KOBE

ECONOMIC & BUSINESSREVIEW
sth ANNUALREPORTThe Industrial System

andIndustrial Education

in Southeasl Asia

esSSVTE'ltoeg`i ,lllili :ny'`e"
THE

RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR
AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATIONECONOMICS
KOBE UNIVERSITY

l961

Copyright, 1961, by The Research Institute for Economics

and Business Administration, Kobe University

KOBE

ECONOMIC & BUSINESSREVIEW

sth ANNUAL REPORTThe Industrial System

andIndustrial Education

in Southeast Asia

lttTE"l'i./k/.

THE

RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR
AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATIONECONOMICS
KOBE UNIVERSITY

1961

Acknowledgment
I thank very much for the kindness of the Asia Foundation and the Institute of Democratic Education which assisted us to pursue this study. The
former gave me the travel grant for the observation on the actual conditionof the commercial and industrial education in South and Southeast Asian
countries in winter, 1958. In the same year the latter gave the subsidy to thestudy group of the Research Institute for Economics and Business Administration of the Kobe University represented by me for the study on the same
theme. Without the kind assistance from these organizations mentioned above,

this study could not have been accompolished in this form.
Tadao .ILtti ashita

CONTENTS

Page
The Industrial System and Industrial Education

in Southeast Asia now on the Thresholdof Reform; and Japan's position therein••••••-••-•,•••••••••••• Kiyozo MiyATA

--

•1

i-

•9

Industrial Structure and Educational System in India

Industrial Structure and Industrial
Education in India (1) ••••d••••••••••••••-•••••••••••••••••••Tadao MiyAsmTA

Industrial Education in India

Industrial Structure and Industrial
Education in India (2) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••-•••••-••••••Tadao MiyAsmTA

- ny

• 25

Technical Education in India
Industrial Structure and Industrial
Education in India (3) ••••••••••••-•---+--••••••••••••••-••••Tadao MiyAsHiTA

--

• 39

--

• 51

--

• 67

--

• 77

Industrial Structure and'
Vocational Education in Thailand••••••••-••••-••`•••••••-•--••••• Fukuo KAwATA

The Industrial Structure andIndustrial Education in the I'hilippines•t-••-t•••••••••••••••••Tei-ichi YAMAsAKI

Industrial Structure andVocational Education in Indonesia•••••••••••••••••••••--• Hiromasa YAMAMoTo

1

CHAPTER I
The Industrial System and Industrial Education

in Southeast Asia now on the Threshold of
Reform; and Japan's Position therein

KTyozO MIyATA

1World War II had brought about great changes in the political andeconomic aspects of the world, of which one of the most significant is thefact that a considerable number of the colonies up to the end of the war had

been liberated and achieved their independence. When we confine our observations to Southeast Asia, it may be noted that most of these countries
had been emancipated from the yoke of many years of colonial or semicolonial rule. As a consequence, a new path was opened for them by which
they have been enabled to pursue a fu11y independent economic policy byliquidating their former status of colonial economy. This very fact had
brought a great change in the industrial policy of the former suzerain count-ries. At the same time it has exerted a tremendous infiuence upon them inbringing about a fundamental change in the industrial system of the Southeast Asian countries.
In the first place, the former suzerain countries, which are industriallydeveloped capitalistic countries, had prevented their former colonies fromachieving modern industrialization and had kept them as the sources ofsupply for raw materials and agricultural produce and as markets for their
manufactured products. But since the war these advanced countries arebound to cooperate with the new independent countries in their endeavors
to realize modern industrialization.

In the second place, the Southeast Asian countries are endeavoring to2

KIYOZO MIYATA

establish a new economic and industrial structure by securing the economic
cooperation of the industrially developed countries ever since they grasped
the possibility of achieving an independent economic system, and in orderto realize modern industrialization by cutting off their former ties of colonialand subordinate economy.
In the third place, viewed from the standpoint of Japan, this country
has long maintained, on the one hand, a mutually complementary relationship with the Southeast Asian countries as suppliers of light-industrial
consumer goods and as buyers of agricultural produce and raw materials,
on the other hand. But in the future, when these countries start on the pathof economic developments and industrialization, they require the aid andcooperation of the industrially developed countries with the capital, capital

goods, and administrative and technical guidance. Thus the countries ofSoutheast Asia will enter into a new complementary relationship with Japan.

With the vicissitudes of time a new situation centering around theSoutheast Asian countries is emerging, and for these countries in particular,

it has the significance of bringing about a fundamental change in their in-

dustrial system and organization. As a consequence, these changes call
forth for the needs of fundamental reform in industrial education. At thisjuncture, Japan may be said to stand in a position of being able to extend
special aid and cooperation in the basic reorganization of the Southeast
Asian countries; and, in its turn, in the reform of industrial education,
which is the necessary condition for its realization.

2. Emanci ation from Colonial Industrial Status
Prior to World War II the special characteristics of industrial economyof the Southeast Asian countries may be said to have consisted in the factthat they had been under the domination of the colonial economy of thewestern European countries and of the United States of America.
First, the outstanding fact is that the economy of these countries had
the position of "subordinate economy" towards the suzerain countries.
The former colonies had been the sources of supply for foodstuffs andindustrial raw materials to the ruling countries, and also the markets forthe manufactured products of the suzerain countries. Hence their colonial
policy could not tolerate the establishment of modern industries in the erst-

while colonies, despite the fact that they had an abundant supply of raw
materials and of cheap labor. Moreover, their basic industrial structure wascentered chiefiy in the production of foodstuffs and industrial raw materials.

3 ASIATHE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SOUTHEASTNOW ON THE THRESHOLD OF REFORM
And, in turn, also their trading organization had the characteristics of exportsof foodstuffs and industrial raw materials and imports of industrial products.

Secondly, besides the fact that their industrial structure was confined
to production of a few kinds of the primary products, it had the additional

characteristics of underdeveloped economy of a "monoculture" type.
Thirdly, these two characteristics gave rise to further characteristics of
disequilibrium and instability in the industrial and trade structures of theSoutheast Asian economy. As a consequence, there was a lack of stability
as a result of receiving directly the effects of fluctuations in the international

markets.
Fourthly, the poverty and the low standard of living of the people haveresulted from the above mentioned characteristics.
Against such a background, then, what characteristics did their industrial
education possess? First of all, in order to cope with the colonial industrial

system, the industrial education of the Southeast Asian countries may besaid to have formed a link in the colonia1 policy with the objective of themaintenance of the relationship of the dominant races to the subject races.

Moreover, because of the fact that many of the leaders in the economic,
industrial and technical fields had been recruited from among the rulingcountries, the industrial and technical education of the indigenous peoples

may be said to have consisted in the training of those who were under theemploy of the ruling races. In the second place, as opposed to the industrial

structure of the pre-modern and less-developed countries, industrial education of the indigenous peoples had, as its principal aim, the educationof a pre-modern type of agriculture, acquisition of raw materials for theindustries and education of the employees of medium and small-scale commercial firms.

Since the end of World War II, however, the Southeast Asian countries
had been emancipated from the yoke of the colonial rule and had achieved
autonomy and independence; and, as a result, they had undergone a change

into an autonomous econornic structure, and they have began to forge
ahead towards economic developments and modern industrialization, whichhave so far been stMed. Viewing the situation from external postulates of
economic structure, they have now been enabled to make a free choice ofthe most suitable kinds, scale and methods in the administration of theirindustries by themselves. And in order to cope with the situation, they
were impelled to make a complete change to the training of administratorsand technicians in economic developments and industrialization as the4 KIYOZO MIYATA
objective. The liberated independent countries must perforce prepare themselves for industrial reform in order to train a new type of administratorsand technicians.
3. Japan's Position towards the Southeast Asian Countries(1) However, viewed from the perspective of the change of times,
some fifteen years since the end of the war, the Southeast Asian countries

have not as yet shown the developments expected of them in the modernization of their industries. As a consequence, they are still in the stage ofdevelopment with an undeveloped type of industrial structure. To be sure,in the early period of the years following the end of the war, these countries

had formulated plans for modern industrialization with much enthusiasm.
Taking advantage of the political liberation by leaps and bounds as a reaction to the notion that modern industrialization had been foreibly restrainedby the colonial policies of the past. In their efforts to realize their longcherished hope they were aided by the accelerated conditions of a newnationalism, which came to the fore in the years following the war's end.
It was impossible, however, for them to achieve modern indusuialization
at a stroke for the erstwhile modern less-developed type of economy, which

had long been under the domination of colonial economy without an adequate fu1fi1lment of the essential conditions. When one takes a realistic
view of the situation, it will be noted that most of these countries had failed

to attain their objective in modern industrialization in the early period
after the end of the war. But they are now ready to launch on a fresh startin order to effect modernization of their under-developed economy. Fromtheir experience of failure in the past they were able to comprehend thata number of prerequisite conditions must be fu1filled beforehand. Amongthese prerequisite conditions, there is, on the one hand, the new industrial

environment; and they realize that there are physical conditions, such as
adjustments and replenishments of enterprise environments. At the sametime, there are on the score of the requisite conditions of personnel, the
new industrial structure has its significance in the education of new administrators and technicians who must conform to the industrial structure,on the other hand. Moreover, when one takes a long range view of thesituation, it will be necessary for them to promote a new industrial educationthat will be a worthy and fruitfu1 one in order to have the new industrial
set-up well grounded.
(2) Another reason why the Southeast Asian countries are stiil 'unableASIA
SYSTEM AND INDUSTRrAL EDUCATION
SOUTHEASTrN
THE INDUSTRIALNOW ON THE THRESHOLD OF REFORM
to achieve suMcient results in modern industrialization after their liberation

is to be sought in the fact that they are unable to solve the basic probiemsof modern industrialization and fu1fi11 the prerequisite conditions with theirown strength. That is to say, because they are less-developed countries they

are unable to extricate themselves from their retarded growth with theconsequence that there lies the contradiction of the inability of these countries to consummate the great task of effecting reform in the industrial structure

and organization with their own inherent strength. It may be attributed tothe poverty and to the very fact of the diMculties, which confront them in
the accumulation of capital simply because they are less-developed. These,then, are the circumstances that lie in the path of the economic development and modernization, i.e., the enhancement in the level of production
and the attainment of a high degree of development of the industrial structure

freedom from poverty and the circumstances that are retarding thedevelopment of the rise in the standard of living. In order to resolve thecontradiction, which their under-developed economy contain, economic
aids and cooperation from the industrially developed countries are required.

Besides these under-developed countries require introduction of foreign
capital and imports of capital goods, which are so necessary for their eco-nomic development and modern industrialization. Further it is necessary
for them to obtain administrative and technical guidance in order to meetthe requirements of modern industries. But if one takes a long range viewof the situation, it will be noted that further carrying out into effect of theadministrative and technical education with the cooperation of modern
industrialists of developed countries is necessary. In a word, in order thatthese Southeast Asian countries might be enabled to establish a modern
autonomous industrial structure, it will require the aids and cooperation of

the industrially developed countries so as to enable them to achieve establislment and development of industrial education on a long-range basis
as the prerequisite condition.

(3) Upon entering into economic development and modern industrialization by the Southeast Asian countries as independent nation, among
the contents of the economic aid and cooperation as have been enumerated
above, as regards the last point, namely, industrial education, Japan holds
a unique position among the industrially developed countries as it holds amost advantageous position. Among many of these so-called advanced
countries which are in a position to extend aid for the development of theSoutheast Asian countries Japan holds a position of comparatively less-

5

6

KIYOZO MIYATA

developed country. As compared with the economy of the United Kingdom,
the United States of America, France, Germany and other industriallydeveloped countries the period of the advent of capitalism, namely, viewed
from the time when modern industrialization had began, and again fromthe standpoint of the level of development in the economic structure, Japan

stands at a comparatively low stage of development. But, as comparedwith the various countries of Asia and of South America, Japan possessis
the position of an advanced country viewed from the beginning of the industrialization and in the level of development at the present stage. Accordingly, Japan occupjes, on the one hand, a position of a less advanced

country as compared with the more advanced countries and on the otherthat of an advanced country as compared with less developed countries in
Asia and Africa. Thus Japan is standing on a medium stage of development
between the two groups of countries. Japan's economy has the characteristics of "midway" capitalism. Moreover considered from the national income and consequently from the high level of the standard of living, Japan

stands at a medium stage of development in the world economy. Viewed
further from the standpoint of industrial organization, medium and small-scale industries of Japan occupy an overwhelmingly large proportion of
their enterprises, Considered also from the viewpoint of the structure of
employment, the number of paid laborers comprises less than 50 per centwhile the aggregate family workers and self-imployed comprise 50 per cent.
It is to be noted further that large, modern commercial and industrial enter-

prises have made much headway in development, but on the other hand, it
may be clearly understood that Japan's industrial economy has twin-characteristics of a dual structure.

When the Southeast Asian countries start afresh on their career ofmodern industrialization and of carrying out their plans of reorganizationof their industrial structure and when they attempt to create the structure of

the enterprises and their administration that will conform to the new industrial organization, the country which will be in a position to proffer
them with a most usefu1 guidance, which may prove to afford a lesson tothem actually may be said to be Japan among the various industrially de-veloped countries. These Asian countries are most zealous to know how
rapidly Japan has achieved a high level of developments by divesting itself
of its feudalistic vestiges during these several tens of years. wnen thus viewed

it may be said that among the economic aids extended the Southeast Asian
countries, the administrative and technical guidance in agricultural manage-

7 ASIATHE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SOUTHEASTNOW ON THE THRESHOLD OF REFORM
ment and in the administration of medium and small-scale enterprises, andfurther in retrospect of the very problem of education of the administratorsand technicians, it may well be said that Japan is placed in a special position

among the industrially developed countries as it possesses especially advantageous characteristics.

Lastly, what should be noted in particular in considering the question of
the economic aid and cooperation of Japan to the Southeast Asian countries
concretely is the fact that Japan is at present fulfi11ing the payments of repa-

rations to these countries. In reviewing the history of the reparations pay-ments it may be noted that the reparations payments from Japan have aunique character of payments from an industrially developed country to
undeveloped agricultural countries-Burma, the Philippines, Indonesiaand Vietnam-which are the four countries now receiving reparations fromJapan, had all been liberated from colonial rule, and they are starting afreshon the path of modern industrialization. Despite the fact that these countries
are in a position of receiving aids from the industrially developed countries

in order to achieve modern industrialization by all means. But as a contradiction in the economy of the under-developed countries as aforementioned,
they are placed in a position of receiving aid from the industrially developed
countries in capital, capital goods, administrative and technical guidance,
etc. for their economic development as the prerequisite. Under such circumstances, these countries are receiving aids from abroad, which are required

for their modern industrialization and economic development, and thereparations payments from Japan.
Indeed, it may be said that for Japan, which is an industrially developed

country, to cooperate with them by supplying them with capital goods andadministrative and technical aids, which the four Southeast Asian countries

require in order to achieve modern industrialization, will be a most appropriate and necessary means, viewed from the organizational relationship, which the Asian economy possesses. In this relationship the industries
of Japan and those of the four Southeast Asian countries stand in a positionof a new complementary relationship; that is to say, even if there were no

reparations payments between Japan and these four countries, viewed in
the light of historical perspective, there will be a natural demands in the

future to promote mutually complementary relationship between an industrially developed country and the four countries which are forging aheadon the path of modern industrialization. Now that by chance the implementation of the reparations payments has opened the first window to the

8

KIYOZO MIYATA

natural path that is pregnant with promise for the future. And thus thequestion of the reparations payments from Japan to the four Southeast
Asian countries and, closely connected to it, there is the question of economic
aid and cooperation as a 1ink, namely, the offer of administrative and techni-

cal guidance, aside from the work of education of the administrators andtechnicians in the four respective countries, come to the fore. What thesecountries are receiving and what they consider to be most advantageous
to them actually in their economic and modern industrialization are themanagement of enterprises and the techniques to be furnished by Japan.
When one takes a long range view of the situation, in retrospect, there is
the education of the administrators and technicians. Thus the offer of thereparations payments together with the guidance of industrial enterprisers
and the education of those who wil1 be entrusted with the task as the contents,

the fact remains that a wedge has been driven for the construction of eco-nomic cooperation between these four countries and Japan so that thereparations payments may be said to turn a misfortune into a blessing.

9

CHAPTER II
Industrial Structure and Educational

System in India

Industrial Structure andIndustrial Education inIndia (1)TADAoMIYASHITA

1. Industrial Structure in India

As India is a country which has an immense population and abundantnatural resources, she has a possibility of a great economic development in

future. However, at the present time her economic development lags far
behind other nations and India may be said to be an under-developed country.
The transplantation of modern industries upon Indian soil by Britain began

in the 1860's, and the history of industrialization of India has aireadyreached over a hundred years, and since the closing years of the nineteenth

century India had witnessed the birth and growth of her nationalistic
capital. Nevertheless India cannot find her way out of the stage of an
economically under-developed country. There are many reasons why India
stands in such a stage, but the infiuence of the political and exploitation

policy in this region which had been pursued by Great Britain for somany years and the traditional, social and economic system and usage
are the most important among them.
Since India achieved her independence in August, 1947, she has beenexerting her efforts toward democratization and economic construction of
the country. As a result, her national income had shown an increase of
approximately 10%. during a period from 1948-49 to 1954-55. But therate of the increase of the per capita annual income is exceedingly small
during the same period (refer to Table No, 1).

10

TADAOMIYASHITA
Table No.1tt

National IncomeI(in million rupees)

F

Year

National and Per Capita Incomes (1948-49 to`

1955-56)

Per Capita Income(in rupees)

j

F

L
1

at Current

at 1948-49

PricesPrices86,5oo1948-49

at Current
Prices

at 1948-49

Prices246.9

86,5oo246.9

1949-50

90,10088,2oo253.9

E

1950-51

95,3co88,5oo265.2

T1951-52

99,7oo91,OOO

274.0

248,6

t

M6.3

t

250.1

1952-53

98,2co94,600266.4

1953-54

104,8oo

1oo,3oo

280.7

268.7

1954-55

96,2oo102,800

254.4

271.9

1955-56*

96,5oo104,2oo

252.0

t

256.6

l

272.1

l

* preliminary

Source: "India, A

Reference Annual,"

How low is the per capita
of other countries may be seen
Table No.2 International

1958, p. 188.

Income of India in.

with those'comparlson

in Table No. 2.
Comparison of Per Capita Income (in rupees)

Country

1949

1955

India

255

252

Australia

3,070

4,913

Canada

4,210

6,356

France

2,280

3,910

Japan

480

1,oo9

United Kingdom

2,7oo

3,983

United States

6,970

9,335

Source: P. A. Wadia and K. T, Merchant,"Our Economic Problem",

1957, p. 753.

In India similar to the situation prevailing in other under-developed
countries, the disparity between the poor and rich is exceedingly great.
A small number of the rich is living a luxurious 1ife that may be said to vie
with royalty in splendor, but the mass of the people have long suffered fromhunger and malnutrition.

INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN INDIA 11
The writer has made an analytical study of this problem from theview-point of the sustenance capacity for Indian population (refer to thewriter's "Views on the Population Problem of India", "The Pacific Problems," December, 1958 and January 1959 in Japanese). No attempt will
be made to go further into the matter here, but the writer will merely pointout that the dire poverty of India mentioned above has a close relationshipwith the industrial structure of the country,

India is as yet an agricultural country. According to the population
census oflndia for 1951, out ofthe total population of India of 356,600,OOO
persons, 82.70/. Iived in rural districts while 17.3%. Iived in cities and towns.

