JANUARY 2016

Asia-Pacific Rebalance 2025
Capabilities, Presence,
and Partnerships
An Independent Review of U.S. Defense Strategy in the Asia-Pacificstudy directors

team leads

Michael Green
Kathleen Hicks
Mark Cancian

Zack Cooper
John Schaus

contributing authors

Ernest Bower, Victor Cha, Heather Conley, Ryan Crotty, Melissa Dalton,
Bonnie Glaser, Rebecca Hersman, Murray Hiebert, Christopher Johnson,
Thomas Karako, Stephanie Sanok Kostro, Gregory Poling, Richard Rossow,
Sharon Squassoni, Nicholas Szechenyi, and Denise Zheng

JANUARY 2016

Asia-Pacific Rebalance 2025
Capabilities, Presence,
and Partnerships
An Independent Review of U.S. Defense Strategy in the Asia-Pacificstudy directors

team leads

Michael Green
Kathleen Hicks
Mark Cancian

Zack Cooper
John Schaus

contributing authors

Ernest Bower, Victor Cha, Heather Conley, Ryan Crotty, Melissa Dalton,
Bonnie Glaser, Rebecca Hersman, Murray Hiebert, Christopher Johnson,
Thomas Karako, Stephanie Sanok Kostro, Gregory Poling, Richard Rossow,
Sharon Squassoni, Nicholas Szechenyi, and Denise Zheng

ABOUT CSISFOR OVER 50 YEARS, the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) has worked
to develop solutions to the world’s greatest policy challenges. Today, CSIS scholars are providing
strategic insights and bipartisan policy solutions to help decisionmakers chart a course toward abetter world.
CSIS is a nonprofit organization headquartered in Washington, D.C. The Center’s 220 full-time
staff and large network of affiliated scholars conduct research and analysis and develop policy
initiatives that look into the future and anticipate change.
Founded at the height of the Cold War by David M. Abshire and Admiral Arleigh Burke, CSIS wasdedicated to finding ways to sustain American prominence and prosperity as a force for good in
the world. Since 1962, CSIS has become one of the world’s preeminent international institutions
focused on defense and security; regional stability; and transnational challenges ranging fromenergy and climate to global health and economic integration.
Thomas J. Pritzker was named chairman of the CSIS Board of Trustees in November 2015. Former U.S. deputy secretary of defense John J. Hamre has served as the Center’s president andchief executive officer since 2000.
CSIS does not take specific policy positions; accordingly, all views expressed herein should beunderstood to be solely those of the author(s).

© 2016 by the Center for Strategic and International Studies. All rights reserved.

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CONTENTS
VI | EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
X | ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
1 | 1. INTRODUCTION
2 Overview of the Rebalance to Asia
5 Study Background
6 Report Methodology

9 | 2. U.S. INTERESTS AND RISKS IN ASIA
10 U.S. Interests in Asia
10 China
19 North Korea
23 Russia
27 Nonstate Risks

31 | 3. U.S. FORCE POSTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC
32 Current U.S. Force Posture in the Asia-Pacific
42 United States Presence Activities
43 Additional Security Challenges

49 | 4. THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
51 Japan
60 South Korea
66 Australia
73 Philippines
78 Thailand
82 India
87 Taiwan
94 Malaysia
97 Singapore
101 IndonesiaIII105 Vietnam
108 Security Contributions of Regional Organizations

115 | 5. ANALYSIS OF CAPABILITY GAPS AND SHORTFALLS
117 Air Superiority and Global Strike
123 Naval and Maritime Forces
131 Ground Forces
135 Special Operations Forces
138 Missile Defense
142 Space
144 Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance
148 Cyber
151 Electronic Warfare
155 Nuclear Forces
159 Munitions
163 Strategic Mobility, Readiness, and Logistics
171 Theater Security Cooperation

177 | 6. ARCTIC AMBITIONS AND THE U.S. NAVY’S ARCTIC ROADMAP
178 Understanding the Arctic: A Rapidly Changing Region
180 PACOM’s Changing Arctic Responsibilities
181 Russia’s Strategic Interests in the Arctic
183 Increased Presence of Asian Countries in the Arctic
187 The U.S. Navy Arctic Roadmap
188 Lack of U.S. Icebreaking Capabilities and Future U.S. Challenges
189 Policy Recommendations for the Arctic

193 | 7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SUSTAINING THE REBALANCE
195 1. Align Asia Strategy within the U.S. Government and with Allies and Partners
197 2. Strengthen Ally and Partner Capability, Capacity, Resilience, and Interoperability
201 3. Sustain and Expand U.S. Military Presence
208 4. Accelerate Development of Innovative Capabilities and ConceptsIV213 | APPENDICES
214 Appendix A: National Defense Authorization Act of 2015—Section 1059
216 Appendix B: 2012 Study Recommendations
219 Appendix C: Dealing with a Changed Fiscal Environment
225 Appendix D: Select CSIS Study Team Recommendations, in Brief
230 Appendix E: About the Authors
240 Appendix F: Acronyms
247 Appendix G: References

Figures
17 Figure 1:

Chinese Headquarters Locations and Missile Ranges

22 Figure 2:

North Korean Military Headquarters and Nuclear Sites

27 Figure 3:

Nonstate Concerns in the Asia-Pacific

33 Figure 4:

Significant U.S. Military Elements in the PACOM AOR

36 Figure 5:

Major U.S. Forces in Japan (main islands)

37 Figure 6:

Major U.S. Forces in Okinawa

39 Figure 7:

Major U.S. Forces in South Korea

41 Figure 8:

Main U.S. Facilities in Guam

50 Figure 9:

Regional Military Forces in the Asia-Pacific

53 Figure 10:

Japanese Air, Naval, and Amphibious Force Posture

63 Figure 11:

South Korean Force Posture

72 Figure 12:

Australian Air and Naval Bases and Operating Locations

109 Figure 13:

Participation in Major Regional Organizations

179 Figure 14:

Arctic Sea Routes

220 Figure 15: Recent Fiscal Projections DOD Base Budget (constant dollars, billions),
FY 2006–2021

V

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYIN NOVEMBER 2011, PRESIDENT OBAMA DECLARED, “the United States is turning[its] attention to the vast potential of the Asia Pacific region.” This announcement of a deliberate“rebalance” to Asia and the Pacific reflected the American people’s growing recognition of theimportance of the region to U.S. interests and the need to reassert American engagement andleadership after the uncertainty caused by the 2008 financial crisis and a decade of combat operations in Southwest Asia. The Obama administration’s rebalance built on policies begun in the
George W. Bush and prior administrations and added critical new elements such as participationin the East Asia Summit and enhanced engagement with Southeast Asia.
Overall, this increased focus on Asia and the Pacific enjoyed bipartisan support in the Congress,
but concerns emerged on both sides of the aisle about whether the administration had articulated a strategy to justify the resources required for new military construction needed to support
U.S. presence in the region. Seeking an external perspective on the administration’s approach,
Congress required the Department of Defense to commission an independent assessment of
U.S. strategy and force posture in the Asia-Pacific under the 2012 National Defense Authorization
Act. Tasked by the Department to conduct that study, the Center for Strategic and International
Studies (CSIS) concluded in September 2012 that there was a strong consensus in the U.S. government and among allies and partners with respect to the objectives of rebalancing U.S. force
posture, but no durable framework to guide specific lines of effort.
The 2012 CSIS study found that the administration needed a clearer articulation of U.S. strategy
to explain the requirement for forward posture. CSIS noted that the Pacific Command requires aforce posture that in peacetime enables the U.S. military to build partner capacity, cooperate oncommon challenges such as humanitarian assistance, and conduct joint and combined training
and exercises to enhance interoperability, and in wartime can prevail and achieve U.S. objectives.
To that end CSIS made recommendations, including better alignment of regional engagement
strategy within Pacific Command and with other government agencies; the stationing of anadditional attack submarine in Guam; deployment of a second amphibious ready group to the
Pacific; deployment of a Terminal High Altitude Area Defense battery to Guam; construction of
a second fuel pipeline on Guam; and rotational deployments of U.S. forces to South Korea. Manyof these recommendations were subsequently implemented by the Department of Defense, andCongress has approved the Department’s annual requests for regional military construction. The
2012 study recommendations are at Appendix B.
Since 2012, however, the international security environment has become significantly more
complicated. China has accelerated the frequency of its coercive activities and the pace of its
island-building in the East and South China Seas, and North Korea has continued developing its
nuclear and ballistic missile capabilities. Meanwhile, Russian revanchist activities and the emergence of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant have competed with the Asia-Pacific for attention and resources. Economically, the United States is recovering from the global financial crisisVIand Congress has passed Trade Promotion Authority necessary to complete the Trans-PacificPartnership, yet political challenges in Washington have resulted in steep cuts in planned defense
spending projections and limited the Defense Department’s flexibility to respond to strategicchanges. Militarily, the Pacific Command has fully embraced the rebalance, but the anti-accesschallenge is worsening and China’s tolerance for risk has exceeded most expectations. Taken
together, these trends demonstrate that the United States will need to remain focused on implementing the rebalance to the Asia-Pacific and adapting as regional circumstances change.
Recognizing the need to review the rebalance in light of changes in the security environment,
Congress tasked the Department of Defense to commission a new independent assessment
under the 2015 National Defense Authorization Act. This study revisits earlier recommendations
on U.S. strategy and force posture, but pursuant to the congressional tasking, it also assesses thecapabilities of U.S. allies and partners in light of evolving regional security challenges. The sevensections that follow address: 1) the overall strategic picture in Asia and the methodology for thisstudy; 2) U.S. interests and risks in the region; 3) the status of U.S. strategy and current and futureforce posture; 4) the roles and capabilities of regional allies and partners; 5) capability gaps andshortfalls; 6) security issues in the Arctic; and 7) recommendations for U.S. strategy and force
posture in the Asia-Pacific region toward 2025.
This study reconfirms the 2012 CSIS finding that the United States will continue to pursue threehistorically interrelated interests in Asia and the Pacific: protection of the American people andU.S. allies; promotion of trade and economic opportunity; and support for universal democratic
norms. Forward military posture and engagement will remain indispensable to these objectives
in the years ahead, both to shape patterns of cooperation and to ensure effective contingency
responses if crises or conflicts do occur.
Nevertheless, the study team is concerned that the administration’s rebalance effort may be insufficient to secure these interests. Chinese and North Korean actions are routinely challenging thecredibility of U.S. security commitments, and at the current rate of U.S. capability development, thebalance of military power in the region is shifting against the United States. Robust funding is needed
to implement the rebalance. Capping resources at the budget levels set by the Budget Control Act
would severely constrain implementation of the rebalance. Although the 2015 budget agreement
was a positive step, it does not provide the needed long-term funding levels and stability. To fully
implement the recommendations of this study requires resources at a level above the president's
budget. The rebalance to the Asia-Pacific will therefore require the Congress to forge a long-term
bipartisan agreement to fund defense at the higher levels for which there is a broad consensus
The CSIS study team thus identified four broad lines of effort that build upon and go beyond current administration efforts to sustain and implement the defense component of the rebalance ina more competitive and challenging regional environment.

VII• First, Washington needs to continue aligning Asia strategy within the U.S. government
and with allies and partners. The study finds that although the Obama administration has
issued a series of speeches and documents on the rebalance, there remains no central
statement of the U.S. government’s rebalance strategy. In interviews with leaders throughout the Department of Defense, in other U.S. departments and agencies, on Capitol Hill,and across the Asia-Pacific, the study team consistently heard confusion about the rebalance strategy and concern about its implementation. Indeed, a 2014 study by CSIS foundthat language used to describe the rebalance has changed substantially (and repeatedly)
since its announcement in 2011. Addressing this confusion will require that the executive
branch develop a clear and coherent strategy and discuss that strategy with Congress aswell as U.S. allies and partners across the world. We recommend preparing an Asia-Pacificstrategic report; increasing administration outreach to Congress; ensuring alignment between strategy and resources; better coordinating U.S. strategy with allies and partners; andexpanding confidence building and crisis management with China.
• Second, U.S. leaders should accelerate efforts to strengthen ally and partner capability, capacity, resilience, and interoperability. The study finds that security challenges are increasingly outpacing the capabilities of frontline regional states. Building ally and partner security
capability and capacity is in the United States’ interest. Many states are struggling to mitigate
regional security risks that range from major humanitarian crises to maritime disputes to missile threats. Increased regional capacity to manage security challenges lessens the dependency on the United States. Strengthening security capability, capacity, resilience, and interoperability in Asia requires a strategy that differentiates the requirements of highly capable allied
militaries from those of allies and partners with more basic defense needs. We recommend
pursuing federated approaches with highly capable regional allies; building maritime security capacity in Southeast Asia; forming a standing U.S. joint task force for maritime security;
encouraging Japan to establish a joint operations command; and further deepening regional
whole-of-government humanitarian assistance and disaster relief expertise.
• Third, the United States should sustain and expand U.S. military presence in the AsiaPacific. The study finds that leaders in Washington and in foreign capitals are concerned
about the long-term resilience and sustainability of legacy force posture, particularly inNortheast Asia. The U.S. military is a stabilizing force in the region, helping to deter conflicton the Korean Peninsula and manage crises from the East China Sea through the Indian
Ocean. Yet, the Chinese People’s Liberation Army’s anti-access/area denial capabilities thatmany once viewed as Taiwan-specific are rapidly expanding to the Second Island Chain andbeyond, affecting not only an increasing number of U.S. allies and partners, but also U.S.
territories such as Guam. Diversification of U.S. military posture remains critical not simply
for resilience against challenges in Northeast Asia, but also to contend with the growing
importance of Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean region. We reject the option of withdrawal from the Western Pacific because of these new challenges. Such a withdrawal would
lead to rapid deterioration of the security environment and render operations more difficult rather than easier. In this report, the authors offer recommendations needed to sustain

VIIIa predictable, credible, and robust forward presence capable of shaping the peacetime
security environment and prevailing in the event of conflict. We recommend continuing
to implement and resource key posture initiatives; increasing surface fleet presence; improving undersea capacity; deploying within the theater additional amphibious lift to allow
enhanced theater-wide engagement and crisis response; continuing to diversify air operating locations; bolstering regional missile defenses; advancing and adapting the U.S. Army’s
Regionally Aligned Forces concept; addressing logistical challenges; stockpiling critical precision munitions; and enhancing intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance cooperation
with allies within the region.
• Fourth, the United States should accelerate development of innovative capabilities
and concepts for U.S. forces. The study finds that as the United States looks to clarify its
Asia-Pacific strategy, strengthen regional allies and partners, and diversify military posture,
U.S. leaders will also need to pursue innovative capabilities and concepts to address themost challenging military risks. The authors identified critical capability gaps in two areas.
First are those capabilities required to defend against emerging risks to U.S. forces, such as
the growing ballistic missile risk to U.S. ships and forward bases. Second are those capabilities that would give the United States an asymmetric, cost-imposing counter to potential
regional competitors. The United States requires both sets of investments to ensure that
the U.S. military retains the ability to project combat power in the Asia-Pacific well into the
future. We recommend institutionalizing a culture of experimentation; encouraging rapid
platform evolution; developing advanced long-range missiles; funding innovative missile
defense concepts; fielding additional air combat systems; exploiting the U.S. undersea advantage; and augmenting space, cyber, and electronic warfare capabilities.
Executing an effective Asia strategy will require a clear and consistent approach across the U.S.
government; continuous dialogue with regional allies, partners, and competitors; robust economic engagement throughout the region; development of new military capabilities for deterrence and defense; prioritization of critical activities and their associated funding streams;
and close cooperation between the executive and legislative branches. This study assesses U.S.
progress to date and recommends initiatives necessary to protect U.S. interests in the PacificCommand area of responsibility through 2025.

IX

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
THIS PROJECT WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE WITHOUT the combined efforts of the International Security Program and the Asia Team at CSIS. The project co-directors,
Michael Green, Kathleen Hicks, and Mark Cancian, thank the many experts throughout CSIS whocontributed to the study, beginning with Zack Cooper and John Schaus, and including Ernest
Bower, Victor Cha, Heather Conley, Ryan Crotty, Melissa Dalton, Bonnie Glaser, Rebecca Hersman, Murray Hiebert, Christopher Johnson, Thomas Karako, Stephanie Kostro, Gregory Poling,
Rick Rossow, Sharon Squassoni, Nicholas Szechenyi, and Denise Zheng. In addition, the directors
would like to thank Jake Douglas and Andrew Metrick for extensive research and editing support,
as well as Caroline Amenabar, Alison Bours, and Paul Franz for developing graphics for the study.
Finally, the study directors would like to thank Anthony Bell, Kathryn Easop, Jaimie Hoskins, David Hookey, Tanya Jain, William Morris, Amber O’Rourke, Zachary White, and others who contributed to the final product.
The authors thank the Department of Defense for their support in conducting this study. In particular, the Office of the Secretary of Defense and the staff at the U.S. Pacific Command provided
valuable time and information for this review. We also express our appreciation to the Congress,
particularly the members and staffs of the House and Senate Armed Services Committees fortheir support in conducting this report.
In addition to those within the U.S. government, the authors consulted with many nongovernmental experts in Washington as well as government officials and nongovernment experts in the
Asia-Pacific region. Their insights and perspectives informed the report’s findings and analysis,
particularly on regional views of the United States and of the rebalance to Asia.
Finally, we wish to thank the senior review group for providing their valuable time to review thefindings of this report: the Honorable Richard Armitage, Lt. Gen. Thomas Conant (USMC, ret.),the Honorable Michèle Flournoy, Lt. Gen. Wallace “Chip” Gregson (USMC, ret.), Gen. Gary North(USAF, ret.), Adm. Gary Roughead (USN, ret.), Gen. Walter “Skip” Sharp (USA, ret.), and the Honorable James Steinberg. The authors are also grateful to Mr. Andrew Shearer, former national
security adviser to the prime minister of Australia, who provided valuable insights while a visiting
fellow at CSIS.
Although the findings of this report remain those of the authors, this study would not have beenpossible without the contributions of all those listed above.

X1 | INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

The Obama administration’s rebalance to the Asia-Pacific region was intended to demonstrate theUnited States’ commitment to work closely with allies and partners to maintain regional security andprosperity. Since its announcement in 2011, administration officials have taken actions to execute therebalance. Congressional support has been necessary for implementation of many of these actions,but some questions have persisted in Congress about aspects of U.S. strategy. In an effort to addressthese concerns, the National Defense Authorization Act of 2012 required that the Department of
Defense (DOD) commission an independent assessment of U.S. strategy and force posture in the
Asia-Pacific. The Center for Strategic and International Studies was tasked with that independent
assessment and issued its findings in September 2012, which helped to secure funding for critical efforts and identified potential new initiatives. Now, three years after CSIS’s first study, the Congress has
again requested an independent assessment that takes into account not only U.S. strategy and force
posture, but also that of U.S. allies and partners. The assessment that follows fulfills this tasking andsets forth an agenda for the United States in the Asia-Pacific through 2025.

OVERVIEW OF THE REBAL ANCE TO ASIA
President Barack Obama spoke of the United States’ interest in, and aspirations for, the Asia-Pacific during his 2011 speech to the Australian Parliament.
Here, we see the future. As the world’s fastest-growing region—and home tomore than half the global economy—the Asia Pacific is critical to achieving
my highest priority, and that’s creating jobs and opportunity for the American
people. With most of the world’s nuclear power and some half of humanity,
Asia will largely define whether the century ahead will be marked by conflict orcooperation, needless suffering or human progress.1
Subsequently, then-Secretary of State Hillary Clinton published a piece in Foreign Policy extolling“America’s Pacific Century.”2 The piece highlighted the significant role the Asia-Pacific region plays
for the United States, and how the United States has been, and will remain, engaged in the region.
As explained by the Obama administration, the rebalance to the Asia-Pacific is a whole of government effort with three primary lines of effort. First (and most visible to date) is the security
component. Second is the economic element, represented by the Trans-Pacific Partnership.
Third is the pursuit of human dignity.3 In this study, Congress required an assessment of only the
security element of the rebalance, although both Congress and the study authors recognize theimportance of the other two components.
In August 2015, Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter described the defense component of the
Asia-Pacific rebalance as consisting of the following four elements:• Investing in future capabilities relevant to the Asia-Pacific security environment;• Fielding adequate numbers of key capabilities already developed and finding new ways touse existing systems;

2

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

• Adapting regional force posture to be “geographically distributed, operationally resilient,and politically sustainable,” including deployment of more rotational forces into more places in Asia and an increased pace of exercises and training;• Reinforcing alliances and partnerships.4
Secretary Carter also noted that, amid its rebalance efforts, the U.S. relationship with China
would be a complex one, mixing elements of cooperation and competition. The U.S. rebalance
policy seeks to create space for China to contribute to peace and prosperity throughout the region while deterring Chinese aggression or coercion and defending U.S. interests.

Assessing the Defense Component of Rebalance
Four years into the rebalance, the Defense Department should receive high marks for sustained attention to the Asia-Pacific. Measured by senior-leader focus on the region, including meeting regularly
with senior leaders from the region—both in Asia and in the United States—the United States is maintaining a steady pace of engagement. Further, the Defense Department has increased the proportionof its capabilities dedicated to or deployed in the region. The Pentagon has also deployed new capabilities to the Asia-Pacific, including the F-22, Virginia-class submarines, and Terminal High Altitude
Area Defense (THAAD), among others. Together with the negotiation of new and updated posture
agreements with regional allies and partners, and the increase in exercises with countries from theIndian Ocean region through East Asia, these changes suggest the Defense Department is indeed
focused on a long-term rebalance strategy that includes capabilities, posture, and relationships.
Nevertheless, the United States will need to continue and in some cases accelerate investments
in regional relationships, posture, operational concepts, and capabilities if it is to achieve thestrategic goals of the rebalance. The past 14 years of war have left the military services withsignificant challenges in recapitalizing equipment used at a pace faster than programmed, reestablishing full-spectrum force readiness, and confronting an expanding range of challenges fromstate and nonstate actors globally. It is doing so while drawing down forces and structure and,the recent two-year budget deal notwithstanding, with lower long-term defense spending projections than planned even a few years ago. China’s rapidly expanding military investments andincreasingly coercive actions in the region demonstrate both the long-term and near-term challenges facing the United States and its allies and partners in protecting vital regional and global
interests. Although Washington seeks to cooperate with Beijing where it can, the United States
must also ensure that its engagements, posture, concepts, and capabilities allow it to shape, deter, and, if necessarily, decisively defeat threats to U.S. interests. The threat of invasion by North
Korea continues to decrease, but the North’s missile and nuclear programs continue unabatedwhile scenarios for instability within North Korea appear less remote going forward.
Over the last few years, the Asia-Pacific region has witnessed significant developments that requirea reappraisal of U.S. strategy and force posture, as well as an assessment of the strategy and force
posture of U.S. allies and partners. Many of these trends have improved prospects for regional security, but some new challenges are emerging, and some existing risks are worsening. These trends spanissue areas of geopolitics, diplomacy, economics, domestic politics, and military considerations.

3

INTRODUCTION

Geopolitically, most states in the Asia-Pacific region are embracing closer security and economic ties with the United States. At the same time, however, states across the region have become
more sensitive to China’s growing political, economic, and military power, and are potentiallyvulnerable to Beijing’s increasingly coercive behavior.
Polls in Asian countries indicate strong support for the rebalance, with the notable exception ofChina.5 The United States is working bilaterally, trilaterally, and multilaterally to reinforce criticalrules and norms that underpin a secure and prosperous regional and international order. Yet
despite these efforts, there is more acrimony and tension in the U.S.-China relationship, a generaldeterioration in relations with Russia, and increasing bellicosity from North Korea. In preparing
this study, the authors heard a consistent refrain from U.S. allies and partners that, despite theirappreciation for the goals of the rebalance, many regional observers worry that U.S. efforts tomanage the Iran nuclear negotiations, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, and conflict with the IslamicState of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) have distracted it from fully implementing the rebalance.
The administration has taken important steps to reinforce the rebalance strategy, beginningwith the 2012 Defense Strategic Guidance and recently, the August 2015 Asia-Pacific Maritime
Security Strategy prepared for Congress.6 The authors also found that the U.S. Pacific Command(PACOM) is well aligned with the rest of DOD in its various lines of effort, including theater campaign planning. Much progress has been made since 2012, when CSIS scholars found significant
disconnects across the U.S. government and with allies and partners. Nevertheless, the implementation of the rebalance may be insufficient to secure U.S. interests. Actions by countries in
the region routinely challenge the credibility of U.S. security commitments, and U.S. capability
development is not keeping pace with challenges by potential competitors, resulting in the balance of military power in the region shifting against the United States.
First, the Obama administration still has not articulated a clear, coherent, or consistent strategy forthe region, particularly when it comes to managing China’s rise. The language used to explain therebalance in administration speeches and documents has varied substantially over the last four
years.7 The 2012 CSIS independent assessment highlighted this shortcoming, but it remains a
problem in terms of reassuring allies and partners and sustaining congressional support.
Second, cuts to the defense budget from 2009–2015 have limited the Defense Department’s ability
to pursue the rebalance. The October 2015 budget agreement notwithstanding, long-term budget
uncertainty and the large cuts already implemented represent major changes from the environment that existed when CSIS scholars conducted the 2012 review.
Third, while the U.S. military has instituted major posture changes and is developing new military capabilities tostrengthen the rebalance, the anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) challenge is increasing and concerns are growing about the ability of potential adversaries to hold at risk forward-deployed and forward-operating forces
throughout the region. Chinese military strategy places a premium on investments in A2/AD capabilities. Its
A2/AD umbrella includes long-range cruise and ballistic missiles, advanced integrated air and missile defense(IAMD) systems, and submarines. The goal of these systems is to restrict or outright deny an attacker freedomof entry or maneuver. Chinese investments in cyber; electronic warfare (EW); a blue-water navy; missiles; andintelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities serve as powerful reminders of China’s plans to

4

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

push the United States out of the region in a conflict. These capabilities give China the ability to hold at risk U.S.
installations and naval assets in the Western Pacific, U.S. allies and partners, and the freedom to use international air and waterways on which the U.S. economy depends. Absent major operational or technology breakthroughs by the United States and its allies and partners, substantial risk remains that China’s strategy could
undermine the U.S. military’s ability to defend U.S. interests in the Asia-Pacific.
Fourth, China’s tolerance for risk has exceeded most expectations—as demonstrated by Beijing’s
increased operational tempo and construction of military airfields and facilities on seven featuresin the Spratly Islands. This risk tolerance requires the United States to reassess its China policy,
and may lead allies and partners to do the same.
Taken together, these trends suggest that the U.S. rebalance must be enhanced to fulfill defense
and deterrence requirements in the PACOM area of responsibility (AOR). Executing an effective
Asia-Pacific strategy will require a clear and consistent but agile approach; continuous dialogue
with regional allies, partners, and competitors; robust economic engagement throughout theregion; development of new military concepts and capabilities for deterrence, defense, and crisis
management; divestment of lower-priority activities if budget constraints continue; and close
cooperation between the executive and legislative branches. The pages that follow suggest how
the United States might adopt just such an approach.

STUDY BACKGROUND
In 2012, CSIS released a report entitled “U.S. Force Posture Strategy in the Asia Pacific Region: An Independent Assessment,” co-directed by David Berteau and Michael Green. That study was conductedpursuant to Section 346 of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012. The Congress
required that the Department of Defense commission an independent assessment of force posture
options for the Pacific Command area of responsibility, to include the following elements: a review ofcurrent and emerging U.S. national security interests in the Pacific Command area of responsibility; areview of current U.S. military force posture and deployment plans of Pacific Command; options forthe realignment of U.S. forces in the region to respond to new opportunities presented by allies andpartners; and the views of noted policy leaders and regional experts, including military commanders.
The 2012 study found that the consequences of conflict with China are almost unthinkable and should
be avoided to the greatest extent possible consistent with U.S. interests. The study also noted the needto achieve the right combination of assurance, dissuasion, and deterrence to maintain a favorable
peace and avoid conflict. The study concluded, “the ability of the United States to work with allies andpartners to achieve those peaceful ends will depend on the perceptions, both of allies and partners andof China, of the United States’ ability to prevail in the event of conflict. U.S. force posture must demonstrate a readiness and capacity to fight and win, even under more challenging circumstances associated with A2/AD and other risks to U.S. military operations in the Western Pacific. Forward presence
and engagement are not simply helpful to shaping the environment and setting the stage for effective
responses to contingencies—they are indispensable for minimizing the likelihood of larger conflicts.”8
The 2012 study assessed U.S. strategy and force posture, resulting in a set of policy options designed to strengthen the rebalance. While the Defense Department has implemented certain rec5

INTRODUCTION

ommendations, such as upgrading U.S. Army Pacific (USARPAC) to a four-star command and stationing an additional attack submarine in Guam, much work remains to be done. Most importantly,
despite the U.S. Pacific Command’s better alignment, Chinese coercive activities in East Asia haveincreased and highlight a growing disconnect between Washington’s policies and rising regional
threats. This disconnect is evidenced by the increasing concern from regional allies and partners
that the U.S. commitment to the rebalance is waning.

2015 Congressional Tasking
Acknowledging the need for a continued commitment to the Asia-Pacific region, Section 1059 of the
National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2015 required that the secretary of defense commission an independent review of the U.S. Asia-Pacific rebalance. This study fulfills that tasking. The
Congress required that the study focus on the 2015 to 2025 period and that it include the following:• Risks to U.S. national security interests in the Pacific Command area of responsibility as aresult of changes in the security environment through 2025;• Assessment of the current force posture and planned adjustments by the United States andits allies and partners in the region, as well as the expected impact of such adjustments on
the U.S. strategy to rebalance to the Asia-Pacific region;• Evaluation of the key capability gaps and shortfalls of the United States and its allies andpartners in the Asia-Pacific region, including undersea warfare (including submarines); naval
and maritime; ballistic missile defense (BMD); cyber; munitions; and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities;• Analysis of the willingness and capacity of allies, partners, and regional organizations tocontribute to the security and stability of the Asia-Pacific region, including potential required adjustments to U.S. military strategy based on that analysis;• Appraisal of the Arctic ambitions of actors in the Asia-Pacific region in the context of current and projected capabilities, including an analysis of the adequacy and relevance of the
Arctic Roadmap prepared by the navy;• Evaluation of theater security cooperation efforts of Pacific Command in the context ofcurrent and projected threats, and desired capabilities and priorities of the United Statesand its allies and partners;• Views of noted policy leaders and regional experts, including military commanders, in the
Asia-Pacific region.
Appendix A contains the statutory language and shows how this report addresses each of thecongressional requirements.

REPORT METHODOLOGY
In seeking to fulfill the requirements set forth by the Congress, the study authors established a
project team consisting of experts on Asia and security from across the institution. Members of
the project team met with senior officials throughout the Asia-Pacific and conducted research in
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Australia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, andVietnam. Members of the project team also traveled within the United States to Guam and Hawaii and consulted relevant officials in the Washington, D.C., region.
To conduct this study, the CSIS team adopted a strategy-driven, budget-informed approach. This
analysis begins with national interests, then identifies potential risks to those interests, and finallydetermines a strategy and associated policies. The study assesses U.S., ally, and partner capabilities and makes recommendations for closing capability gaps and capacity shortfalls. The study
notes that the fiscal environment will drive the viability of many recommendations and therefore
includes an assessment of the resource implications of its recommendations.

Senior Review GroupIn an effort to engage noted policy leaders in Washington, the study team enlisted a seniorreview group to assess the study’s preliminary findings. Members of the review group provided
valuable insights, but the authors take full responsibility for the content of the study. The seniorreview group included:• The Honorable Richard Armitage, former deputy secretary of state;• Lt. Gen. Thomas Conant (USMC, ret.), former deputy commander of PACOM;• The Honorable Michèle Flournoy, former under secretary of defense for policy;• Lt. Gen. Wallace “Chip” Gregson (USMC, ret.), former assistant secretary of defense for Asianand Pacific security affairs and former commander of Marine Corps Forces Pacific;• Gen. Gary North (USAF, ret.), former commander of Pacific Air Forces (PACAF);• Adm. Gary Roughead (USN, ret.), former chief of naval operations and former deputy commander of PACOM;• Gen. Walter “Skip” Sharp (USA, ret.), former commander of U.S. Forces Korea (USFK), Combined Forces Command (CFC), and United Nations Command (UNC); and• The Honorable James Steinberg, former deputy secretary of state.

Report StructureThis report responds to the specific requirements set forth in Section 1059 of the 2015 National Defense
Authorization Act. Section 1 has introduced the report and outlined the congressional tasking and themethodology used in this report. Section 2 describes U.S. interests and risks in Asia through 2025. Section 3 addresses the first of three major pillars in the Defense Department’s portion of the U.S. rebalance
effort: U.S. defense posture in Asia. Section 4 addresses the second major pillar: the role, capabilities,
and cooperation of regional allies, partners, and organizations. Section 5 addresses the third pillar ofthe defense rebalance: capabilities and concepts, and associated gaps and shortfalls. Section 6 assesses
the Arctic ambitions of various countries and discusses the U.S. Navy (USN) arctic roadmap, as explicitly
called for by Congress. Section 7 summarizes the study team’s highest-priority recommendations foradvancing the U.S. rebalance to Asia. Additional recommendations appear in Section 5 and Appendix D.

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U.S. INTERESTS AND RISKS IN ASIA

When President Obama announced the rebalance to the Asia-Pacific, he proclaimed, “The UnitedStates is turning its attention to the vast potential of the Asia Pacific region. . . . Our new focus on
this region reflects a fundamental truth—the United States has been, and always will be, a Pacificnation.”9 Indeed, the United States has engaged with Asia since at least 1784, and U.S. interestsin the region have been largely consistent for over 230 years. Understanding these interests, andpotential risks that might emerge over the next decade, is vital to developing a regional strategy.
This section therefore begins by defining U.S. interests in Asia. The section then addresses a series of national security concerns, ranging from China’s rise and North Korea’s belligerence to thechallenges from nonstate actors.

U.S. INTERESTS IN ASIA
Throughout its history, the United States has pursued three interrelated core interests in Asia.
First, U.S. leaders have sought to protect the security of the American people and U.S. allies. Second, U.S. leaders have attempted to expand trade and economic opportunity. Third, U.S. leaders
have supported universal democratic norms. These three interests form a longstanding framework for U.S. engagement in Asia and represent clear and consistent national interests.
In pursuing these interests, particularly the desire to protect the security of the American people, U.S. leaders have focused primarily on preventing the rise of a hostile hegemon within Asia
that would threaten U.S. interests in the Pacific. This geostrategic objective motivated U.S. policy
during the rise of Japan in the first half of the twentieth century and throughout the Cold War
with the Soviet Union during the second half of the twentieth century. China’s coercive behavior,particularly in disputed maritime areas, is once again raising questions about whether the UnitedStates needs to be concerned about a hostile hegemon in Asia. However, Washington’s containment policy during the Cold War is not the historical norm for the United States, nor would sucha strategy be feasible or appropriate vis-à-vis China today.
Managing the rise of the Asia-Pacific will require a mix of engagement, deterrence, and reassurance toward the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Although the changing security environment
presents challenges, a fundamental strength of the United States is that it has a stake in the
success of every nation, provided that those states uphold the rules and norms that have underpinned the regional and international order for the last 70 years. China has the potential to play a
critical role in either reinforcing or undermining regional and international order, so this section
first addresses the opportunities and risks posed by China’s rise.

CHINA
The course charted by China’s reemergence as a great power over the next few decades represents the primary strategic challenge for the United States and for the Asian security landscape
writ large. If China’s economic, military, and geopolitical influence continues to rise at even a
modest pace during this period, the world will witness the largest shift in the global distributionof power since the rise of the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
In many ways, it is precisely the multidimensional character of China’s resurgence—whether
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through Chinese initiatives like the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) or signals fromthe global community, such as the International Monetary Fund’s November decision to add
China’s currency, the renminbi, to its basket of major global currencies through the extensionof Special Drawing Rights—that has been among its most striking features. Moreover, if China surpasses the United States as the world’s largest economy in the next 10 to 15 years, it will
mark the first time in centuries that the world’s economic leader will be non-English speaking,non-Western, and non-democratic.
Of course, these are some major “ifs.” To stay on the path toward realizing this new global balance of power, China’s leaders will have to navigate successfully the many challenges they face
both at home and abroad. They will have to demonstrate sufficient foresight and flexibility torespond to immediate tactical concerns while always staying mindful of their geostrategic longgame. They will have to prove that China’s political and economic rise will be as sustainable overthe next 30 years as it has been over the last third of a century, even though the task they are
confronting now, as highlighted by the economy’s present struggles to maintain momentum,
arguably is much more complex than that faced by their predecessors. They will have to address worsening demographic challenges, particularly population aging. They will have to craft aworkable strategic framework for channeling the country’s growing wealth and power in a waythat facilitates China’s return to the dominant position in East Asia without sparking conflict with
their neighbors or, more importantly, with the United States. More fundamentally, they must findan answer to the nagging question of what type of great power China wants to be, including
whether or not to adhere to long-established global rules they had no hand in shaping.
Against this backdrop, finding a means to navigate these challenges in a way that avoids war
and promotes sustained regional, and ultimately global, economic growth is essential to ensuring security and prosperity. For U.S. allies and partners in the region, getting China right will beessential to determining how they can contribute both individually and collectively to keeping
Asia safe and prosperous in a period of great uncertainty and diminishing resources. Successfully establishing a favorable balance of power in East Asia will be impossible, however, withouta clearer understanding of the fundamental underpinnings of China’s growing power and influence under the Chinese leadership team that took power in 2012.

Chinese Internal Dynamics
A debate running through much of the public commentary on China’s return to the world stage
centers on the personal role of Chinese President and Communist Party General Secretary Xi
Jinping in shaping Beijing’s emerging strategy. At its core, the discussion about Xi turns on
assessments of his personal power, and particularly whether China’s shift toward greater global
activism under his stewardship is a function of Xi’s unique style and personal authority.10 Someobservers argue that Xi is not much different from his two immediate predecessors, Jiang Zeminand Hu Jintao—China itself may be more powerful, but Xi is still a captive of collective decisionmaking.11 Others contend that Xi has palpably more political gravitas and an accompanying unityof purpose that look more like the stature of the lions of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP),
Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping.12 Still others suggest that trying to gauge Xi’s strength in a political system as opaque as China’s is a fool’s errand.13
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Nevertheless, the observable facts of Xi Jinping’s rule thus far do indicate that he has managed toaccrete substantial power to himself in the comparatively short time he has been in office.14 Reviewing the record of his accomplishments, we can see that he has achieved several things thatcame to Jiang and Hu very late in their tenures, or even eluded them entirely.
• Xi has used a coercive toolkit, most notably through his anticorruption drive, to rein in theinstitutions that constitute the regime’s key levers of power—the party bureaucracy, thesecurity services, and China’s military, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA).
• Xi has created several new high-level party policy bodies and sits as chair on all of them.
• Xi has changed the nature of policymaking at the senior-most levels of the Party, diminishing the deliberative role of the regime’s formal institutions—especially the government
ministries—in favor of a more informal, “kitchen cabinet” style of policy advisory.
• Xi has weakened the authority of his retired peers, making it harder for them to intervene inpolicymaking from behind the scenes.
This does not mean that Xi wields unencumbered power. Regardless of the number of new policy mechanisms he creates or the number of retired and sitting officials he purges, he still faces a
Politburo lineup that he had very little hand in shaping, and he presumably will have to wait for
the next party congress in 2017 to change that in any significant way. He also faces passive resistance to his agenda from powerful vested interests in the state-owned enterprises, their allies inthe state machinery, and from provincial officials who resent his efforts to reverse three decadesof devolving power from the center to the localities. Add to this the difficulties of managing the
economy’s transition to a slower-growth, consumption- and services-led development model, as
well as the uncomfortable pairing of a bold economic reform vision statement that calls for freeing up market forces with an unrelenting ideological and political retrenchment program, and it
is clear that Xi’s pathway to becoming the transformative leader he obviously aspires to be is verymuch a journey in progress.

Chinese Foreign Policy
With such a full plate at home, it is surprising that President Xi has managed to find the wherewithal to also craft a redesigned foreign policy strategy. In late November 2014, he delivereda keynote address to a Central Foreign Affairs Work Conference of the CCP, the first convened
under his stewardship as China’s top leader. Such meetings are exceedingly rare and equally authoritative. In his speech, Xi laid out a sweeping foreign policy platform, suggesting that despite
the many challenges he and his colleagues are facing at home, a proactive, balanced, and (where
necessary) more muscular foreign policy approach is likely to be a hallmark of his rule.15 In fact,
Xi’s approach seems to take as its operating principle that Beijing should be wielding its newfound strategic heft in the manner of a traditional great power.
China’s regional neighbors and the United States should take at least some comfort from Xi’saffirmation of several of the key foreign policy precepts that have guided Chinese diplomacy formore than a decade. He noted in his speech, for example, that China will continue to follow thepath of “peaceful development,” or the notion that Beijing’s neighbors and other major partners
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may rest easy that China’s rise can only be accomplished by peaceful means and will be pursued
with an eye toward achieving “win-win” outcomes for all concerned.16 With China’s rapid militarymodernization, sizable year-on-year defense budget increases, and forthright assertion of its
territorial sovereignty claims, it is easy to lose sight of the fact that peaceful development acts as
an important conceptual brake on a runaway military buildup.17 Implicit in its characterization ofChina’s priorities is the notion that economic development—not the path of arms races and military adventurism followed by the Soviet Union—is paramount in securing the country’s return toregional preeminence.
Likewise, Xi acknowledged that China remains in a “period of strategic opportunity” running
through at least 2020, or roughly the period of Xi’s time in office.18 This concept encapsulates the
CCP’s primary external strategic guideline and reflects the leadership’s judgment that China is
enjoying a window in which a benign external security environment allows it to focus on its internal development. Moreover, implicit in Xi’s endorsement of the period of strategic opportunity
is a signal that China is not overtly seeking to be a disruptive power either regionally or globally.
As long as the concept remains in force, there will be hard limits on Beijing’s willingness andability to set out on a truly revisionist course aimed at fundamentally reshaping the balance ofpower in East Asia. Authoritatively acknowledging that China’s external security environment willremain largely placid for the foreseeable future makes it far more difficult for the leadership toargue—as have revisionist powers in the past—that they must assert Chinese power more overtly
and forcefully because the country’s interests in the region are somehow under threat.
However, Xi’s speech was much more than just old wine in new bottles. Perhaps its most striking feature is the way in which its content seems to move China more rapidly away from Deng
Xiaoping’s longstanding injunction for the country to maintain a low profile internationally.
Foreign assessments have long argued that China seeks “to become the preeminent Asian power.”19 Xi now argues that China’s biggest opportunity lies in the determined leveraging and further
development of its strength and influence internationally. He also says, “China should develop a
distinctive diplomatic approach befitting its role [as] a major country.” So, in effect, Xi is telling his
audience that China already is a great power, and should start acting like one.
In fact, Xi’s remarks in this vein also would seem to be subtly altering the definition of the periodof strategic opportunity by stressing greater Chinese activism. Whereas the original framework
carries the notion of China meekly accepting its advantageous external environment as a gift
to be sustained within the constraints of its limited capabilities, Xi’s formulation would seem tosuggest a much more forward-leaning approach whereby China seeks to shape the contours of
the period of strategic opportunity through its growing power. In his speech, Xi acknowledged
the deep interdependence between China’s domestic and foreign policies, but again, he chose toframe that linkage in a seemingly different way. Instead of being the beneficiary of good fortune
on its periphery, Xi appears to view China’s domestic development as an engine for the promotion and expansion of a stable and secure abroad. Implicit in such a description is a sense ofimmense faith in the inevitability and sustainability of China’s rise.

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China’s neighbors have already been experiencing the operational effects of this burgeoning
confidence in Beijing’s foreign policy approach. On the upside, Xi has called for improving ties
with China’s near abroad by pursuing more focused, and more adept, regional diplomacy. In his
foreign policy address, Xi made repeated references to the need for Beijing to adopt “win-win”
strategies in its approach to its neighbors, and he suggested that several new elements should
be added to the country’s diplomatic toolkit—with specific references to systematically developing Chinese soft power—to achieve that aim. Xi also sees robust economic diplomacy as a key
element in his overall diplomatic strategy. Signaling to its neighbors that China fundamentally
grasps the notion that, in Asia, economics is security, underpins Chinese initiatives like the AIIB
and the “One-Belt, One-Road” projects, which are aimed at crafting a modern-day version of
the ancient Silk Road linking China with Central, South, and Southeast Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Implying through such programs that the economic health of the region is intimately tied to China’s continued growth and prosperity also serves to advance Xi’s seeming predilection for a more
multidirectional foreign policy approach than that of his predecessors.
Moreover, Xi sees U.S. power in the region as a lesser constraint on China’s exercise of its influence—both benign and coercive—than earlier leaders. In fact, while still meriting pride of placein the hierarchy of Beijing’s foreign relationships, ties with the United States seem less of a preoccupation for Xi than for his predecessors. This is not to suggest that Xi is not eager for stable
and healthy U.S.-China ties. Rather, he seems to prefer a more casual approach to the relationship that lacks the eagerness and rapt attention that characterized the policies of Hu Jintao andJiang Zemin. This less awestruck view of U.S. power contributes to Xi’s greater tolerance for risk
and has the important side effect of imbuing Xi with greater confidence to more deliberately
court China’s other important foreign partners rather than pursuing a single-minded focus on
the United States. Nevertheless, leaders in China’s neighboring countries are befuddled by theleadership’s ostensible inability, at least so far, to sustainably reconcile the contending impulses
to seek improvements in relations along China’s periphery while simultaneously pushing hard to
reinforce its expansive territorial claims and to expand its military footprint. Xi’s unflinching assertion of China’s sovereignty claims over disputed territories in both the East and South China Seasis generating a pervasive level of insecurity among China’s bordering nations that risks invalidating Beijing’s good-neighbor policy mantra and increasing the desire for a strong U.S. security andeconomic presence in the region. In practical terms, China’s robust embrace of the exercise of its
newfound power and influence is already having a meaningful impact on its approach to someof its critical peripheral relationships that in turn has a direct correlation to the persistence ofsome regional hotspots and the possible emergence of new ones.
In its management of ties with Japan, for example, the notion that China should behave like a
traditional great power means that it must seek Japanese acquiescence to a subordinate position in both the bilateral relationship and in the overall regional power dynamic. Much of Beijing’s
approach is designed to belittle Japan by creating a persistent sense of pressure while simultaneously increasing Tokyo’s sense of isolation. Despite some improvement in ties in recent months,
there is little evidence that Beijing’s fundamental instinct to diminish Japan’s regional influence haschanged. Even in its evolving relationship with its erstwhile ally, North Korea, China’s actions seem

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meant to convey to Pyongyang that the “special relationship” of the past is no more, having been
replaced with a so-called “normal” state-to-state relationship.20 With that as the premise, a Chinese
leadership bent on wielding its strength will expect North Korea to accept its position as Beijing’s
client. Given North Korean leader Kim Jong-un’s apparent penchant to turn toward provocations
when he judges he is being ignored, Beijing’s more dismissive approach could inadvertently contribute to rising strain on the peninsula. Mounting tensions with Taiwan are also possible, given
Beijing’s more assertive and risk-tolerant approach throughout the region, as well as the reality thatpolling on Taiwan finds that the population is growing less interested in unification. The 2016 election in Taiwan could give rise to a heightened period of tensions as leaders in Taipei and Beijing
attempt to manage cross-strait relations in the shadow of these larger trends.
China’s approach to its territorial disputes in the South China Sea suggests a similar dynamic. Its
turn to a more robust assertion of its claims seems motivated by two key drivers, one tactical,
and the other more strategic. On the tactical side, Beijing’s activism reflects its assessment that
it lost substantial ground to its rival claimants during its 1996–2008 entanglement in managing
heightened tensions across the Taiwan Strait. China’s irritation at being outmaneuvered by its
smaller, far-less-powerful competitors, coupled with a growing sense of confidence in its capacity to effect meaningful change, combined to unleash the robust pushback that has characterized
China’s actions for the last several—and particularly the last few—years. More broadly, China’s
approach reflects its interest in developing more strategic depth on its maritime periphery as
its interests expand well beyond its shores. In effect, China sees its activities in the South China
Sea as contributing to its efforts to signal to its regional neighbors, and the United States, that its
forces intend to operate at times of their choosing out to the Second Island Chain and into theWestern Pacific.

Chinese Military Strategy
In many ways, Chinese ambitions are a reflection of the staggering success of China’s robust military modernization program over the last two decades. Beijing’s desire for advanced militarycapabilities stems from its general assessment of the pillars of U.S. military power projection—asdemonstrated in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, 1995–96 Taiwan Strait Crisis, former Yugoslavia conflict,and more recent operations in Iraq and Afghanistan—and the recognition that these capabilities
amounted to an insurmountable obstacle for the PLA. It is intuitively obvious that Chinese planners,
with the assurance of sustained, targeted funding, have responded to these shortcomings by developing a suite of capabilities designed to counter each U.S. pillar: aircraft carriers; air superiority andlong-range precision strike; regional bases and alliances; and space and information dominance.
Much has been written and said about the most obvious of these anti-access/area denial capabilities—submarines and anti-ship cruise (ASCMs) or ballistic missiles (ASBMs) to deter U.S. aircraft
carriers and modern fighter aircraft and surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) to counter U.S. air superiority.21 Yet, in many ways, the more game-changing leaps have been made in the developmentof robust Chinese electronic warfare capabilities, cyber capabilities, and the PLA’s multilayered
approach to dealing with U.S. regional bases and alliances, each of which poses unprecedented
challenges for senior U.S. planners and decisionmakers. Chinese EW arguably is the most im-

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portant part of the A2/AD revolution, and yet it is poorly understood in the West. In short, the key
information systems that enable U.S. joint operations—satellite communications, the global positioning system (GPS), tactical datalinks, and high-frequency (HF) communications—could be fundamentally degraded, or even rendered unusable, especially the closer U.S. forces get to Chinese
territory. Similarly, advances in Chinese command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR) will be the great enabler of PLA capabilities overthe next 10–15 years. China has invested heavily since the mid-1990s and will continue to do so.22
By 2030, the PLA can be expected to have persistent regional reconnaissance from space-based
platforms and near-space tactical platforms—imagery, electronic intelligence (ELINT), and signals
intelligence (SIGINT)—and timely global reconnaissance from a robust space-based architecture.23
China has similarly invested in robust cyber espionage and attack capabilities. The most public
case was the Office of Personnel Management’s 2015 announcement its security clearance database had been compromised, likely by China.24 A 2013 National Intelligence Estimate is reported
to have concluded that China was undertaking a cyber-based campaign to undermine U.S. competitiveness.25 Additionally, many other cyber actions have links to China.26 As China continues
to develop its cyber capabilities, it is likely that it will be increasingly capable of interfering with
U.S. military networks as well. It will be very hard for U.S. forces—especially large naval assets andforward-deployed forces—to hide from Chinese space, near-space, and cyber ISR.
The PLA’s response to U.S. regional bases and alliances operates on two levels, one kinetic andthe other diplomatic and political. China has deployed a host of theater-range weapons—medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs), land-attack cruise missiles (LACMs), and air-launched standoff attack munitions—that give China the capability to strike key U.S. bases, which are high-value
targets for the PLA and single points of failure for the United States. Chinese capabilities also
make U.S. regional allies targets instead of sanctuaries, complicating the calculation for host governments and further slowing the U.S. decision cycle in a conflict.
This dilemma is not limited to U.S. allies and partners, however. The acquisition of theater-range
weapons also changes the calculus of U.S. policymakers and senior military commanders considering
the wisdom and implications of U.S. intervention in a conflict close to China's periphery. In the mid1990s, such a prospective U.S. intervention was comparatively low-cost, non-escalatory, and highly effective. Today, and especially by 2020, it could be a very dubious calculation. China has credible, evenif fundamentally unproven, capabilities to disable or destroy U.S. carriers—with incalculable implications for U.S. prestige globally—making the efficacy of such an intervention much more questionable.
Moreover, U.S. military intervention would have significant escalatory potential. The most immediate options for U.S. policymakers to counter China's growing A2/AD capabilities involve kinetic
attacks on key nodes and systems—initially air defenses but also long-range precision strike systems. The prospect of substantial kinetic attacks against a nuclear power with credible conventional and nuclear retaliatory capability would give any U.S. president pause, especially when thelikely proximate cause is an unmistakable move toward independence by Taiwan or the assertion
by a U.S. ally or partner of murky sovereignty claims in the South China Sea. Efforts to manage
crises and escalation dynamics will be required to minimize the risk, especially given vulnerabilities of both U.S. and Chinese systems in space and cyberspace.
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FIGURE 1: Chinese Headquarters (HQ) Locations and Missile Ranges

Despite its impressive technical modernization, senior commanders and military scholars indicate that the PLA retains substantial shortcomings when it comes to questions of “software,”particularly in its inability to translate weapons modernization into combat power for conducting
truly integrated joint operations.27 While most foreigners focus on new equipment, PLA officers
understand their doctrine requires the integration of all forces, old and new, military and civilian,
into joint operations that incorporate firepower, mobility, information operations, and special operations.28 The PLA undoubtedly has complicated any U.S. military intervention calculus, particularly in a Taiwan scenario, but the PLA’s assessment of the Chinese military’s actual warfighting
capability remains quite negative. To some extent, these challenges are all the more difficult for
the PLA because it is rooted in its standing as the armed wing of the CCP. Other PLA writings,
for example, are more specific, arguing that the current command structure, modes of training, command and control (C2) systems, and modes of operation are not sufficient for Chinese
strategic imperatives or for the demands of modern warfare.29 China’s current national command
structure also dates from 1985, when China’s proximate security preoccupation was the Soviet
Union. That structure has little inherent capacity for joint service integration and expeditionary

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operations; in fact, it is a key impediment. Other “software” constraints on the PLA’s fighting capabilities include a lack of combat experience since 1979; a truncated non-commissioned officer(NCO) corps that has failed to create a strong cohort of small unit leaders; pervasive corruption,
including in the senior officer corps; and the PLA’s standing as “the Party’s Army” instead of thenational military of China.
Recent adjustments to China’s official military strategy only serve to bring these deficiencies into
sharper focus. In May 2015, the PLA issued its latest Defense White Paper, China’s Military Strategy,
that indicates China’s national military strategy has changed. The paper notes that the conductof warfare has shifted to give even greater prominence to the application of information technology in all aspects of military operations. It also states that the military has been handed a new“strategic task” to “safeguard the security of China’s overseas interests,” especially in the maritime
domain.30 Yet, Chinese military doctrinal writings make clear that the PLA judges itself incapableof winning wars under “informatized conditions”—meaning a battlefield with robust jamming anddemanding requirements for agile C4ISR.31 These writings also indicate that the PLA sees itself as
unable to defend Chinese interests more broadly under both wartime and non-war operations(such as multilateral security operations and disaster relief).
Defense reform priorities mooted in conjunction with the broad package of reform guidelines
issued following the November 2013 Third Plenum of the 18th Central Committee suggest theleadership is aware of these shortcomings and is seeking to address them. Of particular interestis the Plenum’s very detailed description of pursuing specific structural reforms. It called for thecreation of a “sound . . . joint operations command structure and theater joint operations command system,” as well as the advancement of “reform of the joint operations training and support system.”32 Official Chinese media reports have announced that the restructuring is beginning, with other media accounts suggesting a new structure will begin to take shape as early as
January 2016. Should the proposed reforms be successfully implemented, the PLA will emerge asa much more capable, lethal, and externally oriented fighting force.
The PLA’s enhanced mission to “safeguard the security of China’s overseas interests” marks China’s clearest articulation yet of its intent to operate further afield, making it inevitable that suchactivities will affect U.S. interests.33 To address the new challenges in the maritime domain, thewhite paper calls for a fundamental retooling of the PLA’s strategic orientation by noting, “the traditional mentality that land outweighs sea must be abandoned.”34 Consequently, the document
states that the PLA Navy (PLAN) “will gradually shift its focus from ‘offshore waters defense’ to the
combination of ‘offshore waters defense’ with ‘open seas protection.’ ”35 Under these auspices, the
PLA in the near future will be operating well beyond the First Island Chain and into the Indian
Ocean. It likely will play substantial roles in regional disaster assistance relief and will have asignificant expeditionary capability for noncombatant evacuation operations (NEOs) for Chinese
citizens and corporate employees in Africa, South Asia, and beyond. The call for the PLA to adopt
this expanded mission set is of greatest concern to the United States, as it will gradually extend
the reach of the PLA and emphasize “nontraditional security” operations such as counterterrorism, humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HA/DR), economic security, public health, andinformation security.36
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By 2030, the Chinese likely will have multiple aircraft carrier strike groups (CSGs), facilitating
the overawing of lesser powers, enhanced regional prestige, and the demonstration effect ofnear-constant presence. For rival claimants in the South China Sea, this is a game changer. There
will almost always be a Chinese CSG floating in contested waters, or within a half-day’s steaming
time. Whether they have seized territory or negotiated a resource-sharing scheme with some or
all of the other claimants, the South China Sea will be virtually a Chinese lake, as the Caribbeanor the Gulf of Mexico is for the United States today. China’s military capability and capacity will
shape how the region behaves toward them without a need for menacing Chinese behavior. The
PLAN will have the ability to make U.S. naval operations in the South China Sea or the First Island
Chain a risky proposition in a contingency, other than U.S. submarines. China also will be a major
weapons exporter, including very advanced EW, ISR, and precision strike capabilities that complicate U.S. military planning globally.
Emerging Chinese military capabilities are not the only risk for U.S. interests stemming from
China’s return to the world stage. How a rising China will choose to interact with establishedglobal institutions, and the rules and norms those bodies have promulgated and follow, also
requires U.S. vigilance and involvement. With its various economic initiatives, Beijing, and, moreparticularly, the CCP, seeks to reinforce the emerging narrative that China is moving to the center of global economic activity, strength, and influence even, paradoxically, as its own economy
struggles to maintain momentum. China is keen to nurture the notion that a new global order isunfolding, and that the world expects that new order to more thoroughly incorporate Chinese
influence and preferences. There also is a growing global consensus that it is better to integrate
China into those established institutions rather than have China create more parallel constructs
where it has the leading, or even sole, voice. As such, U.S. policymakers will have to determine
how, where, and when the United States will work with China as the story of China’s return togreat power status continues to unfold.

NORTH KOREAThe Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK, or North Korea hereafter) is perhaps the most
opaque country in the world and continues to pose risks to the United States and its allies andpartners in the region. North Korea’s pursuit of nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles represents
a persistent threat to regional security. North Korea’s conventional capabilities and belligerent
actions also continue to undermine stability on the Korean Peninsula. On the other hand, North
Korea’s political instability, internal repression, and economic backwardness promise a massive
humanitarian crisis should the regime collapse.

North Korean Internal Dynamics
The North’s young leader, Kim Jong-un, is in the midst of his fourth year as head of state. His
execution of 70 high-level officials since taking office (according to South Korean statements)suggests a significant degree of churn inside of the Pyongyang elite.38 As the regime tightens
its grip on power, North Korean society by contrast is growing more open, albeit slowly, as theproliferation of official and black markets creates new demands for information, opportunity, and19

U.S. INTERESTS AND RISKS IN ASIA

contact with the outside world. The lack of any fundamental economic reform under Kim puts
added pressure on the regime to prove its legitimacy. While no one can predict the trigger, theseforces potentially pull the state in disruptive directions.
The North Korean regime’s primary goal is to perpetuate the personality cult of the Kim family. The risk posed by the regime’s weapons and behavior is severe, particularly the potential forcrisis instability and the regime’s record of human rights abuses, proliferation of weapons ofmass destruction (WMD), and illicit activities such as counterfeiting, drug trafficking, and humantrafficking. North Korea still seeks reunification of the peninsula through overthrow of the rival
regime in the south. This objective has been stymied by successful deterrence on the part of the
U.S.-Republic of Korea (ROK) alliance.
Short of unification, Pyongyang seeks to use coercive bargaining to achieve more immediate goalsvis-à-vis South Korea and the United States. This includes temporary concessions on its missile
or nuclear programs (e.g., production or test freezes) to extort funding, food, or other diplomatic
gains. At the extreme, Pyongyang may want to hold at risk ROK and U.S. assets on the peninsulathrough missile or artillery threats in an effort to extort larger prizes.39 North Korea continues tooperate aggressively with naval patrols and the positioning of artillery along the Demilitarized Zone
(DMZ), Northern Limit Line, and northwest islands. In response to recent world condemnation of
its human rights abuses, another objective may be to deter with force all attempts to slander the
regime’s legitimacy. In this regard, Pyongyang has threatened to attack civilian balloon drop activities that send information, money, and food to the North Korean people. It has also detained an
unusually large number of foreign visitors in recent years for “anti-regime” activities.40
North Korea appears to be demonstrating, or seeking to demonstrate, a higher tolerance for “risk”
and escalation than in the past. It is possible that Kim is attempting to manage legitimacy challenges or address concerns about his inexperience. He may also be motivated by the calculation that Pyongyang’s nuclear weapons capability allows more room for coercive acts. This new
development requires further study to determine whether this is a slight modification in North
Korean behavior, or the beginning of a larger shift.

North Korea Foreign Policy
Since 2010 Pyongyang has not attempted another major provocation like the Cheonan sinking or
the Yeonpyeong Island artillery shelling.41 Although North Korea placed landmines in a frequently
patrolled area in the DMZ, the government does not appear to be engaging in either a provocation cycle or a diplomacy cycle. North Korea’s fiery rhetoric does not mask a desire for dialogue,
but neither is it a precursor to aggressive behavior. Nevertheless, Pyongyang’s tolerance for risk
appears higher than it has been for years.
There are several possible explanations for Pyongyang’s recent behavior. North Korea might haverejected dialogue because the Obama and Park governments appear distracted by other issues.
Moreover, even if Pyongyang might be able to get a deal with either president, neither can bereelected, so any deal would likely be undone once the incumbent is gone. A second theory isthat Kim is having domestic problems. Purges are nothing new in North Korea, and the recent
removal of the defense minister is only the latest result. Yet the pace of these purges suggests
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there remain significant internal difficulties. DPRK domestic instability often influences its external behavior. For example, when Kim Jong-il had a stroke at a critical time in the Six-Party Talks
in 2008, North Korea was unable to respond to proposals for moving the agreement forward. A
third explanation for North Korea’s attitude has to do with strength rather than weakness. Kim
may be methodically building his capabilities while the United States is distracted by events elsewhere in the world and South Korea is focused on boosting economic growth. Washington andthe United Nations (UN) have telegraphed clearly that the next provocation will draw a new set
of financial sanctions. North Korea may therefore be biding its time by seeking to develop cybercapabilities and enlarge its missile arsenal. A fourth possibility is that North Korea is focused not
on internal dissension but actually internal economic reform and rehabilitation. Signs that theregime is instituting modest private incentives in farming could reflect reform intentions. This
could suggest some receptiveness to greater interaction with the outside world.

North Korean Military Strategy
North Korea appears determined to maintain its “songun” policy of putting its military first, as
well as its “byungjin” line of striving for economic developments while also building nuclear
weapons. North Korea’s desire to strengthen its deterrent posture has enabled continued military
investment despite severe economic conditions throughout the country. The DPRK maintains
a military comprising 1.2 million personnel, including 1 million in the army, 60,000 in the navy,and 120,000 in the air force. The ROK 2014 Defense White Paper estimates North Korea fields 74
maneuver brigades consisting of 4,300 tanks, 2,500 armored vehicles, 8,600 cannons, and 5,500
multiple rocket launchers.42 The navy reportedly possesses 430 combatant vessels, 260 amphibious ships, 20 mine warfare vessels, and 70 submarines. The air force fields 820 combat aircraft,
30 surveillance and control aircraft, 330 transport craft, 170 trainers, and 300 helicopters. North
Korea has one of the world’s largest special operations forces, estimated at 60,000 to 180,000.
Total reservists are assessed at over 7 million. While these numbers sound forbidding, the quality of the forces are low and deemed to have deteriorated due to poor training, food shortages,
dilapidated equipment, and lack of fuel. Nevertheless, artillery remains a major threat given its
proximity to Seoul. DPRK submarine forces also pose a danger in the northwest islands and to
ROK surface vessels as evidenced by North Korea’s torpedoing of the Cheonan corvette in 2010,
which killed 46 South Korean sailors in the largest military loss of life on the peninsula since the
Korean War.
North Korea has focused resources on the development of asymmetric capabilities. It conductednuclear tests in 2006, 2009, and 2013, all at the same test site. Preparations continue at this site,
and North Korea could conduct a fourth test with little warning.43 In recent years, Pyongyang has
augmented its plutonium-based weapons program with a new and clandestine program basedon highly enriched uranium. There is little information available on this second program, but in
February 2015, Chinese scientists reportedly estimated that North Korea currently has 20 nuclear
weapons. They also estimated that Pyongyang possesses the uranium-enrichment capacity tobuild 40 weapons by the end of the Obama administration’s term. This is higher than the Western estimate of 8–16 weapons.44

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North Korea currently has over 700 ballistic missiles and is actively seeking an intercontinental missile capable of carrying a warhead to the continental United States. In January 2011,
then-Secretary of Defense Robert Gates estimated this could happen within five years.45 In May
2015, North Korea claimed it is now capable of mounting a miniaturized nuclear warhead ona long-range ballistic missile targeting the United States. DPRK short-range ballistic missiles(SRBMs) and long-range artillery can reach every U.S. base in Japan and South Korea. The regime
also possesses one of the largest chemical weapon stockpiles in the world.46 The March 2013
cyber intrusion against South Korean banks and television stations and the November 2014 hackof Sony Pictures demonstrate North Korea’s growing asymmetric capabilities.

FIGURE 2: North Korean Military Headquarters and Nuclear Sites

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In addition to the risk of conventional or nuclear attack on its neighbors, North Korea also presents an instability risk, with the potential for a rapid collapse of centralized state control. Kim
Jong-un faces the dictator’s dilemma—the state must open up to survive, but the process of
opening up could lead to the collapse of the regime.47 There is credible evidence that the potential for a dramatic erosion of regime control is possible. The leadership is incapable of reformand opening up to market transactions with the outside world and accepting information inflows
would erode the legitimacy of the regime and collapse the system. On the other hand, maintaining the status quo is not sustainable in the long term. The numbers of refugees continues togrow, the economy remains underdeveloped, and China’s generosity in making up for the DPRK’s
flaws is not eternal. Moreover, Kim Jong-un’s tightening of political control over the country is
in juxtaposition to a society that is more knowledgeable of the outside world, less dependent
on the state as a result of two decades of informal and official markets, and desirous of a better
life. Rigid political structures and a liberalizing society is an unworkable combination. We do notknow what the trigger will be, but this system cannot continue indefinitely.
Thus, the bottom line is that Korean unification is not a matter of if, but when. A collapse of
regime control, however, would immediately create major security challenges. The refugee flow
both north and south would be substantial, requiring a massive humanitarian assistance program. North Korea’s nuclear weapons and ballistic missile technology would also need to be
secured. Moreover, geopolitical tensions would arise between visions of a united Korea closelyaligned with China and one that remains allied with the United States. These tensions would
erupt in the midst of a highly uncertain crisis, requiring quick reaction and careful coordination
between political and military leaders throughout the region.
The United States will have to work closely with regional allies and partners to address Pyongyang’s nuclear program, missile development, and illicit activities, as well as the risk of an internal
collapse of regime control. Managing escalation in such contingencies will be vital not only with
North Korea but also with other regional states like China and Russia.

RUSSIAThe Russian Federation poses a unique challenge to the United States. Since Vladimir Putin’s returnto the presidency, the Kremlin has sought to reassert its power both at home and abroad. In thiscontext, the 2014 invasion of Ukraine marked a turning point in Russia’s relations with Europe andthe United States. This strategic shift will prove difficult to reverse, and the ripple effects could be felt
globally. Even as Moscow clings to its old sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, Russian leaders are
increasingly setting their hopes on Asia—and China in particular—as an alternative source of investment and influence. Growing political, economic, and military cooperation between Moscow and
Beijing may form the basis for a durable alliance, but these ties could become strained as Russia andChina compete for influence in the Far East and Central Asia. Given Russia’s declining population andeconomic obstacles, Moscow is best characterized as a middle power in the Asia-Pacific.
The United States has cooperated with Russia in Asia since the Cold War, including U.S. support
for Russia’s membership in Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the Six Party Talks.

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U.S. INTERESTS AND RISKS IN ASIA

However, whether Washington and Moscow can return to such cooperative relations remains
to be seen. Although, leaders in both capitals have established patterns of cooperation in Asia,
Putin’s personal interest in standing up to the West and tensions in Eastern Europe make a diplomatic breakthrough unlikely. Whether the Kremlin ultimately bandwagons with China or seeks tobalance against its more powerful neighbor will have far-reaching implications.49

Russian Internal Dynamics
U.S.-Russia relations have been deteriorating since at least 2011, when large-scale pro-democracy protests by opposition groups in many Russian cities were dismissed by the Kremlin as Western manipulation. Since taking office in 2012, Putin has consolidated a personalist authoritarianregime and oligarchic economic structure that together cast a pall over Russia’s potential for future liberalization. Especially after the annexation of Crimea and “hybrid war” in Donbass, Putin’s
inner circle has shrunk while his own public approval ratings have skyrocketed. He now governs
largely through his close ties to the Russian security services, making it more and more difficult
to judge Moscow’s intentions and strategic competence.
A corollary to the crackdown on internal dissent is the regime’s external aggressiveness. Putinespouses a virulent form of ethno-nationalism, anti-Americanism, and traditional Russian imperialism, once calling the collapse of the Soviet Union “the greatest geopolitical catastrophe of
the century.”50 The perceived exploitation of Russia during the chaotic 1990s and the expansionof the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to the Russian border have helped foster thisnarrative of grievances.51 Putin thus sees himself as reclaiming Russia as “an independent, active
participant in international affairs.”52
The global financial crisis and recent erosion of oil prices has exposed Russia’s dependence on
extractive industries and foreign direct investment. The Russian economy faces serious structural problems and the possibility of long-term demographic decline. Nowhere is this more true
than in the Russian Far East, which is bleeding population and mired in poverty, corruption, andcriminality. Virtually abandoned during the 1990s when the Russian state was on the verge ofcollapse, the region’s development is now a national priority and part of Putin’s effort to reestablish central authority over the provinces under his “power vertical” concept.53 Moscow is also
attentive to the incredible untapped potential of the Arctic’s natural resources.

Russian Foreign Policy
Three main objectives drive Russian foreign policy in the Asia-Pacific region. First, Moscow seeks
to increase economic development in eastern Siberia, the Russian Far East, and the Arctic. Second,
Putin desires to maintain friendly relations with China, with whom Russia shares a 2,600-mile border. Third, Russian leaders seek to preserve the Federation’s status as a major regional player.
To exploit vast reserves of precious metals, oil, and natural gas in Russia’s eastern provinces,
Russian firms need foreign investment and markets. Moscow launched a multibillion-dollar
infrastructure program in preparation for the 2012 APEC summit in Vladivostok, but results weremixed. State-directed investment only reached the southeastern corner of the Russian Far Eastand some oil and gas projects in Sakhalin, and state coffers have dried up since the ruble’s col24

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

lapse. Although South Korea and Japan currently trail China closely in terms of trade volume andforeign direct investment in the Russian Far East, future growth depends primarily on integration
with the enormous Chinese market.54 Yet, as one Russia analyst has noted, “China is really the
only game in town.”55 Russian raw materials complement China’s role as workshop of the world.
Moreover, demographic decline means that Russia’s eastern provinces need guest workers, andChina is more than happy to supply them.56
Sino-Russian cooperation has geopolitical as well as economic rationales. Many in the Kremlinhold an ideological affinity for China as a successful authoritarian model of economic development and support its rise as a check on U.S. global dominance.57 Although it has since diversified
its client base, the Russian arms industry avoided collapse in the 1990s and early 2000s thanks
in large part to Chinese procurement. Moscow seeks to avoid tensions near the Sino-Russian
border area, so helping Beijing improve its maritime capabilities effectively keeps it focused awayfrom the Russian border.58
On the other hand, there are signs that Russia is not entirely comfortable living under China’s
shadow. The desire for balance has manifested in sales of Russian Kilo-class submarines and Klub
anti-ship and land-attack cruises missiles to Vietnam, as well as in Moscow’s unwillingness tocollaborate with Beijing in their mutual territorial disputes with Japan.59 Moscow wants to move up
the global value chain, but integration into the Chinese market risks the Russian Far East becoming
a “natural resource appendage” to China’s processing and manufacturing economy.60 Moreover,
Chinese economic penetration and migration could be destabilizing for a Russian region thatwas partially ruled by the Qing Dynasty as late as the nineteenth century.61 Russia’s international
position could also be imperiled if it is seen as the inferior partner in Sino-Russian efforts. While
Moscow continues to work with Beijing in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), existing
rivalries are exacerbated by China’s replacement of Russia as Central Asia’s leading economic partner.62 Russia is consequently strengthening its military presence in Central Asia in an effort to curb
China’s growing influence.63 Russia has also reached out to North Korea in recent years, demonstrating its willingness to risk Sino-Russian competition for influence on the Korean Peninsula.64
Despite this ambivalence, most incentives favor Russian strategic alignment with China. In May
2014, Presidents Xi and Putin signed a $400 billion, 30-year natural gas deal, with construction
on a 2,500-mile pipeline to China starting in September 2014.65 Russia has also agreed to give
China a stake in eastern Siberian oil fields, the Udokan copper field, and a major Arctic liquefied
natural gas (LNG) project.66 After a lull of several years in major Sino-Russian arms transfers, inJune 2015 Putin approved in principle the sale of several S-400 air defense systems—Russia’s
most advanced—and another deal is expected on Russian Su-35 fighter jets.67 China and Russia continue to collaborate in the UN Security Council, and the launch of their BRICS [Brazil,
Russia, India, China, South Africa] New Development Bank this year further eroded the clout offinancial institutions long dominated by the United States, Europe, and Japan.68 Although some
Asian countries belittle Russia as a Chinese proxy, the reality is that Russia often maximizes its
influence by operating in concert with China.69 Moscow is likely to seek a balance, but no strategic rupture with Beijing appears to be on the horizon—at the very least not while relations with
Washington remain hostile.
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U.S. INTERESTS AND RISKS IN ASIA

Russian Military Strategy
The Russian military presents challenges to the United States in Asia and the Arctic, as well as inEurope. The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation enjoys the third-largest budget in the world
at roughly $70 billion and has more than 770,000 permanent personnel.70 Military reforms in2008 ushered in a massive modernization program that has doubled defense spending over the
past decade.71 Some of this increase is being directed toward the Russian Far East. In April 2015,
Moscow announced it would double the number of S-400 air defense systems stationed on the
Kamchatka Peninsula.72 Russia’s Pacific Fleet has begun acquiring new ships for the first timesince the Soviet collapse and already includes an estimated 50 warships and 23 submarines.73
The fleet received a new Borei-class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) in 2013
and a Dyugon-class landing craft in 2014. Expected additions include five more SSBNs over the
next decade, two Steregushchy-class corvettes in 2015, an Ivan Gren-class amphibious ship in
2015, and six Yasen-class nuclear-powered guided missile submarines (SSGNs) starting in 2017.
Given that much of the existing fleet may not be operational, many of these acquisitions are bestviewed as long-planned modernization efforts.74 In July 2015, the Kremlin released a new Maritime Doctrine that calls for “strengthening Russia’s position as a sea power,” but questions remain
about cost and sustainability.75 While Putin may hope to restore Russia’s blue-water navy, in thenear term his Pacific Fleet will probably focus more on strategic deterrence and coastal defense
missions given its limited ability to counter other navies or project offensive power.76
Despite its shortcomings, the Russian military still poses several strategic problems for the United States and its allies in East Asia. Russia’s deployment of a naval surface action group to theCoral Sea during the 2014 Brisbane G-20 Summit stressed the Royal Australian Navy’s maritime
capabilities at a time of heightened security preparations by the Australian government. Russian
air patrols near Hokkaido and around the Japanese main islands have reached a frequency inrecent years not seen since the Cold War. In 2014, Japanese fighters scrambled more than 450
times against Russian bombers and patrol aircraft.77 This uptick is complicating a planned shift inJapanese force posture to the southwest, forcing Japan to contemplate operational requirements
to the north. U.S. forces also intercepted two separate pairs of Tu-95 Bear bombers flying in international airspace off the coast of Alaska and California on July 4, 2015.78 Additionally, Russian
bombers have been patrolling around Guam, with some refueling aircraft departing from Cam
Ranh Bay with Vietnam’s acquiescence.79
Since 2011, the PLAN and Russian Navy have conducted naval exercises in the Yellow Sea, Sea
of Japan, East China Sea, and Mediterranean, with another South China Sea exercise plannedfor 2016.80 Moscow and Beijing also hold frequent bilateral and multilateral exercises with othermembers of the SCO.81 In September 2014, Russia staged “Vostok 2014,” its largest Far East military drill in over a quarter-century, involving some 100,000 troops.82 Gray zone coercion efforts
by Russia and China fit into a larger strategic mosaic that Beijing and Moscow appear to recognize, even if their respective activities are not necessarily fully coordinated. However, responses
to these coercion efforts resonate with U.S. allies.

