The International Olympiad in Informatics Syllabus

1

Version and status information

This is the official Syllabus version used for IOI 2024.
There have been no changes since the version used at IOI 2023.
The most recent changes to this document were made and published in
March 2022 and then presented during IOI 2022. A version of this Syllabus
with the most recent set of changes highlighted in red is available here:
https://algo.sk/ioi-syllabus/ioi-syllabus-2023-draft.pdf
The Syllabus is an official document related to the IOI. For each IOI,
an up-to-date version of the Syllabus is produced by the ISC, as describedin the IOI Regulations, Statue 3.13.

2

Authors and Contact Information

The original proposal of the IOI Syllabus was co-authored by Tom Verhoeff1 ,Gyula Horváth2 , Krzysztof Diks3 , and Gordon Cormack4 .
Since 2007, the following people have also maintained the syllabus andmade significant contributions: Michal Forišek5 , Jakub La̧cki6 , and Richard
Peng7 .
You are welcome to send any feedback on the Syllabus to the current
maintainer’s e-mail address (misof@algo.sk).
1

TU Eindhoven, The Netherlands, t.verhoeff@tue.nl
University of Szeged, Hungary, horvath@inf.u-szeged.hu
3Warsaw University, Poland, diks@mimuw.edu.pl
4
University of Waterloo, Canada, gvcormac@uwaterloo.ca
5
Comenius University, Slovakia, misof@algo.sk
6
Warsaw University, Poland, j.lacki@mimuw.edu.pl
7
Georgia Tech, USA, richard.peng@gmail.com

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The IOI Syllabus – Version 20242

For people interested in contributing to the quality of the Syllabus, some
additional background on the Syllabus and other miscellaneous information
can be found at https://algo.sk/ioi-syllabus/.

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3Introduction

During the years, the Syllabus has evolved. Currently it has the following
purposes: It specifies a small set of required prerequisite knowledge. Below, thisis given in the category “Included, unlimited” and to some extent alsoin “Included, to be defined”.
 It serves as a set of guidelines that help decide whether a task issuitable for the International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI). Based on
this document, the International Scientific Committee (ISC) evaluates
the task proposals when selecting the competition tasks.
 As a consequence of the previous item, another purpose of the Syllabus
is to help the organizers of national olympiads prepare their students
for the IOI.

The Syllabus aims to achieve these goals by providing a classificationof topics and concepts from mathematics and computer science. More precisely, this Syllabus classifies each topic into one of six categories. Orderedby topic suitability, these are:Included, unlimited✓
Included, to be defined✓
Included, not for task description?
Outside of focus✗? Excluded, but open to discussion✗
Explicitly excluded✓

In the next section we explain the scope of each category.

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4Categories

This Syllabus classifies a selection of topics into six different categories. Obviously, such a set of topics can never be exhaustive. Instead, the list givenin this Syllabus should serve as examples that map out the boundary. Topics
not explicitly mentioned in the Syllabus should be classified as follows: Anything that is a prerequisite of an Included topic is also Included.
 Anything that is an extension of an Excluded topic or similar to an
Excluded topic is also Excluded.
 Anything else that is not mentioned in the Syllabus is considered Outside of focus.

Note that issues related to the usage of suitable terminology and notations in competition tasks are beyond the scope of this document.8
If there is a particular topic for which you are not sure how it should
be classified, we invite you to submit a clarification request to the current
Syllabus maintainer.
Here are the definitions of the six possible classifications:✓ Included, unlimited

Topics in this category are considered to be prerequisite knowledge.
Contestants are expected to know them. These topics can appear intask descriptions without further clarification.
Example: Integer in §5.1
Included, to be definedContestants should know this topic, but when it appears in a task
description, the statement should contain a sufficient definition. This
category is usually applied in situations where a general concept thatwould be ✓ has many different “flavors” and a formal definition isneeded to distinguish among those.

✓

Example: Directed graph in §5.2 DS2Included, not for task description
Topics that belong to this category should not appear in tasks descriptions. However, developing solutions and understanding model
solutions may require the knowledge of these topics.