According to the same census, 69.820/. of the population of India inclusiveof dependents were engaged in agriculture; while 71.8O/. of the labor powerof India, comprising 143,2oo,ooO persons, lived in rural districts. In thenational income of India for 1954-55 agriculture occupied 68.67%.

As against the above figures, the relative importance of modern industries in Indian national economy is exceedingly small. According to
the census of India for 1951 the labor power diverted toward modern industrial enterprises was barely 2.1 O/. of the total labor power of India andthe modern industries contributed no more than 12.18% of the national
income of India.
Noteworthy is the important role played by small scale industries. According to the census of 1951, 80/. of the labor power of the country was
engaged in small-scale industries, which contributed 15,58O/. of the national

income of India in 1954-55, and that this exceeded the 12.18% of thenational income contributed by the modern industries.
The foregoing facts may be seen by a glance at tables No.3 to 5 which
The table No.3 Distribution of Population by Livelihood Pattern (1951)

Oocupation

Popu!ation in

Agriculture

millions

Percentage

249.0

69.82

than Cultivation

37.7

10,57

Comrnerce

21.3

Transport

5.6

5.98
1.57

Others

43.0

12.06

Total

356.6

Production Other

1oo.oo/Source: "India, A Reference Annual",

1958, p. 25.

12

TADAO MIYASHITA
Table No.4 Distribution of Working Force by Occupation (1950-51)
Number in millions

Percentage

102.7

71.8

O.2

Factory Establishments

O.4
O.6
O.8
3.0

2.1

Small Enterprises

11.5

8.0
O.1

Occupations
Agriculture, Animal Husbandry andAncillary Activities

Forestry
Fishery

MiningO.4
O.5

Communications

O.2

Railways1.2

O.8

Organised Banking and Insurance

O.1

O.1

Other Commerce and Transport
Professions and Liberal Arts

9.5
6.4

4.5

Govemment Services

3.9

2.7

Domestic Service

2.9

2.1

Total Working Force

143.2

1oo.O

Population

359.3

6.7

Souroe: ibid., p.190.

Table No.5 National Income by Occupational Categories (1954-55)
Oecupational Category

Agriculture, Animal Husbandry andAmount (inmillion rupees)

Percentage

42,300

68.67

7oo
5oo

1.14

Fishery

Mming

1,OOO

1.62

Factory Establishnents

7,5oo

12,18

Small Enterprises

9,6oo

15.58

Total

61,6oo1oo.ooAncillary Activities

Forestry

O.81

Source: ibid., pp. 188-189.

are given below.
It may be observed further that the Indian economy cannot at once getINDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN INDIA 13

out of the colonial characteristics of former years by independence. According to an investigation made by the Federal Reserve Bank of India,
the privateinvestments to the joint-stock companies in India in 1948 amounted to 530 million pounds sterling, of which 44,7 O/. consisted of foreign capital.

Among the foreign capital investments in India, of course those of theUnited Kingdom were the largest. In 1948 Britain possessed 85 O/. (amounting

to 188 mMion pounds sterling) of the Indian Government Securities owned
by foreign nationals besides 700/. (amounting to 282 million pounds sterIing) of long-term private investments in India. In the same year there were

1,062 companies in India each with paid-up capital of 500,OOO Rupees or
more, of which 93 companies were foreign companies registered in foreigncountries, while 306 companies were Indian companies under the control
of foreign nationals, and 663 companies were under the control of Indians.
However, out of the foreign and Indian capital in Indian larger companies
in 1948, the proportion of foreign capital to total capital in each industry
was 970/. for petroleum, 930/. for rubber manufactures, 90Y. for light railways, 90 O/. for matches, 89 % for jute, 86 O/. for tea, 73 O/. for the mining otherthan the coal, 620/. for coal, 540/. for the rubber plantations, 46% for financing, 43O/. for electricity (refer to R. Palm Dutt, "The Crisis of Britain

and the British Empire," 1954, pp.202-205). In the foreign trade also theposition occupied by Britain was a predominant one. If the figures for 1956
are considered, it wil1 be noted that 21 O/. of exports and 26% of imports ofIndia were the foreign trade with the United Kingdom. Next to Britain the
U.S.A. is coming to be the most important country as it may be noted in thefact that 140/. of India's exports and 120/. of its imports for the same year
were with the U.S.A. Again, the colonial character of the Indian economy
may be seen in the monocultural characteristic of its agriculture. This iswell exemplified in the fact that a small number of Indian native products
comprises the greater part of its export trade. According to the statistics for

1950, in the total exports of India, cotton and cotton manufactures occupied

270/., jute and jute manufactures 200/., tea 14%, raw hides and skins 5%
and pepper 3O/., making a total of 69 0/. for the above-mentioned five items(refer to United Nations, "A Study of Trade between Asia and Europe,"
1952, p.10).

In order to achieve democratization of India and the development ofher economy, the necessity for the spread of education has been keenly
felt. Since India achieved her independence, the Government and civillian
circles of India have exerted their best efforts in this direction and have ob-

14

TADAO MIYASHITA

tained a fair measure of success. Especially, in the sphere of industrial andtechnical education, which is necessary for the economic development of
the country, noteworthy results have been achieved.
The plans for the development of education as well as for the development of industrial and technical education in India must conform strictly
to the actual conditions existing in the country. Above all these plans must
conform to the industrial structure of India as noted above. Fortunately, theintelligent classes of the people of India fu11y have recognized this point.
As regards the development of industrial and technical education they haverecognized that of course it is necessary to train a well-educated and compe-

tent personnel demanded by the modern large industries and commerce,
but that what should be given a greater emphasis is the need for agricultural education as well as for the education of technicians. In thissphere of education it has been pointed out that the spread of the secondary
education along with the higher education is most essential. And this educatjonal policy has been put into practice.

When one considers the development of education in India in generaland particularly of its industrial and technical education, the second essential

requisite is the lessening of the economic burden as much as possible. As
India is a exceedingly poor country, neither private individuals, the Central

Government nor the States are in a position to provide adequate funds,
supplies or facilities required for education. The development of educationin India depends upon the solution of the problem of poverty of India.
But the latter also forms the premise to the solution of the former, namely
the development of education. Thus there exists a vicious circle in therelationship between the two. The way to sever this relationship is to establish and diffuse the educational system on a self-sustained basis through theharmonious combination of education and economy together with the
combination of education and activities if reliance on foreign aids are to be

excluded, In recent years such an idea has been fast being put into prac-

tice in the Soviet Union and Communist China. But in India the same
system of education has already been introduced under the name of"basic
education" by means of democratic methods since the 1930's.
Agriculture in India is what one may call Oriental agriculture and ricecultivation in the paddy-fieids occupies an important role, as it is the case inJapan. If the Japanese technics of rice cultivation are widely introduced
into India, the production of rice in India will be greatly increased. This isa fact that has already been demonstrated through experiments. In the

INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN INDIA 15
fields other than the technics of rice cultivation, there are not a few systems,

policies and technics in agriculture which Japan can furnish India
with models. It has already been pointed out that small-scale industries
occupy an important position in India. Also in the developmental processof capitalism in Japan, small and medium enterprises have played a significant

role. Therefore Japan has many things she is able to enlighten India in thisfield too. Further, as regards the circumstances by which Japan was enabled
to emerge as the only advanced capitalistic country among the Asian nations,the people of India are anxious to learn from Japan. There will be possible
grounds for co-operation between Japan and India in the field of educationin such matters as mentioned above.

2. The Educational System of India
Before considering industrial and technical education in India, a generalconsideration of the educational system of India wM be undertaken.

(1) Administrative System for Education
Since 1921 education in India has been a provincial subject under the
direct control of an elected Education Minister. In the Constitution of India

no fundamental changes have been made on these basic conditions.

However, two qualifications have been placed on the above-noted
basic conditions; one qualification is in respect of the university education,

while the other is in respect oftechnical education. On both of these spheres

the Central Government assumes ful1 responsibility. That is to say, theCentral Government of India assumes responsibility for the co-ordinationof facdities and the maintenance of standards at the higher levels in respectof university education and technical education.

Moreover, the exigent educational situation in India has compelled thethe Central Government to take a growing concern in almost all phasesof education. Accordingly, the Central Government is holding three factors
in order to ensure the national uniformity in aims, objects and standardsof education. The first factor lies in the fact that as almost every State has
not sufficient financial resources to carry out its educational programs, it

must look to the Central Govemment for grants and subsidies. The second
factor lies in the fact that the Central Government is a depository ofeducational information from all States, and often assumes the functionof a clearing house of educational information for all of the States. The third

factor is to be found in the fact that nearly an powers of the Goverumentsof almost every State are in the hands of the same political party as the

16

TADAO MIYASHITA

political party which wields power at the Centre, viz., "The National Con-•

gress Party of India".

Legally, however, the Central Government can only persuade the State
Government and cannot compel it regarding the educational problems.
Accordingly, it becomes necessary to resort to a special measure in orderto guarantee the uniformity of education and to secure its co-ordination.

Among these measures the most important is the Central Advisory Boardof Education, which was established in 1921, and though it is an advisoryorgan, as its name indicates, it includes the Education Ministers of all
States as members besides many experts in educational circle and has
the Central Education Minister as its chairman. Accordingly the results ofdeliberations of this Board have an almost binding force on the Central Govern-

ment as well as on the State Governments. In the actual operation of theBoard heretofore, it is said that its recommendations were almost invariably
unanimous and this very fact gives the Board still larger authority. Pmothermeasure which is playing an important role in the maintenance of educational standards and uniformities in India is the Planning Commission of
the Central Government. The Planning Commission was set up in order toestablish the Economic Construction Plans in which educational construction plans should also be included and it not only has a binding force over
the Central Government but also on the State Governments. As already mentioned, the Central Goverrment has the responsibility over university education and technical education. As an organ for the fulfi11ment of its responsibility there are the University Grants Commission and the All-India
Council for Technical Education. As large amounts of subsidies and grants
are disbursed by or on the advice of these organs, they exercise a more direct
and powerful infiuence over the university and technical education.

It was in August, 1947 that the new ministry, naniely the Ministry of
Education which has the exclusive jurisdiction over education, was establishedin the Central Government of India. Prior to that time, educational administration was under the jurisdiction of a single department known as the
Department of Education, Health and Lands, which was established in 1910
and had jurisdiotion over the administration of education, agriculture andsanitation.

The Ministry of Education of the Central Government has an exclusive
jurisdiction over education in the central areas under its direct control; itis responsible for the running of the four universities established by theCentral Government, viz., the universities of Aligarh, Banaras, Delhi andINDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN INDIA17
Visva Bharati, and such other institutions of national importance as Parliament may by law declare. This Ministry also carries on the work of cultural

co-operation with foreign countries and with the UNESCO.
(2) The Educational Ladders
The educational ladders vary according to States so that no generalstatement equally applicable could be rnade. But the following may bementioned as typical cases: elementary education starts from four to six
years of age of a child. Pre-elementary education is not given due attention,and only in urban areas there areasmall number of day nurseries andkindergartens.

In elementary education there are two systems, one of which is theprimary school consisting of from four to six year course, while the otheris the junior basic school, usually embracing a five year course. Some of
the States have the higher elementary school or vernacular middle schoolof three year course following the primary school education. This school
is a new type of school in which all lessons are taught in the vernacular

tongue and no other languages are taught.
Corresponding to the dual system of elementary education there arealso two systems in secondary education, in each of which there are twostages. Corresponding to the primary school, there is middle school as afirst stage, and corresponding to the junior basic school, there is seniorbasic school as a first stage. AIthough the duration of the course of theseschools differs from a State to another, it is from three to four years as arule. There are two kinds of stage above the middle school; one kind of
it is the high school, whose duration of course is from three to four years.
The second is the higher secondary school, which has absorbed the first andsecond years of the intermediate stage of the university in addition to thecourse of high school so as to assure the quality of educational standard.
The stage above the senior basic school is the post-basic institution whose
duration of course is usually five years. Here ends the ladder of the basic

education. Further, as a principle upon completion of the primary school
the pupil is qualified to enter senior basic school, but it is impossible for him

to enter the middle school upon completion of the junior basic school.
Besides there is a public school of the English pattern in India. The
Indian Government has decided to establish the representative public school

one each in the Southern and Northern Zones of India.
Secondary education in many of the advanced countries is pursued up
to the minimum age of 18. In India there is a strong sentiment in favor of

18

TADAO MIYASHITA

holding the age limit to 17 years in consideration of the financial limitations
on the part of the various States and the short life average span of the peopleof India. Though in many of the colleges and universities there is a ruleprohibiting admission of students under 16 years of age, it is said that though

the some youths who are under 16 years of age after completion of secondary
education sometimes apply for admission to colleges and universities.
Table No.6 Duration of the Courses up to the Middle Schoolin Several States of India

HjgherPrimaryStage

MiddleHigher

Stage

Stage

3

3

4

10

Bihar

5

2

4

11

Bombay434Dehli (1)

4

4

2

1

Dehli (2)

5

3

2

l

Madhya Pradesh
Madras

4

4

3

5

3

3

ll

Punjab

5

3

2

10

Rajastan

5

3

2

Uttar Pradesh

5

3

2

West Bengal

4

4

2

State

Assam

Secondary
Stage

Total

11

11
11

ll

10

2

Source; S. N. Mukerji, "Education In India, Today and Tomorrow," 1957, p. 123.
At the university stage the duration of the first degree course is four years,

which comprises the intermediate stage of two years and the Bachelor's
degree course of two years. Above the Bachelor's degree course there is a
Master's degree course of usually two years. Stil1 further above the Master's

degree course, there js a Doctorate degree course of usually two years.
Students who completed high school link with the intermediate stage ofuniversities. Students who completed a four years' course of studies at thehigher secondary school, including high schools link with the second yearof the intermediate stage of colleges and universities and those who completed a five year course with the Bachelor's degree of universities respectively.

As it is the case in the State of Dehli, in such places where higher secondary

schools have been established, the intermediate stage of universities were

12
10

INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN INDIA 19
abolished and a Bachelor's degree course of three years have been established.

(3) Language in use as a means of education
Up to only a recent past, at prirnary school, children were taught in the
Indian tongue of each locality, at middle school, the study of English wasmade compulsory on all pupils, and when they were admitted to a highschool, all instructions were given in English and in the examinations forgraduation use of the English language has been enforced, and again in thelectures and examinations in colleges and universities English language has
been used except in special subjects. It was in the decade of the 1930's thatthe use of the vernacular languages of India was begun at middle schools andhigh schools. Since then, the steps taken in this direction have gradually
been extended and since the independence of India, this tendency has been

accelerated more and more. At the present time, in many of the middle
schools and high schools of large cities, instruction is given in English as in
the past days, whereas in the majority of the middle schools and high schoolsof Inland India, both instruction and examinations have come to be given
in vernacular languages in India. However, in the case of the latter learningof English is also made compulsory. Even in universities, although there area certain number which tries to substitute English with the vernacular tongue
as a means of education but it appears that there is not any university which
has carried out the change into actual practice up to the present time. Thus
English is stil1 in use both in instructions and in examinations at colleges anduniversities.

As a means of education in the universities of India, what language is
to be used is an important question. The University Education Commission

appointed by the Government made a recommendation on this questionthat each of the universities should use the vernacular tongue of the locality

where it was situated. But as in India there are a really large varieties ofnative dialects, the Constitution of India itseif gives public recognition to 14

different dialects. Under such a circumstance, if the recommendation were
followed, the national and ethnic solidarity of the country would be impeded

and the possibility of exchanges of scholars among the various regions of
the country would be lost. Then, what would follow if a particular Indian

language should be adopted? As it is now stipulated that the Hindi
is to be the official language, a widespread opinion prevails that the Hindi
should be widely adopted even in universities. But in the localities where
the Hindi is not used, its adoption will be a source of inconvenience so that
there is the fear that it may be met with ru-feeling of local inhabitants. As

20

TADAO MIYASHITA

a matter of fact, the Hindi is a foreign language to many of the people ofIndia. Admitting for the sake of argument that the Hindi should be adopted
in the universities, it will be found necessary to develop further the technicalscientific terminologies in Hindi, to prepare the textbooks and other books

in Hindi, to train a suMcient number of teachers who can give lecturesand other instructions in Hindi. Moreover, there should be established thebasic conditions whereby the students themselves who receive instructions
will be able to become proficient in Hindi. The Central Government ofIndia is exerting its zealous efforts in the direction toward the adoption ofHindi in university education, but it will require a considreable time before

the above-noted prerequisite conditions are fuhi11ed. Consequently, thestatus of the English language among the universities of India will notundergo any great change in the near future.
(4) The Percentage of Illiteracy
The effort for sweeping out illiteracy began in 1937 in the case of thevarious States and in 1948 in the case of the Central Government. According to Humayun Kabir, the percentage of literacy among the Indians was
14.6O/. for those over five years of age in 1941, but it rose to 18.3O/. in 1951.

Again according to him although the percentage of literacy among the Indians

was barely 15O/. at the time of independence. It would have been probably
below 100/. if only the adult population were taken into consideration.
According to the Statistics compiled in 1951, the percentage of literacy was

16.61%, of which 24.870/, was for the male population, while 7.870/. wasfor the female population.
wnat is noteworthy in connection with the percentage of literacy is thepercentage of attendance of primary schools and middle schools. In the caseof children in the age range from six to eleven, (namely, children eligible
for attendance to primary school) only 30% of them were found to be attending school in 1947. But the percentage of attendance rose to 51,OO/. in 195556. To hike thepercentage of attendance to 62.7%. in1960-61 is the target
now being aimed at. Further, it is said that 600/. of children who enteredprimary school in 1945-46 did not attend school till the fourth year (viz.,til1 1948-49). Regarding the boys and girls ranging in age from 11 to 17(namely, boys and girls who are eligible for attendance to middle school),according to Humayun Kabir, the percentage of attendance was 10 O/. in 1954.
In 1955-56 the school attendance percentage ofthose in the age range from11 to 14 years was 19.2% (the target is to raise this percentage to 22.50/. in
1960-61), and the rate of school attendance for those of the age range from21

INDUSTRIALSTRUCTURE
SYSTEM ININDIA
ANDEDUCATIONAL
14 to 17 years was 9.4O/. (the target is to raise the rate to 11.7O/. in 1960-61).

In the Constitution it is stipulated that the universal, compulsory, and freeeducation should be given to every person up to 14 years of age within ten

years after the promulgation of the Constitution. To leave for the moment
whether India wil1 be able to achieve such a target withn the time expected,
the fact that India is forging ahead towards such a target may be recognizedfrom the data as given below.
3. Statistics on Education
In the following statistics may be seen the present status of educationin India.

Table No.7

Types of Educational

Institutions andtheir

NumbersL

1951-52

1953-54

1954-55

1955-56

330

396

426

513

630

p 215,036

222,O14239,382

263,626

278,138

25,76727,51832,568

Pre-Primary Schools
Primary Schools

1952-53

Ll

Vocational Schools

2,463

M,059
2,616

2,599

2,752

3,067

Special Education Schools

47,994

48,70644,14247,53450,987

Arts and Sciences Colleges

552
214
68
20

581

613
253
87
35
10
30

657
291
106
33
10
31

712
346
112
34
11
32

313,344L
343,071iSecondary Schools

22,639Boards of Education

I

9

Universities

1

29

239
79
31
9
29

289,354298,759

Professional CollegesSpecial Education Colleges

Research Institutions

Total
Source: "India,

1

i
'

l
/

F

A Reference Annual" 1958, p. 1oo.

j1

1366,637

22

TADAOMIYASHITA

Table No. 8 Total Number of Educational Institutions,
Enrolment and Direct Expenditure

Number ofYear

Institutions

Number of Students

on Rolls(in thousands)

Total Expenditure(in million rupees)

1951-52

289,354

26,572

1,245.6

1952-53

298,759

27,524

1,376.4

1953-54

313,344

29,1391,477.4

1954-55

343,071

31,2671,650.1

1955-56

366,637

33,924

1,896.6

Source:ibid.,

p. 1oo.