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In summary, despite Russia’s struggling economy and declining geopolitical influence, Russian
activities in the Far East demand sustained attention. The Kremlin’s coordination and cooperation
with Beijing increases the security concerns of many U.S. allies and partners. Moreover, Moscow’s
aggression in Europe and its Arctic claims are likely to aggravate tensions in East Asia, forcing PACOM to maintain a watchful eye on Russian capabilities and intentions in the decade ahead.

NONSTATE RISKSThe United States and its allies and partners face several nonstate risks in the Asia-Pacific. These
include terrorism, humanitarian crises and natural disasters, piracy, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. Addressing these risks is critical because larger crises and conflicts often
arise from lesser cases of instability.

FIGURE 3: Nonstate Concerns in the Asia-Pacific27

U.S. INTERESTS AND RISKS IN ASIA

Terrorism
Multiple Asian states face serious threats from terrorism, including China, Indonesia, North Korea,
South Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Bangladesh, India, the Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. In these countries, vulnerability to terrorism is often the result of poor bordersecurity, weak law enforcement, and poor coordination and information sharing among relevant
agencies. Between 2012 and 2014, terrorist attacks occurred in China, Malaysia, the Philippines,
Indonesia, Thailand, Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. Malaysia and Indonesia both confront localgroups that support ISIL and are concerned about citizens traveling abroad to join its ranks.83 The
U.S. Pacific Command has worked with many allies and partners to address these risks. In 2013,
the United States joined the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Defense Ministers’Meeting Plus (ADMM-Plus) counterterrorism exercises for the first time.84 In 2015, the UnitedStates deactivated its Joint Special Operations Task Force with the Philippines (JSOTF-P), citing adrastic reduction in Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) forces and other insurgents in the Philippines.85

PiracyThe high volume of seaborne trade that passes from the Indian Ocean through the South China
Sea makes Southeast Asia an especially tempting area for pirates.86 Although incidents of piracy
have decreased worldwide over the last five years, the number of incidents in Southeast Asia hasrisen during that time.87 Not only do Southeast Asian countries face an increased risk of piracy,
but they also confront obstacles to effective counter-piracy efforts. The Regional Cooperation
Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia (ReCAAP) provides for
information sharing among members. The United States acceded to the organization in 2014.
Malaysia and Indonesia, both situated near the Strait of Malacca, however, are not members.88
Many countries also have insufficient manpower and inadequate platforms to monitor theircoastlines, limiting the effectiveness of multilateral counter-piracy efforts. The United States’
Seventh Fleet conducts several exercises intended to help vulnerable countries improve theirmaritime law-enforcement capabilities. To this end, the United States plans to deploy up to four
Littoral Combat Ships (LCSs) to Singapore by 2018, which may be used for counter-piracy operations, and some in the Department of Defense have expressed support for the idea of regional
maritime patrols.89 This may provide an opportunity for the United States to bolster its counter-piracy presence while allowing Southeast Asian partners to take the lead, and remaining
mindful of competing sovereignty claims.

Natural Disasters
The Asia-Pacific is prone to natural disasters and humanitarian crises that necessitate HA/DR
cooperation. Countries in the area are susceptible to disasters like major earthquakes, tsunamis,
volcanic eruptions, typhoons, and monsoons. The Asia-Pacific also includes the four nations
most vulnerable to pandemic influenza.90 Since 2012, several countries in the region have experienced large-scale natural disasters, most notably Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines in November 2013 and a 7.8-magnitude earthquake in Nepal in April 2015. In past disasters, U.S. forces havebeen responsible for transporting emergency personnel and relief supplies, executing search

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and rescue (SAR) operations, and conducting joint disaster assessments with the U.S. Agency forInternational Development (USAID). HA/DR operations of this sort require sustained force levels
and readiness.91 Recent research on U.S. HA/DR capacity in Asia suggests that knowledge of thestandard operating procedures of relevant countries is critical. Therefore, it is vital that regional
states develop exercises with civilian international organizations and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and deepen collaboration with partners in the region before disasters occur.92
The United States has a stake in helping states build greater resilience and capacity to respond tothese natural disasters, since the massive displacement, death, and damage caused can undermine the legitimacy of states and render them more vulnerable to terrorism, crime, piracy andgreat power coercion.

Proliferation
Finally, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and related technologies is a major concern, especially in Northeast Asia. North Korea has exported missile technology to Iran and Syria,
as well as nuclear reactor technology to Syria. North Korea may also continue to attempt exportof gas centrifuge technology in the future. The collapse of the DPRK regime could also lead toproliferation. North Korea’s continuing proliferation efforts are exacerbated by weak Chinese
implementation of export controls and United Nations Security Council (UNSC) sanctions, with
Beijing allowing certain Chinese companies to supply North Korea with dual-use technologies.
Southeast Asian countries also tend to have relatively few export control laws. On the demandside, terrorist groups, including Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), have pursued WMD in the past and may
do so in the future. North Korea may be more likely to sell fissile material to nonstate actors as
its stockpile grows or if it faces an extreme economic crisis.94 Since the Proliferation Security
Initiative (PSI) began in 2003, U.S. forces have been involved in exercises designed to share bestpractices on countering proliferation. In 2014, the U.S. Pacific Command hosted 31 nations in
Hawaii for the first in a series of exercises designed to respond to new proliferation threats, suchas the smuggling of dual-use technologies.95 PACOM is, however, limited in its legal authority tointerdict ships on suspicion of WMD smuggling. Increased information sharing and coordination among PSI partners is therefore vital to effectively carrying out counter-proliferation efforts
across the region.
By engaging the region through exercises, information sharing, and capacity building, the UnitedStates continues to mitigate the risks posed by terrorism, piracy, natural disasters, and proliferation. Sustained attention to these risks will require persistent presence and engagement, especially in Southeast Asia.

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3 | U.S. FORCE POSTURE IN
THE ASIA-PACIFICU.S. FORCE POSTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFICOne of the most visible elements of the rebalance has been the shift in U.S. military force postureboth within and to the Asia-Pacific region, as will be described in detail below. U.S. posture requirements in the Asia-Pacific will continue to evolve over the coming decade as regional powers
enhance their A2/AD capabilities and U.S. forces respond to pressures in other parts of the world.
Current U.S. capabilities resident or routinely deployed in the Asia-Pacific include power projection
from carrier strike groups, strategic bombers, and guided-missile submarines; ballistic missile defense from a network of installations and platforms in Japan, Korea, Guam, and forward-deployed
and forward-operating Aegis-equipped navy ships; antisubmarine warfare (ASW) capability resident
in ships, submarines, and patrol aircraft operating throughout the Asia-Pacific theater; air superiority from fourth- and fifth-generation fighters deployed to Japan and Korea; and ISR capabilities
from space-based to tactical systems providing early warning and support to warfighters.
Over the coming decade, DOD expects to field, and continues to invest in, additional capabilities
that will be important for defeating an adversary seeking to use A2/AD approaches. DOD is also
seeking to improve its force posture in the Asia-Pacific—including enduring locations, militaryactivities, and defense-to-defense relationships. However, the global demand for U.S. forces—
combined with significant budget and force pressures—will challenge the Defense Department’s
ability to sustain its posture and activities in the Asia-Pacific region, particularly in the midterm.

CURRENT U.S. FORCE POSTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC
U.S. bases in Asia are concentrated in Northeast Asia, the result of alliances with Japan and Korea forgedduring the Cold War. These alliances remain critical to the preservation of security across Asia. Further,
U.S. allies in Asia have contributed approximately $30 billion to develop or update U.S. facilities in Japan,
Korea, and on Guam. The U.S. contribution to those initiatives has been only $6.7 billion. U.S. interests in
the region extend well beyond Northeast Asia to encompass South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian Ocean. Moreover, U.S. bases present a relatively small number of high-value targets, well within thereach of adversary ground-, sea-, or air-launched long-range precision-guided munitions (PGMs).
Current and near-term U.S. posture adjustments in Northeast Asia are largely focused on theSecond Island Chain, and specifically Guam, which is being built up as a strategic hub. Based on interviews by the study team, DOD is making measurable progress toward this end. The piers at Apra
Harbor within Naval Base Guam have recently been refurbished. Construction is ongoing at several
military installations in Guam, including Andersen Air Force Base (AFB), which will provide expanded training ranges, cantonment for rotational U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) forces, and replacement ofnearly obsolete U.S. Air Force (USAF) housing. In addition, work has begun on a second fuel pipeline running from Apra Harbor, which will add to resilience.
The forces based in Guam, and those to be rotationally deployed there, will provide needed early reinforcements in case of conflict. In addition, the forces in Guam will be less vulnerable due to the deployment of a THAAD battery to Guam. If permanently stationed in Guam, the THAAD battery and rotational air forces would greatly enhance DOD’s capability to defend both Guam and other U.S. territories.
In 2014, the United States took a significant step forward to enhance its posture in the Philippines,
signing the bilateral Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA). The agreement will pro32

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vide the United States a legal framework under which to undertake modest but important military
construction that will benefit the U.S. partnership with the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP).
These investments, useful during peacetime, will have the added benefit of providing the UnitedStates additional facilities from which to operate during a crisis or conflict. The geography of thePhilippines will enable U.S. forces readier access to the South China Sea, and access to Philippine
facilities would provide U.S. aircraft operational bases much closer to possible conflict areas.
In 2011, the United States and Australia announced an agreement permitting USAF and USMC
use of Australian military facilities on a rotational basis. The USMC rotation at Darwin is in its
fourth year, and will expand to a maximum size of 2,500 Marines. The USAF also conducts rotational deployments of aircraft through a small number of airfields in Northern Australia.
In addition, the United States maintains a rotational force of LCSs operating out of Singapore.
The USN plans to rotate as many as four LCSs out of Singapore, providing a significant increase
in USN presence and partnership opportunities throughout Southeast Asia.
Meanwhile, the United States has bolstered its missile defense capabilities in Northeast Asia by deploying additional ballistic missile defense destroyers to Japan. USS Benfold has deployed to Japanand USS Milius will deploy in 2017. Additionally, destroyers with advanced ballistic missile defense
capabilities will replace existing forward-deployed vessels, such as the planned deployment of USS
Barry in place of USS Lassen in 2016.

FIGURE 4: Significant U.S. Military Elements in the PACOM AOR

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U.S. FORCE POSTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC

Enduring U.S. military presence in the Asia-Pacific has been a major asset for U.S. national interests, and for regional security since World War II. The interactions afforded by long-standing,close associations act as a multiplier for U.S. familiarity and interoperability with host nation militaries. Forward presence also builds a reservoir of interpersonal connections and common experiences that cannot be achieved through intermittent engagement. U.S. experience in Southeast
Asia demonstrates that U.S. military presence in the region can be politically charged—as seen in
the forced withdrawal of U.S. forces from the Philippines in 1992—so maintenance of close political relationships is required throughout the region. In general, temporary deployments to austere bases are politically easier for host countries than long-term, permanent garrisons. Over the
coming decade, the United States would benefit greatly from expanding the number and type of
facilities to which it conducts regular deployments.

TABLE 1: Major U.S. Military Units in Japan (Main Islands and Okinawa)97
U.S. posture within PACOM goes beyond the locations from which U.S. forces operate. It also
includes the use of forces for a wide number of exercises the United States conducts with allies
and partners throughout the region. These activities enhance communication, interoperability,
and the capability of both U.S. and other countries’ forces. PACOM and the military services conduct a range of major exercises with allies and partners in the region, including COBRA GOLD,BALIKATAN, TALISMAN SABRE, RED FLAG, ULCHI FREEDOM GUARDIAN, COMMANDO SLING, andthe Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC). In total, PACOM components take part in more than 400 exercises and activities with partners in the Asia-Pacific each year. These engagements serve to enhance interoperability, expand awareness and understanding of partner militaries, and increase
familiarity between operational units that can be an asset in effectively responding together tocontingencies from SAR to HA/DR to high-intensity military crises.

TABLE 2: Major U.S. Military Units in South Korea98

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ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

TABLE 3: Major U.S. Forces in Alaska, Hawaii, and Guam99

TABLE 4: Major U.S. Forces on the West Coast of the Continental United States (CONUS) 100

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U.S. FORCE POSTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC

U.S. Force Posture in Japan
Japan hosts more U.S. forces—approximately 50,000 U.S. military personnel and 50,000 dependents—than any other foreign country. About half of U.S. personnel and dependents in Japan are
hosted in Okinawa. In 2006, the United States and Japan approved a roadmap for realigning U.S.
forces that included (1) construction of a Futenma Replacement Facility (FRF) near Henoko in Okinawa, and (2) relocation of 8,000 members of the Third Marine Expeditionary Force (III MEF) andtheir dependents from Okinawa to Guam.101 In 2012, the United States and Japan issued a new plandelinking the construction of the FRF from the relocation of Marines to Guam and reducing thenumber of Marines relocating to Guam to approximately 4,800 (the remainder would relocate to
the West Coast of the United States or Hawaii, or rotate through the Asia-Pacific region, to include
Australia).102 These relocation efforts continue and are supported by both governments, including
by substantial Japanese financial contributions for Marine Corps basing in both Japan and Guam.

FIGURE 5: Major U.S. Forces in Japan (main islands)

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ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

Under the existing plan, the USMC presence in Japan will consolidate, largely to HQ units for various elements of III MEF. While some operational assets will remain in Japan, such as the 31st MEU
and the existing rotary-wing and fixed aircraft, the remainder of operational assets, most infantry,
and support elements will be distributed across the Pacific. These new locations will be augmented
by additional rotary-wing assets and support elements coming from CONUS and Hawaii. The posture changes provide several advantages, including reducing the geographic footprint and USMC
population on Okinawa—both of which will increase the political sustainability of the U.S. presencein Okinawa. In addition, geographic dispersal of U.S. forward-deployed forces would reduce theirvulnerability. Despite these advantages, the approach carries with it some risks. These include theability of III MEF to quickly respond to a crisis near Okinawa, to mass forces in the event of a major
conflict, and to control widely distributed units day-to-day.

FIGURE 6: Major U.S. Forces in Okinawa

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U.S. FORCE POSTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC

In 2012, CSIS examined alternative Marine relocation plans, concluding that the existing plan proved
most viable, and recommended that the two governments proceed with the Futenma Relocation
Facility at Henoko.103 Additional research and extensive interviews with community stakeholders,senior officials, and military personnel reaffirm that the existing plan offers the greatest prospect forrealizing the relocation of Futenma and meeting the three requirements established when realignment was first proposed: maintaining military capabilities, sustaining deterrence, and reducing theimpact on the local population. The disadvantages of the other options evaluated in the 2012 study
remain, namely the potential for local political opposition, costly military construction, and a further
extension of a realignment timeline that is already almost 20 years old. The USMC has worked toaccommodate local concerns regarding operations at Futenma and future operations at the Futenma Replacement Facility. Neither government can be expected to adopt alternatives that would be
more difficult to implement but irreversible if pursued. If the Henoko plan is not implemented, theonly viable alternative is for the Marines to continue operating out of MCAS Futenma.

U.S. Force Posture in South Korea
In South Korea, the United States is pursuing large changes to its posture under two plans: theYongsan Relocation Plan (YRP) and the Land Partnership Plan (LPP). The YRP consolidates U.S.
Forces Korea (USFK) into two enduring hubs south of Seoul near Pyongtaek and Daegu. The
facility consolidation plan remains on schedule and on budget.104 The YRP is funded by the South
Korean government and relocates USFK and UNC from Seoul to U.S. Army Garrison (USAG) Humphreys. The LPP, funded by the United States, consolidates forces north of Seoul to USAG Humphreys. The $10.7 billion YRP/LPP will roughly triple the land-area of USAG Humphreys, and will
see the population housed there grow from 10,000 to 36,000 personnel and dependents. The expanded population at USAG Humphreys requires creation of new housing facilities as U.S. troops
who formerly rented housing on the local economy are to be housed in purpose-built housing.
In addition to USFK and UNC, Eighth Army and the USMC HQ will relocate to Humphreys, andU.S. Naval Forces Korea will co-locate with the ROK Navy Fleet at Busan.105 Seventh Air Forcefacilities at Osan AB will be upgraded. Certain critical defense capabilities, such as the 210th Field
Artillery Brigade, will remain north of Seoul, and a residual CFC footprint will remain at Yongsan
Garrison in Seoul.106
The relocation construction plan is experiencing some challenges. Despite Korean press reportsthat relocation will be completed by 2016, construction delays based on quality-control issues
with some local contractors, a number of whom have filed for bankruptcy, are delaying completion. Moreover, planners anticipate delays as Korean construction companies and relocation
services shift attention to building infrastructure for the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang.
These challenges could delay meeting the 40 percent completion of facilities requirement forcommand-sponsored families living on-post.107 This in turn has delayed preparations for the
movement of units out of Yongsan by the end of 2016 (e.g., as of mid-2015, contract bids for ROK
moving companies are only now being solicited). Thus, managing the public’s expectations ofboth the pace of unit movements as well as the size of the residual Yongsan Garrison footprint(e.g., residual U.S. embassy housing in Yongsan) will be important.

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ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

The operational impact of potential delays in construction is expected to be marginal. As notedin the 2014 joint communique of the Security Consultative Meeting (SCM) between Secretaryof Defense Hagel and Defense Minister Han, the two countries’ militaries will follow a conditions-based approach to relocate U.S. forces, to ensure that U.S. and ROK forces have all appropriate capabilities to effect a smooth operational control transition to the South Korean military.
The SCM statement noted that Combined Forces Command and a minimum of personnel would
remain at the Yongsan Garrison to ensure smooth transition at an appropriate time.

FIGURE 7: Major U.S. Forces in South Korea

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U.S. FORCE POSTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC

U.S. Force Posture in Australia
In 2011, the United States and Australia stated an agreement to establish—and then increase—
USMC and USAF rotational presence in Australia. USAF rotations to Australia have included fightersand tankers. Additionally, U.S. bombers have conducted proof-of-concept deployments. The USMC
is rotating through Darwin, with a plan to reach a maximum of 2,500 Marines on routine six-monthrotations. The agreement has increased training and exercise opportunities, especially for amphibious training as Australia seeks to reestablish its amphibious warfare capability. In addition to the2011 statement, U.S. officials have worked with Australian counterparts to develop additional cooperative initiatives between the two countries’ military services, including with the navies.
U.S. presence in Australia provides the United States with training facilities, as well as basing accessoutside most threat missile ranges. Though having 2,500 Marines is unlikely to be a decisive force
against a heavily fortified high-end adversary, it provides a significant capability that can independently deploy and operate under a wide range of conditions. USMC forces at Darwin could prepare and defend beaches, ports, or airfields in the region to receive a larger follow-on force. In addition, Australia is well-located for conducting engagement activities with Indian Ocean littoral states.

U.S. Force Posture in Hawaii, Guam, and the Mariana Islands
As the United States continues to rebalance to and within the Pacific, it will undertake additional
force posture movements, and has committed to deploying new capabilities to the region. In addition, the United States is pursuing initiatives to develop training ranges that, if realized, would
enhance U.S. posture and readiness in the future.
Hawaii, long the gateway to the Pacific, is home to PACOM HQ and major installations for eachservice: Joint Base (JB) Pearl Harbor-Hickam for the USN and USAF, Marine Corps Base Hawaii,
and U.S. Army Garrison Hawaii. All together, U.S. forces in Hawaii include 29 USN vessels, 2fighter squadrons, 3 airlift squadrons, 3 BCTs, 1 Marine infantry regiment, and 1 combat aviationbrigade. Hawaii serves as an important location for training of U.S. forces and working with allyand partner militaries within the region.
The importance of Guam to U.S. presence and posture in the Asia-Pacific is growing. Guam issovereign U.S. territory west of the International Date Line and 3,800 miles west of Hawaii; it isless than a four-hour flight from Manila, and less than five hours by air from Seoul. The proximityof Guam to numerous U.S. allies and partners in Asia drives the strategic rationale for continued
development of Guam as a strategic hub. U.S. forces in Guam provide the United States with aflexible response force and a staging area from which to respond to possible contingencies.
Within Guam, the USMC is continuing its planned buildup, as part of the Defense Policy Review
Initiative (DPRI) with Japan, for which Japan has contributed over $1.15 billion to date for construction on Guam. Naval Base Guam hosts four Los Angeles-class nuclear attack submarines, asubmarine tender, and Naval Special Warfare Unit One (NSWU-1), PACOM’s Special Operations
Force (SOF) maritime task force. Andersen AFB, on the north side of Guam, is home to the 36th
Air Wing, an expeditionary air wing that commands aircraft on rotation through Guam. Andersen
AFB also hosts a THAAD unit, currently deployed to provide defense against ballistic missiles.

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ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

FIGURE 8: Main U.S. Facilities in Guam

Even as Guam continues to grow in strategic importance to the United States, several concernsand opportunities remain noteworthy. First, Guam is increasingly within range of advanced
ballistic and cruise missiles from possible adversaries. The currently deployed THAAD battery
provides defense against ballistic missiles, but military installations on Guam are vulnerable toair- and sea-launched cruise missiles. Defense officials would consider strikes against Guam, aU.S. territory, as highly escalatory.
Second, U.S. forces in the Pacific lack adequate forward training areas to ensure readiness. The
USMC and USAF are pursuing development of facilities in the Commonwealth of the Northern

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U.S. FORCE POSTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC

Mariana Islands (CNMI). The current plan under discussion would provide for small-scale USMC
training ranges on the island of Tinian and large-scale live-fire and maneuver ranges on Pagan.
Tinian has a population of approximately 3,100 people while Pagan’s permanent residents were
evacuated following an earthquake in 1981. Volcanic activity has prevented permanent return.
Development of training ranges in the Western Pacific would enable U.S. forces to maintain readiness without the loss of transit time to and from Hawaii or the U.S. West Coast.
Third, DOD has an opportunity to leverage existing airfields throughout CNMI for occasional
training by the USAF, USN, and USMC. Exercising in this way would leverage existing facilities toprovide both realistic training, and expand options in a contingency.
The Defense Department’s investments in Guam have attracted high levels of interest and oversight from the Congress. While on face value the construction costs on Guam appear high, they
are in line with similar construction elsewhere in the Asia-Pacific, and reflect requirements forconstruction to withstand a range of potential natural disasters, including typhoons and earthquakes. Future construction, including possible training ranges in CNMI, should adhere to thesame high standards for stewardship of taxpayer dollars.

UNITED STATES PRESENCE ACTIVITIES
U.S. military posture encompasses not just military installations, but also the activities and operations of U.S. forces in the region. These activities help U.S. forces maintain readiness, so that they
are prepared to respond effectively to crises and contingencies that might arise. However, longer
deployments require rest and reset of U.S. forces, and thus there is a balance between providing
near-term power projection and presence, and the long-term need to rest, reset, and sustain theforce for future, potentially more important and challenging, deployments. U.S. military activities
in the Asia-Pacific region include presence designed to assure and deter, including aerial reconnaissance and freedom of navigation (FON) operations, exercises and training to improve U.S.
and collective capabilities, and other forms of theater security cooperation.
Routine presence includes a range of standard activities undertaken by U.S. forces during peacetime, such as USN ship patrols, interactions with other vessels at sea, calls on foreign ports, andUSAF flights and patrols in international airspace. Presence activities provide a steady signal ofreassurance to U.S. allies and partners, support deterrence of potential adversaries, and contributeto timely U.S. responses to a range of possible contingencies. For example, USMC forces conducting predeployment training on ranges in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
were on-hand during the onset of Typhoon Soudelor in August 2015. Their presence enabled thenear-immediate provision of fresh water, logistics, and helicopter lift to the affected islands.
Aerial reconnaissance and surveillance activities, such as those conducted by U.S. aircraft overdisputed areas in the South China Sea—and widely publicized by an embarked CNN crew in thesummer of 2015—represent another subset of routine presence activity. Conducted with the primary purpose of providing U.S. military and defense leadership with information about changing
situations, these missions sometimes provoke responses from the targets of surveillance. Dangerous incidents have occurred, such as the collision of a USN EP-3E reconnaissance plane and42

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

a PLA Naval F-8 fighter over the South China Sea in 2001. U.S. reconnaissance flights in international airspace remain a source of tension between the United States and China.
Another routine presence activity is FON. In FON operations U.S. military forces exercise the rightof free passage, traversing foreign countries’ claimed maritime or airspace that the United States
does not recognize as consistent with international law. Inconsistencies include claims of jurisdiction or sovereignty not based on the standards established in the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). For example, claims could assert rights of sovereignty in areas
UNCLOS defines as international waters, or could base claims of jurisdiction on artificially created features. If these claims, made by many in the region, and particularly by China, gain greater
acceptance under international law or if the United States compromises its interpretation of
those activities authorized under UNCLOS, it could substantially affect U.S. operations not onlyin the South and East China Seas, but also globally. This would hamper the U.S. forces’ ability to
defend not just U.S. interests but also those of all other nations “whose lawful uses of the sea andairspace [is] guaranteed . . . under international law,” as Admiral Harris notes.108
The U.S. Navy ship USS Lassen conducted a FONOP challenging China’s claims around Subi Reef
in the Spratly Islands in November 2015. This action received high interest in news media, andbased on press reports, from China as well. FON activities are an important tool for U.S. policymakers to demonstrate commitment to international law. In most cases, the United States does
not announce FON operations in advance, and only reports them as part of an annual report.
Largely, FONs are conducted without fanfare to reduce the risk to U.S. personnel. With advancenotice, the country subject to a FON challenge is provided the opportunity to intercept, and possibly engage, a U.S. vessel that otherwise may have gone unnoticed.
U.S. military training and exercises, either combined with foreign partners or solely as a U.S.
force, increase interoperability and readiness while also testing new capabilities and concepts.
Combined exercises with partners include large-scale exercises such as COBRA GOLD, co-hosted
with Thailand; BALIKATAN, conducted with the Philippines; and RIMPAC. U.S. forces also conduct
a number of training activities, including unilateral training and joint combined exchange training (JCET) with highly capable partners.

ADDITIONAL SECURIT Y CHALLENGES
While U.S. military power and global posture remain unmatched, competing strategic challenges
are straining the posture elements of the rebalance. Global demands for U.S. forces are high—higher than anticipated when the Obama administration announced the rebalance—and are likely to endure at least in the short to medium term. While there is no way to predict the future, thesteady pace of emerging security issues does not seem likely to decrease in the coming years.
This demand comes at a time of constrained budgets and associated force reductions. Former
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen. Martin Dempsey noted in March 2015, “We are at apoint where our national aspirations are at risk of exceeding our available resources.”109
The United States today is contending with a host of security challenges across multiple regionsthat were unforeseen four years ago when the Budget Control Act was passed and the Obama
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U.S. FORCE POSTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC

administration announced the Asia-Pacific rebalance. In the Middle East, the United States is
extending its presence in Afghanistan, fighting a fluid and evolving campaign in Iraq and Syria
against ISIL, managing security commitments to Arab partners to deter Iran, and maintainingpressure on al Qaeda and its regional affiliates. In Europe, the United States is taking steps to deter further Russian aggression in Ukraine and to reassure NATO allies along the alliance’s eastern
flank in the face of Moscow’s new assertiveness. In addition to shifting regional security demands, the U.S. military continues to respond to humanitarian disasters. Over the past two years
alone, the United States has deployed at least 16,450 U.S. troops to new or extended missions in
the Middle East, Europe, and Africa.110 While there is no way to predict the future, the steady paceof emerging issues does not seem likely to decrease in the coming years. At the same time, thenumber of troops available for deployment is shrinking as a result of the postwar drawdown. The
U.S. Army (USA) has declined from an active duty peak of 566,000 personnel in 2010 to 490,000
in 2015 and is headed to 450,000 in 2018. The USMC has gone from 202,000 to 184,000.
With a smaller force, a constrained budget, and a high demand for forces, policymakers andmilitary leaders must cope with difficult strategic tradeoffs if the United States is to continue tofocus on regions and issues that are important rather than only respond to those that are urgent.
Current fiscal constraints risk mortgaging the future to pay for present crises. Despite budgetaryand operational pressures, DOD continues to enhance U.S. posture in the Asia-Pacific. Nevertheless, the force-resource mismatch presents risk to the overall force, with potentially troublesome
long-term consequences for the rebalance
It should be noted, however, that the relationship between out-of-area security challenges andalliance cooperation within Asia is not entirely zero-sum. South Korea committed the third-largest contingent in Iraq after the United States and the United Kingdom. Australian defense forceswere at the “pointy end of the spear” at the beginning of operations in both Operation IRAQIFREEDOM and Operation ENDURING FREEDOM. Japan sent its first ground forces component
to the Middle East in southern Iraq, where it worked closely with the Royal Australian Regiment.
These experiences created stronger operational relationships among U.S. Asia-Pacific allies andan indirect but important deterrent message to potential adversaries in Asia about the solidarityof these alliances.

Enduring Missions in Afghanistan
The United States formally ended its combat role in Afghanistan at the end of 2014 and has
transitioned to a long-term mission under Operation Freedom’s Sentinel to build and sustain
the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) and conduct partnered counterterrorism operations
against al Qaeda.111 Security conditions in Afghanistan remain tenuous and there are indications
that the U.S. military has remained more active on the battlefield than was originally envisioned
for the post-2014 transition.112 The United States continues to fill gaps in the Afghan National
Security Force’s (ANSF) capabilities in areas such as logistics, intelligence, mobility, and fire support, and may need to continue doing so for years.113 Furthermore, U.S. troop reductions have notsignificantly diminished the demand in Afghanistan for high-demand assets such as airborne ISR
platforms, which are needed to collect intelligence, protect coalition forces, and enable counter-

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terrorism operations.114 President Obama’s October 2015 decision to maintain 9,800 troops in Afghanistan through most of 2016, and maintain at least 5,500 in 2017, reflect mounting concerns
about continued security in that country.115 Despite the end of U.S. combat operations and thelighter footprint, the residual missions in Afghanistan will likely continue to place high demandson the most-stressed parts of the military.

Combatting ISIL in Iraq and Syria
Following ISIL’s seizure of large areas in Iraq and Syria and the brutal execution of American
hostages in mid-2014, the United States launched a campaign to degrade and ultimately destroy
the group. The United States-led campaign, which includes a coalition of 60 countries, encompasses several lines of effort: direct action through airstrikes, training and support for Iraqi and
Syrian partner ground forces, impeding the flow of foreign fighters, and addressing humanitarianconcerns.116 U.S. airstrikes against ISIL began in Iraq in August 2014 and expanded the following
month into Syria. The air campaign over Iraq and Syria has placed high demands on U.S. combat
aviation forces and crucial enablers such as airborne ISR assets, airlift, and refueling aircraft.117 By
the end of September 2015, the United States and coalition forces had conducted over 23,000
close air support, escort, and interdiction sorties (releasing over 24,800 munitions), 9,200 ISR
sorties, and 16,500 tanker sorties in support of counter-ISIL operations.118 The air campaign has
gradually intensified, with the coalition dropping 200 percent more munitions between July and
September 2015 (the last three months statistics were available).119 While President Obama has
made clear that he will not send U.S. ground forces to combat ISIL, there is an evolving U.S. roleon the ground. In October 2015, Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter indicated to Congress that
the United States intended to further intensify the air campaign with more aircraft conducting ahigher and heavier rate of airstrikes.120 Moreover, U.S. Special Operations Forces have been involved in direct action operations on the ground in Iraq and Syria and U.S. officials have signaled
U.S. SOF forces may move closer to the frontlines.121
The United States has deployed several thousand military advisers into Iraq to rebuild the battered Iraqi military and to train and equip associated Kurdish and tribal forces.122 The UnitedStates is also undertaking a multiyear effort in neighboring countries to support Syrian opposition forces to combat ISIL.123 Military operations against ISIL cost roughly $10 million a daywith an overall cost of $4 billion as of September 2015.124 Senior U.S. officials have described
the campaign against ISIL as a multiyear effort and it will likely remain a high-priority and resource-intensive mission in the future.125 In addition, the United States has deployed hundreds ofsupport personnel to Turkey and Jordan, as well as a PATRIOT battery to Turkey from 2013–2015
in support of allied air defenses after repeated airspace violations by the Syrian Air Force.126

Iran and Arab Reassurance in the Persian Gulf
Among the highest U.S. national security priorities has been preventing Iran from developing a
nuclear weapon and deterring Iranian regional provocations.127 The Obama administration has
pursued this goal through a strategy of strong and consistent deployment of forces and multilateral negotiations backed by economic sanctions and military capabilities. The U.S. military pres-45

U.S. FORCE POSTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC

ence in the region amounts to over 35,000 troops and includes major bases in the United ArabEmirates, Bahrain, Qatar, and Kuwait as well as a robust naval force in the Persian Gulf of roughly
30 ships, including consistent coverage in recent years by at least one CSG and often one Amphibious Readiness Group.128
Multilateral negotiations produced the comprehensive nuclear agreement reached with Iranin July 2015, which could have significant implications for regional security and long-term U.S.
military presence. The agreement could bring about a relaxation of tensions between the UnitedStates and Iran, raising the possibility that the United States could eventually reduce its presencein the Middle East and free up forces for the Asia-Pacific.129 U.S. regional allies including Israel andthe six Arab members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), however, have raised concerns
about the agreement, in part due to their reliance on the U.S. security umbrella as a hedge against
Iranian influence. The Obama administration has responded with a policy of strategic reassurance in the Persian Gulf that entails maintaining a long-term military presence in the region.130 In
May 2015, the Obama administration pledged to defend the GCC states from external aggression,
reaffirmed the United States’ commitment to regional security, and announced new initiatives toexpand and deepen U.S.-GCC security cooperation.131 Fulfilling these security commitments will
require that the United States maintain a robust presence in the Persian Gulf going forward.

Countering an Increasingly Belligerent Russia
The United States faces new challenges in the European security environment, which has been
reshaped by Russia’s invasion and annexation of Crimea and its support to separatist rebels ineastern Ukraine. The crisis over Ukraine’s sovereignty and geopolitical orientation has led torising tensions between Russia on one side and the United States and its European allies on theother. The United States and European states have primarily responded with non-military instruments including political and economic support to Kiev and targeted sanctions against Russia.132
Thus, U.S. military support to Ukraine has been modest and limited to a military training mission
and non-lethal equipment.133
In addition to its flagrant violation of Ukraine’s territorial sovereignty, Moscow has also madeprovocations in the broader region by staging large-scale snap military exercises near its borders
and expanding naval and air patrols along NATO’s periphery. These actions have been noted in
NATO and have stirred concerns in the Baltic States, Poland, and Romania.134 In order to deter
Russia and reassure NATO allies, the United States has taken steps to demonstrate its commitment to the alliance and strengthen allied capabilities. This has come primarily through theEuropean Reassurance Initiative, a $1 billion annual effort in FY 2015 and proposed again for FY
2016, to support enhanced military exercises, new programs for building security capacity, andaugmented deployments of rotational forces.135
Heightened tensions with Russia could place a new emphasis on the importance of ballistic
missile defense (BMD) in Europe.136 In 2009, President Obama announced the European Phased
Adaptive Approach (EPAA) to defend European allies and U.S. forces against current and futureballistic missile threats from Iran by deploying sea-based BMD systems to the Mediterranean
and building an Aegis system ashore.137 DOD has implemented the sea-based element of EPAA
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by rotating 10 BMD-capable Aegis-equipped destroyers between the United States and Europe,leaving fewer assets available for the Asia-Pacific where sea-based BMD systems are ideal for the
threat environment.138 However, ship-demand will be reduced now that the last of four BMD-capable Aegis-equipped destroyers has completed its permanent move to Rota, Spain, and given
the placement of Aegis Ashore in Romania.
The renewed emphasis on European security comes at a time when U.S. allies have further reduced their defense spending due to social and economic pressures. It is likely that in 2015 only
the United States, Poland, Greece, Estonia, and the United Kingdom (UK) will meet the NATOtarget of spending 2 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) on defense.139 Years of defense
cuts have begun to expose startling gaps in allied military capabilities. For example, in late 2014,
the United Kingdom was forced to call in U.S., French, and Canadian maritime patrol aircraft tosearch for a suspected Russian submarine operating off the coast of Scotland.140 Before WorldWar I, the United Kingdom had the world’s largest navy, and during the Cold War, British forces
had primary responsibility for securing the North Atlantic sea lanes. Today, however, the United Kingdom does not have a dedicated maritime patrol aircraft, which is a basic antisubmarine
capability. There are also troubling signs that some NATO members lack the political will to live
up to the alliance’s commitment to collective defense. A 2015 poll found that less than half of theGerman, French, and Italian publics believe their country should come to the defense of a NATO
ally if it were attacked by Russia.141
While the Obama administration has stated that European reassurance efforts would not comeat the expense of the Asia-Pacific rebalance, managing a more assertive Russia and reassuring
European allies who possess diminished capabilities may require the United States to rethink its
long-term force posture in Europe.142 U.S. strategy in Europe since the fall of the Soviet Union has
rested on Russia’s emergence as a partner in the European security community rather than as anadversary.143 Without a clear need for a large conventional deterrent force, U.S. forces in Europe
were excess to the region’s security requirements and were steadily downsized. In recent years,
the United States further economized its European presence in part to resource the shift toward
the Asia-Pacific and to support contingency operations in the Middle East.144 Today U.S. forces in
Europe total 68,000 service members, down from a Cold War level of 350,000 in 1989.
In the wake of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, there has not been a significant net increase in U.S.
troops stationed in Europe. Instead, DOD has deferred planned force reductions and augmented
the troops permanently stationed in Europe with rotational deployments.145 The United States
military presence in Europe is also shifting eastwards as excess infrastructure in Western Europe
continues to be closed and more reassurance activities are conducted with NATO members in
the Baltics and Eastern Europe. The need to deter Russia and reassure NATO allies will make resource and force demands that could complicate plans to resource the Asia-Pacific rebalance.

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4 | THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS,
AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONSTHE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

The central strategic task for U.S. policymakers focusing on Asia is to maintain strong relationships with allies and partners and to develop common approaches to achieve shared objectives.
Since 1951, the United States has supported a “hub and spokes” approach to alliances in theregion, in contrast to the collective security arrangement represented by NATO in Europe. Today almost all U.S. allies and partners seek closer security cooperation with the United States inlight of new challenges in the region, but there is still no appetite for moving toward a collective
security framework. Economic ties to China, concepts of sovereignty, historical animosities, andfears of entrapment have all acted as breaks on a new collective security system. Nor has theUnited States sought a collective security order, which would force allies and partners to choose
between Washington and Beijing and result in a fractured and confrontational dynamic in theregion (the exception is HA/DR, where a common capacity across the region threatens no single
state’s interests). Nevertheless, the United States now stands in the region as the major power
most determined to protect the ability of smaller states to secure their sovereignty against coer-

FIGURE 9: Regional Military Forces in the Asia-Pacific

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ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025cion. Moreover, U.S. allies and partners are increasing security cooperation among themselves,in effect networking the traditional hubs and spokes in new bilateral and trilateral arrangements.
This is a positive development for stability in the region and one U.S. policy should support.
This section begins by discussing U.S. treaty allies, namely Japan, South Korea, Australia, thePhilippines, and Thailand, followed by critical U.S. partners, such as India, Taiwan, Singapore,
Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam. Each ally and partner section describes views on the country’s
security outlook, military capabilities and posture, cooperation with the United States, and capability gaps and shortfalls that need to be addressed. Other important regional players, including Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Zealand, and smaller
Pacific island nations are discussed in this section and elsewhere, but due to their lesser role in
U.S. military strategy and force posture, they are not broken into separate sections. The section
concludes by reviewing the importance of regional organizations for helping states to manage
shared security challenges.

JAPAN
Japan is critical to the rebalance strategy as a lynchpin for U.S. access and influence in the
Asia-Pacific region. There is a broad consensus in Japan that U.S. and Japanese regional interests align closely, but economic stagnation, the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, and political paralysis
slowed Japan’s capacity for leadership between 2006 and 2012. The government of Shinzo Abe
has since been able to muster the political cohesion and capital to begin implementing a comprehensive strategy to cooperate more closely with the United States and regional partners inmaintaining security. The U.S.-Japan alliance remains the cornerstone of Japanese foreign policy,
anchored by the 1960 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security. The Treaty enshrined a core
strategic bargain committing the United States to Japan’s defense in exchange for U.S. accessto bases in Japan, to be used for the maintenance of peace and security in the Far East.146 That
core strategic bargain remains intact today, but alliance cooperation has evolved in response tochanges in the regional security environment.
An assessment of current regional security dynamics has prompted a shift in Japan’s defense
strategy. Tokyo’s emerging approach focuses on maritime security and enhancing Japan’s own
capabilities while also improving interoperability with the U.S. military. The two governments unveiled new guidelines for bilateral defense cooperation earlier this year that reflect these developments and the Japanese Diet subsequently passed legislative changes necessary to implement
the guidelines. Washington and Tokyo also plan to enhance networking with other militaries in
the region to strengthen deterrence and regional stability. Japan’s desire and ability to assume agreater leadership role in security affairs supports U.S. strategic interests, which depend fundamentally on robust alliance relationships throughout the region.

Security Outlook
Japan faces an increasingly complex regional environment and seeks to enhance its capacity to address an array of security challenges. Security concerns include North Korea’s nuclear

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weapons and ballistic missile programs, uncertainty about Beijing’s long-term intentions and its
coercive actions in pursuit of maritime claims in the East China Sea (especially in the sea andair space surrounding the disputed Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands), and potential risks in new domains
such as space and cyber. These concerns prompted the recent introduction of a comprehensive security strategy aimed both at enhancing Japan’s own capabilities to deter conflict and atstrengthening ties with the United States and regional partners. Japan’s evolving security strategy is reflected in a series of documents designed to provide a framework for policymaking overthe next decade. Prime Minister Shinzo Abe established a National Security Council (NSC) toformulate strategy and to centralize foreign policy decisionmaking. In December 2013, the NSC
published Japan’s first ever National Security Strategy (NSS) outlining three core national security objectives: strengthening deterrence to reduce threats against Japan, improving the security
environment in the Asia-Pacific region by strengthening the U.S.-Japan alliance and promoting
cooperation with other countries, and improving the global security environment and the international order based on universal values and norms.147 The government also unveiled a new
defense strategy to plan for the defense of Japan’s southwest islands by encouraging greater
jointness within Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) and deepening interoperability with U.S. forces. Priorities include the development of amphibious capabilities; ISR; command, control, communications, and intelligence; BMD; and space and cyber defense.148
The defense strategy, or National Defense Program Guidelines (NDPG), was accompanied bya budget blueprint known as the Mid-Term Defense Program (MTDP). The MTDP outlined procurement priorities, primarily air and naval assets, and proposed a 5 percent increase in defense
spending over the next five years.149 The MTDP centered on improving JSDF capabilities to respond to attacks on remote islands, ballistic missile attacks, outer space and cyber space threats,large-scale HA/DR efforts, and United Nations peacekeeping operations. The Abe government
also passed information security legislation to facilitate intelligence sharing with the UnitedStates. Moreover, Japan has relaxed restrictions on arms exports to promote defense industrial
cooperation and thereby enhance efficiency and interoperability with U.S. forces.
In July 2014, the Abe cabinet announced defense policy reforms based on a reinterpretation of
Article 9 of the Japanese constitution. Abe’s decision to reinterpret Article 9 was informed by therecommendations of an outside panel of security experts who argued that exercising collective
self-defense would enable the JSDF to better defend Japan and reinforce international order.150
Proponents also noted that Abe’s reforms are focused less on the JSDF using force and more on
creating security partnerships with others in the region and thereby “bolster its deterrent function to maintain a balance of power in the region against a rising China.”151 Opponents lamented
the potential for the JSDF to use force and contend the proposed legislation would require a
constitutional amendment.152 There is a clear ideological divide over security policy reform, but
the Abe government’s decision to proceed despite public concerns reflects a determination to
support steps that the prime minister deems critical to Japan’s national interests.
The reforms allow the JSDF to exercise the right of collective self-defense and aid allies underattack. Article 9 renounces war as a sovereign right of the nation and prohibits the threat or use
of force to resolve international disputes, but previous governments reinterpreted that clause to52

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FIGURE 10: Japanese Air, Naval, and Amphibious Force Postureallow a limited use of force for self-defense and revised Japanese policy incrementally in responseto new security challenges. The Abe cabinet interpretation mirrors that of previous governments
in stating that measures of self-defense are permitted under Article 9 when an armed attack
against Japan occurs, there are no other means to repel an attack and ensure Japan’s security,
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and the use of force is limited to the minimum extent necessary. Japan has an inherent right tocollective self-defense under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, but legal specialists in thegovernment had long rejected that right as violating the “minimum extent necessary” requirement. The Abe cabinet concluded that measures of collective self-defense are permitted when an
attack against a country in a close relationship with Japan occurs and as a result threatens Japan’s
security. The decision on collective self-defense reflects an emphasis on deterrence and increased
security cooperation and was therefore welcomed by the U.S. government as an effort to enhance
Japan’s role in the alliance. U.S. officials stressed the prospect for improved information sharing
and coordination that could strengthen interoperability between the two militaries.153
The Abe government submitted implementing legislation for collective self-defense to the Japanese parliament, the Diet, in May 2015. The bills cleared the Lower House of the Diet in July
2015, despite a boycott by opposition parties, and passed the Upper House in September 2015.

Current and Planned Force Posture
The JSDF includes 247,000 active and 56,000 reserve personnel.154 Japan’s Ground Self-Defense
Force (JGSDF) includes 151,000 personnel, divided into command; special forces; maneuver (armored, mechanized, light, air maneuver, and aviation); combat support; and combat service support roles. Japan’s Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) numbers 45,500 personnel and fields 47
principal surface combatants, 18 submarines, 6 patrol and coastal combatants, 35 mine warfare/mine countermeasures (MCM) vessels, 3 amphibious landing ships, 20 amphibious landing craft,and 82 logistics and support vessels. The JMSDF also includes seven naval aviation air groups.
Japan’s Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) includes 47,000 personnel, with seven combat wings divided into 12 squadrons of fighter aircraft, 2 EW squadron, 1 ISR squadron, 3 airborne early warningand control (AEW&C) squadrons, 1 SAR wing, 1 tanker squadron, 4 transport squadrons, 1 training
squadron, 1 test wing, and 4 transport helicopters fleets. The JASDF also fields 4 air defense wingsand 28 radar sites. Finally, the Japanese Coast Guard, which plays an increasingly important rolein maritime security, includes 12,650 personnel with over 395 patrol and coastal vessels as well as
fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and logistics and support vehicles. In addition to these forces, theJSDF established a command, control, communication, and computer (C4) Systems Command in2008 and a cyber planning office in the Joint Staff Office in 2012. A Cyber Defense Group was created in March 2014. Figure 10 shows the posture of major JSDF units within Japan.
Japan’s December 2013 defense strategy calls for a reduction in JGSDF regionally deployed units
but an increase in rapid mobility units to support amphibious capabilities. The MTDP prioritizes
the procurement of air and naval assets, including Aegis-equipped destroyers, Soryu-class submarines, P-1 patrol aircraft, SH-60K patrol helicopters, new AEW&C aircraft, F-35A Joint StrikeFighters, F-15 modernization, C-2 transport aircraft, Patriot Advanced Capability-3 Missile Segment Enhancement (MSE) surface-to-air guided missiles, and unmanned aerial systems (UAS).155

Security Cooperation with the United States
Japan’s force structure and posture are directly tied to cooperative efforts under the U.S.-Japan
alliance. In April 2015, the U.S.-Japan Security Consultative Committee (SCC), consisting of the54

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U.S. secretaries of state and defense and their Japanese counterparts, approved new guidelines
for bilateral defense cooperation. These guidelines build on the Abe government’s proposed security policy reforms and address new challenges in the regional security environment.156
Guidelines for defense cooperation were first introduced in 1978 to clarify priorities for the defense of Japan and were updated in 1997 to incorporate regional security. Yet, actual planning
proved difficult without knowing whether Japan would exercise the right of collective self-defense. The new guidelines affect bilateral security cooperation in three ways. First, they aim to
improve operational coordination between the two militaries by standing up an Alliance Coordination Mechanism. Second, they broaden the scope of functional cooperation to include ISR,
air and missile defense, maritime security, space and cyber, peacekeeping operations, partner
capacity building, HA/DR, and noncombatant evacuation operations (NEOs). The guidelines also
promote the further integration of the two militaries and coordination with third countries basedon Japan’s potential to exercise collective self-defense. Examples of JSDF operations referenced
in the guidelines include asset protection; search and rescue; maritime operations (such as
minesweeping, escort operations, and interdiction); intercepting ballistic missiles; and logistics
support. Japan’s new policy on collective self-defense does not focus on offensive military operations but rather on rear-area integration with U.S. and other forces. The guidelines also focus on
joint research and development efforts to encourage interoperability and strengthen deterrence.
In April 2015, the SCC issued a joint statement reaffirming a commitment to implement existing arrangements on the realignment of U.S. troops in Japan, focusing primarily on Okinawa.
In 1996, the SCC approved a plan that recommended returning approximately 21 percent of thetotal acreage of U.S. facilities and areas in Okinawa, including the controversial Marine Corps
Air Station Futenma, which is located in the heavily populated neighborhood of Ginowan. In
May 2006, the SCC approved a roadmap for realigning U.S. forces, which included constructionof a Futenma Replacement Facility (FRF) in northern Okinawa near U.S. Marine Corps’ Camp
Schwab.157 Under that plan, 8,000 members of the Third Marine Expeditionary Force and their dependents would have been relocated from Okinawa to Guam, and the relocation to Guam would
be dependent on progress toward completion of the FRF and Japan’s financial contributions toinitiatives on Guam.
Local opposition to the relocation plan for Futenma hardened in 2009 and 2010 after Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama promised to explore options to relocate MCAS Futenma outside Okinawa
prefecture. Yet, several months later the Japanese government concluded there were no viable
alternatives to the 2006 road map. The Okinawa Prefectural Government then refused to approvethe construction plan for the FRF and the U.S. Congress began to raise questions about the capacity of Guam to absorb the transferred Marines and their dependents. Recognizing these complications, the SCC issued a new plan in April 2012, delinking the construction of the FRF fromthe relocation of Marines to Guam.158 Marines and their dependents would be relocated to areas
outside Japan, including Australia, Hawaii, and Guam. The two governments reiterated theirbelief that the existing plan for the FRF was the most viable option for relocating MCAS Futenma
and a year later released a consolidation plan for facilities and areas in Okinawa to demonstrate acommitment to land returns.159
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THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONSIn December 2013, Okinawa Governor Hirokazu Nakaima approved a landfill permit for the FRF at
Henoko. In November 2014, Nakaima was defeated in a gubernatorial election by Takeshi Onaga,
who campaigned against the Henoko Relocation Plan, vowed to halt construction of the facility, and demanded that it be relocated outside the prefecture. In July 2015, an advisory panel to
Onaga submitted a report expressing concerns that the central government’s application lacked
environmental protection measures for the Henoko Bay area and that the permit approval might
have violated local laws related to reclamation of surface areas. The central government has argued that the matter was settled by Governor Nakaima and reiterated a commitment to proceedwith the Henoko project, but in August 2015, Chief Cabinet Secretary Yoshihide Suga announced
that the central government would suspend work on the FRF at Henoko for one month to discuss
the relocation plan with Governor Onaga.160 Those talks ended in a standstill and in October 2015,
Onaga revoked permits for offshore construction necessary for construction of the FRF facility. The
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) then issued a temporary injunctionof Onaga’s order and allowed construction at Henoko to resume. In November 2015, the central
government filed suit against Onaga demanding that he reinstate the construction permits.161
In 2012, CSIS examined alternatives to the FRF and concluded that the existing plan proved mostviable and recommended that the two governments proceed with the construction project at Henoko.162 Additional research and extensive interviews with stakeholders, senior officials, and military
personnel reaffirm that the existing plan offers the greatest prospect for realizing the relocation of
Futenma and meeting the three requirements established when realignment was first proposed:
maintaining capabilities; maintaining deterrence; and reducing the impact on the local population.
The disadvantages of the other options evaluated in the 2012 study remain, namely the potential
for local political opposition, costly military construction, and a further extension of the timeline
for a realignment process that already is almost 20 years old. Neither government can be expected to adopt alternatives that would be problematic to implement but irreversible if pursued.
If the Henoko plan is not implemented the only viable alternative is for the Marines to continue
operating out of MCAS Futenma, and an accident in such a heavily populated area could easily
precipitate a crisis in the U.S.-Japan alliance. The operational tempo at Futenma is relatively low
after a KC-130 squadron was relocated from Futenma to MCAS Iwakuni in 2014. In addition, theMarine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) air element at Futenma is regularly deployed elsewhere in theregion for training. Nonetheless, the best way to minimize risk is to continue with the planned
relocation of the facility to a less populated area. In the interim, it will also be important to sustain operational readiness at Futenma by identifying maintenance priorities. At the same time,
both U.S. and Japanese forces will require greater access to airfields in the East China Sea region,
due to the risks presented by natural disasters and the A2/AD environment. Thus, while no “PlanB” would surpass the current FRF plan in terms of operational and political sustainability, there isutility in continued exploration of options for access to multiple runways and facilities that might
be needed to surge operations in a humanitarian crisis and divert forces in other contingencies.
The land return process is also critical to demonstrate progress in the realignment plan and tosupport Okinawa’s economy. The areas designated for return are separated into three categories:
areas eligible for immediate return upon completion of necessary procedures, areas eligible for
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return once the replacement facilities in Okinawa are provided, and areas eligible for return as
USMC forces relocate from Okinawa to locations outside of Japan. The 2013 consolidation plan isopen to review every three years and therefore will likely feature in bilateral discussions in spring2016.163 Expeditious movements on these efforts will demonstrate concrete evidence of the alliance’s commitment to reduce the impact of the U.S. military presence on the local population.
On December 4, 2015, Chief Cabinet Secretary Yoshihide Suga and U.S. Ambassador to Japan
Caroline Kennedy jointly announced plans to return approximately four hectares of land on theeastern edge of Futenma and three hectares of the Makiminato Service Area in Japan FY 2017.164
The U.S. military is also continuing to pursue community outreach programs with the peopleof Okinawa, which are particularly helpful when III MEF training activities for HA/DR are highlighted to demonstrate how the U.S. military is providing public goods throughout the region.
Whole-of-government outreach on Okinawa can help to address concerns there and demonstrate the value of the relationship on both sides of the Pacific.
Despite generally healthy public support for U.S. bases in Japan, opposition within Okinawa andaspirations for greater control of bases among ruling politicians all point to the need for a longer-term vision for U.S. presence. It is in U.S. interests for that vision to include greater shareduse of U.S. and Japanese bases, recognizing the need for interim steps by Japan to enhanceinteroperability and security of facilities and information. There was a time in Okinawa when
resentment of Japanese forces would have prevented such a vision, but today the JSDF is oneof the most respected institutions in Japan in some polls and there would be little adverse political impact from enhanced integration of U.S. and Japanese bases on the island. As Japan shifts
GSDF units to Okinawa and trains them for amphibious operations, there would be great utility inco-location with U.S. Marine units.

Capability Gaps and Shortfalls
Japanese defense strategy documents seek to address perceived capability gaps and shortfalls
in various areas. The National Defense Program Guidelines highlights the need to develop indigenous capabilities in such critical areas as amphibious operations, C4ISR, BMD, and space andcyber defense. Other longstanding priorities, such as logistical capacity and munitions requirements, also merit continued attention. The Abe government passed information security legislation to facilitate intelligence sharing with the United States. Legislation to implement the Abecabinet decision on collective self-defense is meant to strengthen interoperability by facilitating
information sharing to establish a common operating picture for the JSDF and U.S. military andalso improve coordination and expand joint planning for contingencies. The JSDF also places
a premium on exercising with the United States and regional partners. Examples include the
U.S.-Japan Iron Fist and Dawn Blitz amphibious exercises in California; Japanese participation in
the U.S.-Australia Talisman Sabre exercise; Japan-Philippines joint naval training exercises; andJapan’s participation in the U.S.-India Malabar exercises in the Indian Ocean in October 2015.
Japan’s requirement for new areas of expertise, such as amphibious capabilities, is growing as
the challenge in Japan’s maritime zones increases. The JGSDF and JMSDF are creating an amphibious force, working with the U.S. Marine Corps. Helping Japan to gain expertise in this area

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will improve the alliance’s ability to respond to emerging threats. Another area of debate inJapan is the ability to conduct counter-strikes to limit the risk to Japanese forces or populations.
For example, some commentators have recommended that Japan develop ground-launchedcruise missiles that could hold at risk North Korean missile facilities in case Japan received a preemptive warning of an attack. This discussion has taken a back seat to political debates on theexercise of collective self-defense, but will likely reemerge.
Despite these ongoing efforts to address existing capability gaps and capacity shortfalls, a numberof mission areas present challenges for Japan and U.S. forces operating from Japanese territory.
First, defenses against both nuclear- and conventionally armed missiles remain a concern. The
expense of kinetic missile defenses presents a particular challenge given China’s growing inventoryof highly accurate and relatively inexpensive ballistic and cruise missiles. To defend Japanese bases
and forces, as well as those of the United States, Japan may want to cooperate with the UnitedStates to develop both cheaper kinetic interceptors and advanced non-kinetic capabilities, such as
directed energy and railguns. Many of these systems could also be used in an integrated air andmissile defense arrangement, increasing Japan’s defenses against a range of airborne threats.
Another capability requirement for Japan relates to space and cyber defense. Potential militarychallengers could seek to damage Japanese command and control, as well as JSDF and U.S.
military ISR and communications platforms. Defending against these potential avenues of attack will require greater defensive capabilities in space and cyberspace, as well as diversification.
For example, by utilizing hosted payloads, Japan could help to lessen its vulnerability in space,forcing an attacker to target not only Japanese space assets but foreign-owned platforms as well.
By working together with the United States, Japan could substantially expand its cyber and spacecapabilities to meet these growing threats.
Another area that requires additional attention is command and control arrangements, bothwithin Japan and between Japan and the United States. Although the allies recently agreed toestablish an Alliance Coordination Mechanism, it lacks the command and control elements necessary for a rapid combined and joint response to potential crises or conflicts. U.S. Forces Japan(USFJ) plays a vital role, but it would not exercise command and control in a crisis. As a result,
there is concern in both Tokyo and Washington that existing command and control arrangements are not sufficient for the type of complex, high-intensity warfare that the allies must be
prepared to conduct. To address this requirement, Japan might examine other operational command structures, like Australia’s Joint Operations Command. Such a system would separate thecommand and control functions from the chief of defense functions, which is critical to effective
operational responses. U.S. personnel could be integrated into this command, to the degree permitted by legal requirements in both countries, in an effort to improve alliance interoperability.
Finally, a new challenge is emerging in the paramilitary domain. The JMSDF is highly capable, but
the Japanese Coast Guard and JMSDF are increasingly finding themselves stressed to meet operational requirements in the East China Sea. The growing number of Chinese patrols will require
increased presence from both the JMSDF and Japanese Coast Guard. In addition to building morecoast guard vessels, Japan will have to consider ever-larger ships capable of meeting the new58

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10,000-ton Chinese Coast Guard vessels that can be expected to operate in the East China Sea.
Enhancing interoperability and crisis coordination mechanisms among the Japanese Coast Guard,
JMSDF, and U.S. Navy will therefore be critical to ensure continued maritime security. Finding
the resources necessary to fund these maritime efforts will be difficult if the JGSDF continues tomaintain such a large number of personnel. The JGSDF would play a critical role in amphibious
operations, but Japan’s defense-spending priorities must be recalibrated if it is to field the maritime and air capabilities required to compete with China’s rapid military modernization.
Japan has made important strides with respect to jointness among the ground, air, and sea components since the establishment of a new Joint Staff Office, exemplified by the increased numberof military personnel donning purple caps in the Ichigaya headquarters. Japan has also in recent
years established joint headquarters for counter-piracy in Djibouti and missile defense operations in Japan. However, Japan is still far behind other U.S. allies such as Australia and South Korea in terms of establishing overall joint command and control arrangements for contingencies.
The chairman of the Joint Staff Office has the role of chief of defense forces, but Japan has no
structure comparable to the Australian Joint Operational Command. While the newly established
U.S.-Japan Alliance Coordination Mechanism will allow smoother decisionmaking in a contingency, it does not establish clear command and control relationships between the two militaries
for contingencies. There is a growing recognition in the leadership of the Japan Defense Ministryof the need for improved C2 at home and with the United States. However, residual challenges
with respect to service culture, constitutional constraints, and budget remain. This area should
be a higher priority for bilateral alliance management.
Overall, Japan is pursuing critical defense policy reforms to enhance its own capabilities andstrengthen security cooperation with the United States and other partners. These are pragmatic
steps in response to a rapidly changing security environment. The emphasis on jointness andinteroperability, supported by Japan exercising the right of collective self-defense and promoting
defense industrial cooperation, will constitute an important capability in terms of maintaining
deterrence. The new guidelines for U.S.-Japan defense cooperation are another important means
toward that end. Exercises with other partners, such as Australia and India, will increase the prospects for networking the alliance and forming broad habits of security cooperation in support ofregional stability. In 2007, Japan and Australia signed a defense accord for security cooperationin pursuit of democracy, freedom, human rights, and the rule of law. In 2014, this agreement wasenhanced by Prime Ministers Abe and Abbott, who signed a defense technology cooperation
framework. Indeed, Japan’s new national security legislation specifically mentions the potential
for cooperation with Australia. Cooperation with India is also expected to grow. In 2008, Japanand India signed a joint declaration on security cooperation, which has reinforced agreements topursue strategic and global partnership between the two states. Improvement of Japanese-South
Korean relations would also prove useful on issues from North Korea to maritime security. The
realignment of U.S. forces on Okinawa is critical to ensuring that the U.S. rebalance remains operationally resilient and politically sustainable and both governments are steadfastly committed
to that process. Overall Japan’s current strategic trajectory suggests it will remain a critical partner in supporting the rebalance as an anchor for regional stability and prosperity.

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THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONSSOUTH KOREAThe Republic of Korea remains one of the United States’ most dependable allies in the Asia-Pacific. For over 65 years, the alliance has successfully deterred a second North Korean invasion,and South Korea has stood with the United States in every major war since World War II, deploying forces to fight in Vietnam, the Persian Gulf, and Afghanistan. The Republic of Korea has sent
peacekeeping missions to eight countries (including Lebanon and Haiti).165 It currently boasts thesecond-largest Peace Corps volunteer group in the world, smaller only than that of the UnitedStates, with which it signed a cooperation memorandum of understanding (MOU) in 2013.166
South Korea has participated in counter-piracy operations off the coast of Somalia, and it hascontributed to the fight against Ebola in West Africa.167 The Obama and Park administrations havereferred to the alliance as being “the best ever.”168 Put simply, the U.S. rebalance is not credible
without partners like Seoul.
Nevertheless, there is a continued need for improvement in terms of deterrence and defense
on the Korean Peninsula, while the rise of China has placed stress on some of the traditional
assumptions in the U.S.-ROK alliance about regional security strategy. The alliance continues toenhance its combined capabilities on the peninsula as the two sides prepare for the eventual
transition of wartime operational control (OPCON) from the United States to South Korea.169 Yet,these preparations still require that the allies address some critical capability gaps and shortfalls.
To cope with the growing challenges of a nuclear North Korea, the alliance has created a Tailored Deterrence strategy and a 4D Strategy (Detect, Defend, Disrupt, Destroy) for counter-missile
operations, but greater combined and interoperable capabilities for these missions is needed.170
Off the peninsula, Washington has asked Seoul to play a larger role in support of international
norms and rule, which has met with mixed success, particularly vis-à-vis China and Japan.

Security Outlook
For a country pursuing increasingly global national capabilities, the Republic of Korea’s security
outlook is generally parochial. It is the twelfth-largest economy in the world, hosted the global
Nuclear Security Summit in 2012 and the G20 Leaders’ Summit in 2010, is home to world-classcompanies with household names, is a major player on climate change, and will host the WinterOlympics in 2018.171 Yet, despite this global image, South Korea’s national priorities focus almost
exclusively on North Korea and economic growth.
President Park came into power at a time when the body politic was accustomed to pre-2008
growth rates of 5 to 6 percent. With growth estimates plummeting to sub-3 percent after the
Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) outbreak, Park’s mandate is to spur a turnaround. This isPark’s last year to implement any new economic policy initiatives given her single five-year term.172
The preoccupation with North Korea is not without reason. North Korean threats are not only
real, but they increasingly include nuclear, ballistic missile, and cyber threats, in addition toconventional capabilities and the ever-present danger of regime instability. For this reason, ROK
politicians, opinion leaders, and the business community view almost all foreign policy issues
through the prism of North Korea (i.e., promoting engagement or enhancing containment of the60

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threat) and through the lens of unification. If a regional issue is not deemed relevant to theseconcerns, then Koreans tend to discount its importance—a calculation not always in the country’s best interests.
South Korean focus on improving relations with China are partially the result of Seoul’s effort
to address North Korea. The Park government has placed paramount value on deepening strategic ties with Beijing, including numerous summit meetings, establishing a NSC-to-NSC dialogue, concluding a free trade agreement (FTA) in 2015, and joining the AIIB in 2015.173 At thesame time, Seoul has devalued relations with Japan, permitting a currency swap agreement to
expire in February 2015, avoiding summit meetings, and allowing historical issues to paralyze
relations.174 The primary driver for these actions is Seoul’s desire to deepen the estrangement
between North Korea and its neighbors, particularly China. Kim Jong-un has yet to meet with
the Chinese leader, and since the execution of Jang Song-thaek in December 2013, China’s levelof consternation with Pyongyang has been palpable. Thus, the Park government has focused onconvincing China that its future on the peninsula lies with the South. Yet, these trends give theimpression that the U.S. rebalance may have a weak link, as South Korea appears to be gravitating into the Chinese orbit and away from the traditional U.S.-Japan-ROK trilateral arrangement.
There is little chance that such a trend could culminate in the abrogation of the U.S.-ROK allianceunder current conditions. The political center of gravity in Seoul remains solidly pro-alliance,and polling of strategic elites consistently finds that a majority of Koreans is uncomfortable with
Chinese hegemony in Asia and strongly favor continued U.S. leadership.175 Moreover, this appears
to be a long-term trend as younger generations of Koreans hold markedly positive views of theUnited States. Recent polls show, for example, that almost 8 out of 10 Koreans in their twenties
and 7 out of 10 in their thirties believe the United States is a more capable global leader than China.176 Despite the large number of young South Koreans who flock to China for language study
and tourism, 75 percent of those in their twenties still prefer English over Chinese (which is preferred by 20 percent) as their foreign language of choice. This data suggests South Korean ties tothe United States are strong and are likely to endure even if unification were to occur.
Nevertheless, South Korea’s unique regional security outlook affects U.S. strategy and force
posture. The December 2014 U.S.-Japan-ROK Trilateral Information Sharing Arrangement hascreated opportunities for further cooperation on maritime security, counter-piracy operations,
missile defense, and information sharing.177 As a follow-up to discussions during the May 2015
Shangri-La Dialogue, the United States, Japan, and the Republic of Korea are in the process ofscheduling an exercise to enhance their ability to share classified information regarding North
Korean weapons of mass destruction. Efforts to enhance information sharing continue to encounter challenges, and one official involved with the issue characterized the current agreement
as covering about 50 percent of what was covered in the failed 2012 General Security of Military
Information Agreement (GSOMIA) agreement. Full implementation of the current agreement
will be challenging and progress in sharing real-time information regarding North Korean WMD
threats is likely to remain suboptimal. The fact that South Korea continues to drag its feet on
implementation with Japan despite its having similar information-sharing agreements with 24
other countries speaks to the role that historical animosities can play in complicating the U.S.
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rebalance.178 Recent Japanese and Korean efforts to jointly address these historical differences
are welcome and important.
This problem is also evident regarding U.S. capacity to counter Chinese actions in the South
China Sea. Aside from recent token statements about freedom of navigation, Seoul has been
hesitant to stand publicly with the United States in building the capacity of smaller countries in
response to Beijing’s land-reclamation activities on disputed features. Seoul’s equities remainparochially focused on gaining China’s favor on North Korea, while looking askance at other
Chinese activities. Nevertheless, South Korea sees threats to freedom of navigation in the South
China Sea as detrimental to its own longer-term interests, and would welcome diplomatic strategies to shape Beijing’s actions in more positive directions.
Despite the understandably parochial trend in South Korea’s security outlook, it has taken steps
to undertake off-peninsula operations in ways that contribute to regional peace and security.
Most notably, South Korea deployed a military contingent to the Philippines to support recovery
and relief efforts following typhoon Yolanda/Haiyan. The ROK deployment was transparent andopen in its engagements in the Philippines, and its troops were the last of the foreign-contributed troops to depart the Philippines. Further ROK participation in regional HA/DR efforts contributes to regional capabilities and should be supported.

Current and Planned Force Posture
The Republic of Korea military revolves heavily around an army-centric, ground-based paradigm. The ROK Army consists of 495,000 troops, 2,400 tanks, 2,600 armored vehicles, 5,800
field artillery pieces and multiple-launch rocket systems, and 60 guided weapon systems.179 The
ROK Army special warfare command has 10,000 soldiers trained in rear-area activities, terminal
guidance operations, and can play roles in counterterrorism and peacekeeping operations.180
The ROK Navy maintains approximately 70,000 sailors and marines, 10 submarines, 110 surface
combatants, 10 auxiliary vessels, and 30 anti-mine and support vessels. The ROK Air Force fields
65,000 airmen, 400 combat aircraft, 60 ISR aircraft, 50 air mobility aircraft, and 160 trainers.181
The most prominent element of future force posture plans is a consolidation of the army, bringing the numbers by 2022 to 387,000 troops while holding other branches constant.182 South Korea faces significant demographic challenges in meeting manpower targets without integrating
women into its ranks (for which there appears to be no interest on part of the government). The
heavy reliance on reserves (numbering 2.9 million) highlights the need for an NCO corps.183 ROK
defense reforms target an officer to NCO ratio of 40 percent, but budgetary constraints make thisa high bar.
Regarding future modernization, the government has committed to a 7 percent increase in the
2016–2020 ROK defense budget.184 The ROK Army plans to acquire unmanned aerial vehicles,
K2 tanks, multiple launch rocket systems (MLRS), and will take delivery of 36 Apache helicopters beginning in 2016.185 The ROK Air Force is procuring indigenous F-X III fighters and aerial
refueling tankers. Seoul will enhance deep-strike capabilities with initial deliveries of F-35 fighters in 2018.186 The ROK Air Force has also budgeted and signed contracts for Global Hawk (with62

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delivery starting 2017); it purchased two Green Pine radars from Israel; and it has budgeted for
acquisition of two satellites in 2015. ROK Navy plans include next-generation submarines, Aegis-equipped destroyers, and maritime patrol craft. Regarding missile defense, South Korea hascommitted to purchase PAC-3 upgrades by 2018, in addition to Standard Missile 2 (SM-2) andSM-6 upgrades. Following the 2012 New Missile Guidelines agreement, Seoul is developing indigenous ballistic missile defenses for deployment in 2017, all as part of its Kill Chain strategy and
Korean Air and Missile Defense (KAMD) system.187 These capabilities will improve ROK defensives,
as well as its interoperability with U.S. forces.

FIGURE 11: South Korean Force Posture63

THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Security Cooperation with the United States
The United States maintains approximately 30,000 troops in Korea (roughly 20,500 U.S. Army,
300 U.S. Navy, 100 U.S. Marine Corps, and 8,100 U.S. Air Force personnel).188 In wartime, U.S. augmentation forces would likely flow many more troops, vessels, and aircraft to the defense of thepeninsula. Command of these forces, and those of South Korea and the United Nations, is complex given the many different actors involved. The United States and South Korea are working toprepare for the transition of wartime operational command from the United States to the Republic of Korea. Unlike the previous two OPCON transition plans, the current plan lacks a target date,instead focusing on satisfying the necessary readiness requirements and threat conditions forboth sides to feel comfortable with the transfer.189
The lack of a specific date for OPCON transition has created some political backlash on the Korean side, reflected largely in ROK desires to push the timeline on leading and designing combined
military exercises. Combined Forces Command and the ROK Joint Chiefs of Staff are considering how and when to shift leadership of major theater exercises, with the potential for the ROK
military to lead elements of Key Resolve in 2017. However, participants admit to a cultural gap
in understanding the utility of exercises. The United States military sees exercising as a heuristic
device in which failure provides an opportunity to learn and to improve, while the ROK military
views exercises more as finished products, where choreographing success is paramount, even at
the expense of learning. Closing this gap in understanding is important for the transition to South
Korea as the combat lead and the United States in a supporting role on the peninsula. Nevertheless, both sides remain confident that OPCON transition will not impair combat readiness andwill not diminish either side’s commitment to the alliance.
Recent innovations have enhanced alliance capabilities and will help to create the conditions
required for OPCON transfer. These include the creation of the first U.S.-ROK Combined Division
with the 2nd Infantry Division (ID) as the core.190 In July 2014, U.S. and ROK forces (the 2nd ID
and the ROK Third Army) trained together for the first time at the National Training Center in Fort
Irwin, California, where they focused on WMD elimination.191 In 2013, the United States began
preparations for rotational U.S. Army deployments to South Korea—that is, forces periodically
deployed from the United States and not permanently stationed forward. The first brigade-sizedunit arrived in June 2015 at Camp Casey (the 2nd Armored Brigade Combat Team of the 1st Cavalry Division from Fort Hood).192 Initial Korean trepidation about these deployments appears tohave dissipated with the appreciation that these nine-month rotations bring a more combat-capable and cohesive unit to the peninsula that is fully trained and ready to fight. U.S. participants
describe the rotational deployments as “good and getting better.”193 Nevertheless, there remains
concern among some military leaders in both the United States and South Korea that rotational
deployments could harm combat effectiveness, particularly for newly arriving units. Examining the experiences of forces rotating through Iraq and Afghanistan could help to address thesedownsides of the rotational arrangements. There has been some effort on the Korean side (atthe deputy minister level) to influence the timing and nature of the deployments, but rotationalbrigades are best removed from domestic-political considerations in Korea.

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While the alliance modernizes to meet evolving threats, the Republic of Korea continues to increase its contributions to the alliance under the Special Measures Agreement. Under the mostrecent agreement, concluded in January 2014, Seoul will pay about 45 percent of the costs ofstationing U.S. forces on the peninsula. South Korea contributes about 2.5 percent of its GDP to
defense, which is more than most allies. Moreover, Seoul has increased defense spending for the
past seven years with average annual increases of around 4 percent.194 Thus, South Korea is bearing a substantial portion of the cost of maintaining U.S. forces on the peninsula, to include therelocation of U.S. forces on the peninsula under the Yongsan Relocation Plan.

