IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2019) 10-2

Research article
erd

Determination of Physicochemical Properties andCharacterization of Soil from Gold Mining Areasof Kachin State, Myanmar
MOE TIN KHAING*
Department of Chemistry, Myitkyina University, Myitkyina, Myanmar
Email: moetin.khaing@gmail.com

HLA SAN WIN
Department of Chemistry, Myitkyina University, Myitkyina, Myanmar
Received 25 February 2019

Accepted 20 October 2019(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study revealed the determination of physicochemical parameters andcharacterization of mineral constituents of soils affected by the low-tech gold mining
communities in the vicinity of Myitkyina town. The multi-increment soil samples with four
replications were collected from two active mines (Location-1 and 2) and an abandoned
mine (Location-3) during the first week of January 2018. Soil samples were analyzed forparticle size distribution, pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, NH3-N, and available
phosphorus. Soluble salts of soil water extract were also examined by titration method.
Then characterizations of soil mineral constituents were investigated by advanced
spectroscopic techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Energy
Dispersive X-ray (EDX) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The result showed thatsoil sample from location-1 was loam sand and the other two soil samples were sandtextural class. Soil pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, and available phosphorus
were significantly different among the three gold mining areas whereas NH3-N content was
not different by the gold mining. There was a high soluble salt accumulation in all locations.
The highest soluble salt was Ca2+ followed by Mg2+. It was found that iron (Fe) contained
as the highest relative amount in the soil which could exist with gold altogether and thesecond largest amount was given by titanium (Ti).
Keywords physicochemical parameters, mineral, FT-IR, EDX and SEM

INTRODUCTION
Sand and gravel are produced economically from the bank and floodplains of river. Gold mining on
the sand body of these areas can cause the damage of water table and distribution of sand structure.
After taking some time, water way alters as a result of erosion and deposition of sand structure.
Too much extraction of sand and gravel from rivers, streams, floodplains and channels for theconstruction of civil development and gold mining effects the ecosystems and functions of natural
water resources. Most of water pollutants are closely related with the methods and machineries ofgold mining. Among the gold mining, sand and gravel mining becomes the most treat to sustain thenature of the river and its surrounding area. It is also regarded as the current global issue andgradually increased with the reduction of fisheries, recreation and the stability of river channels(Images Asia and Pan Kachin Development Society, 2004). Much work has been carried out toaccess the environmental impacts of sand and gravel (Ako et al., 2014; Enkhzaya et al., 2016;
Eludoyin et al., 2017). Artisanal mining is mainly based on the tools and manual activities byproduction small amounts of gold and minerals (Canaveslo, 2014). Informal procedure of gold
mining associated hazardous water place, land structure degradation and contamination with heavy
toxic minerals (Emel et al., 2011).
The research reported an investigation on the physical and chemical characteristics of soil
from three riverbank gold mine sites near to Myitkyina Township (Fig. 1). Hydraulic mining andⒸ ISERD104

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traditional panning techniques were observed in the study site for Location-1. Placer mining andtraditional panning methods were applied in the Location-2. The selected study site for Location-3
was on abandoned mine area. There was a comparison between the characteristics of soil from two
active mines, and those of abandoned mine. Lode gold districts in Myanmar are presented in Table 1.

Fig. 1 Location map of study sites
Table 1 Lode gold districts in MyanmarDistrictSettingTypeAge

Wuntho and Mabein

Magmatic arc

Mesothermal veins

Daungyu-Monywa andPegu Yoma

Magmatic arc and oldback

Kyaukpahto-Gegalaw

Sagaing Fault

Sediment-hosted epithermal
Au (As, Sb, Zn)
Sediment-hosted
Au (Sb, As)

Phayaung TaungKyaikto

Proterozoic-state belt

ThabyuFold-thrust belt

Shante and Pyinmana

Medial metamorphicbelt

Sediment-hosted Sb(Au, As)
Mesothermal (Au, Zn, Pband Au)

Putao-Taungkamauk

Wuntho arc segment

High sulphidation Au(Cu)

MioceneMt Victoria-Kawlum

E Chin Hills antiform

Listwaenite Au

Upper CretaceousPaleocene

Sandstone-hosted Au(Cu)Latest Cretaceous
MioceneLate Eocene toMiocene
Jurassic toPaleocene
Post-Jurassic
Post-Cretaceous

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this research was to determine physicochemical properties of soils affected byartisanal gold mining areas on the Irrawaddy riverbank in the vicinity of Myitkyina, Myanmar.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
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All selected artisanal gold mines in the vicinity of Myitkyina town to study for this research weresituated on the Irrawaddy riverbank and therefore only sub-soil samples within two to six feet werecollected. Soil samples were collected from Makawnyan (Latitude 25° 27.31' N and Longitude 97°
26.639' E) (designated as Location-1), Labanrosana (Latitude 25° 28.492' N and Longitude 97°27.231' E) (designated as Location-2) and Thida-Aye (Latitude 25° 25.009' N and Longitude 97°25.144' E) (designated as Location-3) as shown in Fig 2, 3, and 4, respectively.