Table No.9 Distribution of Educational Institutionsclassined by Management

Managementi

NumberofRecognized Institutionsr

1951-52

Govemment

DistrictBoardl/
MunicipalBoardI
Private:(a)Aidedi(b)Unaided.+.-1
Total
Source:ibid.,

p. 101.

1952-53

1953-54

1954-55

1955-56

70,681

70,52080,4M87,601

107,275

117,527

130,636

142,980

9,603

9,919

10,046

10,401

10,497

95,596

100,450

104,3M

110,956

114,204

10,136

10,434

10,927

10,644

11,355289,354298,759

313,344

343,071366,637

i102,945:

23

SYSTEM ININDIA
INDUSTRIALSTRUC ErUREANDEDUCATIONAL

Table No. 10

Numberof Pupils in

Recognized InstitutionsfManagement
Government

1951-52

1952-53

Li 5 345 523js,473,575 i

ts
I 9 828 781!)142 124
1 2J)
8 313 508et941,639

District BoardsiMunicipal Boards
Private: (a) Aided(b) Unaided

1

1953-54

1954-55

1955-56

5 840 568

ss

6 479 643

7,250,735

9 939' 163l 10,740,424 .

11,354,736

12 444 863

2 253 oo92 445 713

Je)12,595,855
l:))
8 839 879
9,209,324 9 842 637 10,369,406!)))
1,070,691
1,095,425
1,144,691
1 262 734))})

2,200,631

26,571,575 27,523,939 29 138 750 31 267 420 33,923,593

Total

pe

::

Source: ibid., p. 101.

Table

No. 11

Expenditure by

Sources as Percentage

1951-52

1952-53

1953-54

1954-55

1955-56

Government Funds

56.5

58.3

57.8

59.9

61.8

District Board Funds

6.9

5.8

5.9

5.5

5.2

SourceMunicipal Board Funds

4,3

4.0

3.9

3.7

3.4

Fees

21.6

21.6

22,3

21.4

20.0

Endowments

3,8

3.2

3.1

3.0

3.0

Others

6.9

7.1

7.0

6.5

6.6

Total
Total in Million
Source: ibid., p. 102.

Rupees

100.0

1oo.O

100.0

1oo.O

100.0

1,245.6

1,376.4

1,477.4

1 650.1

1,896.6,

24

TADAO MIYASHITA

Table No. 12 The Results of the Educational Policy under the First 5-year Plan
and the Target of the Educational Policy under the Second 5-year Plan
1955-56
Results

1960-61( 1 ) Peroentage of Children of Age-group 6-11 to beunder Instruction to Total Population of Age-group

51.0

62.7

(2) Percentage of Children of Age-group 11-14 to beunder Instruction to Total Population of Age-group

19.2

22.5

(3) Percentage of Children of Age-group 14-17 to beunder Instruction to Total Population of Age-group

9.4

11.7

(4) Number of Primary/Junior Basic Schools

277,197

326,8oo(5) Number of Junior Basic Schools(6) Number of MiddlefSenior Basic Schools

42,82464,91921,702

22,725

Aspects of Educational Policy(7) Number of Senior Basic Schools(8) Number of High/Higher Secondary Schools(9) Number of High Schools upgraded to Higher

Target

1,529

4,571

10,695

12,125

47

1,197

334
32
47
88

1,187

(14) Graduates in Engineeering

3,395

5,480

(15) Diploma Holders in Engineering

3,511

8,OOO

(16) Number of Technological Institutes at Degree level2528(17) Number of Technological Institutions at
Diplorna level

36

37

700
430

800
450

Secondary Schools(10) Number of Multipurpose Schools(11) Number of Universities(12) Number of Engineering Institutes at Degree level(13) Number ofEngineering Institutes at Diploma level(18) Degree Holders in Technology(19) Diploma Holders in Technology
Source: ibid., p. 102.

38
54
104

25

CHAPTER III
Industrial Education in India
Structure and-- Industrial
Industrial Education in India (2)TADAO MIYASHITA

1. Introduction
The purpose which Britain tried to achieve through educational system inIndia throughout the days ofdomination of India by the English East India
Company and by the British Government was to acquire the necessary numberof native Indian personnel who can speak the English language. As a matterof fact, it was impossible to supply from England to India all the Government officials whom the administrative system of India required. Accordingly,

the Government oMcials in the higher post in the administrative system ofIndia were appropriated by the British, while the posts of comparatively lessimportance were fi11ed by many Indians who were educated in India. Sucha policy was declared clearly and for the first time in Lord Hardinge's Procla-

mation in 1844. Among the Christian missionaries, some leading spirits in
India, and also those in authority in the British Government, as for instance,

Lord Macaulay, advocated that the western sciences and culture should be
imparted to the people of India in order to enhance widely their general in-terests. However, the fundamental policy of the rulers of India regarding

education as noted above had remained unaltered in the least. For thesons of Indian people to be graduated from school where the English language

was taught, to obtain a degree from a university where the students were
given instructions in English, was a guarantee for them to obtain lucrative

employment in the Government oMces or in civilian firms. The status ofuniversities had thus been raised. Under such a background, establishments

26

TADAO MIYASHITA

of colleges and universities began. So far as the States are concerned, firstmodern educational system can be found in the establislment of a university
in 1857. In the same year, the universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay
were established. Establishments of universities were followed by the develop-

ment of the middle school system, which was devoted for training of students desiring to enter a university, and it in turn led to the expansion of
the elementary educational system. The form thus developed is known as
the permeation policy. But the objective aimed at in this policy was the
pursuance of the educational policy of Britain as above-described, Therefore,

chief stress was laid on the preparation of those who aspired to enter auniversity in the case of the secondary education. Education through theEnglish language became universal with the result that the native vernaculardialectswereignoredutterly as a means of education and education over
and above the secondary schools came to exist for the small privelegedclasses only. Moreover, the courses of studies in the secondary education
centered around literature and arts and came to be academic and isolated
from the actual 1ife. After all there was hardly any aspect of vocational education or of technical education in the universities. In this manner a large

number of impotent intellectuals having no training in practical affairs havebeen produced. Again, if the country as a whole be viewed, the spread ofeducation has come to be insuMcient, especially such being the case in therural districts.

However, with the modernization of India and with its industrial
development there arose the cry for the need of vocational education andtechnical training in India since the closing years of the 19th century withthe result that, though far from being suthcient, progress in this direction

came to be noted.
With the independence of India the necessity for the spread of education has become acute in order to achieve democratization of the country
and her economic development so that the need for vocational education andtechnical training has come to be keenly felt.

Since the technical education in India wil1 be dealt with in the next
Chapter, here the writer wil1 review the industrial education in India.

2. Industrial Edueation in Elementary Education
In connection with the industrial education in India, at first the develop-

ment of basic education in the primary and middle school education should
be considered. In India, along with the ordinary primary schools, the middle

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN INDIA

schools and the high schools, there have been established the system ofjunior basic schools, senior basic schools and post-basic institutions andthis system is in the course of development.

The idea of the basic education of India originates from the view of
education enunciated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1937. According to Gandhi,
without reform in education he cannot attain his ideals. The quality of asociety depends upon the quality of its members. Hence improvement of
the individual through education is the means to achieve an improved typeof society . The quality of the citizen of the future can be best formed during

the first and formative years of his 1ife. From such recognition Gandhi
formulated his conception of basic education as the means to achieve a cooperative commomwealth of men. According to Gandhi "the principal idea
is to impart the whole education of the body and the mind and the soulthrough the handicraft that is taught to the children. You have to drawout all that is in the child through teaching all the processes of the handicraft

and all your lessons in history, geography, and arithmetic wM be related tocraft."The human individual is a social being and must live in a community.
The basic education treats the child as a member of a co-operative group.
Under this educational formula the children are taught to feel as membersof one community, and as such, responsible to and for one another. They
are taught that duties to others are as important as one's own rights, Thus

the school becomes a place wherein the children are trained to become agood citizen as a member of the community in future. In this manner thebasic education endeavors to rectify the individualistic trends of the modern

education, especially the individualistic trend brought into India by the
British.

In the basic education, in order to achieve the objective as mentioned
above, emphasis is laid on activity, which is incorporated into the school
curriculum. Basically considered, production forms the backbone of an organized human society, for society lives by its capacity to produce goods

which its members demand and the level of production is maintained by
the co-operative efforts toward production by all members of the society.
The basic education strives to make children to understand his status in thesocial environments by incorporating the activity which is socially usefu1
in the school curriculum.

The activity to be assigned to the children as the curriculum in thebasic education should be one that is familiar to them. As such activity,

27

28

TADAO MIYASHITA

multiple lessons should be imparted, so as to make each of the children tochoose them at his will in conformity to his hope and aptitude, Amongsuch lessons may be mentioned cotton spinning, agriculture, horticulture,
carpentry, building and repairing of houses, leather tanning, book-binding,domestic works including cooking, sewing and house-keeping. What is
considered to be "basic" in the term "basic education" is that activity inthe basic education is centred on "basic" handicrafts, namely, handicrafts
which are fundamental and enable the children to engage in their derivative
occupatlon.

The results produced by activity in basic education will be placed
before the children immediately as the products of their Iabor. In this manner,

this system of education imparts on the rrrlnds of children the delight andpleasure of production, thereby in turn heighten their self-confidence andwill foster their active spirits. The education which has been in practice here-

tofore in India is an education in which preponderant stress is placed on intellectual training detached from the realities of Indian life. When those who

were given such an education once faces a new situation they are apt to lose
their self-confidence and their original ideas. The basic education endeavors
to offer a remedy to such a defect of conventional education.

The basic education aims at rnaking the elementary education itseif
or further the secondary education itseif one complete system of education.
In the educational system of India heretofore the elementary education andthe secondary education had been considered as a means of receiving higher
education; the basic education is calling for a about-face in the course hither-to pursued.

In the Indian society intellectual labor and mannual labor have been
separated with the result that the intellectual classes, detached from those

who are engaged in manual labors, have been held in esteem and respect.
Thistrend wasintensified notonly by the cast system but also by the education-

al policy pursued by the British in India. The basic education is trying to
remedy such a general trend by stressing handicrafts.
As a consequence of the fact that India is an agricultural country, thebasic education strives to cope with the demands to assign an important roleto agricultural education. In India agricultural education has received
the least consideration heretofore.

Despite the fact that the spread of education is an urgent and grave
problem for India, procurement of the necessary funds for the purpose also
poses a grave question because India lags in economic development. In the29

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN INDIA
basic education, however, with the products obtainable assignments of handi-

crafts in the school curriculum, the foodstuffs and clothes for both thepupils and teachers will be made self-sustaming though they may be only
partially. If there is a surplus in the products, it is possible to dispose of it

and to divert the proceeds therefrom to educational expenditures. In the Stateof Bihar where the basic education has been enforced for the longest period
in India, it is said that some basic schools have recovered as much as fifty
percent or more of the total expenses of the school by the sale of productsin the activity. But it has been held that to change the school into a factoryby placing undue emphasis on this phase may be not proper nor just. The
basic school should essentialy be a place for training worthy citizens eachof whom has a sound body and soul and is conscious of the sense of social
solidarity. One of the reasons why the basic education is regarded asimportant lies in the fact that in this manner there is a source of educational
expenditure in the educational system.

In the introduction of the activity, stress should be laid both on efficiency of production as well as on the quality of the products, and in orderto achieve these objectives it is necessary to acquire able teachers. But it
is impossible to train many able teachers in a short period of time. Therefore the spread of basic education system in India is limited by the numberof able teachers available. In August, 1947 the Government of India issued
a directive to each of the States that the elementary education of India should

be gradually switched to basic education. Again, based on the recommenTable No. 1 The General Situation of Elementary Education

I Number of schoois i N"?.b.eil-YloS6gPiiS

Direct Expenditures(in million rupoes)

Primary
SchoolslllfioS'& I Ps'clll8oY

1951-52

215,366

33,751

1952-53

222,41034,878

1953-54239,808

1954-55
l955-56

Basic

SchoolPrimary
SchoolI Basic
E School

19,023

3,070

405.4

54.8

19,551

3,082

443.6

61.5

35,805

20,843

3,201

464.3

66.7

264,139

38,51522,243

3,371

511.0

73.0

278,768

47,81322,966

5,060

539.8

121.0

d

l

Remarks: "Primary Schools" include a certain number of nurseries and kinder-gartens
which are pre-elementary school educational institutions,
Source: "India, A Reference Annual," 1958, p. 103.

30

TADAO MIYASHITA

dations of the Assessment Committee regarding basic education in 1955,
following programs are gradually coming into operation, namely to shift theexisting prirnary schools to the basic schools, to build newly the basic
schools, to incorporate the handicrafts in the school curriculum even in
ordinary primary schools, to publish the literature on basic education, andto train the teachers for basic schools.

The status and development of the basic education in elementary education are as shown in the following table shown above.
3. Industrial Education in Secondary Education
Secondary education in India had originally been developed as a preparatory stage for entrance into universities. The technical education andvocational education, being unnecessary for the entrance into the univer-sities, were almost entirely ignored. Among the well-informed, however,voices were raised in criticism of such a trend, and efforts had been directedagamst lt.

When the writer peruse the history of education in India from sucha point of view, his attention is arrested first of all to the fact that, in 1891,

the State Government of Bengal tried to extend the subjects of the entrance
examinations to universities with a view to add the subjects belonging tovocational education to them. This is a fact of great historical significance.

However, this attempt was not realized due to the opposition raised by theprincipals or directors of secondary schools or colleges. But even in thesedays, it is said that there were some middle schools which gave instructions
in surveying, sanitations, biology, chemistry, physics, etc., among the school
curriculum.

In the early years of the twentieth century, educational authorities ofsome States began to hold the qualifying examinations in which the businesssubjects (book-keeping, short-hand, economic geography, etc.) of secondary
school graduates' standard were included. These examinations were called

the "School Final" or the "School Leaving Certificate". This system wasinaugurated by the State of Bombay in 1907 and other States followed suitin the adoption of the system, but it was abolished in the 1930's. In themeantime, however, it is worthy of note that the industrial education of
secondary school stage had shown a marked growth with the industrial development of India.
Before long there appeared in India also the suggestions which laidstress on the need for establishing vocational educational institutions of

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN INDIA
self-completing nature, in parallel with the secondary schools as the preparatory

educational institutions for entrance into the Universities.

Among these suggestions, the theory of basic education advocated by

Gandhi and the Report of the Abbott-Wood Commission (1936-37) weremost to be noted. Taking the above-noted suggestions into consideration, theGovernment of the State of Madras submitted, in 1937, a report recommending the diffusion of the course in vocational education along with the generalcultural course which was preparatory stage for entrance into the universities at the high school stage. Since then, in the States of Madras, Bombay as
well as in other principal States there were developments along the lines as
described above.

Prior to the independence of India, however, technical education andvocational education in secondary education were still none other thanheretical existences when viewed from the standpoint of the educational
system of India as a whole. It was only since India achieved its independence

that this issue has come to receive a serious consideration.

As the vocational education in the secondary education in present day
India, the sudden rise of the senior basic schools and the post basic institu-

tions, which correspond to the junior basic schools in the elementary education, should be noted at first. The purpose of the basic education jn thesecondary education is the training of the rural youths to make them "wiseparents and creative citizens". In order to achieve the objective, school
course of activity is extended to secondary education stage and efforts arebeing made to render education more economically self-sustaining and at
the same time to get rid of the distinction between labor and learning. Again

throughout the whole curriculum, emphasis is laid on social relations, andthrough activity it is intended to develop the habits of co-operative activity
that will conform to the physical, mental, and aesthetic life of each individual.

For statistics on the development of basic education in secondary education,reference is made to table No.12 under Chapter 2 "Industrial Structure and

Educational System in India."
The development of the multipurpose school in secondary educationof India is the subject to be noted secondly. The Lakshmanaswami Commission which submitted a report regarding secondary education also laidstress on the desirability of establishment of the multipurpose school. Thus,in the secondary education in India, vocational education has been introduced
besides the general cultural courses and efforts have been continued towardmaking the secondary educational system of India a self-completing existence,

31

32

TADAO MIYASHITA

which had been subordinated entirely to univeristy education. As one of
the causes of low efficiency of laborers in India, it has been pointed out that

there is short of well-trained competent executives who are to become
foremen and other responsible persons in the work-shops. The new policyof secondary education in India as above-noted is intended to remedy such
defects. The Government of India has decided in line with this new policy
to divert at least 500 schools of the ordinary high schools to the multipurpose

school by July, 1956. As it will be noted in Table No. 2 under Chapter II

Industrial Structure and Educational System in India, the number of themultipurposes school in the year 1955-56 was no more than 334 schools,
which is to be increased to 1,187 schools in 1960-61.
Furthermore, according to Table No. 5 under Chapter II, The numberof vocational schools of secondary school stage was 2,463 in 1951-52, which
increased to 3,067 in 1955-56, while the number of schools specializing in
education increased from 47,994 to 50,987 in the same period.
4. Industrial Education in University Education
The universities in India can be classified into the following three kinds
by their cultural origin:

1. Those that are based on the ancient Indian traditions-instructions

are conducted in Sanskrit.
2. Those that are based on the ideals of Islam-instructions are conduct-

ed in Arabic and Persian languages.
3. Modern European type Education-instructions are conducted in
English.
Again, if Indian universities are viewed from the point of their organization, there are following three kinds:
1. Affiliated universities. These are institutions which offer no teachingby themselves and education is carried on in affiliated colleges. These universi-

ties only detemine the courses of studies, hold examinations and award
degrees and diplomas in respect of colleges affiliated to them,.
2. Affiliated and Teaching type of Universities. These are institutions
which not only execute all functions of Affiliated University, but also offer
teaching and research facilities generally at the post-graduate level and insome cases from the post-intermediate level onwards.
3. Residential and Teaching Type Universities. These are unitary organizations, controlling all colleges under their jurisdiction and undertaking
teaching at all levels. Many of the universities which have been establishedINDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN INDIA

comparatively recently belong to this third type of university.
Beside universities there are many institutions which carry on a higher
level of education. Although such universities as the Jamia Melia at Dehli
and Gurukul at Hardwar have not been established oMcially under the acts
either of the Central Government or of State Governments, they are maintaining the same status as other universities. Furthermore many of the research institutes of science and technology are carrying on education which
are not lower than the university level as well.
Originally, in the universities of India, chief emphasis was laid on edu•cation for literature and liberal arts. This holds true both to the universities

peculiar to India and to the modern universities of the Brhish type. But such
subjects as medicine, natural sciences and technology have been taught fromfairly early times in the modern•-type universities and colleges in India. Evenin such cases chief emphasis was laid on the pure natural sciences (physics,
chemistry, zoology, botany, physiological hygiene, statistics, etc.) with theresult that education in the applied sciences and technology was far from
adequate. It was in comparatively recent years that education in the lattersubjects began to show a marked progress.
It has also been in the past 30 or 40 years that the social sciences cameto be emphasized in the curricula of universities. Arnong the social sciencescomparatively strong stress was laid on economics, but the time when economics

became an independent subject or the time when the department of economics
was formed as a separate and independent one was in the years following
1920. Prior to that time, economics was generally taught as a part of history
or of political science.