Capability Gaps and Shortfalls
Despite this progress, the alliance must improve several critical capability areas to ensure continued readiness to respond to North Korea. The Republic of Korea’s acquisition of critical capabilities is a key factor in achieving a capabilities-based OPCON transition. Correspondingly,
although Seoul continues to raise its defense budget at a time when most U.S. allies are cutting
their budgets, the size of South Korean defense budget increases has not matched the size of therequested increases. The South Korean administration usually requests yearly increases on theorder of 7 percent, but typically secures less than a 4 percent increase. Continued spending will
be necessary to address important areas of focus, which include ISR, BMD, and critical munitions.
In terms of bilateral interoperability—specifically in command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence—progress is slower than desired by CFC. Interoperability remains animportant requirement for maintaining and evolving U.S.-ROK alliance combined capabilities tomeet the North Korea threat. Yet, bilateral interoperability has lagged in some areas, such as Link
16. Furthermore, the operational implementation of the Trilateral Information Sharing Agreement
requires additional progress. All three parties will need to first complete the requisite work to establish bilateral data exchange agreements, and then expand to trilateral efforts that will enhance
the ability of the United States, Republic of Korea, and Japan to address North Korean WMD andmissile threats. Cooperation between South Korea and other regional partners, such as Japan,
Taiwan, Australia, and others, can help the U.S.-South Korea alliance to expand its current focus
from the Korean Peninsula to broader regional security concerns.
In terms of missile defense, Seoul is pursuing Korean Air and Missile Defense and a 4D strategy(to detect, defend, disrupt, and destroy incoming missiles), but still abstains from fully integratingwith the U.S.-based system in the region. South Korea will start receiving PAC-3 upgrades in 2017,
but existing arrangements are not optimal for the mission. Acquisition plans do not prioritize
training, maintenance, or spare parts for these systems. U.S. complaints reflect frustration at alack of transparent consultations by South Korea, and the lack of doctrine, organization, training,materiel, leadership and education, personnel, and facilities (DOTMLPF) internalization by the
ROK military. Chinese demarches have made the potential U.S. deployment of Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) on the Korean Peninsula a sensitive issue for Seoul, despite the factthat South Korea has no area defense capabilities against North Korean ballistic missiles. The ROK
military has expressed interest in developing an indigenous THAAD-like system, but U.S. experience with these types of systems suggests a multi-decade effort would be required to develop

65THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

and deploy such a missile defense system. Given the growing missile threat from North Korea,
THAAD provides a valuable capability.
Munitions shortfalls also remain a concern for South Korea. Seoul remains fixated on acquiring
finished items—usually high-profile weapons systems—without the budget or training to integrate the system into existing combined capabilities. Regarding strike capabilities, for example,
Seoul is committed to F-35 deliveries in 2018, but has delayed an acquisition plan for precision
guided munitions (PGMs), and does not appear to have budgeted adequately for it.195 Similarly,
the counter-fire mission is vital to defend Seoul and areas north against North Korean artillery
attacks. South Korea prefers to use conventional high-explosive rounds, but is moving toward
acquiring PGMs that the United States considers critical. It is essential to have sufficient stocks ofsuch munitions on hand and the alliance continues to work to ensure its munitions stocks are
sufficient in quantity and quality.
Similarly, Seoul would do well to prioritize certain critical capabilities, such as Joint Terminal
Attack Controllers (JTACs), the South Korean command and control system (KJIX), and Link 16.
Through these efforts, the United States and South Korea are working to enhance warfighting
capabilities. Joint Tactical Air Controllers are vital to effective use of precision munitions. KJIX is
still in development, and therefore is not integrated with the U.S.-managed Centrix system. Lackof South Korean budget appropriations continues to delay certification to put Link 16 in place,which is critical to enabling seamless communication between the United States and South Korea. These types of capability gaps could be closed if Seoul were motivated to prioritize these efforts and appropriately committed funds to them. The combination of budget constraints, Seoul’s
preference for developing indigenous national capabilities, and an obsession with high-profile
end products over more mundane but important capabilities, however, underscores shortfalls in
key areas including ISR, missile defense, and munitions. In the end, forward-looking decisions
would enhance U.S.-ROK interoperability and alliance capabilities.

AUSTRALIA
Australians have fought alongside the United States in every major conflict since World War I.
Over the last 14 years, Australian forces have played critical roles in coalition operations in the
Middle East; today, Australia is one of the largest contributors to the military coalition against
ISIL. As the United States rebalances to the Asia-Pacific and redistributes its military presence,
Australia’s value as a political ally and military partner—combined with its geographic location—are reinforcing its strategic importance to the United States. While the alliance is strong
and growing increasingly central to U.S. regional policy, Washington and Canberra will have tomanage occasional pressures in the relationship, particularly over how best to work together toshape China’s rise.

Security Outlook
Australia’s primary national security concerns include relations with China and Indonesia, terrorism, and fragility and instability in the South Pacific. Government documents and public

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polling constantly point to these as among Australia’s most acute security challenges, although
the types of challenge they pose differ substantially.196 China is Australia’s top trading partnerand resources market, but Beijing’s coercive activities are a major concern to Australian policymakers, as they are in Washington. Many current Australian policymakers hold similar views on
China to their U.S. counterparts, worrying about how to shape China’s behavior so that Beijing’s
activities support rather than undermine international rules and norms. Since the ScarboroughShoal incident in 2012, which ultimately resulted in China’s seizure of the reef, many Australianpolicymakers have grown increasingly worried about Chinese coercion in maritime disputes andthe growing potency of China’s A2/AD capabilities.197 These concerns have been strengthened byrecent PLA Navy transits of waters immediately to Australia’s north.
Some Australian national security leaders, including many in government, have called for a moreconcerted effort to uphold rules and norms vital to regional security and prosperity. Australian Department of Defence Secretary Dennis Richardson recently expressed concern at “the unprecedented pace and scale of China’s land-reclamation activities in the South China Sea over the last coupleof years.”198 Similarly, Foreign Minister Julie Bishop has said China’s 2013 declaration of an Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ) in the East China Sea convinced Canberra “to make it clear where
we stood on unilateral action that could be seen as coercive and could be seen to—and which did—affect our national interests.”199 Australia expressed public support for the U.S. Navy’s recent South
China Sea freedom of navigation operation. Meanwhile, discussions about leasing 80 percent of
the port of Darwin to a Chinese company have highlighted the tensions inherent in simultaneously
forging a closer security alliance with the United States and growing economic ties with China.
As in any democracy, there are other voices too, with former leaders like the late Malcolm Fraser
and security experts like Hugh White advocating that Australia would be better off pursuing a more“independent” policy rather than hewing so closely to the United States.200 The Australian business community is more sanguine about China, owing largely to its reliance on Chinese resources markets to drive growth in the Australian economy. It was presumably with this in mind that
then-Prime Minister Tony Abbott reportedly summed up that when it comes to China, Australians
are motivated by the conflicting emotions of “fear and greed.”201 The Australian public is strongly
pro-American and pro-alliance, but its views on China are a mix of the business community andstrategic community. In public polls, Australians are somewhat more positive toward China thanthe expert community, with respondents giving China a 60 out of 100 favorability rating (the UnitedStates received a 71).202 Only 30 percent of Australians see China as a military threat, and 77 percent
say that China is more of an economic partner than a security threat.203 There has been speculation that Malcolm Turnbull—who had close business ties with China before entering politics—
might align more closely with the views of Australia’s business community, seeking to manage the
U.S.-Australia alliance without damaging relations with China. It is still early, but Turnbull’s publiccomments suggest a continuing commitment to uphold international rules and norms, includingin the South China Sea, even at the price of some friction in Australia’s relations with China.
Although China remains a major foreign policy preoccupation for Australia, near neighbor Indonesia is a more immediate consideration. Bilateral trade and education ties are growing, andCanberra has been a major provider of development assistance to Indonesia. But the two coun67

THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

tries are very different and the bilateral political relationship has often endured periods of stressand strain. Australia’s response to people smuggling and Indonesia’s application of the death
penalty in recent drug-trafficking cases involving Australian citizens continue to cause sometension, and a strong strain of Indonesian opinion is suspicious that Australia seeks to undermine
Indonesia’s hard-won sovereignty and national integrity.204 In polling, 87 percent of Australians
express the view that Indonesia should do more to combat people smuggling, with 85 percent
also suggesting that “Indonesia should do more to combat the risk of Islamic terrorism.”205 For
their part, Indonesian leaders point to allegations of Australian spying connected to the unauthorized disclosure of U.S. government data as a reason for mistrust.206 Despite these tensions,
Australia and Indonesia continue to work together in important areas, such as counterterrorism,
transnational crime, and intelligence sharing.207
Finally, in recent years Australian policymakers and Australians more generally have grownincreasingly concerned about terrorism. In a 2015 poll, Australians ranked terrorism as the top
threat to Australia, expressing concern about ISIL, attacks on Australians overseas, and homegrown terrorism in Australia itself.208 Australia has raised its national terrorism threat level tohigh and since 2014 it has experienced three separate terrorist incidents and multiple disrupted
attacks. Foreign Minister Julie Bishop went so far as to call terrorism “the most significant threat
to global rules-based order to emerge the past 70 years.”209 Well over 100 Australians are fighting
for ISIL or other terrorist groups in the Middle East.210 Concern over terrorism has made Australia
a key coalition contributor in efforts to disrupt ISIL and in support of Iraqi security forces. The
Australian Defence Force (ADF) has operated at a high tempo almost continuously since the multinational intervention in Timor-Leste in 1999.

Current and Planned Force Posture
Australia’s 2013 White Paper laid down four principal tasks for the ADF: 1) to deter and defeat armed
attacks on Australia; 2) to contribute to stability and security in the South Pacific and Timor-Leste;3) to contribute to military contingencies in the Indo-Pacific region, with priority given to Southeast Asia; and 4) to contribute to military contingencies in support of global security.211 To accomplish these missions, over 50,000 army, navy, and air force personnel serve in the active force.
The Australian Army numbers roughly 29,000 and under Plan BEERSHEEBA is being restructured
around three multirole combat brigades, supported by three enabling brigades to provide combat support and ISR, aviation support, and combat services, respectively.212 An Amphibious Ready
Element is being developed that, along with the two large Canberra-class amphibious assault
ships to enter service shortly, will constitute a new Australian amphibious capability. A major acquisition project will see the army’s aging M113 and Australian Light Armored Vehicles replaced
over coming years. The army also retains M1A1 main battle tanks and over 100 attack, utility,transport, and scout helicopters.213 The ADF’s Special Operations Command, which includes theSpecial Air Service Regiment as well as Commandos, is also highly capable.
The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) has over 22,000 permanent and reserve personnel and 53
commissioned vessels.214 It is undergoing a period of profound, and sometimes painful, transformation as its Collins-class conventional submarines and much of the surface fleet approach
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obsolescence. Over the next 20 years, the Australian government will spend over 89 billion
Australian dollars on eight or more replacement submarines, nine future frigates, and numerous
offshore patrol vessels. The two Canberra-class vessels will be able to land up to 1,000 personnel.215 These vessels will eventually be able to operate jointly in task forces with other surface
ships and submarines, but the ADF expects that several years of exercising will be required before
Australia develops a genuine amphibious capability. The RAN’s current eight ANZAC-class frigates have been developed into capable multirole workhorses and are currently being upgradedwith phased array radar and Evolved Sea Sparrow air defense missiles.216 Construction of the future frigates to replace them—optimized for antisubmarine warfare—will begin in Australia within
five years, once a model is selected from several European designs.217 Four aging Adelaide-classfrigates (based on the U.S. FFG) will be replaced by three Australian-built Hobart-class air warfare
destroyers equipped with the Aegis combat system and based on a Spanish frigate design; thisproject has been beset by significant delays and cost overruns, however.218 Two new fleet replenishment vessels will be constructed offshore, while the Collins-class submarine fleet will be
replaced by eight or more new submarines that will be developed with an international partner
depending on the selection of a Japanese, German, or French-based design.219 The current patrol
boat fleet will be replaced with larger and more capable offshore patrol vessels to be constructedin Australia. The RAN also operates patrol boats, minehunters, survey ships, landing ships, minesweepers, and support vessels, as well as helicopter squadrons and a fixed-wing Laser Airborne
Depth Sounder (LADS) aircraft.220
The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) is relatively small, with just over 14,000 personnel.221 Yet, theRAAF is highly sophisticated and capable, as demonstrated recently by its ability to deploy an air
task group of combat, ISR, and refueling aircraft to the Middle East and support them without U.S.
or other assistance. As a deliberate policy of successive Australian government to maximize interoperability, the RAAF’s weapons systems are almost exclusively of U.S. origin. Australia has fivecombat squadrons of F/A-18 Hornet and Super Hornet fighter aircraft. They will soon be augmented by a squadron of EA-18G Growler electronic warfare aircraft—making Australia the only country
in the world besides the United States to operate them.222 Canberra will also acquire 72 F-35 Joint
Strike Fighters.223 Six highly capable E-7A Wedgetail airborne early warning and control aircraft haveboosted the RAAF’s ISR capabilities; its aging AP-3C maritime surveillance aircraft will be replaced
by a combination of P-8A Poseidon and MQ-4C Triton manned and unmanned platforms. Within
the next two years, Australia’s existing fleet of six C-17A Globemaster strategic lift aircraft will growto eight, augmenting its C-130J air mobility aircraft and KC-30A multirole tankers.224
Australian forces are often deployed around the globe, but within Australia, they rely on a relatively small number of critical operating locations (see Figure 13). The RAN is largely based in thesouth for reasons owing largely to history, proximity to major centers of population and industry,
and challenges posed by severe tides in far northern Australia. Fleet Base West is at Her Majesty’s
Australian Ship (HMAS) Stirling, near Perth on the Indian Ocean, and supports surface vessel andsubmarine operations; Fleet Base East is located in Sydney. HMAS Cairns and HMAS Coonawarra
provide operating locations in the north, primarily for patrol boats and other smaller vessels. The
RAAF runs a number of established bases, and bare bases for expeditionary operations, around69

THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Australia. Most major support hubs are located in the south, but northern bases include RAAF
Darwin, RAAF Learmonth, RAAF Curtin, RAAF Tindal, and RAAF Scherger. Large and increasingly
sophisticated training ranges are located throughout Australia, which is a major attraction for foreign partners, such as Singapore, who lack training areas and bombing ranges. The Jindalee Overthe Horizon Radar system makes a valuable contribution to awareness of Australia’s maritime
approaches. In addition, space surveillance capabilities at the Joint Defence Facility Pine Gap,
near Alice Springs, serve a critical role not only for Australia but also for the United States. Finally,
Australian forces also have access to Cocos and Christmas Islands in the Indian Ocean as well asRoyal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) Butterworth in Malaysia.

Security Cooperation with the United States
The United States remains Australia’s most important ally and U.S. engagement is central to Australia’s regional and global strategy. There is substantial support within Canberra’s policymaking community for continued and even expanded cooperation with the United States, as well as regional
partners that share similar interests.225 Australian efforts to encourage and enable the U.S. rebalance
have been substantial, including the hosting of rotational deployments of USMC forces in Darwin.
Strategic elites are generally supportive of the United States and public polling shows that at least
80 percent of Australians view the alliance with the United States as very or fairly important forprotecting Australia’s security.226 This level of support has been largely consistent over time. In
addition, trust has been rising that the United States will come to Australia’s defense if needed.227
Nevertheless, Australians remain worried about U.S. implementation of the rebalance and its durability. Australian ambassador to the United States and former Labor Party leader, Kim Beazley, haspublicly expressed concern that senior U.S. policymakers are “preoccupied” with other issues.228
As discussed above, differences of opinion over China exist within and among Australian strategic
elites and the business community. Developing parallel approaches for managing China’s rise will
be necessary if Washington and Canberra are to coordinate their strategies for the increasingly
complex Asia-Pacific region.
Security partnerships with other states and in multilateral forums are vital to a strong U.S.-Australia
alliance. The Trilateral Strategic Dialogue with Japan has been valuable for enhancing cooperation
among the three states and has supported the evolution of Japan’s security policy. Additional dialogues with India, South Korea, Indonesia, and others would help to broaden the strategic debates andbuild consensus around the region. Multilaterally, the East Asia Summit is also important for both allies,
as an opportunity to shape the behavior of regional states and coordinate approaches to achieve
shared objectives. As Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Peter Varghese commented in August 2015, “Australian interests are best served by a stable strategic system in Asia whichfavours open societies, encourages economic integration, is inclusive in membership and looks outward. . . . [Australia can] work on building institutions and norms in the region which can help manage
strategic tensions and which can act as an anchor at a time of transition in the region.”229
From a U.S. perspective, Australia has served critical military roles in recent years. First, Australianforces have served alongside U.S. forces in the Middle East, helping to address the threat of terrorism. Second, Australia plays an increasingly important role within the Indo-Pacific region, par70

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ticularly helping to address maritime challenges. Finally, Australia could serve as a sanctuary for
U.S. forces in the event of conflict, one that is distant enough from most conflict zones to protect
U.S. assets, but still close enough to allow rapid deployments to critical theaters. Although Australia’s contributions in the Middle East have been critical to U.S. efforts there, Canberra’s assistance is increasingly required in the Asia-Pacific region itself.
Within the Asia-Pacific, Washington is particularly interested in two Australian capabilities: maritime assets and diversification of U.S. posture.230 Australia’s surface and subsurface fleets and other
ISR assets are vital to monitoring the congested and contested waters in the Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia, and the South Pacific. Along with New Zealand, Australia helps to expand the maritime
security capabilities of allies and partners throughout Southeast Asia and the Pacific. South Pacificdevelopment and capacity building are vital to effective governance in the small Pacific island
nations, and Australia plays a critical role as a stakeholder in and caretaker of stability throughout
the region. These security cooperation ties are likely to be tested if maritime tensions continue togrow around disputed claims, particularly in the South China Sea, and as China’s influence in theSouth Pacific continues to grow. As maritime security challenges in the Asia-Pacific intensify, theU.S.-Australia alliance is likely to have more of a regional focus than it has in recent decades and astronger emphasis on cooperation in the maritime realm. To help manage shared challenges, theUnited States will increasingly rely on Australia for some critical capabilities.
Geographically, Australia links the Pacific with the increasingly important Indian Ocean. Australia’s
remoteness, while sometimes a complication, also makes it a potential sanctuary in a crisis or conflict—a role it played in World War II after the fall of the Philippines. As a result, U.S. and Australian officials are working together to develop additional access options for U.S. forces, as well as training andexercise locations. While the most visible example of U.S. rotational forces in Australia is the presenceof U.S. Marines in Darwin, this has yet to reach its full scale and is just a first step. With some investment in additional infrastructure, Darwin could serve as a hub for training with other amphibious
forces, thereby increasing jointness and interoperability with allies and partners. Interoperability ofthis sort would be critical in HA/DR operations, as well as higher intensity regional crises. Less progress has been made in implementing the USAF component of the U.S.-Australia Force Posture Initiatives announced in 2011, which require additional infrastructure at some of Australia’s northern airbases such as RAAF Tindal so they can support larger U.S. aircraft. The United States might also seek
to use Australian naval bases for submarine deployments or surface ships. HMAS Stirling, for example,
has room for expansion and offers blue-water access into the Indian Ocean, as well as a training area.
Taking the U.S.-Australia Force Posture Initiatives beyond the current rotation of 1,350 Marines isimportant for both nations and for the credibility of the U.S. rebalance, but it will require agreement on what additional infrastructure is needed and who will fund it. Many of the initiatives
described would require additional resources, particularly an enhanced USN presence in Australia. The legal framework is in place, but discussions over cost-sharing arrangements between thecapitals have been difficult, and progress has therefore been slow. Nevertheless, shared interestsand longstanding cooperation suggest these obstacles can be overcome. Indeed, the fact that
defense budgets are tight in both Washington and Canberra underscores the importance of thetwo allies relying more on each other to meet shared challenges.
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THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONSFIGURE 12: Australian Air and Naval Bases and Operating Locations

Capability Gaps and Shortfalls
With a limited population occupying a vast land territory and responsible for one of the world’s
largest marine areas, Australia’s defense policy has long rested on maintaining strong alliances,a regional capability edge, and the acquisition of sophisticated (and costly) weapons systems.
Australia enjoys more strategic depth than many regional nations such as Japan, the Philippines,
South Korea, and Vietnam. Yet Australian defense planners are acutely aware that this advantage
is being eroded by regional military modernization and increasing strategic competition, andthat maintaining Australia’s capability edge is becoming more difficult and costly. They are also
mindful of the substantial breadth of Australian military missions within the Indo-Pacific andbeyond, leading to concerns about several existing gaps in the ADF’s capabilities and capacity,and the risk of potentially significant gaps in maritime capability, in particular. Recognizing thesepressures, the current Australian government has committed to a defense-spending floor of 2
percent of GDP, although this is an ambitious target.231 Scheduled for release in early 2016, theDefence White Paper is expected to address concerns about Australian capabilities and capacity,and set forth a sustainable path for the future defense force.232

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For over a decade, much of the ADF’s operational focus has been in the Middle East, but Australia’s
increasingly contested maritime domain means maritime capabilities have been a growing preoccupation. Three new Aegis-equipped Air Warfare Destroyers are under construction, and planning
is underway to replace the aging Collins-class conventional submarine fleet, as well as the navy’s
frigates and patrol boats. Air assets such as Australia’s Wedgetail aircraft, a growing fleet of KC-30A
tankers, MQ-4C Triton unmanned aerial vehicles, and Joint Strike Fighters will give the RAAF a longrange counter-air and counter-surface capability. The White Paper is also expected to focus on enhancements to C4ISR, cyber security, and other enabling capabilities, including basing infrastructure.
Despite Australia’s clear need for greater maritime capabilities, concerns remain about affordability,
particularly in light of domestic political pressure to build naval ships and submarines in Australia.
The expense of advanced submarines and fighter aircraft in particular puts a strain on the Australian defense budget, despite recent funding increases. If cost estimates rise, the government
may face additional hard choices between needed capabilities and capacity.233 Further delays indecisionmaking on submarines and frigates risk future gaps in these vital capabilities, as would
any delays in construction (which have affected the Air Warfare Destroyer program). Australia canrely on the United States to come to its aid in a crisis and provide for some critical capabilities, but
U.S. capacity may be limited in the event of a severe contingency involving China. High-demand,
low-density (HDLD) assets, such as aerial refueling tankers, will help to give Australia a greater ability to operate on its own, or to provide niche capabilities should they be required during a crisis orconflict (both of which it has recently demonstrated in the Middle East). To help the United States
operate effectively in a crisis, Canberra will have to work with Washington to expand the capacityof northern Australian bases, including its network of bare bases. Ensuring that logistical needs canbe met for critical supplies, such as petroleum, oils, and lubricants, will be vital to expanding not
only the U.S. military’s operational effectiveness, but the ADF’s as well.
As Australia’s own influence expands and Australia’s geopolitical position becomes more central to
U.S. strategy, Washington’s expectations of Canberra are growing. Although the Australian strategic debate is still evolving, there is no question that Australia’s national security challenges require
close coordination with the United States as well as other allies and partners. Enhancing Australia’s own maritime security capabilities, as well as ensuring that the United States can operate
effectively from Australian territory in a crisis, are likely to remain top priorities for Canberra.

PHILIPPINESThe Philippine military is at the beginning of a long-term shift from a focus on internal security
to external defense. This entails not only a transition away from fighting insurgents in the southern Philippines and communist rebels throughout the country, but also a rebalancing of forces
toward the long-neglected navy, air force, and coast guard. The impetus for this transition has
been rising tensions in the South China Sea, where Beijing’s assertiveness has forced a rethink in
Philippine priorities. The Philippines’ ability to stand up to Chinese coercion is of particular concern to the United States given the U.S. commitment to protect Philippine territory, troops, ships,
and aircraft in the Pacific under the two nations’ mutual defense treaty.234

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Despite the recognition of its changing priorities, the Philippine military suffers from decades ofunderfunding and poor management. It is not, and will not for the foreseeable future, be capableof fulfilling the goals set out by leaders in Manila without considerable assistance from external
partners, particularly the United States. To this end, the two treaty allies concluded an Enhanced
Defense Cooperation Agreement in early 2014 that, if it is approved by the Philippine Supreme
Court, would allow a larger U.S. military footprint in the country and open desperately needed avenues for greater training for Philippine forces and funding for Philippine military infrastructure.235
The trend in the U.S.-Philippine alliance is toward closer cooperation and greater capability, but aswith many other partners in Southeast Asia, observers should not assume a straight-line trajectory
given upcoming elections and the political hurdles likely to occur in the years ahead.

Security Outlook
The South China Sea has emerged as the Philippines’ top security concern in recent years. Leadersin Manila began to recognize the potential threat of escalation over South China Sea disputes in1995 when China occupied Mischief Reef, which was claimed by the Philippines as well as Vietnam
and Taiwan. The seizure of Scarborough Shoal from the Philippines by China Marine Surveillance
forces in June 2012 has increased Manila’s concern about Beijing’s intentions. Philippine leaders
are convinced that China intends to force other states’ militaries and law-enforcement agencies
out of the nine-dashed line in order to establish uncontested control over all the resources—fisheries and hydrocarbons—within the disputed area. This includes the Spratly Islands, nine of which(counting the entirely submerged Second Thomas Shoal) are occupied by Filipino forces.
Being cut off from offshore resources would constitute a risk to vital Philippine interests. The lack ofaccess to traditional fishing grounds in the South China Sea, especially around Scarborough Shoal,
has already damaged fishing communities on Palawan and Luzon. These communities are further
affected by the growth of illegal Chinese fishing in and around the Spratly Islands and ScarboroughShoal, as well as by the ecological damage China’s unprecedented reclamation work has causedin the Spratlys since late 2013. Combined, these activities are devastating migratory fish species
important to both economic livelihoods and food security in the Philippines. Manila has also been
unable to commercially exploit what are believed to be rich natural gas deposits beneath Reed Bank
off the coast of Palawan. The only major natural gas field currently being exploited in the Philippines
is set to run dry around 2024, making access to Reed Bank vital to the nation’s energy security.236
China’s reclamation work in the Spratlys has heightened the Philippines’ perception of an acutethreat. China appears to have completed work on an airstrip at Fiery Cross Reef capable of accommodating any aircraft in the People’s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) and is constructing two more airstrips at Mischief Reef and Subi Reef.237 China has also expanded port facilities
and military infrastructure at all seven of the features it occupies, and Filipino officials say that
Mischief Reef—the closest of the features to the Philippine home islands—is now China’s “mostactive base” in the Spratlys.238
The number of Chinese navy and paramilitary forces in the Spratlys is growing rapidly. By comparison, the Philippines’ meager coast guard is unable to patrol in disputed waters for fear of encountering Chinese forces. Only the Philippine Navy’s two flagships—the former U.S. Coast Guard
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(USCG) Hamilton-class cutters Philippine Navy ship (BRP) Gregorio del Pilar and BRP Ramon
Alcaraz—operate in the Spratlys. The Philippines’ undermanned and largely undeveloped installations around the Spratlys are vulnerable should China decide to seize them—a fact well known in
Manila. The most acute vulnerability is the small contingent of Filipino marines stationed aboard
the BRP Sierra Madre—a World War II-era tank-landing craft that the Philippine Navy intentionallyran aground on Second Thomas Shoal in 1999 to ensure it would be able to monitor Chinese activities in the area following the seizure of Mischief Reef. The derelict vessel is in constant dangerof falling apart, which could provoke a crisis should China try to seize the shoal or the Philippines
try to reoccupy it if and when the Sierra Madre breaks apart. In March 2014, Chinese Coast Guard
vessels attempted to prevent civilian ships from resupplying the troops on the Sierra Madre, underscoring just how vulnerable is its detachment.
Recognizing the danger it faces in the South China Sea, the Philippines has committed to developing what Foreign Secretary Albert del Rosario has called a “minimum credible defense posture.”239
In essence, Manila has determined that it needs naval, coast guard, and air force capabilities that,while certainly not able to best Chinese forces, could impose significant costs in case of a conflict.
In addition to the risk posed by China in the South China Sea, the Philippine military remains
concerned about the ongoing communist insurgency. The New People’s Army still includes over
6,000 troops, though violence is fairly low. Newly appointed Commanding General of the Philippine Army Eduardo Año has said that one of his top priorities will be reducing the number ofrebels to fewer than 1,000 by 2016.240 Whether that is feasible remains to be seen. Although thePhilippines remains concerned with the ongoing fight against the Abu Sayyaf terrorist group andthe separatist Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF) in the southern Philippines, neither
represents the threat that the much larger Moro Islamic Liberation Front or Moro National Liberation Front posed when they were actively fighting the government. In the first half of 2015, thePhilippine military launched sustained campaigns against both Abu Sayyaf and the BIFF, but bothare likely to remain lesser threats.
The direct threat from insurgent groups is less concerning than the potential for largely ungoverned spaces in the southern Philippines to become havens for terrorists. The U.S. JSOTF-P wasestablished in 2002 to combat that threat, and its official closure in early 2015 was a testament tothe success of its mission. Nevertheless, continued vigilance is required to prevent the return of acredible terrorist threat in the southern Philippines.

Current and Planned Force Posture
The AFP retains a force posture unbalanced in favor of the army—a legacy of decades of viewing
internal security as the primary mission of the armed forces. As a result, the navy, coast guard,
and air force rely upon antiquated equipment and remain understaffed and underfunded. Sevenof the navy’s active ships are World War II veterans. The Philippine military is one of the Asia-Pacific’s weakest and is considerably less capable than those of its neighbors in maritime Southeast
Asia. One reason is that the Philippines spends less than 1 percent of its GDP on defense, despite
its significant security challenges.

75THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONSThe Philippine military includes about 220,000 active duty personnel and another 430,000
reserves. The army has 45 tanks, 778 armored fighting vehicles, and 270 towed artillery. The
services’ combined air assets include 8 fixed-wing attack aircraft, 95 transport aircraft, 23 trainer aircraft, and 82 helicopters, but no fighters. The navy and coast guard combined boast just 3
frigates, 11 corvettes, 38 coastal defense craft, and about 70 other vessels.241
In 2012, the Philippine government passed legislation reviving and updating a defunct MilitaryModernization Program.242 The 15-year program officially started in 2013, but the military did not
approve the ambitious $22.1 billion modernization plan until early July 2015. The military plansto spend almost $2 billion on acquisitions and upgrades through 2018, nearly $10 billion over thefollowing five years through 2023, and just over $10 billion in the next five years through 2028.
Air Force Maj. Gen. Raul del Rosario, who is in charge of planning for the military, has said Manila
will use the funds to purchase better radars and sensors, submarines, frigates, fighters, surveillance aircraft, and missile systems. The Philippines’ goal is to develop “24/7 awareness of what ishappening in the disputed area [of the South China Sea] and . . . to respond quicker to any contingency in our own exclusive economic zone.”243
The AFP’s most high-profile recent acquisition is the purchase of 12 FA-50 fighter jets from South
Korea, the first two of which were delivered in November 2015. Once operational, they will be
the first new fighters in three decades. In addition, under the Aquino administration the Philippine Air Force has acquired more C-130 transport planes, is acquiring three C-295 medium-lifttransports (one has already been delivered), and has received the first two of eight new combat-utility helicopters.244
A top item on the Philippine Air Force’s wish list is a long-range patrol aircraft (LRPA) that can establish better maritime domain awareness in the South China Sea. The Department of National Defense approved a plan in early 2014 to acquire two new LRPAs, but then in August 2014 it rejected
all seven bids from foreign aircraft manufacturers.245 Part of the problem with the LRPA project has
been the Philippines’ insistence that the planes be capable of antisubmarine warfare, which madebids unaffordable. In the meantime, the Philippines is seeking to acquire four refurbished Lockheed
Martin P-3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft from Japan, though that will require U.S. approval.246 In
addition to the LRPA, Aquino has committed to purchase two new naval frigates.247
In the second phase of the modernization plan, the Philippine military expects to buy its first
diesel-electric submarines and advanced missile systems. As part of its plan to establish 24/7
ISR coverage of the South China Sea, it will install three new aerial surveillance radars with a
350-nautical mile range in locations facing the South China Sea. The AFP currently relies on two
surface sensors that can detect ships only up to 200 miles away, so these new radars would significantly enhance the AFP’s coverage of disputed areas. The military also intends for three of its
planned surveillance planes to constantly patrol the area.248
The Philippines has also gained assistance from partner nations, including a high-profile $160
million soft loan from Japan for the purchase of 10 coast guard patrol ships,249 the delivery of twoformer Hamilton-class U.S. Coast Guard cutters as excess defense articles,250 acquisition of threelanding craft from Australia, and a donated landing craft utility ship from South Korea.251

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Security Cooperation with the United States
In 2014, the United States and the Philippines signed an Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement to bolster security cooperation. A year and a half after it was signed, the EDCA is stilllanguishing in the Philippine Supreme Court, where it faces challenges to its constitutionality.
The core question is whether the agreement requires approval from the Philippine Senate as atreaty, rather than an agreement needing only presidential approval. Regardless, in the politicallycharged environment ahead of the Philippines’ 2016 elections, there are increasing concerns that
if a decision on the agreement is not made soon, it could fall victim to domestic politics and be
pushed to the next administration.
Under the EDCA, U.S. ships, aircraft, and personnel will have much greater access to Philippinebases within the framework of the two countries’ Visiting Forces Agreement. The U.S. military
will also be able to preposition equipment in the Philippines, which will significantly boost joint
training and exercising as well as the capacity for responses to natural disaster, incidents in theSouth China Sea, and other emergencies. Most importantly, the agreement will allow the UnitedStates to upgrade Philippine facilities and military infrastructure for joint use at approved bases.
Philippine officials have floated the names of up to eight locations that the United States could
gain access to under the agreement, but the list remains a matter of debate.252 The prime targets
are bases in Luzon and Palawan where poor infrastructure and support facilities are butting up
against the pressing need for more sustained naval and air assets near the South China Sea.253

Capability Gaps and Shortfalls
Regardless of how much the Philippines prioritizes military modernization, it will not be able
to develop a “minimum credible defense posture” by itself. After decades of neglect, the AFP is
too small, too poorly equipped, and too badly funded to hope to catch up with larger and moreestablished regional neighbors in the short term. Even Secretary del Rosario’s goal of merely ensuring that any attacker “would end up with a bloodied nose” will be difficult to attain.254 As such,the best hope the AFP has of meeting its short- and medium-term defense goals lies with thesuccessful implementation of the EDCA.
While the Philippine navy and air force are both underdeveloped, the coast guard is by far the
weakest service. As an indication of just how poorly equipped and underfunded the coast guard
has been, the arrival of 10 patrol boats from Japan will more than double its effective strength.255
Under the Aquino administration, the coast guard has seen its budget triple. Political and militaryleaders appear to recognize the need to invest in the service, but it is starting from a low baseline. One promising development has been the creation of a U.S.-funded and advised National
Coastal Watch Center (NCWC). Under the direction of the coast guard, the NCWC brings together all military services and government agencies involved in the maritime space, to promotebetter planning, information sharing, and domain awareness.256 The United States has also granted a waiver to assist the Philippine coast guard via the Foreign Military Sales (FMS) and Foreign
Military Financing (FMF) programs.257 With this influx of support, it is possible that the coast guard
will surpass the navy in fleet size and capabilities in the coming years and effectively patrol disputed areas of the South China Sea.258
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A major weakness of the Philippine defense establishment remains poor long-term planning.
In 2011, the government released its first National Security Policy document in a decade.259 The
document did a good job of identifying threats to national security in the 2011 to 2016 period,
but fell short on offering strategies to confront them. In 2010, the Department of National Defense released its first Defense Policy Paper since 1998, and the department hopes to release another paper in 2016.260 In an era of increasing threats, these planning documents must be better
institutionalized. Another constraint on effective planning is the rapid turnover of senior military
officials, who are forced to retire at the age of 56. Each chief of staff of the AFP serves only a year
or two and most were usually colonels just a few years earlier.
Poor planning and budget constraints in the Philippine military combine to impair supply andlogistics, maintenance, and procurement. The military spends 70 percent of its budget on active
salaries and another 15 percent on pensions, leaving little for procurement and upgrades. The
remaining funds are victim to corruption, with officers skimming off funds from payroll, procurement, and the petroleum oil and lubricants budgets.261 The military has also struggled to spend
the procurement budget it is given. Less than 10 percent of the $8 billion earmarked for the previous 1995 to 2010 Military Modernization Plan was actually spent.262 Legal and bureaucratic bottlenecks have frozen dozens of projects under the current plan.263 The United States is working to
improve the procurement process, as well as logistics, maintenance, and planning processes in
the AFP, and has seen some moderate but slow progress in recent years.
Given that the Philippines is a treaty ally and essentially a frontline state in the First Island Chain,
its security is important to the United States. The risk of conflict has grown over the last decadeas Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea has pulled the two nations closer together thanat any time since the ejection of U.S. forces from Clark Air Base and Subic Bay in the early 1990s.
Philippine authorities, at least under current president Benigno Aquino, are committed to revitalizing the nation’s armed forces, but there are practical limits on how quickly they can modernize.
As a result, the EDCA signed with the United States is central to Philippine security. It also has thepotential to solidify a key aspect of U.S. force posture for decades to come.

THAIL AND
Thailand is the United States’ oldest treaty ally in the region. The two countries have maintained
strong military ties despite the dissolution of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in
1977, and the 1954 Manila Pact remains in force together with the 1962 Thanat-Rusk communiqué and 2012 Joint Vision Statement for the Thai-U.S. Defense Alliance.264 In the 1960s andearly 70s, Thailand provided basing rights and troops for the U.S. war effort in Vietnam. Today,
it continues to provide critical access for U.S. air operations at the strategically located U-Tapao
Airfield. The military coups in 2006 and 2014 have threatened to disrupt these traditional security
relations, however, as the United States has suspended many military assistance and exercises.
There are also domestic stability concerns amid uncertainty about Thailand’s constitutional future and an ongoing insurgency in the south.

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Security Outlook
In recent decades, a growing divide has emerged between the rural poor and urban middle class.
Former prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra, who was ousted in the 2006 coup, built a populist
movement mainly in the rural areas that challenged Thailand’s traditional models of governanceand prompted the military to intervene. Eight years later, in the six months prior to Thailand’s
2014 coup, giant opposition protests blocked key streets in Bangkok in an effort to oust the elected government led by Yingluck Shinawatra, Thaksin’s sister. The military intervened again, as it
has more than a dozen times since the 1930s, in its self-appointed role as the protector of Thaisovereignty, stability, and the monarchy.265 In the wake of the 2014 coup, domestic politics has
emerged as the top priority of the Thai military, which is trying to drive a form of guided democracy ahead of elections, now expected in mid-2017 at the earliest.266 Political tensions in Thailand have been exacerbated by uncertainties over succession in the monarchy. King Bhumiphol
Adulyadej is 88 years old and in poor health, resulting in different political factions jockeying for
position ahead of the succession.
Regarding external security, Thailand shares borders with four countries—Burma, Cambodia,
Laos, and Malaysia—whose relations with Thailand have often been difficult. Thailand neverdemilitarized its borders, with the Second Army still playing a major role along the eastern border with Cambodia, the Third Army operating along the northern border with Laos and Burma,
and the Fourth Army focusing on the shorter border with Malaysia.267 For decades, Thailand has
attracted political and economic refugees from Burma, Cambodia, and Laos thanks to Bangkok’s
relatively relaxed immigration controls.
Maritime security remains a major concern for Thai leaders. In the Gulf of Thailand, Bangkok isconcerned about protecting its critical oil and natural gas platforms. Thailand is not a claimant to
the South China Sea dispute, but Bangkok is concerned that tensions between the six disputing
countries—particularly China, Vietnam, and the Philippines—could lead to conflict or a military
accident that could result in unintended escalation. Thailand is also worried about the frequencyof piracy in the southwest region of the South China Sea, near Malaysia and Singapore. In early
2015, this caused Thailand to join other governments in discussions about establishing a coordinated security patrol in the area.268
Thailand-China ties have long been stronger than Beijing’s relations with many other Southeast
Asian countries and include both arms sales and military exchanges. China’s export of militaryequipment to Thailand dates back to the 1980s when both countries supported Cambodian resistance groups fighting the Vietnamese-backed government in Phnom Penh. The two countries
have eyed even closer defense ties in recent years. In April 2015, Beijing proposed signing a newpact on military cooperation including joint exercises, and Thailand deported over 100 Muslim
Uighur migrants to China at Beijing’s request in July.269 Sino-Thai relations have deepened in thewake of the coup, and some believe Bangkok will continue to move closer to Beijing in response
to shunning from Washington.270
Finally, Thai security forces are also focused on the insurgency that erupted in the four majority
Muslim provinces in southern Thailand in 2004. The violence has left at least 6,000 dead. The

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movement is led by a combination of local separatists and Islamic radicals who are demanding
increased autonomy. Since the coup, the military has responded by arming more defense volunteers in the area and agreeing to hold peace talks with Malaysia acting as a mediator. In August
2015, bombing of a popular religious shrine in Bangkok claimed 20 lives. Thai police have said
the bombing was linked to militants of Uighur ethnicity in an apparent attempt to avenge Bangkok’s forced repatriation of over 100 Uighurs a few weeks earlier.

Current and Planned Force Posture
The Thai military is one of the best funded in Southeast Asia, which has allowed it to modernize
and add new equipment in recent years. Thailand’s goal is to become one of the top two (after Singapore) militaries in the region. The military government has proposed a 2016 defense budget ofnearly $7 billion, more than triple the level of $2 billion at the time of the previous coup in 2006.272
The military looks to invest this funding largely in fighter aircraft and increased naval capability.273
Of Thailand’s military services, the army is the oldest, largest, and best equipped. The army also
plays the most active role in domestic political affairs. In recent years, Ukraine has become a major supplier of defense articles, furnishing the Thai army with six BTR-3E1 armored personnel carriers and 49 T-84 Oplot Main Battle Tanks.274 Regarding the air force and navy, Thailand has madesignificant recent purchases of systems from Sweden. In 2013, Saab delivered the final four of
12 Gripen JAS-39C/D fighters to the air force. It has also provided two additional aircraft as well
as 100B Argus Airborne Early Warning and Control aircraft fitted with the Erieye radar system.275
Thailand has also been upgrading its aging fleet of UH-1H Huey helicopters. In 2012, the government approved the purchase of four EC725 helicopters from France for search and rescue missions.276 Thailand has been expanding its navy and coast guard mostly with vessels from Asian
nations. It received an Endurance-class landing platform dock (LPD) ship from Singapore in 2012
for disaster relief missions in the region. Bangkok has ordered frigates from South Korea with thefirst vessel arriving in 2018.277
In early July 2015, the Thai military government’s cabinet approved the purchase of three Chinese Type 039 (Yuan-class) diesel-electric attack submarines in a move that clearly demonstrates
the drift in Thai-U.S. military ties.278 A few weeks later, however, the Thai defense minister said
the $1.6 billion deal had been put on hold pending further study by the navy.279 Thai-China ties
have long been stronger than Beijing’s relations with many other Southeast Asian countries andinclude both arms sales and military exchanges. Thai relations with Beijing have deepened in thewake of the coup.280

Security Cooperation with the United States
Thailand’s 2014 coup disrupted longstanding security relations with the United States. Militaryties have long involved U.S. security assistance, training, and joint military exercises. Bangkok has
also provided access to key installations for the United States, including U-Tapao Airfield on the
Gulf of Thailand. Once a critical operating base for U.S. bombers in the Vietnam War era, more
recently U-Tapao has served as a platform for parts of the annual multilateral Cobra Gold exercise, U.S. combat missions in Afghanistan and Iraq, and regional HA/DR operations.

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In response to the coup, Washington implemented relevant congressional requirements by suspending some exercises and cutting back security assistance and training, although it continued
with a scaled-down Cobra Gold exercise in 2015.281 Prior to the coup, the United States and Thailand were engaging in 50 joint military exercises a year. Over the years, tens of thousands of Thai
military officers have received U.S. training under the International Military Education and Training (IMET) program. IMET funding was suspended after the coup.282 Continued uncertainty about
the political transition in Thailand puts a cloud over resumption of IMET and other forms of
security cooperation. It will be imperative that the United States use the strong U.S.-Thai military
relationship to encourage a return to full democratic processes while sustaining the maximum
level of defense cooperation and engagement consistent with U.S. laws and principles.
Strong momentum in the bilateral relationship had developed in the years immediately preceding the coup. In late 2012, then-Defense Secretary Leon Panetta and his Thai counterpart signed
a joint vision statement redefining the U.S.-Thai defense alliance.283 The statement highlighted
180 years of cooperation and refreshed the goals of the alliance. The statement emphasizedbuilding regional security partnerships, including with Burma, where Washington was seeking
to build ties in response to moves toward increased democracy.284 Thailand’s substantial defense
spending and decades of training with the United States had given the Thai military the ability
to work closely with the U.S. military in tackling regional security issues. Thailand’s fleet of C-130
transport aircraft and the navy’s LPD have allowed the military to play a key role in responding todisasters in the region and reducing dependence on the United States for relief efforts.285
The United States has long provided assistance to Thailand to purchase military equipment
through the Foreign Military Financing program.286 Thailand has also qualified under the Excess Defense Articles program through which it has received used U.S. aircraft and ships. At the time of thesuspension of the FMF program last year, Thailand was in the process of becoming the first country
to purchase UH-72 Lakotas.287 In 2012, Thailand began upgrading 18 F-16A/B Block 15 fighters using
U.S. FMS credits. These upgrades include modular mission computers, APG-68(V)9 radars, Terma
AN/ALQ-213 electronic warfare management systems, Link 16 datalinks, and other equipment.288

Capability Gaps
The Thai military perceives its largest capability gap as command and control networks, whichhinder it from quickly accessing and disseminating intelligence. Thailand is in the process ofbuying new command and control systems and installing them on aircraft.289 The Thai militaryalso sees itself as weak in maritime domain awareness. The flood of Rohingya refugees fromBurma earlier this year demonstrated that Thailand lacks the naval and coast guard capacity to
do adequate surveillance of the maritime region to its west. Some procurements currently underway will help address this gap.
With the U.S. IMET program suspended for military officers, Washington could consider providing training to civilians under Expanded-IMET (E-IMET) in such areas as management of defense
resources, improving the military justice system, civilian control of the military, and cooperation
between police and military forces in counter-narcotics efforts. This would allow the UnitedStates to continue with at least some form of defense diplomacy, much like it did with Indonesia
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before U.S. sanctions were eased between 2005 and 2010. After Thailand returns to democracy,
it is critical that Washington and Bangkok move quickly to address the weakening of military ties
since the coup. Top leaders from both sides will need to mount talks on how to restore the strategic trust the two countries have long enjoyed and resume plans to work together in pursuit ofa multitude of shared interests.290

INDIA
In the last year, India’s new leadership has reshaped its approach to foreign policy and security
under Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The prime minister’s political party, the Bharatiya Janata
Party (BJP), has never been beholden to India’s traditional stance of “non-alignment” as a guiding
foreign policy principle. The only other time the BJP formed a government, from 1998 to 2004,
the government struck out in a similarly bold fashion, which included the 1998 nuclear tests andcreation of a standing nuclear weapons capability. The government later collaborated on stronger defense and civilian nuclear cooperation with the United States as outlined in the January
2004 announcement of the Next Steps in Strategic Partnership.291
Prime Minister Modi has engaged in an active, pragmatic approach to foreign policy. First, hequickly engaged the “great powers”—the United States, Japan, China, and Russia—that havestrategic technologies as well as investments critical for India’s development. Second, Prime
Minister Modi is spending considerable time rebuilding flagging relations with his neighbors that
had been courted heavily by China—Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and key maritime
states. Third, Prime Minister Modi is attempting to build economic and, to some extent, security
relationships with other countries bordering, or near, China—Mongolia, South Korea, and Central
Asia. The U.S.-India Joint Strategic Vision released in January 2015 offers a set of agreed-uponprinciples for security across the Indo-Pacific.
The Congress Party, while greatly weakened after its historic collapse in last year’s national election, remains the chief opposition party. In fact, Congress today holds nine states (mostly small)compared to the BJP’s eight states, and is the largest party in the Rajya Sabha, the upper houseof Parliament.292 So far, Congress has chosen to generally support BJP initiatives that appear tocontinue policies adopted during the Congress Party’s rule from 2004 to 2014. Yet, this stancecould evolve over time, and with the unpredictable nature of Indian politics, it is conceivable that
the Congress Party could choose India’s next prime minister in 2019. Few of the Congress Party’s
young, rising leaders have discussed their own views on India’s role as a regional security provider, much less the partnership with the United States. This possible change in administration
remains one of the more obvious opportunities for a reversal in the positive trajectory of U.S.-India security relations.
India’s numerous regional parties sometimes play a significant role in India’s regional relationships and in issues of concern to U.S. policymakers. This is particularly true for the two Tamilian
parties in Tamil Nadu, which regularly comment on issues involving the Tamil minority in Sri
Lanka, as well as the Indian state of West Bengal, which regularly intervenes in issues related toits neighbor Bangladesh. Regional parties that control their home states often work to create

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more robust private defense industries in their home states, so programs like the Defense Technology and Trade Initiative (DTTI) and the Make in India campaign should find broad support.

Security Outlook
India’s top near-term security concern is the threat of a major domestic terrorist attack, likely
triggered by extremists based in, or supported by, Pakistan. Apart from concern about loss of lifeand property from such an attack, it could force Indian leaders to initiate a military response,
taking the nation down an uncertain path. The BJP was quite critical of the Manmohan Singhgovernment’s restraint following the November 2008 terrorist attack in Mumbai, and may feelcompelled to take strong actions in response to a similar incident. At the very least, if there isa mobilization following an attack—such as the one that followed the November 2001 attack
against the Indian Parliament—the chances of miscalculation and escalation will be substantial.
Some terrorist groups represent separatist movements, mainly focused on the Northeast States.
These groups sometimes find save haven in the less-governed border areas of India’s neighbors.
On June 8, 2015, Indian Special Forces carried out a successful raid against militants camped in
Myanmar.293 This was a response to an attack on an Indian military convoy earlier that month.
The Indian public, by and large, was supportive of this small but muscular operation. India also
faces a low-intensity but active threat of domestic attacks from Maoists, called Naxalites. So far,the rise of ISIL and attempts by al-Qaeda to gain a foothold in India, either for recruitment or tocreate a local operational arm, have not resulted in tangible gains despite India’s large Muslim
population. Yet, Indian policymakers must remain vigilant due to the country’s large Muslim base.
The December 2014 arrest of a Bangalore technology worker, who reportedly supported ISIL
through social media, has heightened awareness of this issue.294
Terrorism is a major national security concern, but India also shares long borders with each ofits two chief rivals, China and Pakistan.295 For this reason, India has historically given the Indian
Army pride of place among the military services. Pakistan is also believed to be a rising source ofcyber attacks against India. These include less conventional cyber attacks, such as information
warfare using false and incendiary news stories of violence between Buddhists and Muslims,
which led to real violence in India in mid-2012.296 India also faces other, more direct threats from
Pakistan. The two sides regularly exchange fire along their disputed border, sometimes killing civilians.297 In addition, maritime threats from Pakistan are a growing concern. In 2008, the Mumbai
attackers arrived by sea, and militants attempted to seize a Pakistan naval vessel in September
2014.298 It is believed that U.S. Navy vessels were going to be the target of a follow-on attack, had
this seizure been successful. India also remains concerned about illicit trafficking of weapons ofmass destruction, particularly attempts to strengthen Pakistan’s missile and nuclear programs via
illicit trade, or export of these technologies to other groups and nations.
India increasingly views China as its greatest long-term security competitor. Historically, Sino-Indian tension was largely limited to the land border, much of which is still not firmly defined. Yet
in recent years, India has started to feel other security pressures from China. Concerns include
Chinese submarines traversing the Indian Ocean, cyber attacks, and Beijing’s attempts to build
stronger economic ties with India’s neighbors, including Myanmar, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri
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Lanka.299 China also maintains close relations with Pakistan. China is Pakistan’s largest arms
supplier, receiving 41 percent of China’s arms sales between 2010 and 2014.300 China is expanding its ties with Pakistan to include a direct economic component. In 2013, China announced it
would create an economic corridor through Pakistan that will include transportation and energy
infrastructure.301 While a stronger Pakistani economy may increase stability, India remains waryof cooperation between its two chief rivals. While India’s growing economic relations with China are sometimes portrayed as a positive buffer in their relationship, India’s imports from China
were five times the size of its exports to China in FY 2015.302
Across the Indo-Pacific more broadly, India is beginning to identify greater national interest incontributing to regional security, though its actions in this regard trail the desires of both ASEAN
members and the United States for greater Indian contributions. India views South Asia as its
theater of operations, rarely engaging directly on security affairs outside this region, apart fromproviding troops for United Nations peacekeeping missions. Yet this is starting to change, driven by India’s increased global connectivity. The Indian diaspora is large and widely spread, andas a source of remittances it is becoming an increasingly important constituency for the Indian
government. India’s trade and investment links with the world are steadily increasing and India
is among the world’s largest energy importers. For all of these reasons, India’s external security
interests are growing. Some examples of India’s perspective on the wider theater of potential operations include: India’s successful efforts to evacuate international citizens from Yemen in April
2015; the anti-piracy operations launched by the Indian Navy in the Gulf of Aden in 2008; theIndian Navy’s escort operations through the Strait of Malacca in 2002; and Indian interdiction ofa North Korean shipment of missile components on its way to Libya in June 1999.303

Current and Planned Force Posture
The Indian Army has long been the strongest service within the Indian military, but in recent
years India has given more attention to its air force and navy as threats to India have evolved.
The Indian Army numbers roughly 1,150,000 personnel, as compared to just 58,000 for the navyand 127,000 for the air force. The Indian Army maintains six regional command headquarters
and one training command. The army, long the dominant service in the Indian military, remains
one of the world’s largest standing armies. The Indian Army is upgrading its mechanized forces,
artillery, infantry units, and air defenses to meet new and emerging threats. Army aviation will
include new light combat and light observation systems in the coming years.
The Indian Navy’s headquarters is located in New Delhi, with commands at Mumbai,
Vishakhapatnam, Kochi, and Port Blair. India’s main surface combatants include 2 aircraft carriers,
10 destroyers, 13 frigates, 1 amphibious transport dock, and a number of smaller frigates, corvettes, LSTs, and patrol vessels. The navy’s 13 diesel submarines and single nuclear attack submarine provide a substantial undersea capability, which will be strengthened with the addition of six
nuclear ballistic missile submarines in the near future. The navy also operates advanced aircraft,to include Harrier jets, Sea King helicopters, and P-8 maritime patrol aircraft.
The Indian Air Force maintains five regional air commands in New Delhi, Gandhinagar, Shillong, Allahabad, and Trivandrum. The air force also has two supporting commands for maintenance, in Nag84

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pur, and training, in Bangalore. India maintains over 800 combat-capable aircraft, including over 200
Su-30MKI fighter jets. India has a large fleet of airborne early warning and control aircraft, transport
aircraft, and trainers, as well as a limited aerial refueling capability. In addition, the air force operates
rotary-wing assets and unmanned aerial vehicles, as well as surface-to-air missile systems.
The Indian Coast Guard includes another 10,000 personnel, with 230,000 more in the Border Security Force, and just over 1,400,000 in what are typically termed “paramilitary forces.” India’s nuclear and ballistic missile forces are also substantial. India’s Strategic Forces Command is responsible for tactical and strategic nuclear weapons. Public estimates put the Indian intermediate-range
ballistic missile (IRBM) force at over two dozen, with roughly the same number of SRBMs.

Security Cooperation with the United States
The U.S. approach to defense cooperation with India focuses on building ties at a deliberate,
sustained pace without pressing India’s leaders to get involved in issues outside India’s direct
operational domain. This approach guards against India-based critics of the relationship, who areconcerned that partnership with the United States could push India into situations where it does
not have an immediate strategic interest, though the frequency of meetings between Prime Minister Modi and President Obama have pushed the rate of engagement to an unprecedented level.
The U.S. “slow and steady” approach helped insulate the U.S.-India defense relationship in thewaning years of the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government in which otherelements of the relationship, particularly economic and civilian nuclear cooperation, suffered repeated setbacks. Nevertheless, some within the United States remain concerned about the paceof progress, and whether other U.S. security ties in South Asia might slow bilateral cooperation.
With a more energetic and forward-leaning government in Delhi, the time is ripe to review bothpartners’ respective priorities for security in South Asia and determine how the United States andIndia can cooperate to strengthen regional security, while thinking of ways to further expand thispartnership as India’s operational interests expand.
The foundation of the U.S.-India security partnership has been refreshed with the January 2015
U.S.-India Joint Strategic Vision for the Asia Pacific and Indian Ocean Region,304 and the renewed
Framework for the U.S.-India Defense Relationship signed in June 2015.305 On its face, the Joint
Strategic Vision is revolutionary, though its true importance can only be measured by the actions it produces over time. The defense framework agreement largely affirms the principles
enshrined in the 2005 version, while expanding in small but possibly significant ways such as
greater exchanges among defense colleges, establishing a focus on maritime security, and looking at common defense platforms. There is also renewed hope that India might consider signing
the defense foundation agreements—a Logistics Support Agreement (LSA), the Communication
Interoperability and Security Memorandum of Agreement (CISMOA), and the Basic Exchange andCooperation Agreement (BECA) for geospatial cooperation. Successful joint efforts in humanitarian assistance following the April 2015 earthquake in Nepal underscores the need to prepare
more effectively for the next regional disaster that will involve both militaries. Concluding thesefoundation agreements would provide a sharp boost to bilateral defense relations, though opponents in India claim these agreements would erode Delhi’s sovereignty.

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THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONSIn recent years, India has started to look at strengthening its air and naval capabilities, areas ripe
for cooperation with the United States. The annual Exercise Malabar regularly includes antisubmarine warfare exercises. Recently, Malabar has included more complex elements, with theaircraft carrier USS Theodore Roosevelt participating and with the inclusion of Japan in the 2009
and 2014 exercises. The United States and India also conducted a submarine-focused exercisenamed INDIAEX in 2012. The United States and India could further explore submarine technologies that can augment India’s next-generation submarine fleet, perhaps through inclusion of a
related pathfinder effort in the Defense Technology and Trade Initiative. In terms of air capabilities, the United States has helped India through the export of several aircraft platforms. These
include the P-8I Neptune, C-130J Super Hercules, and C-17 Globemaster. India currently has twoaircraft carriers in operation, and two more under development. The United States has offered tohelp India develop advanced technologies for use on aircraft carriers, as well as advanced fighter
jet engines as part of the DTTI. This has been an important avenue for engaging the Indian Ministry of Defence to encourage stronger security cooperation ties through the DTTI.
Cooperation in other areas, such as cyber security, has not been as robust or straightforward. Despite the United States and India facing similar cyber threats, often from similar sources, there isa reluctance to engage. Concerns are due, at least partially, to Indian reservations about divulging security and intelligence capabilities to potentially interested intelligence-gathering services
abroad. Additionally, neither DOD nor the Indian Defense Ministry have the lead for cyber issues within their respective governments. The government of India is currently assigning a leadagency for cyber issues. Scope for cooperation on cyber security will increase over time as issues
relating to agency roles and responsibilities are clarified, and as Washington and Delhi become
more comfortable working together on sensitive security issues. Apart from looking at ways tohelp India fill capability gaps, the United States should also deepen cooperation with India in areas where both have shared strengths. Potential areas of cooperation include intelligence sharing, humanitarian assistant and disaster relief, and counterterrorism.

Capability Gaps and Shortfalls
As noted earlier, India is facing new challenges that demand a reorientation of India’s militarycapabilities. These new challenges will also force the United States to change how it approaches India. The Indian military’s slow pace of change has made it difficult for India to develop or
acquire the capabilities necessary to meet these challenges on its own, despite having $15 billion
assigned for military capital expenditures in FY 2015, one of the world’s largest allocations.306
India needs to upgrade its undersea, air power projection, and cyber defense capabilities. The
United States could expand cooperation with India in these areas and deepen U.S.-India ties bypracticing patience, letting India lead, and preparing for political change.
With the recent docking of Chinese submarines in Sri Lanka and Pakistan, India is becoming
increasingly concerned about its capabilities to monitor and engage undersea activities. Facing a growing Chinese undersea presence in the Indian Ocean region, India can be expected to
improve its ability to monitor and, potentially, engage undersea contacts. In addition, as India’s
global interests grow, Delhi’s interest in longer-distance operations will increase. This will in-

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clude efforts to modernize India’s fighter force and aerial refueling capabilities, as well as moreadvanced carrier operations for true blue-water power projection. On the cyber security front,
India is struggling to identify the perpetrators of cyber attacks and respond accordingly.307 The
United States has real expertise in each of these areas, so increasing cooperation could help toaddress significant capability gaps and capacity shortfalls. Both governments could also review
plans for joint exercises and training to make sure they are responsive to India’s evolving threats.
In so doing, the United States could continue to look for ways to engage other regional partners
in multilateral activities, including Japan, Australia, Mongolia, Singapore, Vietnam, Indonesia,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and South Korea. Recent efforts to create trilateral and quadrilateral ties
among major regional powers such as India, Japan, Australia, and the United States can reinforce
rules and norms throughout the Indo-Pacific. India’s growing security ties with Japan and Australia have already led to bilateral agreements and expanded security cooperation, which officials
expect to mature in the years ahead.
There remains widespread cynicism in India that partnership with the United States on security
matters equates to India acting as a junior partner, even in its own region. This should changeover time as rising officials are less steeped in policies rooted in India’s traditional nonaligned
status, and U.S. policymakers must make efforts to let India take the lead in situations where it
has relative strengths. U.S. officials should be prepared for an eventual transition in India’s political leadership. India’s next national election is less than four years away. While there is no reason
to assume the Modi government will not win reelection, instability is the only sure thing in Indian politics. There are very real concerns about whether a different leader may quickly reverse,
or at least stall, the pace of cooperation. India’s choices on handling the nuclear liability law andother strategic initiatives underscores the potential challenges of committing time and energy tothis partnership. U.S. policymakers must be prepared to absorb the occasional setback, or periodof slow progress. As a result, the United States must continue to engage a wide range of leadersfrom across India’s political spectrum, and work hard to cement progress whenever possible.
The U.S. Department of Defense has a clear and reasonable engagement strategy to engage India, focusing on small but sustainable steps that generally have a clear benefit to India. No major
course corrections are recommended, but policymakers must work to protect against setbacks,
while ensuring that modest areas of cooperation such DTTI, HA/DR, and joint exercises are alignedwith India’s evolving security concerns. The best way to incentivize future cooperation is todemonstrate to Indian leaders the powerful benefits of working together with the United States.

TAIWAN
Taiwan is eager to contribute to the U.S. rebalance, but its ability to do so is strictly limited by
U.S. policy. Taipei’s most important responsibility is to preserve peace and stability in the Taiwan Strait. Taiwan faces a severe military threat from the People’s Republic of China, whichaims to reunify Taiwan with the Mainland in the future. Deterring China from using coercion orlaunching an attack, as well as maintaining the capabilities and preparedness to respond, areTaiwan’s top military priorities. Taiwan cannot compete with China force-on-force; it has to rely

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on an asymmetric strategy based on limited resources. Improved relations with the PRC, whichhave lowered the public’s threat perception, and competing budget priorities have resulted in a
gradual decline in defense spending, which now stands at just over 2 percent of Taiwan’s GDP.
Addressing the numerous gaps in Taiwan’s military capabilities will require more investment in
defense as well as increased assistance from the United States.

Security Outlook
The PRC military is Taiwan’s primary security concern. Beijing has refused to renounce the useof military force against Taiwan, and its growing defense budget and military buildup has upset
the cross-strait military balance. Deterring China from using coercion or force against Taiwan
remains the highest priority for the island’s government and military. Information security is another major security concern. Taiwan faces a severe cyber threat from the PRC and could face amajor cyber attack in various military contingencies. Taiwan is seeking to cope with an increasein Chinese cyber exploitation that poses a risk to information systems.
Another concern relates to maritime disputes in the East China Sea where Taiwan, the PRC, andJapan claim the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands, and in the South China Sea, where Taiwan occupies
two islands, Itu Aba and Pratas, and claims sovereignty over all the land features, some of which
are also claimed by the PRC, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam. President Ma Ying-jeou’s
East China Sea Peace Initiative (ECSPI) has set a positive example for the management of territorial disputes in the region. The ECSPI created an environment that enabled the signing of afisheries agreement between Taiwan and Japan in April 2013, which contributes to maintaining
stability between the two countries in disputed waters in the East China Sea. In May 2015, Ma
proposed a similar initiative for the South China Sea.308 Among Taiwan’s objectives is to play agreater role in enforcing maritime law in the South China Sea. The Taiwan Coast Guard commissioned two 3,000-ton patrol vessels in June 2015 that will dock at a new port being constructed
on Itu Aba in the Spratly Archipelago by the end of 2015.309
Taiwan also faces nontraditional security threats such as natural disasters, epidemics, and terrorism. In 2005, the World Bank assessed that “Taiwan may be the place on Earth most vulnerable tonatural hazards, with 73 percent of its land and population exposed to three or more hazards.”310
Major concerns include typhoons, floods, landslides, and earthquakes, all of which could result in significant human and economic losses and pose challenges for Taiwan’s early warning,communications, and emergency responses. As a consequence of climate change, typhoons
are occurring with greater frequency and intensity in recent years. In 2009, after Typhoon Morakot, President Ma Ying-jeou proclaimed that “our enemy is not necessarily the people across the
Taiwan Strait, but nature.”311 Taiwan’s military forces are responsible for disaster response. Taiwan’s geographical location, high dependence on trade with China and Southeast Asia, and highpopulation density also puts it at a high risk for pandemics. Additional security concerns include
terrorism, border control, trafficking of illegal drugs, immigration, and proliferation of weapons ofmass destruction.

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Current and Planned Force Posture
Taiwan’s military, while smaller than that of the PRC, is highly trained and well-equipped. The
army numbers 200,000 active and 1,500,000 reserve personnel, providing a substantial counter-invasion capability. The navy retains 45,000 active and 67,000 reserve personnel, with 26
major surface ships and 2 combat-ready submarines. The air force includes 45,000 active and90,000 reserve personnel, with over 400 combat aircraft. In addition, Taiwan retains significant
unconventional warfare capabilities.
Under President Ma Ying-jeou, Taiwan has proposed a plan, called the Yong Gu program, todownsize its armed forces. The focus of Yong Gu is twofold: first, managing the transition froma conscription force to an all-volunteer force (AVF); and second, reevaluating Taiwan’s defense
needs and force posture. Originally scheduled to begin implementation in July 2015, the plan
aimed to cut military personnel to between 170,000 and 190,000 by the end of 2019.312 The
plan has been criticized domestically, however, and has yet to be approved by the legislature.313
Among all the military branches, the army is most strongly opposed, as it would suffer the mostsignificant downsizing under the plan. Since President Ma will be in office only until May 2016,
observers suggest that Yong Gu is unlikely to go forward during his tenure.
Under a prior wave of reductions, Taiwan’s armed forces were cut from 275,000 to 215,000.314
Taiwan’s low birthrate and introduction of the AVF make it necessary to cut the force even further. In a May 2015 interview, Ma Ying-jeou stated that Taiwan’s primary defense objective is“effective deterrence” and noted, “We do not necessarily need large defense forces . . . our forcesmust be strong, specialized, and highly sophisticated.”315 There is not enough money in the budget to support the size of the current force. As a percentage of GDP, Taiwan’s defense spending
dropped to 2 percent ($10.2 billion) in 2014.316 The Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), the main
opposition party, has promised to raise the defense budget to 3 percent of GDP if it returns topower in May 2016, but its plan is contingent on growing the economy. Competing pressuresfrom social welfare programs mean that a marginal reversal of the current downward defense
spending trend is the most likely scenario.
While there is general agreement that Taiwan needs to reduce the size of its armed forces, there
are widespread complaints that the downsizing and the creation of the AVF are being pushed too
quickly. Senior officers say that the process of establishing the AVF is having a negative impact on
training and readiness. In the preface to the DPP’s 2014 defense policy blue paper, DPP Chairperson Tsai Ing-wen wrote, “The next phase of the downsizing plan—the Yong Gu Program—should
not be implemented hastily before a comprehensive review of our military strategy, mission, force
requirement, and military service system.”317 The target date for the AVF was pushed back again
in September 2015, leaving the decision to the next president to decide. Creating the AVF is very
expensive as personnel costs are expected to double. Taiwan is still in the early stages of the AVF
plan and recruitment and retention are posing challenges. Among the problems that Taiwan facesin sizing its force is restructuring its reserves. Currently, new recruits train for four months andthen remain in the reserve force for eight years during which they train only five days every two
years.318 Taiwan must reconceptualize its reserves, defining appropriate roles and missions for89

THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

both combat and non-combat operations. Taiwan must create a well-trained reserve force thatcan replace front line forces in a conflict. Although there is recognition that these tasks must be
undertaken, they are not on the agenda and no funding has been allocated.
Major force posture adjustments are unlikely in the next three years. While some individuals in the
military recognize the need for Taiwan to develop more asymmetric platforms and strategies, themajority in senior positions have a traditional mindset and are risk-averse. In 2014, the ROC Ministry of National Defense (MND) released a naval modernization plan for the following two decades
featuring a host of domestically produced equipment, including 4 10,000-ton destroyers, 10 to 15
3,000-ton catamarans, amphibious transport docks to replace dock landing ships and tank landing
ships, and between 4 and 8 diesel submarines. In the last few years, the navy has taken delivery ofseveral new indigenous platforms, including the Kuang Hua VI-class fast-attack missile craft, theTuo Jiang-class catamaran corvette, and the Panshi fast combat support ship. The navy also plans
to procure four recently decommissioned U.S. Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates.
A plan to build an indigenous submarine was launched in December 2014. Called the Indigenous
Defense Submarine (IDS) program, the budget for the three-year contract design phase will begin
in 2016 at an estimated cost of $94 million.320 Four diesel electric attack submarines (SSKs) will be
produced in the range of 1,200–3,000 tons.321 The IDS program would rely heavily on Taiwaneseindustrial capabilities for the pressure hull fabrication, the main motor, batteries, and air-independent propulsion, with foreign technical assistance where available.322 A prototype could be
unveiled in 2024. The plan is highly controversial both in Taiwan and the United States due tothe high cost and the lack of sufficient defense resources.

Security Cooperation with the United States
Taiwan’s primary contribution to U.S. regional strategy is to preserve peace and stability acrossthe Taiwan Strait. Deterring China from attacking the territory under Taiwan’s control, as well as
maintaining its autonomy and prosperity, are Taiwan’s major responsibilities. In addition, Taiwanese SIGINT capabilities enable collection of information on Chinese maritime activity along the
PRC coast and in the South China Sea.323 Beyond those functions, there is little that Taiwan is able
to do to contribute significantly to the U.S. rebalance strategy, even though it is a very willing andeager partner. Taipei would welcome a major role, primarily because it would help bind the UnitedStates to Taiwan and increase Taipei’s confidence that the United States would come to Taiwan’s
aid in a crisis. The United States, however, remains reluctant to include Taiwan in war planning or
to coordinate with Taiwan militarily. This reluctance is due to the U.S. assessment that the benefitsof closer collaboration with Taiwan are outweighed by the risks of an extreme PRC reaction. China
would view the explicit inclusion of Taiwan in the U.S. rebalance strategy as a dangerous new stepand might react strongly, potentially undermining U.S. efforts to manage the relationship.
Taiwan could also assist the United States and other friendly maritime nations in the Western
Pacific in forming a common operational picture of the maritime domain. With improved C4ISR,
Taiwan could help to provide information about the situation in the East China Sea, the South
China Sea, and on the eastern side of Taiwan. Taiwan could also conduct surveillance missions
in the South China Sea with its P-3C Orion patrol aircraft.324 Taiwan has expressed a willingness
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to contribute to regional security via regular patrols of international waters and shipping lanes. If
permitted, it could participate in regional anti-piracy efforts and potentially in sea lines of communication (SLOC) protection. However, U.S. interests are likely best served by Taiwan focusing
its attention on the Taiwan Strait. A credible Taiwanese undersea warfare capability could add to
the U.S. rebalance by strengthening deterrence against China’s rapidly growing navy.
If given the opportunity, Taiwan would also be willing to contribute more actively to regional
HA/DR efforts. At times, Taiwan’s efforts are stymied by China. For example, after Malaysia Airlines
Flight 370 went missing, Taiwan responded to Malaysia’s plea for help by dispatching navy andcoast guard vessels as well as two C-130 aircraft to search in the South China Sea. Taiwan wasforced to call back its ships and aircraft, however, due to Chinese objections. Similarly, Taiwan’soffer of assistance to Nepal after the April 2015 earthquake was rebuffed, probably due to Kathmandu’s concerns about Beijing’s reaction. When Taiwan has provided aid, its impact has been
limited by logistics requirements. For example, when Typhoon Haiyan struck the Philippines in
2013, Taiwan’s C-130 Hercules cargo planes delivered relief goods and carried NGO personnel toa major airport, but were unable to transport the goods and people to the disaster sites where
they were urgently needed.328
In making disaster relief preparations, Taiwan would be wise to focus on developing dual-use
capabilities that can be used at home and abroad. For example, reconstituting an airport
through use of a mobile radar system, a mobile air traffic control system, and rapid runway
repair would provide a capability that would be useful domestically in the event of an attack as
well as in the provision of HA/DR abroad. Taiwan already has fast combat support ships withonboard hospitals as well as nine Chinook helicopters that could assist in medical evacuation.329
To operate effectively with U.S. forces in responding to natural disasters, greater interoperability is necessary. As a step toward achieving this goal, the United States could invite Taiwaneseobservers to observe on U.S. ships during RIMPAC exercises. The United States could also facilitate multilateral exercises with other countries as part of the Pacific Partnership program, which
focuses on HA/DR. One caveat, however, is that precious defense resources should not besquandered to advance Taiwan’s participation in the international community. Homeland security must be Taiwan’s top priority.

Capability Gaps and Shortfalls
Taiwan has numerous military deficiencies that require attention. A key hurdle Taiwan faces inthis regard is the unwillingness of other major nations, with the exception of the United States,
to assist Taiwan by providing weapons and training. Another challenge is Taipei’s limited defense
budget. Taiwan has deficit spending limits that the government cannot ignore. Defense spending decisions are part of overall spending allocations that are politically determined. Moreover,the improvement in cross-strait relations over the past seven years has reduced the risk of military conflict between China and Taiwan, but has also resulted in diminished support for defense
spending. Other concerns have taken priority, including rising unemployment, the widening
income gap between rich and poor, growing government debt, the challenges posed by an aging
population, and a variety of other social issues.