Fig. 2 Location-1

Fig. 3 Location-2

Fig. 4 Location-3

Preparation of Multi-increment Soil Samples and Analysis
The individual soil increment collected was spaced out across each gold mining location as shownin Fig. 5. Ten individual soil samples or “increments” collected from each location were combinedin one container to make up a multi-increment soil sample. Two other soil increments were also
combined into two separate sample containers. Ten multi-increment soil samples were collectedfrom each location during the first week of January, 2018. Then, the soil samples were allowed toair dry. Large lumps were broken up by hand and then the soil was ground by milling with awooden roller. After grinding, the soil was screened through a 2 mm (10 meshes) sieve. The pH
was measured by a pH meter. The electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil sample was determinedelectrometrically with a calibrated electrical conductivity meter. Determination of texture ofcollected soil sample was done by a Hydrometer method.
Individual soil increment
Sample area boundaries

Fig. 5 Example with approximate locations of ten soil sample increments
spread across the specific sample areaThe determination of ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) and available phosphorus were done byalkaline permanganate method and Truog’s method, respectively. Total organic matter contents inthe soil samples were determined by titrimetric method at Soil Science Section, Department
Agricultural Research, Yezin, NayPyiTaw. The determination of soluble salts such as calcium(Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), carbonate (CO32-), bicarbonate (HCO3-),
sulphate (SO42-) and chloride (Cl-) were measured by titration method at the Soil Survey Section,Irrigation Department, Yangon.
The characterization of soil mineral constituents such as iron (Fe), titanium (Ti), calcium (Ca),zirconium (Zr), manganese (Mn), potassium (K), chromium (Cr), vanadium (V), yttrium (Y),strontium (Sr), niobium (Nb), silicon (Si) and gold (Au) and morphological structures wereinvestigated by advanced spectroscopic techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
at the Applied Geology Department, Yangon.

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Statistical Analysis
Differences among the three gold mining locations were analyzed by one-way analysis of variancefor each parameter and mean comparison among them were compared by least significant different(LSD) method at 5% level. All data analysis was done using STAR software and Microsoft Excel
program (2010).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil Physicochemical Properties in Gold Mining Areas
In textural analysis, it was found that soil from Location-1 was loam sand textural class while othertwo soil samples from Location-2 and 3 were sand class (Table 2). All soil samples showed similar
pH values and nearly neutral in all locations (Table 3). Among all soil samples, Location-1 had low
electrical conductivity (25.00 µmhos/cm) than Location-2 (32.80 µmhos/cm) and Location-3(31.10 µmhos/cm).
NH3-N, available phosphorus and organic matter contents were found in Table 4. All soil
samples showed similar NH3-N contents in all locations as indicating that there was no significant
different among three gold mines. Location-1 gave the high available P and soil organic matter
contents than others Location-2 and 3.
Table 2 Textural analysis in three gold mining areas
Location
Location-1
Location-2
Location-3

Sand (%)
758989Silt (%)
1299Composition
Clay (%)
1322

Texture class
Loam sand
SandSand

Table 3 Physicochemical properties in three gold mining areas (mean±S.E., n=4 per location)
Location
Location-1
Location-2
Location-3pH
7.43 ±0.03 a
7.25 ±0.03 b
7.30 ±0.04 b

EC (µmhos/cm)
25.00 ±0.13 c
32.80 ±0.36 a
31.10 ±0.39 b

ColorYellow
Grey
Grey

Mean values followed by different letters in the same column are not significantly different at 5% level by the LSD test

Table 4 Chemical properties in three gold mining areas (mean±S.E., n=4 per location)
Location
Location-1
Location-2
Location-3

NH3-N ( ppm )6.39 ±0.01 a
6.39 ±0.01 a
6.37 ±0.01 a

Available P (ppm)
5.07 ±0.14 a
4.50 ±0.09 b
4.30 ±0.10 b

Organic matter (%)
0.71 ±0.02 a
0.55 ±0.01 b
0.52 ±0.02 b

Mean values followed by different letters in the same column are not significantly different at 5% level by the LSD testTable 5 Soluble salt contents (cations) in the gold mining areas (mean±S.E., n=4 per location)
Location
Location-1
Location-2
Location-3

Na+
0.22 ±0.01 a
0.22 ±0.02 a
0.20 ±0.02 a

Ca2+

Mg2+

meq/100 g of soil
4.01 ±0.06 a
0.98 ±0.03 b
2.40 ±0.02 b
1.46 ±0.02 a
2.31 ±0.02 c
1.01 ±0.06 b

K+
0.10 ±0.01 b
0.05 ±0.01 c
0.12 ±0.01 a

Mean values followed by different letters in the same column are not significantly different at 5% level by the LSD test