Since the independence of India, the question of universities has been
examined and as a result there has been a clamor for the need of vocational
education in universities. In 1948, the Indian University Education Commi-

mission was established with Prof. SarvepaM Radhakrishnan as the chairman, which thoroughly investigated the university system. In its report sub-mitted in 1949, the Commission recommended that it was necessary foruniversities to train leaders not only in politics and administration, but also
in various professions including commerce and industry, that it was essential
to develop the departments of the sciences, technology and agriculture in theuniversities, not to mention of general education, and that it was especiallynecessary to lay stress on the agricultural education in an agricultural country
like India, and to establish agricultural colleges in rural areas.

Based on the recommendations made by the Rural Higher Education

33

34

TADAO MIYASHITA

Committee in 1954, the National Council for Higher Education was established which was empowered to make recommendations to the Government on all matters pertaining to the development of higher education inrural communities. This Council selected ten institutions and recommended
to develop them into Rural Institutes, and these recommendations havealready been put into practice. In order to develop higher education inrural villages, Rural Institutes have set up following four courses for those

who completed secondary education:
1. A three year diploma course in rural science.
2. A two year certificate course in rural science.
3. A three year certhicate course in civil engineering and rural engin-eerlng.
4. A one year preparatory course to initiate matriculates into thethree year diploma course.
Efforts are now being made to secure recognition of the diploma in
Rural Services to a first degree of a university. Furthermore, in the Rural
Institutes, it is intended to train the capable personnel required by Rural

communities by making it possible for students to make choice of subjects
more freely than in general colleges,

In order to make harmonious development of the study of the businessadministration, Board of Management Studies was created under the supportof All-India Council for Technical Education. Based on the recommendationsof this Board seven centers were selected and the courses such as industrial

engineering, industrial management and business admmistration have been
especially developed there. The seven centers just mentioned are (1) AllIndia Institute of Social Weifare and Business Management, Calcutta,(2) Dehli School of Economics, at Dehli University, (3) School of Economics
and Sociology, Bombay University, (4) Department of Economics, Madras
University, (5) Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, (6) The Victoria
Jubilee Technical Institute, Bombay, and (7) The Indian Institute of Science,

Bangalore. Those who are eligjble for admission to these centers must havea Bachelor's degree in the study concerned, and must have had at least two
years practical training. Though it is intended to establish sooner or laterboth part-time courses and fu11-day courses of studies as the target, at pre-sent only part-time courses are offered except at the Indian Institute ofTechnoiogy, Kharagpur.
Regarding the present situation of industrial education in the universities in India, some idea may be gathered from the following two tablesbesides tables No.7

INDUSTRIALEDUCATION IN
INDIA

35

and No.12 in Chapter II Industrial

Structure and Edu-

System in India.

cational

Table No. 2

of Higher Education

Statewise Distribution of Institutions(1955-56)
Universities

State

BoardsProfesResearch hrts
ofandInstisional
Science
EducaColleges
tutlonstion
Colleges

AndhraAssam

3Special

Education

Total

Colleges

47

22

15

89

21

5

1

28

3

54

27

1

87

16

2

1

Bihar

2

BombayJammu & Kashmir

6

71

73

7

175

1

12

3

9

25

Kerala

1

40

13

7

61

Madhya Pradesh
MadrasMysore

1

1

51

22

9

84

2

1

54

28

17

102

2

42

30

7

85

Orissa

1

14

6

3

25

PunjabRajasthan

1

73

24

1

1

52

13

17

84

Uttar Pradesh

6

1

4

65

40

7

123

West Bengal

3

1

4

95

30

9

142

Dehli

1

1

3

2

29

1

4
3
3

112

1,247

2

4
1

14

8

Himachal Pradesh

3

1

Manipur2

Tripura

2

1

712

346

India
Source :"India, A

32

11

Reference Annual,"

34
1958, p. 105.

98

36

TADAO MIYASHITA
Table No. 3 List of Universities

University

Year ofFounda-Faculties

tion
Arts, science, law, commerce, agriculture, medicine andengineering

Agra

1927

Aligarh

1920

Allahabad

1887

Arts, science, law and commerce

Andhra1926

Arts, science, law, commerce, agriculture, medicine,
educaton, oriental learning and fine arts

Annamalai

1929

Banaras

1916

Baroda1950

Arts, science, law, education, engineering and technology

and theology

Arts, science, engineering and technology and oriental
learning

Arts, science, law, technology, oriental learning, medicine

and surgery, and theology
Arts, science, law, education and psychology, medicine,home science, fine arts including music, technology,
agriculture, engineering

Bombay1857

Calcutta

1857

Delhi

1922

Arts, science, law, commerce, education, agriculture,

medicine and engineering and technology
Arts, science law, commerce, medicine, education andengmeermg
Arts, science, law and agriculture

Gauhati1947

Arts, science, commerce

Gujarat1950

Arts, science, law, commerce

Karnatak1950

Arts, science, law, commerce, agriculture

Lucknow

1921

Arts, science, commerce, medicine and education

Madras1857

Arts, science, law, commerce, medicine, education,engineering and technology, agriculture, oriental learningand veterinary science

Mysore1916

Arts, science, commerce, medicine, education andengineering and technology

Nagpur1923

Arts, science, law, commerce, medicine, education,engineering and technology, and agriculture

Osmania

1918

Arts, science, law, medicine, education, engineering,
agriculture, animal husbandry, veterinary science, andtheology

Patna

1917

Poona

1949

Arts, science, law, commerce, medicine, education andengmeerlngArts, seience, law, commerce, medicine, engineering,
agriculture, fine arts, music

37

INDUSTRIALEDUCATrONIN INDIA

Arts,scienoe,

Punjab1947

engineering,-

law,commerce, medicine, education,
agriculture,.orientallearnmg

andveterinary

sclenceArts,science,commerce,law, engineering andmedicine

1946

Arts,science,commeroeandlaw

Travancore

1937

Arts,science, law,technology,
medicine, orientalstudiesand

Utkal

1943

Arts,science,

Rajputana

1947

Saugor

Source :education, engineering,
finearts

law,commerce, medicine andeducation"The Teaching of the
UNESCO,

SocialScience in India,"

1956, pp. 71-2.

39

CHAPTER IV
Technical Education in India
Industrial Structure andIndustrial Education in India (3)TADAO MIYASHITA

1. Introduction
Regarding industrial structure and industrial education in India ageneral observation has been made in Chapter II and III respectively. Inview of the importance of technical education, however, further observation
will be made in the present chapter.
To start with, the technical developments in India may be characterized
as one of an extreme under-development, which may be attributed to thefollowing two causes: viz.,First, the fact that the technics have been handed down traditionallythrough inheritance from one generation to another, and the additional
fact that there exists in the country a social system in which the accidenceof birth decides one's occupation, namely the caste system and the jointfamly system extensively existing throughout the country.
Secondly, the fact that technical education has been made light of, of

which the following mention may be made:(a) Up to 1940 training of engineers and technicians had been carriedon merely to satisfy the administrative requirements of the British rulers.
(b) In the social system of India there exists a strong idea of attachinga great deal of importance to intellectual labor rather than to manual labor.

This idea had first been fostered by the caste system by which the upperclasses, who did not engage themselves in manual labors, ensured theirpredominant status. And then it has been further strengthened by the British

40

TADAO MIYASHITA

educational policy which gave too much importance to intellectual education.

(c) In the educational system also much importance was attachedfirstly to university education and secondly to secondary education andtechnical education was made light of.
2. History of Technical Education
During the period of the British rule, technical education had not beendeveloped as a organic part of a national system of education, and had
been developed in compliance with the occasional necessity without a fixed
policy. The writer will describe the outline of history of technical educationin India during this period by separating it into several periods in the following:First Period. The Period of English East India Company (1800-1857).
During this period, technical educational system was established intermittently in order to meet the administrative requirements of the English
East India Company. Because of the needs for executing political affairsof the English East India Company it was necessary for the Company tohave Indian engineers, Indian technicians and artisans. Accordingly, engineering colleges were successively established at Rookee in 1847, at Calcutta
in 1857, and at Madras in 1858, besides a engineering class and a mechanicalschool were set up in Poona in 1854.
The Second Period. First Period of the British Rule of India (18571902).

The Wood's Despatch of 1854 laid stress on the needs for vocational
education, but during this period the Government pursued as ever the policy
heretofore followed, and institutions for technical education were set up
in order to meet their needs for public administration only. During thisperiod, some developments took place. In 1866, the engineering class inPoona was elevated to the status of a college. In 1887, the Victoria Jubilee
Technical Institute was established, in Bombay. It was established cheifly
through the supports of the civilian circles in Bombay in order to train abletechnical personnel in response to the development of spinning industry
there. This story tells us that the nationalistic capital of the Indian cotton

spinning industry in Bombay had already reached such a stage of development at that time. Further there was a certain degree of development oftechnical schools and industrial schools of secondary school level. During
the period of the English East India Company, industrial education was
looked upon with indifference, so that there were barely three industrial

INDIAEDUCATION IN
TECHNICAL

schools in the country. But the Christian missionaries established a certain

number of industrial schools, where practical works in carpentry andblack-smithing were taught. By 1901-02, however, there were found 80
technical and industrial schools with combined enrolments of 4,804 students.

Further, in the last decade of the nineteenth century there arose a loudcry for the necessity of technical education in the country. The Indian
National Congress Party stressed the need for promotion of technical education almost at every annual session. As a result, the Government, being
unable to take a passive attitude, began to select a certain number of men
and to send them to the United Kingdom or to the United States so as toenable them to receive technical trainings.
The Third Period. The Latter Period of the British Rule of India (19021947).

The Association for the Advancement of Scientific and Industrial
Education was established in Calcutta in 1904, which despatched a certain
number of Indian students to foreign countries in order to enable them topursue studies of high level in arts and industry. The British Government
authorities in India also announced to put into effect a new policy on scientific education for the first time in 1906. That is to say, there was a succes-

sion of establishments of departments of natural sciences in the Universityof Calcutta and in other institution of higher learning ever since that year.

At about that time in Bengal, there were established the College of Engineering and Technology at Jadavpur by the National Council of Education.
This college began to grant diplomas in mechanical and electrical engineer-ing courses in 1908 and in chemical engineering in 1921. However, it wasin 1917 that a degree class in the mechanical and electrical engineering andmetallurgical engineering was established by the University of Banaras as
the pioneer. Around the years 1921-37 widespread cries were raised that
it was necessary to enable students to receive technological education within
the country, which culminated in the establishnent of the Indian School ofMines, Dhanbad, the Harcourt Technological Institute, I<anpur, and the
School of Chemical Technology, Bombay, etc. In the decade of 1930's there
appeared two circumstances which further popularized technical education,
First, because of the growth in the number of educated unemployed theneed for practical and vocational education came to be stressed greatly.
Secondly, due to the outbreak of World War I, Britain began to concentrate
her efforts for achieving the objective by exerting herself in the technicaltraining for the purpose of prosecution of the war.

41

42

TADAO MIYASHITA

3. Policy for Teehnical Education in New India
In discussion of the policy for technical education in New India, it isnecessary to deal, to a certain extent, on the policy for technical educationof the British Government in India prior to the independence of India.
What should be at first taken into consideration is the Sargent Report.
This is a report, entitled "Post-War Educational Development in India"
submitted, in 1944, by the Central Advisory Board of Education, which washeaded by Sir John Sargent, Educational Advisor of Government of India
at that time. This Report contained a blueprint of a national system of
education in India and a plan for its introduction. Regarding technicaleducation, this report recommended that under the new situation, technicaleducation could not be effectively organized on a provincial basis, that acentral organ composed of representatives of the various condicting interests
should be created, and that this central organ should have control over generalpolicy on technical education and should also be empowered to dispose of
all technical institutions above the stage of high school (with the exceptionof technological departments of universities). The Government accepted
this recommendation and established the All-India Council for Technical
Education in November, 1945. This Council came into existence as anadvisory organ only, without controking power as contained in the Sargent
Report but it has made a great deal of contribution to the national develop-

ment of technical education in New India.

The Central Government appointed a Committee with the late ShriN.R. Sarkar as chairman, in 1945, to make recommendations on the questionof the development of higher technical institutions in India, with a view toensuring an adequate supply of technical personnel required for post-war

industrial development in the country. The report of the Council was
submitted in 1946, and since independence, the proposal for setting up ahigher technical institution in each of the four zones, namely east, west,
south, and north zones of India is being put into effect.

Another development prior to independence was the establishment of
the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. This Council formulated

a program for setting up a certain number of National Laboratories andCentral Research Institutions and had set up Planning Committees for them.
In March, 1947, the Central Government appointed a Scientinc Man
Power Committee to assess the requirements at various levels during the next

five to ten years. The tentative report of the Committee was submitted in

TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA

August, 1947. According to the report, the requirements in the coming
ten years were estimated to be 54,OOO engineers and 20,OOO technicians.
Such being the case, when the transfer of power took place, the basic
work of the plan for the development of the technical education in India

was nearly completed. Upon such a premise the technical education of
the New India came to be enforced.

Accordingly, the National Laboratories and the Central ResearchInstitutes contemplated in the plan of the above-noted Council of Scientificand Industrial Research were established successively. The National Chemi-

cal Laboratory was established at Poona in January, 1950. It was soon
followed by the National Physical Laboratory at Dehli. At the present time

there are 14 National Laboratories and Central Research Institutes, andthe fields of study in these institutions cover physics, chemicals, roads,
buildings, food technology, drugs, leather, electro-chemistry, fuels, glass andceramics, salt, electronics, and botany. Besides the promotion in researches
and studies, testing and standardization of new products, and provision ofsuch products, these institutions extend benefits and give advices to scientists,

universities, industries and others when they are not in a position to carryout or to complete investigations by themselves. Further they are contributing toward spread of scientinc knowledge and toward cooperation with
universities and other educational institutions.

What should be pointed out next is the role which has been played by
the All-India Council for Technical Education(AICTE) already mentioned.
This Council is the main advisory organ of the Central and State Governments on matters relating to the organization and developments of technicaleducation above the high school stage. The members of the Council arecomposed of the representatives of the Parliament, Central Ministries,
State Governments, private industry of commerce, labor, professional
bodies, Inter-University Boards, and of all other interested parties, andits membership comprises as many as 60.
The All-India Council for Technical Education has the following subdivisions: viz.,(1) seven Boards of Technical Studies in special fields (tsu India
Boards of Technical Studies).

(2) four Regional Committees, one each for the North, South, Eastand West zones.
(3) a Co-ordinating Committee, that co-ordinates the work of theCommittees and Boards and has the power to make decisions on behalf of

43

44

TADAO MIYASHITA

the Council when it cannot meet.
The meeting of AICTE is held about once a year or so to discuss broad
policies, problems and programs, whereas the meeting of the sub-divisions
are held more frequently.
The All-India Boards of Technical Studies advise the Council on alltechnical matters pertaining to their respective fields. The Boards alsoestablish the standards and basic courses of studies in the various subjects,

which serve as models for the various educational organs in the country;
the Boards set up the qualifications of those engaged in research works
when the National Diplomas and Certificates are granted. The seven Boards
are the following: (1) engineering and metallurgy; (2) chemical engineeringand chemical technology; (3) architecture and regional planning; (4)textile technology; (5) applied art; (6) commerce; (7) management studies.

It is worth noting that even the problems of management and commerce
are included as technical problems.

The Regional Committee forms the backbone of the Council for all
developments at the first degree and diploma level. It is the function of theseCommittees to survey the facilities within their respective regions and to

determine the needs and to suggest programs of expansion or improvement for consideration by the Co-ordinating Committee of the Council.
Regarding the development of technical education at the post-graduatelevel and in specialized fields the Council has appointed a Special Committeeof the All-India Council for Technical Education.
At the first meeting of the Council held from April to May, 1946, theneeds for the expansion of factuties of the post-graduate level was recognized

and approval was given to the following points in the recommendation of
the Sarkar Committee:
1. To set up four institutions for higher technological education ineach of the four zones-namely the North, South, East and West Zones.
2. To set up courses of post-graduate stage in each of these four
mstltutlons.

3. That the total number of the students to be admitted to each ofthese institutions shall be 3,OOO (2,OOO students for the first degree courses,

and 1,OOO students in post-graduate courses and advanced researches orother works).
4. That as it is diMcult to obtain the requisite staff and equipment,
it is desirable to set up first the East Institute, and the West Institute at thesame time, but if it is not possible to establish the latter, it should be sub-

TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA

sequently set up as soon as possible.

Based upon the above-mentioned plan, the first school opened was
the Indian Institute of Technology at Kharagpur, (West Bengal) in 1951.
At present, this Institute has on its rolles 1,400 students in the first degree

courses, and approximately 100 students in the post-graduate courses. The
first degree courses have 12 fields, while the post-graduate courses have 22
fields. Besides, this Institute runs a short term course for those who are

engaged in Government Departments and industries. So far such courses
are concerned with business administration practice, production control,industrial productivity and operation management. Furthermore this Institute provides a three month short-period course for practice in modern
casting which is intended for casting operatives among the employees ofGovernment offices and various industries.
On the establishment of this Institute financial assistance was given
from the UNESCO, the U.S.A., the United Kingdom and Australia. The
U.S.A. provided the services of a certain number of professors.
The West Institute in Bombay was scheduled to be inaugurated in 1958.
Assistance for its facilities and the services of its teaching-stuff is to begiven from the Soviet Union under the UNESCO project. The South Institute in Madras and the North Institute in Kanpur were assiduously making
preparations for inauguration in 1959. As regards the facilities and theservices of expert professors for the institute in Madras, assistance from theFederal Republic of Germany are expected to be given.
The Special Committee set up as a collateral organ of the above-noted
All-India Council for Technical Education made recommendation for setting up additional courses of study in technical education of post-graduate

stage. Based on this recommendation, the Council selected 15 educational
institutions and established 30 courses of study at post-graduate stage more.

The expansion of the Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore by theCentral Government deserves special mention as an important development of technical educational policy after the war. This Institute was originally a research institute purely for natural sciences established by Jamshedjee

Tata with the endowment of his private properties in 1911. Up to 1946,
the Central Government participated in the management of this Instituteby merely making a grant of a rather small amount of subsidy, but sincethat year, the Central Government has given the Institute an immense fundfor its overall developments. Based on the recommendations of the AllIndia Council of Technical Education, the Institute is devoting itseif to the

45

46

TADAO MIYASHITA

education of students of post-graduate stage enrolled in the Institute. At
the present time some 4oo students of post-graduate stage and research per-sonnel are engaged in important task in the various departments of thisInstitute.

Based upon the interim report of the afore-mentioned Scientific Manpower Cornmittee, the Indian Government carried into effect the following
three important projects in 1949:
1. The provision of practical training stipends for graduates and diplomaholders in engineering and technology.
2. The provision of research training scholarships at universities andother institutions of equivalent standard.

3. The improvement and strengthening of post-graduate science departments in universities for the provision of research facilities.