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Taiwan’s defense requires modernization and transformation aimed at denying China its objectives through an A2/AD strategy that relies on relatively low-cost systems (such as sea mines andland-based anti-ship cruise missiles) combined with defensive concepts of operation intended tonullify PRC advantages and thereby denying China its objectives. Major gaps in Taiwan’s militarycapabilities include air denial and defense, resilient and redundant ISR, counter-amphibious landing capabilities, and war reserve munitions.
Control of the air is the first requirement of effective defense. China could not successfully
invade the island without gaining air superiority. Therefore, Taiwan’s air force is an important deterrent to Chinese military action, but Taiwan’s airfields are very vulnerable. Rapid runway repair
kits have been purchased, and U.S. contractors have provided training to the Taiwan air force.330
Nevertheless, maintaining operational airfields remains a key vulnerability. Storage bunkers havebeen built for aircraft, but even if the planes are protected, they may be unusable. To increase its
operational flexibility as well as its tactical proficiency, Taiwan maintains one F-16 squadron at a
training base in Arizona. In a conflict, this squadron could deploy to Taiwan.331
The future of Taiwan’s air force is hotly debated. In 2011, the United States approved a $5.3 billion
retrofit program for Taiwan’s 145 F-16A/B combat aircraft, rather than the sale of F-16C/D fighters.
Taiwan’s Mirage 2000v5 fighters are too expensive to maintain; probably less than 50 percent areoperational. Both the Mirage and the F-5E are scheduled to be retired by 2020.332 Many observers
argue that Taiwan needs additional fighters or it will not be able to defend its airspace. Simply put,numbers matter. It may not be possible for Taiwan to have cross-strait air superiority, but it may bepossible to deny China superiority. Due in part to concerns about Beijing’s reaction, but also doubts
about the survivability of Taiwan’s aircraft and air bases, the United States is unlikely to approve thesale of advanced fighters. In the meantime, Taiwan has stopped requesting F-16C/Ds and probably
hopes that the United States will eventually make available F-35s, perhaps in a decade.333 An interim
measure could be to assist Taiwan in acquiring and upgrading additional F-16A/B aircraft. Taiwan
also plans to purchase advanced trainer jets between 2017 and 2021 to replace its AT-3 jet trainers.
This will be an expensive item and there is as yet no money in the budget to fund it. The air force
has voiced its desire for 68 advanced jet trainers for advanced training.334
Taiwan also would benefit greatly from UASs to increase the range and capacity of the military’s
reconnaissance and surveillance missions. UASs offer a number of advantages, including low
purchasing cost, decreased operational and manpower requirements, and no risk of pilot casualties. The Chungshan Institute of Science and Technology (CSIST) has developed a variety ofUASs, but has been unable to fulfill an air force requirement for an advanced, extended-range,
multipurpose UAS.
The sustained expansion of offensive Chinese capabilities, including deployment of the S-400 series of long-range surface-to-air missile systems, has increased Taiwan’s need for large quantities
of munitions. These weapons pose a serious challenge to Taiwan’s ability to withstand an attack
and hold out until U.S. forces arrive. All of Taiwan’s various platforms require a greater stockpileof war reserve munitions. Taiwan has yet to decide what types and quantities of air-launchedweapons it will purchase to arm the 45 F-16A/B fighter aircraft that are being upgraded. Choices

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include several versions of joint direct-attack munitions (JDAMs), Paveways, and sensor-fused
weapons. Taiwan’s air force also needs a variety of air-to-air, air-to-ground, anti-radiation, andanti-ship missiles. Key munitions for beach defense must be well-stocked, including for live firetraining to ensure readiness and a credible deterrent.
The proximity of the PRC to Taiwan combined with advanced Chinese submarines, aircraft, andmissiles creates a requirement for early warning to avoid strategic and operational-level surprise.
The integration of all sources of information is critical. Survivability would be especially challenging. Despite recent improvements in ISR and C2, Taiwan’s capabilities in these areas are still insufficient. China’s advances in electronic warfare capability have rendered Taiwan’s ISR and C2 increasingly vulnerable. Taiwan needs more advanced sensors and radars as well as better integration. It
needs improved targeting for integrated joint warfighting. There is also a requirement for tactical
data link systems as part of a follow-on to the Po Sheng C4ISR upgrade program. Further enhancements to its command and control systems, especially to support antisubmarine warfare operations, would better prepare Taiwan’s civil and military leadership for emergency management.
Among Taiwan’s greatest challenges are the widespread resistance to new ways of thinking andtraditional hierarchical culture. Cultivating innovation in its defense establishment is essential togenerating new ideas and unique solutions to Taiwan’s security problems. Since Taiwan is likely
to lose communications very early in a potential military conflict with the PRC, the military must
empower company and battalion commanders to execute command. Taiwan must find ways
to change its prevailing military culture that inhibits decentralized C2. For example, an alternative strategy to deny airspace to an invading force would be to deploy large numbers of mobile
integrated surface-to-air missiles. This would be less costly and eliminate the problem of having
to keep runways operational, which may be impossible despite Taiwan’s training and best efforts.
Taiwan’s air and missile defense capabilities have improved with the upgrade of three PATRIOT
batteries and orders in for more PAC-3 missiles.335 The Surveillance Radar Program (SRP) longrange radar is deployed, but BMD integration is unclear.336 The indigenous Tien-Kung missile defense systems are not fully integrated with the PATRIOT system acquired from the United States.
Taiwan could further bolster its air defense by adding to its inventory of missiles, which currently
include Stingers and Standard Missile-2.337
Ultimately, amphibious landings on Taiwan’s beaches are the only way that China can be assuredof achieving its political objective of reunification. To deter an attack, it is vital that Taiwan maintain an effective response to amphibious landings. China is procuring large amphibious assault
ships as well as capabilities such as the DF-21D ASBM that are aimed at deterring third parties
from intervening during a Chinese assault on Taiwan.338 Taiwan’s MND has estimated that China
will have the capability to forcibly reunify Taiwan and the Mainland by 2020.339 There are many
options for Taiwan to improve its ability to counter an amphibious assault from PLA forces. For
example, Taiwan could procure more land-based anti-ship missiles and drones armed with anti-air and anti-surface missiles. Taipei could also acquire more advanced sea mines and ensure
they can be deployed quickly. Submarines are another conventional deterrent against invasion.
Taiwan wants to procure submarines and may succeed in building its own. Yet it is debatable
whether doing so is the best option, since the project will be expensive and siphon money from93THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

other programs. Even if successful, the first submarine will not be commissioned until at least
2025.340 The United States is likely to provide some assistance with submarine development
through direct commercial sales (DCS).
Deterring China from using coercion or force against Taiwan is critically important to U.S. interests. Maintaining an effective deterrent can be viewed as Taiwan’s contribution to the U.S. rebalance. Although there are other ways that Taiwan could contribute to the rebalance, these should
only be undertaken if they do not detract from the military’s ability to fulfill its primary mission.
An asymmetric strategy that is adequately resourced is Taiwan’s only long-term option to copewith China’s growing military capabilities. Where possible, the United States should consider providing additional assistance to address key gaps in Taiwan’s defense capabilities.

MAL AYSIA
Malaysia, which lies along the Strait of Malacca and southern edge of the South China Sea, haslong had close military ties with the United States, even when political relations between thetwo countries were prickly. Kuala Lumpur also has good relations with China and has long tried
to balance its dealings with Beijing and Washington. Unlike its neighbors in Thailand and Indonesia, Malaysia’s civilian government has controlled the military since independence from Britain in 1963 and Malaysia has no history of military coups. Prime Minister Najib Razak previously
served as Malaysia’s defense minister and, since taking office in 2009, he has worked to boost
political, security, and economic ties with the United States. Beginning in early 2015, Najib has
been embroiled in a scandal surrounding the government investment firm 1 Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB), which is alleged to have deposited funds into the prime minister’s personalaccounts. Defense Minister Hishammudin Hussein is Najib’s cousin and aspires to become prime
minister in the future, so he is determined to avoid a security crisis on his watch.342

Security Outlook
Kuala Lumpur sees itself as facing three main security challenges: 1) the eastern state of Sabah
on the island of Borneo; 2) the southern reaches of the South China Sea north of Borneo; and 3)
growing piracy problems in the southwest of the South China Sea. Sabah, on the northern tip ofBorneo, has emerged in recent years as a key internal and external security challenge for Malaysia.
On February 11, 2013, more than 230 Filipino followers of the self-proclaimed sultan of Sulu landed
by boat on the shores of Sabah, prompting a conflict with Malaysian security forces. The militants,
who came from the southern Philippines and many of whom were armed, declared that theirobjective was to assert the longstanding Philippine territorial claim to Sabah.343 Malaysian security
forces surrounded the village where the group was concentrated and for several weeks sought tonegotiate their withdrawal. When the intruders missed several deadlines to leave, Malaysian police
attacked in early March and after suffering casualties were joined by air force jets, which bombed
the rebels. Police and soldiers launched a number of operations and secured the village on March
11, 2013. About 10 Malaysian soldiers and police and more than 20 rebels died in the operations.344

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Sabah has also suffered in recent years from a spate of indiscriminate kidnappings of foreign
tourists, including some from China, and Malaysians working in tourist resorts. Most of thesekidnappings have taken place in the area near the Sulu archipelago in the southern Philippines.
Sabah is of vital importance to the government because of the outsize role it plays in Malaysia’s
economy and politics. Oil and gas provide at least 25 percent of the government’s revenue andan increasing percentage of this comes from facilities off the coast of Sabah operated by Malaysia’s state-owned oil and gas corporation, Petronas.345 The state also holds a disproportionately strong position in Malaysia’s parliament because the ruling party’s strong showing in Sabah
helped it cling to power following elections in 2013, in which it lost the nationwide popular vote.
The South China Sea, in which Malaysia’s claims overlap with those of China, Taiwan, Brunei, thePhilippines, and Vietnam, is an important security concern for the Malaysian government. Malaysia’s response to China’s nine-dash line claim in 2009 has been more subdued and lower profile
than that of some of its neighbors. This is in part because of Kuala Lumpur’s strong relations with
Beijing and also because Malaysia’s overlapping claims lie on the southern edge of the nine-dashline. However, China’s recent increased frequency of naval patrols around James Shoal and Luconia Reef, less than 100 miles off the northern coast of Borneo and about 1,250 miles from thesouthern coast of China, has increased concern in Malaysia about Beijing’s objectives. This area
includes several large oil and gas fields operated by Petronas. As a result, protecting Malaysia’s
claims in the South China Sea is a top priority for the government.346
Malaysia is also concerned about an apparent surge in piracy off its coast on the southwesternedge of the South China Sea, particularly against oil tankers and cargo ships. In the first half of2015, at least five piracy attacks took place in this area. The International Maritime Bureau reported that 11 cargo ships were captured in the South China Sea in 2014.347 Defense Minister Hishammudin has proposed joint patrols with Indonesia, Singapore, and Thailand (and even suggested
bringing in Burma and Cambodia) in a joint anti-piracy operation, but he has not gained traction
among other countries.348 While Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore have patrolled the Strait ofMalacca since the early 2000s, much of this has been done individually rather than under a jointcommand. Malaysian officials have also talked about doing joint patrols in the Sulu Sea with thePhilippines and Brunei to deal with the kidnappings in Sabah.349 Analysts say they believe Kuala
Lumpur would also be interested in more cooperation and even joint exercises on the fringes of
the South China Sea with Vietnam and the Philippines.350

Current and Planned Force Posture
Like most of its neighbors, Malaysia has long focused on its army. The army has been tasked withaddressing internal threats from insurgents, like those from the Malayan Communist Party in the
1960s. It has only recently begun to address the current threats from the sea, which include insurgents and kidnappers coming to Sabah from the Philippines, China pushing into Malaysia’s exclusive economic zone in the South China Sea, and Rohingya Muslim refugees arriving from Burma.
To address rebels and bandits landing in Sabah from the southern Philippines, Malaysia has begun
transferring more troops and police officers to Sabah and has established the Eastern Sabah Security Command. In January 2015, the army reportedly deployed 12 AV8 armored fighting vehi95

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cles to boost security in Sabah.351 Malaysia is also looking to bring in a string of decommissioned
oil rigs to establish a series of semi-permanent platforms in the so-called “dog’s mouth” area ofnortheastern Sabah. The first rig was expected to be in place by late June 2015. These floating
platforms are intended to create an artificial island chain to project power around Sabah and on
the southern edge of the South China Sea.352 Malaysia is also planning to bring a command andcontrol ship to the Sabah area, but no firm date has been set for its arrival.353 Malaysia has moved
Hawk 25 helicopters to the island of Labuan, off the northwestern coast of Sabah, to help intercept and counter attacks against Sabah. It has also sent some Mark V Special Operations Craft
boats and navy vessels to the state to help intercept rebels arriving from the Philippines.354
Malaysia’s government recognizes that its security challenges require increased maritime domain awareness, in part because Malaysia is split into peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia,
with the latter sharing the island of Borneo with Brunei and Indonesia. The two landmasses are
separated by a large body of water, most of which is controlled by neighboring countries. The
split between the two sides of Malaysia poses unique challenges for the navy, requiring moresurveillance aircraft, helicopters, and radar equipment.355 Malaysia has talked about purchasing atleast six antisubmarine warfare helicopters to supplement the navy’s current six Super Lynx andsix Eurocopter Fennecs.356 As nearby Brunei prepares to buy new rotary-wing aircraft, Malaysia
is looking to obtain 4 to 6 used Black Hawk helicopters from its neighbor.357 Kuala Lumpur also
expects to receive the first 2 of 6 Second General Patrol Vessel-Littoral Combat Ships by 2019.358
Malaysia has also announced plans to construct a new navy base in Bintulu on Sarawak, next to
Sabah on Borneo, the nearest town to James Shoal.359
Malaysia’s 2015 defense budget totaled $4.8 billion, less than $1 billion of which was designatedfor military procurement. Despite this spending limit, one of Malaysia’s top priorities has long
been to replace its fleet of aging MiG-29 fighters with 18 modern jets. Defense officials havelooked at a variety of replacements including Boeing’s F/A-18E/F, the Rafale from France, and theGripen produced by Sweden.360 Yet, officials have suggested in recent years that this is slipping asa priority. Much Malaysian defense spending is reportedly earmarked to buy four A400M cargoplanes as well as navy patrol vessels.361 The sharp drop in the global price of oil and gas, which
provides at least a quarter of the government’s budget, has forced the Ministry of Defense to put
a hold on major purchases of new military equipment.362

Security Cooperation with the United States
Military relations between Malaysia and the United States have been strong for decades. Every
U.S. military service exercises with its Malaysian counterpart. The U.S. and Malaysian navies participate in a Cooperation Afloat and Readiness and Training (CARAT) exercise each year. Washington also provides some International Military Education and Training funds and a very limited
amount of Foreign Military Sales assistance to Malaysia.
During the Rohingya boat people crisis in the Andaman Sea in May 2015, Malaysia allowed U.S.
P-8 surveillance planes to search for refugee boats from Malaysian territory for about three
weeks, even as neighboring Thailand and Indonesia refused. Malaysia has allowed the UnitedStates to fly some P-3 and P-8 surveillance planes out of Labuan in the South China Sea, but
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only on a case-by-case basis out of sensitivity about China’s possible reaction. Kuala Lumpur has
been reluctant to sanction more flights after they were reported in the press in 2014, apparently
out of concern about offending China.363 Security relations between the United States and Malaysia have gotten close under Najib, reflecting a growing confluence of interests, particularly in
the South China Sea. This trend is likely to continue if China maintains its more assertive posture in the region, helping to bring Kuala Lumpur and Washington closer together. Nevertheless,growing political tensions tied to Najib’s involvement in the 1MDB scandal threatens to limit the
government’s focus on cooperation with external actors, and if the economy falters, could callinto question Najib’s political position.

Capability Gaps and Shortfalls
Malaysia’s military faces a number of capability gaps. Without a doubt, maritime domain awareness is one of the biggest challenges as Kuala Lumpur’s main security risks come from the South
China Sea and the waters off the eastern coast of Sabah. Malaysia lacks the surveillance aircraft,navy and coast guard vessels, and radar to monitor activities off its coasts. Malaysia also lacks areal amphibious capability, which would be very useful in providing security in Sabah and elsewhere. Malaysia should consider joining the Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating
Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia in an effort to tackle piracy in the southwest of
the South China Sea and in the Sulu Sea off Sabah. Yet, the military’s declining budget, due to low
oil prices, suggests that it will be some years before these challenges can be addressed.
To address the capability gaps, Malaysia and the United States can work together in a variety ofareas. The United States should continue to explore channels to help Malaysia boost maritime
domain awareness. If China continues to press into Malaysia’s exclusive economic zone off Borneo, Malaysia may again agree to allow surveillance planes to fly out of Labuan over the South
China Sea—if it is done quietly. The United States might offer to assist Malaysia in establishing a
specialized amphibious ground force equivalent to the U.S. Marine Corps. In 2015, Malaysia conducted an amphibious warfare exercise with U.S. Marines in an effort to boost this capability.364
The United States should pursue rotational training opportunities with U.S. Marines in Sabah,
which Defense Minister Hishammudin appears to support.365

SINGAPORE
Despite its small size and status as a “strategic partner” rather than a treaty ally, Singapore isvital to the U.S. rebalance and regional force posture. As the self-deprecating moniker “little reddot” suggests, Singapore is a tiny city-state surrounded by much larger neighbors. That practical recognition of its own insecurity and the limits of its capacity to respond to external threats
has historically made Singapore the strongest proponent of a sustained U.S. military presence inSoutheast Asia. Singapore has also championed regional security architecture to help prevent
conflict in the region, and to encourage cooperation between its neighbors.

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Security Outlook
As a small power that is dependent on external trade and investment, Singapore takes an active
interest in security issues—both traditional and nontraditional—throughout the Asia-Pacific. Seeing the region remain stable and free of conflict is considered a vital national interest, as is thepreservation of freedom of navigation and protection of the global maritime commons.
Singaporean leaders are closely involved in diplomatic efforts to resolve the South China Sea
disputes, as any disruption to commerce in the region could have a devastating impact on thecity-state’s economy. Yet it remains cautious about taking a more proactive role in efforts toconfront China, partially due to Singaporean leaders’ desire to maintain cordial relations with avital economic partner and rising power. They worry that more confrontational approaches by
the Philippines and others have only raised the chances of conflict without bringing the disputes
any closer to resolution.366 As a result, Singapore remains more than willing to host a modest U.S.
presence to maintain security in the region, and to prod the United States behind the scenes tobe more proactive in confronting Chinese behavior. Singapore also engages in extensive bilateraland multilateral training and confidence-building measures, including with Beijing in the hopesof socializing the Chinese military in international norms and best practices. However, Singapore
is unlikely to join activities like freedom-of-navigation operations, joint patrols in disputed waters, or other actions that could be seen as overtly opposed to China’s claims.
Singapore’s immediate security concerns lie closer to home and involve nontraditional threats.
Ahead of Armed Forces Day on July 1, 2015, Defense Minister Ng Eng Heng called for the reorganization of Singapore’s armed forces to better confront its greatest threats in the years ahead: demographics and cyber attacks.367 The former is a reference to Singapore’s low birth rate and difficulty filling the ranks of its military. The latter is of growing importance given the threat that cyberattacks could pose to Singapore’s high-tech economy, which is highly dependent on finance. The
government is working to consolidate cyber security responsibilities within the prime minister’s
office, rather than the three different offices in two ministries that were previously responsible.
Singaporean authorities are also looking to the United States for cyber security cooperation. While
Singapore has considerable work to do, it is well ahead of its neighbors on cyber security.
Officials are also increasingly concerned about potential lone wolf attacks caused by self-radicalization spilling over from neighboring Malaysia and Indonesia. In recognition of the threat posedby homegrown terrorism and returning jihadists linked to ISIL, Singapore is one of the few countries in Southeast Asia to contribute to the anti-ISIL coalition. Singapore has provided an aerial
refueling tanker and an imagery analysis team to the effort.368 It previously contributed noncombat personnel to the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.
In addition to terrorism and cyber security, Singapore’s leaders see maritime security as a critical mission area. As a trade-dependent nation, and one sitting alongside the world’s busiest andmost piracy-ridden waterway—the Strait of Malacca—Singapore considers fighting piracy, smuggling, and other maritime threats to be a top priority. Singaporean forces engage in coordinated,though not combined, patrols to combat piracy in the Strait of Malacca with their Indonesian,
Malaysian, and Thai counterparts. There has also been discussion, albeit preliminary, of expand-98

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ing these patrols to undisputed waters in the southern reaches of the South China Sea.369 Singapore has also deployed an anti-piracy task force in the Gulf of Aden.370
In addition to terrorism, cyber security, and maritime security, Singapore also sees itself as playing a vital role in regional HA/DR operations. With increasingly extreme weather around theAsia-Pacific, Singapore is joining many Southeast Asian states in viewing HA/DR as a criticalneed. Officials have sought to encourage regional collaboration that can be pursued without
raising political sensitivities.

Current and Planned Force Posture
Singapore’s military strength relies on the National Service scheme in which all 18-year-old malecitizens and second-generation permanent residents deemed physically and mentally capable
enter two years of active service in the military, police, or Civil Defense Force (which handles
firefighting and emergency services). After they are released from active duty, non-commissioned
officers and enlistees serve in the reserves until age 40.
The Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) currently have about 71,600 active duty personnel and
950,000 reservists. The military boasts over 200 tanks, more than 2,000 armored fighting vehicles, roughly 50 self-propelled guns, 260 towed-artillery, and 18 multiple-launch rocket systems.
Singapore’s air power consists of approximately 120 fighters, 63 transport aircraft, 45 trainer
aircraft, and about 70 helicopters, including 17 attack helicopters. SAF naval platforms include 6
frigates, 6 corvettes, 6 submarines, 12 coastal defense craft, and 4 mine warfare vessels.371
SAF force posture relies primarily on staying at least one, if not two, technological generations
ahead of its neighbors. In this way it follows a model similar to Israel’s, involving constant upgrades
to keep an edge over larger neighbors, such as Indonesia and Malaysia, who can field more numerous forces. Singapore is a top buyer of U.S. platforms in the region, but it is happy to acquire thebest equipment for its mission needs, regardless of country, as long as they are NATO-compatible.
As a result, both European and Israeli firms are major suppliers to the SAF. Singapore acquires fire
control systems, radars, missile control systems, and other electronics from Israel, though not major platforms.372 Singapore has an extremely sophisticated acquisition process and often procuresplatforms from foreign defense companies that it then fills with indigenously built systems.
Recognizing its demographic challenges, the Singaporean military is focused on boosting its autonomous capabilities. It is also gearing its acquisitions and indigenous defense industry toward
greater mechanization in order to operate platforms with smaller crews than usually required.
For instance, Singapore Technologies Engineering, the city-state’s homegrown defense manufacturer, produced the Pegasus self-propelled howitzer that only requires a crew of three.373 Singapore Technologies Marine, meanwhile, has developed the Independence-class Littoral Mission
Vessel, smaller, but roughly equivalent to a U.S. Navy LCS.374
The Singaporean navy has been expanding both the number of its ships and the size of those
vessels. It is undertaking blue-water missions for the first time, such as Gulf of Aden anti-piracy
patrols, and expects to take part in more multilateral exercises abroad. In recognition of its growing role in HA/DR and maritime security, Singapore is expected to announce the development of99

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an indigenously produced helicopter carrier known as a Joint Multi-Mission Ship by the endof the decade.375

Security Cooperation with the United States
The United States maintains a significant rotational military presence in Singapore. The UnitedStates is the largest user of Changi Naval Base (followed by Japan), which provides the only facilities in Southeast Asia capable of servicing U.S. aircraft carriers. More than 100 U.S. Navy ships
and between 800 and 1,000 U.S. Air Force aircraft transit through Singapore each year.376 Under
current plans, up to four U.S. Littoral Combat Ships are also scheduled to be based in Singapore.
Without the access provided by Singapore, the U.S. military would not be able to operate nearly
as effectively in the region.
Singapore and the United States signed a memorandum of understanding on U.S. military accessto the city-state 25 years ago and a Strategic Framework Agreement 10 years ago. The two countries signed a new Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement in late 2015, opening the possibility of new forms of cooperation, though no radical changes to U.S. force deployment are on thehorizon.377 On the heels of that agreement, Singapore announced that it would allow the rotational
deployment of U.S. P-8s to the city-state. Major arms purchases, such as the Singaporean air force’s
upgrading of its F-16 fleet and potential purchase of F-35 fighters, are likely to increase defense ties
and strengthen interoperability.378 In addition, Singapore conducts training activities with the U.S.
Air Force in the United States, significantly increasing integration between the two militaries.

Capability Gaps and Shortfalls
As Defense Minister Ng remarked, demographics represent one of the greatest long-term threatsto Singapore’s military readiness and force posture. Reliance on the National Service scheme appears unsustainable given demographic trends. Singapore’s birth rate remains below the replacement rate, which has resulted in fewer citizens becoming eligible for conscription each year.379
In the 1980s, the army could notionally field five divisions—one active and four reserves.380 That
overall number has shrunk to four. The military has begun to experiment with allowing women and first-generation permanent residents to volunteer to serve, and the navy in particular is
opening up opportunities to mid-career level civilians.381 However, a more radical rethinking offorce structure and enlistment will be needed as demographic pressures grow.
Singapore’s military, and popular support for it, was built around the mission of confronting an
external threat from Indonesia and Malaysia in the years after independence. Particularly concerning was the possibility of having to fight a short war with Malaysia to ensure access to fresh
water.382 The military’s mission has changed drastically in recent decades as its two neighbors
have become partners. It is likely that citizens will begin to question the current force structure,and the need for compulsory national service, in the years ahead given the increasing perception that Singapore does not face an existential threat from abroad.383 Whether the government
will be able to meet those demands is an open question. The defense budget remains highly
secretive and is not debated publicly or in Parliament. The National Service scheme is consideredsacred and is not discussed even by opposition parties.

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It must also be recognized that the Singapore Armed Forces have never engaged in combat operations. On those occasions SAF troops have deployed abroad, they have done so in a support
capacity. On the other hand, Singaporean troops remain some of the best trained and most capable in the world, engaging in extensive joint training with partners around the globe. However,were the SAF to engage in combat and suffer casualties, the effect on morale and public support
for military action would be a major unknown.
Singapore’s military is the region’s most advanced, most capable, and best trained, despite its
relatively small size. The SAF play an increasingly important role in combatting nontraditional
security threats in the region and beyond, including in HA/DR, SAR, and maritime security. Whenit comes to offering concrete support, Singapore is perhaps the greatest proponent of a robust
and sustained U.S. military presence in Southeast Asia. The access and cooperation provided by
the city-state helps to make possible critical U.S. military operations in the region.

INDONESIA
Indonesia is an emerging player in the regional security environment. Like many militaries in theregion, the Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) are still in the process of shifting their focus
from internal security to external defense. For most of its post-colonial history, the top mission of
the military was preventing the breakup of the nation by separatists in Aceh, the Malukus, Papua,
and Timor-Leste. In the last 15 years, political solutions have been found for all of those conflicts
except Papua, which continues to see chronic low-level violence. This has left most of Indonesia’s forces without a specified mission.
Political and military leaders in Indonesia are awakening to the unique threats and opportunities
of being an archipelagic nation, especially one situated between the Indian and Pacific Oceansalong the world’s busiest trade routes. Under previous administrations, Indonesia joined Malaysia,
Singapore, and Thailand in coordinated patrols of the Malacca Strait. It also began to play a largerrole in regional maritime security, SAR, and HA/DR exercises and training, including Multilateral
Naval Exercise Komodo in waters off the Riau and Natuna Islands in early 2014.384

Security Outlook
In October 2014, newly inaugurated president Joko “Jokowi” Widodo declared a whole-of-government policy to transform Indonesia into a “global maritime nexus.”385 After nearly a year, themaritime nexus doctrine seems more a catchall phrase than a targeted policy. Its most visible
results have been a renewed, and some would say counterproductive, effort to combat illegal
fishing in Indonesia’s littoral waters. Nevertheless, Jakarta has committed, on paper at least, toboost naval capacity to protect sea lines of communication, defend freedom of navigation, bolster maritime domain awareness, and better respond to crises at sea. In a promising move, theIndonesian government also formed its first coast guard in 2014, though it remains embryonic.386
One area gaining increasing attention in Jakarta is the South China Sea. Indonesian leaders havegrown more forceful in publicly condemning Chinese claims after years of insisting that Indonesia had no dispute with China, despite the overlap between Beijing’s nine-dash line and Jakarta’s

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claimed exclusive economic zone, which includes the continental shelf north of the Natunas.
Former TNI chief Moeldoko published a surprising article in April 2014 admitting China appeared
to be claiming part of Indonesia’s maritime entitlement as Chinese territory. In response, he declared that Indonesia would “strengthen its forces on Natuna” and “prepare fighter planes to meet
any eventuality stemming from heightened tensions on one of the world’s key waterways.”387
More recently, Jokowi commented just ahead of his March 2015 visits to Tokyo and Beijing thatthe nine-dash line has “no basis in any international law.”388
The other major Indonesian military concern is terrorism. After largely defanging the regional
threat posed by Jemaah Islamiyah in the decade following the 2002 Bali nightclub bombings,
Indonesian authorities are now grappling with radicalization of domestic ISIL sympathizers andthe potential return of many Indonesian citizens who have joined the fight in Iraq and Syria.
President Jokowi has identified ISIL as a top concern.389 Hundreds of Indonesians are believed
to be fighting for ISIL in Iraq and Syria, alongside smaller contingents of Bruneians, Filipinos, andMalaysians. More worrying, authorities say that ISIL supporters are now present in almost half ofIndonesia’s provinces. Prominent militants, including the country’s most-wanted terrorist, Santoso, have sworn allegiance to the group.390 Santoso leads a band of a few hundred supporters
in the jungles of Poso on Sulawesi. His continued evasion of security forces has led to calls fromthe military to take a greater role in counterterrorism operations—a development that many outside analysts find potentially troubling.391

Current and Planned Force PostureDespite their changing mission, the TNI remains disproportionately weighted toward the armyat the expense of the air force and navy, which too often rely on outdated platforms and sufferfrom poor maintenance and support. The Indonesian military has about 476,000 active duty personnel and another 400,000 reserves. The ground forces include 468 tanks, over 1,000 armoredfighting vehicles, 37 self-propelled guns, 80 towed artillery pieces, and 86 multiple-launch rocket
systems. The TNI fields 30 fighter aircraft, 52 fixed-wing attack aircraft, 187 transport aircraft, 104
trainers, and 148 rotary-wing aircraft. The navy and coast guard boast 6 frigates, 26 corvettes, 2submarines, 21 coastal defense craft, 12 mine warfare ships, and about 100 other vessels.392
In his first year in office, Jokowi committed to boosting defense spending in order to help Indonesia play a larger regional role, especially in the maritime realm. The country’s Mid-Term Development Blueprint, produced in 2014, calls for an increase in spending to 1.5 percent of GDP
by 2019, from the current 0.9 percent.393 This ambitious target would require the defense budget
to increase approximately 16 percent each year assuming GDP growth remains above 5 percent.
The budget did increase 16 percent in 2015, to $8.2 billion.394
Despite the commitment to improve naval and air capabilities, the military budget has yet to shift
significantly away from the army. Indonesia’s recent procurement has remained unbalanced,
with the army continuing to play the leading role in military strategy and planning. In November 2013, the Defense Ministry announced the finalization of a $290 million deal with Germany
for the delivery of 103 Leopard 2 main battle tanks, 42 upgraded Marder 1A3 infantry fighting
vehicles, and 11 armored recovery and engineering vehicles, along with logistical support and102

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ammunition.395 The procurement seemed out of step with both Indonesia’s stated modernization
goals and the missions its military is most likely to face in the future.
More recently, government officials including President Jokowi and newly appointed TNI Chiefof Staff Gatot Nurmantyo have committed to focus military modernization efforts on the navy
and air force.396 The crash of a C-130 transport plane in a residential district of Medan on Javahas provided renewed impetus to modernize the air force.397 Jakarta is preparing to decommission old platforms, like fighters and transport craft, and in the wake of the C-130 crash has said it
will seek to procure new rather than refurbished platforms.398 One major goal of the Indonesian
air force is to replace its fleet of F-5 fighters. It is considering F-16s from the United States, alongwith Russian Su-35s, Eurofighter Typhoons, and JAS 39 Gripens. This new generation of fighters
would focus on interdiction and ground support missions more than air superiority.399
The navy is expected to focus in large part on patrolling Indonesia’s exclusive economic zone
over the next 5 to 10 years, while the coast guard develops. Once the coast guard is able tooperate farther afield, then the navy will be able to shift to other missions.400 Unfortunately, thenavy itself is limited in its capacity to operate beyond Indonesia’s territorial seas, so the feasibility of this plan is in question. There is continued discussion within the government on boosting
the coast guard’s procurement budget, which could help speed the takeover of responsibilities
from the navy.401 The Jokowi administration has also identified combatting illegal fishing as a toppriority for both military and law enforcement resources. That mission will likely be a priority
for force structure and planning over the next 5 to 10 years. The government plans to stand up
the newly created coast guard by transferring smaller patrol vessels from the navy. This has met
some resistance from naval planners who expect new acquisitions of their own in exchange.402
An increasing focus of the navy and air force is boosting domain awareness and ability to respond tocrises in Indonesian waters and airspace in the South China Sea. To this end, the military is upgrading its airbase in the Natunas to handle the country’s more advanced fighters.403 It is also improving
surrounding naval and airbases in the Riau Archipelago and Kalimantan so that larger ships and aircraft can operate in the area continuously.404 The navy and air force are interested in acquiring aerial
refueling tankers, logistics ships, and amphibious assault ships to boost power projection and rapid
response capabilities.405 The air force also wants to procure airborne early warning systems.406
Policymakers have begun to expand Indonesia’s arms procurement by seeking new partners.
Russia has long been the largest overall provider of arms to Indonesia, but the rapid growthin the U.S.-Indonesia security relationship has shifted that balance. The United States was thelargest provider of Indonesian weapons systems in 2013, accounting for 19 percent of its acquisitions. This was followed by Russia (14 percent), France (13 percent), Germany (9 percent), andthe United Kingdom (9 percent).407 China is a growing source of arms, including missiles, but not
major platforms.408 Indonesia also remains committed to its indigenous defense industry, which
produced 11 percent of the country’s weapons in 2013.409 Yet for the most part, Indonesia’s defense industry has met with little success in prestigious projects to produce high-end platforms.
One major exception is the production of armored personnel carriers, for which Indonesia has
effectively cornered the market in United Nations peacekeeping operations.410

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Security Cooperation with the United States
U.S.-Indonesia military-to-military relations have improved markedly, though Jakarta still punches below its weight. Bilateral security ties deteriorated in the 1990s amid abuses in Timor-Lesteand the military’s role in the violence surrounding the fall of long-time president Suharto in 1998.
They hit their lowest point in 1999 when Indonesia’s military supported pro-Indonesia militias
who committed a wave of attacks in Timor-Leste after the Timorese voted to secede. That incident resulted in the passage of the Leahy amendment by the U.S. Congress, banning militarytraining and equipment transfers to armed forces guilty of human rights abuses.411
Bilateral ties have improved dramatically over the last decade, fueled by Indonesia’s democratic
consolidation, the military’s pullback from involvement in politics, and post–9/11 counterterrorism cooperation. The United States resumed the International Military Education and Training
program for Indonesia in 2002 and normalized military ties in 2005, removing the embargo on
military sales. In 2010, the United States eased its ban on cooperation with the Indonesian special
forces, the Kopassus, mandated by the Leahy amendment.412 That same year, President Barack
Obama and Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono signed a bilateral comprehensive partnership agreement that established a new era of cooperation in security as well as diplomatic, economic, andpeople-to-people relations.413

Capability Gaps and Shortfalls
Despite the drive to modernize and adjust to new, externally oriented missions, the Indonesian
military remains unbalanced in favor of the army. The TNI’s weaknesses in maritime domainawareness is concerning. The area north of the Natunas, where Indonesia would perhaps be
most likely to face Chinese coercion, is difficult for the TNI to monitor. The Indonesian government realizes that it cannot afford to fill this gap with new ships alone. It is looking for creative
solutions such as unmanned aerial systems and satellites, but even if Indonesia vastly improves
its maritime domain awareness, the coast guard and navy still lack needed capacity to respond.
Indonesia also lags behind many of its neighbors in interoperability with the United States andother partners. This problem is abating as Indonesian forces become more comfortable withbilateral and multilateral exercises. For instance, U.S.-Indonesia naval exercises are not only becoming more frequent but are also expanding their scope from search and rescue and boarding
to combat exercises. As of 2012, there were about 200 military-to-military interactions between
Indonesia and the United States annually, including the bilateral Garuda Shield and CARAT exercises.414 More than 500 Indonesian military officers studied in the United States in 2014, andForeign Military Sales reached about $1.5 billion.415
The Indonesian military is also boosting cooperation with Australia, European states, and other
ASEAN members. Indonesia-Japan cooperation remains embryonic, but Jokowi signed a bilateralagreement on defense industrial cooperation during his March 2015 visit to Tokyo.416 Yet agreement will likely require several years to implement.417 Exercises with Japan remain infrequent andlow level, but should grow in the future. China-Indonesia cooperation likewise remains limited,in part because the two militaries do not share doctrines and systems, but also because of tensions due to South China Sea disputes.
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Indonesia’s air force and navy remain reliant on legacy systems that are becoming harder tomaintain. This is only made worse by the relatively low priority, in both funding and planning,
given to logistics and support systems as well as the hodgepodge of Russian and NATO-compatible systems it has acquired. Indonesia could have trouble supporting new platforms becauseof a lack of technical capacity. The Indonesian military also struggles to link acquisitions to real
mission needs, as evidenced by the Leopard 2 procurement. The United States has sought to address this issue through the expanded Defense Institutional Reform Initiative for Indonesia, which
focuses on assisting with strategic planning, including acquisitions, logistics, and maintenance.418
Another long-term problem is the remaining prevalence of corrupt practices within the Indonesian military. When the military stepped back from its role in private enterprise following the fallof Suharto, it also lost a major source of funding. The resulting welfare gap was not replaced by
a commensurate increase in the military budget, driving many personnel to resort to unethicalbehavior to augment salaries and support services.419 The government has begun to address thischallenge. The defense budget has increased significantly since 2008, with the majority of that
increase going toward troop welfare.420 The United States is also working to help ameliorate thisconcern by offering significant assistance in professionalization training.421
Indonesia’s political and military leaders have recognized the need to transition toward a more
externally focused force and to modernize the TNI’s woefully poor naval and air capabilities.
Nonetheless, institutional inertia, budget constraints, and a long history of poor strategic planning will constrain the speed and success of that shift. Nevertheless, Indonesia’s sheer sizemeans that its importance in the regional security environment will only grow. Although progress is likely to prove uneven, continued focus by the United States on this key partnership could
yield significant returns in the years ahead.

VIETNAM
Vietnam has stepped up its military relations with the United States in the past six to eight years,
thanks in large part to growing tensions with China in the South China Sea. During the 1960s and1970s, when the Vietnamese communists were fighting against South Vietnam and the United States, Hanoi’s closest military ties were with the Soviet Union. In recent years, Vietnam hassought to diversify its relations by increasing military ties with India, Japan, and its Southeast
Asian neighbors.

Security Outlook
The Vietnamese military is controlled by the Communist Party and its civilian government, butsenior military officers have outsize roles in both bodies thanks to their positions within the ruling Politburo and Central Committee. Only Minister of Defense Lt. Gen. Phung Quang Thanh, 66,
is a member of the Politburo, but 13 of 165 members in the Central Committee actively serve inthe upper ranks of the military. Thanh is widely expected to step down at the next party congressin early 2016, due to a combination of poor health and perceptions that he is too close to China
despite its assertiveness in the South China Sea.422

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Since 2009, when China submitted a nine-dash line map to the United Nations and asserted its
control over much of the South China Sea, Vietnam has begun to see the maritime domain as its
most important security challenge. In 1988, China seized Johnson South Reef from Vietnam aftera brief skirmish in which more than 70 Vietnamese troops died. Chinese ships cut the seismic cables of Vietnamese oil exploration vessels on at least two occasions in 2011 and 2012.423 In recent
years, Chinese authorities have repeatedly arrested Vietnamese fishermen, particularly aroundthe Paracel Islands, and charged them with illegally fishing in Chinese territory.424
In May 2014, a Chinese state-owned company moved the massive Haiyang Shiyou 981 oil exploration rig into a location between the Paracel Islands and Vietnam’s coast, which Hanoi claims
is its exclusive economic zone. The arrival of the rig sparked the biggest dispute between Vietnam and China in years. The incident prompted almost daily clashes between Chinese vessels
trying to protect the rig and Vietnamese boats trying to enter the 12-mile perimeter China had
imposed. The clash spawned protests in Vietnam, some of which turned violent and led to thedeaths of several Chinese. Taiwanese, Singaporean, and Korean factories and workers were also
attacked in the confusion.425 Vietnamese party leaders complained that they were unable to contact Chinese party leaders during the incident.426

Current and Planned Force Posture
In the 1970s, Vietnam invested heavily in its army to defeat the U.S.-backed regime in the south,
to overthrow the brutal Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia, and to defend against China’s borderattack in 1979. However, as tensions have mounted in the South China Sea, Vietnam has begun
emphasizing modernizing its navy and air force and building a coast guard.
In general, analysts believe that Vietnam’s deterrence strategy is not designed to confront China
in a conflict, but rather intended to create some risks for the Chinese navy if it decided to resort
to force.427 Nonetheless, Hanoi’s ongoing weapons acquisitions demonstrate that Vietnam is taking major steps to boost its capacity to resist Chinese activity in the maritime area around Vietnam. It has developed an A2/AD strategy that integrates land-based artillery and missile systems;
Su-30 jet fighters, fast attack craft, corvettes, and frigates armed with anti-ship missiles; andVarshavyanka-class submarines. These systems should make it possible for Vietnam to impose
considerable costs on China within a 200-nautical-mile band along Vietnam’s coast.428 Beyond
that, Vietnam also has the capacity to strike China’s naval base near Sanya on Hainan Island andmilitary facilities on Woody Island. The land-based Bastion cruise missile system is intended inpart to deter China from deploying warships in Vietnam’s waters or blockading Vietnamese islands in the South China Sea.429
Hanoi has worked to increase its maritime domain awareness capabilities. Much of the capability
has until recently been provided by fishing vessels because Vietnam did not have enough navy
and coast guard vessels to monitor events in the South China Sea.430 Vietnam’s maritime efforts
tend to be led by the coast guard. Hanoi views the coast guard as less escalatory than the navy,
which is seen more as a reserve force.431 Vietnam also augmented its surveillance capabilities
through the purchase of three CASA C-295 transport aircraft in 2014.432

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Much of Vietnam’s military equipment has traditionally come from Russia, but in recent years it
has begun exploring buying hardware from South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Israel, and the UnitedStates. Hanoi’s military procurement budget is relatively small, with an estimated $1.4 billion insigned procurement contracts in 2014.433 Major orders include three Varshavyanka-class submarines from Russia, with three more on order. So far, they are engaging primarily in patrols along
Vietnam’s coast.434 Submarine crews receive training in undersea warfare doctrine and tactics
at the Indian Navy Ship (INS) Satavahana submarine center. Analysts differ on how quickly they
think the navy will be able to absorb the submarines and use them to create a credible deterrent
against China.435 The navy also has 11 older corvettes and five frigates armed with equipment
dating back to the Soviet period. Vietnam also has four Molniya-class guided missile frigates, one
BPS-500 corvette, two Gepard 3.9 guided missile stealth frigates, two Dutch-built Sigma-classfrigates, and six Svetlyak-class fast attack craft armed with anti-ship missiles.436

Security Cooperation with the United States
U.S. Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter visited Hanoi in June 2015 and signed a joint visionstatement updating a 2011 memorandum of understanding that will guide future military cooperation between the two countries and possibly lead to co-production of weapons systems.437 As
part of the expanding ties, Carter said the United States would help Vietnam set up a center totrain troops for United Nations peacekeeping missions. Carter also visited a navy and coast guard
headquarters in Haiphong and reiterated Secretary of State John Kerry’s earlier pledge of $18 million to help Vietnam buy U.S. patrol boats.438 The two countries will also step up HA/DR exercises,
an area of cooperation less likely to create concerns in China.439
In October 2014, Washington partially lifted the U.S. ban on military hardware sales to Vietnam inplace since the end of the war in 1975. Hanoi is now allowed to purchase lethal maritime security
equipment on a case-by-case basis.440 Vietnam, however, has been slow to buy U.S. technology
partly due to the sophistication and cost of U.S. systems, the long and complicated U.S. procurement process, and concerns that purchases could get ensnared in human rights debates in the
U.S. Congress. Vietnamese officials also say that for Washington to maintain part of the weapons
sales ban suggests that the United States is not yet living up to the comprehensive partnership
launched by the two countries in 2013.441 Nevertheless, the two sides established a joint working
group including the U.S. defense attaché, other embassy officials, and Ministry of Defense representatives to discuss possible future Vietnamese military acquisitions from the United States.
Carter discussed joint U.S.-Vietnam patrols in the South China Sea to help boost Vietnam’s capabilities, but officials in Hanoi were not ready to approve his proposal.442
Most U.S.-Vietnam cooperation is now focused in the maritime domain, Vietnam’s top priority. One recent army-to-army joint exercise also involved urban search and rescue missions.443
Washington has recently appointed a coast guard liaison officer to Hanoi and Japan, which isalso providing coast guard vessels to Vietnam, plans to follow suit.444 An attempt to buy coast
guard vessels demonstrated the complexity of U.S. military sales to Vietnam. Understandingthat the Vietnamese were interested in buying some 110-foot vessels, the Defense Department
pushed for rapid clearance, only to have the government of Vietnam suspend discussions over107THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

the deal.445 Similarly, Washington provides International Military Education and Training funding
for Vietnamese officers, but Hanoi cannot find enough candidates to meet the minimum standards of working level proficiency in English.446
Regarding U.S. military posture, Vietnam allows Washington only one navy ship visit a year. The
U.S. Navy ship visit to Danang in early 2015 was a step up from previous exchanges because
more officer exchanges, community activities, and a joint search and rescue efforts were permitted. The visit also lasted longer than previous visits.447

Capability Gaps and Shortfalls
Maritime domain awareness is one of the biggest challenges Vietnam faces today in the South
China Sea. Vietnam lacks the surveillance aircraft, navy and coast guard vessels, and radar tomonitor activities off its coast. The country’s limited budget means that it likely will take someyears before Hanoi can address these challenges. Cooperation with other states could help tolessen the maritime domain awareness needs in the region. Vietnam and the Philippines, anotherdisputant in the South China Sea, held their first bilateral defense policy dialogue meeting in April
2015.448 New Delhi extended Vietnam a $100 million export credit earlier this year to purchasedefense equipment from India.449
The United States should continue to explore avenues to help Vietnam develop maritime domainawareness, including through training of military personnel. Washington should also continue
to pursue opportunities for joint naval exercises. In addition, U.S. leaders could provide moretraining for Vietnamese acquisition officers so they better understand the procedures for thepurchase of military equipment in the United States. Finally, Washington could offer more English
language training to officers so that more have the qualifications to join IMET training courses.

SECURIT Y CONTRIBUTIONS OF REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Several regional organizations contribute to security and stability in the PACOM AOR, particularly
in Southeast Asia. The most critical is the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, as well as other
ASEAN-based organizations, including the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), the East Asia Summit, and
the ASEAN Defense Ministers’ Meeting Plus. The Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating
Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia also plays an important role in regional security.
The major security concerns of these organizations are terrorism, the proliferation of weapons ofmass destruction, piracy, maritime security, HA/DR, and the South China Sea disputes. ASEAN, ASEAN
organizations, and ReCAAP all demonstrate a willingness to contribute to regional efforts to mitigate
these risks. Their primary impediments to doing so, however, are the member states’ and organizations’ lack of military and coast guard capabilities, a reticence to move beyond confidence-building
measures into sensitive areas of cooperation, and an inability to coordinate effectively.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations
As part of its efforts to strengthen regional institutions in East Asia, the United States has augmented its military relationship with ASEAN. In 2015, the Defense Department decided to send a

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permanent defense adviser to the U.S. Mission to ASEAN to improve coordination and information sharing for HA/DR and maritime security. Announced alongside the Southeast Asia Maritime
Security Initiative, this appointment may augment U.S. efforts to build partner capacity in themaritime domain and to do so through ASEAN.450 These efforts build upon other recent initiatives
to strengthen the relationship between ASEAN and the U.S. military. PACOM stationed a liaison
officer at the U.S. Mission to ASEAN for the first time in 2011. This position allows for greater
information sharing with the Department of Defense and other U.S. agencies on multilateralSoutheast Asian security issues and deeper engagement in ASEAN defense-related forums. The
officer has arranged informal dialogues between the ASEAN Defense Ministers’ Meeting (ADMM)
and the U.S. secretary of defense as well as other ASEAN-related activities for PACOM.451 The 10th
EAS underscored the imperatives in promoting maritime safety and security and adopted the EAS
Statement on Enhancing Regional Maritime Cooperation in the Asia-Pacific.

FIGURE 13: Participation in Major Regional Organizations

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THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONSASEAN Regional ForumThe 27-member ASEAN Regional Forum has been host to dialogue and confidence building on
several risks relevant to PACOM. ARF’s functional working groups include dialogues on counterterrorism, disaster relief, maritime security, and nonproliferation and disarmament, with its HA/
DR group being the most robust.452 Several ASEAN states have expressed a strong interest in adding a group on cyber security.453

ASEAN Defense Ministers’ Meeting Plus
Since its first meeting in 2010, U.S. defense leaders have expressed strong support for ADMM-Plusand its efforts to facilitate cooperation in the areas of maritime security, counterterrorism, HA/DR,
peacekeeping, and military medicine. ADMM-Plus includes all 10 members of ASEAN and their
8 most important dialogue partners—Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, Russia, South
Korea, and the United States. ADMM-Plus convenes expert working groups (EWGs) in the fiveareas listed above, and added a sixth EWG on Humanitarian Mine Action in 2013.454 In the same
year, ADMM-Plus also began to hold military exercises in the areas of HA/DR, military medicine,counterterrorism, and maritime security.455 The group also conducted a table-top exercise on
peacekeeping operations. The United States participated in all of these exercises and even cohosted the counterterrorism exercise with Indonesia. The United States sees its participation andfunding in these exercises as one component of the rebalance.456 The United States was a proponent of increasing the frequency of ADMM-Plus meetings to occur biennially as opposed toevery three years—a change that was embraced by the group.
In 2014, then-Secretary of Defense Hagel hosted the 10 ASEAN defense ministers in Hawaii fora meeting called the U.S.-ASEAN Defense Forum. Over two days, the 11 defense leaders and thesecretary general of ASEAN participated in in-depth discussions of defense challenges throughout the Asia-Pacific, toured U.S. assets such as an amphibious ship, and various aircraft andground vehicles. The two-day event was seen as contributing to closer relations between the
United States and ASEAN countries on defense issues, and provided a venue to directly explain
to ASEAN countries’ defense leaders the type of partnership the United States seeks with theircountries. The meeting has since been replicated by China.

East Asia Summit
The East Asia Summit is a leaders-level meeting involving the same 18 nations as the ADMM-Plus. The United States began attending the EAS in 2011, the same year as Russia, after
acceding to the ASEAN Treaty of Amity and Cooperation. The Obama administration has madestrengthening the EAS part of a larger strategy to build more robust ASEAN-based regional architecture—a key component of the rebalance. As such, President Obama has attended all but
one EAS meeting since the United States’ accession. Paired with the U.S.-ASEAN Summit, during
which the U.S. president meets alone with the 10 ASEAN heads of state, the EAS has the potential
to be the premier venue for leader-level regional planning.

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Expanded ASEAN Maritime ForumIn an effort to raise the level of maritime security cooperation in the region, the United States
helped coordinate the first Expanded ASEAN Maritime Forum (EAMF) in Manila in 2012. In its first
three years, the forum has served as a valuable venue for senior officials and experts from the 18
EAS member states to discuss maritime issues at the Track 1.5 level. It has also helped revitalize
the moribund ASEAN Maritime Forum, which could prove valuable for promoting confidencebuilding and greater maritime security cooperation in ASEAN.

Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery
ReCAAP provides for information sharing among members to promote cooperation against nonstate threats. ReCAAP’s Information Sharing Center in Singapore aims to facilitate informationexchange, shorten response times, and improve coordination, including on joint counterpiracy
exercises.457 The United States formally joined ReCAAP in 2014 and interfaces with the organization through U.S. Coast Guard–Rescue Coordination Center Alameda in California, as well as
through its Coast Guard Maritime Liaison Unit in Yokohama, Japan, and Singapore.458 U.S. policymakers have stated that Washington’s membership in ReCAAP is part of the rebalance, andcontributes to the U.S. goal of strengthening regional institutions.459 Coast guard officials havenoted that U.S. ReCAAP membership improves security for U.S.-flagged vessels in high-risk areas,such as the Strait of Malacca.460

Architecture Gaps and Shortfalls
The bulk of functional security cooperation under ASEAN takes place within the ARF framework,
particularly on HA/DR. More robust cooperation on counterterrorism has also become palatable asstates grow increasingly concerned about ISIL’s threat to the region. For the ARF to contribute substantially to PACOM’s objectives, it will need to move beyond confidence building to preventive diplomacy and conflict resolution. The ARF member states agreed in 2013 to shift the organization’sfunctional focus from confidence building to preventive diplomacy, but there is little evidence that
this has resulted in substantive change. Many obstacles are political, and include the fact that China
often drives functional group agendas. Concern about upsetting China is the primary impedimentto adding cyber security to the ARF agenda, despite strong support from Singapore and others.
It is too early to assess the ability of ADMM-Plus to contribute to PACOM’s efforts in Southeast
Asia. If the group can move beyond its current emphasis on confidence building to a focus on
preventive diplomacy and more multilateral training exercises in all six EWG areas, ADMM-Pluswould be making a significant contribution to PACOM’s efforts to mitigate nonstate threats andSouth China Sea risks in Southeast Asia.
To date, the EAS agenda has explicitly focused on six priority areas, only one of which (natural
disaster management) is of immediate consequence to PACOM’s mission.461 However, Indonesia
has been pushing for the inclusion of maritime security as a seventh, which is gaining support
from many other EAS members. More importantly, the agenda at EAS meetings has been broader
than the priority areas would suggest, dealing with high-profile security issues such as the South
China Sea and the threat from ISIL.
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THE ROLE OF ALLIES, PARTNERS, AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONSThere is a great deal of overlap within the hodgepodge of ASEAN institutions, especially thefunctional working groups under the ARF and the EWGs under the ADMM-Plus. This has led to adesire among members to streamline organizational structures. An effort was launched in 2015
to strengthen the EAS, with a proposal from the ASEAN Permanent Representatives to build more
direct linkages between the ARF, the ADMM-Plus, the EAS, and the Expanded ASEAN Maritime
Forum. The eventual goal is for the senior official and ministerial meetings within the EAS andEAMF to feed into, and take their direction from, the EAS.462 Unsurprisingly, China has been abarrier to this streamlining effort, as it still prefers to see the EAS focus on functional cooperation
rather than serving as a leader-level forum for discussing critical issues.463
ReCAAP’s efforts have had mixed results, as there was an increase in reported piracy between
2009 and 2012.464 ReCAAP has also held major conferences that have included limited participation by U.S. officials.465 Additional impediments to its efficacy include the fact that Malaysia andIndonesia, both critically situated near the Strait of Malacca, have resisted membership.466 Manyof the member states themselves have limited maritime domain awareness capabilities, whichconstrains information sharing.
Building stronger security architecture in the Asia-Pacific is an important long-term interest for
the United States. It offers the best chance of regional security in the face of inevitable competition between a rising China, the United States, and other players like India and Japan. ASEAN isthe best vehicle to drive institution-building efforts, as few other groupings can play the role ofhonest broker in the region. Forty-eight years after its establishment, ASEAN has proven capableof making progress, albeit incremental. That slow pace should also be expected in the realm of
security cooperation. Nonetheless, it is worthwhile for the United States to put in the effort andpatience required to support ASEAN-led regional architecture.

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5 | ANALYSIS OF CAPABILIT Y GAPSAND SHORTFALLSANALYSIS OF CAPABILITY GAPS AND SHORTFALLS

U.S. military posture and ally and partner capabilities and relationships represent two of the threedefense pillars of the Asia-Pacific rebalance. The third pillar is ensuring that the United States has theright capabilities for the range of challenges it faces. Those capabilities take the form of operational
concepts married with the world’s best-trained forces and the military equipment they require.
China presents the most significant challenge to U.S. regional interests, today and into the future.
In particular, China’s military investments in A2/AD capabilities heighten concern in the region
about China’s concept of peace and security. The goal of A2/AD systems is to restrict or outrightdeny an attacker freedom of entry or maneuver. China’s A2/AD investments include space, cyber,
EW, blue-water naval capability, long-range and anti-ship missiles, fighter and stealth aircraft, andC4ISR capabilities. These serve as powerful reminders of its efforts to keep the United States outof the region when it desires. These capabilities increase risk to U.S. installations and forward-operating forces in the Western Pacific, to U.S. allies and partners, and to the freedom of access tointernational airspace and waters on which the U.S. economy depends. Absent a major operational or technology breakthrough, substantial risk remains over the mid to long term that China’s capabilities will allow it to threaten U.S. interests throughout Asia.
Leaders both inside and outside of DOD have acknowledged this reality. The Defense Department has developed the Air Sea Battle (ASB) Concept, the Joint Operational Access Concept(JOAC), and is now developing the Joint Concept for Access and Maneuver in the Global Commons (JAM-GC). The concepts embedded in JAM-GC are applicable to a confrontation with any
highly capable adversary—of which China is the leading example. Taken together, these concepts
provide an initial framework for how to think about countering China’s A2/AD architecture.
Solid as these initial concepts are, the transition from concept to implementation has been slow.
In some cases, investments have not been sufficiently aligned with strategy. Over the long term,
the current acquisition and force development path, if left unchanged, will not be sufficient tokeep up with China’s growing A2/AD capabilities. Too often, investments have been channeledinto evolutionary systems, platforms, and concepts that offer improvements, in some cases
significant, over current capabilities, but do not create unique or unexpected challenges for our
adversaries. The implementation of any concept aimed at countering China’s A2/AD systems
should be predicated on simultaneously developing cost-imposing technologies while employing these new capabilities in concert with legacy systems in novel and amplifying ways.
The approach codified by then-Secretary of Defense Hagel and later endorsed by Secretary of
Defense Carter in the Defense Innovation Initiative (DII) is a step in the right direction. Under the
DII, the Department has created a Long-Range Research and Development Plan (LRRDP), reignited
a focus on wargaming and other analytic methods to assess capabilities, and acknowledged theimportance of continuing to evolve existing operational concepts and institutionalize an approachthat maximizes the opportunities for identifying new concepts. While these are laudable goals,
there is limited clarity as to how they are being implemented. DII may help DOD create cost-imposing technologies and, possibly, processes on a limited scale. As currently envisioned, however,it will not be sufficient to realign strategies, concepts, and budgets across the Department.
The seeds of necessary institutional innovation exist within the Department. Properly identifying
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ers and to the processes that drive resources—will be integral to altering the current structure.
In addition, testing operational concepts through joint and combined exercises, war games, andscenario development will help the Department flesh out and test the concepts as well as highlight needed improvements. Ideally, these would bring together regional engagement, posture,planning, budgeting, and capabilities.
Based on the analysis provided in the following capability sections, the United States retains
strong capabilities in the Asia-Pacific for engagement, deterrence, and warfighting. However, over the study period, there is much the Department can do to enhance U.S. capabilities
throughout the region. Building on U.S. advantages in stealth and undersea are important—andwill remain critical enablers of U.S. power projection in an A2/AD environment. If additional resources become available, however, the Department should invest in developing processes andacquiring platforms that are better suited to the specific threats faced in the Asia-Pacific.
In the Asia-Pacific region, forces need to be able to operate independently over great distances,have a high degree of autonomy, and actively and flexibly network with other forces to achieve
specific desired effects. Realizing this vision will require that the Department invest more not justin unmanned platforms (in the air or undersea) but also in the concepts of manned-unmanned
teaming; single-pilot multiple-platform operations; and development of joint C4ISR networks
able to operate with or without access to space and in an active jamming environment.
U.S. forces in the Pacific, including ground forces, will need to accelerate current experimentation
with distributed operations of smaller, lighter, targeted mission packages. Peacetime operations
at the air wing, brigade, carrier strike group, or even Marine Expeditionary Unit level are unlikely
to meet U.S. needs in the future. In exercises, such large units are likely to overwhelm partner capacity to engage, and military capabilities in the Pacific are expanding such that these force sizes,
by themselves, are no longer sufficient to deter adversaries.
The rapid advance of technology—commercial and military—suggests that fielding capabilities
that take 10 years to develop and have an expected service life of at least 30 years will not provide U.S. warfighters with cutting-edge technology. Instead, the Department will need to consider alternative concepts for technology development, deployment, and replacement. Leveraging
miniaturization to enable rapid upgrading of electronic components offers a successful exampleof this thinking already in practice.
The following sections assess the current state of capabilities, identify gaps and shortfalls, andoffer recommendations about how the United States might bridge them. The capability areas examined by the study team are air superiority and global strike, naval and maritime forces, groundforces, special operation forces, missile defense, space, ISR, cyber, EW, nuclear forces, munitions,strategic mobility, readiness, logistics, and theater security cooperation.

AIR SUPERIORIT Y AND GLOBAL STRIKE
From the strategic bombing effort during World War II, through the air power campaign during
the Vietnam War, to modern conflicts using stealth technology and PGMs, U.S. air power has
been a central element in how the U.S. military conceives of, plans for, and executes joint com117

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bat missions. Over the past quarter-century, U.S. forces have had nearly uncontested dominanceof the air domain. Yet, some air threats in PACOM are far more challenging than those the UnitedStates has recently faced.
The USAF has identified five core service missions: (1) air and space superiority; (2) global strike;(3) rapid global mobility; (4) ISR; and (5) C2. This section will focus on USAF air superiority andglobal strike (non-nuclear) capabilities. Later sections will address other missions of air power:
airborne ISR, global mobility (including refueling), special operations, and nuclear forces.
The nature of the Pacific theater, in scope, in complexity, and in threat environment, makes it
a particularly difficult AOR across the spectrum of military missions, including air missions. Air
power, appropriately resourced, properly timed, and adequately protected, helps to alleviate thetime-distance challenge. The United States maintains the largest, most advanced air forces ofany military in the world; however, competitor nations such as China and Russia are pursuinghigh-end capabilities and technology, as well as new strategies, to counter U.S. air power. Therefore, air dominance across the PACOM AOR cannot be assumed, though local or temporal air
control can still be achieved.

Capabilities
U.S. Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) is the air-component command of PACOM. PACAF focuses on deterrence, engagement, regional security, and presence. PACAF’s strategy includes several lines ofeffort and is meant to “build and sustain combat ready airpower” to support PACOM and national
policy.467 In support of these objectives, the USAF maintains a large permanent presence in theregion. The National Military Strategy also commits to “placing our most advanced capabilities
and greater capacity in that vital theater,”468 which the USAF has executed through the increase inregional rotational forces and the commitment to place new capabilities first in PACOM.469
U.S. military strategists have considered air superiority a required condition for military successsince World War II, and air superiority has been a characteristic of U.S. operations for about aslong.470 However, as DOD rebalances to the Pacific, there are clear challenges to air superiority
on the horizon. As discussed previously, China has employed A2/AD strategies to counter U.S. air
superiority, particularly through “sophisticated integrated air defenses that can restrict access andfreedom of maneuver in waters and airspace beyond territorial limits.”471
The core goal of air superiority, as the USAF observes, is “Freedom from attack and the freedom
to attack.”472 More formally, it is defined as “having sufficient control of the air to make air attacks
on the enemy without serious opposition and, on the other hand, to be free from the danger ofserious enemy air incursions.”473 The USAF, USN, and USMC all contribute to air superiority in the
Pacific. USN and USMC air capabilities are addressed in the maritime capabilities section.
PACAF commands 13 squadrons capable of air superiority missions, deployed in Alaska, Hawaii,South Korea, and Japan. To increase basing flexibility, the USAF’s “places, not bases” strategy aims
to open additional forward-operating sites outside of the main operating bases (MOBs) throughsecurity cooperation. Additionally, PACAF is getting more forces into theater through Theater
Security Packages (TSPs) and the new Rapid Raptor effort, which have also provided stabilization

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and reassurance through rotational deployments of fourth-generation (in the case of TSP) and
fifth-generation (in the case of Rapid Raptor) air superiority assets in PACOM. These packages
have centered on deployments of fighter aircraft and their support personnel and infrastructure,mostly using Air National Guard units. Beyond increasing forward capacity, TSP and Rapid Raptor
also enhance interoperability and provide training opportunities in the Pacific. TSPs have included F-16 squadron deployments to Kunsan AB in South Korea and RAAF Tindal in Australia; F-16s
to Kadena AB in Japan; and F-15s to Osan AB in South Korea, among many others since 2004.
Rapid Raptor, initiated in 2014, has seen deployments of F-22s to Andersen AFB in Guam.
Although there are no plans to change the basic posture of the air forces in the Pacific, there are two
additional capabilities expected in the near term, within the Future Years Defense Program (FYDP).
• The F-35 Lightning II (Joint Strike Fighter) fifth-generation, multirole fighter will have a significant Pacific role. Three Asia-Pacific allies, Japan, South Korea, and Australia, are also procuring F-35s, providing significant opportunity to realize interoperability and shared concept ofoperations (CONOPs).474 Japan and Australia will each host shared maintenance and upgrade
facilities for the F-35. The USAF version, or “A” variant, of the F-35 is scheduled to reach initial
operating capability (IOC) by 2016. The Pacific posture for the F-35A is not yet clear. The
initial deployment site has not yet been decided, but Eielson AFB in Alaska is considered thepreferred alternative for the first PACOM squadrons.475 In the long term, Misawa, Kadena,Osan, and Kunsan are all likely locations for F-35 stationing,476 replacing F-16s and A-10s.
• The KC-46, which began production in 2015, will recapitalize the aging KC-135 tanker force.
Air refueling is covered later in the strategic mobility section, but has significant impact ontactical aircraft range and availability and so is mentioned here. Current plans call for rotational presence of KC-46s in PACOM, but no permanent stationing.
In addition to air superiority missions, air power helps deter conflict and defeat adversaries byholding at risk strategic and tactical centers of gravity. In the USAF, this mission is now known
as “global strike,” one of the five core missions of the service. The primary conventional global
strike force is the 159 bombers, including 96 primary mission aircraft, tasked to AF Global Strike
Command (AFGSC), a Component Major Command of the U.S. Strategic Command (STRATCOM).
The fleet is made up of a total of nine squadrons of B-52 Stratofortresses, B1-B Lancers, and B-2
Spirits, based at Whiteman AFB in Missouri, Barksdale AFB in Louisiana, Ellsworth AFB in South
Dakota, Dyess AFB in Texas, and Minot AFB in North Dakota.
The global strike force carries out a wide range of operations to achieve tactical, operational, andstrategic effects. Operational effects are achieved through interdiction of enemy forces, striking operational C2 nodes, and special operations insertions. Strategic effects (in conventional operations)are achieved through attacks on non-military centers of gravity—usually political or economic
centers—in order to degrade or destroy an enemy’s capacity to make or enforce political decisions,and to diminish capacity to sustain the economic elements of warfighting. Finally, global strike
forces deter potential adversaries through their nuclear and conventional strike capabilities.

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The development of the Long Range Strike Bomber (LRS-B) is the most significant effort underway in the global strike inventory. Sustaining a strategic bomber capability is increasingly important as the existing inventory ages—under current plans, the oldest B-52 will have been in service
for 84 years at the end of the program in 2044. The current USAF plan for LRS-B calls for a newpenetrating strike bomber, expected to reach full operational capability in the late 2020s. This
capability, particularly when paired with long-range anti-ship and anti-ground missiles, will be
particularly suited to A2/AD environments.
Global strike capability is provided to PACOM primarily through the continuous bomber presence
program. This program, active since 2003, provides forward-deployed long-range aircraft byrotating bomber squadrons to Anderson AB in Guam to provide deterrence and assurance in theWestern Pacific. B-52 bombers have also rotated through Australia. Maintaining bomber presencein the region provides a visible example of U.S. extended deterrence and regional commitment,
as demonstrated by the flight of two B-52 bombers over China’s newly declared ADIZ in the East
China Sea one day after the surprise Chinese declaration in 2013.
While forward-deployed assets make a strong and visible statement, it is also important to recognize the long-distance capability these forces provide. With refueling support, a detachmentof bombers can strike an adversary in the Asia-Pacific from bases in CONUS. PACAF-directedmissions from CONUS have included training missions and routine deployments to Hawaii andSouth Korea. This global capability provides the U.S. military the ability to respond to anti-accesschallenges from bases beyond adversary reach.
While bombers provide the traditional strike missions, there are two other sets of USAF capabilities that contribute to the global strike mission. Unmanned systems such as the MQ-9 Reaper are
now employed as strike platforms for air-to-ground missions. These platforms provide long loitertime and a capability to drop laser-guided munitions against surface targets. These capabilities
would likely work well for a conflict in Korea where the United States has bases nearby and theair defenses are not as strong. However, an MQ-9 would not be able to operate in A2/AD environments and at the long ranges likely to arise in a high-end Pacific conflict.

Gaps
There are concerns that the warfighting concepts outlined in JAM-GC may not be achievablewith the current and planned future capabilities the USAF is deploying in the Asia-Pacific. The
following section covers these gaps.
The United States maintains greater air capabilities in PACOM than in any other theater. However, the risks to U.S. air superiority are also greatest in East Asia. The combination of the tyrannyof distance and a highly capable potential adversary stresses U.S. air power in ways not present
during recent conflicts. U.S. air forces face two notable vulnerabilities in regards to air superiority:
range and basing.
Most current tactical aircraft have short range, requiring refueling support to operate with thecombat radius necessary in the Pacific. As China deploys SAM systems with extended ranges,
the ability for fourth-generation aircraft, which currently make up the predominance of the U.S.

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force, to operate forward is limited. This becomes particularly acute with the potential deployment of Russian-developed S-400 and Chinese derivative anti-aircraft systems that have a rangeof up to 250 miles (which would extend land-based PRC air defenses beyond Taiwan). These air
defenses, and their sea-based counterparts, push back the refueling assets and enablers (AWACS,
tankers, etc.) that support air superiority missions. The farther away these fighters must operate,
the more difficult it is to establish superiority by suppressing enemy air defenses, setting up patrols and sweeps, and executing offensive air operations.
Basing is a problem because, as discussed earlier, China has pursued anti-access strategies
intended to deny U.S. forces access to the theater, and a key component of China’s strategy isearly attacks on U.S. air bases.477 Currently, five major U.S. air bases are within range of Chinese
land-attack missiles. A recent report noted, “Barring a major U.S. defensive technology breakthrough, the growing number and variety of Chinese missiles will almost certainly challenge
the U.S. ability to operate from forward bases.”478 Such attacks would hamper sortie rates and theability to generate U.S. air power.
The United States response to A2/AD efforts to hold air bases at risk consists of three primaryelements: protecting bases, operating from dispersed locations, and operating from farther away.
The first response is to improve active and passive defense measures at MOBs. Increasing missile defense capabilities; hardening aircraft shelters, infrastructure, fuel systems, munitions, andairfields; and increasing availability of runway repair capabilities are all options for improving theresiliency of installations inside Chinese missile ranges. Without such actions, forward bases canbe destabilizing in a crisis. As Thomas Schelling pointed out regarding the 1941 attack on Pearl
Harbor, “A fine deterrent can make a superb target.”479
The second response is the development of dispersal sites for air assets. With Chinese missile developments described as the “most active land-based ballistic and cruise missile program in theworld,” at least as far back as 2009, it is prudent to reduce vulnerability by moving assets awayfrom MOBs.480 By eliminating single points of failure at MOBs, dispersal sites enable continued
forward operations in a conflict. Dispersal can also give U.S. forces strategic depth, which it canuse to absorb an initial attack.
The USAF has sought security cooperation agreements that open up new airfields to U.S. use, typically by allowing U.S. aircraft to rotate through ally and partner airfields to increase familiarity withassess sites. These sites can be made more effective more quickly by establishing mobile forwardarming and refueling points (FARP) and prepositioned stocks.481 In addition, new technologies thatallow use of short fields and rapid construction could permit further exploitation of such sites.
A third response is to develop concepts, platforms, and payloads that enable DOD to employ
air power with longer endurance and at greater range than the currently programmed fleet.
For example, the USAF is developing new CONOPs for increasing the range and flexibility of its
fighter force. Rapid fighter movement and FARP concepts are being combined in ways that allow
for long-range operations by F-22s, supported by an accompanying C-17. Over an eight-hour
mission, teams have demonstrated the ability to “receive mission updates airborne, generate (orreceive) target-quality coordinates, defeat air-to-air adversaries, deliver air-to-ground ordnance
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in a dense surface-to-air-missile environment, and land at a forward location.”482 After landing at
a dispersal site, the support team can turn the F-22 detachment around with new pilots, fuel, andmunitions and launch additional sorties from a forward location in a matter of hours. This “Rapid
Raptor” capability has been demonstrated in PACOM during exercises originating from Alaska
and landing at forward airfields.483
Nonetheless, this capability is limited in scope over the mid-term by the size of the F-22 fleet. At 187
airframes, there are severe limits on the amount of forward operational capability that can be generated. There are approximately 78 F-22s tasked to PACOM. The F-35 will expand this capability, but the
shorter range of the F-35 (about 500 miles less than the F-22) limits its usefulness for these types oflong-range operations. Utilizing fourth-generation aircraft such as the F-15 and F-16 would allow thecurrent force to expand the number of aircraft available for dispersed operations in a conflict. Additionally, relying on C-17s for support would strain heavy airlift capability—a capability likely to be nearcapacity during a contingency in the Pacific based on existing force-flow requirements.
The required operating ranges in the Pacific will stress current and planned U.S. assets, particularly air superiority and other tactical aircraft. In addition to new concepts of operations such asdispersal, DOD will have to explore additional avenues to increase the range of essential platforms—especially the F-35. Two existing concepts provide examples of ways to achieve greater
range, though each has drawbacks. First, a conformal drop tank for the F-35, similar to those
produced for the F-22, may create initial range options to alter concepts for distributed basing
and adversary engagement over the current capabilities of the F-35. While these tanks decrease
the aircraft’s stealth when attached, after they break away the aircraft returns to a relatively clean,stealth configuration.484 The development of such tanks would increase the F-35’s range andreduce reliance on tanker aircraft. Second, technologies such as adaptive cycle engines have thepotential to reduce fuel consumption and thus increase range, and should be considered for outyear production or upgrade packages to the F-35 fleet.
These three responses can mitigate vulnerabilities, but cannot eliminate them. Hardened sites
can still be overwhelmed, dispersed sites are still vulnerable to attack and increase logistics support requirements, and new concepts and platforms will take time to enter the fleet. Therefore,
global strike from CONUS is an important complement to regional air capabilities.
The global strike force is well positioned to handle near-term contingencies in PACOM, throughforward deployment and growing familiarity with the region. However, there is the potential forsignificant capability gaps and capacity shortfalls in the event of a major conflict—driven primarily by capabilities for operating in highly contested environments.
There is great value in having the capability to hold Chinese targets at risk, despite PLA IAMD
systems. Low-observable aircraft are the key to penetrating advanced air defenses, but theseaircraft are in low supply. There are only 20 B-2 bombers (16 primary mission aircraft), the only
strike aircraft currently in the fleet capable of penetrating sophisticated air defenses from longranges. While these are highly capable aircraft, the ability to generate sufficient combat powerfrom thousands of miles away with 16 airframes is limited. B-1s are capable of operating anddelivering long-range standoff munitions outside of the highest-risk SAM environments with122

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sufficient defensive support. However, this defensive support would likely need to be provided byforward-based fighter aircraft, and in an environment where forward operating bases are compromised, generating fighter support to protect high-value strike assets would be a challenge.
The addition of new long-range strike platforms to the bomber inventory is likely to expand thecapacity and capability of global strike forces. This will be critical to ensuring the ability to continue to hold strategic and operational targets at risk across PACOM. Finally, based on the rapid
improvements of IADS, EW, and cyber capabilities in China, there is no guarantee that low-observable platforms will always be able to operate in highly contested environments. Since the
LRS-B is not expected until the late 2020s, there is a real possibility that new radar and sensing
technologies could obviate the U.S. low-observable strike advantage.
For both tactical and global strike missions, a dynamic Air Tasking Order (ATO) process is needed. As currently structured, this centralized process collects requests for air support from units
across the theater, allocates air units to missions, disseminates detailed taskings to tactical units,
and then monitors execution. Normally the process takes 72 hours.485 The current process is well
suited to a mature theater with established routines but is unsuited to a dynamic environment inwhich situations can change rapidly. It is also unsuited to an environment in which communications and facilities are subject to enemy countermeasures.

Recommendations• Invest in high-capability platforms, including unmanned systems, for the most difficult missions.
• Invest in next-generation optionally manned systems for both air superiority and strike.
Successful development and utilization of unmanned platforms will require significant concept development, and openness to non-traditional modes of force employment, both ofwhich have experienced institutional opposition to date.
• Adopt and institutionalize lessons from combat missions in Iraq and Afghanistan to establish procedures for a more dynamic and resilient ATO process in theaters subject to rapidchange and enemy countermeasures.
• Investigate developing conformal drop tanks for the F-35 or more fuel-efficient engines.
Although technically challenging, these capabilities would have great value in PACOM given
existing U.S. posture, the distances in theater, and the relatively short range of the F-35.

NAVAL AND MARITIME FORCES
In the maritime realm, the United States has continued to enhance its presence and upgrade its
capabilities in the Asia-Pacific region. The recent Asia-Pacific maritime strategy reiterates thepledge to station 60 percent of USN ships and aircraft in the Pacific by 2020.486 USN leaders havenoted that as new capabilities enter the fleet they are being allocated to the Pacific first, in recognition of the growing A2/AD challenge.487 That said, gaps in the surface, air, and subsurface
realms remain, in both capability and capacity.

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From a capacity perspective, in April 2015, then-PACOM Commander Adm. Samuel Locklear
identified an overall shortfall in the readiness of follow-on forces and response capabilities.488
That same challenge was noted by then-Chief of Naval Operations Jonathan Greenert, who cited
training backlogs as a major contributor to the USN’s reduced ability to support the requirementsof operational plans (OPLANs).489 He also noted that half of the USN’s non-deployed units sufferfrom personnel or equipment shortages.490 Admiral Locklear maintained that these shortcomings
undermine deterrence in the Pacific.491 While current presence levels are largely being sustained
and forward-deployed forces are at high readiness, there are major readiness deficiencies in thefollow-on or “surge” forces that would augment those already in the region should multiple crises, or an operation of large scale or long duration, arise.492
If the USAF is one of the key components in JAM-GC, then the USN and USMC team is the other. U.S. access and maneuver is, in some ways, more difficult to achieve for naval forces as most
maritime platforms have lifespans measured in decades and price tags measured in billions ofdollars. The USN has done a commendable job identifying the problems that need to be addressed in order meet threats in the Asia-Pacific region; however, they are constrained frommaking more radical changes to the fleet by the expense in time, money, and organizational capital that such changes would require.