✓

8

See T. Verhoeff: Concepts, Terminology, and Notations for IOI Competition Tasks,
http://scienceolympiads.org/ioi/sc/documents/terminology.pdf

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Example: Asymptotic analysis of upper complexity bounds in §6.2 AL1
Note: This is the main category that should be of interest when preparing contestants for the IOI. It should be noted that this set of topics
contains a wide range of difficulties, starting from simple concepts andending with topics that can appear in problems that aim to distinguishamong the gold medallists. It is not expected that all contestants
should know everything listed in this category.
? Outside of focus

Any topic that is not explicitly addressed by the Syllabus should beconsidered to belong to this category.
Contestants are not expected to have knowledge of these topics. Most
competition tasks will not be related to any topics from this category.
However, this does not prevent the inclusion of a competition taskthat is related to a particular topic from this category. The ISC may
wish to include such a competition task in order to broaden the scopeof the IOI.
If such a task is considered for the IOI, the ISC will make sure thatthe task can reasonably be solved without prior knowledge of the particular topic, and that the task can be stated in terms of ✓ and ✓concepts in a precise, concise, and clear way.
Examples of such tasks being used at recent IOIs include: Languages (a.k.a. Wikipedia) from IOI 2010 in Canada Odometer (a.k.a. robot with pebbles) from IOI 2012 in Italy Art class from IOI 2013 in Australia.
✗ Explicitly excluded

Some of the harder algorithmic topics are explicitly marked as excluded. It is guaranteed that there will not be a competition task that
requires the contestants to know these areas.
Furthermore, the tasks will be set with the goal that knowledge of Excluded topics should not help in obtaining simpler solutions / solutions
worth more points.
This category contains topics whose inclusion will result in problems
that are unaccessible to a significant portion of IOI participants. This
includes but is not limited to hard textbook algorithms and advanced
areas in mathematics.

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Still, note that the Syllabus must not be interpreted to restrict in any
way the techniques that contestants are allowed to apply in solving
the competition tasks.
Examples: Calculus in §5.3✗? Excluded, but open to discussion

As the Syllabus is a living document, there can be cases when we consider bringing in some of the Excluded topics. Usually, the topics inquestion are natural extensions of Included topics, or ones where drawing an exact boundary is difficult. Should such topics appear, they will
be temporarily classified as “Excluded, but open to discussion”, andby doing so we encourage all members of the IOI community to give
us feedback on these topics.
The rest of this document contains the classification of topics.

5

Mathematics

5.1

Arithmetics and Geometry
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✗
✗
✗
✗
✗
✗

Integers, operations (incl. exponentiation), comparison
Basic properties of integers (sign, parity, divisibility)
Basic modular arithmetic: addition, subtraction,
multiplication
Prime numbers
Fractions, percentages
Line, line segment, angle, triangle, rectangle, square, circle
Point, vector, coordinates in the plane
Polygon (vertex, side/edge, simple, convex, inside, area)
Euclidean distances
Pythagorean theorem
Geometry in 3D or higher dimensional spaces
Analyzing and increasing precision of floating-pointcomputations
Modular division and inverse elements
Complex numbers
General conics (parabolas, hyperbolas, ellipses)
Trigonometric functions

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5.2

Discrete Structures (DS)DS1. Functions, relations, and sets
✓
✓
✓

✗

Functions (surjections, injections, inverses, composition)
Relations (reflexivity, symmetry, transitivity, equivalence
relations, total/linear order relations, lexicographic order)
Sets (inclusion/exclusion, complements, Cartesian products,
power sets)
Cardinality and countability (of infinite sets)

DS2. Basic logic✓

First-order logic
Logical connectives (incl. their basic properties)
Truth tables
Universal and existential quantification (Note: statements
should avoid definitions with nested quantifiers wheneverpossible.)
Modus ponens and modus tollens?