The All India Council for Technical Education selected 15 non-Government colleges in the various States and took up the question of improvement

and strengthening of these colleges. The Council recommended that theseeducational institutions should be strengthened through expenditure of
16,200,OOO rupees, that entire responsibility for this development should
be taken over by the Central Government, further that loans for the construction of hostels for students and maintenance grants for improving
salary scale of teachers should be provided. This recommendation obtained
the sanction of the Central Goverument, and by means of it elevation of thequalitative standard in engineering and other technical education in thevarious States has not only been achieved but also the enrollments of students
in these institutions have been increased by 50%.

Again, All-India Council for Technical Education recommended that
the State Board of Technical Education and Training, which was to be comprised of all parties interested, including those in the commercial and industrial circles, should be established, that this Board should work for theco-ordinated development of technical education in the various States andfor the maintenance of proper standard in the various educational institu-

tions. The Council also drew up a model scheme for the State Board ofTechnical Education and Training. In pursuance of these recommendations,
the State Boards of this kind were successjvely established in the various States.

4. Present Condition of Technical Education
The situatjon of the progress ofinstitutions at the schools and collegiate

TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA 47
stage which were engaged in the field of technical education during the First5-year Plan was as follows:
Table 1.

Situation of Technical Education in the Period of First 5-year Plan

NumberYear

Pupils & Students(in thousands)

Direct Expenditure(in million rupees)

Schools

Colleges

Schools

Colleges

Schools

Colleges

l951-52

454

35

36

15

13.9

16.7

1952-53

478

39

43

16

14.5

17.3

1953-54

484

19

14.5

18.6

195455

538

"

45

47

56

21

18.8

20.7

1955-56

670

47

66

22

23.3

20.7

The situation of the progress of technical educational
university stage was as follows:

institutions

above

Table No. 2 (A) The Situation of Engineering Studies(1947-1955)

Source: "India. A Reference Annual", l9S8, p. 108.

1947

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954 1955*

Number of Institutions

28

37

41

42

42

42

43

Output (i.e. number passingout final examination)

950

1,700

2,163

2,426

2,286

2,602

3,ooO

Intake (i.e. number joining
lst year class)

2,520

3,337

3,893

4,209

4,436

4,457

5,OOO

(1) Degree Level(2) Diploma Level

Number of Institutions

41

61

64

65

66

70

83

Output

1,150

2,146

2,257

2,332

2,505

2,982

3,472

Intake

3,150

5,350

5,480

5,786

6,550

7,619

8,ooO

* Estimated.

The institutions for technical educationin India may be classified asfollows :(A) Under-graduate and Post-graduate

Courses

These are intended for the training ofleaders or administrative and48

TADAO MIYASHITA
Table No.2 (B) The Situation of Other Technologies (1947-1955)
1951

1952

1953

1954 1955*

24

25

25

320

498

530

530

25
594

25
605

25
7oo

420

782

895

975 1,Oi4

1,O11

1,050

1947

1950

16

OutputIntake(1) Degree Level

Number of Institutionsl(2) Di loma Level

Number of Institutions

20

31

36

36

36

36

36

Output

290

332

369

323

242

415

428

Intake

520

553

731

713

663

694

7oo

* Estimated.
Source: G. K. Chandiramani, "Technological Education in India," 1956, pp. 18-19.

managerial personnel in the technical fields. The duration of the Bachelor's
course is 3-4 years, and that of the Master's course and the Doctor's course
is two years respectively. There are various types in these kinds of educational institutions, namely, (1) part of the university, (2) polytechnics, (3)monotechnics (sugar-refining, textiles, hides and leather, pharmaceutics,
ctc. in each of which specialization is made); and (4) the technical institute.

Among the technical institutes the following may deserve a special mention:
the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, established in 1911, the Indian

School of Mines and Applied Geology, Dhanbad, established in 1926, theHarcourt Batler Technological Institute, Kanpur, established in 1921, theIndjan Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, established in 1952. These
institutions are engaged in the education of men of ability along with the
pursuit of research works; all of these institutions, being unaffiliated to anyof the universities, grant their own diplomas, which are recognized or parwith university degrees.

(B) Diploma and Certificate Courses
These courses are intended for the training of technical supervisors(foremen and overseers, etc.). Stress is laid on practical training and the duration of the courses is from three to four years. There are several tens ofthese institutions at the present time.

(C) Schools for Operatives.
There are two types of schools for operatives; (1) arts and craft schoolsand (2) technical and industrial schools. In 1954-55, there were 382 schools

TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN INDIAof the first type and 395 of the second type. The arts and craft schools
devote themselves to training in such particular craft or minor cottage
industries as weaving, dyeing and printing, carving, tanning, metal-work,smithy, carpentry, pottery, cane-work, etc. The technical and industrial
schools devote themselves to training of young eMcient operatives.
In the First 5-year Plan an outlay of approximately 230 mlllion rupees

was appropriated for the promotion of technical education, but in thesecond Five-year Plan that of 487 million rupees was appropriated.

The Planning Committee which is charged with the task of constructing
Indian economy appointed the Engineering Personnel Committee, to make ageneral assessment of the shortage of supervisory and higher grades of engineering personnel anticipated at the end of the Fist 5-year Plan, and to estimate

the probable requirements in these grades for implementing the Second 5year Plan in the principal fields of national development. This Committee
estimated that the shortage in technical personnel would be 1,800 graduatesand 8,OOO diploma-holders by 1960-61. It recommended that in order tofill the gaps between demand and supply, 18 more engineering colleges and62 more polytechnics should be established in different parts of the country.
According to the estimate of the Committee these new institutions would makeavailable about 2,794 additional seats for degree courses and 8,220 additionalseats for diploma courses in civil, mechanical, electrical and electrical com-munication engineering. Subsequently the Union Government of India,
the Planning Committee and the All-India Council for Technical Education
examined the matter in detail and arrived at the conclusion that under thepresent circumstances, the best course for the expansion of technical education of this country was to increase the training capacity of existing institutions as much as possible and that the new institutions should be established only if found necessary. Accordingly, in order to yield about 2,570
additional seats for degree courses and 4,890 additional seats for diploma

courses, a scheme for expanding the training capacity of the 19 existing
engineering colleges and 50 polytechnics has been formulated and is now inthe course of implementation. Further, in the Second Five-year Plan it has
been decided to establish 8 engineering colleges and 31 polytechnics of which

6 of the former and 18 of the latter have already begun to fulfi11 theirfunctions.

Efforts are being made in giving practical trainings to the graduatesof colleges and universities and to the diploma holders by industrial circles.

In 1957-58, 900 places for training for college and university graduates

49

50

TADAO MIYASHITA

and 900 similar places for diploma holders were secured by industrial firms,

and by various governmental departments, etc. Besides, measures have beentaken to train an appropriate number of teachers in higher technical institutions under the guidance of competent teachers.

(Additional Note) The literature which served as reference materials
directly in the preparation of three chapters which deal with the industrial
structure and industrial education in India is as follows:

Ministry of Education, "Education in Universities in India, 1947-48,"
1950.

Ministry of Education, "A Review of Education in India during 1949,"
1950.

Ministry of Education, "District-wise Distribution of Primary and Secondary Schools in States, 1948-49," 1951.

Ministry of Education, "Rural Institutes, A Report of the Committee
on Higher Education," 1955.
Ministry of Education, "Teachers' Handbook of Social Education,"
1955.

Humajun Kabir, "A Programme of National Education for India,""Eastern Economist Pamphlets," 1953.

S.N. Mukerji, "Education in India, Today and Tomorrow," 1957.
Humayun Kabir, "Education in New India," 1956.
T.N. Siqueira, "The Education of India, History and Problems," Fourth
Edition, 1952.

C.K. Chandiramani, "Technological Education in India," 1956.
UNESCO, "The Teaching of the Social Sciences in India," 1956.
The Times of India, "Directory and Year Book," 1956-57.
The Publications Divisions, "India, A Reference Annual," 1957 and1958.

Planning Commission, "Review of the Fjrst Five Year Plan," May,
1957.

Planning Commission, "Second Five Year PIan," 1956.

51

CHAPTER V
Industrial Structure and Vocational Educationin Thailand

FuKuo KAWATA

1
The industrial structure of a country may be studied from various
points of view, but in this article we shall 1imit our study to two points; i.e.

(1) the distribution of the economically active population and (2) the composition of net (or gross) domestic product by industrial origin.

According to the censuses of 1937 and 1947 and to the demographic
survey of 1954, more than 80 O/. of the economically active population engage
in agriculture, forestry and fishing, (or primary industry by the classificationof Colin Clark.) This tells us clearly that Thailand is overwhelmingly an
agricultural country.

Next to agriculture come commerce and services. (or tertiary industry).
The manufacturing industry (or secondary industry), which usually absorbs
a large proportion of the population in advanced countries, takes only 20/.
of the economically active population in Thailand. (See Table 1)

The composition of net domestic product by industrial origin reveals
to us that the share of agriculture, forestry and fishing (or primary industry)

had been the largest before 1956; the tertiary industry had been second to
the primary industry before 1956, but since 1956 the former slightly exceeded the latter.

The secondary industry had been increasing its share since 1947, but
it stil1 registered less than 200/. in 1957. (See Table 2)

When we compare the distribution of the net domestic product in eachindustrial group, we find that the share of the primary industry tends to

52

FUKUO
Table 1. Distribution of theby Industry
Industry

KAWATA
Economically Active(in Thousand)Population

1947

1937

6,044.5

o/o88.6

7,623.2

o/o
84.8

.
quarrymg

17.5

O.2

4,8

(O.05)

2-3. Manufacturing

108.7

1.6
O.3

l95.9

2,2

8.1

O.1

O. Agriculture,
forestry, hunting

and fishing

1. Mining&
4. Construction

22.8

5. Electricity, gas,

water & Sanitary
sevlces

2.2

1.6

c
;
l
I

1954

9,020.0

O/e
88.0

l9.2

O.2

212.5

2.1

28.4

O.3

4.7

(O.04)

i

i

I
l
l

1

303.5

4.5

707.0

7.9

l

463.2

4.5

and

57.9

O.9

65.9

O.7

I
I

84.5

O.8

8, Services

266.9

3.9

273.7

3.1

i

393.1

3.9

111.3

1.2

23.4

O.2

6. Commeroe
7. Transport,Storage

Communication
9. Activities notadequately
described
Total
O. Primary lndustry
1-5. Secondary

Insudtry
6-8. Tertiary Industry

6,823.5

1oo.O

8,992.1

100.0

10,249.8

1oo.O

6,044.5

88.6

7,623.2

84.8

9,020.0

88P

150.7

2.1

211.0

2.3

264.8

2.6

628.3

9.3

1,046.6

11.6

940.8

9.2

Source: Statistical Year Book of 'Ihailand, B. E. 2482-87 (1939-40 to 1944) (No. 21),and 2488-98 (1945-1955) (No. 22).
Year Book of Labour Statistics, International Labour Othce, Geneva.

decrease, while that of the secondary industry increases. The share of thetertiary industry had been increasing year after year since the end of the war,

and at last exceeded its prewar level in 1956 and 1957.

When we calculate the gross domestic product per caput in 1954 byeach industrial group, it is made clear that the secondary industry yields
the largest amount, reaching twice the amount of the tertiary industry while
the primary industry the smallest is only half the average amount of industries.

(See Table 3)

In order to raise the level of the gross domestic product per caput,
it is, of course, necessary to increase the productivity of labour in all in-

53
INDUSTRIALSTRUCTURE AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THAILAND

Table 2.

Primary
IndustryYear

Agr;iculture,

ForestryandComposition of Net Domestic Product according toIndustrial Origin (%.)

Transpo- Whole-l
Mining Manufacturinglrtatlon,Const-Com-

ructlonmunlcation,

FishingI938-39

45.6

e
L-..rr-.-..-L.T..n y

13,1

1947

60.3

1950

57.2

1952

48.8

ll

v".r r10.6

43.0

40.4

1957

38.6

Admini-andstratlon

Retaili OtherandUtilities

Trade

Defence

3.5

26.1

4.g I

g.-----------Lv
40.5
1.3 I 15.3 l 32 I 9.3
29.1

ll

14.8

28.0
4.1 1 15.5 l 4.5 I 10.3

1.9 1 11.7 l 3.1
1.7 1 12.6 l 3.034,4
5.6 l 17.3 I 5.0 1 11.7

1.7 1 12.8 I 3.4

39.6
5.6 l 19.6 i 5.9 1 10.6v"-17.3"mTm-y1956

Publicsale

1.3 I 15.1 1 4.1 1 7.5

16.7
1954

Tertiary Industry

Secondary Industry

17.9

1.6 1 13.7 ] 4.1

N-nm---mx..
19.4

41.2

6.0 I 19.5 l -16.542.0

Source: United Natiofis, Economic Survey of Asia and the Far East (1958 & 1959).

dustries by improving the technique of production. Moreover, it is also
desirable to change the industrial structure, Iaying greater stress on thosebranches of industry which yield the largest output per caput. This means
the expansion of secondary industries, as well as the improvement of agricultural technique.

Agriculture in Thailand is mainly small-scale farming with family orcommunal labour. Most farms range in size from about six rai (1 rai = O.16
hectare) in well-irrigated areas in the North to 40 or 50 rai on poor "upland",

which means any land not flooded for wet rice cultivation. There are few

Services

6.0

54

FULUO KAWATA
Table 3. Gross Domestic Product per Caput in 1954 (in baht)
Industry

AmountPrimary Industry

1,548

Secondary Industry

21,511

Tertiary Industry

11,575

Average of All Industries

3,167

Note: Primary industry includes agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishery.

Secondary industry includes mining and quarrying, manufacturing, construction
electricity, gas and water services.

Tertiary industry includes transportation, storage and communication, wholesale
and retail trade, and services.

Source: United Nations, Year Book of National Accounts Statistics, 1958.
International Labour Organization, Year Book of Labour Statistics.

large commercial farms. Most cuitivators own their land and they cultivate
their land by traditional techniques.(i)Among the various crops, rice is so predominant that Thai agriculture
may well be called a rice monoculture. (See Table 4)
Rice is not only the staple diet of the Thai people, but also the principal

export product of the nation.

Although rice is the mainstay of the Thai national economy, it isfeared that Thailand has been crowding the margin for rice development.
The prospects for growing more rice appear to depend on improving yields
rather than on extending the cultivated areas, and it appears to be doubtfu1

whether the opportunities for employment in rice farming will expand inproportion to output. There arises the "spectre of rural unemployment".(2)Diversification of agriculture and industrialization may be effectivemeans of reducing the pressure of rural unemployment.
It is suggested by the Mission organized by the I.B.R.D. at the requestof the Government of Thailand (IBRD Mission) that the basic objectivesof Thailand's agricultural policy should be:(3)1) to develop the large possibilities that exist for further expansion of riceproduction by the use of modern techniques, especially in the Chao Phya
(1) IBRD Mission, ibid. p.33.
(2) IBRD Mission, ibid. p.34-35.
(3) IBRD Mission, ibid. p.35-36.

55

EDUCATION IN
INDUSTRIALSTRUCTURE
THAILANDANDVOCATIONAL
Table 4. Primary

Production at Wholesale or(in million baht)

Farm Value, 1956
Value

Producto/o

1. Agricultural Crops

9,708

64.7

Paddy
Upland Crops:
Sugar Cane

6,334

(37.2)

1,263

(7.4)

437
356
133
132
l26

Cassava roots

Maize
Vegetables
Fruits fresh'

Oilseeds and Coconut products:

1,244

(7.2)

828
222
75
373
137
122
79

(2.2)

Rubber

1,522

(9.0)

Condiments, etc.:(1 .7)

Garlic295
102

2. Forestry products:

1,162

6.8

Teak
Lac & Lac seeds

230
257

3. Livestock and Products:

2,361

Copra
Groundnuts
Castor beans
Fibres :CottonRaw Silk

Kapok

Swine
Poultry
Eggs

900
271
912

4. Fishery products:

2,482

Fresh water fish

Grand Total
Agricultural

Statistics

14.6

462
684

Marine fish

Source :139

17 O15,of Thailand,

1956.

1oo.O

56

FUKUO KAWATA

Plain;

2) to take advantage of the major opportunities for agricultural developmentthat are to be found in Southern Thailand, with particular emphasis on thepossibilities of this area for the expansion of rubber production to many times
its present level.

3) to improve the agricultural economy of the North-east through various
means, including especially the encouragement of a steady shift in the cropping pattern of the North-east, with less emphasis on rice and greater emphasis on rain-fed upland crops and on pasturage and livestock; and4) to foster a more diversified agriculture generally, and particularly tofacilitate and encourage the double cropping of rice lands in the Chao
Phya Plain, and to develop the cultivation of rain-fed crops in the northernpart.

The manufacturing industry in Thailand is chiefly carried on by small
and medium-sized establisiments. Much family labour is used and standardsof hygiene and safety in the workshops are generally low. A few large
establislments exist in such fields as tin-mining, cement, sugar, tobacco, soap

and weaving (including gunny bags.)
The most eMcient of these are, or recently have been, under foreign
management, while the most modern have been erected, directly or indirectly by various government organizations.(4)The growth of private manufacturing in the post-war years has been remarkable. Main private industrial lines and the numbers employed in 1957
are given in Table 5.
The average number of workers per establislment is only 20. Even thelargest number is about 130 in the ceramic industry. The rice-mMing industry,
which is the largest in the number of establislments employs only 12 workers on the average.

Moreover, since rice-milling and sugar production are seasonal, andsaw mills employ much labour in the forests, the workers engaged in themcannot be regarded as fu11-time industrial employees similar to those in theengineering occupations.(5)Of 15,960 establishments in Table 5, only 306 or about 20/. were classed
as large, i.e. with more than 50 employees.(6)The Table indicates the importance of the industries auxiliary to agri(4) IBRD Mission, ibid. p.88-89.
(5), (6) IBRD Mission, ibid. p.89.

57
INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THAILAND

culture and forestry; such as rice and saw milling, sugar and flour (which
includes tapioca) industries.(5) This shows one of the features of the manufacturing industry in underdeveloped countries.
Table 5. Number of Private Industrial Establishments andWorkers employed in Thailand in 1957.

Industrial Establishment

Number of: Establishments

Number ofWorkers

Average Number of Workers
per EstablishEl

Saw-millingl,736

Rice-milling
Printing

Sugar mills

Weavjngments

l30,154

75.0

4,921

58,45911.8

484

17,288

35.7

1,521

12,6858.3

409

12,47030.5

Flour milling

1,336

11,982

8.9

Ceramics

11,694

129.9

7,219
6,931
3,803
3,199
1,946

13.6

Aerated beverages

90
528
810
778
338
143

13.6

Others

2,816

38,10813.5

15,960315,938

19.8

Engine repair

Foundry & Machinery Shops
Smithies
Ice factories

Total

Source: A Public Development Program for Thailand, published for IBRD by theJohns Hopkins Press, p. 90.

The government controls 60 establishments (including 15 distilleries),of which perhaps 40 can be cleassd as large, in the sense of employing morethan 50 workers.
It is to be noted that in the case of private establishments, 20/. of thetotal are classed as large, while in the case of governnment establishments

about 670/. (or 40 establishments out of 60) can be classed as large.
This tells us that the size of the Government controlled enterprises on
the average is far larger than that of private ones.

