportunities. Furthermore, women are often
excluded from decision-making processes related
to forest management, which can perpetuate
gender inequalities and increase their vulnerability
to corruption.
In the land sector, corruption can result in the unfair
distribution of land rights and access, which canhave significant consequences for women. Women
often have less access to land than men, which canlimit their economic opportunities and increase theirvulnerability to poverty. Corruption can exacerbate
these inequalities by allowing powerful actors tomonopolize land and exclude women from access.

Furthermore, corruption can lead to forced evictions,which can disproportionately affect women andtheir families.
In the extractive industries, corruption can havea range of negative environmental and social
consequences. Women who work in these industries
are often excluded from decision-making processes
and face unique forms of corruption, such as
sexual harassment and exploitation. Furthermore,
extractive industries often have negative impacts
on local communities, e.g., through pollution anddisplacement. Women can be particularly affectedby these impacts, as they may have less accessto resources and may be more likely to bear theburden of caring for their families in the face ofenvironmental degradation.
Women often also suffer from a lack of accessto procurement opportunities when it comes tomanaging natural resource. This is a persistentissue that impedes gender equality and sustainable
development. Women often face multiple barriers,
such as discriminatory laws, cultural norms,
and limited access to education and resources.
Empowering women to participate fully in natural
resource procurement is not only a matter of social
justice but also critical for achieving sustainable
development goals.
Corruption plays a significant role in denying women
access to natural resource management networks.
Gender-sensitive approaches to natural resource
management and anti-corruption in natural
resources sectors are crucial to addressing thesechallenges and ensuring that men and womenare equally able to benefit from natural resources
and the protection of the environment. A stronger
focus is needed on anti-corruption in promoting
women’s participation in decision-making processes,
addressing gender inequalities affecting the accessto resources, and protecting women from genderspecific forms of corruption. Addressing corruption
in natural resource management is crucial for
promoting gender equality and empowering womento participate fully in decision-making processes
related to the management of natural resources.

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