Normal forms✗

Validity
Limitations of predicate logic

✓
✓
✓
✓

✗

DS3. Proof techniques
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓

Notions of implication, converse, inverse, contrapositive,
negation, and contradiction
Direct proofs, proofs by: counterexample, contraposition,
contradiction
Mathematical induction
Strong induction (also known as complete induction)
Recursive mathematical definitions (incl. mutually recursive definitions)

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DS4. Basics of counting
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✗
✗

Counting arguments (sum and product rule, arithmetic andgeometric progressions, Fibonacci numbers)
Permutations and combinations (basic definitions)
Factorial function, binomial coefficients
Inclusion-exclusion principle
Pigeonhole principle
Pascal’s identity, Binomial theorem
Solving of recurrence relations
Burnside lemma

DS5. Graphs and trees
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✗
✗
✗
✗
✗
9

Undirected graphs (vertex/node, edge, degree, adjacency,
vertex and edge labels)
Directed graphs (in-degree, out-degree)Multigraphs, graphs with self-loops
Paths in graphs (undirected and directed path, cycle, tour,
walk; Euler tour; Hamiltonian path/cycle)
Reachability (connected component, shortest distance)
Trees (leaf, diameter, center, centroid, forest)
Rooted trees (root, parent, child, ancestor, subtree)
Spanning trees (subgraph)
Traversal strategies
Bipartite graphs
Directed acyclic graphs
Planar graphs
Basic combinatorial properties of graphs9
Hypergraphs
Specific graph classes such as perfect graphs
Structural parameters such as treewidth and expansion
Planarity testing
Finding separators for planar graphs

This item includes various relationships between the numbers of vertices, edges andconnected components in graphs as well as vertex degrees and other similar properties.
Examples include the Handshaking lemma and Euler characteristic for planar graphs.

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9DS6. Discrete probability
Applications where everything is finite (and thus arguments aboutprobability can be easily turned into combinatorial arguments)
are ?, everything more complicated is ✗.

5.3

Other Areas in Mathematics✗✗

Geometry in three or more dimensions.
Linear algebra, including (but not limited to):– Matrix multiplication, exponentiation,
inversion, and Gaussian elimination– Fast Fourier transform✗✗✗

Calculus
Theory of combinatorial games, e.g., NIM game, SpragueGrundy theory
Statistics

6

Computing Science

6.1

Programming Fundamentals (PF)PF1. Fundamental programming constructs(for abstract machines)
✓

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓

Basic syntax and semantics of a higher-level language (atleast one of the specific languages available at an IOI, as
announced in the Competition Rules for that IOI)
Variables, types, expressions, and assignment
Simple I/O
Conditional and iterative control structures
Functions and parameter passing
Structured decomposition

PF2. Algorithms and problem-solving✓

10

Problem-solving strategies (understand–plan–do–check, separation of concerns, generalization, specialization, case distinction, working backwards, etc.)10

See G. Polya: How to Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method, Princeton
Univ. Press, 1948

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✓
✓
✓
✓

10

The role of algorithms in the problem-solving process
Implementation strategies for algorithms (also see §7 SE1)
Debugging strategies (also see §7 SE3)
The concept and properties of algorithms (correctness, efficiency)

PF3. Fundamental data structures
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
?
?
?
?
✗

Primitive types (boolean, signed/unsigned integer, character)
Arrays (incl. multicolumn dimensional arrays)
Strings and string processing
Static and stack allocation (elementary automatic memory
management)
Linked structures
Implementation strategies for graphs and trees
Strategies for choosing the right data structure
Elementary use of real numbers in numerically stable tasks
The floating-point representation of real numbers, the existence of precision issues.11
Pointers and references
Data representation in memory,
Heap allocation,
Runtime storage management,
Using fractions to perform exact calculations.
Non-trivial calculations on floating point numbers, manipulating precision errors

Regarding floating point numbers, there are well-known reasons
why they should be, in general, avoided at the IOI.12 However,the currently used interface removes some of those issues. In
particular, it should now be safe to use floating point numbers insome types of tasks – e.g., to compute some Euclidean distancesand return the smallest one.
11

Whenever possible, avoiding floating point computations completely is the preferredsolution.
12
See G. Horváth and T. Verhoeff: Numerical Difficulties in Pre-University Education
and Competitions, Informatics in Education 2:21–38, 2003

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PF4. Recursion
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓

The concept of recursion
Recursive mathematical functions
Simple recursive procedures (incl. mutual recursion)
Divide-and-conquer strategies
Implementation of recursion
Recursive backtracking

PF5. Event-driven programming
Some competition tasks may involve a dialog with a reactive environment. Implementing such an interaction with the provided
environment is ✓ .
Everything not directly related to the implementation of reactive
tasks is ?.