Though large in size, the Government enterprises are less eMcient thanprivate ones, It is pointed out by the IBRD Mission that, "In practice, all

8.5
4.9
9.4

58

FULUO KAWATAof the state industries, except the monopolies, have proved unprofitable bycommercial standards."(7)Lack of managerial as well as technical skill is one of the chief reasonsfor the ineMciency of the manufacturing industry in Thailand. The trainingof personnels with technical knowledge and managerial skill is therefore
necessary for the expansion of the manufacturing industry of Thailand. The

needs for training may be met by sending able young students abroad andmany students have been sent abroad, but this is expensive as well as self-

perpetuatmg.
In 1937 the total of Thai students sent abroad was 720; by 1957 it had
increased to 1956. The costs of supporting these students abroad including
various incidental expenditures aggregated around 35 mihion baht annually.
This is well over twice the annual operating cost of Chulalongkorn University,and would suMce to pay for four years of education at Chulalongkorn for
3,365 students. (ibid, p.188)

It is, therefore, necessary to establish at home schools and facMties
for technical and managerial training.

2
The general level of education of a country can be indicated by the ratio
ofilliteracy ofits people. The ratios in South and South-east Asian countries
are shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Ratio of Illiteracy of South and South-east Asian Countries. (O/.)

Year

Age

Male

Female

Total

India

1951

over 10 years

70.4

90.6

82.1

Country

Federation of Malaya

1947

over 15 years

43.0

83.4

61.7

Thailand1947

over 10 years

32.6

59.0

46,3

Burma

1954

over 10 years

19,4

",9

42.7

Ceylon1946

over 5 years

29.9

56.2

42.0

Philippines

1948

over 10 years

34.8

40.7

37.8

Source: United Nations, Statistical Year Book.

From Table 6, we learn that the ratio of illiteracy of Thailand is much
lower than that of India and of the Federation of Malaya, But slightly higher(7) IBRD Mission, ibid. p.92.

59
INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THAILAND

than that of the Philippines, and is almost equal with that of Burma and of

Ceylon.
It is, however, a matter of great concern that about a half of the Thai
people over 10 years of age are illiterate. The Government has been doing
its best to reduce illiteracy. This is shown in the relative position of theexpenditure for education in the Government budget.
In 1948, the expenditure of the Ministry of Education ranked first,
accounting for 150/. of the Government budget. Later the change in international situation caused the expansion of expenditures in the Ministriesof Defense and of Interior. Now the Ministry of Education ranks third,
after Defense and Interior, in terms of appropriations, and has accounted
for 150/. of total Government expenditures in recent years. The share ofgross national product devoted to education averaged a little over 2g O/. from1956.(i)Compared with neighbouring countries at a roughly similar stage ofdevelopment, Thailand's outlay on education does not appear to be excessive. In per caput terms, it is higher than that of Burma, but much lower
than that of Ceylon or the Philippines.(2)According to the new System of National Education, which was put
in force in 1951, the education of Thailand is divided into the following fivelevels;)3)(1) Ilindergarten Level,(2) Primary Education,(3) Secondary Education,(4) Pre-university and Higher Vocational Education,(5) Higher and University Education,(1) Kindergarten level deals with instruction prior to the compulsory
stage.
(2) Primary education which is compulsory comprises four years ofstudy. According to the Primary Education Act, children whoseages are between 8 and 15 years must attend primary school,
unless and until they have completed the primary course.
(3) Secondary education is divided into three courses: (a) Primary
Extension, (b) Secondary Education and (c) Secondary Vocational
Education.
(1), (2) IBRD Mission, ibid. p.175.
(3) Statistical Year Book of Thailand,

1945-1955.

60

FUKUO KAWATA(a) Primary extension consists of instruction in general subjects
beyond primary level as well as instruction in practical arts

which are the basic knowledge of the people of Thailand.
The primary extension course requires three years of study.
(b) Secondary education consists of instruction only in generalsubjects which are deemed necessary to prepare students for
pre-university education or vocational education. The secon-

dary course is further divided into junior secondary andsenior secondary, each consisting of three years of study.

(c) Secondary vocational education consists of instruction andtraining in certain trades for the required future career. The
secondary vocational course also has two grades, i,e. juniorsecondary vocational and senior secondary vocational.
(4) (a) Pre-university education consists of instruction in subjects
which are necessary for the university or higher vocational
education. The pre-university course requires two years ofstudy.
(b) Higher vocational education consists of instruction andtraining in higher vocational courses for future careers orfor study in universities.

(5) University:
At present there are five universities, all located in Bangkok.

1. Chulalongkorn University, provides higher education in arts,
education, library, science, engineering, architecture, commerce and accountancy, political science and press journalism.
2. Thammasat University, gives instruction in law, coiumerce
and accountancy, economics, social welfare and politicalscience.
3. The University of Medical Sciences, provides higher education
in medicine, pharmacy, dentistry and public health.
4. The University of Agriculture, prepares higher education inagriculture, forestry, fisheries, co-operative science and veter-mary.
5. The University of Fine-arts provides education in drawings,
sculpture, decoration, architecture and history of art.
The period of attendance required to complete a Bachelor's degree ineach university varies from 4 to 6 years depending on the field of specializatlon.

EDUCATION IN
INDUSTRIALSTRUCTURE
THAILANDANDVOCATIONAL

Besids, there are other institutions which provide

such as the Military Academy, the Naval Academy, theAcademy and the Police Academy. Courses offered inhighereducation,

Royal Air Force--.
Instttuttons

thesevary from 3 to 5 years.

Diagram of Scheme of National Education

Age
25

M
23

University and Higher

M

Education

21

20

l
l

I
19

Pre-University

Higher Vocational

18

Education

Education.

17-Senior Vocational

Upper Secondary

16

Education

Education

15.tt".t..t.-J.rrt.t-t.tmn-..t

I -..-..t... ...... .t...T.....tT.-

14

Lower Secondary
Education

13

12

Primary

Junior Vocational

Extension

Education

l

1

l

1

l
11

10
9

Primary Education

8

l
7

6

1
Kindergarten

5

4Source: Statistical Year Book of Thailand.

Now let us examine how the education is actually conducted under
the above-mentioned educational system.(4) In the ptmary schools (Pratom),(4) IBRD Mission,ibid.

p. 176.

61

62

FUKUO KAWATA

900/. or more children in the compulsory age groups were in attendance
between 1945 and 1954. Above the primary school level, the pupil may
choose one of the two distinct educational ladders.

(a) The first and much the more popular comprises six years of secondary

school (Matayom) of the traditional academic type. Beyond thislie two years of pre-university school, followed by universities.
(b) The second ladder is vocational, leading to the Technical Institutethrough junior and senior vocational schools.

3
The Government of Thailand has been doing its best to promote vocational education. When we compare the number of students in technical schools per thousand of population in the neighbouring countries of Southand South-east Asia for 1953-1956, we find that the position of Thailand isvery high, second only to the Philippines. (See Table 7)
Table 7. Number of Students in Technical Schools

per Thousand of Population.
1, Philippines

2.6

2. Thailand

2.0

3. Indonesia

Ll

4. Federation of Malaya

O.7

5. Southern-Vietnam

O.5

6. India

O.4

7. Burma

O.3

8. Ceylon

O.2

Source: United Nations, Economic Survey of Asia and the Far East, 1958. p. 45.

There are three types of secondary vocational schools : (!)a) Junior secondary vocational schools admit students who have completed the primary course. It takes two or three years of training in certain

trades.

b) Senior secondary vocational schools admit students who have passed
the junior final examination (third grade of secondary education) andoffer a three-year course of study.
(1) Statistical Year Book of Thailnd, 1945-1955.

EDUCATION IN
THAILANDINDUSTRIALSTRUCTURE
ANDVOCATIONALc) Higher vocational schools admit students who have finished the seniorsecondary vocational schools and offer a three-year course of study.
Such students are also eligible to go to the Technical Institute for three

to five years of work.
Graduates of upper secondary schools may also enter the Technicai Instituterather than prepare for a university.

The Technical Institute was established in 1952 with the help from the
ICA. This Institute is located in Bangkok with three up-country branches(Korat, Songkla and Chiengmai). It has expanded rapidly and promises tobe a first-rate source of highly skilled and supervisory workers for industry

and various government departments.
Ninety percent of pupils who seek education beyond the elementary
grades choose the academic ladder, which alone provides admission to auniversity. The remaining ten percent enter secondary vocational schools.
In junior vocational schools, pupils spend most of their three-year period
in carpentry, in addition to academic subjects. In the senior vocational
schools, mental work, building construction, drawing, mechanics and business training, as well as tailoring, dress making and home economics are included as vocational subjects. (See Table 8) Vocational training in agriculture
is provided in specialized schools in the country.(2)Recently there have been important changes in junior vocational education.(3)"In 1953, the Ministry of Education began to replace junior vocational
schools with primary extension schools. The curriculum of the latter lays
greater stress on academic subjects, and although some vocational work is
given, it demands less of the pupil's time than does the junior vocationalcourse, and is more varied in character. By 1957, there were 569 primary
extension schools, with at least one in each of the country's 448 administrative districts (amphurs).

"This change is probably all to the good, for junior vocational schools
have little educational value. Their vocational content amounts only to themost elementary carpentry, and the academic work is inferior.

"Toward the end of 1957, the Ministry of Education proposed a further
change that would, in effect, replace both junior vocational schools and thefirst three years of Matayom with primary extension schools. The present(2)(3)

IBRD Mission, ibid. p. 176.
IBRD Mission, ibid. p. 177.

63

64

FUKUOKAWATA
Table 8. Vocational

Education Enrollmentsof Thailand
1949

1948

1950

Male Female Male Female Male tFemale-

1. Primary Vocational Education

Total
Carpentry

4,067
1,927

3,571
2,191

Agriculture
Tailoring

1,759

724

2,641

2,260

6,679
4,328
1,146

4,536

Weaving

152

45
88

2oo
168

Female HandicaTft

2,364

2,127

4,168

Sewing125

Shipbuilding

24
39
40
81
153

Metal1urgy
Forging
Leather Sewing
Hair Cutting
Clay Modelling
Accounting

38
96
59
73
836
32
30
41

29
58
53
80
316
39
21
26
34

"

Stenography, Typewriting

Umprella-making
2. Medium Vocational Education

Total
Carpentry
Agriculture
Female Handicraft
3. High Vocational Education

Total

978
889
89

2,431

28

Commerce

613
507
275
318
463

Engineering
Building Construction
Artistic Manufacturing

Female Handicraft
Tailoring(1)-(3) Grand

2,615
1,293
1,322

643

Teacher-training
Agriculture

Foreign Language

643

536
23
310

co

Total

Source: Statistical Year Book

7,426

2,498

57
69
391
517
369
504
438

of Thailand,

1952.

8,684

1,108

671
1,035

628
58
210

90
270

1,108

3,150

666

99
164
479
577
433
802
404

71

170

96
329

192

153
3,820

1,706

2,103

163

127

2,103

4,991

11,535

6,310

65
INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THAILAND

sequence of elementary, secondary and college preparatory schooling, 4+(3 +3) +2, is to give away a to new sequence of 4+3 years (of) elementary andjunior secondary plus 3+2 years of senior secondary and college preparatory. The junior secondary would become, in effect, a continuation of the

primary curriculum."(4)These changes may be usefu1 in the improvement of both general andvocational education. Because it is better to give vocational education
after at least 7 years of general education, instead of 4 years. On the basisof this higher general education, vocational education can more effectively

be performed.

4
We have thus far examined the industrial structure of Thailand andher educational system. We have found that in order to raise the level of
output per caput, her industrial structure should be changed by shifting
weights from the primary to the secondary industry. The Mission also points
out that, "it is essential for the statisfactory future development of Thaiiandthat the relative importance of manufacturing activity in the economy should
be increased." (IBRD Mission, ibid. p. 94-95)

For this purpose technical and managerial skills should be improved
through the expansion of education, both general and vocational.

The Government has been doing its utmost for the diffusion of education. Aids from foreign countries, such as the United States, and international organizations, such as UNESCO have been given for the maintenance and expansion of educational facilities. It will naturally take a longtime before these efforts bear appreciable fruits, but with the gradual rise of

educational standards the productivity of labour in Thailand will steadily
be improved, and a higher level of income per caput will be attained.

(4) IBRD Mission, ibid. p. 177.

67

CHAPTER VI
The Industrial Structure and Industrial Educationin the Philippines

TEI-ICHI YAMASAKI

1
The Philippines are situated in Southeast Asia between the South China

Sea and the west Pacific Ocean. It consists of more than seven thousand
islands. Among them Luzon is the largest in the north and Mindanao inthe south. It has an area of about 299 thousand square kilometer and a
population of some 21,OOO,ooO (1955 estim.) and therefore has population
density of about 70 persons per sq. km. The racial composition of the inhabit-

ants of the country is complex. Besides small number of primitive Negrito,
many people are racially Palaeo-Malay who are uncivilized people as thosein the northern mountain region of Luzon. Among the civilized-Malay
there are the Mohamedan Moros who inhabit the southern parts of Sulu
Islands and Mindanao. But the greater parts of what is known as Filipinos,
who profess the Catholic faith, have attained a pretty high degree of culture.

The Philippines were conquered by the Spaniards in 1565, and after the
Spanish American War of 1898, the Philippines became a part of the UnitedStates ofAmerica. In 1946 the PhiIippine people achieved their independence
and established the Republic ofthe Philippines. However, even at the present
time, the country is dependent upon the United States economically and, asa consequence, for the internal developments of the country they rely upon
the capital and technical aids of the United States, which maintains a militarybase in the country.

The city of Manila, which has a good harbor on the island of Luzon,is the largest city in the PhMppines with an estimated population of 1,200,ooO

people. It is the great center of trade and industries, communications, and68

TEI-ICHI YAMASAKI

culture. 'Ilie capital of the country was recently moved to the newly construct-

ed city of Quezon.

English and Spanish are commonly used by the Philippine people ingovernment and commerce. Some 70 native languages are spoken, of which
9 are of major importance. Based upon the Tagalog dialect, which is one of
the nine principal dialects, a new national language was proclaimed by the
National legislature, and it is now being taught in all schools of the country.

Spanish is also spoken while the English language is being used as the mostimportant medium of education in all schools throughout the country. Those

who speak English among the population number approximately 7,OOO,ooO
while those who speak Spanish are said to number approximately 350,OOO.
According to statistics compiled in 1952 approximately 700/. of those in
the age bracket of 10 years or more were able to read and write. The rateof Miteracy of the Phihppine people among the various nations of Southeast
Asia is the lowest. Education in the Philippines is thus widely diffused, andcoeducation of the both sexes prevails in the schools.
The most important industry of the Philippines, which lies in the tropicalmonsoon region of Asia, is agriculture. The agricultural population comprises 690/. of the total industrial population of the country. Rice, abaca(Manila hemp), copra, sugar canes, corn and tabacco are the chief products.

Philippines are the main production area of copra and coconuts oil in theworld. Exports of these two products and abaca comprise nearly one halfof the total exports. Nthough exports of sugar decreased since the War, theystil1 amount to considerable figures, most of which are exported to the UnitedStates. Thus in agriculture, plantations flourish, which lay their chief em-

phasis on the production of goods for exports. And there is a shortage offoodstuffs, and rice is imported from Thailand and wheat and dairy products
from the United States, and the foodstuff imports comprise 15-200/. of thetota1 imports. In the production of minerals gold, copper, iron ores andchromite are the chief products. Mangnese is also produced. In 1954 auranium mine was disovered at Larap in southern Luzon. As industrialization

was promoted in post-war years, the number of plants and factories has
rapidly increased, but industrial progress is handicapped by the lack of fuel.

The annual coal production is about 130,Ooo tons (1955). Development ofhydro-electric power has been retarded due to the fact that the rivers are
small and short and as there are rainy and dry seasons. According to investigations made in 1954, the largest number of plants and factories are the ricemills, followed by sugar refineries, coconut-oil mills, cigar cand cigarette

69

THE INDUSTRIALEDUCATION
STRUCTURE AND INDUSTRIAL
IN THE PHILIPPINES
factories, leather shoes factories, rubber shoes factories, etc., and almost allof these are processing of agricultural products. There are four cement plants,

and one hydroelectric power plant. The majority of the industries of thecountry are the household industry, which carry on the work of making
embroideries, hats, woolen-fabrics, mattings, and clmawares. Since 1951,
there has existed an excess of imports over exports with the consequentunfavorable balance of trade annually. The conditions of the industries of
the country are well reflected in the various aspects of education.

2. The Educational System
The educational system of the Philippines comprise the following:

Primary Education
Secondary Education
Vocational Education
Higher Education
Special Education
The educational system, with regard to the school attendance ages are
as shown in the following table:age: 78

9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16High School---Higher Educationo-@-@-@Philippine University

Intermediate
Business School-Agricultural Schools,-@-@-@-@Business Schools,

Primary
SchoolCommercial Schools,Intermediate

SchoolÅë-@-@-@-@-@Vocational

which do not grant degrees.
Teacher's Training Normal
School. (Under control ofGeneral School Bureau.)

High School-Degrees granted Callege-@-@-@-@ingeneral

Intermediate
Agricultural

School-Private Universities-@-@-@-@Colleges

The statistics on the kinds of schools are as shown in the following
table. Due to the American influence, the number of colleges and universities
is large and the fact that there are over 4oo colleges and universities excites

and

70

TEI-IeHI YAMASAKI

one's attention, A point of difference in comparison with schools in Japanis that almost all of these colleges and universities are private institutions
and the sole public (national) institution of higher learning is the Philippine
University.

Summary of School Statistics, 1951152
Level of education and type of school

PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1951/52
Institutions Teachers Pupils

Primary Total Female

Primary schools 16,365 52,412 2,923,874 1,387,795
Intermediate schools 6,276 24,308 872,307 412,235
SecondaryTradeand secondary
vocationai o 2s
@6:9696 ig2:?o444)
General285
94,398
Rural and agricultural (D 29
444 10,958?

Ri.sp&rg,zc,2o.zlj, -I @l lggJ
HigherNormal colleges 7 98 3,O17

Trade:[llg6a;;:h:ecra'SiCcOoUurrSsee -3} io4 i,Z22
2,472

Agricultural teacher's course @ --- 2 70

Cornmercial 1 21 587

Nautical 2 5 99

University of Philippines@ 1 567 7,603 Special

School for the deaf and dumb 1 20 150 PRIVATE SCHOOLS, 1952/53

Preschool

Kindergartens
128 145 8,413 Primary;.r,`,m,Illlg,I:,2ogiz..,, g,4;1 3,ss, 2;Iggi :Secondary

General secondary 1,245 10,253 362,469 -Vocational schools 397 952 32,989 -THE INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 71
IN THE PHILIPPINES
HigherColleges and universities 410 6,028 169,859 @ Including home economics @ Including farm mechanics courses@ Fishery teachers are included @ Not including two non-collegiatewith trade and vocational schools with 441 students
Source: Philippines Ministry of Education and Bureau of Private Schools.

3. Aim of Indttstrial Education

There had been a general feeling of aversion toward manual works
generally during the colonial days under the Spanish rule. As a consequence,

though various manual training courses were provided, they were not put
into practice, and those who were not engaged in manual works were looked
up to as refined. The aversion towards the manual works naturally combinedwith the social order and it has exerted its infiuence upon the national

economy.
With the coming of the Americans the idea of respect for labor of all
kinds was introduced. It was something utterly new to the Philippine people.
A belief in social efliciency was at once woven into the pattern of education.