Capabilities
The USN surface fleet engages in a range of missions, including anti-surface warfare (ASuW),
ASW, IAMD, amphibious operations, special operations, and MCM. In addition to the surface fleet,the USN operates submarines for these missions and also for nuclear deterrence. Finally, the USN
maintains air capabilities including tactical air, ISR, and ASW. To fulfill these missions, the USN
homeports 76 ships and submarines in the Pacific, as well as a range of air assets.
SurfaceThough not often seen in recent decades, ship-to-ship combat is expected to occur in any conflict with an adversary possessing naval forces. Therefore, the surface navy maintains a robust
anti-surface warfare (ASuW) capability, including capabilities to track and engage adversary vessels at long ranges using ASCMs, and closer in using guns. The U.S. surface fleet trains to conduct
ASuW missions as single ships and as part of a larger formation.
A second major capability for surface ships is antisubmarine warfare (ASW). As countries throughout the Asia-Pacific expand their submarine capabilities and platforms, ASW will become an increasingly important element of continued U.S. superiority at sea. ASW is conducted from surface
ships equipped with specialized ASW capabilities and from a range of other platforms, including
fixed-wing ISR aircraft launched from the land; rotary-wing aircraft launched from land or sea; andother submarines. Working in tandem, these platforms represent the most capable antisubmarine
force in the world.
Third, U.S. surface combatants play a large role in defending the United States from ballistic
missile threats. Sixteen cruisers and destroyers home ported in the Pacific are equipped with the
Aegis missile defense upgrade. Six of the 16 ships are forward deployed to Japan. This capability

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provides the United States with a flexible and mobile force able to track and intercept missiles ina range of trajectories, including those targeting U.S. territory, or that of U.S. allies or partners.
Fourth, the USN maintains seven MCM ships in the Pacific, three in San Diego, and four forward
deployed at Sasebo, Japan. MCM ships find, identify, and destroy or disable mines, providing safe
passage for commercial and military vessels. These ships will be replaced by LCSs with MCM
modules. Even with this replacement, there will be a large capacity gap. The United States willneed to rely on allies and partners in this area.
Fifth, amphibious ships provide U.S. forces, and in particular the USMC, with the capability toembark troops and equipment, and quickly deploy ashore without the use of port facilities. In
wartime, amphibious forces can conduct forcible entry operations to capture key objectives
and, when needed, enable the flow of a larger follow-on force. In peacetime, amphibious forces,
particularly with an embarked force of Marines, provide air and ground combat power, logisticalsupport, and C2 that enables a wide variety of missions from a successful humanitarian operations to rescue of endangered citizens to counterterrorism.
With regard to amphibious capabilities, PACOM is unique among combatant commands (COCOMs) as it has the only forward-deployed amphibious squadron and the only MEF based outside the continental United States. The four amphibious vessels based at Sasebo include an LHD,
LPD, and two LSDs that enable the USN and USMC to undertake a wide range of missions acrossthe AOR with a responsiveness that would not be possible if based farther east. U.S. amphibious
forces were central to the success of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami relief effort and provided
support to the Philippines for multiple natural disasters.
Subsurface
The USN submarine fleet includes attack, guided missile, and ballistic missile classes. The attack
submarines are of the Los Angeles, Seawolf, and Virginia-classes. The Virginia-class remains under
production with procurement scheduled to continue until at least 2030.493 There are currently 14
ballistic missile submarines, all Ohio-class, constituting the sea-based leg of the nuclear triad. In
addition to the 14 ballistic missile Ohio-class boats, there are four Ohio-class guided missile submarines, each capable of carrying 154 Tomahawk cruise missiles. These vessels are the oldest of
the Ohio-class and were converted from ballistic missile configuration in the early 2000s.494 Fortysubmarines out of a total fleet of about 75 are homeported in PACOM.
Submarines constitute a U.S. asymmetric advantage because they are difficult to detect and provide a range of offensive strike options. They can attack an adversary’s naval forces (surface andsubsurface) and maritime shipping; strike land-based targets through cruise and conventionalballistic missiles; and maintain a survivable nuclear deterrent. Submarines can also conduct covert SOF-insertion and ISR missions that other platforms cannot duplicate. As nuclear-powered
platforms, submarines are also capable of long deployments limited only by the amount of foodthe ship can store and the crew’s endurance.

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Naval AirThe USN’s premier platform is the aircraft carrier. The USN currently operates 10 aircraft carriers(11 when the USS Ford delivers in 2016), and their associated air wings, with 4 carriers homeported in the Pacific at facilities in San Diego, CA; Bremerton, WA; Everett, WA; and Yokosuka, Japan.
For 70 years, aircraft carriers have been the nation’s most versatile power projection asset, allowing U.S. leaders a range of options—from presence to strike—not provided by another unit in the
U.S. inventory. Naval air power, consisting of kinetic attack, electronic attack, and ISR missions,provides U.S. commanders a range of tools deployable from, and into, areas that may be moredifficult for land-based air power to access. In particular, carrier-based airpower can be launchedfrom anywhere in international waters during peacetime and does not require foreign approval.
The capability comes with a cost, however, as aircraft carriers require a large number of escort
vessels. Additionally, advances in the range and accuracy of anti-ship missiles increase the risk to
U.S. aircraft carriers.
The high cost makes it difficult for the navy to produce more “carrier deployment days” to meethigh levels of combatant commander requests. Even if the nation wanted to increase the numberof carriers, it would take many years to get the additional carrier funded and built. One alternative isforward stationing. Forward stationing a carrier in Japan has helped, because it reduces transit time.

Gaps
SurfaceAcross the fleet, the USN’s declining ship inventory, coupled with sustained global demands,
have put great pressure on surface combatants. The fleet also suffers from training and maintenance shortfalls. In response, the USN recently initiated a program to restore a sustainable force
management model (the “Optimized Fleet Response Plan”), but its full implementation will takeup to six years.495 Returning to a stable deployment cycle also requires shortening the length of
deployments (which implies decreased presence). The USN plans to sustain presence in the Pacific to the maximum possible extent, but absent new forward stationing opportunities and amid
ongoing instability in Iraq and Syria, as well as Russia’s continued aggression against the Ukraine,
this objective will be difficult to achieve.496 Restoring predictable ship presence levels USN-wide
is also dependent on Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO) funding, which is more uncertain
than funding contained in the base Defense Department budget.
The USN is attempting to address inventory shortfalls, at least in part, by examining ways toincrease the percentage of the fleet forward stationed in the region (which decreases transittime).497 Overall, however, the number of ships available within the Pacific AOR, relative to overall
demand on the fleet, remains a short- to medium-term challenge. Long term the USN plans forship numbers to increase gradually, peaking at 321 in FY 2028 from the current 272, although theaffordability of these plans has been questioned.498
The USN continues to build BMD-capable ships, principally the DDG-51 class, but global demand
still exceeds supply. It is attempting to address some of these shortfalls by increasing the capa-

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bility resident on BMD ships, upgrading radars and munitions. The USN also plans to enhance
its Pacific response capacity by re-stationing two BMD-capable destroyers in Japan by 2017.499
These ships will help to address some of the growing missile threats in the region, but the lack ofa shared regional approach to missile defense continues to limit effectiveness.500
The USN restarted Flight IIA DDG-51 production in FY 2010 (after curtailment of the DDG-1000
Zumwalt class) and is also planning a new Flight III DDG-51 design. This new flight is scheduled
to begin procurement in FY 2016 and will include improvements to combat systems, including
notably the Advanced Missile Defense Radar (AMDR). There are concerns, however, about theradar’s costs, physical size, and power and cooling requirements. The technical immaturity of theradar system has also raised questions about the schedule for introducing Flight III capabilities
into the fleet.501
Concern also exists that these vessels do not have enough room to support future combat
systems across their 30- to 40-year lifespan, such as electromagnetic railguns or high-poweredlasers.502 Such technologies are needed to defeat A2/AD systems in a cost-efficient manner.
However, the USN has stated its belief that the growth margin for the Flight III is not substantiallydifferent from those of the previous Flight IIA and, as with most new capabilities, there will be
tradeoffs between new and existing systems.503
There are shortfalls in regional crisis response capabilities, especially those provided by the
USMC. While the USMC has taken steps to increase the dispersal of its force around the Pacific,
and thus be closer to potential crises, it lacks sufficient lift to maximize the benefit of that repositioning. Just as with other ship types, a constrained inventory, coupled with maintenanceshortfalls, have put severe pressure on amphibious platform availability. Regional commanders
have cited the lack of sufficient amphibious ships, as well as the connectors to help deliver forces
ashore, as significant areas of risk in their current response capabilities.504 For example, lift shortfalls slowed the USMC’s response to the November 2013 typhoon in the Philippines.505 Amphibious lift will increase when ships under construction are delivered. The amphibious inventory isplanned to increase from the present 30 to 34 in FY 2022 and peak at 38 in FY 2028.506
Leaders within the USMC and PACOM have expressed a desire to add a second Amphibious
Ready Group (ARG) to the region.507 However, funding constraints and shipbuilding timelines
may preclude that option, at least in the near term. As a result, the USN and USMC are seeking
other ways to provide presence and a crisis-response capability, to include opportunities to use
non-amphibious ships (and especially those in the logistics fleet). One proposed approach would
involve using High Speed Vessels or other support ships to provide lift around the region, alleviating stress on amphibious shipping.508 Homeporting some of these vessels forward would allow
faster response times during crises as well as increased opportunities for regional peacetime
engagement. Although up-front costs could be sizable, homeporting would likely save significant
force structure costs over the life of any individual naval platform.
While greater use of “auxiliary” lift options is almost inevitable given demands, those platforms are
not well suited for higher-end or large-scale operations.509 A more ambitious, and more expensive,
proposal is to homeport an ARG west of the International Date Line, potentially in Guam.

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Another area of concern is MCM. Currently PACFLT has seven MCM ships. The LCS’s MCM module is projected to reach full operational capability in 2018, which should offset the retirement ofexisting MCM ships.510 The USN plans to augment ship-based MCM with additional defenses, toinclude airborne and undersea. The lack of MCM capacity and the publicized shortfalls of the LCS
MCM module are alarming in the context of JAM-GC. Mines are a powerful asymmetric capability that U.S. adversaries are likely to employ in large numbers against U.S. surface and subsurface
vessels. Even with the LCS’s MCM module, the fleet will rely on ally and partner MCM capabilities
to provide needed capacity.
Subsurface
Regional submarine forces have increased in size and capability, challenging the ability of U.S.
submarine forces to keep pace.511 China, for example, has accelerated its submarine procurement, and of the 200 submarines in the Pacific region that do not belong to the United States,
150 belong to China, Russia, and North Korea.512 Of those 150, approximately 59 are believed tobe modern submarines, to include nine ballistic missile variants, five nuclear-powered attack or
guided missile submarines, and 45 diesel-powered boats.
In recognition of the challenges outlined above, the USN deployed two Ohio-class guided missile
submarines and three Virginia-class submarines to the region over the last year.513 Despite thesemoves, the USN will be pressed to meet the demands imposed by growing regional subsurface
capabilities in the mid to long term as the U.S. attack submarine fleet is projected to decrease
from 53 hulls in FY 2016 to a low of 41 hulls in FY 2029. This will exacerbate the existing gap between combatant command’s demand for submarines and the available capacity.
Because submarines are one of the most, if not the most, powerful maritime denial system, theUnited States will seek to neutralize enemy submarines before bringing its high-value surface
combatants into these zones. However, the shallow, littoral nature of much of the PACOM AOR
presents serious challenges. During the Cold War, the attack fleet’s main missions— seeking out
and destroying Soviet ballistic missile submarines and protecting U.S. vessels from marauding
Soviet attack submarines—took place in deep water. U.S. submarine design reflects the requirements of these operations, which favor large and fast boats with long endurance.
Littoral operations are characterized by shallow depths, restricted maneuver, and challenges tosensing technologies. The first two challenges are especially acute for U.S. submarines, given
the size of nuclear-powered vessels in comparison to non-nuclear boats.514 For example, thesmallest U.S. nuclear submarine is roughly 350 feet long and draws 30–40 feet of water while thelatest German conventional submarine, similar in size to those being purchased across Asia, isless than 200 feet long and only draws 20 feet of water.515 This size difference gives conventional
submarines an advantage in littoral areas as they can maneuver more effectively and better use
subsurface features to avoid detection.
The USN will also see a shortfall of guided missile submarines in the late 2020s due to the retirement of the Ohio-class guided missile variant.516 From a PACOM perspective, this creates ashortfall in long-range strike capacity. To address this problem, the USN plans to stretch the Virginia-class’s hull and insert the Virginia Payload Module (VPM) that increases Tomahawk cruise
missile capacity from 12 to 40.517 VPM will also support other payloads such as unmanned under128

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sea vehicles (UUVs) or SOF mission packages to further increase the multi-mission capabilitiesof the Virginia-class. However, significant gaps will exist from 2026 until the full complement of
VPM-fitted Virginia-class submarines come on line.518
The high cost of the Ohio-class replacement program (ORP), coupled with ongoing fiscal pressures, has created uncertainty about whether shipbuilding funding will be sufficient. USN and other
Defense Department leaders have cautioned that the USN does not have sufficient internal funding
to absorb the ORP. For example, in 2015 testimony, Admiral Locklear stated that the ORP would “severely impact” other shipbuilding efforts.519 Both the administration and the Congress have recognized the need to resolve undersea funding issues, but no funding plan has been agreed on.
Naval Air
There are far more global demands for carrier presence than the navy can satisfy. Forward stationing another carrier in the Pacific would increase regional U.S. presence and warfighting
capability and reduce transit times to and from the Western Pacific or the Middle East by approximately one week, thereby strengthening deterrence, reducing long-term force structure strain,
and reassuring allies and partners. There will be an opportunity to re-station a Nimitz-class carrier forward when the fleet receives the USS Gerald Ford and can replace the re-stationed carrier
in San Diego. On the other hand, forward stationing a carrier in Yokosuka will require additional
host-nation support and consideration would have to be given to the risk of placing two carriers
within an area of operations increasingly held at risk by A2/AD capabilities. Further, stationing
a second aircraft carrier in Japan would require stationing additional ships from its strike group
and necessary aircraft, with requisite pier space, housing, and other facilities, to support them.
Finally, training challenges from limited access to training facilities, especially for air combat
training, would need to be resolved.
Naval aircraft have both capacity and capability shortfalls in the Pacific theater.520 The USN and
USMC capability shortfall arises from a short-term readiness problem left over from the severe FY
2013 sequestration cuts.
The USN capacity shortfall arises from aircraft inventory shortages as the service transitions fromolder fighters (F-18s, both legacy and Super Hornets) to the F-35C.521 As F-35C delivery has shifted backward (because of both budget and production issues), the strain on the existing inventory
has increased. This has created maintenance backlogs, which have in turn affected training andpilot retention.522
The USMC has faced some of the same issues, but may be on a faster path to recovery. The 2015
USMC aviation plan prioritizes moving F-35Bs to the Pacific, with the first transfer occurring in
FY 2016.523 Although the initial version of the F-35B will be less capable than the version that the
USN will receive in 2018, the USMC has prioritized getting the aircraft into the fleet. That plane
will offer the USMC a low-observable fighter capable of operating in A2/AD environments, andmay enhance the ability to pass information both within the fighter formation and to other forces afloat and ashore.
The USN may also need additional air-to-air refueling capability in the carrier air wing. At present, the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet is used in this role, but the heavy takeoff weight of the aircraft
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when operating in a tanker configuration is placing added strains on the F/A-18 fleet.524 Thisis concerning as the Super Hornet fleet lifespan is already stretched due to delays in the F-35
program. This gap may be bridged by a future unmanned carrier-based aircraft or a modified
V-22. USN plans to integrate unmanned aircraft in the air wing remain contentious and while the
USMC is investing in a V-22 aerial tanker capability, the USN has yet to do so.525
The A2/AD environment will encompass a growing portion of the western Pacific over the next
10 years. Future systems, such as the Unmanned Carrier-Launched Airborne Surveillance andStrike (UCLASS), will need to be developed and fielded to maximize operational effectiveness in
A2/AD environments characterized by contested airspace and degraded or denied communications. Further, future systems will have to operate far from shore or the carrier and must provide
capabilities that augment the planned F-35 fleet and contribute to the long-term operational
viability of the U.S. carrier fleet.
The inability of the USN to move forward with the UCLASS program is a major capability gap.
The well-documented battle over the final requirements for this program has created delays infielding of the aircraft. From the operational perspective, this is troubling as there will be a teething period as the USN refines its tactics, techniques, and procedures with respect to carrier based
UAS operations.526 This delay, coupled with the end of testing of the UCLASS predecessor, theUnmanned Combat Air System Demonstration (UCAS-D), may prevent the seamless incorporation of lessons learned from earlier UAS operations and designs. This history of slow development has led some observers to question the U.S. Navy’s commitment to unmanned aircraft.
UCLASS may possess capabilities that will bridge some of the gaps addressed above; however,the final missions of this aircraft remain in flux. The latest draft request for proposals requires theaircraft to provide continuous ISR coverage at tactically significant ranges and a light strike capability.527 Many have viewed this as a step backward from earlier versions of the concept.528 Navy
Secretary Ray Mabus indicated in 2014 that the end state “is an autonomous aircraft capable ofprecision strike in a contested environment, and it is expected to grow and expand its missions
so that it is capable of extended range ISR, EW, tanking, and maritime domain awareness.”529 The
secretary’s remarks show the ongoing debate, internal to the Navy, over UCLASS because theability to operate in a contested environment traditionally means stealth while the requirement,
as currently published, does not lead to a stealth UCLASS.
Whatever capabilities the UCLASS may finally possess, range, jam-resistant communications, anda high degree of survivability must be key attributes. The reach of China's A2/AD systems is suchthat U.S. carrier-based aviation assets will likely need to stay outside the most dangerous zones,
at least during the initial phases of a conflict. Further, because no area will be entirely safe, mitigating risk will require using novel enabling capabilities such as EW and cyber.

Recommendations• The USN and USMC should use HSVs and logistics vessels to support a wide array of partner engagement activity, especially with those nations that have a small or nascent amphibious capability. This would free up larger and more capable amphibious vessels formore stressing missions.
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• Amphibious lift should be expanded and deployed forward to meet increased demands fortheater-wide engagement and crisis response.
• The USN should, to the greatest degree possible, accelerate the development of UUVs to
improve operational efficacy in the littoral areas of the Western Pacific. These vessels canalso serve as a powerful monitoring network, akin to a twenty-first-century sound surveillance system.
• The USN should also accelerate development of unmanned aerial systems and ensure they
complement the F-35 in ways that improve the lethality and capacity of both systems. Payload, range, and counter-A2/AD abilities should be prioritized, though not necessarily in thesame platform.
• The navy should examine the steps needed to forward station an additional carrier in the
Pacific, including the associated air wing and escort ships.

GROUND FORCESThe Pacific theater is frequently conceived of as a maritime and air theater of operations. In reality, U.S. land forces, from the USA and disembarked marines, are also vital to the nation’s capabilities in the Pacific as well as to the rebalance. The USA currently maintains approximately 73,000
soldiers in Alaska, Hawaii, Washington, Japan, and South Korea.530 Approximately 25,000 marines
operate from bases primarily in mainland Japan, Guam, and Hawaii, with a rotational presence inAustralia.531 In addition, the National Guard conducts regular training with eight countries in the
Asia-Pacific region under the State Partnership Program.

Capabilities
The USA has begun to implement President Obama’s rebalance to the Asia-Pacific through arange of recent organizational shifts and new operations. First, Gen. Vincent K. Brooks was appointed commanding general of USARPAC in 2013, transitioning the commanding officer role
to a four-star general for the first time since the end of the Vietnam War.532 As a result, USARPAC
was elevated to the Theater Joint Force Land Component Command (JFLCC) for the Pacific.533
Bringing the USA in line with the USN and USAF practice of placing four-star commanders in the
Pacific, the move signals the growing strategic emphasis the army places upon its missions in theregion. On a practical level, the four-star USARPAC commander will now share equivalent rankwith top army commanders in allied and partner countries, improving prospects for army-toarmy cooperation.
Second, upon his appointment, General Brooks instituted the Pacific Pathways initiative to reshape the army’s engagement in the region. Pacific Pathways seeks to improve the army’s operational ability to deftly operate across the region’s vast nautical distances by sending tailored units
on a series of exercises with partner nations over the course of several months.534 The PacificPathways approach of linking multiple exercises together aims to reap efficiencies and cultivate
more meaningful experiential gains for the units participating.535 With a major land war in the131ANALYSIS OF CAPABILITY GAPS AND SHORTFALLS

Asia-Pacific seeming improbable, reshaping the army’s role in the region to more swiftly react tosmall-scale conflicts, provocations, and natural disasters has been the driving force behind the
new initiative. Notwithstanding concerns raised by the USMC over defending their traditional
predominance in amphibious operations and island hopping,536 Pacific Pathways is improving theUSA’s agility in executing operations throughout the region.
Regionally aligned forces (RAFs) are a third USA initiative that supports the rebalance. Unveiledin 2012, RAFs link USA units with regional COCOMs and provide relevant language and culturaltraining.537 The goal is to improve the wide range of USA engagements with countries in each
combatant command’s AOR. In the context of the rebalance, then-Chief of Staff of the Army
Gen. Raymond T. Odierno elaborated that “the [RAF] concept will be especially important in the
Asia-Pacific region as we move forward, home to seven of the ten largest Armies.”538 In supportof the RAF concept, the army’s I Corps, based at Joint Base Lewis-McChord, shifted its mission
focus from Afghanistan to PACOM in 2012.539 Lt. Gen. Robert B. Brown and Maj. Jason N. Adler
note, “The addition of an assigned Army corps provides a tailorable, scalable, and agile missioncommand node as well as unique capability sets that add to PACOM capabilities to prevent,shape, and win in the region.”540 The reassignment of I Corps has provided PACOM with enhanced flexibility in support of the rebalance and may turn out to be strong evidence in supportof the army’s new RAF model.
Given the geography of the region and the prominent role amphibious operations play in U.S.
missions there, the USMC has served as a central component in the rebalance. As outlined previously, the USMC’s contribution to the rebalance has come largely through the return of III MEF
personnel to the theater from the Middle East and a realignment of USMC posture that disperses
permanent and rotational presence from a concentration in Okinawa, Japan, to a more distributed laydown including Okinawa, Guam, and rotations through Darwin, Australia. These changes in posture have coincided with upticks in unilateral and multilateral exercises to build higher
levels of amphibious operation experience among USMC forces rejoining the Asia-Pacific theaterfrom landlocked Afghanistan. Exercises have focused on a wide range of amphibious missions
from combat to HA/DR. Additionally, USMC forces in the Pacific held a conference in 2015 in
Hawaii with the foreign commanders of over 20 countries’ amphibious forces—with more thanhalf hailing from the Asia-Pacific—to improve cooperation and coordination, especially for HA/DR
missions. Current USMC personnel totals in the PACOM AOR seem appropriate.
However, there are legitimate concerns about the ability to move Marines effectively around theAsia-Pacific theater. These limitations are particularly concerning for potential warfighting scenarios, in which survivable, inter-theater lift capability is merited. Former PACOM commander
Adm. Samuel Locklear acknowledged the situation last year by stating, “We have had a good return of our Marines back to the Asia-Pacific, particularly as the activities in the Middle East wind
down in Afghanistan. . . . But the reality is, is that to get Marines around effectively, they require
all types of lift.”541
U.S. ground forces provide expeditionary (especially USMC) and sustained (especially USA) capability needed to deter or defeat aggression on the Korean Peninsula, in defense of Japan and oth-132

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er regional allies, and in other contingencies that might arise. U.S. ground forces also contributekey joint and combined force enablers for the full range of military operations, including: air andmissile defense, medical expertise, engineers, intelligence capability, and logistics. Regional allies
and partners value the ability to work closely with USA and USMC forces over time to prepare for
operating together in and out of the Pacific, and to improve their own capabilities.

Gaps
Despite the focus on the Pacific from both the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps, there remain
four key capability gaps facing U.S. ground forces in the region.
First, the demand for USA IAMD assets in the region far exceeds supply. USA PATRIOT and
THAAD batteries are strained by global demand, to include in the Pacific. Defending U.S. homeland territory in the region, namely Hawaii and Guam, is a foremost priority for theater missile
defense, but so is defense of U.S. and allied forces in South Korea. At times of heightened threat,
USA air defense of USAF and USN installations elsewhere in the region is also important.
To close this capability gap, the Defense Department should continue encouraging its allies andpartners to integrate their missile defense systems with the United States and each other and tocontinue investing in their own air and missile defense capabilities. Japan has invested significantly in an Aegis-based missile defense system. Japan and South Korea also maintain their own
PATRIOT batteries, and both are upgrading to the more advanced PAC-3 system.
As the ballistic missile risk to U.S. installations and personnel in the Asia-Pacific grows, DOD
should assess the risks and rewards of having the USA increase the number of THAAD and PAC-3
batteries in the force above the currently planned levels, even at the cost of reducing the overall
number of combat formations.
A second ground capability concern is the ability to flow adequate and ready ground forces—
combat forces as well as key enablers—to meet combatant commander needs for contingencies
on the Korean Peninsula. The actions of North Korea demonstrate the prudence of maintaining approximately 20,000 USA and USMC forces in South Korea. Yet the majority of ground forces needed
in a large-scale contingency will come from elsewhere, particularly the continental United States. If
forces cannot arrive in theater on a timeline assumed by the combatant commander, it impairs hisor her ability to execute operations in a manner that minimizes loss of U.S. and South Korean lives
and achieves decisive results rather than engender a longer, costlier campaign.
Third, although the concept of Regionally Aligned Forces for the Pacific is strong, the USA is challenged to meet its commitments there amid the simultaneous strains of its drawdown and higher-than-anticipated global demand for forces, particularly in Europe and the Middle East. Thesedemands have kept the USA from resetting quickly from the conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq
and turning to a “steady-state” posture that the RAF concept assumes. Of note, the USA has yet
to achieve a high level of unit integrity in its Reserve Component due to the continual cross-leveling of forces, which entails volunteers from a variety of units filling vacancies in another unitthat is deploying. RAF relies on such unit integrity, along with the availability of both Active andReserve Component forces, for the purposes of developing routine interactions in the Pacific.

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USA planning should be updated to assume an extended period of strain on its force and assess
how best to achieve the goals of RAF for the Pacific within those constraints. This may requirealigning forces at smaller levels of aggregation—such as at the company or battalion level, andperhaps brigade HQ—to improve the likelihood of routine access and deployment for USA units
to Asia. This approach is needed to conduct the kind of relationship building that will be required
for the full range of USA missions in the Pacific, from humanitarian response to operations with
India to the defense of Japan and South Korea. National Guard and Army Reserve forces cancontribute substantially to this strategy, to include expanding the number of State Partnership
Programs in the Asia-Pacific region.
Fourth, with III MEF returning to its full complement in the Pacific after deployments to the Middle East, the USMC would be significantly advantaged by having a sizable maneuver and live-firetraining ranges that provide for amphibious and maneuver operations. Today’s limited training
ranges for ground forces in the Pacific, especially for the USMC, are a significant impediment to
conducting the full range of needed training while deployed in the Pacific. The nature of amphibious operations is changing just as the threat environment and the full suite of U.S. joint
capabilities has changed. Although sizable opposed amphibious assaults have not been requiredsince the Korean War, it is in the U.S. interest to ensure the USMC is capable of conducting amphibious operations under the full range of conditions it could face in the future. Without additional training opportunities, USMC forces will need to ensure major unit training is conductedprior to rotation into the region. The DOD should work with the Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands to develop such a training facility on the unoccupied island of Pagan, otherwise
made uninhabitable due to volcanic activity.
The United States also has existing agreements with three countries in the Compact of Free
Association: the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and theRepublic of Palau. Under terms of these agreements, the United States may negotiate access toland for military purposes, including for training ranges. The existing missile range in Kwajaleinoffers an example for future training ranges. Training areas in other countries should be usedperiodically to maintain continued access, which has not always been the case.
Although not a capability gap, the Army’s Pacific Pathways initiative, as currently structured, bears
further assessment. Land power engagements are critical in the Asia-Pacific region, from India to
Indonesia. The USA should be applauded for thinking creatively about how to most effectively train
its own forces, along with allies and partners, through Pacific Pathways. However, there are legitimate questions as to whether the current focus on brigade-level deployments from the sea is as
cost-efficient and readiness-enhancing below the headquarters level as the USA has desired. The
USA unquestionably has an amphibious history, reaching back to World War II. Yet its current andplanned equipment inventory has not been designed for extensive at-sea rotation, risking faster
degradation than planned. The USA should be transparent about the costs of Pacific Pathways tohelp weigh its value. If the USA is serious about returning its forces to a ready level for maneuvering from the sea, Pacific Pathways would need to be accompanied by a more transparent presentation on its costs and, likely, a detailed manning and equipping approach to sustaining it. Moreover,
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dination between the USA and USMC to ensure the joint approach to improving readiness and security cooperation in the region is maximized. Regardless of its mode of transport, the USA should
place its highest Pacific training and readiness priorities on U.S. and combined capability to sustain
land operations—from humanitarian assistance to combat.
The Marine Corps could consider adopting elements of the RAF into its deployment and partner engagement planning, including regular small-scale deployments with allies or partners tofocus on developing specific capabilities where the Marines bring a desired skill set. Options to
consider include small-scale—platoon or smaller—rotational deployments to embed with allies
or partners in Southeast Asia to cooperatively develop capabilities that take longer than a single
exercise to come together; or, augmenting country-team staff under the ambassador as a liaison
to host-nation headquarters units to develop the institutional capability and capacity to reachcomplex goals—such as establishing a truly amphibious force.

Recommendations• The U.S. Army should use smaller units for the Regionally Aligned Forces concept, to maintain the unit integrity that is highly beneficial to forging lasting relationships between U.S.
forces and partner nations. The use of smaller units can help ease the strain of RAF on the
total force, particularly by expanding the use of the Reserve Component.
• Currently the National Guard conducts exercises with eight countries in the Asia-Pacificregion, out of a total of 70 programs in the State Partnership Program. The National Guard
brings “all of government” connections at the state level, and provides excellent insight into
civil-military relations. The National Guard should expand the State Partnership Program toincrease the number of partnerships in the Asia-Pacific region.
• DOD should pursue development of a training range in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands on Pagan to support III MEF requirements for amphibious training andmaneuver ashore. As a backup, DOD should begin exploration of training facilities in the
Compact States.
• PACOM should periodically use all training areas abroad to which it has access.
• The USA should reassess Pacific Pathways’ costs and benefits, and include a detailed manning and equipping breakdown if the program is continued. In addition, PACOM, the Joint
Staff, and the Department should ensure close coordination between the USA and USMC to
improve readiness and security cooperation through a joint approach.
• The USMC should establish liaison teams with one or two Southeast Asian nations currently
seeking to develop more effective amphibious capabilities.

SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES
Special Operations Forces (SOF) provide decisionmakers with strategic capabilities for long-range
reconnaissance, training of indigenous forces, and direct action. U.S. SOF have gained attention
over the past 14 years for conducting difficult and high-risk missions such as the raid that killed

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Osama bin Laden. The high degree of training and capability of U.S. SOF allow them to conduct
missions quickly and with a relatively small number of personnel. Thus, they often have a lighter
footprint than conventional forces. They have been particularly adept at operating in the “grayzone” between war and peace. This creates high demand from COCOMs for SOF capabilities, andfrom partner nations for joint training.

Capabilities
U.S. SOF in the PACOM AOR conduct a range of missions including: counterinsurgency andcounterterrorism; counterpiracy support; maritime insertion and strike; and exercises and training with allied and partner forces. In support of these missions, SOF must be able to deploy rapidly, maintain a high level of readiness, and have access to diverse mission packages.
Although SOF are able to deploy globally on extremely short notice, forward basing of units
allows a commander to move even faster. In PACOM, there are three forward SOF units outsideof South Korea: the U.S. Army’s 1st Battalion 1st Special Forces Group (Airborne) and the U.S. Air
Force’s 320th Special Tactics Squadron, both based in Okinawa, and Naval Special Warfare Unit
One (NSWU-1) based in Guam.
Additionally, special operations capabilities can be included in the global strike mission set due
to the skill, speed, and discretion of operators and the special forces aviators who support them.
The USAF is the prime supplier of SOF aviation in PACOM. The 353rd USAF Special Operations
Group, which is assigned to AFSOC, is based at Kadena AB and is the main long-range SOF lift
formation in PACOM. The 353rd maintains a squadron of MC-130P Combat Shadows, and asquadron of MC-130H Combat Talons. These aircraft provide infiltration, exfiltration, refueling,
airdrop, and air-land capabilities to special forces. There are plans to add high-speed vertical lift
to SOF aviation in PACOM through the forward stationing of a squadron of CV-22 Osprey tiltrotor
aircraft at Yokota AB, Japan.
The USA also has a battalion-sized formation of the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment(SOAR) based at Joint Base Lewis-McChord. This unit depends on USAF strategic lift to reach theWestern Pacific as they only operate rotary-wing aircraft. In addition, the speed and range limitations inherent to rotary wing aircraft mean that the 160th SOAR may not be suited for all SOF
missions in the PACOM AOR.
Maritime SOF, consisting of both USN and USMC special operators under the command of
NSWU-1, is based at Naval Base Guam. NSWU-1 provides maritime SOF capabilities such as amaritime crisis response force; visit, board, search, and seizure (VBSS) for interdiction and operation at sea; and coordinates naval special warfare lines of operations in PACOM.
To give some sense of the effect of distance on deployment timing, it would take a SOF formation based in Okinawa approximately eight hours to transit to the southernmost portion of theSouth China Sea via cargo aircraft. It would take a CONUS-based SOF formation approximately
14 hours to make the same journey.542 Although these figures are approximate and do not capture any launch planning, training, or briefing that may be required, they give a sense of thevalue of forward SOF forces in such a vast region.

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In addition to the challenges of distance, PACOM’s preponderantly maritime nature requires SOF
to maintain sufficient seaborne insertion capabilities. These capabilities are provided by pre-positioned maritime assets, air-deliverable, high-speed surface vessels, and submarine delivery from
SSNs and SSGNs. Notably, the SSGN capability, deployed for the first time in 2007, allows up to 66
SOF personnel to deploy covertly while the vessel remains submerged.543
SOF rely on a range of platforms to provide the intelligence needed to conduct their missions. In
addition to manned platforms, such as specially equipped variants of the C-130, these also include
unmanned air assets such as the MQ-1 Predator, MQ-9 Reaper, AECV/Puma AE, and Viking 400.
These unmanned air assets provide a range of capabilities, from hand-launched platforms withshort range designed for electro-optical and infrared reconnaissance and surveillance, to large
armed reconnaissance platforms with sophisticated sensors and a range in excess of 450 miles.

Gaps
High Personnel Tempo. Global SOF capabilities are adversely affected by the extremely high personnel tempo (PERSTEMPO) of units over the past decade. Due to the demands of global combat
operations, SOF members have frequently spent long periods deployed abroad away from theirfamilies. Compounding the length and frequency of deployments is their unpredictability. Research has shown that unpredictability and length of deployments are the greatest stress factor
on SOF members and their families.544 In testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee, Special Operations Command (SOCOM) Commander Gen. Joseph Votel indicated that
improving PERSTEMPO was one of his chief aims in order to increase the health of SOF globally.
However, continued high global demand for SOF capabilities may hinder the ability of SOCOM toreset the force by optimizing PERSTEMPO. High SOF PERSTEMPO affects PACOM because it limits
the availability of SOF units, which are sourced globally when regional assets are insufficient.
Long-Range Contested Infiltration. At present, SOF relies on a collection of fixed-wing, tiltrotor,
and rotary wing aircraft for infiltration and exfiltration missions. Media reports suggest that theUnited States can conduct these operations over relatively short ranges in hostile airspace with
low-observable rotorcraft.545 For long-range missions, SOF relies on the fleet of C-130 derivative
aircraft, but these will be unable to conduct successful operations when required to penetrateadvanced IADS.546 It may be possible to bridge this gap by adopting a modular approach to the
LRS-B to support infiltration missions. However, it is unlikely that this solution will be workablefor exfiltration. A low-observable, long-range aircraft able to conduct short takeoffs from unimproved runways may not be feasible from a technical or budgetary perspective. Non-material
solutions to the exfiltration shortfall will therefore be required.
Airborne Fire Support. Air support to ground units has become vital in SOF operations as air assets can bring firepower to bear that is far greater than what a SOF team can carry. The AC-130
offers unparalleled accuracy and firepower for both SOF and conventional forces. However, it isextremely vulnerable in all but the most permissive of airspaces. For example, its low and slow
orbits make it susceptible to ground fire. It is unlikely a large, stealthy AC-130 replacement will be
developed and fielded in the study timeframe.

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Precision munitions delivered from stealthy manned and unmanned platforms can help to bridge
this gap in non-permissive areas. However, they may lack the necessary persistence to conduct
overwatch of SOF units. In addition, the aircraft with these characteristics will remain a HDLD
asset for the foreseeable future. Small loitering UAS organic to SOF teams and with kinetic strikecapabilities may be able to bridge this gap.

Recommendation• Continue prioritizing SOF missions to accommodate PERSTEMPO constraints.
• Continue efforts to develop solutions—technical or doctrinal—for long-range air and maritime
insertion/extraction missions and for fire support in highly contested A2/AD environments.

MISSILE DEFENSE
Growing missile-based capabilities have established missile defense as major capability focus for
the United States and its allies and partners in the Asia-Pacific. Even as IAMDs are recognized as
an increasingly important capability, available forces are too few to meet all COCOM demands
and face increasing strain from high operational tempo. Fiscal constraints and the large expansesof geography to defend have also created force distribution challenges that point to the need for
greater regional cooperation and integration.

Capabilities
Defending against missiles requires the employment of a range of sophisticated capabilities,
which can be largely divided into two major categories: sensors and interceptors. Sensors identify a missile launch and determine its trajectory. Interceptors neutralize missiles after launch andbefore impact.
The United States operates a range of sensors to identify and track missiles. Space-based assets
identify early warning signs of a possible launch—particularly for missile tests and long-lead time
events. Radars and other sensors located on allied territory, at sea, or in the air detect and track
missile launches.
Interceptors include a range of land- and sea-based missiles, and point-defenses for ships andground installations. The Aegis defense system is the foundation of PACOM’s missile defense capabilities. Besides the interceptors, Aegis-equipped ships carry the powerful AN/SPY-1 radar for locating
and tracking missiles, including ICBMs.547 Software upgrades to incorporate “launch-on-demand” and“engage-on-remote”—launching missiles and intercepting threats based on remote sensors, rather
than on organic cues from the ship’s radar— have improved the reach of interceptors fourfold.
The United States currently has 33 Aegis BMD ships: 5 cruisers and 28 destroyers. Sixteen of
those 33 are assigned to Pacific Fleet, of which 6 are forward deployed to Yokosuka, Japan.548
One additional Aegis BMD ships may be forward stationed in PACOM by 2017.549
Today’s SM-3 interceptors have been on an evolutionary path from Block I, to IA, to IB, to IIA. The
Block IIA will be coproduced by the United States and Japan and will have a substantially longer operational range than the previous interceptors, over 1,500 miles.550 The SM-6 missile has a
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special role for fleet defense against cruise missiles, and is evolving to counter ballistic missiles intheir terminal phase, and potentially hypersonic threats.
On land, the United States has placed two AN/TPY-2 X-band radars in Japan. The first is at Shariki
in northern Japan. The second has been delivered to Kyogamisaki and will soon begin operations. These radars provide information about missiles fired from Northeast Asia toward either
Japan or the United States. Additionally, the United States operates the SBX-1, a self-deployable
X-band radar, built atop a deep-sea, semi-submersible oil rig and designed to identify airborne
objects at a range of 1,200 miles. SBX-1 is officially home ported in Alaska, but is currently in reduced operating status in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
The primary ground-based U.S. missile defense system is the PATRIOT system, which is capableof both air and missile defense. U.S. PATRIOT units in the Pacific are stationed in South Korea andJapan. South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan also operate their own PATRIOT systems.
While the PATRIOT defends against lower-tier threats, the THAAD system provides greater reachto strike long-range missiles earlier in flight, and is the only missile defense system with the ability to intercept threats both inside and outside the atmosphere (endo- and exo-atmospheric). The
USA currently possesses four activated THAAD batteries. The only operationally deployed battery
is at Andersen AFB in Guam. The other three batteries are in garrison at Fort Bliss, Texas, with anadditional battery becoming operationally available next year and a total of seven funded.

Gaps
Missile defense gaps are most pronounced in interoperability and capacity.
Interoperability requires being able to communicate between missile defense systems of different
types, as well as between U.S. and allied operators. Currently, the PATRIOT system and the THAAD
system lack such interoperability. The interoperability of THAAD with the Integrated Air and Missile
Defense Battle Command System (IBCS), for instance, still remains little more than a concept.
Interoperability with allies and partners remains even more limited. U.S.-Japan cooperation on
missile defense technology and operations is the most advanced among U.S. allies. A lack of
information sharing between Japan and South Korea, however, limits the benefits of leveraging
each country’s capabilities into a more effective whole.
The most critical gap remains the U.S. capacity to defend against a high-end adversary. For example, analysts estimate China has several hundred land-attack cruise and ballistic missiles withthe range to target U.S. bases in Japan or South Korea. Countering these missiles would require,at minimum, an equal number of interceptors from the United States, Japan, and South Korea.
Currently, the U.S. and allied inventory of interceptors within PACOM does not provide a full defense against a synchronized and complex attack.
Given the threats against Guam, the THAAD battery there is likely to remain there over the longterm, if not permanently, to protect U.S. territory and the significant military assets deployed
there. If so, it will need either permanent facilities or a rotation base.

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While an important capability, THAAD does not address other emerging air defense threats, suchas cruise missiles. Possible interceptors for cruise missiles include land-based SM-6 and PATRIOT. Another potential system, the Surface-Launched Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile(SLAMRAAM), was canceled in FY 2011. One sensor option would be to station a capability likethe Joint Land Attack Cruise Missile Defense Elevated Netted Sensor System (JLENS), a persistent
overhead tethered aerostat to monitor incoming cruise missile threats.
MDA is again studying prospects for an extended-range THAAD interceptor (THAAD-ER), a missilethat could potentially defend 9-12 times the area of current THAAD interceptors.551 This interceptor would be of particular interest to the extended geography of the Asia-Pacific, and as a means
to defend against hypersonic systems.552 The USA has requested THAAD-ER by no later than 2025,
citing a threat that is “likely to challenge the capability of THAAD in its current configuration.”553
Capacity also remains an important gap because of the likely high demand in a conflict with a
missile-armed opponent. Although the USA still maintains the requirement of nine THAAD batteries,554 DOD and MDA currently only plan for seven, with the last reportedly scheduled for delivery in FY 2017 and operations beginning in 2019.555 Plans for funding the two additional THAAD
batteries remain unclear.
PATRIOT units are stressed by high peacetime OPTEMPO. This could be eased by buying moreunits or by expanding the number of trained personnel so the deployments are spread among alarger pool.
Combatant commanders have requested an increase from 44 Aegis ships in FY 2012–2014 to 77
in FY 2016. The USN proposed mothballing half of the cruiser fleet to reduce operating expenses,
but Congress overturned that proposal. The current program of record now includes sustaining
the cruiser fleet and upgrading the ships’ hull, mechanical, and electrical equipment (HM&E),
as well as their combat systems.556 Two cruisers, the Lake Erie and the Port Royal, will undergo
modernization through the program and return to the fleet in 2026 and 2027, respectively.557
The USN has stated that it requires 40 Baseline 9-capable Aegis BMD ships to effectively conduct its mission in a major conflict. Baseline 9 provides more IAMD capability, enabling ships tocounter both cruise and ballistic missiles simultaneously.558 Of the 33 BMD ships available today,
however, only three have the Baseline 9 upgrade.
Australia is building Aegis-equipped destroyers but has yet to commit to acquiring SM-3 interceptors for missile defense.
In addition, establishment of Aegis-ashore in defense of U.S. bases in the region, as has been
done in Europe, would offer greater missile defense capability and capacity, and enable BMD
ships to cover other areas of the Pacific or to undertake other missions.
In the near term, chemically powered rockets will still be required to kill other rockets using hitto-kill. A major concern is the high cost-per-kill because defensive missiles often have a higher
cost than offensive missiles. Over the next decade, however, the United States may be able tofield capabilities that would begin to close the cost gap. Reliability improvements on existing
missiles could reduce the number of shots required per missile, thereby lowering the cost-perkill, and increasing effective magazine capacity.
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Several new technologies have potential to provide the United States with an increased capability to defend ships and installations at a lower per-shot cost:• Directed Energy. High energy lasers could defend against missiles, aircraft, and small boats.
Current range is limited to roughly a mile due to atmospheric effects, but once the system
is installed, cost-per-shot is small and the number of shots is almost unlimited. A major
challenge has been that it requires a large power source. Multiple services have active,
long-term development programs, with a limited-capability system currently deployed on
the USS Ponce for testing.559• Electromagnetic Rail Guns. These weapons use electricity to fire a projectile at very highspeeds (over 5,000 miles per hour). Originally intended for naval surface fires (i.e., against
ships and land targets), the system’s purpose has been expanded to include countering cruise
missiles and ballistic missiles. Range is tens of miles, much longer than current lasers. As withthe laser, it requires a large power source. The USN currently has two prototypes in testing.560• Projectiles Fired from Conventional “Powder” Guns. Projectiles could be fired from a conventional gun to intercept missiles, with range in the tens of miles. In addition to providing
fire support, these guns could defend against aircraft and cruise missile attacks. Their great
advantage is that they could leverage guns and artillery pieces already in inventory, which
would not require new launchers.561 Further, many conventional artillery pieces have theadvantage of being road mobile, providing a rapidly deployable air defense capability.
These technologies have taken longer to develop than originally expected. One study finds that“a number of significant challenges remain. Overcoming these challenges will likely require yearsof additional development work, and ultimate success in overcoming them is not guaranteed.”562
Such technologies therefore seem unlikely to replace kinetic kill missiles and guns in the near or
medium term. These technologies are in developmental testing phases, but could reach IOC in
2020/2021 for directed energy and in the 2025 timeframe for an electromagnetic rail gun. Noneof these technologies is yet considered mature enough to be a program of record, with definite
plans for procurement. Further, most of these technologies are for point defenses and cannot
provide the long range and area defenses that missiles can. Some missile defenses will likely beneeded even after these new technologies are fielded.

Recommendations• Continue upgrades to THAAD and PATRIOT to meet evolving threats.
• Continue rapid development of efficient and cheap missile defenses across the kill chain,
to include directed energy and railguns for fleet and point missile defense, as well as boost
phase intercept.
• Deploy THAAD capabilities to South Korea.
• Assess whether increased threats and deployments require procurement of all nine planned
THAAD batteries, per the USA requirement, to meet global demands.

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ANALYSIS OF CAPABILITY GAPS AND SHORTFALLS• More actively address the full IAMD challenge for all U.S. forces in region, not merely
ballistic missiles.
• Continue and improve the complexity of regional missile defense exercises, and actively
improve interoperability and information sharing between and among allies and partners.

SPACE
U.S. assets orbiting Earth include a positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) constellation, communications satellites, and a range of intelligence collection platforms. These assets amplify U.S.
military superiority by providing the capability to collect and disseminate information rapidly, to
use that information to strike an adversary accurately at great distance, and to quickly counteror adjust position in the face of a possible threat. The United States has developed these spacebased communication and observation architectures over the past five decades.

Capabilities
PACOM is particularly reliant upon space-based assets. Space systems allow commanders to linkdispersed forces together over the region’s large distances. Space systems would also play a keyrole in defeating adversary A2/AD systems because of their ability to monitor force dispositions
and guide precision munitions to their targets. The challenges that are currently facing U.S. spacedominance are thus deeply concerning.
The constellation of 31 GPS satellites operated by the USAF provide extremely accurate PNT data to
U.S. forces, a key contributor to effective PGMs. It is also important for battle management on the
ground, in the air, and at sea, and provides safe navigation information to U.S. ships and aircraft.564
Space situational awareness (SSA)—the ability to view, understand, and predict the physical location of natural and manmade objects in orbit around the Earth—is provided by Space Based Space
Surveillance (SBSS) and the Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program (GSSAP), as
well as ground-based programs.565 Ground-based discriminating radars, such as the Space Fence,
also contribute to SSA, as will the Long Range Discrimination Radar (LRDR) planned for Alaska.
Continuous availability of communications regardless of location enables the global reach of
U.S. forces. Satellite communications allow the remote piloting of UAS as well as the capture anddissemination of real-time information from ISR assets. Without satellites or a reliable alternative,
U.S. advantages in UAS and ISR would be seriously eroded. These issues are discussed in greater
detail in the section on ISR.
Finally, space-based assets provide the United States with the ability to observe any part of the
globe. The United States maintains a robust observation and sensing capability in space, including visible and non-visible spectrum sensors to monitor military developments and to provide
warning of missile-launch and WMD-related events. These sensors also provide the ability todetect, track, and potentially discriminate missiles from decoys, although some risk is incurred byvulnerabilities to countermeasures.566 Early warning satellites include the legacy Defense Support Program (DSP) satellites, the geostationary Space Based Infrared System (SBIRS), and othersin highly elliptical orbit.567 MDA currently operates two Space Tracking and Surveillance System
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(STSS) demonstrators in an 840-mile orbit. An experimental and temporary space sensor layer, the STSS satellites detect and track objects by viewing them from the side, against the cold
background of space.568 Integrating additional space sensors into MDA’s command, control, battle
management, and communications (C2BMC) is critical to earlier engagement, especially launchand engage-on-remote.569
Potential kinetic and non-kinetic threats to space-based assets have multiplied, holding at risk
virtually every satellite in orbit, as well as in-theater ground, launch, communication, and supply-chain segments.570 The head of the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) declared that atleast some of his satellites had been lased by China in 2006.571 China demonstrated its anti-satellite (ASAT) capabilities with the intercept of a weather satellite in January 2007. An additional
ASAT vehicle may have been launched into near geosynchronous orbit in May 2013, but Chinese
officials have not acknowledged the test.572 A non-intercept test in July 2014 is also reported tohave been successful.573

Gaps
Space-based platforms are highly vulnerable. They operate in an extremely hostile natural environment, and move along regular, known, and observable orbits. The high velocity of orbital
speeds convert any object in space—whether a satellite or debris from an earlier collision—into a
potentially destructive projectile. Thus, any country with a space program has the capability, atleast at a nascent level, to conduct ASAT missions.
The United States currently has effective space capabilities, but insufficient redundancy and resilience to respond to ASAT attacks.574
These deficiencies are alarming in the context of the threats and challenges in the PACOM AOR.
China has clearly identified U.S. reliance upon space-based assets as a key weakness it can holdat risk. ASAT represents the most dramatic counter-space option, yet satellites are also susceptible to electromagnetic interference (jamming), and to other means of incapacitating sensors ortransmitters (dazzling). Either approach could be permanent or reversible, but would result in adegradation of U.S. space-based capability if not an outright loss.
In the short term, the United States can train with degraded communications to demonstrate acontinued high level of warfighting capability should U.S. space assets become unavailable. In
the long term, mitigation options include diversifying the satellite constellation to increase thenumber of targets and building redundancy into the system, hosting payloads on commercial
or foreign satellites, and stockpiling reserve satellites and launch vehicles to surge capability into
orbit in the event an adversary takes kinetic action against U.S. satellites.
DOD is also beginning to explore PNT and communications capabilities that are not reliant upon
space-based assets. Alternatives to satellites include advanced inertia-based PNT, line-of-sightmesh networks, very high-altitude unmanned aircraft operating as communication nodes, anddecentralized operational concepts that are less reliant on centralized mission control and satellite communications.575

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These long-term options are all costly, and some may be politically untenable. Yet, increasing
redundancy and lessening U.S. dependence on vulnerable space-based assets are both importantelements in any counter-A2/AD concept.

Recommendations• Create greater resiliency in space-based assets through the hardening of payloads, deployment of jam-resistant communication systems, and diversification of host platforms toinclude non-military and non-U.S. satellites.
• Fund the development of alternatives to space-based capability through non-space based
but capability complements such as aerial layer mesh networking and advanced inertial
PNT for operations in the most stressing A2/AD environments.

INTELLIGENCE, SURVEILL ANCE, AND RECONNAISSANCE
Through 14 years of conflict in Afghanistan and Iraq, the U.S. military and civilian leadership havegrown accustomed to nearly omnipresent ISR. The broad scope and high expectations of thesemissions places a premium on ISR capacity in the PACOM AOR.
The United States depends on ISR capabilities to monitor events and to ensure sufficient preparation time to respond to threats and emerging crises throughout the PACOM AOR. Specifically, ISR
monitors potential military threats from North Korea, Russia, and China, and, as needed, provides
information on other security concerns such as maritime disputes, and humanitarian relief needs.
ISR capabilities include a range of sensors and platforms operating both in the atmosphere andin space. While platforms—especially unmanned platforms—receive the greatest attention, designing and adequately resourcing the processing, exploitation, and dissemination (PED) systems
and personnel that convert the data collected through ISR missions into useful information is ofequal importance. This section will focus on aerial ISR capabilities with some consideration of
space-based national assets (which are also discussed in the space section) and maritime sensors on surface and subsurface vessels.
ISR systems are vital to successfully realizing Air-Sea Battle, which in many ways harken back to
the AirLand Battle concept of the late Cold War era, which was enabled by transformative increases in battlespace awareness. ISR will also be a key enabler for potential follow-on concepts
such as JAM-GC. ISR is not only vital for understanding the steady state dynamics of the Asia-Pacific region but also for finding and fixing adversary targets in a conflict. Robust, survivable ISR inall domains is a requirement for any counter-A2/AD concept.

Capabilities
Space-based assets are able to cover the widest surface area, but do so on a set schedule, limiting their frequency of collection and enabling an adversary to disguise certain activities during
known observation periods. Frequent adjustments to the orbit of a satellite (and hence what it
is able to observe) will reduce its life expectancy as there is no cost-effective way to refuel satellites in orbit. The U.S. constellation of space-based national assets are believed to capture visible,
infrared, hyperspectral, and radar images, as well as signals intelligence.
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Airborne manned assets are typically large-wingspan aircraft and may include an onboard crew ofanalysts and sensor operators. These aircraft, ranging from the U-2, which conducts high-altitude
surveillance and reconnaissance missions, to the new P-8 maritime patrol aircraft, which conductsa host of maritime domain awareness and antisubmarine warfare missions, provide a flexible andoperationally dependable way to conduct ISR missions. However, human limitations constrain therange and duration of manned ISR missions, compared to that of a satellite or an unmanned system.
Unmanned systems are relatively new, and currently are operated by a pilot on the ground,either from a nearby facility or remotely from a base in the continental United States. Platforms
such as the RQ-4 Global Hawk can conduct missions lasting over 30 hours without refueling,
providing commanders with near-continuous ISR presence over key areas.577 The navy currently
plans to augment Global Hawk with the MQ-4 Triton unmanned system, beginning in FY 2018.
Unmanned platforms currently require reliable satellite or other communications to receive flight
instructions from ground stations, and to transmit data to ground-based analysts. In addition,
there is concern that adversaries may see unmanned platforms as less escalatory targets thanmanned aircraft, increasing the risk that adversaries will strike unmanned systems.
Maritime sensors also feed into the ISR enterprise. This diverse range of inputs includes advanced
radars such as the Sea-Based X-Band and Aegis systems, and submarines with both passive andactive sonar suites. These are especially valuable in PACOM given the maritime nature of the
AOR and the long distances that challenge many platforms in the existing airborne ISR fleet.
Some limitations do exist. Surface maritime sensors are, in most cases, limited by distance to thehorizon when conducting surface track operations. They remain exceedingly capable, however, in detecting and cataloging aerial targets. Subsurface maritime sensors can detect and tracktargets at extreme ranges if oceanographic conditions are favorable.
U.S. ISR systems produce a large quantity of data that must be converted into usable information.
The PED (processing, exploitation, and dissemination) enterprise or “tail” aggregates and synthesizes this raw data into information that provides strategic, operational, and tactical intelligence
to inform U.S. national security decisionmaking at levels from the president to a sergeant leadinga squad on patrol. In many ways, PED is the limiting factor in ISR operations given its labor intensity. To give a sense of scale, 44 percent of the personnel required to support a single Predator or
Reaper combat air patrol (CAP) is devoted to PED.578
Skilled intelligence analysts are a key part of the PED process, turning mountains of data into
discrete, actionable intelligence. While automated systems may reduce the burden in the future,humans will remain an integral part of ISR analysis as they can combine multiple intelligencesources to build a comprehensive understanding of a given intelligence requirement.579
Each military service handles PED differently. The USAF relies upon the centralized Distributed Common Ground System (DCGS) with analysis activities conducted primarily from CONUS-based locations.580 The USA uses a more decentralized approach to PED activities as its ISR
assets and PED formations are either organic to combat air or military intelligence brigades. The
USMC’s ISR fleet is exclusively focused on tactical operations and integrated into the Air Combat Element. At present, the USN does not have a dedicated PED system, although one is underdevelopment to support the eventual deployment of the MQ-4C Triton.
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ANALYSIS OF CAPABILITY GAPS AND SHORTFALLSGaps
ISR platforms are among the most-stressed assets in DOD’s inventory. Based on the current andplanned state of ISR within PACOM, the United States should expect gaps with regards to capacity and capability. More fundamentally, changes will be needed in how the U.S. ISR system willfunction as compared to the past decade of conflict.
Globally, ISR capacity is insufficient to meet demand. For example, in March 2014 Africa Command (AFRICOM) Commander Gen. David Rodriguez told the Senate Armed Services Committee that only 11 percent of his ISR demand was being sourced. At an earlier hearing, CENTCOM
Commander Gen. Lloyd Austin indicated that 85 percent of total U.S. ISR inventory was focusedon the CENTCOM AOR. Despite this preponderance of assets, only 62 percent of CENTCOM’s
demand was sourced. Sourcing solely CENTCOM demand would require a 37 percent increase in
the total ISR fleet—with no ISR provided to any other theater. At the same hearing, then-PACOM
Commander Adm. Samuel Locklear stated that his ISR requirements were also under-resourced.
Officers and officials throughout DOD do not expect ISR demand will ever be fully met given theinsatiable appetite of commanders and civilian leaders for information. The United States mayneed to reconsider how it manages and allocates resources across the ISR enterprise. Such aneffort is beyond the scope of this study.
Over the next 10 years, under peacetime conditions, the single-largest gap for U.S. ISR outside of
the Korean Peninsula will be the availability of platforms with the range to operate effectively in
the PACOM AOR. ISR assets deployed from current U.S. facilities in Guam or Northeast Asia will
provide significantly less (approximately half as much) time-on-station than U.S. commanders
and political leaders have grown accustomed to with similar platforms in the CENTCOM AOR.
Further, as aging assets, such as the U.S. Navy’s EP-3 signals reconnaissance aircraft, approachretirement, it will be important for DOD to replace the lost capabilities.
DOD is taking some mid- to long-term actions to counteract the tyranny of distance. The USN plansto add 66 MQ-4C Triton UAS to its ISR fleet over the next 20-plus years. If forward stationed in theregion, Tritons would go a long way toward bridging the capacity gap as it relates to distance. However, IOC for the Triton is not slated until 2018.581 In the short term, DOD could reallocate assets fromother theaters of operation to the PACOM AOR. This last approach may have budget implications
due to facility construction and would shift risk to other AORs. An additional option to mitigate thegap would be to enhance partnership with countries in the region to share collection or analysis, toinclude aligning mission timing and tracks to maximize ISR collection in high-interest regions.
China’s investments in A2/AD capabilities create challenges for the current U.S. ISR fleet. China’s
increasingly advanced sensor network and growing anti-air, cyber, and EW capabilities provide
the ability to detect, track, and, if necessary, engage most of the existing U.S. ISR fleet. In theevent of conflict, the U.S. ISR fleet, as currently configured, would not provide the same level ofawareness as it has in conflicts in Iraq or Afghanistan. As USAF Gen. G. Michael Hostage, whilehead of Air Combat Command, noted, “Predators and Reapers are useless in a contested environment.”582 This gap is further exacerbated by the unknown reliability of satellite-based C2 links forunmanned ISR assets when operating in an A2/AD environment. Advanced cyber and EW capabilities will also offer non-kinetic tools for disrupting the U.S. ISR fleet.
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Accurate, timely ISR will be vital in any strikes against an A2/AD network with road mobile components. Therefore, a penetrating ISR platform, whether manned or unmanned, is a key investment needed to enable future warfighting success. Analysts assess that the USAF operates approximately 20 long-range stealthy ISR UAS.583 The USAF has also acknowledged the existenceof a follow-on platform that commentators believe to be significantly larger, with greater stealthcapability, and longer range. While the capabilities for either platform would presumably bedesigned for A2/AD environments and clandestine operations, it is unclear whether the systems
that have been publically acknowledged are appropriately outfitted to survive against the mostadvanced adversary capabilities. In any case, small fleet size would constrain the number andtypes of missions flown.
Thus, increasing the number of stealthy ISR platforms with assured communication suites able
to operate in A2/AD environments in times of conflict and conduct clandestine observations inpeacetime will become increasingly important for PACOM. It is possible to bridge this gap in thenear to mid-term by increasing investments in stealthy ISR platforms. However, such an increaseis unlikely under current budget conditions. Without greater availability of long-range stealthy
ISR assets and assured communications systems, U.S. forces operating in the Asia-Pacific will doso at considerably heightened risk.
An additional gap in ISR capability is the shortfall of the current PED system in terms of bothavailable bandwidth for transmission and analytic capacity. Advances in miniaturization enablea steadily increasing number of sensors per airframe. This growth in sensor density, combinedwith the requirement for ISR platforms to provide data in real-time to analysts and decisionmakers, requires ever-expanding bandwidth. Open-source estimates for ARGUS-IS, for example, indicate that it captures approximately 400 GB per second of data.584 ARGUS-IS is the second-generation sensor in the Gorgon Stare increment 2 wide area sensor, one of the most advanced
collections packages available to the United States.585 Even utilizing very high compression ratios
and advanced onboard analytic algorithms, Gorgon Stare requires tremendous bandwidth thatmust be provided wirelessly and in contested environments.
While software development will ease bandwidth requirements and enable some degree of autonomous onboard analysis, the need for greater capacity in battlefield communications—especially communications relayed via space—will likely limit the availability and ubiquity of real-time
ISR data in the Asia-Pacific. Should data collection outpace available bandwidth, as is likely, sensor
data would not be disseminated from a platform until it returns from its mission, a return to an
earlier operational paradigm for ISR operations that would significantly reduce a U.S. advantage.
Furthermore, the volume of data being disseminated from ISR platforms to analysts in the “tail”
strains current capacity to review and analyze the information. To give a sense of scale, in 2013
the USAF predicted that the PED manpower needed to support UAS operations was over 9,900
personnel.586 Reports in 2014 suggested that the USN would reach a tipping point in 2016 where
the data produced by intelligence systems would overwhelm analyst capacity to keep up withthe tasks.587 As mentioned previously, autonomous technologies and machine learning will allow
some of the burden to be shifted from human analysts. When sufficient communications infra-

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structure is available, some of the intrinsic limitations of housing these technologies on-platform—such as high processing power and cooling requirements—are less of an issue, as they canbe located off the collection platform in an intelligence center.
Conducting ISR in a contested airspace like that expected in an A2/AD environment is out ofalignment with the U.S. paradigm of ISR operations over the past decade. Over the past 14 yearsof combat in Afghanistan and Iraq, the United States has operated with near impunity in the air
domain against adversaries with little air or counter-air capability. As a result, the military has
grown accustomed to having a significant battlespace awareness advantage over its adversaries.
Over the same time period, China has made advances in counter-air and counter-space capabilities that could diminish the operational capability of U.S. space-based ISR capabilities, both
airborne and space-borne.588 Barring a truly massive investment in both space and aerial ISR
platforms optimized for non-permissive environments, U.S. commanders would operate withsignificantly less battlespace awareness than is currently the norm.

Recommendations• DOD should develop a robust aerial ISR system able to operate in the most denied environments. This system should build off of and advance the existing lines of effort represented
in LRS-B and UCLASS.
• DOD should steer investments into autonomous imagery exploitation systems for both
aerial and space-based systems to improve the throughput of the PED system and optimize
the utilization of increasingly scarce human analysts.
• The USN should develop a PED system with operational analytic centers attached to thefleet patrol wing level, to maximize the capabilities of the Triton. This should be augmented
with strategic analytic centers attached to the USN’s theater-level component commands.
• The USN and USAF PED systems should be interoperable, support operational and strategiccommanders, and be compatible with systems operated by U.S. allies and partners. Joint
manning with options for combined manning, where appropriate, should be an objective
for Asia-Pacific PED architecture.
• DOD should coordinate plans for ISR missions with allies. It should share analysis work among
allies in areas of mutual interest and concern, particularly the South and East China Seas.

CYBER
Cyber threats originating from the Asia-Pacific region targeting the United States and its allies
have grown rapidly in complexity and intensity in recent years. The primary driver of this growthis the expanded use of cyber intrusions, exfiltration, and espionage by China and North Korea,
who view cyber as an asymmetric alternative to countering U.S. military superiority in conventional warfare. Both countries are aggressively building cyber capabilities and manpower. China
in particular has demonstrated improved ability and greater intent to disrupt U.S. military networks and systems, map U.S. networks, and steal sensitive technological information.589 North

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Korea is actively seeking to leverage the capabilities and resources of other nations and third parties, including transnational criminal organizations, to conduct cyber intrusions and espionage
against the United States and its allies and partners.590
The 2008 breach of classified U.S. military networks—code-named Buckshot Yankee—was a
wake-up call for the Defense Department. At the time, it was the most significant cyber intrusionof U.S. military computers in history. It set into motion the creation of Cyber Command (CYBERCOM) and a range of efforts to improve DOD cyber defenses and capability to respond to cyberattacks.591 Since then, DOD has made progress in improving cyber defenses, but it does not yet
have the capability or capacity to conduct effective joint cyber operations.
Augmenting existing cyber capabilities and ensuring that this domain is seamlessly integrated
into operational planning for both fires and protection will be key in maintaining U.S. advantages
in precision strike and communications. In addition, the use of offensive cyber will be needed for
unlocking adversary A2/AD networks. The power of cyber to enable and support other missions
is very similar to that of EW. This confluence is not limited to effect; cyber and EW are increasingly being viewed on a continuum. To fully unlock the potential of operations in both domains andmaximize their efficacy, they will have to be seamlessly integrated.

Gaps
Capability gaps and shortfalls for joint cyber operations fall into three categories: technology,
processes, and cooperation with allies and partners. Because the Defense Department as a wholeis in relatively early stages of developing full-spectrum cyber operations capabilities, these gaps
and shortfalls are applicable to essentially all regional and functional joint commands.
Technology
Operationalizing cyber across the joint forces will require significant investment in technologies
to enable military planners and operators to understand, plan, manage, and execute cyber operations in real-time and across dynamic network environments. Joint commands, including PACOM, and U.S. allies and partners in the Asia-Pacific region, lack a number of underlying systems,
platforms, and tools for effective cyber operations, but the top three technical capability gaps are
outlined below.
Situational Awareness. Presently, the military does not have adequate situational awareness of thecyber domain to identify and understand actual or potential threats to DOD networks. Nor doesit have the necessary situational awareness to conduct effective reconnaissance for targetingof adversary nodes in cyberspace. Situational awareness should include platforms, sensors, andsoftware to rapidly collect, fuse, analyze, and visualize data from a global network of sensors todeliver a reliable picture of blue, red, and gray systems, including their physical locations, vulnerabilities, and activities. This information should also be available in real-time with customizableinterfaces to support different users’ roles as network operators, mission commanders, and threat
analysts. In building a common operating picture, cyber operations can enhance a range of capabilities discussed in this section. For example, ISR could be conducted “virtually” and reveal thephysical location of vital nodes or sensors in a network.

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Expendable and On-Demand Capabilities. A challenge for cyber operations is that the use of acapability may reveal its functionality and compromise future effectiveness and thus the ability
to reuse the capability. Given the one-time use of many cyber tools, there is need to develop
technologies that enable rapid generation of capabilities and reduce the cost of creating eachindividual capability. The current state-of-the-art is that cyber tools are developed to specificconditions and attributes about the target and surrounding network conditions, yet it is difficult
to confirm whether reality conforms with expected conditions. Cyber tools should also be designed to operate and create effects within complex and dynamic network conditions, with few
environmental dependencies. They should also be designed to allow operators to reconfigure
and repurpose tools on-the-fly. If this vision can be achieved, commanders will be able to conceptualize cyber as a type of everyday munition rather than a silver bullet.
Modeling, Simulation, and Analysis. Predicting risk, battle damage, and the likelihood of successof using cyber tools is required if DOD is to conduct effective cyber operations. This requires
systems to model, simulate, and assess the performance of cyber capabilities and analyze courses of action for both defensive and offensive operations. Systems should be capable of emulating
adversary network conditions, and should enable military planners to simulate the plan against
uncertain network parameters and active adversarial actions taken to thwart or degrade theoperation. The assessment process should also measure the performance and effectiveness ofcyber fires to deny, degrade, disrupt, destroy, or manipulate target systems.
Operations Planning Process
Joint Force Commanders (JFCs) must direct operations in cyberspace as in other domains of
warfare. Despite the technical complexity of cyber operations, JFCs should direct cyber operations at the operational level using existing doctrine and existing joint operations planning andexecution processes. The existing joint operations planning process that uses mission analysis to
produce plans and the current joint targeting cycle can be used for cyber.593 As mentioned previously, these processes still need to be adapted to cyber operations, but entirely new processes
are likely unnecessary.
Cooperation with Allies and Partners in the Asia-Pacific
DOD engages in a range of activities to improve cybersecurity and cyber operations capacity in
the PACOM AOR. Australia, Japan, and South Korea are strong allies in the Asia-Pacific region
with cyber capacities that can be leveraged to support U.S. defensive and offensive cyber objectives.594 Enhanced information sharing of threat indicators and cyber intelligence could significantly improve overall situational awareness of cyber threats in the region. To the maximum
extent possible, this sharing should be standardized and automated. PACOM should also include
a more robust role for key regional allies and partners in all training exercises where cyber iseither the focus or an element of a broader exercise. Exercises should test information sharing
to improve situational awareness and network defense, as well as joint collaboration in incident
response and mitigation. As appropriate, these exercises should also practice leveraging tools,
capabilities, infrastructure, and manpower in operational settings.

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Recommendations• Cyber operations should be a component in all wargames conducted by PACOM and its
major subordinate commands in order to ensure that commanders have operational fluency with this vital technology.
• The Defense Department should fast-track development of a common operating picture
for cyber operations that can be pushed forward to the operational and tactical levels. This
information should be integrated into existing ISR frameworks in order to add another levelof richness to commanders’ understanding of both the physical and virtual battlespace.
• PACOM, in cooperation with CYBERCOM, should hold annual discussions with key regional allies and partners about cyber capabilities. Such discussions should include the ways inwhich ally and partner authorities may differ from U.S. authorities and the ways in whichsuch differences may be leveraged in a contingency operation.

ELECTRONIC WARFARE
DOD breaks electronic warfare (EW) into three components: electronic attack, electronic protection,
and EW support.595 This section focuses primarily on the electronic attack and EW support as they
relate to finding, fixing, and disabling enemy capabilities reliant upon the electromagnetic spectrum.
EW systems are cross-domain, with the ability to degrade a wide array of adversary capabilities.
EW systems are key capabilities in any counter-A2/AD operational concept. Recently, Deputy
Secretary Work highlighted the importance of EW by creating an associated executive oversight
body, the Electronic Warfare Programs Council. Deputy Secretary Work noted, “for relatively small
investments [in EW] you get an extremely high potential payoff,” but despite this, the U.S. lead in
EW is “diminishing rapidly.”596
EW capabilities will be vital to the successful implementation of concepts such as JAM-GC as it
creates difficult problems for enemy IADS. The next generation of EW systems may be able to neutralize adversary sensor networks through non-kinetic means while manned platforms remain atstandoff ranges. This transformative technology that should be prioritized as part of the DII.

Capabilities
The United States currently operates EW systems—permanently installed, modular, and disposable systems—from ground, airborne, and naval platforms. These capabilities are used principally either to suppress enemy air defense (SEAD) or to neutralize incoming munitions throughnon-kinetic means. While the USN has long emphasized EW capabilities, both the USA and USAF
have let EW atrophy since the end of the Cold War.597
The USA’s recent investments have primarily been cell phone jammers to counter remote triggers on IEDs in Iraq and Afghanistan. These USA EW systems would be less applicable in a nearpeer conflict as modern communication systems are designed to be resistant to many forms ofjamming. Put more simply, the technologies used to jam consumer cell phone signals will not beapplicable to counter A2/AD networks with military-grade communications infrastructure.

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Dedicated airborne EW platforms include the USMC’s E/A-6B Prowler, USN’s E/A-18G Growler,
and the USAF’s EC-130H Compass Call.
• USN is procuring the E/A-18G Growler as the replacement for the venerable E/A-6B Prowler, although the Growlers aircraft will continue to use legacy jamming equipment inheritedfrom Prowlers. The USN will complete its acquisition of Growler airframes in 2017.598 However, full operational capability of these aircraft will not be reached until the Next Generation Jammer is fielded in the early 2020s.599 The Next Generation Jammer will be a major
step forward with greater accuracy, power, and frequency response.
• The USMC will continue to fly the Prowler until it is replaced by the F-35 beginning in 2019.600• The USAF operates the EC-130H Compass Call, a variant of the Hercules transport aircraft
equipped with a sophisticated EW suite. Compass Call aircraft have supported combat
operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. The USAF has indicated that it plans to reduce the fleet
from 15 to 8 aircraft. The transfer of these aircraft to inactive status has caused some concern from outside advocates and Congress, given the relative paucity of EW assets.601 Thatsaid, the Compass Call’s utility in a near-peer conflict is unclear given that the Hercules
platform is large, non-stealthy, relatively slow, and with little self-defense capability.
Beyond aircraft, the United States employs a decoy drone, the ADM-160B Miniature Air-Launched
Decoy (MALD), for SEAD. This expendable munition has a 550-mile range, can loiter to locate
targets, and is able to mimic the emissions signature of U.S. aircraft to confuse enemy systems.602
The USAF and USN have developed a stand-in—that is, penetrating—jammer variant of the AIM160, the MALD-J. The MALD-J has the ability to increase the efficacy of airborne EW platforms
given its range, persistence, and advanced data link. The MALD-J retains the spoofing capabilitiesof the earlier system, meaning that operators can toggle the system between decoy and jam in
real time.603
In the SEAD mission, having a disposable EW munition that provides the launch platform a meaningful standoff range is critical. The standoff range provided by a jamming munition decreases thethreat to pilots and potentially increases the number of aircraft that can be used for SEAD. This isan excellent example of how a high-end capability can be used by less advanced aircraft.
The United States relies upon one legacy shipborne defensive EW system, the SLQ-32, designedin the 1970s. This system is integrated into the vessel’s combat weapons systems and offers radar
emission threat detection, cueing for chaff systems, and, in some models, active jamming. The
USN recognizes that this system, despite some upgrades, is woefully out of date. The Surface
Electronic Warfare Improvement Program (SEWIP) is an effort to inject modern technologies into
the SLQ-32 system. The Block II increment, with improved threat warning, and Block III increment, with new jammers, are both in testing.604 This technology injection will greatly increase
the system’s effectiveness, as it will provide USN vessels a non-kinetic option to attack and neutralize incoming radar-guided munitions.
It is important to note that the Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radars currently fielded in F-22s, F-35s, E/A-18Gs, and being retrofitted to F/A-18s and F-15s have some level of EW

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capability due to the extremely flexible nature and high output power of their transmitters.605
The intrinsic ability of AESA radars to carry out EW missions is not necessarily a replacement for
dedicated platforms. The power generation and transmitters of a dedicated platform like the E/A18G increase their effectiveness on a target, and the additional manpower allows them to more
effectively manage the EW mission.
As noted in the cyber section, the emergence of cyberspace as a warfighting domain has profound implications for EW activities. Wireless communication technologies are susceptible not
only to jamming but to exploitation by cyberattack. EW platforms will serve an important role incyber conflicts by delivering network attack payloads to wireless or air-gapped networks. In thiscontext, wireless includes any communication system that uses the electromagnetic spectrum totransmit information. The U.S. military and the U.S. intelligence community are working towardrealizing the convergence of cyber and EW capabilities.