6.2

Algorithms and Complexity (AL)We quote from the IEEE-CS Curriculum:
Algorithms are fundamental to computer science and software engineering.
The real-world performance of any software system depends only on two
things: (1) the algorithms chosen and (2) the suitability and efficiency ofthe various layers of implementation. Good algorithm design is therefore
crucial for the performance of all software systems. Moreover, the study ofalgorithms provides insight into the intrinsic nature of the problem as wellas possible solution techniques independent of programming language,
programming paradigm, computer hardware, or any other implementation
aspect.

AL1. Basic algorithmic analysis
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓

Algorithm specification, precondition, postcondition, correctness, invariants
Asymptotic analysis of upper complexity bounds (informally if possible)
Big O notation
Standard complexity classes: constant, logarithmic, linear,O(n log n), quadratic, cubic, exponential, etc.
Time and space tradeoffs in algorithms

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The IOI Syllabus – Version 2024✓

Empirical performance measurements.

?

Identifying differences among best, average, and worst casebehaviors,
Little o, Omega, and Theta notation,
Tuning parameters to reduce running time, memory consumption or other measures of performance

?
?

✗
✗

12

Asymptotic analysis of average complexity bounds
Using recurrence relations to analyze recursive algorithms

AL2. Algorithmic strategies
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
?
?
?
?
✗
✗

Simple loop design strategies
Brute-force algorithms (exhaustive search)
Greedy algorithms
Divide-and-conquer
Backtracking (recursive and non-recursive), Branch-andboundDynamic programming13
Heuristics
Finding good features for machine learning tasks14Discrete approximation algorithms
Randomized algorithms.
Clustering algorithms (e.g. k-means, k-nearest neighbor)
Minimizing multi-variate functions using numerical approaches.

AL3a. Algorithms
✓

13
14

Simple algorithms involving integers: radix conversion, Eu√
clid’s algorithm, primality test by O( n) trial division,
Sieve of Eratosthenes, factorization (by trial division or asieve), efficient exponentiation

The IEEE-CS Curriculum puts this under AL8, but we believe it belongs here.
E.g., finding a good way to classify images in the IOI 2013 Art class problem.

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✓
✓

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓

Simple operations on arbitrary precision integers (addition,
subtraction, simple multiplication)15
Simple array manipulation (filling, shifting, rotating, reversal, resizing, minimum/maximum, prefix sums, histogram,bucket sort)
Simple string algorithms (e.g., naive substring search)
sequential processing/search and binary search
Quicksort and Quickselect to find the k-th smallest element.
O(n log n) worst-case sorting algorithms (heap sort, merge
sort)
Traversals of ordered trees (pre-, in-, and post-order)
Depth- and breadth-first traversals
Applications of the depth-first traversal tree, such as topological ordering and Euler paths/cycles
Finding connected components and transitive closures.
Shortest-path algorithms (Dijkstra, Bellman-Ford, FloydWarshall)
Minimum spanning tree (Jarnı́k-Prim and Kruskal algorithms)
O(V E) time algorithm for computing maximum bipartite
matching.
Biconnectivity in undirected graphs (bridges, articulation
points).
Connectivity in directed graphs (strongly connected components).
Basics of combinatorial game theory, winning and losing
positions, minimax algorithm for optimal game playing✗?

Maximum flow. Flow/cut duality theorem.

✗

Optimization problems that are easiest to analyze using
matroid theory. Problems based on matroid intersecions(except for bipartite matching).
Lexicographical BFS, maximum adjacency search and theirproperties

✗

13

15
The necessity to implement these operations should be obvious from the problem
statement.

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AL3b. Data structures
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✗?

Data structures for dynamically changing trees and theiruse in graph algorithms.

✗

String algorithms and data structures (KMP, Rabin-Karphashing, suffix arrays/trees, suffix automata, Aho-Corasick)Complex heap variants such as binomial and Fibonacci heaps,
Using and implementing hash tables (incl. strategies toresolve collisions)Two-dimensional tree-like data structures (such as a 2D
statically balanced binary tree or a treap of treaps) usedfor 2D queries.