An appropriation for establishment of vocational schools in the city of
Manila was passed, and establishment of agricultural special (vocational)
school in the Island of Negros was given approval.
With the passing of years industrial education was systematized anddeveloped. Emphasis was laid on the various arts and crafts and on practicalcommercial business, horticulture, and household economy. Later on further
advanced vocational courses of intermediate standing were established. The

Central Luzon Agricultural School was early established. The legislative
act No. 3377, which may be said to be a vocational assistance law, passed

in December, 1927, was intended to promote vocational education ofboys and girls of over 14 years of age, who were already engaged in agriculture or in commercial or in industrial pursuits. In connection with thesephase of the matter partial vocational education was put into practice for acertain period in the schools generally. In the debate on the bill in the legis-

lature there were already in existence commercial schools, and schools forhousehold economy, trade, commerce and agriculture in the various partsof the country. The law in question may be said to be none other than theoMcial recognition of vocational educational policy which had been put
into effect by the Bureau of Education.

72

TEI•-ICHr YAMASAKI

Moreover, ten years later, bills providing for administration of agricultural school of the type of trading school or of the Central Luzon Agri-cultural School aiming at vocational education were authorized. These
schools came to be established in suitable localities, or changes were effectedin the schools already in existence, or were newly established so that theycame to exert infiuence upon agriculture and commerce and trading as thebasic industries of the country.

4. Special Schools-Schools for Vacational Training
Special schools in the Philippines, namely, the schools offering vocational

education, excepting the schools for the deaf and dumb, are the following:(1) The Philippine Normal School, which is the school for training
primary school teachers.

(2) The Philippine School of Arts and Trades, which is the school forarts and various trades, and which later became the school for training
teachers for vocational schools.

Along with the above-mentioned normal school, it is the oldest in
point of establishment, and its curricula appear to have been revised inorder to meet the requirements of society. Its educational aim was thetraining of youths engaged in the various trades as a means of earning theirliving. Later, however, it was discovered that the purpose aimed at was not

an appropriate one; namely, it became known that the training only for
trade that are usefu1 is insuMcient and that as there was a need for trainingof teachers who are capable of giving guidance in these trades (occupations),
its aim was altered accordingly.

Besides, to this school is assigned another important task of making
preparations for instiling the basic principles of democracy; that is to say,to implant in the minds of every man the ideal of living by the sweat of hisbrow. The youths are made to comprehend that they must possess always
a high level of education, that they must possess an adequate knowledge ofthe language; must be found of reading; it is a self-evidenttruth that without
the possession of these qualifications it is futile for them to attain a positionof leadership in modern industrial society.

(3) The Philippine Nautical School was reorganized in 1839 by the
military government after the occupation of Manila. Its purpose was totrain the Philjppine people the techniques of operation of ships. The system

of instructions was based on that of the Naval Academy at Annapolis. At
first Spanish was the language in use, but was later substituted by English.

THE INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 73

IN THE PHILIPPINES
There were two objectives in the school: first, to instil in the minds of thestudents through the language the habits of work, and through the generalprinciples of morals to achieve Americanization; secondly, the technique of
maneuvering and operation of ships, the technical trainings in ship operation, navigation and other matters. From the fact that the students prior
to their matriculation in the school had not received satisfactory preparatory

educational training it was considered necessary to make a marked progressin their education.

The school continued to exist until 1907 when it was closed due toerrors in administrative control and to the lack of funds, but it was reopened
five years later.

Drastic changes in the curricula of the school were made so as to securea more complete instruction in navigation, techniques of ship maneuveringand in academic subjects in the course of two years. This school sent out
many oMcers for the merchant marine and in the promation of the diffusionof knowledge regarding navigation among the various islands of the country.

The Philippine Congressional act of 1928, which granted licenses to firstmates greatly enhanced the prestige of the school. The jurisdiction of theschool was transferred to the Bureau of the National Defense from that of
the Several Education Bureau.

(4) The Philippine School of Commerce was established in Manila
in October, 1904, as a result of a change in its name from the Manila Business School to its present name. The primary purpose of the school is totrain the personnel required by the Government. The second objective isthe training of young employes of both sexes for private busines sfirms.
Recently besides such courses as the typewriting, book-keeping and short
hand, its curriculum includes intermediate courses, and later secondary
curriculum pertaining to commercial subjects was prescribed in order tosupplement the education of the students. However due to the shortageof funds the school authorities decided to make the school a Departmentof the Philippine Normal School. But in June, 1946 it was reopened as aseparate institution offering a two year college course.

(5? The School of Household Industries.
The Philippine exports of embroidery goods and laces amounted to130,OOO pesos in 1911. It was not the results of an organized industry, but

it represented the work of several thousand women who had developed it
into an industry with a limited supply of embroidery goods made available
to them being the surplus quantitily from those earmarked for exports. As

74

TEI-ICHI YAMASAKI

exports of embroidery goods and laces into the United States amounted
to over 71,OOO,OOO pesos in value in the same year, it became the motiveof the Philippine Government for developing the manufacture of embroidery
goods and laces with steady markets in the United States. Accordingly thePhilippine Congress established the School of Household Industries on
January 30, 1912 and passed a bill providing for an appropriation of 100,OOO
pesos for maintenance of the school. The purpose of the school is to train

adult women in such household industries as the making of laces and embroideries. Women trainees who completed the prescribed course of training
returned to their respective villages, organized classes and set up centers ofsuch works in order to put their work on a systematic basis.

The school was opened in June, 1912. No prerequisite was requiredof those applying for admission to the school either in scholastic backgrounds

or in other qualifications. However, many of the 800 women students who
graduated from the school had completed high school courses, Lace-making
and embroidery work were the subjects chiefly taught in this school, andno courses of study, either scientific or literary, were offered; training was
given in the selections of des.ign. s, sgqdy of patterns which met the standard

styles, methods of laundry of laces and embroidery works, shipping
preparations of goods made, besides special trainings in crocheting. Industrial centers were established by the graduates of the school and thework was widely disseminated among the people in the localities until theschool was closed in January, 1916 leaving behind it a career of four yearsof an eMcient work.
(6? The Central Luzon Agricultural School.
Several years before a similar secondary school was established in New
York there were to be found students in the Philippines who were alreadyactively engaged in the pursuit of their studies and in earning their living

under the direction of Mr. J.W. Thomson. This school was a most singularone, which may well take pride as an educational institution in the Philippines.

The purpose of the school was the training of students for making usefu1
living with the view to supply leaders in industries, who were coming to be

in demand. Thus the school aimed at the development of men of character
who will become independent and progressive farmers. In order to achieve
the objective aimed at of giving an opportunity to healthy and robust students
who are able to work and to earn their living expenses, while they are attending the school.
As agriculture is the basic industry of the Philippines practical training

THE INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 75

IN THE PHILIPPINES
in improved methods of agriculture was undertaken. In order to achieve
the development of agriculture by so doing and with the objective of inculcating the idea of the love of the rural life the school was established. Ac-

cordingly its curriculum was developed in conformity with such objective
so that the students might be taught to learn through their works.

When a youth enters the school, good nutritious foods are preparedand placed before him daily. But he has to redeem the right of sharing theamenities of 1ife thus offered him. The students are thus freed from the lotof suffering from privations, but for each one of them a certain work is

assigned, from which no student is exempt. The kind of training offered
gives the young people with good opportunities, and as a result it brings
about a broadening of their horizon and their physique is invigorated more
and more so that later in their lives when they are confronted with duties
and responsibilities they may be enabled to endure these hardships.
On the one hand, the school was taking over the task of supplying leaders
to the farmers of the neighborhood. It was the distributing center of seeds
and young plants, domestic fowls and animals. Moreover the school hospitalextended its services to society in sanitation and general weifare in response
to demands made upon it. As the value of the scientific methods of agriculture

was clearly demonstrated by the school, when the farmers in the neighborhoods of the school harvested an average crop of 60 cavan per hectare, theschool had achieved the security ofharvesting a crop of 70 cavan per hectare.

When it is considered that the average annual crop of the Philippines as awhole was 20 cavan in the same year, the important roie played by theschool becomes evident. That is to say, as the eflicient work performed by
the school in actual practice had been demonstrated, schools of this naturecame to be established in later years in various parts of the Philippines.

5. Education in the Phili pines Since the War
As a result of the destruction wrought by the havoc of World War II
approximately 800/. of schools in the Philippines was destroyed. But the
public school system of the country immediately after the War was rapidly
restored. The enthusiasm displayed by the Philippine people in sending
their children to school in the years following the War's end was such that
nothing could be said to have surpassed it up to the present.

With the reopening of the agricultural schools and of the rural highschools consideration was given to the Department of the Domestic Sciencein these schools before others. Again from the standpoint of coping with

76

TEI-ICHI YAMASAKI

the scarcity of foodstuffs cultivation of early growing crops, domestic fowls,

and fish were promoted, and the various schools devoted themselves to the
production of edible crops.

Many of the vocational schools were reopened, and training in suchoccupations as the serviceing of automobiles, machine shop work, welding,electrical engineering was carried on, while those who were engaged in theirrespective trades had the right of being entitled to receive remuneration for

their works. Further upon completion of a certain period of training they
were enabled to find employments in military establislments or in private
industrial enterprises. Moreover the school started to manufacture desks,
chairs, blackboards, etc. for the use of the public schools.
Since the independence of the Philippines was declared on July 4, 1946,changes in the school curricula were introduced, among which the teachingof the Tagalog language as the national language of the country was enforced
in all classes in the schools under the compulsory educational system. Prior

to the War the Tagalog language was taught in the third and fourth years
only, but it was now made compulsory in all classes.
Referenees:
The Statesman's Year-book.
B. Aldana: The Educational System of the Philippines, Manila, 1949.
A. V. H. Hartenderp: History of Industry and Trade of the Philippines.

The American Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines, Manila, 1958.

77

CHAPTER VII
Industrial Structure and Vocational Educationin Indonesia

HIROMASA YAMAMOTO

1Ever since its declaration of independence in August, 1945, Indonesia
has endeavored to realize its aspirations to achieve economic and politicalindependence, and to free itself from the shackle of the Dutch rule, which
had lasted almost three and a half centuries. However, the dominant influence of the Dutch colonial rule, which had begun with the establishment of
the East India Company in 1602, permeated almost all spheres of Indonesia.
In order to achieve her national independence in fact as well as in name,therefore, it is necessary to go through a painfu1 course in the solution ofher manifold problems as a truly independent nation. The writer wishes torecognize in the first place the changes which have taken place in the economic and social structures of the country from those of the colonial days
since it declared its independence, and secondly, he wishes to stress thenecessity for, and the importance of education, especially of vocational
education which will enable it to make an all-round progress in the domainsof the socjal and economic 1ife of the nation.

2. Economic Structures(1) National lncome
As it will be clear from a glance at table 1, the most important sector
in the Indonesian economy is agriculture which accounts for 56 per cent of
its total national income, followed by the trade sector which ranks second,
while mining and manufacturing indusuies are of but little significance.

78 HIROMASA YAMAMOTO
Thus Indonesia is a typical under-developed country with agriculture as
the predominant industry. Its economy may therefore be characterized
as monocultural.
The national income of Indonesia is one of the lowest among the nationsof the world. (refer to table 2) Moreover, in 1938, the income of Indonesians
representing 97.4 per cent of the total population, accounted for 61 per centof the national income, while 31 per cent of the national income was owned
by foreign nationals representing only 3 per cent of the entire population.

Again in 1952, the percentage of the national income owned by foreign
nationals still comprised 25 per cent of the national income of Indonesia,

though the percentages owned by them showed a gradual decrease.(i) Even
with possible errors in the estimates of the national income, it seems safe
to conclude that the unbalance in the percentages of the national income
Table 1. National Income (in million Rupiahs)
TransPublic

porta-

Manu-

forestry,

Mining facturing

Const-

tion& fishingindustries

ructlonandCommu-

Agriculture

Value

Trade

admi-

All

nlstra-otherstlon

nlcatlon
1951

70,498.7

1952 81,638.7

56O/.

2

9

1

3

15

6

8

56

2

8

1

3

14

7

9

Source: U. N. Statistical Year-book.

Table 2. National Income per capita (inmilljon

Rupiahs)

1938

1951

1952

Net national income at current prices

2,7oo.e70,O15.4

81,204.0

Net national income at 1938 prices

2,7oo.O2,593.0

Population (in millions)

68.4

Income per capita at current prices

39.0

77.4
905.0

Income per capita at 1938 prices

39.0

33.5

Source: Biro Perantjang Negara (B.

Higgins,

Indonesia's

2,707.0EiEr

Income of Indonesia,

34.4

Economic Stabilization andDevelopment, 1957.)(1) S.D. Neumark, The National

78.6
1,033.0

1951-1952, 1954.

79
INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN INDONESIA

has continued to exist up to the present among the various races of Indonesia. Nonetheless it is a fact that the economic infiuence of foreigners isstill a considerable one even after World War II.

(2) Foreign Capital
Foreign investments in Indonesia, which amounted to approximately
300 million dollars in 1900, jumped up in 1937 to as large a figure as seventimes that of 1900. The main investing countries were the Netherlands,
Britain and the United States of America.
Among these nations the position occupied by the Netherlands which
had political control was a predominant one (refer to table 3, a, b, c.). The

investments of the Netherlands amounted to 73 per cent of all foreign investments in Indonesia, and almost all portfolio investments were in thehands of the Dutch. In addition the investments of the Netherlands in'Indonesia as shown in Table 3 do not include the investments in the tinmining and coal-mining industries which were operated by the NetherlandIndia Colonial government. Direct Investments of the Netherlands wereconcentrated in agriculture, and 45 per cent of the whole direct investments

was sunk in plantations which cultivated commercial crops, such as rubberand sugar cane. The total investments in agriculture amounted to 55 percent of the whole direct investments ifthe investments in agricultural financing

be added to the investment in agriculture. Other important fields of invest-

ments were those of petroleum and transportation while the investment in
manufacturing industries was of but small significance. From these figures
one may well perceive the Dutch administrative policy which had control
over Indonesia both politically and economically. Indonesia was assuredof its status as the supplier of raw materials to its preponderant country,
the Netherlands so as to complement the economic circulation of the Nether-lands. But there was no stimulus for the development of manufacturingindustries. The monocultural features of Indonesian economy may be
attributed to the direction of foreign investments and of the Dutch colonial
policy.

In relation to the foreign investment one must not overlook the position
occupied by the Chinese in Indonesia. It was estimated that in 1937 Chinese

investments in Indonesia amounted to 150 million dollars (the amount wasomitted from Table 3). The Chinese exerted a great influence over theexports of commercial crops produced by native agriculture, and the domestic

commerce was practically monopolized by the Chinese.
The independence of Indonesia did not necessarily mean their liberation

80

HIROMASAYAMAMOTO
Table 3. Foreign
Table 3-a. Estimated Total

Investment inIndonesia

Investment

million U. S.

Mainly in Government

Investments

300
675

t

1930

1,600

s

1937

1,411

in theInvesting

18
68

l

397
853

'

Countries

(o/o)

73

Great Britain

14

United States

7

France

2

Japan

1

Germany

1

Italy

1

t

1

Distribution of Dutch Business Investments by Industries
193ds (as peroentage of total Dutch Business Investment)

Sugar

15

Rubber17

Other Agricultural Industries

I3

Agricultural Banks

10

Petroleum

19

Shipping

4

Railways and Tramways (private)

6

Public Utilities (private)

4

Manufacturing Industry

2

Misoellaneous

10

1oo
Source: H. G. Callis, Foreign Capital

318
743
1,997

2,264

Netherlands

Belgium

Table 3-c.

Total

securltles

1914

Table 3-b. Main

dollars)

Rentier Investments,

Business (Djrect)

l900

(in

in South East Asja, 1942,

81
INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN INDONESIA

from the yoke of foreign capital. Of course the Indonesian goverument took

over many of the Dutch private and govermment-owned properties andprohibited the Chinese from engaging in retail business in the rural areas.

However, Indonesia can not shut out the foreign capital entirely on thecontrary, it needs much investment of foreign capital in order to deveiop
and foster its industrialization. Accordingly favorable measures for the
introduction of foreign capital were adopted. And also three foreign petroleum enterprises in Indonesia are allowed to operate free from restrictionsof government control of foreign exchange. Therefore the influenoe of
foreign capital will persist in Indonesia to a considerable degree.

(3) Agriculture
Agriculture, the mainstaY of economic activities in Indonesia, is characterized by the co-existence of estates of great scale, which are administrated
by the Europeans, and of small farms cultivated by the natives. The former
specializes in the cultivation of commercial crops for exports, while themajor part of the latter, which accounts for over 70 per cent of the working

population, produces mainly foodstuffs for their own consumption with anaverage per capita holding of O.7 hectare of arable Iand. The cultivation ofcommercial crops by the native farmers is confined to supply the demands
in cash on a self-sufliciency basis, though the proportion of small farms
growing commercial crops has shown a gradual increase recently. In contrast

the estates owned by the Dutch and other Europeans cultivate commercial
crops so as to enable them to export them to overseas markets. Before
World War II these estates supplied 60 per cent of exports of all agricultural

products, though only 7 per cent of all cultivated lands belonged to them.

The main items of commercial crops are rubber, copra, tea, tobacco,palm oil and sugar, all of which were introduced from abroad and were
cultivated and promoted by the estate farms and by the Netherlands-India
Government during the period under the colonial rule. The importance ofthe commercial crops have changed with the lapse of time. The sugar-cane
was once the mainstay of the Indonesian economy, but more recently sugar
cane was replaced by rubber. In 1955 Indonesia produced over 38 per centof the world rubber production and the export of rubber accounted for over
60 per cent of the world total rubber exports. On the other hand, though
Indonesia is an important rice producing country, it has to import a large
amount of rice annually, due to its specialization in the export products ofagriculture.

82

HIROMASA YAMAMOTO
Table 4. Importance of Chief Export
1928

Products

l938

I

(%)

1953

1954

1

Value of exportI(in million rprs.)

!

687

9,343

rubber

17.6( O/.)l22.6(%)

33.0( % )30.9(%)

petroleum

9.1

l

23.8

24.5

26.4

tin

5.6

5.0

copra

6.8

9.9
7.8

6.7

tea

6.2

tobacco

6.I

sugar

23.3

others24.8

The B'

ank of Indonesia,

Table 5. ill}ports

according to

4.6

2.8
6.5

4.1

3.6

l.2

2.6

21.4

l3.7

14.2

3.9

L
I

72

2.9
2.9

8.3
1

palm oil

Source :

5.7

l

9,759

3.8

Annual Report.
the Main Goods Classification (in
l

1

1954

millionrupiahs)

1955

food

698.2

382.1

other food stuffs

221.8

177.2

staple

goods

8412

588.8

other consumer goods

884.1

928.5

2 645.3

2,076.6

textile

1
1-

total

consumer goods

1('

cotton yarn and cloth643.5

iron and steel

311.7
L

678.1
I
l

331.7

79.7

ll6.0

other raw materials

1,411.6

1,800.3

raw materials

2,446.5

2,926.1

fertilizers

total

,

automobiles
other machines
other capital goods
total capital goods

grand total

I

1
!

I

t
:

Source:'The Bank of Indonesia,

Annual Report.

152.5

182.5

258.6

222.8

1,O14.0873.9

1,425.1

1,279.2

7,171.7

6,887.7

83

EDUCATION ININDONESIA
INDUSTRIALSTRUCTURES
ANDVOCATIONAL(4) Foreign Trade
The monocultural feature of Indonesian economy is refiected clearly in
its exports and imports. The main items of exports are agricultural products,

such as rubber, sugar, tea, tobacco, palm oil and mineral products such as
petroleum and tin, while imports consist of various industrial products andfoodstuffs. All items of Indonesian exports have a strong tendency to fiuctu-

ate with the changes in the world markets, and accordingly during thedepression period terms of trade become worse. Moreover, though there
was a gradual development of domestic industries which enabled the country
to cope with the domestic demands to a certain extent regarding the lightindustrial products, almost all consumer goods have to depend on imports,
and moreover imports of capital goods are needed for the development ofdomestic industries.
Table 6. Balance of Payments (in million of U. S. dollars)
1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

Exports f. o. b.