Gaps
There are clear and worrying gaps in EW. A major issue is that EW investments over the past
decade have been biased toward lower-end capabilities to combat irregular threats. The United States currently lacks EW capacity and certain capabilities to counter the threat of advanced
IADS. Further, the United States has not fully integrated electronic warfare in ways that complement and enhance existing and planned systems.
Of greatest concern is a large shortfall in dedicated EW airframes. Once the E/A-6B is retired from
USMC service and the USAF reduces its fleet of EC-130Hs to 8 aircraft, there will only be 143 EW
platforms between the USN and the USAF, 135 of these being carrier-based E/A-18Gs. Fifth-generation fighters such as the F-22 and F-35 have some organic EW capabilities in their AESA radars
and advanced integrated weapons systems; however, they lack the broad coverage provided by
platforms with dedicated EW subsystems.606
In light of this, the USN is considering purchasing additional E/A-18Gs to meet the expecteddemand for EW across the joint force.607 In addition, there has been speculation that the LRS-B
program could include some EW capabilities. Whether this will be a dedicated complementary
platform or a component of the basic bomber remains unclear.608 If the services take these steps,
this gap may be mitigated in the mid-term (by the E/A-18G) and in the long term (by the LRS-B).
Another capacity gap is the lack of integration of EW payloads on unmanned platforms. Lowcost, unmanned systems equipped with jamming payloads could offer similar capabilities to the
MALD-J with longer loiter times and potentially greater power output levels. The USAF’s future
UAS roadmap outlines such a system when discussing a new generation of small, disposable,
air-launched unmanned systems.609 In addition, in a large-scale conflict, existing legacy systems
such as the MQ-1 Predator could be used on a semi-disposable basis in an EW/decoy role to provide additional EW capabilities against the most capable IADS.
More robust solutions include an unmanned or optionally manned EW and ISR platform as partof the LRS-B program or integration of the Next Generation Jammer on UCLASS. Either approach
would provide more robust EW capabilities to support the inherent yet limited EW systems on

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fifth-generation platforms such as the F-35. Such solutions remain in the conceptual or development stages and may not bear fruit until the mid-2020s.
Another challenge is that the SLQ-32 Block III may be unable to deal with the most advanced
threats despite the SEWIP program outlined above. The USN has several other programs underway to improve the EW components of its surface warfare systems. The most innovative of theseis the Office of Naval Research’s (ONR) Integrated Topside (InTop) effort. The goal of this research
effort is to develop an open architecture of transmitters and software that fuse communications,radar, and EW capabilities. Some of the technology developed under the auspices of InTop has
been folded into the SEWIP program.610
The revolutionary part of InTop is the potential for a vessel to devote all of its available transmitters, including the main radar such as the next-generation AMDR, to the EW role. Adapting the
AMDR to this role would require some modifications that are not currently planned, but are wellwithin the theoretical capabilities of the design.611 Given the threat posed by advanced missile
systems such as the DF-21D ASBM and YJ-18 ASCM, this investment in non-kinetic missile defense may be warranted.
Broadly speaking, the above gaps derive from the inability to project EW effects in a denied
environment. At a systems level, this gap may be mitigated through increasing the autonomy of
EW arrays and integrating them into a wide array of munitions. An example of such a technology
is the Counter-Electronics High-Power Advanced Microwave Project (CHAMP), which places anextremely high-energy microwave weapon inside the airframe of the Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile Extended-Ranger (JASSM-ER).612 This EW system-to-munition pairing would give anaircraft a standoff range greater than that offered by the MALD-J: 620 miles for CHAMP versus
550 miles for MALD-J. CHAMP and similar systems could become key technologies in the DII.
More importantly, CHAMP is the next step beyond MALD-J as CHAMP destroys, not just disrupts,
enemy sensor networks through non-kinetic means. Adding such a capability into a counter-A2/
AD concept such as JAM-GC would allow enemy mobile sensor networks to be held at risk fromlong ranges without using scarce stealthy strike platforms. Autonomous EW munitions seeded
into a strike salvo could target and neutralize enemy sensors as they come online. This would
greatly complicate the salvo competition calculus for an adversary and, in turn, impose substantial costs on an adversary.613

Recommendations• The USAF should reemphasize the role of offensive EW in penetrating strike missions, toinclude ensuring sufficient stockpiling of MALD-J in the region and the prompt integrationof these munitions with the F-35.
• CHAMP should be placed on an accelerated development track along with autonomous
targeting subsystems for EW munitions to enable highly effective operations to be carriedout in denied or degraded communications environments.
• The USN should explore ways of projecting EW affects ashore by integrating the EW munitions described above into VLS systems on surface and subsurface combatants.
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NUCLEAR FORCES
No other portion of the globe hosts a more complex, dynamic, and potentially threatening set of
nuclear challenges to U.S. interests than the Asia-Pacific region. While Russia remains the greatest existential nuclear threat to the United States, the Asia-Pacific region presents the highest riskof nuclear employment. PACOM’s AOR includes three nuclear-armed states—India, China, andNorth Korea. Yet regional nuclear dynamics are not confined to those three states. Russia andPakistan lie just outside the region and they help to drive nuclear competition, shape the nuclear
balance, and contribute to the risk of nuclear escalation, use, and conflict throughout the region.
All five countries possess widely varying nuclear postures, intentions, program maturities, anddoctrines that leave open substantial risk of insecurity, miscalculation, mistrust, and human error.

Strategic Stability and Deterrence
China is the most opaque of the recognized nuclear weapons states. The United States seeks
strategic stability with China but, unlike with Russia, has no track record of arms control or transparency to shape common perceptions of stability. Traditionally, Chinese restraint from nuclear
sabre rattling, from coercive nuclear diplomacy, and from direct nuclear competition (as between
the Soviet Union and the United States in the Cold War) has contributed to an overall atmosphereof nuclear stability with the United States. However, China is modernizing its nuclear fleet (to include an expanding sea-based leg), diversifying and hardening its nuclear posture, and managing
its own complex strategic stability challenge—with Russia to its north, India to the south, and theUnited States to the east. Moreover, China’s growing capabilities in space, cyber, and advanced
missile systems further complicate the deterrence picture—calling into question the validity of a
nuclear deterrence policy based solely on the nuclear balance. With capabilities and complexity
increasing, confidence in strategic stability is likely to decline in the years ahead.

Theater Nuclear Balance and Risk of War
The risk of nuclear conflict runs high in the Asia-Pacific region. India and Pakistan coexist in a stateof tenuous restraint. Perceiving an excessive risk from India’s conventional superiority and its “ColdStart” military posture, Pakistan is further diversifying its nuclear arsenal in terms of delivery, yield,
and concepts of operation to support a range of strategic and tactical objectives vis-à-vis India.
Pakistani shifts in nuclear doctrine and capability increasingly appear to mirror Russian intentions
to consider the early use of nuclear weapons to persuade a conventionally superior adversary toback off—in other words using nuclear escalation to deescalate a conventional conflict they would
otherwise lose. India responds and reacts to Pakistan’s rather public posturing through changes inposture and doctrine, many of which are already underway. The India-Pakistan nuclear dynamic
will affect perceptions of the U.S. role in the region, the risks associated with nuclear use on a theater basis, and the speed with which a crisis could escalate on the subcontinent. Inevitably, thesechanges will cascade into the India-China nuclear dynamic, especially if the nuclear competitionon the subcontinent begins to move India closer to nuclear parity with China.

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ANALYSIS OF CAPABILITY GAPS AND SHORTFALLSManaging a Nuclear-Armed Rogue State
North Korea continues to expand and diversify its nuclear arsenal and associated delivery systems. North Korea’s erratic leadership and history of provocative behavior raise the risk of nuclear intimidation, coercion, and use, while also undermining confidence in the efficacy of U.S.
extended deterrence. Deterrence messaging to Pyongyang remains important, but the UnitedStates cannot be confident that signals will be received with the same meaning with which they
were sent. Given North Korea’s erratic and risk-tolerant behavior, U.S. and regional deterrence efforts focused on North Korea must be accompanied by effective counter-provocation and counter-escalation strategies. Coupled with its history of proliferating nuclear capabilities and missile
systems, North Korea is a profoundly dangerous player in the regional nuclear landscape.

Extended Deterrence and Nuclear Security Guarantees
The U.S. legal and political commitments to extended deterrence lie at the foundation of theregional security architecture in the Asia-Pacific region. U.S. treaties provide assurances that theUnited States will come to allies’ defense through military means should they come under attackby a foreign power. By extending the U.S. nuclear umbrella, the United States has assured allies
that should they face a nuclear threat, the United States would be prepared to respond in kind on
their behalf. As the nuclear shadow has grown over the region, the credibility of these assurances
has come under strain for both Japan and South Korea. Simultaneously, North Korea’s persistentdevelopment and expansion of nuclear and missile capabilities has made these assurances all
the more important. A complicating factor is what appears to be North Korea’s growing appetite
for risk (e.g., the 2010 shelling of Yeonpyeong), which could be the result of increased confidence
from possessing nuclear weapons.
For the United States, the stakes have risen with the increased risk of nuclear provocation or use
by North Korea. If security conditions erode further, the nonproliferation regime weakens, or thecrisis of confidence in U.S. security guarantees takes deeper hold, then political pressures within
South Korea and Japan could make nuclear weapons capabilities more attractive to U.S. allies.
Japan and South Korea both recognize the inherent dual-use nature of their civilian nuclear
power programs. The recent negotiation of a nuclear cooperation agreement between Washington and Seoul managed to avoid approval of South Korean uranium enrichment and spent-fuelreprocessing, but the question may arise in the next decade, especially in light of the legitimization of Iran’s uranium enrichment program by the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action. In particular, South Korea looks to its neighbor Japan as a model of nuclear development. Japan is widely
regarded as having achieved nuclear latency, as the only non-nuclear weapon state to possess
both uranium enrichment and spent-fuel reprocessing capabilities. Although guided by a strong
nuclear taboo, the tenacity with which Japan has pursued enrichment and reprocessing underscores the perceived strategic value of those capabilities.

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Regional and Global Nuclear Proliferation Challenges
The Asia-Pacific’s complex set of proliferation challenges reaches well beyond its perimeter. These
challenges include North Korea’s continued role as a leading global supplier of illicit WMD-related
goods and materials, China’s uneven implementation of proliferation-related financial and tradecontrols, and the enormous volume of maritime commerce that can help mask illegal behavior.

Capabilities
The United States maintains robust conventional and nuclear strike capabilities, supporting deterrence efforts and treaty commitments. The triad of air-, ground-, and sea-launched nuclear
weapons supports U.S. nuclear forces. In addition, capabilities to monitor the testing of nuclear
weapons, largely provided by the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization detection sites
operating throughout Asia and the world, provide important detection capability. The overall
mission, however, is highly dependent upon conventional presence in the region. The forces
most important include missile defenses, conventional strike assets, naval presence for tracking
and interdicting capabilities, and air and space assets critical for surveillance and monitoring.

Gaps
Detecting and Identifying Nuclear Acquisition, Development, Testing, and Employment
China, India, and North Korea are all expanding, modernizing, and diversifying their nuclear
programs and associated delivery systems while at the same time managing complex deterrence
dynamics on their borders, across their region, and vis-à-vis the United States. The United States
has vital interests in understanding and monitoring the nuclear capabilities and postures of thesecountries; limiting nuclear competition; and enhancing strategic warning of potentially hostile,
provocative, or destabilizing actions. The United States faces obstacles in this area: detecting
and monitoring activities in covert, hardened, or deeply buried facilities; real-time monitoring ofmaterials, weapons, and equipment in transit; and detection of low- or no-yield nuclear testing
through seismic and air monitoring. Coupled with the challenges posed by mobile and dual-use
delivery systems, U.S. warning windows could be very short. In order to overcome these obstacles, the United States requires persistent surveillance in denied areas and enhanced detection
and monitoring of low- or no-yield nuclear testing. Enhanced verification technologies that can
support transparency and confidence-building measures with the aim of improving stability andreducing miscalculation will also be required to ensure that international agreements and norms
are upheld.
Reassuring Treaty Allies
In decades past, U.S. extended deterrence and nuclear guarantees in the PACOM AOR provided
a robust assurance against a remote threat. Today, while this may still be the case for Australia,
the tables have turned for Japan and South Korea. Japan and South Korea face a growing nuclear
threat and weakening confidence in the extended deterrence relationship, especially given theconcern that North Korea may be prone to miscalculation. This reality has prompted both Japanand South Korea to ask more detailed and complex questions about the extended deterrence
relationship with regard to signaling, shared decisionmaking, and C2 dynamics.
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ANALYSIS OF CAPABILITY GAPS AND SHORTFALLSIn order to message effectively to potential aggressors and dissuade development of independent nuclear weapons-related capabilities, the United States must demonstrate the credibilityof its commitment to its allies in visible and compelling ways. In recent years, the United States
has developed an Extended Deterrence Dialogue with Japan, and an Extended Deterrence Policy Committee with South Korea, in an attempt to build confidence in each bilateral relationshipand to promote a more sophisticated dialogue on this complex topic. Even so, significant capability gaps limit the U.S. ability to manage these extended deterrence relationships effectively.
Today, the United States lacks a sufficient range of response options to signal, compel, and defeat
the nuclear adversaries facing our allies, and by extension to inspire confidence in U.S. nuclear
guarantees. Proportional and timely response lie at the heart of credible assurances and deterrence. In addition, it is unlikely that the United States would detect early development of a nuclear weapons program in Japan, given the high state of nuclear latency and the ease with which
covert weaponization could occur. The probability of detection is slightly higher regarding South
Korea, which has a lower level of nuclear latency.
The United States could improve its range of response options by improving detection methods to catch emerging nuclear capabilities; ensuring a credible and prompt conventional strikecapability; building layered defenses to outpace growing missile threats; and developing a rangeof capabilities to enable nuclear materials, weapons, and equipment to be located, secured, dismantled, and removed from a conflict zone. Signaling could also be improved by investing in adiverse range of scalable and proportional nuclear and possibly non-nuclear options to demonstrate U.S. resolve in the face of nuclear aggression.
Ensuring Proliferation-Free Commerce and Detecting and Interdicting Illicit Activity
Interdicting WMD-related materials depends first on detecting a potentially illicit transaction
or transfer with sufficient detail to enable a timely response. This is especially challenging withregard to North Korea given its extensive denial and deception tactics. When an illicit transaction or transfer is identified, the United States must have options to monitor, track, and preventthe transfer. The United States faces critical capability gaps in this area, including lack of timely
and detailed actionable intelligence; challenges in tracking and identifying vessels of concern
when visual monitoring is limited by weather or denial and deception tactics; and limited capabilities to impede, delay, or disrupt transactions in process without resorting to high-risk or
high-impact boarding operations. All of those challenges increase when critical cargo moves by
air or through national waters and territories. In addition, tracking, communicating, and potentially impeding vessels underway depends on the rapid availability of scarce U.S. naval assets formonitoring, surveillance, communications, and other actions. Often such vessels are not available to support interdiction operations in a timely manner, thus limiting U.S. options. Enhanced
visibility into DPRK business practices and international activities will be required to identify andprovide warning of illicit activity that has implications for global counter-proliferation efforts.
The persistent surveillance required to identify nascent nuclear capabilities is also necessary formonitoring these activities under a range of weather conditions and at standoff distances. Lastly,
the United States should consider expanding disablement or disruption capabilities in order toimpede and/or halt the movement of illicit nuclear-related materials and technologies.
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Recommendations• Improve capabilities for detection, monitoring, and surveillance of nuclear weapons acquisition, development, testing, employment, or onward proliferation to expand warning andresponse times, especially on the Korean Peninsula.
• Ensure that the United States has scalable, proportional, nuclear and non-nuclear response
options, complemented by robust missile defenses, to deescalate crises and counter nuclear aggression.
• Diversify the means and mechanisms¬—through policy, posture, and deployments—by
which the United States can signal its resolve in the face of nuclear threats.
• Enhance capabilities to interdict proliferation-related activities to include improved low-visibility monitoring from standoff distances and development of disablement or disruption
technologies to broaden response options.
• Improve capabilities to locate, secure, disable, or remove nuclear weapons in the face ofinstability or conflict.

MUNITIONSWith munitions in the PACOM AOR, the United States faces several demands:• Acquiring large numbers of precision munitions for a ground war against North Korea.
• Acquiring adequate numbers of highly sophisticated munitions for an air and naval conflictwith a peer competitor, such as China.
• Acquiring adequate inventories of anti-missile munitions because demands will be high inany conflict with a missile-armed adversary.
• Acquiring non-lethal munitions for other contingencies.

Capabilities
Munitions for a Conflict on the Korean Peninsula
A conflict in Korea would place a high demand on precision air-to-ground and ground-toground munitions. Deeply buried and heavily protected bunkers are the most demanding targets.
Counter-air and counter-ship munitions would also be needed, though at lower levels. There
would be significant demand for anti-missile munitions given North Korea’s missile capabilities,
both WMD and conventional.
Air-to-Ground and Ground-to-Ground Munitions. North Korea fields massive ground forces, as
described earlier. Technologically most of this equipment is at best obsolescent, if not actually obsolete. Of North Korean tanks, 3,000 or so are of the T-55/T-62 generation614—essentiallyhalf-a-century behind current U.S. tanks and severely overmatched, as seen when employed by
Iraq against U.S. forces in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. However, the large numbers of North Korean soldiers, the difficult terrain, and the apparent fanaticism of North Korean troops mean thata ground war would be both intense and potentially prolonged. Such a war would require large
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numbers of current precision weapons—TOW/Javelin for ground forces, JDAM/SDM for tacticalaircraft, Hellfire/PKWS for helicopters, GMLRS/Excalibur for the artillery. Current global inventories
are adequate, but PACOM desires to increase theater stocks so that munitions are readily available in wartime. This reduces demands on lift during early phases of a conflict when demands
are great and assets are still being surged. However, this is also expensive because of the need tobuild secure storage facilities. Rapid repositioning of munitions from CONUS is possible, thoughwith some risk if delays occur.
Munitions against Hard and Deeply Buried Targets. North Korea is renowned for its extensive bunker system. The United States has a wide variety of non-nuclear munitions designed to attack
such targets: BLU-109s (1” steel casing with a large explosive warhead and delayed-action fuses), BLU-118s (with a thermobaric—fuel/air—explosive), BLU-113 Super Penetrators, and BLU-116
Advanced Unitary Penetrators. However, conventional munitions cannot destroy all such targets.
Some are too strongly protected. Because these kinds of targets are also seen elsewhere in theworld—in Iran, for example—and because the assets protected are highly valuable, work on refining this capability will need to continue. Additional, specialized capabilities will also need to be
maintained to hold these targets at risk.
Anti-Ship Munitions. Most North Korean navy vessels are small patrol-size craft, which would be
extremely vulnerable to modern munitions. More dangerous are North Korea’s more than 70
submarines, which could hide in its difficult coastal areas, and its fast infiltration boats for special
forces. The challenge here is ISR. Existing munitions and inventories can handle these threats ifthey can be located.
Anti-Air Munitions. Most North Korean aircraft are old—of the MIG 17/19/21 era—and can be handled by current inventories of existing munitions. UAS platforms have become widely available
and provide a special challenge because of their generally small size. Although North Korean UAS
capabilities are still limited, the United States counter-UAS capability is also limited because theUnited States deactivated most of its short-range air defenses at the end of the Cold War.
Munitions for a Conflict with a Peer Competitor
Peer competitors create an A2/AD environment that requires standoff munitions and sophisticated counter-measures.
Anti-Surface Warfare. The USN has a family of weapons including Harpoon, Standoff Land Attack
Missile-Expanded Response (SLAM-ER), Joint Standoff Weapon, and the Mk-48 torpedo, as well
as short-range weapons such as ship-launched Hellfire and Griffin missiles. The Long Range Anti-Ship Missile (LRASM) is planned to enter the fleet in 2019, which should meet PACOM’s identified near-term need for a long-range sea- and air-launched anti-ship missile, though it may not
be available in desired quantities for some time. Longer term, the Offensive Anti-Surface Warfare
Weapon will provide additional capabilities. The Air Force has the Conventional Air Launched
Cruise Missile (CALCM) and its replacements, JASSM and JASSM-ER. For both services, hypervelocity missiles provide a major potential increase in capabilities, but their development history
has been uneven and it may take a while for them to be fielded.

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Longer term, expanding ASuW capabilities to mobile land platforms, consistent with existingtreaties on such munitions, would be a new capability with great potential. In peacetime, theseunits could be forward stationed at established bases on Okinawa, Guam, and Australia. In timeof conflict, they could move to maritime choke points and to threatened littorals. Anti-ship missiles launched from land would severely constrain a potential adversary’s freedom of movement
at sea when faced with linked engagement zones in island chains or barriers. Mobility would enhance the launchers’ survivability, so they could operate in A2/AD areas, increasing the difficulty
for adversary ISR and targeting compared to a ship-only presence. All the technologies exist now.
Although the United States has not had such a capability since World War II, many other nations
do maintain this capability.615 This capability might fit in the USA or USMC field artillery communities and, in a maritime A2/AD conflict, would have more relevance than traditional fires.
Antisubmarine Warfare. The United States developed and fielded highly sophisticated ASW munitions during the Cold War to counter the threat from the Soviet submarine fleet, and those capabilities have continued with procurement of the Mk-54 and Mk-48 torpedoes (although recent
testing identified shortfalls in performance of the Mk-54). However, this is the one major mission
area where the United States has no actual combat experience since World War II. Further, theUnited Kingdom’s experience in the Falklands War indicates possible high usage of ASW munitions. This unusually high level of uncertainty creates risk. The United States has conducted ASW
tests and exercises against representational targets borrowed from allies. Because of the highuncertainty and high stakes in this mission area, such tests and exercises are highly important.
Air-to-Air. AIM-9X and AIM-120D (AMRAAM-D), both currently in procurement, are designed to handle air threats in a sophisticated countermeasure environment. Inventories of these most advanced
variants are still limited, though upgrades of earlier versions are also very effective. Proposed FY 2016
procurement quantities roughly doubled the FY 2015 amounts. In addition, there are large inventories of un-upgraded, earlier variants of both munitions, stored both in CONUS and overseas.
Missile Defense Munitions
North Korea’s strategic rocket forces pose a severe threat, especially with WMD warheads. A peercompetitor such as China would have large numbers of highly accurate and long-range missiles,
conventional and nuclear, ballistic and cruise. All would put great demands on missile defense.
The United States has four missile defense munitions in production:• SM-3 Block IB. The SM-3 family provides missile defense capability on Aegis-equipped ships.
Block IB is part of an evolutionary upgrade from Block I to (eventually) Block IIA and adds
capabilities against medium-range missiles.
• SM-6. This naval missile provides extended-range interception of aircraft and ASCMs, overboth sea and land. Recently it also demonstrated capability against SRBMs.
• THAAD. This land-based long-range “hit-to-kill” interceptor destroys ballistic missiles insideor outside the atmosphere.
• PAC-3/MSE. This land-based missile provides hit-to-kill, surface-to-air interception of tactical ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, and aircraft.

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Collectively, these munitions have the needed capabilities but are not forward deployed inadequate numbers. Rapid resupply from stocks in CONUS would be needed. Additionally, thesemunitions would need to be sent rapidly to the right locations within theater at the outset of theconflict to protect U.S. bases, operations, and territory. Unlike with other precision munitions,
DOD has not increased procurement quantities of missile defense munitions.
Non-Lethal Munitions for Other Contingencies
Non-lethal capabilities, including inventories of non-lethal munitions, can be extremely useful for crowd control and force protection. Although both missions are the responsibility of thehost nation, situations can arise—in war, in disasters, or in postwar stabilization—in which U.S.
forces are forced to take on those roles. Current capabilities of non-lethal weapons include
counter-personnel and counter-materiel abilities. Training on these systems has increased with
non-lethal weapons being used in exercises such as COBRA GOLD 2012. Looking forward, development of more sophisticated systems, such as an indirect fire munition, are being tested.616
Such capabilities have obvious humanitarian value as they reduce injuries to civilians. They also
serve an important political function by reducing friction with host governments and by maintaining support from the U.S. public, both of which may question the U.S. role if too many civilians are killed or injured.

Gaps
In many categories of munitions, the United States has large inventories of older versions. Ideally, DOD would also procure large numbers of the most modern munitions. However, resource
reductions from the Budget Control Act and subsequent budget agreements have affected allmodernization, including munitions. The USN, for example, had to delay procurement of 1,000
weapons in its recent five-year plan.617 Further, DOD tends to fund platforms at the expense ofmunitions. Devising a viable munitions strategy is therefore challenging.
In a conflict with a peer competitor, capability is particularly important because munitions may
require sophisticated features to be effective. To this end, Deputy Secretary of Defense Bob Work
notes, “The first aspect of the Third Offset Strategy is to win a guided munitions salvo competition.”618 Forward deploying advanced munitions in hardened facilities reduces risk—Guam is thehighest priority because of missions expected to be conducted from there—but building thesefacilities is expensive.
DOD has made a significant commitment to stockpiling munitions, having greatly increased
procurement quantities in the FY 2016 budget of anti-air and ground-attack munitions: AIM-9X,
AIM-120D, SDB II, JASSM, and JDAM. It has slightly cut PATRIOT and THAAD missile procurement. Where shortfalls occur, rapid resupply from U.S. global inventories will be needed, but suchaction must be preplanned to be effective in a crisis. If global inventories of the most advanced
munitions become depleted, then older versions would need to be used.
In a large conflict with a less sophisticated opponent like North Korea, legacy and shorter-ranged
munitions will be more usable. Attention needs to be given to having enough air-to-ground munitions like JDAMs for the early phases of a conflict since this is the most critical period and the
U.S. contribution will be mainly from the air.
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A key risk will be the loss of legacy Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munitions (DPICM) on
January 1, 2018. These legacy munitions have dud rates that are too high and by policy will nolonger be used. This policy leaves a large hole in munitions inventories that will take many years
to fill with improved munitions.
A key consideration is the slowness of the industrial base to respond to new demands. Most munitions have procurement lead times around 24 months. Therefore, unless a future conflict lasts
years, the United States will fight with whatever it has—in munitions, spare parts, and platforms—
at the beginning of the fight. In some areas production bottlenecks can be eased by detailed
supplier analysis, as was done recently for the AIM-9X.
A final consideration is the need of allies. Allies are expected to provide their own munitions andlogistics. The United States has no formal requirement to supply munitions to allies, and suchneeds should not be the basis for acquisition. However, the United States should have the mechanisms in place to provide such support if U.S. munitions stockpiles outlast those of U.S. allies
or partners. Establishing this mechanism would likely require the United States to create greater
local stockpiles of munitions expected to be in short supply.

Recommendations• Forward deploy additional munitions to Guam, Japan, and Korea in hardened facilities.
• Continue acquisition of advanced munitions, at the PB 2016 level. Increase procurementof missile defense missiles until success of follow-on technologies is assured. Give PACOM
priority on fielding of these new munitions. Resolve production bottlenecks where they
constrain production rate.
• Include advanced munitions in the Third Offset strategy.
• Where there are shortages in forward-deployed munitions, plan to globally source munitions during conflicts, taking risks in other theaters, if necessary by relying on older versions.
• Develop mechanisms for emergency resupply of allies, if such becomes necessary.

STRATEGIC MOBILIT Y, READINESS, AND LOGISTICS
Capabilities: Strategic Mobility
Because PACOM covers 52 percent of the globe and U.S. forces in the PACOM AOR face the possibility of highly demanding conflicts with China or North Korea, strategic mobility is of paramountimportance. DOD defines strategic mobility as “the capability to deploy and sustain military forces
worldwide in support of national strategy.”619 To accomplish this, DOD uses the Defense Transportation System (DTS). The system includes everything needed to move a unit “from fort to foxhole”—
that is, from peacetime garrison to wartime location. Resources include aircraft, ships, barges,
prepositioning, infrastructure—such as seaports, airports, railways, highways, pipeline pumping andterminal stations—and automated information systems to tie the system together, such as in-transit visibility (ITV) and traffic management. The system uses both military and commercial assets.

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The commander of United States Transportation Command (TRANSCOM) oversees the system.
TRANSCOM runs day-to-day operations and supports war planning, both deliberate and rapid.
The intercontinental element of strategic mobility has three major components:• Airlift: Movement by long-range aircraft, which can be military or civilian. Airlift is fast
but costly.
• Sealift: Movement by ship, classified into three pools of assets: U.S. government-owned, U.S.
flag commercial, and foreign flag commercial. Sealift can move massive amounts of cargo
and historically 95 percent of wartime cargo goes by sea. However, it is slow and typicallytakes at least 30 days to arrive.
• Prepositioning (both land, in warehouse complexes ashore, and maritime, afloat on cargo ships): Prepositioning places military equipment and supplies at or near the point ofplanned use to speed deployment of a force during initial phases of an operation. Prepositioning greatly reduces the amount of transportation needed during a crisis because only
troops need to be transported, but operations require a permissive security environment
and prepositioning may not be in the right location.
In PACOM, one Maritime Prepositioning Ship Squadron (3d) is customarily stationed in Guamwith enough supplies to support a Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB), roughly 16,000–18,000
Marines, for 30 days. Other ships contain equipment and supplies for USA and USAF units. A second MPS squadron (2d) is customarily stationed at Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean with similarcapabilities. Ashore the USA has prepositioned equipment (APS-4) at Camp Carroll in South Korea, as well as at Yokohama and Camp Sagami, Japan. These contain both equipment configured
in unit sets and sustainment supplies. PACOM and the military services have plans for ongoing
upgrades of these prepositioned sets.
In light of the theater’s size, many observers have expressed concerns that existing mobility capability is inadequate. Faster arrival times in crises reduce risk by deterring aggression before conflict
begins, ceding less territory during a conflict, and concluding a conflict faster. Faster is clearly better.
However, the Defense Department argues that, based on its most recent strategic mobility study,
the Mobility Capabilities Assessment (MCA), its overall strategic mobility capabilities are adequate toresolve conflicts and crises at an acceptable level of risk. The study’s major findings were as follows:In general, planned mobility capabilities (organic and commercial) support theobjectives of the 2012 National Defense Strategy. . . . PB13 mobility forces do
not materially constrain U.S. objectives associated with conducting simultaneous
operations in different theaters, and have sufficient capabilities to concurrently
support a heightened defense posture in and around the United States or support U.S. civil authorities in response to a large-scale attack or natural disaster.
. . . While some scenarios did present certain aspects of the mobility portfolios
assessed with challenges . . . none of these challenges would have precluded
achievement of U.S. objectives within generally acceptable timeframes.620
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In general, the lack of foreign infrastructure required to support major force deployments and theavailability of forces to deploy remains the fundamental constraint when attempting to reduce
deployment timelines. Procurement of additional airlift and sealift by themselves would havelittle impact on timelines.
DOD published the MCA in 2013 and based it on the 2012 National Defense Strategy and the(internal) Defense Planning Guidance for FY 2014–2018.621 As a result of the study’s findings, theUSAF reaffirmed its decision to retire the oldest cargo aircraft (C-5As and C-130s). Air refueling
was found to be adequate for current requirements, helped by planned procurement of newrefueling aircraft (KC-46s). Excess capacity in sealift and civilian airlift aircraft provided additionalrisk mitigation. These results were consistent with DOD’s 2010 Mobility Requirements and Capabilities Study 2016.622 The Government Accountability Office did not review the MCA but had
reviewed the earlier MCRS-16 study. GAO generally supported the study’s findings but recommended that DOD clearly state risk assessments.623
Operational concepts developed since the publication of the MCA, including distributed anddispersal basing for air power, may increase the demands on strategic mobility assets including
aerial refueling. These will need to be considered in the next strategic mobility analysis.

Gaps: Strategic Mobility
PACOM’s 2015 posture statement notes, “PACOM does not have enough lift to satisfy all operational requirements.”624 PACOM staff explained that plans accept risk because of timelines, due inpart to reliance on reserve forces as early enablers. However, the risk was acceptable if the plans
were executed as written.
Aerial refueling is critical to maintaining airpower in such a large theater. Long-term gaps will
exist in aerial refueling— under some scenarios, according to MCRS-2016. The KC-46 tanker will
start to mitigate gaps when it is delivered. However, operating in a non-permissive environment will place new strains on the tanker force. Tankers may have losses or may need to follow
non-optimal routing. Further, tankers will be needed to support the flow of replacement aircraft
to compensate for combat losses.
Shortfalls are also expected in Petroleum, Oil and Lubricants (POL) tankers (that is, tankers thatcarry refined products, not crude oil) and Roll On/Roll Off (RO/RO) ships. However, in the commercial world there are many such ships, which might be usable in a conflict.
A major uncertainty in a conflict with a peer competitor is the security of U.S. mobility networks.
For 70 years, U.S. mobility assets have operated in a sanctuary. The MCA, like previous mobility
assessments, included WMD effects but assumed that “[t]heater combat superiority (air, surface,and subsurface) has been achieved to the degree necessary to permit airlift and sealift operations.” That may not be true in the future as opposing forces will have sophisticated submarines,
long-range missiles, and potentially power-projection capabilities, perhaps disrupting the flow ofmobility assets and causing some attrition.

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Recommendations• Execute currently planned programs—for the KC-46 tanker, for connectors, and for
prepositioning—in order to enhance the strategic mobility system.
• Conduct another strategic mobility study when the long-term budget situation becomes
clear and the long-term force is set, or if the next strategic review (“QDR 2018”) establishes a substantially different strategy. In future mobility assessments, consider the effect of
attacks on bases, ships, and aircraft and the needs of a more distributed wartime basing
posture. There is wide recognition, in OSD, the services, the Joint Staff, and PACOM, that
this is needed.
• Make plans for using commercial mobility assets to the maximum extent possible.

Capabilities: Readiness
DOD defines operational readiness as “The capability of a unit/formation, ship, weapon system,or equipment to perform the missions or functions for which it is organized or designed.” Sequestration in 2013, which required DOD to cut $32 billion in six months, severely reduced readiness because cuts had to be made quickly, and readiness accounts are easy to adjust in the shortterm. DOD is rebuilding readiness slowly. In coping with sequestration cuts, the military services
prioritized funding for the readiness of forward-deployed forces. However, that meant that they
had to cut the readiness of CONUS forces more.626
Low readiness in CONUS units presents challenges for both warfighting and day-to-day operations. For warfighting, it means that forces will arrive in theater later than desired or that they will
not have their full capabilities. Both increase risk and potential casualties. In day-to-day operations, the risk is in reduced presence. Because the services have endeavored to deploy forces
only at high readiness, the limited amount of readiness funding allows deployment of fewer
forces—air, naval, and ground—for allied engagement and crisis response.
There is no substitute for actually being present. As Adm. Jonathan Greenert, then-chief of naval
operations, stated of the USN, “This is our mandate: to be where it matters, when it matters.”627 In
the 1990s, the concept of “virtual presence” was proposed—that is, using the threat of distant but
rapidly deployable air power to substitute for forward deployed forces. However, it became clear
that, to U.S. allies, partners, and competitors, “virtual presence” was, in fact, absence.

Gaps: Readiness
After a decade of war, the services had become extremely skilled at counterinsurgency operations but had lost their edge in high-end conflicts. Full spectrum readiness is needed to counterthreats in the Pacific. Planned funding in PB 2016 will rebuild readiness across DOD over time,
but services will not achieve targeted levels until FY 2020, 2023 for the Air Force.628
Further, readiness faces two major future challenges: uncertain long-term funding and the decline of war (OCO) funding. Funding reductions would hit all accounts, but particularly readinessbecause these accounts can be changed quickly.

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The risk with OCO funding is indirect. Although OCO funds mainly CENTCOM activities, it also
funds many USN and SOCOM global day-to-day operations and logistics. For example, in FY 2016
OCO will fund 22 percent of overall USN-deployed ship steaming days and 20 percent of all ship depot maintenance. If this funding were to go away without replacement, the effects would be severe.

Capabilities: Logistics
The core logistic functions are deployment and distribution, supply, maintenance, logistic services, operational contract support (OCS), engineering, and health services.629 Most of these are
long-standing functions that are well understood, even if not always sufficiently resourced. The
considerations that affect readiness apply here also, since logistics is a major element of readiness.
Several logistic concerns deserve particular attention, however:Operations in an A2/AD Environment: Although in recent conflicts there has been some threat
from missiles and hit-and-run insurgent attacks, the large logistic bases and long supply lines
have generally operated in sanctuary. As noted with strategic mobility, operating in an A2/AD environment will be very different. China particularly will have the ability to strike at long range andattack logistics activities on the ocean, in the air, and on the ground.
Operational Contract Support (OCS): OCS has received much attention in the last decade as contractors have become a permanent part of U.S. force structure alongside active forces, reserves,and government civilians. As a result of contractor scandals during operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, DOD developed new processes and structures to ensure that contracting operations
were both rapidly executed and fair to the government. These processes and structures need tocontinue in peacetime lest abuses arise in the next conflict.
Ally and Partner Needs: Combined operations with allies (connected to the United States througha formal treaty) and coalition partners (joined for a particular operation) are a continuing featureof contemporary operations. International partners have been present in all recent operations,both for operational and political reasons, and that will continue. Allies and partners frequently
need transportation and logistical support because, other than the United States, few countries—
beyond the United Kingdom and France—have any capability for global deployment. Rather, foreign forces are designed for national or regional operations. Therefore, the United States needs
to sustain the mechanisms and legal authorities to provide this support.
U.S. Army Executive Agency: The USA provides certain joint capabilities as the Defense Department’s executive agent—for example, handling port operations and long-haul trucking. The USA
has expressed concern about the burden that these responsibilities put on its diminishing manpower. These capabilities are needed for an effective joint force and cannot be ignored. If the
USA cannot execute some missions, then contractors will need to conduct them.
Supply Distribution. The large size of the theater and the new operational concepts that emphasize dispersal put unusual pressure on supply distribution during conflict. In particular, the ability
to move fuel to distributed facilities and forward bases is a concern. Aircraft and ships use fuel inimmense quantities, especially during conflicts when sortie rates surge. Any interruption in theflow of fuel would have immediate adverse effects on wartime operations.
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Gaps: Logistics
Theater-wide A2/AD threats may require defensive activities in the Western Pacific that were lastplanned for during the Cold War, for example, the convoying of logistics ships, the hardening oflogistical hubs, and the prepositioning of rapid-repair capabilities.
The analysis in this study makes it clear that operational logistical demands in PACOM and elsewhere will continue to be high even as resources are constrained. Traditionally the United States
has provided most of these capabilities through government means, both military and civilian.
The exception has been strategic mobility where sustainment operations—by air and sea—havefrequently, and successfully, used commercial assets.
One gap is the delivery of fuel and supplies to forward bases. To save money, the USN proposed putting two fast combat support ships (T-AOE) into reserve status, one of which would
be assigned to PACOM. The T-AOEs are the USN’s most capable support ships for providing fuel,ammunition, and supplies to the fleet at sea, although they are also more expensive to operate
than some oilers and dry cargo ships. Shifting the PACOM-assigned T-AOE from active to reserve
status would delay its deployment when needed because of the time required to activate it andmove it forward. Keeping the ship in active status would reduce this risk.
During the Cold War, the United States relied heavily on NATO and allied militaries to provide
logistical support. This was the preferred course of action since these forces were already inplace, were under direct government control, and did not put peacetime demands on the United States. However, this was possible because NATO allies were wealthy, well-armed, and highlyorganized. Such support is unlikely to be available in future conflicts in the Asia-Pacific region
because most regional allies will be hard pressed to support even their own forces in a conflict.
Increasingly, the military has relied on contractors, both U.S. and local, to provide logistical services.
Contactors successfully took over many logistical operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. However,financial scandals and lax government management of contracts undermined popular support
and wasted money. Although government assets have advantages for control and responsiveness,there will be no choice in the future but to continue and perhaps even expand the use of contractors. The hard-learned lessons from recent conflicts therefore need to be retained. These lessons
include the need for clear contract specifications, competition where feasible, vetting of potential
contractors, and aggressive auditing. Above all, use of contractors needs to be sensitive to local
customs, procedures, and politics as well as the second- and third-tier effects. U.S. contracting demands can overwhelm fragile local economies. In various instructions and directives, PACOM has
put in place a solid foundation for the future use of operational contractor support.
Contractors can come from the United States, in effect deploying with U.S. forces, to provide
expertise, technical support, and services. Contractors can also be local. Local contractors leverage the immense commercial infrastructure that exists abroad, and the region has a large population of mature companies that are accustomed to operating over long lines of communication.
For example, U.S. allies and partners have over 100 refineries and dozens of petroleum producttankers that the military could potentially use in a conflict, thereby reducing the need to rely on
military assets that haul petroleum products from the mainland to overseas bases.
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The great advantage of operational contractors, whether U.S. or local, is that unlike military forces, which must be maintained continuously, contractors cost essentially nothing in peacetime.
In wartime, contractors hire the needed personnel with existing skills and leverage the available
commercial infrastructure. Training and preparation needs are few. When the operational requirement ends, the personnel can be released or the contracts ended.
Contracts and contractors, like reservists, need time to get in place. Therefore, DOD should havereadily available contract mechanisms, deployable contract oversight teams, and standing operating procedures for smooth integration of contractors and contract support into military operations. The United States developed many of these mechanisms through hard experience over thelast 15 years, and they need to be maintained.
PACOM staff pointed to the Civil Reserve Air Fleet (CRAF) and the Logistics Civil Augmentation
Program (LOGCAP) as examples of such standing contract mechanisms. Military OPLANs are
now required to have an Annex W: Contract Support Integration Plan. However, these are reported to be underdeveloped.630
The large role played by contractors in preforming logistics services for DOD creates a potential vulnerability of computer networks that manage the contracts, monitor the production, anddelivery of goods throughout DOD’s logistics enterprise. Vulnerabilities to the cyber network—
particularly that of some of DOD’s commercial partners—highlights the potential risks of DOD in
a contingency.
A final gap is in the security of logistics communications. As noted earlier in this section, operational requirements of DOD necessitate the management and distribution of a wide rangeof supply items, especially fuel. These efforts are currently managed through a combination of
military assets and contracted service-providers. Recent incidents involving cyber attacks against
firms holding DOD logistics contracts highlight the risks of possible adversaries seeking to gain
information from, or to disrupt U.S. usage of, cyber networks that enable much of the Department’s logistics capability.631

Recommendations• Maintain high readiness in deployed forces even if the readiness of non-deployed
forces declines.
• Develop and maintain capabilities for rapidly deploying and then managing large numbersof operational support contractors.
• Plan to use operational support contractors if there are shortfalls in the U.S. Army’s Executive Agency capabilities.
• Plan also on using local commercial assets to the maximum extent possible, especially for
fuel, to support distributed operations during conflicts.
• Maintain the Pacific T-AOE in active status.
• Protect logistics communications networks, including those of private-sector partners.
Assess overall vulnerabilities to the system, and where necessary, shift logistics information
systems to classified networks.
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ANALYSIS OF CAPABILITY GAPS AND SHORTFALLSCapabilities: Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief
Policymakers regularly turn to the U.S. military to provide logistics, lift, and other capabilities
during humanitarian crises created by natural and man-made disasters.632 Over the last 20 years
40 percent of global HA/DR events have occurred in the Asia-Pacific region and in 2014 over halfof the world’s 226 natural disasters occurred in the Asia-Pacific region, from tsunamis and catastrophic river basin floods to earthquakes and cyclones.633 Such disasters show the urgent needfor expanded cooperation on HA/DR.
The United States conducts multiple HA/DR operations each year, with the scale, scope, andspeed of each operation varying greatly. Recently, the U.S. military conducted major HA/DR operations in response to the 2010 Pakistan monsoon floods; the 2010 Haiti earthquake; the 2011
earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear disaster in Japan; the 2013 hurricane Haiyan/Yolanda in thePhilippines; and the 2014 West Africa Ebola virus outbreak.
Demands on U.S. forces can be large and time urgent. The 2010 Haitian earthquake involved therapid deployment of over 22,000 military personnel—7,000 ground troops, 300 fixed-wing androtary-wing aircraft, and 22 USN ships including an aircraft carrier and two amphibious assault
ships—for relief operations lasting almost five months.634 The relief efforts in Japan in 2011 peaked at 24,000 military personnel, 24 USN ships including two aircraft carriers and an amphibious
assault ship, and 189 aircraft, with operations lasting about two months.635
While HA/DR efforts are not the primary mission for which U.S. forces train, they neverthelessoffer the opportunity for close cooperation with various foreign militaries, some of which might
not always operate closely with the U.S. military. HA/DR peacetime exercises improve response inan emergency while also developing military-to-military linkages in a non-threatening way.

Gaps: Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief
Planning and budgeting for HA/DR operations is difficult given that humanitarian crises—
particularly those caused by natural disasters—are generally rapid-onset and unpredictable
while the specific requirements of each mission vary greatly. Further, many countries with HA/
DR triggering events lack experience and coordinating mechanisms for working with U.S. forces.
The most serious gap, however, is the difficulty in constructing whole-of-government trust andexpertise with affected states.

Recommendations• Stockpile HA/DR supplies, as feasible. Countries within the region—with U.S. assistancethrough DOD’s Overseas Humanitarian, Disaster, and Civic Aid (OHDACA) or other authorities—could establish additional pre-positioned stockpiles of critical supplies.
• Exercise the HA/DR mission with regional partners and allies and broaden multinational
exercises to include interagency and nongovernmental partners.636• Deepen whole-of-government HA/DR expertise across the Asia-Pacific region.

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THEATER SECURIT Y COOPERATIONAs noted earlier, security cooperation is central to the U.S. rebalance to the Asia-Pacific region.
It encompasses “all Department of Defense interactions with foreign defense establishments
to build defense relationships.”637 Around the world, U.S. security cooperation efforts aim tostrengthen U.S. bilateral and multilateral security partnerships and deepen working relationships
with emerging powers, including China.638 By developing partner nations’ capabilities; building
interoperability; and securing peacetime and contingency access to critical air, land, and sea
nodes, theater security cooperation enhances the national security interests of the United States,
its allies, and its partners. Security cooperation efforts can include training and equipment, joint
exercises and exchanges, and advice to security-related officials. U.S. security cooperation activities with individual nations within the PACOM AOR were covered on a country-by-country basis
earlier in this report. This section instead focuses on overarching priorities for, capability gaps in,and challenges to the security cooperation enterprise.

Priorities
In support of the U.S. rebalance, PACOM pursues interoperability and information sharing withallies and partners to cooperatively address regional challenges when there are common interests and where such cooperation can produce mutual benefits. These activities include both U.S.
treaty allies and non-allied partners in the region.
A major initiative announced by Secretary Carter in June 2015 is the Maritime Security Initiative(MSI). An effort to bring resources and focus to enhancing regional maritime capabilities, frommaritime domain awareness, to personnel and assets capable of interdicting criminal actors, tomore complex naval operations, MSI could be an important tool for the United States (throughDOD) to expand targeted capabilities and capacity for allies and partner countries in the region.
Enthusiasm for MSI’s success must be tempered with a realistic understanding that creating a
new capability is not achieved simply by providing a new piece of equipment. Enduring capability improvement will only be accomplished if the partner nations take in, and then sustain
with their own resources, the training required to undertake the full mission, and to plan for andsustain an asset over its realistic lifetime. In addition, the success of MSI will depend on sustained
funding commitments from the Congress.
As Japan implements the updated Guidelines for Defense Cooperation with the United States,
USFJ continues to build a strong relationship with the Japanese Joint Staff to improve interoperability and information sharing through training, exercises, and bilateral planning. The UnitedStates also encourages greater Japanese trilateral engagement with South Korea and Australia.
Japan plans to procure several platforms to enhance interoperability with the United States,
such as the F-35 Lightning II, MV-22 Osprey, and Global Hawk UAS, as well as upgrading existing
Aegis-equipped destroyers with the latest BMD capability and constructing two additional Aegis-equipped destroyers (for a total of eight BMD-capable platforms).639
The United States and South Korea intend to modernize the alliance capabilities required to address future threats from North Korea. In 2014, PACOM officials identified C4ISR as a top priority

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for security cooperation with South Korea. PACOM’s increased emphasis on C4ISR has helped tosolidify support for Seoul’s purchase of Global Hawks, enabling South Korea to better monitor
security threats on the Korean Peninsula.640
The U.S.-Australia alliance has grown stronger with the ongoing implementation of the Force
Posture Initiatives announced by President Obama and Prime Minister Gillard in November
2011.641 These efforts will enhance training and exercise opportunities and increase bilateral collaboration in counterterrorism, space, cyber, IAMD, and regional capacity building. Australia plans
to procure a range of platforms that will increase interoperability with the United States, including the F-35 Lightning II, P-8 Poseidon, C-17 Globemaster III, EA-18G Growler, Global Hawk UAS,
and MH-60R helicopter. To enable synchronization and integration with the United States, Australia provides a general officer and a senior executive to PACOM HQ, as well as another general
officer to USARPAC.642 In fact, since 2013, an Australian major general has served as USARPAC’s
deputy command general (operations), highlighting the close military-to-military relationshipbetween the two nations.
In the Philippines, the EDCA provides expanded opportunities to conduct theater security cooperation activities and supports the AFP as it shifts focus from internal security to external defense.
PACOM officials have noted that after years of U.S.-Philippines cooperation, the allies have met
original training and advising objectives to address terrorist organizations in the Philippines (e.g.,
ASG, JI). JSOTF-P—created to counter violent extremists in the Philippines—will therefore standdown. Having demonstrated an improved ability to handle domestic threats, with the assistanceof a small PACOM contingent to work with planning and leadership staffs, AFP will assume thisimportant counterterrorism mission.643
The annual COBRA GOLD exercise cosponsored by the United States and Thailand is PACOM’ssignature, multilateral warfighting training event. However, the May 2014 coup d’état in Thailand
and resulting military junta caused the United States to significantly limit the scope of the 2015
COBRA GOLD exercise, which focused on humanitarian assistance activities rather than on moresensitive combat and crisis operations. Prospects for future security cooperation with Thailand
will depend in large part on the return to democratic leadership.
As mentioned, U.S. security cooperation extends beyond those nations with which the UnitedStates has signed security treaties. For example, the U.S.-India security cooperation relationship continues to deepen, as reflected by the 69 major combined exercises in the last five years.
India also participates in multilateral exercises, such as the Malabar Exercise series and RIMPAC,
demonstrating its commitment to providing regional security. U.S.-India defense trade has increased over the last three years, including procurement of C-17, C-130, and P-8I aircraft.644
Security cooperation with Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei has grown stronger. In
2014, Indonesia opened a Peace and Security Center to train regional partners in peacekeeping
operations. U.S.-Indonesia defense sales have expanded to include AH-64E Apache helicoptersand F-16 aircraft. Since 2010, Malaysia has increasingly participated in multilateral exercises,
such as RIMPAC and COBRA GOLD; welcomed increasing numbers of U.S. naval ship visits thatencourage engagement with the Royal Malaysian Navy; participated in jungle warfare training

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ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025with the United States; and contributed to counterpiracy efforts in the Gulf of Aden, the Horn ofAfrica, the Indian Ocean, and closer to home.645 The 2005 U.S.-Singapore Strategic Framework
Agreement allows the U.S. military to access Singaporean facilities; operate resupply vessels fromSingapore; use a naval base, ship repair facility, and airfield there; rotate U.S. fighters through Singapore; and maintain a logistical command unit.646
Also of note is recent security cooperation with Vietnam. In the 1990s, most cooperation reflected “legacy” issues from the Vietnam War era, such as locating remains of missing U.S. service
members. More recently, deepening security relations have included a robust IMET program,high-level “Defense Policy Dialogue” meetings, joint naval engagements (involving noncombat
training), peacekeeping and SAR training exercises, and relaxation of export control regulations toallow sales of non-lethal defense items to Vietnam.647
Elsewhere in the region, the United States has worked closely with many Pacific Island nations to
help them secure their interests. U.S. capacity building, often done in concert with Australia, New
Zealand, and others, has helped Pacific Island states to protect themselves against both statebased and nonstate risks.
Beyond the above-mentioned activities, PACOM has also sought to engage China on issues ofcommon interest. Notably, through a partnership with the United States Internal Revenue Service, PACOM has used DOD counter narcotics authorities to provide anti-money laundering
training to Chinese personnel involved in counterdrug efforts.648 While DOD looks to collaborate
with China on areas of mutual interest, it also recognizes the security instability caused by Chinese assertiveness. To that end, in May 2015, Defense Secretary Ash Carter announced his intent
to launch a Southeast Asia Maritime Security Initiative.649 China is thus both a recipient of security cooperation and a potential competitor driving some U.S. regional security cooperation efforts.

Capabilities
As discussed above, U.S. security cooperation with countries in the Asia-Pacific takes many
forms. Activities range from classroom-based courses at U.S. military educational institutions tolive-fire training exercises with allies to train for existing OPLANs. In between, security cooperation encompasses sales of and training on military systems; joint training and operations that
expand awareness and understanding of other countries’ militaries and cultures; and communication and interoperability exercises that improve cooperation across a range of activities, from
unplanned encounters at sea to side-by-side HA/DR operations.
U.S. armed forces remain the training and engagement partner of choice for countries throughout the PACOM AOR. Security cooperation activities are funded by a range of sources within the
U.S. government. Much security cooperation is funded out of service training and operational
budgets. Other elements, such as foreign military financing (FMF) and IMET, are funded by the
Department of State but largely executed by DOD. Still other authorities are wholly controlled by
DOD, but are focused on specific missions, such as counterterrorism, counternarcotics, or training for peacekeeping.650

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Since 2001, the United States has expanded security cooperation authorities but has done solargely through the lens of counterterrorism, which is an important though increasingly nicheelement of U.S. defense cooperation in Asia. At present, only the authorization for the Global Security Contingency Fund includes priority capability areas for PACOM such as maritime security.
Going forward, the Departments of State and Defense should consider whether priority focus on
PACOM merits creating new security cooperation authorities that seek to build partner militarycapabilities important for achieving U.S. objectives in the Asia-Pacific.

Gaps
In support of shared interests and objectives across the Asia-Pacific region, five capability areas
and two organizational shortfalls merit increased U.S., ally, and partner attention and investment:
Information and Intelligence Sharing. The MH-370 disaster and ongoing challenges in the Southand East China Seas demonstrate the need for a regional capability to monitor shared air andmaritime areas. Through multilateral conferences and military-to-military contacts, the UnitedStates could expand existing initiatives to build a shared air and maritime domain awarenessarchitecture.651
Maritime Security. Countries within the region increasingly recognize the importance of maritime sensors and platforms to track threats from sea robbery and piracy, illicit trade, transnational
crime, and security instability caused by Chinese assertiveness. For example, in the mid-2000s,
the United States helped to prevent illicit trafficking within the Strait of Malacca by providing
maritime-domain awareness radars to Indonesia and Malaysia. More recently, the United Statesagreed to sell eight Apache AH-64E attack helicopters and associated Longbow radars to Indonesia, in part to help counter sea robbery and piracy and to enhance maritime security. Somehardware is otherwise unaffordable for small allies and partners, which invest in smaller vessels
and coastal patrol craft. Multiple partners might also consider joint procurement programs forincreased quality, quantity, and interoperability.652
Undersea Warfare. As noted in the naval forces section, Chinese and North Korean advancesin submarines, combined with the increased development of undersea capabilities by others
throughout the Asia-Pacific, highlight the need for investing in undersea warfare. Increasing
training and exercises and working together to acquire and field platforms would benefit theUnited States and its allies and partners. Japan’s potential cooperation on Australia’s future submarine holds promise for deeper regional collaboration.
Missile Defense. As noted in the missile defense section, ballistic and cruise missiles are proliferating, so regional allies and partners will need to bolster their missile defense. The cost of kinetic
interceptors is high and only affordable to wealthier states, but these interceptors provide theonly near-term capability against this immediate threat. Because some interceptors are more
expensive than the missiles they are designed to strike, innovative approaches, such as rail gunsand directed energy, may be required.654 As these technologies mature, the United States shouldmake them available to allies and partners.
Cyber Security. Regional allies and partners recognize the importance of investing in cyber security. However, many regional efforts are under-resourced and lack common rules and norms for
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regulating cyber capabilities. Multinational training and exercises for cyber contingencies help
develop common approaches and standards, increase cyber-defense throughout the region, andin some cases enable operational concepts and plans for assuring cyber access in Asia.655
Defining End States. The first organizational shortfall hindering U.S. security cooperation efforts
in the Asia-Pacific is that, despite the increased emphasis on building partnership capacity, there
has been little definition of what the capability end states of partners and allies should be—onlythat there should be “more” or “improved” capability and capacity. Without having an interagency-agreed target to plan, budget, and work toward, the United States and its allies and partners
may misdirect resources and fail to meet strategic objectives. Efforts that build long-term relationships have greater value than those that produce short-term training improvements. PACOM
should work closely with its components to prioritize ally and partner capabilities needing U.S.
support, and within each country, to define specific milestones and end states before committing
to funding and authorities.
Security Cooperation Synchronization. The second organizational shortfall is that gaps in communication and synchronization between PACOM and its components can impair integrationof plans and resource decisions. For example, proposals for logistical and base upgrades for U.S.,
ally, and partner use have not been coordinated between PACOM and individual services before
being submitted for OSD and Joint Staff review. Aggregating, rather than synthesizing, component plans and requirements often results in duplicative resource requests in DOD’s PPBE process, leading planners and programmers to question the validity of requirements and requests.
This slows down and confuses the process, and as a result, PACOM and its service components
may not receive the resources they require on the timeline they would like. Greater prioritization,
de-confliction, and synchronization across PACOM components would enable DOD to respondto requirements in the Asia-Pacific in a more timely and productive manner.

Recommendations• In order to focus investments, assist regional allies and partners with the development ofdesired end-states for their military capabilities.
• Ensure objectives in the Theater Security Cooperation Plan are appropriate for a combatantcommand, rather than government-wide objectives and are within the area of responsibility of the military services or defense ministries in the partner nation. Further, consider
the partner nation capacity to adopt new initiatives, from personnel, materiel, and financial
perspective, and prioritize objectives accordingly.
• Invest in ally and partner capabilities in the priority areas of information and intelligencesharing, maritime security, undersea warfare, missile defense, and cyber security.
• Prioritize and synchronize PACOM and service component security cooperation priorities
and lines of effort.

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6 | ARCTIC AMBITIONS AND THE U.S.
NAVY’S ARCTIC ROADMAPARCTIC AMBITIONS AND THE U.S. NAVY’S ARCTIC ROADMAPUNDERSTANDING THE ARCTIC: A RAPIDLY CHANGING REGION
This section sets forth the CSIS study team’s assessment of nations’ ambitions for the Arctic andof the U.S. Navy’s Arctic Roadmap. In establishing the requirement for this assessment as part ofthe independent review of the Defense Department’s rebalance efforts, Congress acknowledged
the important and growing role of the Arctic as a region of both promise and challenge in the
security realm.
The Arctic is a rapidly thawing ocean and the Arctic region is currently warming twice as fast
as anywhere else on Earth. Since 1980, the Arctic has lost 40 percent of its sea ice cover and 70
percent of its ice volume, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimatesthat the Arctic could be free of summer ice between 2050 and 2100. Currently, about 34 percentof the world’s coastlines are covered in permafrost, but as these buffer zones disappear, coastal erosion accelerates as does onshore permafrost thaw, threatening critical infrastructure andcoastal communities. Since the start of the industrial revolution, rising carbon dioxide levels have
led to a 26 percent increase in the acidity of the Arctic Ocean, which has a detrimental impact
on marine life.
These profound environmental changes have a significant impact on the daily lives of the 4
million people who reside in the Arctic, including 40 different indigenous groups, as well as ahighly varied biodiversity consisting of approximately 4,000 species of plants, mammals, birds,
and fish. Diminishing sea ice and longer ice-free periods are affecting the migratory patterns offish stocks, as well as the hunting and fishing periods for the thousands of people who dependon the Arctic for their living. These environmental changes will not be limited to the Arctic but
will also have a profound global impact due to sea level rise and an increase in approximately 40
percent of global greenhouse gas emissions due to methane release.656
An increasingly ice-free Arctic also offers considerable economic development opportunities.
From vast natural and mineral resources to potential economically viable shipping routes, Arctic and non-Arctic states are becoming increasingly interested and invested in exploring anddeveloping the Arctic’s rich resources. According to the United States Geological Survey, theArctic holds 13 percent of the world’s undiscovered oil resources (90 billion barrels of oil) and 30
percent of the world’s undiscovered gas resources (1,669 trillion cubic feet of natural gas and 44
billion barrels of natural gas liquids).657 An estimated 84 percent of these resources are located in
offshore areas.658 It is also estimated that the Arctic may supply 25 percent of the global demand
for rare earth elements with a value of $1.5–2.0 trillion. In addition to the vast energy and mineral resources in the Arctic, the region also contains some of the world’s richest fishing grounds,
with some annual catches valued at roughly $2 billion.659 Although there are currently no fishingstocks in the Central Arctic Ocean, in July 2015 the five Arctic littoral states agreed preemptively to ban commercial fishing in the Central Arctic Ocean until there is additional scientific data
available and additional international mechanisms are in place.660
Longer ice-free periods in the Arctic will likely increase commercial shipping and tourism in the
Arctic. According to the USCG, 400 ships traversed the Bering Strait in 2011, compared to 245 ships
in 2008, and it is expected that the increase in activity will continue. In 2013, 71 large ships were able

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to navigate the Northern Sea Route (NSR)661 and the Russian Ministry of Transport estimated that thevolume of cargo transportation along the NSR will reach 40 million tons by 2020 and 70 million tons
by 2030.622 However, in 2014, there were only 53 transits of the Northern Sea Route due to a drop in
global energy and commodity prices as well as sanctions imposed against Russia.663

FIGURE 14: Arctic Ambitions and the U.S. Navy’s Arctic Roadmap

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is the overarching international
legal framework that governs the Arctic. While some territorial disputes have been resolved bilaterally, such as the 2010 Norwegian-Russian Delimitation Treaty, several disputed claims remain,

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most notably the Lomonosov Ridge, which crosses through the geographic North Pole. Canada,
Denmark, and Russia all contest the Lomonosov Ridge and claim that it is an extension of theirrespective continental shelves. Both Canada and Denmark have submitted evidence to the UN
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, with Russia submitting an updated claim inAugust 2015 that would expand its territory by roughly 463,000 square miles.664 There are also
ongoing disputes concerning the legal status of both the Northern Sea Route (NSR) and theNorthwest Passage. Russia considers the NSR an internal passage, and therefore subject to fees
and Russia’s permission to transit the route; however, the majority of the international community considers it to be an international passage.

PACOM’S CHANGING ARCTIC RESPONSIBILITIESIn 2011, the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff issued a new Unified Command Plan (UCP) that
redrew Arctic areas of responsibility. Under the previous plan, three COCOMs—European Command (EUCOM), Northern Command (NORTHCOM), and PACOM—had operational responsibilities in the Arctic. NORTHCOM’s AOR stretched from the middle of the Bering Strait to roughly the
middle of Greenland; EUCOM’s AOR went from the middle of Greenland to the Russian Severnaya Zemlya islands north of Siberia; and PACOM’s AOR stretched from the Severnaya Zemlya
islands to the middle of the Bering Sea. Under the 2011 UCP, the AOR map was redrawn and DOD
noted, “responsibility for the Arctic region is now shared between USEUCOM and USNORTHCOM
rather than USEUCOM, USNORTHCOM and USPACOM as directed in previous UCPs.”665 PACOM is
now responsible for the Russian Pacific littoral and the extreme western approaches to the Bering
Strait but nothing further north, while NORTHCOM is solely responsible for Alaska.666 The UCP
gives EUCOM overall operational responsibility and gives NORTHCOM the role of advocating on
behalf of Arctic capabilities.
In 2009, NORTHCOM and the USCG signed an MOU to enhance coordination and cooperationin the Arctic between Joint Task Force Alaska (JTF-AK) and the USCG’s District 17. The agreement“signals a common understanding between commanders for heightened emphasis on alignmentof the two organizations in support of a unified approach to the security and defense of Alaska.”667 NORTHCOM and USCG issued a 2012 joint White Paper that identified ways to increase
U.S. Arctic capabilities in infrastructure, communications, and maritime domain awareness.668
The USCG’s District 17 based in Juneau, Anchorage, and Kodiak has a significant role in providing safety, stewardship, and security in U.S. Arctic waters. District 17 in Alaska consists of roughly
2,000 active duty personnel, 52 boats, 15 cutters, and 17 aircraft.669 In July 2015, USCG personnel
from the Coast Guard Research and Development Center, in cooperation with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, conducted research aboard the CGC Healy on unmanned
aerial systems.670 Since 2007, the USCG has conducted annual Arctic Shield exercises to test operations in the Bering Strait, Alaska’s North Slope, and the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas.
The 2011 UCP significantly diminished PACOM’s operational role in the Arctic. As former PACOM
commander Adm. Samuel Locklear noted, PACOM’s responsibility “basically stops as you enter
the Arctic Circle in the north.”671 Today, most of PACOM’s Arctic responsibility is related to the de-180

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fense of Alaska, which involves numerous joint and coordinating command structures between
PACOM, NORTHCOM, and National Guard subordinate units across all four military services.
Alaskan defense also involves cooperation and coordination with Canadian forces. Until 2014,
PACOM maintained joint command over Alaskan Command (ALCOM) with NORTHCOM, when,at the recommendation of both the ALCOM and PACOM commanders, DOD shifted command of
ALCOM entirely to NORTHCOM.
Although Alaska now falls under NORTHCOM, PACOM maintains several subordinate units there
under USARPAC and PACAF. U.S. Army Alaska (USARAK) includes the Northern Warfare Training Center (NWTC), the U.S. Army’s cold weather training site. USARAK is located at Joint BaseElmendorf-Richardson in Alaska and provides training for PACOM units, units of USARAK, andother units globally. PACOM also maintains an air defense presence in Alaska through the 11th
Air Force. Like USARAK, the 11th Air Force works jointly with other commands, including ALCOM
and the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), within AK-JOA. The 11th Air
Force maintains a presence at JBER and at Eielson AFB. PACOM also conducts the biennial exercise Northern Edge, “Alaska’s premier joint training exercise designed to practice operations,
techniques and procedures, and enhance interoperability among the services.”672
PACOM’s Alaskan commands participate in emergency rescue-and-recovery missions within the
Pacific AOR, and could be called upon to support search-and-rescue operations above the Arctic
Circle. Working with NORTHCOM units, civilian organizations, and Canadian forces, PACOM
responds to emergency situations, both civil and military, in the Arctic. In particular, as the U.S.
military’s primary cold weather and Arctic fighting force, units from USARAK may be called upon
to operate in other regions of the Arctic should a SAR or oil spill occur.
It is unclear what the impact of anticipated U.S. Army reductions in Alaska will be on PACOM’s
Arctic capabilities. In July 2015, the U.S. Army announced that it is planning to draw down 2,600
soldiers from the 4/25 airborne unit at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, which is the only
airborne Arctic brigade in the U.S. Army.673 Alaskan Sen. Dan Sullivan has called the decision “astrategic blunder” at a time when Russia is increasing its military presence in the Arctic and hehas sought the development of additional U.S. icebreakers as well as an increase in the U.S. Navypresence in Alaska.674 Gen. Mark Milley, the U.S. Army’s chief of staff-designate, stated during his
confirmation hearings that any cuts to USARAK should wait until the DOD completes a full operational plan for the Arctic, stating “an OPLAN first, reduction of forces second, if still required.”675
This proposed U.S. Army reduction may complicate the development of a strategic plan for
defending U.S. national security interests in the Arctic as has been proposed in the draft National
Defense Authorization Act for 2016.

RUSSIA’S STRATEGIC INTERESTS IN THE ARCTIC
With over 50 percent of the total Arctic coastline, which extends nearly the entire northern coastof Eurasia, the Russian Arctic is a strategic region that accounts for 14 percent of Russia’s GDP
and 22 percent of its exports. It is also home to Russia’s strategic nuclear fleet.676 Russia’s interests in the Arctic have been largely driven by the promise of valuable hydrocarbon and mineral

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resources as well as developing the NSR as a modern shipping route. As Russian Prime Minister
Dmitry Medvedev has stated, “Our first and main task is to turn the Arctic into a resource base for
Russia in the 21st century.”677
In order to secure these important economic resources as well as to protect and project its
sovereignty, the Kremlin has sought to reestablish its military presence in the Arctic, particularly
along the Northern Sea Route. Although most of the current vessel traffic is to the western section of the Russian Arctic coast, between Murmansk and Dudinka as well as along the Norwegiancoast and the Barents Sea, forecasts predict that transportation of oil from Russian ports on the
Barents Sea could increase by 50 percent by 2020.678 Once the Yamal Peninsula begins production of liquefied natural gas (LNG), domestic freight could grow up to 50 million tons by 2020.679
Although the eastern part of the Russian Arctic sees much less vessel traffic, more LNG carriers
from Yamal to Asian markets will transit the narrow Bering Strait.
In 2014, President Putin announced the creation of a new strategic command for the Arctic
zone—the Northern Fleet-United Strategic Command (OSK “Sever”)—which will have the status of a military district and consist of Russia’s Northern Fleet, as well as units from other military branches. In addition to this new strategic command, the Kremlin has also announced
that roughly 50 military airfields will be repaired and modernized by 2020,680 and 10 search andrescue stations are to be constructed along the Northern Sea Route.681 The first renovated andreopened military base is located in Alakurtti, just 30 miles from the Finnish border, and in January 2015, the first Russian infantry brigade troops arrived, with an estimated 3,000 soldiers to bestationed at Alakurtti.682 The 200th Independent Motorized Infantry Brigade is stationed in Pechenga on the Kola Peninsula, just over 5 miles from the Russian-Norwegian border. Russia is also
restoring several of its Arctic aerodromes, including the Rogachyov airfield on Novaya Zemlya. In
2012 the Russian Ministry of Defense announced that a group of interceptor MiG-31s would be
deployed there.683
Russia has intensified its military exercise and training schedule in the Arctic, to include large,
unannounced exercises, in order to demonstrate its range of capabilities in and beyond the region. The largest post–Soviet exercise in the Arctic took place in September 2014 when Russia’s
Far East Military District conducted its Vostok 2014 exercise, which involved over 100,000 personnel and thousands of pieces of military hardware.684 Vostok 2014 was designed to test the readiness of Russia’s Far East forces, including command and control, rapid mobilization, combined
operations, and the use of both conventional and unconventional arms. However, some analysts
believe the exercise was intended as a show of strength in response to China’s growing militarystrength, as well as its increasing commercial presence in Russia’s Far East and the Arctic.685
In March 2015, Russia conducted a large-scale, snap military exercise that involved more than
45,000 Russian troops, 15 submarines, and 41 warships, and called the Northern Fleet to “fullalert and combat readiness.”686 According to Russian Defense Minister Gen. Sergey Shoigu, “Themain task of the [combat readiness drill] is to assess the armed forces from the Northern Fleet's
capabilities in fulfilling tasks in providing military security of the Russian Federation in the Arctic
region. New challenges and threats of military security demand the further heightening of mil-

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itary capabilities of the armed forces and special attention will be paid to the state of the newly
formed strategic merging [of forces] in the North.”687
Moscow has announced it would place its most advance anti-aircraft missiles, S-400s, on the Kola
Peninsula. Russia has also been testing and modernizing its strategic nuclear capabilities in the
Arctic, including three completed Borei-class ballistic submarines and a successful test launch of
an intercontinental ballistic Bulava missile in 2014.688 More recently, the Russian navy’s nuclear
units conducted exercises in the international waters beneath the North Pole. These recent andintensified exercises and deployment of additional military capabilities are a demonstration of Russia’s increasing presence in the Arctic, as well as the expansion of its A2/AD capabilities there.

INCREASED PRESENCE OF ASIAN COUNTRIES IN THE ARCTICAs the Arctic increasingly becomes a blue-water ocean and economic resources and shipping
routes become more accessible, non-Arctic states have taken a more active diplomatic, scientific,
and economic role in the region and are expressing their interest to explore, study, and potentially benefit from the Arctic’s resources. While the vast portion of the Arctic’s offshore energy
resources fall within the five coastal states’ 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zones, thecurrently ice-covered international waters of the Central Arctic Ocean will likely be subject togreater commercial and human activity as the ice continues to recede.
The Arctic Council—an intergovernmental forum consisting of eight Arctic states (Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States) and several indigenous
representatives—was created in 1996 to focus on Arctic environmental protection and sustainable development. The Council added five Asian countries—China, South Korea, Japan, Singapore, and India—as permanent observer states in 2013, recognizing the growing interest andinvolvement of Asian countries in the Arctic.

China
China is not an Arctic nation but considers itself to be a “near-Arctic” state. China sees itself as
an Arctic stakeholder that should actively participate in Arctic governance (e.g., as a signatory to
the 1920 Spitsbergen Treaty, a permanent observer to the Arctic Council, a member of the UN
Convention on the Law of the Sea, and as a member of the International Maritime Organization). China is also interested in the potential use of Arctic shipping routes, particularly a future
Trans-Polar route across the North Pole, as well as resource exploration and the ability to enter
new Arctic markets and participate in new investments. The Central Arctic Ocean is of particular interest to China as it relates to fisheries management, energy exploration, and shipping. As
China moves toward an integrated regional model of economic development which includes
the “One Road, One Belt” for Central Asia, greater Sino-Russian energy cooperation (such as the
China-Russia East Route natural gas pipeline), and potentially the development of a Pacific-Arctic-Atlantic transportation route, one Chinese Arctic expert recently noted that “The Arctic brings
Beijing and Washington closer together.”689 Despite these many interests, Beijing has yet to produce a formal government Arctic policy or white paper.

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ARCTIC AMBITIONS AND THE U.S. NAVY’S ARCTIC ROADMAPFirst and foremost, China is concerned about the adverse impact of Arctic climate change on its
own country, ranging from sea level rise to increased storm severity and prevalence of droughts
and floods, all of which have the potential to exacerbate China’s food, water, and ecologicalinsecurity. Chinese officials and experts also remain concerned about the potential for strategiccompetition and militarization in the Arctic. For the foreseeable future, China will focus on Arctic
environmental science diplomacy. According to former Chinese Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi,“scientific cooperation is the basis for Arctic cooperation.”690 China’s Polar Research Institute inShanghai was founded in 1989, and its scientists and representatives participate regularly in the
Arctic Science Committee, the International Polar Year project, and the Arctic Science Summit
week. China has become an increasingly active member of the Arctic science community, as evidenced by its scientific research station on Svalbard, the construction of an aurora observatory
in Iceland, and a recent request to open an Arctic research facility in Canada’s Northwest Territories. With an annual polar research budget of roughly $60 million (which includes activities in
Antarctica) and with the construction of its second, non-nuclear icebreaker underway, China has
undertaken six scientific expeditions to the Arctic between 1999 and 2015. It is interesting to notethat in 2012, the Chinese icebreaker Xuelong (Snow Dragon) traversed the Northern Sea Routeon its way to the Chinese research station on Svalbard,691 yet on its return trip, the Xuelong sailed
into the international waters of the Central Arctic Ocean, underscoring China’s continued interest in the Central Arctic’s international waters.
While China’s involvement in the Arctic has primarily been in a scientific and research capacity,
it has begun to expand its economic involvement in the European and Eurasian Russian Arctic.
In 2013, China signed an FTA with Iceland, the first FTA signed between China and a European
country (although not a member of the European Union). Also in 2013, China’s Ocean Shipping
Group (COSCO) sent the first container ship, the Yong Sheng, through the Northern Sea Routein order to test the viability of the route for container traffic.692 China has shown great interest ininvesting in Arctic mineral resources, particularly in Greenland. In 2011, a Beijing-based entrepreneur sought to develop a large portion of northern Iceland, reportedly as a luxury hotel andeco golf course, but this deal was rejected by the foreign minister.693 China has also invested inGreenland through the Chinese-owned London Mining Company to mine rare earth minerals.
Since 2009, two private Chinese mining companies from Jiangxi Province have invested in mineral prospecting projects in Greenland.694
Recently, China’s Arctic presence took a new form. In September 2015, a group of five Chinese
naval vessels consisting of three surface combatants, an amphibious ship, and a supply ship wereobserved operating in the Bering Sea, transiting U.S. territorial waters near Alaska, and passing
within about 12 nautical miles of the Aleutian Islands following a joint Russian-Chinese military
exercise. According to the Pentagon, it was the first time the U.S. military has seen Chinese naval
activity in the Arctic region.695 While the vessels did not violate international law, the incident
reflects a growing Chinese ambition to establish itself as a player in the Arctic region. As polar
ice levels continue to recede, China is showing a growing interest in the Northern Sea Route as ameans of transporting goods between Asia and the Europe.