There could be observed that a high soluble salts accumulation in all locations (Table 5 and 6).
Soil sample from Location-1 showed the highest soluble salt, Ca2+ with the amount of 4.01
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meq/100g of soil whereas the lowest SO42- with the amount of 0.011 meq/100g of soil among thetested soil samples. Similarly, Location-2 and Location-3 also showed that the highest Ca2+ withthe amount of 2.40 and 2.31 meq/100g of soil, respectively, while the lowest value of SO 42- wasfound with the amount of 0.011 meq/100g of soil.
Table 6 Soluble salt contents (anions) in the gold mining areas (mean±S.E., n=4 per location)
Location
Location-1
Location-2
Location-3

CO32Non-detectableNon-detectableNon-detectable

HCO3-

SO42-

meq/100 g of soil
0.60 ±0.009 a
0.011 ±0.003 b
0.40 ±0.013 b0.011 ±0.003 a
0.41 ±0.011 b0.011 ±0.003 b

Cl 0.18 ±0.020 a
0.09 ±0.010 b
0.09 ±0.011 b

Mean values followed by different letters in the same column are not significantly different at 5% level by the LSD test

Characterization of Soil Samples from Three Gold Mining Areas
Shwe-chi in Myanmar which was finally obtained by traditional panning method was applied forthe characterization of soil samples. All features appearing in the FT-IR spectral data pointed out avariety of Fe–O, Ti–O, Ca–O and Zn–O stretching and bending vibrations. According to EnergyDispersive X-ray spectral data, all soil samples gave the highest relative proportion of Fe mineral in(Table 7). It was followed by Ti and then Au had the lowest proportion among the mineralconstituents.
Table 7 Proportion of mineral constituents of soil sample in three gold mining areas
No.

Analyte metal

1234
56
78
9
10111213Fe
Ti
Ca
Zr
Mn
KCr
VY
Sr
Nb
Si
Au

Location-1

Location-2
Per cent
84.325
6.977
3.860
2.371
0.957

77.040
7.590
3.707
1.498
0.965
0.528
0.412
0.373
0.172
0.077
0.058
7.579
0.001

0.504
0.358
0.330
0.130
0.131
0.058
-

Location-3
86.700
7.163
2.811
1.028
1.192
0.347
0.232
0.354
0.058
0.113
0.001

The SEM microimage (Fig. 6) showed that the minerals were composed mostly of aggregateswith sizes generally within 5 µm and indicated homogeneous distribution of granules throughout
soil sample in Location-1. The SEM microimages also showed that the surface soils from different
locations indicated that the minerals in these soil samples were composed of aggregates of different
particles as given in the figures of Location-2 and 3 (Fig. 6) with no specific regular morphologicalstructure. SEM micro-images indicated clearly the different soil morphologies between the loam
sand and sand textural classes.
According to EDX analysis on three soil samples, Fe showed its highest relative amounts of(77.040%, 84.325% and 86.700%) and it was followed by the amount of Ti, (7.590%, 6.977% and7.163%) respectively. Ca and Zr composed together with intermediate amount and K, Cr, V, Y, Sr,
Nb and Au minerals were observed as the lowest constituents of these soil samples.
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Location-1

Location-2

Location-3

Fig. 6 SEM micro-images of Locaton-1, 2 and 3
CONCLUSION
According to the analyses of this study, riverbank sand mining can cause not only physicalproperties such as pH, EC, color and texture and destruction of the original landscape of the area
and collapse of riverbank but also chemical effects like water pollution with many mineralcontaminants from mine running off into river water and wetlands.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I owe a great deal of gratitude to Dr Aung Win, Rector, Dr Aye Aye Ko and Dr Soe Myint Aye,Pro-rectors, University of Myitkyina, Dr Ni Ni Aung, Professor and Head, Dr Htay Htay Win,Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of Myitkyina for their invaluable advices, kindguidance and encouragements for this research work.
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Canaveslo, R. 2014. Formal mining investments and artisanal mining in southern Madagascar: Effects of
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Eludoyin, A.O., Ojo, A.T., Ojo, T.O. and Awotoye, O.O. 2017. Effect of artisanal gold mining activities onsoil properties in a part of southwestern Nigeria. Cogent Environmental Science, 3 (1).
Emel, J., Huber, M.T. and Makene, M.H. 2011. Extracting sovereignty: Capital, territory, and gold mining inTianzania. Polotical Geography, 30, 70-79.
Enkhzaya, S., Ohe , K., Shiomori, K., Oyuntsetseq, B., Bayanjorgal, O. and Watanable, M. 2016. Assessmentof heavy metal in mining tailing around Boroo and Zuunkharaa gold mining areas of Mongolia. Journalof Environmental Science and Technology, 9 (5), 379-389.
Images Asia and Pan Kachin Development Society. 2004. At what price, gold mining in Kachin State,Burma.

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