✗
✗
✗

16

Stacks and queues
Representations of graphs (adjacency lists, adjacency matrix)
Binary heap data structures
Representation of disjoint sets: the Union-Find data structure.
Statically balanced binary search trees. Instances of this include binary index trees (also known as Fenwick trees) andsegment trees (also known as interval trees and tournament
trees).16
Balanced binary search trees17
Augmented binary search trees
O(log n) time algorithms for answering lowest common ancestor queries in a static rooted tree.18
Decomposition of static trees (heavy-light decomposition,
separator structures such as centroid decomposition)
Creating persistent data structures by path copying.
Nesting of data structures, such as having a sequence of
sets.
Tries

Not to be confused with similarly-named data structures used in computational geometry.
17
Problems will not be designed to distinguish between the implementation of BBSTs,
such as treaps, splay trees, AVL trees, or scapegoat trees
18
Once again, different implementations meeting this requirement will not be distinguished.

The IOI Syllabus – Version 2024✗

Fat nodes and other more complicated ways of implementing persistent data structures.

AL4. Distributed algorithms
This entire section is ?.
AL5. Basic computability
All topics related to computability are ✗. This includes thefollowing: Tractable and intractable problems; Uncomputablefunctions; The halting problem; Implications of uncomputability.
However, see AL7 for basic computational models.
AL6. The complexity classes P and NP
Topics related to non-determinism, proofs of NP-hardness (reductions), and everything related is ✗.
Note that this section only covers the results usually containedin undergraduate and graduate courses on formal languages andcomputational complexity. The classification of these topics as✗ does not mean that an NP-hard problem cannot appear at an
IOI.
AL7. Automata and grammars✓

Understanding a simple grammar in Backus-Naur form?

Formal definition and properties of finite-state machines,
Context-free grammars and related rewriting systems,
Regular expressions?
?
✗

Properties other than the fact that automata are graphs
and that grammars have parse trees.

AL8. Advanced algorithmic analysis✓

Amortized analysis.

?

Online algorithms

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Randomized algorithms✗

Alpha-beta pruning

16

AL9. Cryptographic algorithms
This entire section is ?.
AL10. Geometric algorithms
In general, the ISC has a strong preference towards problems
that can be solved using integer arithmetics to avoid precision
issues. This may include representing some computed values asexact fractions, but extensive use of such fractions in calculations
is discouraged.
Additionally, if a problem uses two-dimensional objects, the ISC
prefers problems in which such objects are rectilinear.
✓
✓

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✗
✗
✗
19

Representing points, vectors, lines, line segments.
Checking for collinear points, parallel/orthogonal vectors
and clockwise turns (for example, by using dot products
and cross products).
Intersection of two lines.
Computing the area of a polygon from the coordinates of
its vertices.19
Checking whether a (general/convex) polygon contains apoint.
Coordinate compression.
O(n log n) time algorithms for convex hull
Sweeping line method
Point-line duality
Halfspace intersection, Voronoi diagrams, Delaunay triangulations.
Computing coordinates of circle intersections against lines
and circles.

The recommended way of doing so is to use cross products or an equivalent formula.
See e.g. http://geomalgorithms.com/a01-_area.html

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Linear programming in 3 or more dimensions and its geometric interpretations.
Center of mass of a 2D object.
Computing and representing the composition of geometrictransformations if the knowledge of linear algebra gives anadvantage.

AL11. Parallel algorithms
This entire section is ?.

6.3

Other Areas in Computing Science
Except for GV (specified below), all areas are ✗.
AR. Architecture and Organization
OS. Operating Systems
NC. Net-Centric Computing (a.k.a. cloud computing)
PL. Programming Languages
HC. Human-Computer Interaction
GV. Graphics and Visual Computing
Basic aspects of processing graphical data are ?, everything else (including the use of graphics libraries such as
OpenGL) is ✗.
IS. Intelligent Systems
IM. Information Management
SP. Social and Professional Issues
CN. Computational Science
Notes: AR is about digital systems, assembly language, instruction pipelining, cache memories, etc. OS is about the design ofoperating systems, not their usage. PL is about the analysis anddesign of programming languages, not their usage. HC is about
the design of user interfaces.
Usage of the operating system, GUIs and programming languages is covered in §8 and §6.1.

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7

Software Engineering (SE)We quote from the IEEE-CS Curriculum:
Software engineering is the discipline concerned with the application of theory,knowledge, and practice for effectively and efficiently building software systems
that satisfy the requirements of users and customers.