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Due to sanctions on Russia, Moscow has increasingly looked to Beijing as an alternative to U.S.
and European energy companies and financial markets in order to develop and export Russianenergy resources in the Arctic. In early 2015, for the first time, a Russian official announced that
the Kremlin was considering allowing Chinese investors to own more than 50 percent stakes in
Russia’s strategic oil and gas fields.696 In 2014, President Xi Jinping and President Vladimir Putinsigned a $400 billion, 30-year energy deal for the delivery of 38 billion cubic meters of natural
gas to China starting in 2018.697 Russia’s Yamal liquefied natural gas project is the centerpieceof its current Arctic gas projects. In June 2013, Russia’s largest private natural gas producer,
Novatek, signed a deal to supply 3 million tons of LNG per year to China from Russia’s Yamal
LNG project. The project also envisions constructing 15 icebreaking LNG vessels, each with a
170,000-cubic-meter capacity, with non-Russian shipping companies expected to take part in
the project, including Japanese operator Mitsui OSK Lines and China’s first LNG tanker operator,
China LNG Shipping Holdings.698 The ships will be the first ice-class LNG carriers with the ability to break 5 feet of ice at 5 knots, thus enabling the fleet to operate in the Northern Sea Routewithout full-time icebreaker assistance. It is anticipated that the first vessel will be developed
by February 2016 and that this icebreaker tanker fleet will supply gas to Asian markets in thesummer months, which would increase vessel traffic in the narrow Bering Strait. China is also
poised to benefit from Russia’s northern oil fields once the construction of the 435-mile Kuyumba-Taishet pipeline in Eastern Siberia is completed. The $3.6 billion pipeline is expected to transport 15 million tons of oil per year from Russia’s northern oil fields to China.699

Japan
Japan became an Arctic actor as early as 1925 when Japan became one of 14 signatories to theSpitsbergen Treaty, which recognizes Norway’s sovereignty over the Svalbard archipelago in the
Arctic, but grants hunting and fishing rights to the treaty’s contracting parties. Japan has also
been actively engaged in scientific research at both Poles, conducting polar research in both the
Arctic and Antarctic since 1957. In 1990, Japan formally joined the International Arctic Science
Committee (IASC) and established the Centre for Arctic Research at the National Institute ofPolar Research (NIPR).700 Japan hosted Arctic Science Summit Week in April 2015 where participants from 27 countries discussed the role of Arctic science in society, future science priorities
in the Arctic, and new strategies to promote international cooperation in the Arctic.701 Japan has
also been engaged with the Arctic Council’s Scientific Cooperation Task Force, which is working
toward an agreement to enhance scientific research cooperation in the Arctic.
Diplomatically, Japan has started taking steps toward Arctic policy development, including thecreation of an Arctic Task Force in 2010.702 A 2012 report recommended that Japan produce awhite paper on its Arctic policy.703 The Japanese government has also established an interministerial committee on the Arctic and created a permanent Arctic representative in 2013.704
The Arctic region is also included in Japan’s Basic Plan for Ocean Policy in 2013.705 According to
the Basic Plan, Japan will conduct scientific research in the Arctic related to the impact of climate change, both on a regional and global level, as well as the potential viability of the Northern Sea Route and the Northwest Passage, including the development of a stable marine trans-

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port system and navigational technology. The Japanese government has begun exploring theuse of the Northern Sea Route as well as the possibility of creating a new icebreaker.706
Japan has relatively modest interests in the Arctic, with the exception of activities related to theenvironment and climate change, but its private sector continues to express interest in pursuing more economic opportunities, particularly for energy development.707 In 2014, a joint Japanese-Chinese business venture announced a new Arctic route to the Yamal LNG facility locatedin Russia’s Arctic region.708 However, such near-term business ventures will likely face serious
hurdles due to Japan’s participation in sanctions against Russia.

South Korea
Similar to Japan, South Korea’s polar activity has primarily centered on science and research. South
Korea is also a signatory to the 1920 Spitsbergen Treaty and operates a research station in Svalbard,
Norway.709 Between 1993 and 1995, South Korea began its engagement in the Arctic with a preliminary scientific study on the Arctic environment and climate, and became a member of the IASC in
2002. In 2012, former president Lee Myung-Bak visited Greenland and Norway as a demonstrationof South Korea’s commitment to green growth. During President Lee’s visit to Norway, the twocountries signed two agreements related to developing cooperation on “green” shipping technology.710 South Korea became a permanent observer to the Arctic Council in May 2013.
Prior to South Korea becoming a permanent observer, however, Seoul identified the Arctic as anarea of growing importance and emerging opportunity, particularly related to energy security
and diversification, building ice-strengthened ships and oil platforms, and potentially utilizing
the NSR. It is estimated that South Korea could save roughly $1 billion annually in transportation
costs if the government replaced 10 percent of its oil imports from the Middle East with Arctic
oil.711 In order to achieve this diversification and become less dependent on Middle Eastern oil,
the Korean government provides incentives to companies that import oil from other regions.
In 2012, South Korea received three ships carrying hydrocarbon products from the Arctic, withthe first South Korean ship making the journey in 2013.712 The state-owned Korea Gas Company(KOGAS) has expressed interest in commercial exploration above the Arctic Circle, although thecompany has only taken preliminary steps at this point.713 The potential economic benefits ofutilizing the NSR have largely driven South Korea’s interest in the Arctic, particularly given thatroughly 99 percent of South Korea’s trade volume is handled via shipping and Northern Europe
is one of South Korea’s largest trade partners.714 To promote the future use of the NSR, the Korean
government is providing incentives, including discounts for port usage, to shipping companies.
The increased commercial activity in the Arctic has also benefited South Korean shipbuilding
companies, including Hyundai Heavy Industries, Samsung Heavy Industries, and Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering (DSME), which are some of the world’s top producers of icebreakers and ice-hardened ships. In 2014, DSME won a $300 million contract from Sovcomflot,
Russia’s state-owned shipping company, to construct an ice-capable LNG carrier, the first of 16
LNG carriers that DSME plans to build.715
In December 2013, South Korea became the first non-Arctic state to issue an Arctic policy plan.
The Pan-Government Arctic Development Plan outlines South Korea’s Arctic policy goals, in186

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cluding building Arctic partnerships, enhancing scientific research, and developing new industry
through economic involvement. The document also highlights what South Korea considers to be
the four strategic challenges in the Arctic: strengthening international cooperation, enhancing
scientific and research efforts, developing Arctic-related businesses and economic activity, andestablishing an institutional basis.716

Singapore
Singapore’s primary interests in the Arctic center on environmental concerns related to sea level
rise and economic opportunities to further develop its maritime infrastructure and industry
should the Northern Sea Route become economically viable. As a low-lying island nation, Singapore could face major ramifications from sea level rises due to the diminishing Arctic ice. The
government has taken a serious look at mitigating the effects of climate change in the Arctic andhas started working closely with Arctic nations on the issue.717
Singapore is heavily reliant on seaborne trade. Merchandise trade was 252.1 percent of Singapore’s GDP in 2014.718 The port of Singapore is the second largest in the world, is a vital stopalong the Europe-East Asia trade route, and in 2012 its marine industry generated nearly $12
billion in revenue.719 Unlike some of the other Asian states involved in the Arctic, Singapore is lessinterested in accessing the region’s natural resources than in developing and selling sophisticated maritime technologies, particularly drilling platforms.720 In 2008, Keppel Singmarine, a shipbuilding company, built two icebreakers for the Russian energy company Lukoil—the first iceclass vessels built in Asia.721 Keppel Singmarine also constructed an ice-class floating storage andoffloading (FSO) vessel and four ice-class rescue vessels for Lukoil.722
As a member of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), Singapore has been active in global
governance regimes for ocean management and maritime safety and stewardship, particularly inthe development of a mandatory Polar Code. As a key player in the negotiations that produced the1982 UNCLOS agreement, Singapore is a strong advocate for freedom of navigation, maintainingthat the high seas are international waters and therefore require enhanced cooperation between
littoral and user states in order to ensure the safe and sustainable use of the oceans and waterways.723 Singapore has also reached out to indigenous communities, setting up exchanges with
community leaders and establishing educational opportunities for indigenous students.724 While
Singapore has not yet articulated an official Arctic policy, Singapore appointed a special envoy for
Arctic affairs in 2012, and has participated in several Arctic Council working groups.725

THE U.S. NAV Y ARCTIC ROADMAPThe U.S. Navy’s updated Arctic Roadmap for the period 2014 to 2030 outlines the U.S. Navy’s responsibilities in the Arctic and provides guidance for future Arctic operations and contingencies.
The Roadmap specifies the strategic objectives of the U.S. Navy in the Arctic as follows: ensuring
U.S. Arctic sovereignty and providing homeland defense; providing ready naval forces to respondto crises and contingencies; preserving freedom of the seas; and promoting partnerships within
the U.S. government and with international allies and partners.726 The Arctic Roadmap emphasiz-

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es the need to gain better environmental understanding of the changing nature of Arctic sea ice
volume and the extent to which it affects the Arctic’s economic development.
When the U.S. Navy released the updated Roadmap in February 2014, it did not foresee the dramatic changes to Northern Europe’s security environment following Russia’s illegal annexation of
Crimea and military intervention in eastern Ukraine. The U.S. Navy’s assessment that the Arctic willremain a “low threat security environment” and that the Arctic region is “unlikely [to see] stateon-state conflict” resulted in the conclusion that the U.S. Navy’s “existing posture remains appropriate” in the Arctic. These assessments are now out-of-date in light of renewed tensions with Russia.
In the Arctic, Russian submarine activity in the North Atlantic—Greenland, Iceland, United Kingdom (GIUK) gap—and military modernization of the Russian Northern Fleet have increased, andthe Russians have established a new command structure. Further, it is likely that the narrow Bering Strait—for which PACOM is partly responsible—will become a future strategic choke point as
more trans-Polar shipping and LNG carriers traverse the narrow strait.727
The Arctic Roadmap notes that the U.S. Navy’s “surface and air forces have limited operational
experience in the Arctic” and that the U.S. Navy needs to periodically evaluate preparedness for
operations and conduct training exercises.728 The Roadmap appropriately highlights the need to
improve Arctic domain awareness, but these plans, similar to the U.S. Navy’s plans to train additional naval personnel in Arctic operations, suggest that the U.S. Navy will analyze the question
rather than take concrete action with accompanied budget resources. If the U.S. Navy wishes to“provide ready forces for current operations and contingency responses” in the Arctic, it will needto operationalize its thinking much earlier than its Roadmap suggests.

L ACK OF U.S. ICEBREAKING CAPABILITIESAND FUTURE U.S. CHALLENGES
Although the United States is the largest maritime power in the world, it maintains only two
functional icebreakers:• The heavy-ice breaker Polar Star, commissioned in 1976, whose service was recently extended for approximately 10 years, and is primarily responsible for resupplying the McMurdo Antarctic Research Station; and• The medium-strengthened icebreaker Healy, commissioned in 2000 and used mostly for
scientific research. The United States has a third heavy icebreaker, the Polar Sea, which iscurrently in dry-dock in disrepair.
With such a small fleet, the U.S. must either rely on other nations to augment its current capabilities or accept the risk of not being able to respond to national emergencies in the Arctic.
The U.S. Coast Guard has been relentless in its call for additional U.S. icebreaking capabilities. Boththe U.S. Coast Guard, in its Arctic Strategy published in May 2013, and Department of Homeland
Security, in its June 2013 Mission Need Statement (MNS), have expressed the need to develop
greater icebreaking capabilities to include an additional three heavy-ice and three medium-ice

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breakers with an estimated cost of $3.2 billion. It is projected to take 10 years and cost approximately $1 billion for the United States to construct a single icebreaker. Executing such a program
would be a challenge for the Coast Guard, whose entire budget for FY 2016 is $9.96 billion. The
Navy’s shipbuilding budget is much larger, $16 billion, but stretched to construct the required fleet
size and facing large demands when the Ohio Submarine Replacement Program moves into production. The Congressional Research Service, the Congressional Budget Office, and others havecriticized it for being underfunded even without the addition of a major icebreaker program.729
Thus far, the Coast Guard received $7 million in FY 2013, and $2 million in FY 2014 to assess what
the design and construction of a U.S. new polar icebreaker would entail. President Obama recently announced that the U.S. government would advance by two years the identification offunding for a new icebreaker. Yet, even in a best-case scenario, if adequate funding were identified, a design were produced, and a contract were let by 2020, the United States would be unable
to add an icebreaker into its inventory until the late 2020s.
The critical lack of U.S. icebreaking capacity became acute in December 2011 when icebreaking
capabilities were needed to ensure an emergency fuel shipment reached Nome, Alaska. A Russian ice-strengthened fuel tanker was leased to carry the fuel but the vessel required icebreaking services. The Healy was originally scheduled to be in Antarctica but its voyage was delayed,allowing the Healy to guide the Russian fuel tanker. Had the Healy not been in the region, Nomewould not have received a life-saving fuel shipment. The United States has leased foreign icebreakers to resupply the McMurdo station, such as the Swedish owned Oden, but it had to be
returned in 2013 due to severe ice conditions in t he Baltic Sea that year.
With over 50 percent of the total Arctic coastline, the Russian Federation maintains the world’s
largest fleet of nuclear and non-nuclear icebreakers, totaling 40 icebreakers (19 publicly owned
and 21 privately owned), plus six under construction and a further five planned.730 Six in the fleet
are heavy icebreakers, all publicly owned and nuclear powered, of which four are currently operational. Another 19 are medium-strengthened icebreakers (seven publicly owned and 12 privately owned), while 15 are light icebreakers (six government owned and nine privately owned).731

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE ARCTIC
Reassess the Navy’s Arctic Roadmap
The USN should undertake a comprehensive assessment to understand what recent Russian
military changes in the Arctic mean. The reassessment should include a review of the USN’s
submarine posture in the Arctic and North Atlantic, particularly in the GIUK gap, as well as in the
Pacific. The current Roadmap suggests that the Navy will develop its Arctic CONOPs in the firstquarter of FY 2018. In light of Russia’s current aggressive behavior, the Navy should advance thistime schedule to FY 2016.
The United States should also consider recapitalization of its ice-breaking capability based on an
examination of a wide range of options, from the existing design and build approach, to domestic construction of foreign designs, to leasing of foreign-built ships.

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Specify PACOM’s Role in the Arctic
Although the changes to the 2011 UCP eliminated much of PACOM’s Arctic responsibilities, it
did not eliminate them entirely. Therefore, PACOM should conduct an internal assessment of its
Arctic capabilities and responses as they align with the Defense Department’s 2013 Arctic strategy to “ensure security, support safety, and promote defense cooperation, and prepare to respondto a wide range of challenges and contingencies—operating in conjunction with other nations
when possible, and independently if necessary—in order to maintain stability in the region.” 732
For example, with PACOM so focused on the Far East, many officials may not be fully aware that
USARAK reports to PACOM (through U.S. Army Pacific), that USARAK’s Northern Warfare Training Center (NWTC) is the U.S. Army’s primary cold-weather training facility, and that USARAK
has Arctic-trained forces, including the only air mobile brigade in the PACOM AOR. These forces
could be called upon to operate in other regions of the Arctic should the need arise, for example,
for a search-and-rescue operation or for an oil spill occurring above the Arctic Circle.
Promoting PACOM defense cooperation with other Asian countries in the Arctic, particularly
for cold-weather training, could also be a fruitful area of cooperation. Despite a potential cut of
2,600 soldiers from Alaska’s JBER, USARAK has the potential to be a center of excellence in cooperation with other Arctic nations. The USCG has proposed a vessel-traffic management scheme
for the U.S. side of the Bering Strait,733 but it is not clear how PACOM would engage in this initiative, as opposed to NORTHCOM’s and EUCOM’s role in the Bering Strait region in support of
the U.S. Coast Guard. PACOM should undertake a detailed assessment of its role in the Arctic as
it relates to the Bering Strait and clarify its operational role during a massive rescue operation(MRO) or oil-spill response in the Arctic in anticipation of increased LNG tanker traffic in route to
Asia from the Yamal LNG project.734 Government-wide emergency response exercises should bedesigned for the Bering Strait in the 2015–2016 period.

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7 | RECOMMENDATIONS FORSUSTAINING THE REBAL ANCERECOMMENDATIONS FOR SUSTAINING THE REBALANCEThe U.S. rebalance to the Asia-Pacific is critical to security and prosperity throughout the region
and across the globe. As the United States looks to an ascending Asia, leaders in Washington will
have to manage a diverse set of challenges that includes China’s rise, North Korea’s belligerence,
Russia’s Pacific and Arctic ambitions, and other historical tensions over territorial claims, as wellas risks associated with terrorism and humanitarian disasters. Developing a strategy to protect
U.S. interests against these risks poses a serious test for U.S. leaders, but Washington retains
fundamental advantages. U.S. allies and partners in the Asia-Pacific are strong supporters of therules-based regional and international order. Moreover, leaders throughout the region remaininterested in working with the United States, each other, and regional organizations to sustain
Asian security and prosperity. If anything, polling shows that most regional states want moreleadership, initiative, and engagement from Washington, not less.
The United States has done much to strengthen its position in the Asia-Pacific since President
Obama came into office, but more must be done to implement and sustain the rebalance. This
report has identified progress and remaining challenges in all three pillars of the defense rebalance to Asia: U.S. military posture, ally and partner capabilities and defense cooperation, and U.S.
capabilities. The preceding sections included recommendations for closing remaining gaps in
the U.S. ability to secure its interests in the region through the next 10 years. To fully implement
the recommendations of this study requires resources at a level above the president's budget.
The rebalance to the Asia-Pacific will therefore require the Congress to forge a long-term bipartisan agreement to fund defense at the higher levels for which there is a broad consensus.
The CSIS study team categorizes its highest-priority recommendations as falling into four
broad areas:• Aligning Asia strategy within the U.S. government and with allies and partners;• Strengthening ally and partner capability, capacity, resilience, and interoperability;• Sustaining and expanding U.S. military presence; and• Accelerating development of innovative capabilities and concepts.
To give policymakers an approximate sense of the scale of specific initiatives—and to aid in prioritization and synchronization—the initiatives below are categorized as falling into one of threebroad cost categories: high (over $1 billion in additional annual costs above the president’s FY
2016 budget during the five-year period); medium ($10 million to $1 billion in additional annual
costs); and low (under $10 million in additional annual costs). These categories consider only
U.S. fiscal costs, not political costs or expected costs to allies and partnersfa. Accomplishing theinitiatives discussed here will require sufficient resources and a continued commitment to the rebalance by senior leaders in the U.S. government over a period of years. Many of these proposals
are unlikely to be adopted during the current administration’s remaining time in office, given thelevel of effort and resources needed to make them a reality. Nevertheless, although the politicaland monetary costs of these initiatives might be substantial, so too would be the benefits.

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1. ALIGN ASIA STRATEGY WITHIN THE U.S. GOVERNMENT
AND WITH ALLIES AND PARTNERS
Although the Obama administration issued a series of speeches and documents on the rebalance, the authors found that there remains no central U.S. government document that describes
the rebalance strategy and its associated elements. In interviews with leaders throughout the
Department of Defense, in various U.S. agencies, on Capitol Hill, and across the Asia-Pacific, thestudy team heard consistent confusion about the rebalance strategy and concern about its implementation. Indeed, a 2014 study by CSIS found that language used to describe the rebalance haschanged substantially since its announcement in 2011.735 Addressing this confusion will requirethat the executive branch develop and then articulate a clear and coherent strategy and discussthat strategy with Congress as well as with allies and partners across the world. The steps below
would increase strategic alignment within the U.S. government and with allies and partners.

1.1 | Prepare an Asia-Pacific Strategic Report
In the early 1990s, the George H. W. Bush administration released two East Asia Strategy Initiative
reports, which were followed by the Clinton administration’s East Asia Strategic Report (often
called the Nye Initiative), setting forth U.S. security strategy toward the Asia-Pacific. These reports
made clear the importance of U.S. regional presence, and explained Washington’s strategy, forboth internal and external audiences.
Today, a new strategic report is needed for the Asia-Pacific region. Although the Department of
Defense issued an August 2015 Asia-Pacific Maritime Security Strategy, this defense-focused andmaritime-specific strategy cannot compensate for the lack of an overall whole-of-government
strategy. The 2016 National Defense Authorization Act contains language requiring that the president develop an overall strategy to promote U.S. interests in the region. As part of this report, theNational Security Council should develop a principals-level regional strategy to deter coercion andthe use of force, to reassure allies and partners, and to engage potential competitors throughout
the region. Given the need to develop and execute a whole-of-government approach, this strategy
should be among the first documents released by an incoming administration in 2017.
Estimated cost: low.

1.2 | Increase Administration Outreach to Congress
The Obama administration has not quelled congressional concern about the execution of therebalance, despite making important progress in a number of areas. Congressional leaders on
both sides of the aisle remain worried about implementation of the rebalance, particularly efforts
to counter Chinese coercion in the South China Sea. Presently, congressional focus is fractured
along committee lines and lacks coherence. On the positive side, there is a new group of members in both houses who have demonstrated interest in sustained focus on the region.
The United States has made significant progress on Asia-Pacific initiatives when the administration and Congress have cooperated, as was the case with the creation and announcement of
the Southeast Asia Maritime Security Initiative. The administration should reach out to leaders of

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both parties to ensure support needed for major Asia-Pacific initiatives. Congress, in turn, should
establish an “Asia-Pacific Observer Group” in each chamber. These groups could consult and advise U.S. officials on Asia-Pacific issues as well as monitor progress and report to the Congress on
relevant matters. An observer group is a well-developed method to generate institutional focus
and coherence, most successful when fully bipartisan, and traditionally used to monitor complex
arms control negotiations.
Finally, the secretary of defense should establish a mechanism by February 2016 to brief presidential candidates and their senior advisers on critical Asia intelligence developments and policy
initiatives to improve the prospects for maintaining the rebalance’s momentum during the transition to the next administration.
Estimated cost: low.

1.3 | Ensure Alignment between Strategy and Resources
As the United States seeks to rebalance to the Asia-Pacific, the Defense Department must ensurethat strategy and resources are aligned. Strategy-resource alignment is necessary due to the gap
that has opened between the stated goals of strategy, including new demands in the Middle Eastand Europe, and the resources available. The 2015 budget deal averted the near-term crisis but
not the long-term strategy-resource mismatch.
In preparation for the next strategic review, therefore, the Defense Department should develop a
set of classified strategic alternatives that it can provide to the next administration. These strategic alternatives should provide a range of illustrative tradeoffs including various ends, ways, andmeans combinations and should explicitly consider different resource levels. The alternatives
should consider program tradeoffs and efficiencies to make headroom for new initiatives.
In conducting the strategic review, the Defense Department should take advantage of the revised
statutory language for the Quadrennial Defense Review, which allows senior leaders to examine
resources as part of their review process. Congress, in turn, should begin now to enact defense
reforms that can move scarce funding from lower-priority programs to higher priority, especially from overhead to operating forces. These actions would also clearly set a baseline for the
next administration to assess how it can implement the rebalance amid other priorities without
adopting unrealistic assumptions about future savings. If the gap between strategy and resources is too great, the administration can argue credibly that additional resources are necessary toachieve desired ends.
Estimated cost: low.

1.4 | Better Coordinate U.S. Strategy with Allies and Partners
Leaders in Washington frequently discuss the need for combined efforts to meet shared challenges, but leaders in foreign capitals too often feel left out of U.S. decisionmaking. During interviews with officials in foreign capitals, CSIS scholars consistently encountered concerns about
long-term U.S. strategic choices, and the conclusions underlying those decisions, particularly
with respect to China.

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To address these concerns, administration officials should reenergize efforts to engage theircounterparts among allies and partners on comprehensive assumptions, assessments, andstrategy toward China. As a starting point, U.S. officials should work with allies and partners
to examine deterrence and escalation dynamics in “gray zone” conflicts, and jointly develop
whole-of-government policies to address coercive behavior. The U.S. PACOM Commander
should enhance its efforts to advocate for greater resources for its AOR, prioritizing those militarycapabilities of allies and partners that best align with U.S. security interests. Additionally, the United States should establish a contact group among key allies and partners to discuss China policy
on a more regular basis.
Estimated cost: low.

1.5 | Expand Confidence Building, and Crisis Management with China
The CSIS team observed that tensions between Washington and Beijing have been growing, duein large part to China’s increasingly coercive behavior in maritime disputes and disruptive cyber
activity. Constructive Sino-American relations are important to regional security and prosperity, butcannot come at the cost of U.S. interests or those of allies or partners. Leaders in Washington and
Beijing have taken steps to improve ties, as evidenced by recent agreements on air-to-air safety
and crisis communications and cybersecurity. Nevertheless, full implementation of existing agreements and additional efforts to forge new crisis-management mechanisms will be required.
Potential initiatives could include deepening U.S.-China dialogues—such as the Asia-Pacific Security Dialogue—to include more direct discussion of regional strategies and perspectives on difficult issues, such as North Korea, the South China Sea, and space. In addition, the United States
could encourage China to adopt bilateral confidence-building measures with U.S. allies andpartners, such as Japan and the Philippines. To avoid potential maritime clashes, Washington and
Beijing should act on their tentative agreement to pursue adaptation of the Code for Unplanned
Encounters at Sea to coast guard vessels. Crisis-management mechanisms are also needed at
the political level, to ensure that those crises that occur do not escalate through miscalculation. Confidence-building measures could help to build trust, but, if Chinese coercion continues
apace, U.S. leaders may have to condition some military coordination, such as involvement in
RIMPAC, on adherence to international rules and norms.
Estimated cost: low.

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2 | STRENGTHEN ALLY AND PARTNER CAPABILIT Y, CAPACIT Y,RESILIENCE, AND INTEROPERABILIT YThe United States needs robust allies and partners across the Asia-Pacific, but the authors foundgrowing concern that security challenges are outpacing the capabilities of regional states. Many
allies and partners are struggling to mitigate security risks, particularly those having to do withmaritime disputes in the South China Sea and East China Sea. The United States seeks and benefits
from the success of all states throughout the region, so building ally and partner security capability
and capacity is in the U.S. interest. Working together more closely, through coordination of strategic approaches and greater interoperability, is an important step in this direction. Strengthening
regional security capability, capacity, resilience, and interoperability requires a differentiated strategy that works with highly capable militaries like Japan, Australia, India, South Korea, and Singapore
while also assisting states in Southeast Asia struggling to meet basic defense needs.

2.1 | Pursue Federated Approaches with Highly Capable Regional Allies
For decades, the United States has worked on a largely bilateral basis with its allies, but today
new challenges require new approaches. Although the United States has long emphasized thedesirability of working with allies to meet pressing security challenges, it has not achieved deep
integration of defense industries and capabilities. Meanwhile, with the United States and its allies
hitting defense spending limits and the cost of developing and fielding systems increasing rapidly, working together is of paramount importance. A “federated” approach that includes forward-thinking strategies for how to develop and share capabilities and capacity can knit together
the United States and its key allies. By sharing development of federated systems, training, logistical support, concept development, and potentially some operational missions, the UnitedStates, Japan, Australia, and South Korea could draw closer to one another.
For example, the allies’ strength in undersea warfare is an important edge amidst the maturinganti-access/area denial capacities in the Asia-Pacific region. Leveraging expertise in submarine
design and operations could increase each ally’s capabilities while also improving interoperability among them. Other areas of cooperation could include missile defense, maritime domainawareness, cybersecurity, and ISR, amphibious operations, and intelligence sharing. The PACOM
commander should identify a prioritized list of capabilities in which a federated approach could
enhance warfighting capabilities. In pursuing these and other federated defense initiatives, allied
officials must work with their respective civilian and military leaders, legislatures, and defense
industries. These types of federated approaches to security are necessary if the United States andits allies are to meet shared challenges.
Estimated cost: low.

2.2 | Build Maritime Security Capacity in Southeast Asia
The greatest shortfall among allies and partners in Southeast Asia, both in capability and capacity, is in maritime security. Tensions are growing over disputed claims in the East and South China
Seas, but many smaller states lack the sensors or patrol craft required to monitor their maritime

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approaches. Helping allies and partners develop, deploy, maintain, and operate maritime systems
is vital to their ability to provide for their own security. In particular, the United States will need towork with highly advanced militaries, such as those of Japan, South Korea, Australia, and India,
to help provide critical platforms, enabling systems, training, and maintenance capabilities.
The Pacific Command should bring these states together on a regular basis to harmonize theirrespective capacity-building efforts in Southeast Asia. Pacific Command should also work with
the Office of the Secretary of Defense and the Department of State to develop a maritime security joint regional campaign plan that takes these contributions into account and aligns U.S. Foreign Military Sales, training and exercises, and other mechanisms with allies and partners.
Whole-of-government engagement will be necessary to address maritime security needs that falloutside traditional areas of military expertise. For example, financial support might be provided by
the Japanese Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC), which can fund development efforts in the
security realm. Additional U.S. funding will also be needed, as only $50 million has been appropriated for the Southeast Asia Maritime Security Initiative (a small sum when compared to spendingon European and Middle Eastern reassurance), with future funding yet to be determined.
Estimated cost: low for coordinating capacity building; medium for additional activities, depending on the scale of U.S. commitment.

2.3 | Form a Standing U.S. Joint Task Force for the Western Pacific
Maritime security challenges within the Asia-Pacific are more complicated today than ever before,highlighting the need for clear U.S. command and control relationships. If a conflict were to occur today in the First Island Chain, the Pacific Command would likely establish a joint task force tocentralize command and control responsibilities. However, experience shows that arrangementsof this sort are most effective when established before a conflict and exercised on a regular basis.
The risks associated with major combat operations in the Asia-Pacific theater place a premium on
preexisting command relationships. This function was once served by Joint Task Force 519, which
was prepared and trained to respond to a crisis in Northeast Asia but has since been dissolved.
Interviews with numerous military and civilian leaders suggest that a standing Joint Task Force for
Maritime Security is still needed to exercise operational command in future contingencies.
The Pacific Command has made great strides in recent years, but its political-military responsibilities could hamper effective operational command in a high-intensity conflict. The Defense
Department should study whether Pacific Fleet, 7th Fleet, III MEF, or U.S. Forces Japan would be
best suited to lead a Joint Task Force, balancing the desire for a forward command element, thephysical requirements of each location, and the expertise of various commanders and staff. Preliminary analysis suggests that the commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet might be well positioned
to exercise operational command and control, but that there could also be operational advantages and deterrence and reassurance benefits to deploying the Joint Task Force within the firstisland chain. Therefore, Pacific Fleet might serve as a Joint Task Force lead with 7th Fleet acting
as a potential forward headquarters location during a crisis.

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A critical component of such a task force would be frequent training and exercises, and developmentof strong relationships with allies and partners. Some allies might also contribute officers to serve on
the staff of the Joint Task Force, thereby ensuring close coordination with regional partners.
Estimated cost: low to medium, depending on the degree of “dual hatting” of existing staff.

2.4 | Encourage Japan to Establish a Joint Operations Command
As the world’s third-largest economy, Japan is a critical U.S. ally from a political, economic, andsecurity standpoint. Prime Minister Abe’s desire to play a more proactive role in international
affairs creates the opportunity to further strengthen the alliance, by addressing the need for improved alliance command structures. Although the allies recently agreed to establish an Alliance
Coordination Mechanism, it lacks the command and control elements necessary for a rapid
combined and joint response to potential crises or conflicts. The authors encountered concern
in both Tokyo and Washington that the command and control arrangements are not sufficientfor the type of complex, high-intensity warfare that the allies must be prepared to conduct.
To address this requirement, the United States should offer expertise and suggest establishment of a
joint operational command, similar to the Australian Joint Operations Command. U.S. personnel could
be integrated into this command, if deemed appropriate by the government of Japan. This would
improve alliance interoperability, and Japanese officers could serve in similar positions in a U.S. Joint
Task Force for the Western Pacific. Such an arrangement would separate the command and control
functions from the chief of defense functions, which is critical to effective operational responses.
Estimated cost: low.

2.5 | Deepen Whole-of-Government Humanitarian Assistanceand Disaster Relief Expertise
Sitting on the ring of fire, the Asia-Pacific region faces the world’s highest risk of natural disaster,and the most geographically concentrated population on Earth. In just the last decade, earthquakes, tsunamis, and typhoons have brought serious damage to nearly all states in the region.
Too often, regional militaries have struggled to meet this shared challenge. The U.S. Agency forInternational Development has a strong existing capability for emergency response, as do U.S.
and international nongovernmental organizations. The military also has an important role to playin developing regional capability, capacity, and interoperability and establishing regional stockpiles of supplies enables effective humanitarian relief missions.
To expand whole-of-government cooperation on disaster response, the Pacific Command should
host a global conference to bring civilian organizations with disaster response expertise together with
Asian military representatives. The Pacific Command could also establish an emergency response
portal to act as a repository for capabilities and contacts, both for the regional governments andnongovernmental organizations. In addition, training and exercising for humanitarian assistance anddisaster relief missions, and practicing interoperability between foreign forces before a crisis occurs,also increases the speed and effectiveness of operations. Exercises should include whole-of-government engagement, creating institutional connections and individual trust before a crisis occurs.
Estimated cost: low.
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3 | SUSTAIN AND EXPAND U.S. MILITARY PRESENCE
The authors encountered concern both in Washington and in foreign capitals about the sustainability of U.S. military presence throughout the region. Forward-stationed U.S. forces are oneof the most important ways to signal U.S. political commitment to the region. The political andmilitary value of forward presence from both permanently stationed and temporarily deployed
forces is enormous. U.S. military presence serves as a stabilizing force in the region, helping todeter conflict on the Korean Peninsula and manage crises from the South China Sea through theIndian Ocean. Forward presence provides opportunities for partnership, interoperating, training,and exercising with allies and partners that U.S.-based forces cannot support.
The goodwill and the capabilities of the United States are on display each time U.S. forces contribute to humanitarian assistance and disaster relief missions. Operating together on a daily basis helps the United States build partner capacity and prove it is an enduring partner. Over time,these efforts contribute to security throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Moreover, for permanently stationed forces, the financial expense of housing U.S. military personnel and families in Asia
can be higher than housing them in the United States, but the costs are often offset by substantial support from host nations. Nevertheless, facing a growing anti-access/area denial threat, U.S.
bases and forward-deployed forces are increasingly under risk.
The authors identified initiatives to address capability gaps and capacity shortfalls in 10 areas:base realignment, surface fleet presence, undersea warfare, amphibious warfare, air supremacy,
missile defense, ground force mission sets, logistics, munitions, and intelligence, surveillance,and reconnaissance. Forward presence, including forces deployed, is central to U.S. strategy in
the Asia-Pacific and strengthening U.S. military posture in these areas will require a sustainedcommitment and additional resources.

3.1 | Continue Implementing and Resourcing Key Posture Initiatives
Strengthening U.S. posture in the Asia-Pacific will require continued efforts to minimize the costof forward presence while maximizing forward-deployed capability and political sustainability.
Ongoing initiatives to realign U.S. forces in Japan, South Korea, and Guam are vital to these efforts, as are posture initiatives in Australia, the Philippines, and elsewhere.
• Japan: U.S. presence in Okinawa is a strategic necessity given growing regional security
challenges. Shifting from the Futenma Air Station to the Futenma Replacement Facility in
Henoko is critical to this realignment, as is continuing to work closely with Tokyo to address host-nation concerns. Political dynamics in Okinawa have changed substantially inrecent years and local government efforts to halt construction could further complicate arealignment 20 years in the making. Nevertheless, the study team reaffirms the conclusionfrom the 2012 study that moving forward with the Futenma Replacement Facility remains
the best option for the United States and Japan. Although U.S. bases on Okinawa impact on
the local population, the governments have carefully designed land returns and realignment
efforts to minimize this impact while maintaining capabilities required for deterrence andreassurance. As necessary, the allies should consider adjusting operations or accelerating
return of facilities under the Special Action Committee on Okinawa.
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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SUSTAINING THE REBALANCE• South Korea: Realignment of army facilities in South Korea will make for a more sustainable
and less vulnerable posture on the Korean Peninsula. The shift to rotational deployment ofunits to South Korea has ensured that elements arrive well trained, but concerns remain
about the combat readiness of newly arrived forces in terms of familiarization with terrain,
logistics, and South Korean counterparts. The Defense Department should examine lessons
from operations in Iraq and Afghanistan that might mitigate these problems; for example,
phased initial sub-unit deployments or integration of South Korean elements into U.S.based training.
• Australia: Accelerate implementation of the air element of the U.S. posture initiative in Australia, including aircraft rotations and implementation of necessary infrastructure enhancements together with the government of Australia.
• Guam: Bases outside the First Island Chain are also vital, as these facilities are less vulnerable to attack. Guam is sovereign U.S. territory and provides a reliable base that is well locatedgeographically for rapid responses to crises in both Northeast and Southeast Asia. Recent
cooperation between the U.S. military and the Guam government has proven highly effective.
The United States should continue to fund military construction in Guam to enable force realignment and to increase installation resilience. Efforts in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands are also important for effective training and airfield diversification.
Beyond Japan, South Korea, and Guam, initiatives designed to expand access to facilities inAustralia and the Philippines will help to diversify U.S. posture and increase combined training
and exercise opportunities. U.S. allies already offset some of the costs of forward stationing, withJapan and South Korea providing nearly $2 billion and $900 million in yearly funding, respectively. The administration and Congress should work together to ensure that these posture initiatives
receive continued political and financial support.
Estimated cost: high, but most already budgeted.

3.2 | Increase Surface Fleet Presence
China’s growing assertiveness and its increasingly capable air, naval, and missile forces reinforce
the need for additional surface force presence, especially that of carrier strike groups. The UnitedStates already has an aircraft carrier permanently stationed in Japan at Yokosuka Naval Base, but
potential warfighting scenarios may require rapid deployment of additional surface forces, including carrier strike groups and surface action groups. Many of these assets are often deployedelsewhere, particularly to manage security concerns in the Middle East. Adding more small combatants, such as Littoral Combat Ships, helps to address some presence requirements. Yet, a larger
demonstration of U.S. will and capability is necessary for deterrence and reassurance purposes.
In the near term, the United States should continue to develop a network of access agreements
and facilities to ensure the ability to maneuver throughout the expanse of the Asia-Pacific regionin times of crisis. For the longer term, the navy should examine the steps needed to move a second carrier (to include the associated strike group, air wing, and personnel) west of the international date line. One possible location would be Yokosuka, Japan.

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The study team notes such a decision would require analysis of tradeoffs between the advantages of timely response to contingencies and the risks inherent in stationing more U.S. assets
inside increasingly contested areas of the Western Pacific. Nevertheless, forward stationing an
additional carrier would serve as a clear signal of U.S. commitment to the Asia-Pacific, strengthening deterrence and reassuring regional allies and partners. Forward stationing another West
Coast carrier to Asia would also increase the overall carrier presence not only in the Asia-Pacificbut in Europe and the Middle East as well. This increased efficiency is vital to maximize the effectiveness of existing platforms. Moreover, there is a unique political opportunity to shift a carrier
forward in 2019, because the U.S. fleet is scheduled to add the USS Gerald R. Ford, which will
deploy to California and would therefore permit movement of an older carrier forward without
decrementing homeported U.S. carriers.
Estimated cost: high.

3.3 | Improve Undersea Capacity
While surface combatants contribute essential capabilities to expected operational requirements
and send a strong signal of U.S. commitment, the greatest U.S. combat edge is in the undersea
domain. U.S. nuclear attack and guided-missile submarines are the most capable in the world,
and are likely to remain so for the foreseeable future. These assets are in high demand, so increasing their time-on-station is critical if the United States is to make the most use of its undersea advantage.
In the near term, the U.S. Navy could station an additional two Los Angeles-class nuclear attack
submarines in Guam, making a total of six. Guam’s location makes it ideal because transit times
are relatively short to Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia, and throughout the western and southern
Pacific. In the long term, the U.S. Navy should also consider homeporting several Virginia-classsubmarines in the Indian Ocean region. Locations to consider should include HMAS Stirling near
Perth and Diego Garcia. Stationing submarines in the Indian Ocean would require significant
investments in port facilities and host nation agreement. Yet, it would give the United States theability to quickly pivot forces from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific, as well as provide the ability
to monitor critical chokepoints such as the Sunda and Lombok Straits. Moreover, U.S. submarines
based in the Indian Ocean could improve interoperability with Australia’s Future Submarines andhelp create a southern maintenance and resupply location for U.S. Navy vessels.
Estimated cost: medium for shifting two additional submarines to Guam; medium for stationing two submarines in the Indian Ocean, depending on host-nation support and construction
requirements.

3.4 | Deploy Additional Amphibious and Other Lift
Many likely missions, particularly in Southeast Asia, require a rapidly deployable force capable ofconducting operations ranging from humanitarian relief to operating in contested maritime environments. U.S. Marines supply a critical capability in both regards, but they require substantial lift
capacity. Particularly with the U.S. Marine Corps deployment to Darwin, inter- and intra-theater
lift needs are substantial.
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In the near term, the U.S. Navy could shift an amphibious assault ship from the West Coast to
Guam to increase lift capacity and homeport an additional High Speed Vessel in Guam. In themedium term, the entire 10th Amphibious Ready Group should be moved from San Diego to
Japan—likely Sasebo. Together, these would provide readily available intra-theater lift for U.S.
Marines operating in Asian littorals, to include locations within Southeast Asia, and also increase
the ease and decrease the cost of regional training and exercises.
In the long term, the navy and marines would ideally add an 11th Amphibious Ready Group to
the Pacific, adding capacity to this already-stressed force. Much of the necessary infrastructure
already exists at Naval Base Guam for such a force, although additional housing and port facilities would be required. Alternatively, the United States might work with Australia and Japan toshare some operational amphibious lift and maneuver capacity, increasing allied interoperability
while minimizing costs.
Estimated cost: medium for shifting an amphibious assault ship to Guam or adding additional
high-speed vessels; medium to high for shifting an amphibious ready group to Guam, depending on the amount of additional construction needed; high for adding an additional amphibious
ready group to the force; low for sharing amphibious lift with Australia and Japan.

3.5 | Continue Diversifying Air Operating Locations
The U.S. Air Force relies on a small number of main operating bases in East Asia, most notably
Kadena Air Base in Okinawa, Kunsan Air Base and Osan Air Base in South Korea, and Andersen Air
Force Base in Guam. These facilities have become increasingly vulnerable to attack, particularly
from cruise and ballistic missiles. If these bases were disabled early in a conflict, the U.S. Air Forcewould struggle to generate combat power. Further, vulnerability is destabilizing. Pacific Air Forces
has been developing alternate basing concepts, including a greater reliance on diversification using
ally and partner facilities and more austere bases, potentially including civilian airfields.
The Departments of State and Defense should continue to work with the Philippines, Australia, andothers to access, and where appropriate develop, additional facilities that could be used to deepen
partnership. Operating from a range of airfields also provides greater strategic depth. Clusteringbases could ease the logistical burden of operating multiple facilities while still complicating potential adversaries’ targeting choices. If combined with aircraft shelters to defend against submunitions, and with concealment and deception, dispersal would greatly complicate an adversary’s
targeting challenge. In addition, capabilities for airfield construction and repair, and for exploiting
shorter, expeditionary airfields need to be expanded and new technologies pursued.
To respond rapidly to this dynamic environment, the U.S. Air Force should create a more flexible
Air Tasking Order process capable of responding rapidly to dynamic and diversified operations.
The United States will have to increase its efforts to overcome political and budgetary obstacles,
including in U.S. territories like the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), in
order to develop a robust and diversified basing posture across the Asia-Pacific.
Estimated cost: medium for developing CNMI divert airfields; medium to high for developing facilities in the Philippines and Australia, depending on how much new infrastructure is constructed.

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3.6 | Bolster Regional Missile Defenses
China, North Korea, and Russia all continue to develop their long-range missile capabilities, increasing the missile risk to forward-deployed U.S. forces, as well as to the U.S. homeland. Mitigating these risks requires the ability to intercept cruise and ballistic missiles, likely in large numbers.
In the near and mid term this requires additional investments in missile inventories. DOD should
assess whether any additional firing units are needed beyond those already planned.
Additional posture changes can help as well. In particular, the United States can work to link
missile defense systems together, as it has attempted to do with systems operated by Japan andSouth Korea. Developing integrated air and missile defenses will be vital to defend critical operating locations. In the near term, two posture initiatives are worthy of consideration. First, theUnited States should work with South Korea to deploy U.S. Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
assets to the peninsula, helping to defend against ballistic missiles. Second, the United Statesshould improve cruise missile defenses on Guam, using either PAC-3 or in the future the Indirect
Fire Protection Capability integrated air and missile defense systems.
Estimated cost: low for deploying existing Terminal High Altitude Area Defense assets to South
Korea; low for deploying existing PAC-3 systems to Guam; medium for procuring Indirect Fire
Protection Capability systems, for additional PATRIOT personnel, or for additional THAAD or PATRIOT missiles and firing units.

3.7 | Advance and Adapt the U.S. Army’s Regionally Aligned Forces Concept
The U.S. Army conceived of the regionally aligned forces approach to the Pacific at a time when
the Department of Defense believed that global demands would abate after Iraq and Afghanistan. Unfortunately, worldwide demand for U.S. Army forces, especially headquarters units thatprovide command and control as well as key enablers, is greater than anticipated and is likely toremain high for the foreseeable future.
The U.S. Army should revise its Regionally Aligned Forces concept and its Pacific Pathways deployments because unit integrity and the availability of forces will make the routine deploymentof brigade-level formations difficult to sustain beyond those required to support deterrence andcrisis response on the Korean Peninsula. Employing smaller units—at the company, battalion, or
brigade headquarters level—could improve the effectiveness of regional deployments, includingof missile-defense deployments, while reducing resource requirements.
Such an approach would better leverage National Guard and Army Reserve Forces. In particular,
the National Guard’s State Partnership Program should be expanded in Asia and viewed as a key
component of Regionally Aligned Forces. There are currently 69 State Partnership Programs ofwhich 22 are with EUCOM and 22 with SOUTHCOM; only 8 are with PACOM. While state governments have a central role in determining these partnerships, the Department of Defense should
encourage a rebalance to Asia that reflects the growing economic and cultural ties of the UnitedStates with the region.
Estimated cost: low to medium, depending on the cost differential between current large unit deployments in Asia and a greater number of small until deployments drawing from the total force.
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3.8 | Address Logistical Challenges
Underlying the U.S. military’s ability to project power is its logistics capacity. Logistics in the Pacific Command area of responsibility are particularly challenging because of the long distances
involved and the needs of new operating concepts—such as getting fuel to more distributed andaustere locations during times of conflict—and the rising A2/AD threat, which means that logistical operations will no longer be conducted in sanctuary.
In a time of declining budgets, logistical needs may not draw much public attention, but they are
no less important. Some of these logistics challenges can be met internally. One near-term needis the continued service of a dedicated T-AOE supply ship, which is scheduled to leave active
service for cost savings next year. In the mid to long term, acquiring additional combat logistics
force assets and deploying them to the Pacific will also be necessary.
Some logistics challenges can leverage civilian and commercial assets. Civilian contractors havebecome a permanent part of U.S. force structure, especially for logistics, and they need to be
rapidly deployable. In addition, the United States should leverage the immense capabilities of
the commercial assets available from allies and partners. These capabilities already exist, operate
every day, and could reduce the U.S. military’s peacetime footprint. Ensuring this is done correctly will require proper oversight and management controls by the operational command, government contracting organizations, and military staffs.
Further, DOD must reexamine its logistics communication system and identify means to better
secure unclassified networks, and where necessary make greater use of classified networks forlogistics planning and execution. Finally, and importantly, logistics planning—including analyses for strategic mobility and aerial refueling—will need to account for attrition and interdiction
inherent to a combat environment.
Estimated cost: low for leveraging partner and allied commercial assets; medium for maintaining
the deployment of a T-AOE ship in the Pacific Command area of responsibility; high for additional combat logistics force assets.

3.9 | Stockpile Critical Precision Munitions
Demand for munitions in the Asia-Pacific is high, given the potential for large-scale and highintensity conflicts. The ability to “fight tonight” requires that U.S. forces have munitions in theater
to meet this demand. U.S. forces do have access to a large number of munitions-storage facilities, from Okinawa to South Korea to Guam. Yet, most of these facilities are nearing their capacity
and stockpiles for many precision munitions are still lacking in forward areas. As a result, munitions would have to be moved forward rapidly during a conflict, increasing the risk that delays
could affect current plans. Moreover, acquisition of additional munitions is necessary to meet thelarge number of potential air and surface targets required by a high-intensity conflict.
DOD should sustain its recently increased investments in this area in order to expand stockpiles ofhigh-demand, low-inventory munitions, for example air-to-air munitions such as the AIM-120D

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and anti-surface munitions such as the Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile-Extended Range.
Where necessary, DOD should clear production bottlenecks. Once acquired, the U.S. military
should increase the forward stockpiles of needed munitions—on land or at sea through maritime
prepositioning—particularly JDAMs in Korea and long-range guided missiles for Guam and Japan.
Estimated cost: medium for creating additional storage facilities at Guam; medium to high forincreasing production of certain precision munitions (though much is already in the budget).

3.10. Enhance ISR Coverage in PACOM through Partnership with Allies
All combatant commands increased ISR capabilities. Both operators and planners acknowledge
that ISR demand will always outpace available supply. However, ongoing operational requirements in CENTCOM and EUCOM continue to tax an ISR force already in high demand. Increased
PRC gray zone challenges, combined with growing ally and partner concern, suggest the needfor greater ISR throughout PACOM.
We recommend, consistent with recommendation 2.1, that the United States co-develop ISR platforms and analysis tools with allies. Further, it should develop with allies cooperative and aligned
ISR plans to maximize collection effectiveness. Finally, it should conduct combined operations andanalysis of ISR missions in the South China Sea and East China Sea with regional treaty allies.
Estimated cost: low.

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4 | ACCELERATE DEVELOPMENT OF INNOVATIVECAPABILITIES AND CONCEPTSThe United States must update existing concepts and capabilities to ensure that the future force
is capable of deterring and prevailing in potential conflicts. China’s development of anti-access/area-denial capabilities aims to restrict U.S., ally, and partner freedom of maneuver. To overcome
this challenge, the United States is developing new concepts of operation and next-generation
capabilities. However, the security environment is highly dynamic and will require a culture ofadaptability, a willingness to try new approaches and risk failure through experimentation, andthe ability to move rapidly from concept to acquisition.
In developing these capabilities, the United States needs to accept some level of uncertainty andhedge by developing capabilities that address a wide range of emerging challenges. Resource
constraints will limit the degree to which the Defense Department can plan for all outcomes, so
collaboration with international partners and the commercial sector will be vital. In particular,
the authors identified capability gaps in two types of areas. First are those capabilities required tooffset an emerging risk to U.S. forces, such as the growing ballistic missile risk to U.S. ships andforward bases. Second are those capabilities that the United States could develop to provide an
asymmetric counter to potential regional competitors. Both will be needed for the U.S. military
to retain a resilient forward presence and the ability to project combat power in the Asia-Pacific,
despite competitors’ efforts to constrain U.S. leaders by increasing the risk to U.S. forces.

4.1 | Institutionalize a Culture of Experimentation
The operational experience of the U.S. armed forces, their leadership skills, and their spirit ofinnovation are arguably the greatest U.S. advantages over any potential adversary. Where recent experience is lacking, gaming and other analytic tools, professional military education, andexperimentation and exercises can assist in testing alternative concepts and new technologies.
Recent efforts to revitalize wargaming are an important step. Effective red teaming is critical tosuccess and findings need to be captured and acted upon.
The Defense Department should launch an annual competition of “blue teams” consisting of
nominees drawn from professional military education institutions against a “red team” drawn
from within and beyond the U.S. intelligence community. The first such annual competition
should focus on overcoming challenges imposed by China’s military investments and advances,such as operating in information-denied environments. The secretary of defense could provide
citations to the members of the most successful blue team.
In-the-field experimentation is even more vital than gaming. The use of interactive equipment and a
dedicated opposing force has revolutionized tactical training in all the services, but the same needs
to be done at the operational and strategic levels. The Department of Defense should develop an
18-month roadmap for improving the institutional underpinnings of joint concept development andexperimentation, including an experiment and concept fund to resource the most innovative service
and combatant commander field experiment, concept development, or gaming ideas.
Estimated cost: medium.
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4.2 | Encourage Rapid Platform Evolution
Cutting-edge technologies are emerging faster than current military acquisition cycles can incorporate or counter them. Some observers argue that the future will be “small, smart, and many.” If
true, then the customary practice of long-lifespan, relatively static platforms with occasional capability upgrades will not provide the United States the capabilities it will need in the future.
Programs with modular or interchangeable subsystems must be studied and expanded. The
insertion of new sensor capabilities on the MQ-9 Reaper, including the GORGON STARE andVADER systems, showcases how relatively basic modular platforms can make possible high-end
capabilities. Another example of repurposing existing capabilities is the development of electronic warfare packages that fit within the fuselage of a wing-mounted missile, enabling a local
air commander to rapidly reconfigure for electronic warfare capability, even without dedicatedelectronic warfare airframes. The Defense Department must find ways to incorporate a greater
degree of upgradability and even disposability into its operational concepts and acquisition processes. Certain platforms should endure while others should have short experimental lifetimes tobest adopt rapidly emerging technology at a lower cost.
Estimated cost: medium to high, depending on the systems adopted.

4.3 | Develop Advanced Long-Range Missiles
The United States retains a substantial advantage in the technological sophistication of its major military platforms, but the missiles they carry often lack the range needed to operate against
adversaries with anti-access/area denial capabilities designed to prevent U.S. forces from closing within striking distance. Long range will be important for effective employment of anti-ship,
anti-surface, and anti-air missiles, as well as for the survivability of their launch platforms. Suchmunitions are especially important payloads for new platforms, such as the F-35, the Long Range
Strike Bomber, and the Littoral Combat Ship. U.S. missiles need not only have long ranges but
also advanced terminal guidance and high-speed maneuverability to defeat potential countermeasures. Although many investments are already underway, the administration and the Congress should provide these advanced long-range missiles with continued budgetary support.
Estimated cost: high, but some already in budget.

4.4 | Fund Innovative Missile Defense Concepts
The United States relies on missile defenses to protect forward bases and forward-deployed
forces. With missile ranges increasing and the cost of missile defenses rising more rapidly thanthe missiles themselves, it is vital that the United States develop cheaper alternatives to offset thegrowing missile risk.
Three options are particularly promising: railgun, directed-energy, and upgraded conventional
powder guns. Railguns have the benefit of high rates of fire and the ability to fire at air, missile,and land targets over great distances. Directed-energy defenses are attractive for their large magazine depth, dependent primarily on energy-storage capacity. Conventional powder guns are already deployed throughout the region in large numbers, so the ability to repurpose them would

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likely save money and require less technological risk than using more innovative and untested
technologies. Given the importance of missile defenses for forward bases and deployed forces,
all three capabilities should be pursued and prioritized.
Estimated cost: medium for research, development, test, and evaluation; high for procurement
and fielding.

4.5 | Field Additional Air Combat Systems
The United States has a small number of aging bombers, most of which are unsuited for
non-permissive environments. Adversary advances in stealth-detecting radars may also reducethe benefits of current stealth platforms, and increase the cost of future stealth systems. Developing a fleet of next-generation aircraft with the right combination of capabilities—long-range,manned and unmanned operation, and stealthy and non-stealthy characteristics—will be criticalto prevailing in a major conflict against a peer competitor.
The Long Range Strike Bomber is one important investment, but there are others. Unmannedsystems, both carrier-launched and ground-launched, will be vital for executing distributed operations and reducing vulnerability. Maritime platforms, such as the Unmanned Carrier-Launched
Surveillance and Strike system, will require the ability to penetrate through advanced air-defense
systems to conduct both surveillance and strike missions at great distances from U.S. carrier
strike groups. Many of these technologies will be expensive, but they make use of critical U.S.
advantages in stealth technology and integration of unmanned systems into operational units.
A more rapid and dynamic ATO process, as recommended in recommendation 3.5, is needed toget maximum effect from these advanced strike and reconnaissance capabilities.
Estimated cost: high, but much already in the budget.

4.6 | Exploit the U.S. Undersea Advantage
Perhaps the foremost U.S. asymmetric advantage is in the undersea domain, where the UnitedStates retains a substantial technological lead over potential competitors. Nevertheless, continued investment in undersea capabilities is necessary to prevent competitors from catching up.
The United States will also need to rely more on its undersea edge as its dominance erodes inother domains. Developing new undersea platforms, especially unmanned underwater vehicles,
will help extend the U.S. advantage.
Increasing the number of U.S. nuclear attack and guided-missile submarines in the Asia-Pacificwould also be helpful, but increasing their payload is particularly important. The Virginia Payload
Module will replace a badly needed capability to approach covertly and strike large numbers oftargets from underwater when the Ohio-class guided-missile submarines retire. The U.S. Navy’s
current plan is to include Virginia Payload Modules in every other submarine starting in 2019. If
this plan holds, the large majority of those boats should be sent to the Pacific, where the demandis highest for undersea payload.
Estimated cost: high.

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4.7 | Augment Space, Cyber, and Electronic Warfare Capabilities
The U.S. military remains highly dependent on capabilities in space, cyberspace, and across theelectronic spectrum, for command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance. Potential adversaries are aware that weakness in these areas could
severely limit the operational effectiveness of U.S. conventional forces in a conflict and will contest these domains in the future.
As a result, the United States should ensure it has robust defenses in these domains, the ability
to respond to aggression by an adversary, and alternative mechanisms for providing the neededcapability. For space, at a minimum this means hardening terrestrial and satellite-based communication systems against jamming, hosting payloads on foreign satellites, and developing non-space
backup mechanisms for capabilities that are currently space-based. For electronic warfare, thismeans enhancing EW capabilities to ensure U.S. forces can operate in a battlespace saturated withadversary jamming devices and advanced radars. For cyberspace, this means continuing to invest
in both offensive and defensive cyber capabilities, particularly combat mission teams, is important.
Estimated cost: high for hardening communication systems; medium to high for increasing electronic warfare investments; medium for shifting toward hosted payloads; medium for bolstering
cyber mission forces.
The initiatives outlined above would help to ensure that the United States maintains the ability
to protect its interests in the Asia-Pacific while offsetting growing security risks. Safeguarding
regional security and prosperity will require that the United States engage states throughout
the Asia-Pacific, deter potential adversaries, and reassure allies and partners. As the U.S. PacificCommand looks ahead to 2025, the number and severity of the region’s security risks are likely to expand, but the United States has the tools and, with bipartisan cooperation, can have theresources to meet these challenges.

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APPENDICESAPPENDICESAPPENDIX A:
NATIONAL DEFENSE AUTHORIZATION ACT
OF 2015—SECTION 1059
This appendix lists the congressional tasking and the corresponding sections of this report.

2015 NDAA - SECTION 1059
Review Of United States Military Strategy And The Force Posture Of Allies And Partners In The
United States Pacific Command Area Of Responsibility(a) INDEPENDENT REVIEW–(1) IN GENERAL–The Secretary of Defense shall commission an independent review of theUnited States Asia-Pacific rebalance, with a focus on issues expected to be critical during theten-year period beginning on the date of the enactment of this Act, including the national
security interests and military strategy of the United States in the Asia-Pacific region.
(2) CONDUCT OF REVIEW–The review conducted pursuant to paragraph (1) shall be conducted by an independent organization that has–(A) recognized credentials and expertise in national security and military affairs; and(B) access to policy experts throughout the United States and from the Asia-Pacific region.
(3) ELEMENTS–The review conducted pursuant to paragraph (1) shall include the following
elements:(A) An assessment of the risks to United States national security interests in the UnitedStates Pacific Command area of responsibility during the ten-year period beginning on thedate of the enactment of this Act as a result of changes in the security environment.
(B) An assessment of the current and planned United States force posture adjustments andthe impact of such adjustments on the strategy to rebalance to the Asia-Pacific region.
(C) An assessment of the current and planned force posture and adjustments of UnitedStates allies and partners in the region and the impact of such adjustments on the strategy
to rebalance to the Asia-Pacific region.
(D) An evaluation of the key capability gaps and shortfalls of the United States and its allies
and partners in the Asia-Pacific region, including undersea warfare (including submarines),
naval and maritime, ballistic missile defense, cyber, munitions, and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities.
(E) An analysis of the willingness and capacity of allies, partners, and regional organizations to contribute to the security and stability of the Asia-Pacific region, including potential required adjustments to United States military strategy based on that analysis.
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(F) An appraisal of the Arctic ambitions of actors in the Asia-Pacific region in the context ofcurrent and projected capabilities, including an analysis of the adequacy and relevance of
the Arctic Roadmap prepared by the Navy.
(G) An evaluation of theater security cooperation efforts of the United States Pacific Command in the context of current and projected threats, and desired capabilities and priorities of the United States and its allies and partners.
(H) The views of noted policy leaders and regional experts, including military commanders, in the Asia-Pacific region.
(b) REPORT–(1) SUBMISSION TO THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE–Not later than 180 days after the date of
the enactment of this Act, the independent organization that conducted the review pursuant
to subsection (a)(1) shall submit to the Secretary of Defense a report containing the findingsof the review. The report shall be submitted in classified form, but may contain an unclassified
annex.
(2) SUBMISSION TO CONGRESS–Not later than 90 days after the date of receipt of the reportrequired by paragraph (1), the Secretary of Defense shall submit to the congressional defense
committees the report, together with any comments on the report that the Secretary considers appropriate.

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2012 STUDY RECOMMENDATIONSRECOMMENDATION 1: Better align engagement strategy under PACOM and across DOD, including improved integration of PACOM with its component commands, between PACOM and Service Force Providers, and among PACOM, Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), the Joint Staff,
and the interagency process
Identify desired roles, missions, and capabilities for key allies and partners and prioritize thesegoals in planning for bilateral, trilateral, and multilateral training and exercises. Focus in particular on bridging capabilities and trilateral U.S.-Japan-ROK interoperability with South Korea;
jointness, BMD, amphibious, and ASW capabilities with Japan; and maritime domain awareness, counterterrorism, and HA/DR with the Philippines and other partners across the Southand Southeast Asia littoral. Broader multilateral exercises and engagement should also besustained to integrate additional partners and China to the greatest extent possible.
Utilize Darwin, Australia, Tinian, CNMI, and JPARC and capabilities such as JMPRC (“National
Training Center in a Box”) to encourage operationally relevant training and exercises withallies and partners.
Protect exercise budgets in the face of future reductions; shaping is not possible if U.S.
forces cannot interact more robustly with their counterparts.
Enhance engagement opportunities with ground force counterparts, particularly with the
PLA, by designating the USARPAC commander as a four-star component command.
Take advantage of current and planned reductions in Operation Enduring Freedom force
deployment levels that make available active duty Army, Army National Guard, and Army
Reserve components with significant capability and experience. These units should bemade available for use in PACOM engagement activities, including expansion of PAT teams,
supplemental forces to engage in partner training and exercises, etc.
Transition U.S. Army I Corps into a PACOM-aligned Joint Task Force, bringing with itcorps-level planning capability, access to regionally aligned forces in CONUS for theater rotations of up to one year (primarily in Korea), and some of the experienced forces noted above.
Refine and replenish prepositioned stocks in theater and draw on post-OEF retrograde
equipment and supplies to augment availability in PACOM AOR.

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RECOMMENDATION 2: Implement the April 27, 2012, U.S.-Japan SCC Agreement, with caveats
Sustain commitments to construction of FRF at Henoko while continuing to examine alternative courses of action in order to mitigate risks. Of the potential alternatives examinedin Section 3, utilizing the second runway at Naha airfield was assessed as most promisingagainst this report’s evaluation criteria. Other alternatives such as Iejima should also be
examined as future possibilities. However, none of these alternatives is any more promisingthan current plans at Henoko, and abandoning current agreements would be counterproductive geo-strategically and operationally without high promise of success elsewhere.
Nevertheless, alternatives should continually be explored in light of executability challenges
at Henoko, political risks associated with continued use of MCAS Futenma, and operationalrisks (dispersal requirements) in contingency scenarios.
Move forward with funding necessary for the development of training ranges at Tinian Islandand other CNMI locations. Work with the government of Japan to leverage Japanese funding
commitments in order to realize early joint-bilateral training opportunities. Expedite the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) process by determining that prior Records of Decision areprogrammatic decisions and by evaluating proposed updates against those records. In manycases, this could lead to a Finding of No Impact and no need for a Supplemental EIS.
Implement the Distributed Laydown Plan but ensure it is incremental, prioritized, and affordable with reversible milestones; require annual reporting on these milestones to Congress.
Prioritize improvements on Guam, focusing on roads and infrastructure improvements suchas pipeline protection that would be mission essential even if fewer Marines move to Guamfrom Okinawa. These improvements will necessarily include some limited MILCON funding
outside of the wire of DOD facilities.

RECOMMENDATION 3: Implement U.S.-ROK Strategic Alliance 2015, with caveats
Track progress toward and adjust schedules for OPCON transition and CFC dissolution via
demonstrated achievement of scheduled actions and command and control arrangements(including possible mutually agreed to changes in supported-supporting relationships) andmajor changes in threat and conditions.
Examine the option of replacing current U.S. ground combat units in Korea with rotationsof trained and ready mechanized infantry, field artillery and aviation (including previously moved squadrons) brigades (with 8th Army, 2ID, and 210 Artillery Brigade headquarters
permanently forward). Review should include the impact on readiness in Korea, personnel
turbulence (in Korea and worldwide), the overall cost, U.S.-ROK alliance relations and combat capability, and the overall effect on deterrence against provocations and aggression.
Adjust but continue consolidation under the YRP/LPP agreements; revise the agreements toproperly accommodate specific left-behind units, such as the artillery brigade.

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APPENDICESRECOMMENDATION 4: Add additional capabilities to the PACOM AOR
Station one or more additional SSNs in Guam to provide a critical advantage in an
A2AD environment.
Deploy an additional ARG and enablers (e.g., LCAC) to the Pacific theater to provide necessary lift for the distributed MAGTFs to support the full spectrum of U.S. planning. There iscurrently insufficient ARG coverage for Marines in the Pacific, particularly when comparedwith assets available for CENTCOM, and this gap in the “rebalancing” of forces is striking.
Increase movement assets in the Pacific theater, specifically roll-on/roll-off ships andaerial tankers.
Increase critical munitions stockpiles, particularly in South Korea.
Replenish and upgrade prepositioned equipment and supplies, particularly in Korea.
Expand the use and deployment of UDP Marines to develop and refine expeditionary defense tactics, doctrine, and capability in conjunction with JSDF and ROK forces for the First
Island Chain and the West Sea Islands and across the region for broader capability.
Deploy THAAD and PAC-3 assets to Guam, Kadena AB, Japan, and possibly Korea.
Increase runway repair capability across PACOM, particularly at Guam and Kadena.
Disperse tanker aircraft rather than expend funds on hardening, especially in Guam; additionally, expand operational dispersal across Southeast Asia.
Increase U.S. Air Force Contingency Response Group (CRG) capability across PACOM andprovide additional assets to the CRG at Andersen AFB, Guam.
Construct and upgrade fuel pipeline at Andersen AFB in Guam.

RECOMMENDATION 5: Examine possible force posture and basing efficiencies
Consolidate F-16 squadrons among Misawa, Kunsan, and Eielson bases to create full
24-primary assigned aircraft squadrons. In the case of Misawa, ongoing use of the base by
U.S. and JASDF forces and units would keep the base open for future uses and dispersal
actions, though government of Japan objections to removing permanently deployed F-16s
from Misawa must be considered.
Over the years, forces deployed to Korea have grown apart from the current force structure.
As a result, some units assigned to USFK serve less useful purposes. A careful review of USFK
deployed forces would yield some small reductions, which could leave the force structure
or could be replaced by more useful units, either on a permanent or rotational basis.

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APPENDIX C:DEALING WITH A CHANGED FISCAL ENVIRONMENT
The fiscal environment has changed substantially since CSIS’s previous report, U.S. Force Posture
Strategy in the Asia Pacific Region: An Independent Assessment, in 2012. The passage of the Budget Control Act of 2011 (BCA) cut $487 billion from defense over 10 years. Since then, successive
budget crises have made further cuts.
The October 2015 budget deal was an important step forward. It set DOD resources close to the
President’s Budget level that both the president and, the Congress agreed was needed. Nevertheless, the deal covered only two years (FY 2016 and FY 2017) and sequestration will remain athreat in FY 2018 and beyond.
Long term the budget environment remains uncertain. Continuing growth in entitlements andinternal DOD cost growth will further squeeze defense budgets. On the other hand, a politicalconsensus is building that puts a floor under defense spending and opposes further cuts.
Picking a single fiscal level, especially a high level, would simplify the problem of implementing recommendations but, with the great fiscal uncertainty, would not be credible or helpful for
decisionmakers if the fiscal future came out differently. Therefore, to acknowledge the high levelof fiscal uncertainty, this study proposes three possible fiscal futures for the period through 2025:
a level above the FY 2016 President’s Budget (PB), a level equal to the PB, and a level reduced
from the PB. The study then determines which recommendations should be implemented at thedifferent budget levels.

A Changed Fiscal Environment
Where We Are Today
Figure 16 shows defense budget plans in FY 2012 (the level Secretary Gates labeled as needed
for the strategy), in FY 2016 after the budget agreement, and under sequestration/BCA caps. The
large cut required by the Budget Control Act is clear, as is the effect of sequestration if imposed.
Implications for the Asia-Pacific RebalanceThis long-term budget uncertainty creates a difficult environment for the rebalance. In the nearterm, and possibly for the five-year period, budget caps and internal cost growth are likely tosqueeze even current Asia-Pacific activities. (CSIS describes internal cost growth in its 2012
study, Building the Affordable 2021 Military: “The aggregate impact of growth (above inflation) in
the cost of personnel, health care, operations and maintenance (O&M), and acquisition results
in a defense dollar that ‘buys’ less and less capability.”) These budget constraints will require
rigorous prioritization of otherwise desirable activities. Additions to programs or launching new
initiatives will require finding offsets elsewhere.

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APPENDICESFIGURE 15: Recent Fiscal Projections DOD Base Budget (constant dollars, billions),
FY 2006–2021

It will also be difficult to move resources from elsewhere in the DOD budget. Budget caps constrain in all activities (modernization, technology development, readiness, and sustaining theAVF). Asking these activities to make cuts to fund rebalance activities may not be possible.

Approaches to an Uncertain Budget FutureThis study, therefore, takes a resource-informed approach to strategy. It lays out a strategy andproposed policies but notes the costs of the study’s recommendations. A further element is therecognition of different possible fiscal futures.
Making prioritizations and tradeoffs in order to fund higher-priority efforts is difficult because it
involves choosing among desirable activities and goals. The fact that one activity is prioritizedover another does not mean that the lower-priority one is unimportant, only that choices must
be made in a resource-constrained environment.
Different Fiscal Futures
DOD’s record in making accurate fiscal predictions is poor. In this, DOD is likely no better orworse than outside experts.
Practitioners and behavioral scientists have shown the reason for this failure. Humans vastly
overestimate their ability to control events, to overcome biases, and to think creatively.737 Experts,
because of their deep technical knowledge, are particularly susceptible to the illusion that they220

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can see into the future.738 Richard Danzig, former secretary of the navy, provided the bottom line:“The number and diversity of variables that influence the national security environment confound [long-range] forecasting.” 739
Recognizing this unhappy history and difficult environment, this study proposes three possible
fiscal futures for the period through 2025: a level above the PB, a level equal to the PB, and a level
below the PB. These three fiscal futures are not forecasts but illustrate the range of likely outcomes
and thus allow thinking about how DOD might implement the rebalance in different futures.
It is clear that robust funding is needed to implement this study’s proposed strategy. The strategy
cannot be implemented at a level reduced from the PB. Too many critical activities would be cut.
Even at the President’s Budget level, decisionmakers will need to make some tough tradeoffs.

TABLE 5: DOD Base Discretionary Budget (“051”) in Then-Year Dollars (billions)**Includes estimates for the impact of the 2015 budget deal. (Actual amount for FY 2017 depends
on how OCO funding evolves and will likely be the equivalent of a higher level.)
Implementation of Recommendations at Different Budget Levels
The recommendations in Section 7 laid out the full set of desirable actions, which collectively
have a high additional cost. Here the study suggests which could be implemented at particularbudget levels, the highest priorities being implemented even when resources are constrained.
This study did not undertake precise cost estimates for the recommendations but did make roughestimates (high/medium/low, as noted in Section 7) to give a sense of relative impact and to allow
prioritization. The illustrative priorities below include only recommendations with medium orhigh costs. Those with low costs (under $10 million per year) are assumed to be achievable at any
budget level. In making this illustrative prioritization, This appendix seeks to preserve those initiatives with highest payoff for the cost and with potentially transformational capabilities.
A level above the PB. Few experts expect increases above the President’s Budget in the near term(although a few have recommended higher budgets). The last two budget deals have set levels
between the PB and sequestration. However, much could happen over a 10-year period. Thisbudget level assumes a return to the FY 2013 planned level of funding, which included the initial cuts of the Budget Control Act but not subsequent cuts. This level would permit substantial
program increases compared with current plans and likely allow implementation of all the recommended changes.

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Align Asia strategy within the U.S. government and with allies and partners:• All recommendations in this area are low cost and achievable.
Strengthen ally and partner capability, capacity, resilience, and interoperability:• Form a joint task force for maritime security;• Fund maritime security capacity building;• Develop regional HA/DR expertise.
Sustain and expand U.S. military presence in the Asia-Pacific:• Continue funding key posture initiatives (Japan, Korea, the Philippines, and Australia);• Increase naval presence (forward stationing a second carrier);• Improve undersea capacity (forward stationing additional submarines in Guam and,if possible, in Australia);• Deploy additional amphibious lift (shift the 10th ARG from San Diego to Guam, construct an
11th ARG);• Diversify air operating locations;• Bolster regional missile defenses (link national systems; field additional THAAD batteries;
deploy THAAD to Korea; deploy PATRIOT to Guam);• Address logistical checkpoints (keep a T-AOE in PACOM service);• Stockpile critical precision munitions (in Guam, South Korea, and Japan).
Accelerate development of innovative capabilities and concepts:• Institutionalize a culture of experimentation;• Encourage platform evolution;• Develop advanced long-range missiles;• Fund innovative missile defense concepts (railguns, directed energy, and improved
conventional powder guns);• Field additional air combat systems (such as LRS-B and UCLASS);• Exploit U.S. undersea advantage (develop UUVs and VPM; station submarines with
VPM forward);• Augment space, cyber, and EW capabilities (harden satellites; host payloads on foreign satellites; increase EW capabilities; and invest in offensive and defensive cyber capabilities).
Budget level equal to the PB. The PB for DOD projects programs out five years, to FY 2020, in the
FYDP. OMB projects appropriations out a further five years, to FY 2025. The administration has
stated that this level is the minimum needed to sustain the current strategy, in PACOM and globally. Senior military commanders have been particularly emphatic on this point. This level allows
execution of current plans but would require tradeoffs for new initiatives.