1,102

-880
222

669
-637
35

609
-553
56

687
-506
181

648
-760
-112

- 6ca

Trade balance

738
-922
-184

603

Imports c. i. f.

Services and private
donations

-l36

-115

-167

-125

-123

-104

-96

86

-135
13

-69

58

-216

-137

-8

-299
-19

-5

-1

-l

C. Total (A+B)

78

-318

-122

-74

57

-217

-137

D. Transactions of Foreignowned Oil Companies

44

42

13

39

42

55

59

-14
108

-37
-313

-2

3

F. Total (C through E)

-115

-35

99

-l64

-75

G. OMcial Donations andLong-term Capital

40

26

-2

3

-10

38

46

H Monetary Movements

-148

287

117

32

-89

126

29

A. Goods, Services andPrivate Donations(excluding transactionsof foreign owned oilcompanies)

Total
B. Private Capital(excluding transactions-41

of foreign owned oilcompanies)

E Net Errors and Omissions

Source :I. M. F. Balance-6'of Payments Yearbook.

84

HIROMASA YAMAMOTO(5) Balance of Payments
The balance of payments of Indonesia showed an unfavorable balance
due to the large amount of invisible trade, though a fair balance of trade
was kept up. The deficit in the invisible trade was due to debit on freightand insurance, payment against retums on foreign investments. An additional factor in the unfavorable balance of payments is the fact that theGovernment has no control over foreign exchange pertaining to the petroleum

companies under the American, British and Dutch control. Thus it will beseen that foreign capital has exerted a very powerfu1 influence in all economic sectors of Indonesia, and it has exerted a balefu1 effect upon the balanceof payments.

3. Social Structure-Plural Society

When Indonesia was a colony of the Netherlands, Indonesians, Europeans and Chinese, each constituted a closed and exclusive society which
differed from each other and had no contact with each other. The contacts
among the different races in Indonesia were seen only in the economic sphere.

The Dutch and other Europeans dominated the political organizations
and controlled the main economic fields including the estate farms andmining, while the Chinese wielded a powerfu1 influence over the domestic
distribution of commodities. Most Indonesians were engaged in agriculture
as small and indigent farmers or as laborers on the estate farms, while there

were few domestic industries or other economic fields which could absorb

the labor force of the country. Employment in the colonial government
oMces and in State enterprises were severely restricted for Indonesians, who

could find employment only in meager classes of work. For example, in
1940 there were only 240 Indonesian students who graduated from highschools and only 37 from the colleges. In the same year out of over 3,OOO
higher ranks of civil servants there were only 221 Indonesians, and even in

those of the middle rank a large number of posts were held by Europeans
and Eurasians.(2) As wil1 be seen clearly from the above, it was extremely
diMcult for Indonesians to take comparatively responsible posts in the civil

services and in the business world generally during the colonial period.
And it was the result of their indigent economic and social status rather thanthe consequence of their low levels of education.
(2) G. C. ABen and A, G. Donnithorne,
1957, p. 283.

Western Enterprise in Indonesia and Malaya,

85
INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN INDONESIA

Of course, there was a prevalence of illiteracy in Indonesia as wascommonly the case among most of the countries under colonial rule. According to the Census of 1930, 93.7 per cent of Indonesisans were illiterate.
The high percentage of illiteracy was, of course, due to the dithculties ofobtaining education because of their subordinate status with a low andindigent standard of living. But one should not lose sight of another socioeconomic factor, namely, Indonesians had but few opportunities for gainfu1
occupations and had few opportunities for improving their lot in the closed
and exclusive society even if they had received an education, for the edu-

cational system for the Indonesians was prepared and mapped out by theirrulers during the colonial period.

After the establishment of schools for the indigenous population in1845 as the first step in the educational development of the indigenous population, though many changes were effected in the educational system, finallyin 1914 primary schools were established in which Indonesian children could

learn with the same qualifications as the children of the Dutch and other
Europeans. As a consequence, after 1919 the way was opened for Indonesianchildren to pass courses in the higher primary schools, the middle schoois,
and colleges and universities. Vocational schools were established with theaim of giving vocational training to the European children resident in Indonesia, of which the Queen Wilhelmina School (a technical school) and thePrince Henry School (a school for commercial and shipping business) werethe most famous. Entrance to these vocational schools was not closed toIndonesians.(3)4. Educational System and Vocational Edueation Since Independence

As was already mentioned, even after World War II Indonesian economy maintained the colonial economic structures which had been built
up under the Dutch colonial rule for centuries. These economic structures
brought about the instability of Indonesian economy and a low and indigent
status in the national income. To overcome these diMculties the Indonesian

Government framed a five year program for economic development in 1956
in order to reconstruct the economic structures, jn which agriculture had
predominant weight, and in order to promote industrialization of the country.

However, in the implementation of the program Indonesia had to face in(3) cf. J. S. Furnivall, Netherlands India, A Study of Plural Economy, 1939 pp. 364-

378.

86

HIROMASA YAMAMOTO

the first place the diMculty of finding properly trained personnel in therespective economic and administrative fields, so that the lack of men of
ability able to lead the nation was most keenly felt although able leaders
were urgently required for the development of the country in the economic
and political fields, and, secondly, there was a lack of many engineers andtechnicians who were required to carry out the five year program. Suchlack of men of proper training and ability, was the result of the low standard of education among the people at large. Accordingly, for the purposeof carrying out the economic development program the government had toraise the educational level of the people generally, to stamp out illiteracy,

and to proceed with the vocational education speedily so as to foster
the training of engineers and technicians who were indispensable for theindustrialization of a country.

(1) GeneralEducationSystem
The spread of primary education became a very important problem so
as to sweep out the illiteracy estimated to be 64.5 per cent of the populationin 1954. Article 44 of the constitution prescribes the speedy abolition ofilliteracy and speedy introduction of compulsory primary education.

In 1950, a ten year program for the enforcement of compulsory education and a ten year program to wipe out illiteracy were introduced in order
to raise the standard of the national education. As for the primary education, children ranging in age from 6 to 12 years are to be given rudimentary
education with no charge at the national primary schools, Though the policy
aims at giving primary education compulsorily for all children in the various
areas, at present there exists a considerable shortage both of teachers and of
facllities. Accordingly, the school attendance for children is not compulsory
for the time being. It seems possible that compulsory education can be enforced by 1961 as a result of the increase in the number of teachers who are
now undergoing training.(4)For the first two years of the primary education, as the medium ofeducation the provincial native languages are used, but afterwards the Indo-nesian langauge which has been introduced is now being used. The
curriculum includes mathematics, physical exercises, music, handicraft,sanitation, and from the third and fourth school year, geography and history

have been newly introduced. In company with primary education adulteducation has been enforced in an overall program to wipe out illiteracy.
(4) UNESCO, Compulsory Education in South Asia and the Pacinc, 1952 p. 81.

rNDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN INDONESIA 87

Though much progress has already been seen, much more time will be
required to achieve the results anticipated.

The middle school course is divided into the lower and the uppercourses, each comprising a three-year course. Upon completion of the lowercourse pupils of the middle school have to apply for the national examina-tion so as to enable them to meet the necessary qualifications for theirfurther education. At the end of the upper secondary school course students

Table 7. Summary of School Statistics
Level of education and typeof school

Institutions

Teachers

Students:

Pre-schooli

Kindergartens, private

306

506

Government primary schools

24,77583,060Private primary schools

1,895

6,765

216
50
502
43

2,318

24,189

PrimaryLr

4 977 304

pp340,710

Secondary

GeneralGovernment middle sehools
Government high schools
Private middle schools
Private high schools

Vocational
Government lower schools
Government higher schools

1,O03

63,597jl

14,491

4,195

91,029

770

9,222

2,498

40,325

523
547
433

6,400

l
:

I

298
47
94
31

Private lower schools
Private higher schools

E

l

/

8,733
I

!

3,392

Teachers training
Government teacher-training schools442
10

Private teacher-training schools

HigherGovernment academies

4
2
2
2

Private academies
Government universities
Private universities

Source: Kementerian Pendidikan Pengadjaran

UNESCO, World Survey of Education,

1,441

41,606

l15

l,Ol1

71
21

430
260

485
33

4,937

a

l
i
!

1

L

dan Kebudajaan.
1955.

650

88

HIROMASA YAMAMOTO

are required to take the national examination which qualifies them as adequate

applicants for entrance into colleges and other special educational institutions. The first three years in the middle school are divided into the socialand cultural section and the natural science section while the second three'
years of secondary school education are divided into three sections, viz.,
literature, sciences and economics. Middle school pupils have to pay tuition.

There is, however, an extensive scholarship system in accordance with thenecesities and abilities of pupils. And this scholarship system has thecharacter of a contract by which students are expected to work in government
oMces for certain periods after their graduation.

The period of attendance in colleges and other special institutions isfrom 4 to 7 years. At present there are two national universities, 5 private
colleges and 4 special technical colleges in Indonesia. The faculties of thenational universities include literature, medicine, technology, philosophy,
agriculture, forestry, veterinary science, mathematics and natural sciences,law, sociology, political science, and economics. Special technical colleges
offer courses in commerce, fine arts, and journalism. The language used atpresent in the higher educational institutions is Indonesian, however, in thelectures given by foreign professors English is used. The requirements foradmission into colleges and special technical colleges are the completionof the higher secondary course, and in addition, those who have completed
the vocational school course with satisfactory grades are allowed entrance
to colleges. In higher educational institutions there is also an extensive
scholarship system.

(2) VocationalEducation(5)The principal administrational work of vocational education is in thehands of the Department of Vocational Education under the Ministry of Education (established in March, 1957), though other ministries such as the
Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of Labor and Industry participate
in vocational education.
The fields in which the Ministry of Education enforces vocational education are technical training, training for women (home-making), training
for business, training for social workers, training for law oMcers and public
administrators and teachers' training course for vocational education. The
curriculum of vocational education, includes professional subjects comprising(5) The description given in this section is based on the following pumphlet. X.S.
Ondang, Vocational Education in indonesia, 1957.

89
INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN INDONESIA

60 per cent of it and related subjects providing theoretical knowledge on theprofessional subjects as well as on general subjects. Schools of vocational
education have the characteristics of providing centers for the promotion andtraining of necessary personnel, and its main features are training of teachers,

while the school facilities and factories form the basis of vocational education. A brief account of the contents of main vocational schools will begiven hereunder. Education for women will be omitted, for its main purpose

is to furnish information on homemaking, a subject which has but little
bearing on the main subject dealt with here.

(A) TechnicalEducation
Technical education aims at preparing skilled technicians at the various
levels (lower, intermediate and higher) who will be employed in the various
industries which are most essential for the industrialization of Indonesia.
i) S.K.-School for workers in cottage industries

Training for a one or two-year period is required after the completionof primary school education, The course of training covers 20 field sincluding
woodcraft, masonry, blacksmithing, motor-repairing, carpentry, leather work,

shoe-making, sheet-metal work, dye-work, tailoring, weaving, ceramics, etc.
The establishment of these training courses depends upon the local conditions and local needs. Approximately 80 per cent of the curriculum is devoted
to practical training. There are 204 schools of this kind in the country.

li) S.T.-Junior Technical Schools

The purpose of these schools is to provide the pupils with adequate
knowledge and skill which are demanded in various industries. Entrance
qualification requirements are: (1) completion of the primary school course
and, (2) satisfactorily passing of the entrance examination. The period of
education is for 3 years, and the training courses cover the following subjects,

construction engineering, engineering, motor-mechanics, electrical engineering, mining, cabinet-making, woodcrafts, land surveying, weaving, ceramics,
wireless, shipbuilding, printing, and diesel motors. 50 per cent of the total
period is devoted to practical training. There are 191 of these schools in the
country.

iil) S.T.M.-Senior Technical School
The chief purpose of this type of school is to train technicians for the

management of certain sections of factories and workshops. Entrance
qualifications are the completion of the lower middle school course, andthe period of education is 3 years. The courses offered comprise constructionengineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering,

90

HIROMASA YAMAMOTO

motor-mechanics, mining, aviation, wireless, shipbuilding, marine engineering, chemistry and others. The related subjects comprise applied sciences,mathematics and chemistry. There are 18 of these schools in the country.
iv) Teachers Training Institutions for Technical Education

There are various kinds of teacher training schools. With the aim ofgiving adequate qualification to non-qualified teachers S.G.P.T. provides athree-year course after completion of junior technical school. To trainteachers for senior technical schools there is a three-year course after com-pletion of senior technical school. There are also other institutions where
the education of higher grade mechanics are undertaken.

(B) BusinessEducationi) K,D.P.-Primary business course
This course aims at teaching and training economic and business affairs
to adults. The courses are opened to those who have finished their primaryeducation. The training period is 3 years. There are 19 of these schools
in the country.

ii) S.M.E.P.-Junior Commercial Schools
The aim of these schools is to give both the necessary knowledge andtraining to those who desire to start a business of their own and to those
who desire to continue their studies at higher levels. The qualification foradmission is passing of the entrance examination for the middle school.
There are 116 of this type of school in the country.

iii) S.M,E.A,-Senior Commercial Schools
The senior commercial school provides a three year course after graduation from the lower course of the middle school or the junior commercial
school. The aim of the school is to provide a more elaborate business training and to bring the students into contact with the details of foreign trade.

Most graduates of this type of school find employment in private firms
or in government oMces, while some set up businesses of their own. Thereare 26 of these schools in the country.

(C) S.P.K.-School for Social Workers
This type of school provides a 4-year training course for social workers
in various fields including community development, industrial social work,social assistance and medical social work. Training in practical work com-prises an important part of the curriculum throughout the course. The
graduates of the school usually find employment in several branches of various

ministries. Entrance requirements for admission to the school is graduationfrom the lower middle school. There are 3 of these schools in the country.

91
INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN INDONESIA(D) S.M.K.A.-School for Law OMcers
Three years of practical training is given at one of the district courts

to those who have finished the lower middle school course. OriginaHy thecourse was planned for officers in service for advanced training. There are
3 of these schools in the country.

(E) K.P.A.-SchoolforCivilAdministration
This school provides a three-year course in-service-training in public

administration for those who have had primary school education. There
are 18 of these schools in the country.

(F) Educational Facilities for other Professions

Institutions of vocational education which are under the control ofministries other than the Ministry of Education, include a school for agriculture, a school for veterinary science, a training center for handicraft andmechanics, a school for textiles, an academy of technology, a school foraviation, and a mercantile marine academy.
The number of vocational schools including various teachers-training
schoois numbering 859, which is equal to 44 per cent of the total number of
middle schools and higher educational institutions. A glance at these figures

shows clearly that in Indonesia vocational education is regarded as an
essential part of education and for the social progress of the community.

Though great expectations have been placed on the future of vocational
education, there are considerable diMculties in the administration of vocational education due to the lack of teachers and facilities and due also to theabsence of an apropriate policy which has created an uncertain politicalsituation and unsound financial conditions, Regarding the present vocational

education system, it seems to have a weakness as regards the relation ofprimary and ordinary middle school education, even though a two track
system is adopted. A remedial measure is therefore under considerationby those concerned in order to cope with the situation.

THE RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMICS AND
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, KOBE UNIVERSITY.
'k/,,i,1'.,'Sgei/&lss,i•x\urircX/\rmas.•,:,gg$ee':,/in1ww#sglg.atiKlx.d:,l./1'11elielll./l.:.ImilS,liol/i:,l/1gen'ii'i.e,/Sidl#',tfiill'l/i',..x.ss/I,it$'.,wh'.gtdw.ex.,.'wh,"iitp#-vuxB":gis,ecgg'%sttsEg"/igg"rwsl.:..:,/,,,:Pifl.i/le:e:md?.:,i,i.ii:nsiiO;,ILi,1"2[,isti:'/i//

University, maintained by the national treasury.
The aim of the Institute is to carry on scientific and synthetic study of industrial

economy in its two teams of research work, namely, the Research Team of Interna-

tional Economy and the Research Team of Business Administration. The former
comprises five sections, each taking charge of research work on International Trade,

Marine Economy, International Finance, International Rules and Agreernents on
Commerce and Regional Study on Latin-America; the latter comprises four sections,each of which undertakes to do research work on Business Administration, Accounting,International Management and Industrial Relations.
Besides these regular research sections, we have horizontal study groups closely

related to the regular research sections to carry on special research work by aCommittee of Specialists. In the field of international economy, two committees for

special study, the Committee on Asian Economy and the Committee on Latin American Economy, have been organized; and in the field of business administration theCommittee on Company Accounting has been formed. The said special research workis carried on by the faculty of the Institute and by extra--Institute and extraUniversity research workers.

The results of the research work are published in the Kobe Economic & Business Review, the Kobe University Internationa1 Economic Review and the Kobe
University Business Review (each published annually) and in the monthly journal"Kokumin Keizai Zasshi" (Journal of Economics and Business Administration), andsometimes in book from on specific themes.
The Institute has a research staff of 24 members and a secretariate of 12 clerks.

il THE REsEARcH INSTITuTE FORl ECoNOMIcS & BUSINESS ADMINISTRATIONi KOBE UNIVERSI"T"Yii Director: Susumu WATANABEl Secretary: Toshio HARA

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lt - v tttt-ttttTT-t--r-"sJJ-Jtt-;i GROUPOFINTERNATIONAL 1 GROUPOFBUSINESS:tl ECONOM]CRESEARCH I ADMINISTRATIONRESEARCHI
i Ginjire SHIBATA Professorof lnternationali• Susumu WATANABE Professor of Accounting,i

I Fukuo KAwATAli' HiroshisHmJoii1, Torasaburo NoMuRA:ii Tare KAwAKAMIi: Jiro YAol Tei-ichiYAMAsAKi

Trade and Marine Econo-:Dr. of Business
Admlnistration

mics Dr. of Econornics. I',
professor of Internationa]l

Trade
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Profes6or of rnternational:

Minoru BEIKA

Finance Dr.ofEconomics['

ProfesBor of I
Transportation l'Professor of Private iInternational Law i

Professor of l'Profeseor of Plant
LocationDr. of Business
Administration

Yoshimoto KoBAyAsHl Professorof Business
Mafiagement
Dr. of Businese
Administration

International Finanee i
Assistant professor of Ii Seiji sA$AKt
il Masahire FuJiTAi

i Hikoji KATANO

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Assistant Prefesser ofBusiness History

Assistant Professor of i
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Nobuko NosE

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Jiro ONo

Assistant in Business
Administration Section

Econernics Section l

Tetsuo.KoBAYASHI

Assistant in Accounting
SectionKihachiro TsuDo

Engineer in Business
Machinery Section

Assistant Professor of i'"tarine Economics l'International Trade I
i Hiromasa YAMAMOTO
Assistant in IMarine :ili: Yoshiaki NlsHTMUKAIli Jyun NAKAJ]MA
i' Yoshiro IKuSHtMAlAssistant in Regional Study:on Latin America Sectien l':

Assistant in International:

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Tomeko KusAKABE Assistant in Business

Office: The Kanematsu Memorial Hall,THE KOBE UNIVERSITYROKKO, KOBE, JAPANMachinery Section

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