In the IOI competition, the application of software engineering
concerns the use of light-weight techniques for small, one-off,single-developer projects under time pressure. All included topics are ✓ .
SE1. Software design✓✓✓

Fundamental design concepts and principles
Design patterns
Structured design

In particular, contestants may be expected to– Transform an abstract algorithm into a concrete, efficient
program expressed in one of the allowed programming languages, possibly using standard or competition-specific libraries.
– Make their programs read data from and write data to text
files according to a prescribed simple format✗✗✗✗

Software architecture,
Design for reuse,
Object-Oriented analysis and design,
Component-level design

SE2. Using APIs✓

API (Application Programming Interface) programming

In particular, contestants may be expected to– Use competition-specific libraries according to the provided
specification.
✗

Programming by example,

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Debugging in the API environment,
Class browsers and related tools,
Introduction to component-based computing

SE3. Software tools and environments✓

Programming environments, incl. IDE (Integrated Development Environment)

In particular, contestants may be expected to– Write and edit program texts using one of the provided
program editors.
– Compile and execute their own programs.
– Debug their own programs.
✗✗✗✗

Testing tools,
Configuration management tools
Requirements analysis and design modeling tools,
Tool integration mechanisms

SE4. Software processes✓

Software life-cycle and process models

In particular, contestants may be expected to– Understand the various phases in the solution development
process and select appropriate approaches.
✗✗

Process assessment models,
Software process metrics

SE5. Software requirements and specification✓

Functional and nonfunctional requirements✓

Basic concepts of formal specification techniques

In particular, contestants may be expected to

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The IOI Syllabus – Version 2024
– Transform a precise natural-language description (with orwithout mathematical formalism) into a problem in termsof a computational model, including an understanding of
the efficiency requirements.
✗✗✗

Prototyping,
Requirements elicitation,
Requirements analysis modeling techniquesSE6. Software validation✓✓✓✓

Testing fundamentals, including test plan creation and test
case generation
Black-box and white-box testing techniques
Unit, integration, validation, and system testing
Inspections

In particular, contestants may be expected to– Apply techniques that maximize the the opportunity to detect common errors (e.g. through well-structured code, code
review, built-in tests, test execution).
– Test (parts of) their own programs.
✗✗

Validation planning,
Object-oriented testingSE7. Software evolution
✗
✗
✗
✗
✗

Software maintenance,
Characteristics of maintainable software,
Re-engineering,
Legacy systems,
Software reuse

SE8. Software project management✓✓✓

Project scheduling (especially time management)
Risk analysis
Software configuration management

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In particular, contestants may be expected to– Manage time spent on various activities.
– Weigh risks when choosing between alternative approaches.
– Keep track of various versions and their status while developing solutions.
✗✗✗✗

Software quality assurance,
Team management,
Software measurement and estimation techniques,
Project management tools

SE9. Component-based computingThis entire section is ✗.
SE10. Formal methods✓✓

Formal methods concepts (notion of correctness proof, invariant)
Pre and post assertions

In particular, contestants may be expected to– Reason about the correctness and efficiency of algorithms
and programs.
✗✗✗

Formal verification,
Formal specification languages,
Executable and non-executable specifications

SE11. Software reliability
This entire section is ✗.
SE12. Specialized systems development
This entire section is ✗.

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8

Computer Literacy
The text of this section is ✓ .
Contestants should know and understand the basic structure
and operation of a computer (CPU, memory, I/O). They are
expected to be able to use a standard computer with graphicaluser interface, its operating system with supporting applications,and the provided program development tools for the purpose ofsolving the competition tasks. In particular, some skill in file
management is helpful (creating folders, copying and moving
files).
Details of these facilities will be stated in the Competition Rulesof the particular IOI. Typically, some services are available througha standard web browser. Possibly, some competition-specifictools are made available, with separate documentation.
It is often the case that a number of equivalent tools are madeavailable. The contestants are not expected to know all thefeatures of all these tools. They can make their own choice basedon what they find most appropriate.
The following topics are all ?: Calculator, Word-processors, Spreadsheet applications, Database management systems, E-mail clients,
Graphics tools (drawing, painting).

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