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Illustrative recommendations for implementation include:• Fund maritime security capacity building;• Develop regional HA/DR expertise;• Continue funding key posture initiatives;• Improve undersea capacity;• Develop advanced long-range missiles;• Fund innovative missile-defense concepts;• Augment space, cyber, and EW capabilities;• Bolster regional missile defenses (link national systems; deploy THAAD to Korea; deploy
PATRIOT to Guam).
Illustrative recommendations to consider but with offsets to make them affordable:• Bolster regional missile defenses (field additional THAAD batteries) by trading off other U.S.
Army force structure;• Diversify air operating locations, but limit near-term construction to bare base facilities;
postpone fully developed facilities.
Budget level below the PB. For FY 2016 most experts believe that the outcome will be somewhere
between sequestration and the PB, using one of several possible mechanisms.740 Extending thatoutcome to the 10-year period would cut several hundred billion dollars more out of the defense
budget, the exact amount depending on the nature of the agreement. For purposes of illustration, this reduced level is half way between the PB and sequestration level. This level would
require substantial cuts to existing activities and severely limit new initiatives.
Illustrative recommendations for implementation include:• Fund maritime security capacity building;• Develop regional HA/DR expertise;• Continue funding key posture initiatives;• Augment space, cyber, and EW capabilities.
Illustrative recommendations to consider but with offsets to make them affordable:• Develop advanced long-range missiles, but at reduced procurement quantities and withstretched schedules;• Improve undersea capacity, offsetting with reductions in other undersea programs;• Bolster regional missile defenses (field additional THAAD batteries) by trading off other U.S.
Army force structure;• Diversify air operating locations, but limit near-term construction to bare base facilities,
postpone developed facilities;

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APPENDICES• Fund innovative missile defense concepts, by trading off some kinetic missile defense
development.
Mechanisms for aligning strategy and resources. In theory, DOD’s Planning, Programming, Budgeting and Execution System (PPBES) continuously realigns strategy and resources. In practice, thisis difficult to do year-to-year. Instead, the system focuses on rebalancing accounts within the existing strategy in response to changes in resources, the security environment, political direction,and program outcomes. Major realignments are generally done during the Quadrennial Defense
Reviews (QDRs)1 or, less frequently, in response to major changes to the security environment.
Such was the Comprehensive Review of 2012, which made major changes to account for passage of the Budget Control Act and its cut of $487 billion over 10 years.
The current administration can implement many of this study’s recommendations as part of theannual rebalancing of DOD resources. Major realignment of strategy and resources will likely bedelayed to the 2017 QDR/SDR. This effort will begin when a new administration takes office inJanuary 2017 and will report out by law on March 1, 2018. This QDR/SDR will be an especiallygood opportunity because of changed statutory language. Previously, the statutory language (10USC 118) required that the QDR be unconstrained by resources. This made it difficult for DOD totalk candidly about strategy-resource tradeoffs. A change in the FY 2015 authorization bill allows
more latitude, directing that the budget and strategy be aligned.

1

The 2015 National Defense Authorization Act renamed the QDR to the Strategic Defense Review (SDR) and modified
the statutory language about what the review had to do.

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APPENDIX D:
SELECT CSIS STUDY TEAM RECOMMENDATIONS,IN BRIEF
Air Superiority and Global Strike• Invest in high-capability platforms, including unmanned systems, for the most difficult missions.
• Invest in next-generation optionally manned systems for both air superiority and strike.
Successful development and utilization of unmanned platforms will require significant concept development, and openness to non-traditional modes of force employment, both ofwhich have experienced institutional opposition to date.
• Adopt and institutionalize lessons from combat missions in Iraq and Afghanistan to establish procedures for a more dynamic and resilient ATO process in theaters subject to rapidchange and enemy countermeasures.
• Investigate developing conformal drop tanks for the F-35. Although technically challenging,
this capability would have great value in PACOM given existing U.S. posture, the distances intheater, and the relatively short range of the F-35.

Naval and Maritime Forces• Amphibious lift should be expanded and deployed forward to meet increased demands fortheater-wide engagement and crisis response.
• The USN should, to the greatest degree possible, accelerate the development of UUVs to
improve operational efficacy in the littoral areas of the Western Pacific. These vessels can also
serve as a powerful monitoring network, akin to a twenty-first-century sound surveillance.
• The USN should also accelerate development of unmanned aerial systems and ensure they
complement the F-35 in ways that improve the lethality and capacity of both systems. Payload, range, and counter-A2/AD abilities should be prioritized, though not necessarily in thesame platform.
• The navy should examine the steps needed to forward station an additional carrier in the
Pacific, including the associated air wing and escort ships.

Ground Forces• The U.S. Army should use smaller units for the Regionally Aligned Forces concept, to maintain the unit integrity that is highly beneficial to forging lasting relationships between U.S.
forces and partner nations. The use of smaller units can help ease the strain of RAF on the
total force, particularly by expanding the use of the Reserve Component.

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APPENDICES• Currently the National Guard conducts exercises with eight countries in the Asia-Pacificregion, out of a total of 70 programs in the State Partnership Program. The National Guard
brings “all of government” connections at the state level, and provides excellent insight into
civil-military relations. The National Guard should expand the State Partnership Program toincrease the number of partnerships in the Asia-Pacific region.
• DOD should pursue development of a training range in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands on Pagan to support III MEF requirements for amphibious training andmaneuver ashore. As a backup, DOD should begin exploration of training facilities in the
Compact States.
• PACOM should periodically use all training areas abroad to which it has access.
• The USA should reassess Pacific Pathways’ costs and benefits, and include a detailed manning and equipping breakdown if the program is continued. In addition, PACOM, the Joint
Staff, and the Department should ensure close coordination between the USA and USMC to
improve readiness and security cooperation through a joint approach.

Special Operations Forces• Continue prioritizing SOF missions to accommodate PERSTEMPO constraints.
• Continue efforts to develop solutions—technical or doctrinal—for long-range air and maritime
insertion/extraction missions and for fire support in highly contested A2/AD environments.

Missile Defense• Continue upgrades to THAAD and PATRIOT to meet evolving threats.
• Continue rapid development of efficient and cheap missile defenses across the kill chain,
to include directed energy and railguns for fleet and point missile defense, as well as boost
phase intercept.
• Deploy THAAD capabilities to South Korea.
• Assess whether increased threats and deployments require procurement of all nine planned
THAAD batteries, per the USA requirement, to meet global demands or any additional PATRIOT units.
• More actively address the full IAMD challenge for all U.S. forces in region, not merely
ballistic missiles.
• Continue and improve the complexity of regional missile defense exercises, and actively
improve interoperability and information sharing between and among allies and partners.

Space• Create greater resiliency in space-based assets through the hardening of payloads, deployment of jam-resistant communication systems, and diversification of host platforms toinclude non-military and non-U.S. satellites.

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• Fund the development of alternatives to space-based capability, through non-space-based,
but complementary, capabilities such as aerial layer mesh networking and advanced inertial
PNT for operations in the most stressing A2/AD environments.

Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance• DOD should develop a robust aerial ISR system able to operate in the most denied environments. This system should build off of and advance the existing lines of effort represented
in LRS-B and UCLASS.
• DOD should steer investments into autonomous imagery exploitation systems for both
aerial and space-based systems to improve the throughput of the PED system and optimize
the utilization of increasingly scarce human analysts.
• The USN should develop a PED (processing, exploitation, and dissemination) system with
operational analytic centers attached to the fleet patrol wing level, to maximize the capabilities of the Triton. This should be augmented with strategic analytic centers attached to the
USN’s theater-level component commands.
• The USN and USAF PED systems should be interoperable, support operational and strategiccommanders, and be compatible with systems operated by U.S. allies and partners. Joint
manning with options for combined manning, where appropriate, should be an objective
for Asia-Pacific PED architecture.
• DOD should coordinate plans for ISR missions with allies. It should share analysis work among
allies in areas of mutual interest and concern, particularly the South and East China Seas.

Cyber• Cyber operations should be a component in all wargames conducted by PACOM and its
major subordinate commands in order to ensure that commanders have operational fluency with this vital technology.
• The Defense Department should fast-track development of a common operating picture
for cyber operations that can be pushed forward to the operational and tactical levels. This
information should be integrated into existing ISR frameworks in order to add another levelof richness to commanders’ understanding of both the physical and virtual battlespace.
• PACOM, in cooperation with CYBERCOM, should hold annual discussions with key regional allies and partners about cyber capabilities. Such discussions should include the ways inwhich ally and partner authorities may differ from U.S. authorities and the ways in whichsuch differences may be leveraged in a contingency operation.

Electronic Warfare• The USAF should reemphasize the role of offensive EW in penetrating strike missions, toinclude ensuring sufficient stockpiling of MALD-J in the region and the prompt integrationof these munitions with the F-35.

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APPENDICES• CHAMP should be placed on an accelerated development track along with autonomous
targeting subsystems for EW munitions to enable highly effective operations to be carriedout in denied or degraded communications environments.
• The USN should explore ways of projecting EW affects ashore by integrating the EW munitions described above into VLS systems on surface and subsurface combatants.

Nuclear Forces• Improve capabilities for detection, monitoring, and surveillance of nuclear weapons acquisition, development, testing, employment, or onward proliferation to expand warning andresponse times, especially on the Korean Peninsula.
• Ensure that the United States has scalable, proportional nuclear and non-nuclear response
options, complemented by robust missile defenses, to deescalate crises and counter nuclear aggression.
• Diversify the means and mechanisms—through policy, posture, and deployments—by which
the United States can signal its resolve in the face of nuclear threats.
• Enhance capabilities to interdict proliferation-related activities to include improved low-visibility monitoring from standoff distances and development of disablement or disruption
technologies to broaden response options.
• Improve capabilities to locate, secure, disable, or remove nuclear weapons in the face ofinstability or conflict.

Munitions• Forward deploy additional munitions to Guam, Japan, and Korea in hardened facilities.
• Continue acquisition of advanced munitions, at the PB 2016 level. Increase procurementof missile defense missiles until success of followon technologies is assured. Give PACOM
priority on fielding of these new munitions. Resolve production bottlenecks where they
constrain production rates.
• Include advanced munitions in the Third Offset strategy.
• Where there are shortages in forward-deployed munitions, plan to globally source munitions
during conflicts, taking risks in other theaters, if necessary by relying there on older versions.
• Develop mechanisms for emergency resupply of allies, if such becomes necessary.

Strategic Mobility, Readiness, and Logistics• Execute currently planned programs—for the KC-46 tanker, for connectors, and for prepositioning—in order to enhance the strategic mobility system.
• Conduct another strategic mobility study when the long-term budget situation becomes
clear and the long-term force is set, or if the next strategic review (“QDR 2018”) establishes a substantially different strategy. In future mobility assessments, consider the effect of
attacks on bases, ships, and aircraft and the needs of a more distributed wartime basing
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posture. There is wide recognition, in OSD, the services, the Joint Staff, and PACOM, that
this is needed.
• Make plans for using commercial mobility assets to the maximum extent possible.
• Maintain high readiness in deployed forces even if the readiness of non-deployed forces
declines. Develop and maintain capabilities for rapidly deploying and then managing large
numbers of operational support contractors.
• Plan to use operational support contractors if there are shortfalls in the U.S. Army’s Executive Agency capabilities and allied forces cannot provide the needed support• Plan also on using local commercial assets to the maximum extent possible, especially for
fuel, to support distributed operations during conflicts.
• Maintain the Pacific T-AOE in active status.
• DOD should better secure logistics communications networks, including those of private-sector partners. It should assess overall vulnerabilities to the system, and where necessary, shift logistics information systems to classified networks.
• Stockpile HA/DR supplies, as feasible. Countries within the region—with U.S. assistancethrough DOD’s Overseas Humanitarian, Disaster, and Civic Aid (OHDACA) or other authorities—could establish additional pre-positioned stockpiles of critical supplies and broaden
multinational exercises to include interagency and nongovernmental partners.
• Exercise the HA/DR mission with regional partners and allies.
• Deepen whole-of-government HA/DR expertise across the Asia-Pacific region.

Theater Security Cooperation• In order to focus investments, assist regional allies and partners with the development ofdesired end-states for their military capabilities.
• Ensure objectives in the Theater Security Cooperation Plan are appropriate for a combatantcommand, rather than government-wide objectives, and are within the area of responsibility of the military services or defense ministries in the partner nation. Further, consider
the partner-nation capacity to adopt new initiatives, from personnel, materiel, and financial
perspectives, and prioritize objectives accordingly.
• Invest in ally and partner capabilities in the priority areas of HA/DR, information and intelligence sharing, maritime security, undersea warfare, missile defense, and cyber security.
• Prioritize and synchronize PACOM and service component security cooperation priorities
and lines of effort.

Policy Recommendations for the Arctic•

Reassess the Navy’s Arctic Roadmap•

Specify PACOM’s role in the Arctic229

APPENDICESAPPENDIX E:ABOUT THE AUTHORSSTUDY DIRECTORS
Michael J. Green is senior vice president for Asia and Japan Chair at CSIS and Chair in Modern
and Contemporary Japanese Politics and Foreign Policy at the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University. He served on the staff of the National Security Council(NSC) from 2001 through 2005, first as director for Asian affairs, with responsibility for Japan,
Korea, Australia, and New Zealand, and then as special assistant to the president for national
security affairs and senior director for Asia, with responsibility for East Asia and South Asia. Before joining the NSC staff, he was senior fellow for East Asian security at the Council on Foreign
Relations, director of the Edwin O. Reischauer Center and the Foreign Policy Institute, and an
assistant professor at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University, research staff member at the Institute for Defense Analyses, and senior adviser on
Asia in the Office of the Secretary of Defense. He also worked in Japan on the staff of a memberof the National Diet. Dr. Green is also currently a nonresident fellow at the Lowy Institute in Sydney, Australia, and a distinguished scholar at the Rebuild Japan Initiative Foundation in Tokyo. He
is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, the Aspen Strategy Group, the Australian American Leadership Dialogue, the advisory board of the Center for a New American Security, and theeditorial boards of the Washington Quarterly and the Journal of Unification Studies in Korea. He is
also an associate of the U.S. Intelligence Community. Dr. Green has authored numerous books
and articles on East Asian security. His current research includes a book project on the historyof U.S. strategy in Asia; a survey of elite views of norms, power, and regional institutions in Asia;and a monograph on Japanese strategic culture. He received his master’s and doctoral degrees
from SAIS and did additional graduate and postgraduate research at Tokyo University and theMassachusetts Institute of Technology. He received his bachelor’s degree in history from Kenyon
College with highest honors. He holds a black belt in Iaido (sword) and has won international
prizes on the great highland bagpipe.
Kathleen Hicks is senior vice president, Henry A. Kissinger Chair, and director of the International
Security Program at CSIS. She is a frequent writer and lecturer on U.S. foreign and security policy;
defense strategy, forces, and budget; and strategic futures. From 2009 to 2013, Dr. Hicks served
as a senior civilian official in the Department of Defense. Confirmed in 2012 as principal deputy
under secretary of defense for policy, she was responsible for advising the secretary of defense on
global and regional defense policy and strategy pertaining to such areas as the Asia-Pacific andPersian Gulf regions, Syria, and Europe. She also served as deputy under secretary of defense forstrategy, plans, and forces, leading the development of the 2012 Defense Strategic Guidance andthe 2010 Quadrennial Defense Review and crafting guidance for future force capabilities, overseas
military posture, and contingency and theater campaign plans. From 2006 to early 2009, Dr. Hicks
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served as a senior fellow at CSIS, leading a variety of research projects in the national security
field. From 1993 to 2006, she was a career civil servant in the Office of the Secretary of Defense,
serving in a variety of capacities and rising from Presidential Management Intern to the Senior
Executive Service. Dr. Hicks received numerous recognitions for her service in the Department of
Defense, including distinguished awards from three secretaries of defense and the chairman of
the Joint Chiefs of Staff. She also received the 2011 DOD Senior Professional Women’s Association
Excellence in Leadership Award. She holds a Ph.D. in political science from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, an M.A. from the University of Maryland’s School of Public Affairs, and an
A.B. magna cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa from Mount Holyoke College. Dr. Hicks is an adjunctwith the RAND Corporation and a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. She currently
serves on the National Commission on the Future of the Army, the Board of Advisors for the Truman National Security Project, and the Board of Advisors for SoldierSocks, a veterans’ charity.
Mark Cancian (Colonel, USMCR, ret.) is a senior adviser with the CSIS International Security
Program. He joined CSIS in April 2015 from the Office of Management and Budget, where hespent more than seven years as chief of the Force Structure and Investment Division, working on
issues such as DOD budget strategy, war funding, and procurement programs, as well as nuclear
weapons development and nonproliferation activities in the Department of Energy. Previously,
he worked on force structure and acquisition issues in the Office of the Secretary of Defense andran research and executive programs at Harvard University’s Kennedy School of Government.
In the military, Colonel Cancian spent over three decades in the U.S. Marine Corps, active andreserve, serving as an infantry, artillery, and civil affairs officer and on overseas tours in Vietnam,
Desert Storm, and Iraq (twice). Since 2000, he has been an adjunct faculty member at the Johns
Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies, where he teaches a course on the connection between policy and analysis. A prolific author, he has published over 40 articles on military
operations, acquisition, budgets, and strategy and received numerous writing awards. He graduated with high honors (magna cum laude) from Harvard College and with highest honors (Baker
scholar) from Harvard Business School.

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APPENDICESTEAM LEADS
Zack Cooper is a fellow at CSIS, where he focuses on Asian security issues. While at CSIS, he has
conducted studies on the U.S. rebalance to the Asia-Pacific, federated defense in Asia, U.S-Australia security ties, and strategic approaches to U.S.-Japan relations, among other topics. Prior tojoining CSIS, Mr. Cooper worked as a research fellow at the Center for Strategic and Budgetary
Assessments. He previously served on the White House staff as assistant to the deputy national
security adviser for combating terrorism. He also worked as a civil servant in the Pentagon, firstas a foreign affairs specialist and then as a special assistant to the principal deputy under secretary of defense for policy. Mr. Cooper received a B.A. from Stanford University and an M.P.A. and
M.A. from Princeton University, where he is also a doctoral candidate in security studies.
John Schaus is a fellow in the International Security Program at CSIS, where he focuses on
defense industry and Asia security challenges. His research areas include Asia-Pacific security issues and U.S. defense policy and industry, and he presents CSIS’s flagship presentation on
future trends, “Seven Revolutions: Scanning the Horizon Out to the Year 2035 and Beyond.” Prior
to rejoining CSIS in July 2014, he worked in the Office of Asian and Pacific Security Affairs (APSA)
within the Office of the Secretary of Defense. His responsibilities there included day-to-day management of the U.S.-China military relationship; as special assistant to the assistant secretary of
APSA, he coordinated work product and policy priorities for an office of 100, crossing two geographic COCOMs and including five U.S. allies. His most recent previous position was as regional
policy adviser to the assistant secretary for APSA, where he oversaw Defense Department participation and represented the department in Asian multilateral defense organizations, as well as
ensuring actions, budget, messaging, and planning aligned with broader U.S. efforts, in particularwith the rebalance to the Asia Pacific. Prior to working in the Pentagon, Mr. Schaus served as executive officer to the president and CEO of CSIS for five years. He received a B.A. from St. John’s
University in Minnesota, and an M.P.P. from the University of Minnesota’s Hubert H. Humphrey
School of Public Affairs.

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CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
Ernest Bower is senior adviser and Sumitro Chair for Southeast Asia Studies and codirector of
the Pacific Partners Initiative at CSIS. He is recognized as a leading expert on Southeast Asia. He
is president and CEO of BowerGroupAsia, a well-known business advisory firm he created andbuilt. Before forming his company, he served for a decade as president of the U.S.-ASEAN Business Council, the top private business group composed of leading U.S. companies in Southeast
Asia. Over 20 years, he helped to establish and build the Council from the ground level, working
with government and private-sector leaders from the United States and Southeast Asia. Bower is widely recognized as one of the strongest proponents for close ties between the UnitedStates and Asia. He has been an adviser and innovator in creating programs and vehicles tobroaden and deepen ties bilaterally and regionally. He engineered key private-sector initiatives
such as the U.S.-Singapore Free Trade Agreement Coalition, the U.S.-APEC Business Coalition,and numerous campaigns resulting in significant expansion of commerce. In recognition of hiswork, the King of Malaysia has awarded him the Darjah Panglima Jasa Negara, pronouncing him
holder of the title Datuk in Malaysia. The president of the Philippines also awarded him the rankof Lakan, or Commander, for his service to the Philippines. Bower is currently the U.S. chair of
the Advisory Council on Competitiveness for the Vietnamese prime minister and serves on theboards of the Special Olympics, the Institute for Religion & Public Policy, the American Australian Education and Leadership Foundation, the United States-New Zealand Business Council, theMalaysian-American Society, and the United States-Indonesia Society. He also served on the U.S.
Department of State’s Advisory Committee on Trade and Investment. Bower holds a bachelor’s
degree from Colgate University and studied Mandarin Chinese at Middlebury College’s Sunderland School of Foreign Language.
Victor Cha joined CSIS in May 2009 as a senior adviser and the inaugural holder of the Korea
Chair. He is also director of Asian studies and holds the D.S. Song-KF Chair in the Departmentof Government and School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University. From 2004 to 2007, heserved as director for Asian affairs at the White House on the NSC, where he was responsible primarily for Japan, the Korean Peninsula, Australia/New Zealand, and Pacific Island nation affairs. Dr.
Cha was also the deputy head of delegation for the United States at the Six-Party Talks in Beijing
and received two Outstanding Service Commendations during his tenure at the NSC. He is theaward-winning author of Alignment Despite Antagonism: The United States-Korea-Japan Security Triangle (Stanford University Press, 1999), winner of the 2000 Ohira Book Prize; Nuclear North
Korea: A Debate on Engagement Strategies, with Dave Kang (Columbia University Press, 2004);
Beyond the Final Score: The Politics of Sport in Asia (Columbia University Press, 2009); and The
Impossible State: North Korea, Past and Future (Ecco, 2012), selected by Foreign Affairs magazine
as a 2012 “Best Book on Asia and the Pacific.” His next book is Powerplay: Origins of the American Alliance System in Asia (Princeton University Press, forthcoming). He has written articles oninternational relations and East Asia in journals including Foreign Affairs, International Security,
Political Science Quarterly, Survival, International Studies Quarterly, and Asian Survey. Dr. Cha is aformer John M. Olin National Security Fellow at Harvard University, a two-time Fulbright Scholar,
and a Hoover National Fellow, CISAC Fellow, and William J. Perry Fellow at Stanford University. He
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holds Georgetown University’s Dean’s Teaching Award for 2010 and the Distinguished ResearchAward for 2011. He serves as an independent consultant and has testified before Congress on
Asian security issues. He has been a guest analyst for various media including CNN, ABC Nightline,
NBC Today Show, CBS Morning Show, Fox News, MSNBC, CNBC, BBC, ESPN, Sports Illustrated, andNational Public Radio. He had a cameo role (as himself) in the film “Red Dawn” (Contrafilm, MGM,
Vincent Newman Entertainment) released in November 2012. Dr. Cha holds a B.A., an M.I.A., and a
Ph.D. from Columbia University, as well as an M.A. from Oxford University.
Heather A. Conley is senior vice president for Europe, Eurasia, and the Arctic and director of theEurope Program at CSIS. Prior to joining CSIS in 2009, she served as executive director of the
Office of the Chairman of the Board at the American National Red Cross. From 2001 to 2005, she
served as deputy assistant secretary of state in the Bureau for European and Eurasian Affairs withresponsibilities for U.S. bilateral relations with the countries of northern and central Europe. From1994 to 2001, she was a senior associate with an international consulting firm led by former U.S.
deputy secretary of state Richard L. Armitage. Ms. Conley began her career in the Bureau of Political-Military Affairs at the U.S. Department of State. She was selected to serve as special assistant tothe coordinator of U.S. assistance to the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union. Ms.
Conley is a member of the World Economic Forum’s Global Agenda Council on the Arctic and isfrequently featured as a foreign policy analyst on CNN, MSNBC, BBC, NPR, and PBS. She received
her B.A. in international studies from West Virginia Wesleyan College and her M.A. in international
relations from the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies.
Ryan Crotty was a fellow with the International Security Program and deputy director for defense budget analysis at CSIS. His work focuses on the management and application of defense
resources, the strategic implications of resourcing decisions, and the effects of these decisions
on the defense industrial base. He has worked on several CSIS projects focused on long-term
defense spending trends and the defense budget drawdown and identifying challenges andopportunities facing the Department of Defense in a time of budget tightening. He also studies the interaction between the defense budget and the health of the defense industry throughanalysis of contracting and financial tools. He did his graduate study in international affairs at thePennsylvania State University, where he previously worked as a research assistant to Ambassador
Dennis Jett. While at Penn State, he was a 2010 recipient of the Office of the Director of National
Intelligence’s Strategic and Global Security Scholars Program scholarship. Previously, he worked
in state government consulting in Boston, MA. He also holds a B.A. (with honors) in government
and international studies from Colby College.
Melissa Dalton is a fellow and chief of staff of the CSIS International Security Program. Her research focuses on security cooperation, U.S. defense policy in the Middle East, and defense strategy and policy. As chief of staff, she advises the director of ISP on a broad range of strategic andmanagement issues. She joined CSIS in September 2014 as a visiting fellow and as a 2014–2015
Council on Foreign Relations International Affairs Fellow. Prior to CSIS, she served in a numberof positions at the U.S. Department of Defense, in the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense
for Policy from 2007 to 2014, most recently as a senior adviser for force planning. Previously, she
served as special assistant to the under secretary of defense for policy, as policy adviser to the234

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

commander of the International Security Assistance Force in Kabul, Afghanistan, and as country
director for Lebanon and Syria. In 2012, she was a visiting fellow at the Center for a New American Security. Prior to her DOD service, she taught English to middle and high school students inDamascus, Syria, in 2006. From 2003 to 2005, she served as an intelligence analyst at the Defense Intelligence Agency. She holds a B.A. in foreign affairs from the University of Virginia andan M.A. in international relations and international economics from the Johns Hopkins University
School of Advanced International Studies.
Bonnie Glaser is senior adviser for Asia and director of the China Power Project at CSIS, where
she works on issues related to Chinese foreign and security policy. She is concomitantly a
non-resident fellow with the Lowy Institute in Sydney, a senior associate with CSIS Pacific Forum,
and a consultant for the U.S. government on East Asia. From 2008 to mid-2015 Ms. Glaser was asenior adviser with the Freeman Chair in China Studies, and from 2003 to 2008, she was a seniorassociate in the CSIS International Security Program. Prior to joining CSIS, she served as a consultant for various U.S. government offices, including the Departments of Defense and State. Ms.
Glaser has written extensively on various aspects of Chinese foreign policy, including Sino-U.S.
relations, U.S.-China military ties, cross-strait relations, China’s relations with Japan and Korea,
and Chinese perspectives on missile defense and multilateral security in Asia. Her writings havebeen published in the Washington Quarterly, China Quarterly, Asian Survey, International Security, Problems of Communism, Contemporary Southeast Asia, American Foreign Policy Interests, Far
Eastern Economic Review, Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, New York Times, and International
Herald Tribune, as well as various edited volumes on Asian security. Ms. Glaser is a regular contributor to the Pacific Forum quarterly Web journal Comparative Connections. She is currently aboard member of the U.S. Committee of the Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific,
and a member of both the Council on Foreign Relations and the Institute of International Strategic Studies. She served as a member of the Defense Department’s Defense Policy Board China
Panel in 1997. Ms. Glaser received her B.A. in political science from Boston University and her M.A.
with concentrations in international economics and Chinese studies from the Johns Hopkins
School of Advanced International Studies.
Rebecca Hersman is director of the Project on Nuclear Issues and senior adviser for the International Security Program. Ms. Hersman joined CSIS in April 2015 from the Department of
Defense, where she served as deputy assistant secretary of defense for countering weapons ofmass destruction since 2009. In this capacity, she led DOD policy and strategy to prevent WMD
proliferation and use, reduce and eliminate WMD risks, and respond to WMD dangers. Ms. Hersman was a key leader on issues ranging from the nuclear security summit to the elimination of
Syria’s chemical weapons to the global health security agenda. She served as DOD’s principal
policy advocate on issues pertaining to the Biological Weapons Convention, Chemical Weapons Convention, Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and Cooperative Threat Reduction Program.
Prior to joining DOD, Ms. Hersman was a senior research fellow with the Center for the Study of
Weapons of Mass Destruction at the National Defense University from 1998 to 2009. Her primary
projects focused on the role of DOD in mitigating the effects of chemical and biological weapons
attack, concepts and strategies for eliminating an adversary’s WMD programs, as well as prolifer-

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ation issues facing the United States. Ms. Hersman also founded and directed the WMD Center’s
Program for Emerging Leaders, an initiative designed to shape and support the next generationof leaders from across the U.S. government with interest in countering weapons of mass destruction. Ms. Hersman previously held positions as an international affairs fellow at the Council
on Foreign Relations, a special assistant to the undersecretary of defense for policy, and a member of the House Armed Services Committee professional staff. She holds an M.A. in Arab studies
from Georgetown University and a B.A. from Duke University.
Murray Hiebert serves as senior fellow and deputy director of the Sumitro Chair for Southeast
Asia Studies at CSIS in Washington, D.C. Prior to joining CSIS, he was senior director for Southeast Asia at the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, where he worked to promote trade and investment
opportunities between the United States and Asia. Mr. Hiebert joined the U.S. Chamber in 2006
from the Wall Street Journal's China bureau, where he covered trade, intellectual property rights,
and China’s accession to the World Trade Organization. Prior to his posting to Beijing, he worked
for the Wall Street Journal Asia and the Far Eastern Economic Review in Washington, reporting on
U.S.-Asia relations. From 1995 to 1999, he was based in Kuala Lumpur for the Far Eastern Economic Review. He covered the Asian financial crisis and also reported on developments in Singapore. In the early 1990s, he was based in Hanoi for the Review, reporting on Vietnam’s economic
reforms. He joined the Review's Bangkok bureau in 1986, covering political and economic developments in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Mr. Hiebert is the author of two books on Vietnam,
Chasing the Tigers (Kodansha, 1996) and Vietnam Notebook (Review Publishing, 1993).
Christopher K. Johnson is a senior adviser and holds the Freeman Chair in China Studies at
CSIS. An accomplished Asian affairs specialist, Mr. Johnson spent nearly two decades serving
in the U.S. government’s intelligence and foreign affairs communities and has extensive experience analyzing and working in Asia on a diverse set of country-specific and transnational issues.
Throughout his career, he has chronicled China’s dynamic political and economic transformation, the development of its robust military modernization program, and its resurgence as aregional and global power. He has frequently advised senior White House, cabinet, congressional, military, and foreign officials on the Chinese leadership and on Beijing’s foreign and security
policies. Mr. Johnson worked as a senior China analyst at the Central Intelligence Agency, where
he played a key role in the analytic support to policymakers during the 1996 Taiwan Strait missile
crisis, the 1999 accidental bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, the downing of a U.S.
reconnaissance aircraft on Hainan Island in 2001, and the SARS epidemic in 2003. He also helped
shape senior officials’ understanding of the politics of the Jiang Zemin era, the successful leadership transition to Hu Jintao in 2002, and the preparations for the fall 2012 leadership succession.
Mr. Johnson served as an intelligence liaison to two secretaries of state and their deputies on
worldwide security issues and in 2011 was awarded the U.S. Department of State’s Superior Honor Award for outstanding support to the secretary and her senior staff. He also served abroad ina field site in Southeast Asia. Mr. Johnson graduated summa cum laude with bachelor’s degrees
in history and political science from the University of California at San Diego (1994) and received
his M.A. in security policy studies from the George Washington University (1996). He is a memberof Phi Beta Kappa.

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Thomas Karako is a senior fellow with the International Security Program and the director of theMissile Defense Project at CSIS, where he arrived in 2014 as a fellow with the Project on Nuclear
Issues. His research focuses on national security, U.S. nuclear forces, missile defense, and publiclaw. He is also an assistant professor of political science and director of the Center for the Studyof American Democracy at Kenyon College, where he arrived in 2009. For 2010–2011, he was selected to be an American Political Science Association Congressional Fellow, during which time
he worked with the professional staff of the House Armed Services Committee on U.S. strategic
forces policy, nonproliferation, and NATO. Karako received his Ph.D. in politics and policy fromClaremont Graduate University and his B.A. from the University of Dallas. He previously taught
national security policy, U.S. government, and constitutional law at Claremont McKenna College
and California State University, San Bernardino. He has also written on executive-congressional
relations, the thought of Niccolo Machiavelli, and international executive agreements.
Stephanie Sanok Kostro was acting director of the CSIS Homeland Security and Counterterrorism Program and a senior fellow with the CSIS International Security Program, where she focuses on a range of "seam" issues affecting defense, foreign affairs, and development. Her researchinterests include defense policy and strategy, U.S. government stabilization and reconstruction
efforts, the nexus between security and economic development, transitions of post-conflict responsibilities, and U.S. military activities to partner with foreign nations and other organizations.
Prior to joining CSIS, Mrs. Kostro served at the U.S. embassy in Baghdad, where she developed
policy options for the U.S. government’s efforts to support a sovereign, stable, and self-reliant
Iraq. She collaborated closely with military and civilian colleagues to revise the Joint Campaign
Plan—an interagency strategy to strengthen U.S. relations with Iraq along political, economic, energy, rule of law, and security lines of operation and identify strategic risks and transition issues
related to the U.S. military withdrawal. From 2005 to 2008, Mrs. Kostro was a senior professional
staff member on the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Armed Services, where she
led a team on overarching defense policy topics, such as military strategy, detention operations,
export controls and technology security, troop levels in Iraq and Afghanistan, and the Pentagon’srole in foreign assistance and civil aspects of overseas operations. At the Pentagon from 1998 to2005, she worked in the secretary of defense’s counter-proliferation, European, and NATO policy
offices and, as a Presidential Management Fellow, completed rotations in the secretary of defense’s policy, comptroller, and personnel/readiness offices, in the Joint Staff’s Strategic Plans andPolicy Directorate, and at the U.S. embassy in Sarajevo and the U.S. mission to NATO. Mrs. Kostro
received a master of public policy degree with concentrations in international security policy andconflict resolution from Harvard University and a degree in communication and international
relations from Cornell University.
Gregory B. Poling was a fellow with the Sumitro Chair for Southeast Asia Studies and the PacificPartners Initiative, and is now the director of the Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative at CSIS.
He manages research projects that focus on U.S. foreign policy in the Asia Pacific, with a special
concentration on the member countries of ASEAN. His current research interests include disputes in the South China Sea, democratization in Southeast Asia, and Asian multilateralism. Mr.
Poling’s publications include Sustainable Energy Futures in Southeast Asia (CSIS, December 2012),

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APPENDICESThe South China Sea in Focus: Clarifying the Limits of Maritime Dispute (CSIS, July 2013), A U.S.-Indonesia Partnership for 2020: Recommendations for Forging a 21st Century Relationship (CSIS, September 2013), and A New Era in U.S.-Vietnam Relations: Deepening Ties Two Decades after Normalization (CSIS, June 2014). Mr. Poling received an M.A. in international affairs from American
University, a B.A. in history and philosophy from Saint Mary’s College of Maryland, and studied at
Fudan University in Shanghai.
Richard Rossow is a senior fellow and holds the Wadhwani Chair in U.S.-India Policy Studies at
CSIS. In this role he helps frame and shape policies to promote greater business and economic
engagement between the two countries. He joined CSIS in 2014, having spent the last 16 years
working in a variety of capacities to strengthen the partnership between the United States andIndia. Prior to CSIS, he served as director for South Asia at McLarty Associates, leading the firm’s
work for clients in India and the neighboring region. From 2008 to 2012, Mr. Rossow was withNew York Life Insurance company, most recently as head of International Governmental Affairs,
where he developed strategic plans for the company’s public policy and global mergers andacquisitions work. From 1998 to 2008, Mr. Rossow served as deputy director of the U.S.-India
Business Council, the world’s leading advocacy group on behalf of strengthening economic ties
between the United States and India. While at the U.S.-India Business Council, he managed theCouncil’s policy groups in the energy, information technology, insurance, media and entertainment, and telecommunications sectors. Mr. Rossow received his B.A. from Grand Valley State
University in Michigan.
Sharon Squassoni has directed the Proliferation Prevention Program at CSIS since 2010. She
joined the Center from the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, where she was a seniorassociate in the Nuclear Nonproliferation Program. From 2002 to 2007, Ms. Squassoni advised
Congress as a senior specialist in weapons of mass destruction at the Congressional ResearchService (CRS), Library of Congress. Before joining CRS, she worked briefly as a reporter in the
Washington bureau of Newsweek magazine. Ms. Squassoni also served in the executive branchof government from 1992 to 2001, including in the Nonproliferation Bureau and the Political-Military Bureau at the Department of State and in the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. She is
the recipient of various service awards, has published widely, and is a frequent commentator for
U.S. and international media outlets. Ms. Squassoni received her B.A. in political science from theState University of New York at Albany, a master’s in public management from the University of
Maryland, and a master’s in national security strategy from the National War College.
Nicholas Szechenyi is deputy director of the Japan Chair at CSIS, where he is also a senior fellow. His research focuses on U.S.-Japan relations and U.S.–East Asia relations. In 2009, he wasselected as an inaugural fellow of the U.S.-Japan Network for the Future, a program establishedby the Maureen and Mike Mansfield Foundation. Prior to joining CSIS in 2005, he was a news
producer for Fuji Television in Washington, D.C., where he covered U.S. policy in Asia and domestic politics. Szechenyi coauthors a triannual review of U.S.-Japan relations in Comparative Connections, an electronic journal on East Asian bilateral relations. Other publications include “TheU.S.-Japan Alliance: Prospects to Strengthen the Asia-Pacific Order” in Strategic Asia 2014–15: U.S.
Alliances and Partnerships at the Center of Global Power (National Bureau of Asian Research, 2014)
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and “Japan-U.S. Relations” (with Michael J. Green) in The Routledge Handbook of Japanese Politics(Routledge, 2011). He holds an M.A. in international economics and Japan studies from the Johns
Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies and a B.A. in Asian studies from
Connecticut College.
Denise Zheng is a senior fellow and deputy director of the Strategic Technologies Program at
CSIS, where her work is focused on technology, innovation, and cybersecurity and Internet policy. Previously, she served as chief of staff and lead science and engineering technical adviser asa contractor for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) foundational cyber
warfare program, Plan X. Before DARPA, Ms. Zheng was director for global government relations
and cybersecurity policy at CA Technologies, a $5 billion enterprise software company, where sheadvised company executives on cybersecurity, data security and breach notification, and software assurance. While at CA, Ms. Zheng was a member of the Information Technology (IT) Sector
Coordinating Council, IT Information Sharing and Analysis Center, SAFECode, and vice chair of
the TechAmerica Cybersecurity Legislative Subcommittee. Prior to CA Technologies, Ms. Zheng
served as a professional staff member for the Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
Committee. While in this role, she was a principal in drafting and negotiations for the Cybersecurity Act of 2012 and conducted oversight of critical infrastructure protection programs, spectrum
auctions, privacy, and federal IT programs. Ms. Zheng previously held various positions at CSIS,
including program manager of the Technology and Public Policy Program, where she managed
the CSIS Cybersecurity Commission among other program initiatives. She has authored reports
on U.S.-China relations and soft power, and civil space policy issues. Ms. Zheng holds a B.A. ineconomics and political science from the University of Michigan, studied government at the London School of Economics and Political Science, and completed graduate coursework in security
studies at the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies.

239

APPENDICESAPPENDIX F:ACRONYMS
A2/AD		

Anti-access/area denialAB 		

Air base

ADF 		

Australian Defence Force

ADIZ 		Air Defense Identification Zone

ADMM 		

ASEAN Defense Ministers’ Meeting

ADMM-Plus

ASEAN Defense Ministers’ Meeting Plus

AEW&C

Airborne early warning and control

AFB 		Air Force Base

AFP 		

Armed Forces of the Philippines

AFRICOM

Africa Command

AFSOC 		Air Force Special Operations Command

AIIB		

Asian Infrastructure Investment BankANSF 		

Afghan National Security Forces

AOR		

Area of Responsibility

ARF 		

ASEAN Regional Forum

ARG		

Amphibious Ready Group

ASAT 		

Anti-satellite

ASB		

Air Sea Battle

ASBM		

Anti-ship ballistic missile

ASCM		

Anti-ship cruise missile

ASEAN		

Association of Southeast Asian Nations

ASG 		

Abu Sayyaf GroupASW		

Antisubmarine warfare

ATO		

Air Tasking Order

AVF 		

All-Volunteer Force

BCT 		

Brigade Combat Team

BECA 		

Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement
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ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

BIFF 		

Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters

BJP 		

Bharatiya Janata Party

BMD 		

Ballistic missile defense

BRP 		

Philippine Navy ship

C2		Command and control

C2BMC

Command, control, battle management, and communications

C4		

Command, control, communications, and computers

C4ISR		

Command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance,and reconnaissance

CAP 		

Combat Air Patrol

CARAT 		Cooperation Afloat and Readiness and Training

CCP		

Chinese Communist Party

CENTCOM

Central Command

CFC 		

Combined Forces Command

CISMOA

Communication Interoperability and Security Memorandum of Agreement

COCOM

Combatant Command

CONOP

Concept of operation

CONUS

Continental United States

CSG		

Carrier strike group

CSIS		

Center for Strategic and International Studies

CSIST 		Chungshan Institute of Science and Technology

CYBERCOM

Cyber Command

DCS 		

Direct commercial sales

DMZ		

Demilitarized Zone

DOD 		

Department of Defense

DOTMLPF

Doctrine, organization, training, materiel, leadership and education, personnel,
and facilities

DPP 		

Democratic Progressive Party

DPRK		

Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

DSP 		

Defense Support Program

DTTI 		

Defense Technology and Trade Initiative

E-IMET

Expanded-International Military Education and Training

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APPENDICESEAMF 		

Expanded ASEAN Maritime Forum

EAS 		

East Asia Summit

ECSPI 		East China Sea Peace Initiative

EDCA 		

Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement

ELINT		

Electronic intelligence

EPAA 		

European Phased Adaptive Approach

EUCOM

European Command

EW		

Electronic warfare

EWG		

Expert working group

EWR 		

Early warning radar

FARP 		

Forward arming and refueling points

FMF 		

Foreign Military Financing

FMS 		

Foreign Military Sales

FON 		

Freedom of navigation

FRF 		

Futenma Replacement Facility

FTA 		

Free trade agreement

FY 		

Fiscal Year

FYDP 		

Future Years Defense Program

GCC 		

Gulf Cooperation Council

GPD 		

Gross domestic product

GPS		

Global positioning system

GSSAP

Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program

HA/DR 		Humanitarian assistance and disaster relief

HDLD 		

High-demand, low-density

HF 		

High-frequency

HMAS 		Her Majesty’s Australian Ship

HQ 		Headquarters

IAMD 		

Integrated air and missile defense

IBCS

Integrated Air and Missile Defense Battle Command SystemID 		

Infantry Division

IDS 		

Indigenous Defense Submarine

IMET 		

International Military Education and Training

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INS 		

Indian Navy ship

IOC 		

Initial operating capability

IRBM 		

Intermediate-range ballistic missile

ISIL 		

Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant

ISR 		

Intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance

JASDF 		Air Self-Defense Force

JB 		Joint base

JFC 		

Joint Force Commander

JFLCC 		Joint Force Land Component Command

JGSDF 		Ground Self-Defense Force

JI 		

Jemaah Islamiyah

JLENS 		Joint Land Attack Cruise Missile Elevated Netted Sensor System

JMSDF 		Maritime Self-Defense ForceJSDF 		

Japan Self-Defense Forces

JSOTF-P

Joint Special Operations Task Force-Philippines

JTAC 		

Joint Terminal Attack Controller

KAMD 		

Korean Air and Missile Defense

KJIX 		

ROK command and control system

LACM 		

Land-attack cruise missile

LADS 		

Laser Airborne Depth Sounder

LCS 		

Littoral Combat Ship

LPD 		

Landing platform dock

LPP		Land Partnership Plan

LRASM		Long Range Anti-Ship Missile

LRDR 		Long Range Discrimination Radar

LRPA 		

Long-range patrol aircraft

LRS-B 		Long Range Strike Bomber

LSA 		

Logistics Sharing Agreement

MAJCOM

Major command

MARFOR-K

U.S. Marine Forces—Korea

MCAS 		

Marine Corps Air Station

MCM 		

Mine counter-measures

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APPENDICESMCO		

Major combat operations

MDA 		

Missile Defense Agency

MEF 		

Marine Expeditionary ForceMERS 		

Middle East respiratory syndrome

MEU 		

Marine Expeditionary Unit

MND 		

Ministry of National Defense

MNS		

Mission Need Statement

MOB 		

Main Operating Base

MOU 		

Memorandum of understanding

MRBM 		

Medium-range ballistic missile

MRO		

Massive rescue operation

MSE 		

Missile Segment Enhancement

MTDP 		

Mid-Term Defense Program

NAS 		

Naval Air Station

NATO 		

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NCO		

Non-commissioned officer

NCWC 		

National Coastal Watch Center

NDPG 		

National Defense Program GuidelinesNEO		

Noncombatant evacuation operation

NGO 		

Nongovernmental organization

NORTHCOM Northern Command
NSC 		

National Security Council

NSS 		

National Security Strategy

OCO		

Overseas contingency operation

OPCON

Operational control

OPLAN

Operation plan

ORP 		

Ohio-class Replacement Program

PAC 		PATRIOT Advanced Capability

PACAF 		Pacific Air Forces

PACOM		

Pacific Command

PED 		

Processing, exploitation, and dissemination

PGM		

Precision-guided munition

PLA		

People’s Liberation Army
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ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

PLAAF		

People’s Liberation Army Air Force

PLAN		

People’s Liberation Army Navy

POL 		Petroleum, Oil and Lubricants

PRC		

People’s Republic of China

PSI 		

Proliferation Security Initiative

RAAF 		

Royal Australian Air ForceRAFs 		

Regionally Aligned Forces

RAN 		

Royal Australian Navy

ReCAAP

Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery 		against Ships in Asia

RIMPACRim of the Pacific

RMAF 		

Royal Malaysian Air Force

ROK		

Republic of Korea

RO/RO		

Roll On/Roll Off

SAF 		

Singapore Armed Forces

SAM 		

Surface-to-air missile

SAR		

Search and rescue

SBIRS 		Space Based Infrared System

SBSS 		Space Based Space Surveillance

SCC 		

Security Consultative Committee

SCM		

Security Consultative Meeting

SEAD 		

Suppression of enemy air defenses

SIGINT		

Signals intelligence

SLOC 		

Sea lines of communication

SM 		Standard Missile

SOCOM

Special Operations Command

SRBM 		

Short-range ballistic missile

SRP 		

Surveillance Radar Program

SSA		

Space situational awareness

SSBN 		

Nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine

SSGN		

Nuclear-powered guided missile submarine

SSK		

Diesel-electric attack submarine

STRATCOM

Strategic Command
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APPENDICESSTSS 		Space Tracking and Surveillance System

THAAD

Terminal High Altitude Area Defense

THAAD-ER

Extended-range THAAD interceptor

TNI 		

Indonesian National Armed Forces

TRANSCOM Transportation Command
TSP 		

Theater Security Package

U.S.		

United States

UAS 		

Unmanned aerial systems

UCLASS

Unmanned Carrier-Launched Airborne Surveillance and Strike

UK 		

United Kingdom

UN 		

United Nations

UNC 		

United Nations Command

UNCLOS

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

UNSC 		

United Nations Security Council

UPA 		

United Progressive Alliance

USA 		

U.S. Army

USAF 		

U.S. Air Force

USAG 		

U.S. Army Garrison

USAID 		U.S. Agency for International Development

USARAK

U.S. Army Alaska

USARJ 		U.S. Army Japan

USARPACU.S. Army Pacific

USCG 		

U.S. Coast Guard

USD		

U.S. dollars

USFJ 		

U.S. Forces JapanUSFK 		

U.S. Forces Korea

USMC 		

U.S. Marine Corps

USN		

U.S. NavyUUV 		

Unmanned Undersea Vehicle

VPM 		

Virginia Payload Module

WMD		

Weapons of mass destruction

YRP 		

Yongsan Relocation Plan

246

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025

APPENDIX G:REFERENCES
Barack Obama, “Remarks by President Obama to the Australian Parliament” (speech, Parliament House, Canberra, November 17, 2011), https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/11/17/remarks-president-obama-australian-parliament.
2
Hillary Clinton, “America’s Pacific Century,” Foreign Policy, October 11, 2011, http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/10/11/americas-pacific-century/.
3
David J. Berteau, Michael J. Green, and Zack Cooper, Assessing the Asia-Pacific Rebalance (Washington, DC: Center
for Strategic and International Studies, 2014), http://csis.org/files/publication/150105_Berteau_AssessingAsiaPacificRebal_Web.pdf.
4Ashton Carter, “Remarks on the Next Phase of the U.S. Rebalance to the Asia-Pacific” (speech, McCain Institute, ArizonaState University, Tempe, AZ, April 6, 2015), http://www.defense.gov/News/Speeches/Speech-View/Article/606660.
5
Michael J. Green and Nicholas Szechenyi, Power and Order in Asia: A Survey of Regional Expectations (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2014), http://csis.org/files/publication/140605_Green_PowerandOrder_WEB.pdf.
6
U.S. Department of Defense, Asia-Pacific Maritime Security Strategy (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2015), http://www.defense.
gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/NDAA%20A-P_Maritime_SecuritY_Strategy-08142015-1300-FINALFORMAT.PDF.
7
Michael J. Green and Zack Cooper, “Revitalizing the Rebalance: How to Keep U.S. Focus on Asia,” Washington Quarterly,
November 1, 2014, http://twq.elliott.gwu.edu/revitalizing-rebalance-how-keep-us-focus-asia.
8David J. Berteau and Michael J. Green, U.S. Force Posture Strategy in the Asia-Pacific Region: An Independent Assessment (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2012), 17–18, http://csis.org/files/publication/120814_FINAL_PACOM_optimized.pdf.
9
Obama, “Remarks by President Obama to the Australian Parliament.”
10
Shannon Tiezzi, “How China Seeks to Shape Its Neighborhood,” The Diplomat, April 10, 2015, http://thediplomat.
com/2015/04/how-china-seeks-to-shape-its-neighborhood/; Hannah Beech, “Xi Jinping’s Power of One,” TIME,
November 6, 2014, http://time.com/3560466/xi-jinpings-power-of-one/.
11
Alice Miller, “How Powerful Is Xi Jinping?,” China Leadership Monitor, no. 43 (2014),
http://www.hoover.org/sites/default/files/research/docs/clm43am.pdf.
12Evan Osnos, “Born Red,” New Yorker, April 2015, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/04/06/born-red; Hank
Paulson, interview by Gwynn Guilford, “Hank Paulson on the Chinese Economy, Xi Jinping, and What Americans Don’t
Get about China,” Quartz, April 15, 2015, http://qz.com/383295/hank-paulson-on-the-chinese-economy-xi-jinpingand-what-americans-dont-get-about-china/; Willy Wo-Lap Lam, interview by Ian Johnson, “Q. and A.: Willy Wo-Lap
Lam on ‘Chinese Politics in the Era of Xi Jinping,’ ” New York Times, June 1, 2015, http://sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.
com/2015/06/01/q-and-a-willy-wo-lap-lam-on-chinese-politics-in-the-era-of-xi-jinping/.
13
Miller, “How Powerful Is Xi Jinping?”
14
Joseph Fewsmith, “Xi Jinping’s Fast Start,” China Leadership Monitor, no. 41 (2013),
http://www.hoover.org/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/CLM41JF.pdf.
15
PRC Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “The Central Conference on Work Relating to Foreign Affairs Was Held in Beijing” (press
release, November 29, 2014), http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1215680.shtml.
16
Ibid.
17
Richard A. Bitzinger, “China’s Double-Digit Defense Growth,” Foreign Affairs, March 19, 2015,
https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2015-03-19/chinas-double-digit-defense-growth.
18
PRC Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “The Central Conference on Work Relating to Foreign Affairs Was Held in Beijing.”
19
U.S. Department of Defense, Annual Report on the Military Power of the People’s Republic of China (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2000), 1–2, http://archive.defense.gov/news/Jun2000/china06222000.htm.
20
Victor Cha, Korean Unification in a New Era (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2014), 45,
http://csis.org/files/publication/141121_Cha_KoreanUnificationNewEra_Web.pdf.
21
Terrence Kelly et al., Developing a U.S. Strategy for Dealing with China (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2014),
http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB9802.html; Harry Kazianis, “China’s Underwater A2/AD Strategy,” The
Diplomat, May 6, 2014, http://thediplomat.com/2014/05/chinas-underwater-a2ad-strategy/; Wendell Minnick, “China
Pursues Systems to Keep U.S. Forces at Bay,” Defense News, September 17, 2013, http://archive.defensenews.com/article/20130917/DEFREG03/309160021/China-Pursues-Systems-Keep-US-Forces-Bay.
22
U.S. Department of Defense, Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s
Republic of China (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2015), http://www.defense.gov/pubs/2015_China_Military_Power_Report.pdf.
1247

APPENDICESIan Easton and Mark A. Stokes, “China’s Electronic Intelligence (ELINT) Satellite Developments: Implications for U.S. Air
and Naval Operations” (Washington, DC: Project 2049 Institute, 2011), https://project2049.net/documents/china_electronic_intelligence_elint_satellite_developments_easton_stokes.pdf.
24“U.S. intelligence chief: China top suspect in government agency hacks,” Reuters, June 26, 2015, http://www.reuters.
com/article/2015/06/26/us-cybersecurity-usa-china-idUSKBN0P525G20150626.
25
Ellen Nakashima, “U.S. said to be target of massive cyber-espionage campaign,” Washington Post, February 10, 2013,https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/us-said-to-be-target-of-massive-cyber-espionage-campaign/2013/02/10/7b4687d8-6fc1-11e2-aa58-243de81040ba_story.html.
26James A. Lewis and Laura Saporito, Cyber Incidents Attributed to China (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic andInternational Studies, 2015), https://csis.org/files/publication/130314_Chinese_hacking.pdf.
27
Dennis J. Blasko, “The ‘Two Incompatibles’ and PLA Self-Assessments of Military Capability,” China Brief 13, no. 10(2013), http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=40860&no_cache=1#.VbuIbflViko.
28
Robert M. Gates and Liang Guanglie, “Joint Press Conference with Secretary Gates and General Liang from Beijing, China” (press conference, Beijing, January 10, 2011), http://www.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=4750.
29
Blasko, “The ‘Two Incompatibles’ and PLA Self-Assessments of Military Capability.”
30“Full Text: China’s Military Strategy,” Xinhua, May 26, 2015,
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2015-05/26/c_134271001_2.html.
31
Ibid.; Taylor Fravel, “China’s New Military Strategy: Winning Informationized Local Wars,” China Brief 15, no. 13 (2015),
http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=44072&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=789&no_cache=1#.VbvMLvlViko.
32
James Mulvenon, “Rearranging the Deck Chairs on the Liaoning? The PLA Once Again Considers Reorganization,” China Leadership Monitor, no. 43 (2014), http://www.hoover.org/publications/china-leadershipmonitor/article/170901.
33“Full Text: China’s Military Strategy.”34
Dennis J. Blasko, “The 2015 Chinese Defense White Paper on Strategy in Perspective: Maritime Missions Require a
Change in the PLA Mindset,” China Brief 15, no. 12 (2015): 3–7, http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=43974&cHash=d67db88687507367b668f71cd4199603#.VdY2XflVhHw.
35
Ibid.
36
Taylor Fravel, “Foreign Policy under Xi Jinping,” The Diplomat, November 23, 2012, http://thediplomat.com/2012/11/
foreign-policy-under-xi-jinping/.
37
U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence, The PLA Navy: New Capabilities and Missions for the 21st Century (Washington, DC:
ONI, 2015), http://www.oni.navy.mil/Intelligence_Community/china_media/2015_PLA_NAVY_PUB_Interactive.pdf.
38
Yun Byung-se, “윤병세 외교부 장관 초청 관훈토론회” [The Minister of Foreign Affairs Yun Byung-se at a forum hosted by
the Kwanhun Club] (speech, Kwanhun Club, Seoul, July 7, 2015).
39
Victor Cha and David Kang, “The Debate over North Korea,” Political Science Quarterly 119, no. 2 (2004),
http://www.socsc.hku.hk/sigc/gc2013/pdf/Reading%20Materials_Seoul/Lecture%205_Yongwook%20Lee.pdf.
40“North Korea: Airdropping DVDs of ‘The Interview’ Would Constitute a De Facto Declaration of a War,” Agence
France-Presse, March 22, 2015, http://www.businessinsider.com/afp-north-korea-warns-against-airdropping-dvds-ofthe-interview-2015-3.
41
U.S. Forces Korea, J5 Strategic Communication Division, Strategic Digest 2015 (Seoul: USFK, 2015), 14, http://www.usfk.
mil/Portals/105/Documents/Strategic_Digest_2015_Eng.pdf.
42
ROK Ministry of National Defense, Defense White Paper 2014 (Seoul: MND, 2015), 261, http://www.mnd.go.kr/user/
mnd_eng/upload/pblictn/PBLICTNEBOOK_201506161152304650.pdf.
43
Christopher Harress, “North Korea Warns of Second Korean War to Avoid Nuclear Disaster,” International Business
Times, August 6, 2015, http://www.ibtimes.com/north-korea-warns-second-korean-war-avoid-nuclear-disaster-2042383.
44
Jeremy Page and Jay Solomon, “China Warns North Korean Nuclear Threat Is Rising,” Wall Street Journal, April 22,
2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/china-warns-north-korean-nuclear-threat-is-rising-1429745706.
45
Elisabeth Bumiller and David E. Sanger, “Gates Warns of North Korea Missile Threat to U.S.,” New York Times, January
11, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/12/world/asia/12military.html?_r=0.
46
U.S. Forces Korea, J5 Strategic Communication Division, Strategic Digest 2015, http://www.usfk.mil/Portals/105/Documents/Strategic_Digest_2015_Eng.pdf.
47
Victor D. Cha, “Korea’s Place in the Axis,” Foreign Affairs, May/June 2002, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/
asia/2002-05-01/koreas-place-axis.
48
Henry Meyer and Irina Reznik, “The Chilly Fallout between Putin and His Oligarch Pals,” Bloomberg Businessweek,
January 22, 2015, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-01-22/putin-said-to-shrink-inner-circle-as-ukrainehawks-trump-tycoons.
23

248

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
Canadian Security Intelligence Service, Russia and the West: The Consequences of Renewed Rivalry (Ottawa: CSIS,
2015), 8, https://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/pblctns/wrldwtch/2015/RUSSIA_AND_THE_WEST-ENG.PDF; Joshua Rovner,“Dealing with Putin’s Strategic Incompetence,” War on the Rocks, August 12, 2015, http://warontherocks.com/2015/08/
dealing-with-putins-strategic-incompetence/.
50“Putin Deplores Collapse of USSR,” BBC News, April 25, 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4480745.stm.
51
Fiona Hill, “This Is What Putin Really Wants,” National Interest, February 24, 2015, http://www.nationalinterest.org/feature/what-putin-really-wants-12311.
52
Vladimir Putin, “Address by President of the Russian Federation” (speech, Kremlin, Moscow, March 18, 2014),
http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/20603.
53
Artyom Lukin, “The Russian Far East: A New Arena for Great Power Contests in the Asia-Pacific?” (panel, Woodrow
Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC, December 5, 2014) , http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/therussian-far-east-new-arena-for-great-power-contests-the-asia-pacific.
54
Ibid.
55
Matthew Ouimet, “The Russian Far East: A New Arena for Great Power Contests in the Asia-Pacific?” (panel, Woodrow
Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC, December 5, 2014), http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/therussian-far-east-new-arena-for-great-power-contests-the-asia-pacific.
56
Ouimet, “The Russian Far East.”
57
Mankoff, “Russia’s Asia Pivot.”
58
Paul N. Schwartz, “Evolution of Sino-Russian Defense Cooperation since the Cold War,” The ASAN Forum, June 13,
2014, http://www.theasanforum.org/evolution-of-sino-russian-defense-cooperation-since-the-cold-war/.
59“Moscow Rejects Beijing’s Offer to Co-operate on Separate Territorial Disputes with Tokyo,” South China Morning Post,
February 7, 2014, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1422444/moscow-rejects-beijings-offer-co-operate-separate-territorial-disputes.
60
Ouimet, “The Russian Far East.”
61
Lukin, “The Russian Far East.”
62
Virginia Marantidou and Ralph A. Cossa, “China and Russia’s Great Game in Central Asia,” National Interest, October 1,
2014, http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/china-russias-great-game-central-asia-11385?page=show.
63
Eiji Furukawa, “Russia Plots Military Buildup in Central Asia as Counterweight to China,” Nikkei Asian Review, June 13,
2015, http://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/International-Relations/Russia-plots-military-buildup-in-Central-Asiaas-counterweight-to-China.
64
Justin McCurry, “North Korea and Russia Forge ‘Year of Friendship’ Pariah Alliance,” The Guardian, March 12, 2015,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/north-korea-might-be-courting-russia-but-its-still-no-match-for-china/2015/05/04/6ca7bd46-c90d-4c99-8fce-de58d93608a7_story.html.
65
Jiang Wenran, “Energy Security, Geopolitics, and the China-Russia Gas Deals,” China Brief 15, no. 2 (2015),
http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?cHash=9fae664f80b25777b6ade2922ffc6df0&tx_
ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=43434#.Vc0kaflVhHx.
66
Kenneth Rapoza, “Russian Government Ratifies Huge China Gas Pipeline Deal,” Forbes, May 3, 2015, http://www.forbes.
com/sites/kenrapoza/2015/05/03/russian-government-ratifies-huge-china-gas-pipeline-deal/.
67
Paul N. Schwartz, “Russia Announces Sale of S-400 to China,” CSIS Russia and Eurasia Program’s Blog, June 30, 2014,
http://csis.org/blog/russia-announces-sale-s-400-china; “Russian Su-35 Fighter Jet Sees Export Orders Soar,” Sputnik
News, July 26, 2015, http://sputniknews.com/russia/20150726/1025064028.html#ixzz3ik0D9mR2.
68
Andrey Ostroukh and Olga Razumovskaya, “Brics Launches Development Bank Ahead of Russian Summit,” WallStreet Journal, July 7, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/brics-launches-development-bank-ahead-of-russian-summit-1436293885.
69
Ouimet, “The Russian Far East.”
70
The Military Balance 2015 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2015), 485.
71
Jim Nichol, Russian Military Reform and Defense Policy, CRS Report R42006 (Washington, DC: Congressional ResearchService, 2011), https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R42006.pdf.
72“S-400 Missile Defense Strength Doubled in Russia’s Far East,” Russia Today, April 21, 2015,
http://www.rt.com/news/251213-russia-kamchatka-s400-deployed/.
73“Russian Navy 2015,” RussianShips.info, http://russianships.info/eng/today/.
74
Franz-Stefan Gady, “What to Expect from Russia's Pacific Fleet in 2015,” The Diplomat, March 2, 2015,
http://thediplomat.com/2015/03/what-to-expect-from-russias-pacific-fleet-in-2015/.
75
Stephen Blank, “Russia New Maritime Doctrine,” Eurasia Daily Monitor 12, no. 151 (2015), http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=44276&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=7&cHash=3cdf1f2f7b7a8eaeb758a4b562d5f170#.Vc4E-PlVhHx.
49

249

APPENDICES
Thomas R. Fedyszyn, “Renaissance of the Russian Navy?,” Proceedings Magazine 138 (March 2012), http://www.usni.
org/magazines/proceedings/2012-03/renaissance-russian-navy.
77
Japanese Ministry of Defense, “Figures,” in Defense of Japan 2015 (Tokyo: MOD, 2015), http://www.mod.go.jp/e/publ/w_paper/pdf/2015/DOJ2015_Figure_1st_0731.pdf.
78
Barbara Starr and Sophie Tatum, “U.S. Intercepts Russian Bombers off Coast of Alaska, California,” CNN, July 9, 2015,
http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/09/politics/russian-bombers-u-s-intercept-july-4/.
79David Brunnstorm, “Exclusive: U.S. Asks Vietnam to Stop Helping Russian Bomber Flights,” Reuters, March 11, 2015,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/03/11/us-usa-vietnam-russia-exclusive-idUSKBN0M71NA20150311.
80“Russia Will Take Part in Multinational Navy Drills in Disputed South China Sea,” Russia Today, May 30, 2015, http://www.
rt.com/news/263533-rusia-multinational-navy-drills.
81
Elizabeth Wishnick, “Russian and China Go Sailing,” Foreign Affairs, May 26, 2015, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2015-05-26/russia-and-china-go-sailing.
82
Roger McDermott, “Vostok 2014 and Russia’s Hypothetical Enemies (Part One),” Eurasia Daily Monitor 11, no. 167(2014), http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=42859&no_cache=1#.Vc4MkflVhHw.
83
U.S. Department of State, “Country Reports: East Asia and Pacific Overview,” in U.S. Department of State Country Reports on Terrorism 2014 (Washington, DC: GPO, 2014), http://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2014/239405.htm.
84
ASEAN Asian Defense Ministers’ Meeting, “Joint ADMM, ADDM-Plus, and ARF Calendar,” https://admm.asean.org/index.
php/events/joint-admm-admm-plus-and-arf-calendar.html.
85
Sam LaGrone, “U.S. Officially Ends Special Operations Task Force in the Philippines, Some Advisors May Remain,” USNI
News, February 27, 2015, http://news.usni.org/2015/02/27/u-s-officially-ends-special-operations-task-force-in-thephilippines-some-advisors-may-remain.
86
International Chamber of Commerce, International Maritime Bureau, “SE Asia Tanker Hijacks Rose in 2014 Despite
Global Drop in Sea Piracy, IMB Report Reveals,” January 14, 2015, http://www.iccwbo.org/News/Articles/2015/SE-Asiatanker-hijacks-rose-in-2014-despite-global-drop-in-sea-piracy,-IMB-report-reveals.
87
See, for example, “Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships,” ICC International Maritime Bureau, January 2015, http://
www.hellenicshippingnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/2014-Annual-IMB-Piracy-Report-ABRIDGED.pdf.
88
ReCAAP Information Sharing Centre, “About ReCAAP: Background Information,” http://www.recaap.org/AboutReCAAPISC.aspx.
89
Sam LaGrone, “U.S. 7th Fleet Would Support ASEAN South China Sea Patrols,” USNI News¸ March 20, 2015, http://news.
usni.org/2015/03/20/u-s-7th-fleet-would-support-asean-south-china-sea-patrols.
90
U.S. Pacific Command, “USPACOM Strategy,” http://www.pacom.mil/AboutUSPACOM/USPACOMStrategy.aspx.
91
U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Department of Defense Fiscal Year 2016 Budget Request (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2015),
11, http://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/Documents/defbudget/fy2016/FY2016_Budget_Request_Overview_
Book.pdf.
92
Jennifer Moroney et al., Lessons from Department of Defense Disaster Relief Efforts in the Asia-Pacific Region (Santa
Monica: RAND Corporation, 2013),
http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR100/RR146/RAND_RR146.pdf.
93David Albright and Christina Walrond, “North Korea’s Estimated Stocks of Plutonium and Weapons-Grade Uranium”(Washington, DC: Institute for Science and International Security, 2012), http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/dprk_fissile_material_production_16Aug2012.pdf.
94
Dennis Blair, “Annual Threat Assessment of the Intelligence Community for the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence” (Washington, DC: Office of the Director of National Intelligence, 2009), 24, http://www.intelligence.senate.gov/
sites/default/files/hearings/blair%20(1).pdf.
95
Jim Garamone, “U.S. Pacific Command Hosts Exercise Fortune Guard,” DOD News, July 29, 2014, http://www.defense.
gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=122785.
96
U.S. Marine Corps, Concepts and Programs, “U.S. Marine Forces, Pacific (MARFORPAC),” https://marinecorpsconceptsandprograms.com/organizations/operating-forces/us-marine-corps-forces-pacific-marforpac; U.S. Navy,
Commander U.S. 7th Fleet, “Exercises and Operations,” http://www.c7f.navy.mil/exercises-operations.htm; Douglas
Lovelace, “The Obama Administration’s Second Term National Security Strategy,” Terrorism: Commentary on Security
Documents 137 (2015), 186; Association of the United States Army, The U.S. Army in the Pacific: Assuring Security andStability (Arlington, VA: AUSA, 2013), 3, http://www.ausa.org/publications/ilw/DigitalPublications/Documents/tbusarpac/
offline/download.pdf; U.S. Pacific Air Forces, “Frequently Asked Questions,” http://www.pacaf.af.mil/Info/FAQs.aspx;“Battele-led Team Signs USPACOM J7 Training and Exercise Support Contract,” Army Technology, May 7, 2014, http://
www.army-technology.com/news/newsbattelle-team-receives-uspacom-j7-training-and-exercises-support-contract-4259883.
97
Berteau and Green, U.S. Force Posture Strategy in the Asia Pacific Region, 51; U.S. Air Force, Misawa Air Base, “Units,”
http://www.misawa.af.mil/units/index.asp; U.S. Pacific Fleet, Commander Naval Surface Forces, “Surface Ships byHomeport,” http://www.public.navy.mil/surfor/Pages/PacificTheaterShips.aspx#.VcNkLPlVhHw; U.S. Pacific Fleet, Public
76

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ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
Affairs, “Aircraft Carrier Moves Underscore Pacific Rebalance Strategy,” January 11, 2014, http://www.cpf.navy.mil/news.
aspx/010221; U.S. Navy, CNIC Naval Air Facility Atsugi, “CVW-5,” http://www.cnic.navy.mil/regions/cnrj/installations/naf_
atsugi/about/tenant_commands/cvw_5.html; U.S. Air Force, Yokota Air Base, “374th Operations Group,” http://www.
yokota.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=6823; U.S. Marine Corps, 1st Marine Aircraft Wing, “Marine All Weather
Fighter Attack Squadron 242,” http://www.1stmaw.marines.mil/SubordinateUnits/MarineAircraftGroup12/VMFA242.aspx;
U.S. Marine Corps, 1st Marine Aircraft Wing, “Marine Aerial Refueler Transport Squadron 152,” http://www.1stmaw.marines.mil/SubordinateUnits/MarineAircraftGroup12/VMGR152.aspx; U.S. Marine Corps, 1st Marine Aircraft Wing, “Marine
Wing Support Squadron 171,” http://www.1stmaw.marines.mil/SubordinateUnits/MarineAircraftGroup12/MWSS171.aspx;
III Marine Expeditionary Force and Marine Corps Installations Pacific, A Force in Readiness (Okinawa: III MEF Consolidated Public Affairs Office, 2012), http://www.okinawa.marines.mil/Portals/190/Docs/Guidebook.pdf; U.S. Marine Corps,
1st Marine Aircraft Wing, “Marine Wing Headquarters Squadron 1,” http://www.1stmaw.marines.mil/SubordinateUnits/
MarineWingHeadquartersSquadron1.aspx; U.S. Marine Corps, 1st Marine Aircraft Wing, “Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron 265,” http://www.1stmaw.marines.mil/SubordinateUnits/MarineAircraftGroup36/VMM265.aspx; U.S. Marine Corps,
1st Marine Aircraft Wing, “Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron 262,” http://www.1stmaw.marines.mil/SubordinateUnits/
MarineAircraftGroup36/VMM262.aspx; U.S. Marine Corps, 1st Marine Aircraft Wing, “Marine Wing Support Squadron
172,” http://www.1stmaw.marines.mil/SubordinateUnits/MarineAircraftGroup36/MWSS172.aspx; U.S. Marine Corps, 3rdMarine Division, “About,” http://www.3rdmardiv.marines.mil/About.aspx; U.S. Air Force, Kadena Air Base, “Units,” http://
www.kadena.af.mil/units/index.asp.
98
U.S. Air Force, Kunsan Air Base, “Units,” http://www.kunsan.af.mil/units/index.asp; Eighth U.S. Army, “Major Subordinate
Command Links,” http://8tharmy.korea.army.mil/units.asp; Berteau and Green, U.S. Force Posture Strategy in the Asia
Pacific Region, 53; U.S. Air Force, Osan Air Base, “Units,” http://www.osan.af.mil/units/index.asp.
99
U.S. Army Alaska, “USARAK Organizations,” http://www.usarak.army.mil/main/units.asp; Hawaii Army National Guard,“29th Infantry Brigade Combat Team,” http://hi.ng.mil/hiarng/units/29ibct/SitePages/Home.aspx; U.S. Army, 25th Infantry Division, “Home,” http://www.25idl.army.mil/; U.S. Army, Intelligence and Security Command, “500th MI Brigade:
Pacific Vanguards,” https://www.inscom.army.mil/msc/500mib/about.html; U.S. Army Pacific, “About Us,” http://www.
usarpac.army.mil/about.asp; U.S. Air Force, 15th Wing, “19th Fighter Squadron Fact Sheet,” http://www.15wing.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=20067; Hawaii Air National Guard, 154th Wing, “Units,” http://www.154wg.ang.
af.mil/units/index.asp; U.S. Air Force, Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, “90th Fighter Squadron,” http://www.jber.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=7713; U.S. Air Force, Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, “525th Fighter Squadron,”
http://www.jber.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=10433; U.S. Air Force, Historical Research Agency, “302nd
Fighter Squadron (AFRC),” http://www.afhra.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=10639; Alaska Air National Guard, 176thWing, “210th Rescue Squadron,” http://www.176wg.ang.af.mil/units/176og/210rqs.asp; Alaska Air National Guard, 176thWing, “211th Rescue Squadron,” http://www.176wg.ang.af.mil/units/176og/211rqs.asp; U.S. Air Force, Eielson Air Force
Base, “Units,” http://www.eielson.af.mil/units/index.asp; U.S. Pacific Fleet, Commander Naval Surface Forces, “Surface
Ships by Homeport,” http://www.public.navy.mil/surfor/Pages/PacificTheaterShips.aspx#.VcNkLPlVhHw; “168th Air
Refueling Wing,” CurrentOps.com, http://currentops.com/units/USAF/168-ARW; “176th Wing,” CurrentOps.com, http://
currentops.com/units/USAF/176-WG; Phone interview with Hawaii Army National Guard headquarters, August 14, 2015;
U.S. Marine Corps, 3rd Marine Division, “3d Marine Regiment,” http://www.3rdmardiv.marines.mil/Units/3dMarineRegiment.aspx; U.S. Marine Corps, 1st Marine Air Wing, “Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron 463,” http://www.1stmaw.marines.mil/SubordinateUnits/MarineAircraftGroup24/HMH463.aspx; U.S. Marine Corps, CNIC Commander Navy Region
Hawaii, “Fleet Information, http://www.cnic.navy.mil/regions/cnrh/about/organizational_chart.html; U.S. Marine Corps,
1st Marine Air Wing, “Marine Light Attack Helicopter Squadron 367,” http://www.1stmaw.marines.mil/SubordinateUnits/
MarineAircraftGroup24/HMLA367.aspx; U.S. Marine Corps, 3rd Marine Division, “4th Marine Regiment,” http://www.3rdmardiv.marines.mil/Units/4thMarineRegiment.aspx.
100
Joint Base Lewis-McChord, “Army,” http://www.lewis-mcchord.army.mil/army.html; Washington State Military Department, “Washington’s Armored Brigade Combat Team to Convert to Stryker Brigade,” July 9, 2015, http://mil.wa.gov/
blog/news/post/washingtons-armored-brigade-combat-team-to-convert-to-stryker-brigade; California State Military
Department, “79th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (IBCT),” http://www.calguard.ca.gov/unit-home-about?Unit=79th%20
Infantry%20Brigade%20Combat%20Team%20(IBCT)&Org=Army:Units:79th%20Infantry%20Brigade%20Combat%20
Team%20(IBCT); Oregon Air National Guard, 142nd Fighter Wing, “Units,” http://www.142fw.ang.af.mil/units/; California Air National Guard, 144th Fighter Wing, “Units,” http://www.144fw.ang.af.mil/units/index.asp; California Air National
Guard, 129th Rescue Wing, “Home,” http://www.129rqw.ang.af.mil/; California Air National Guard, 129th Rescue Wing,“Units,” http://www.129rqw.ang.af.mil/units/index.asp; U.S. Pacific Fleet, Commander Naval Surface Forces, “Surface
Ships by Homeport”; U.S. Pacific Fleet, Commander Submarine Force, “COMSUBPAC Submarines,” http://www.csp.navy.
mil/content/comsubpac_subsquadrons.shtml; U.S. Navy, USS Nimitz Public Affairs, “USS Nimitz Completes Homeport
Change,” January 14, 2015, http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=85180; Jonathan Jiang, “John C. Stennis
Strike Group Completes Fleet Synthetic Training,” North Kitsap Herald, June 12, 2015, http://www.northkitsapherald.com/
news/307144841.html?mobile=true; U.S. Navy, Carrier Air Wing 2, “Carrier Air Wing Two Squadrons,” http://www.cvw2.
navy.mil/squadrons.htm; U.S. Navy, Carrier Air Wing 9, “Team Shogun Aircraft,” http://www.cvw9.navy.mil/aircraft.html;
U.S. Navy, Carrier Air Wing 11, “Our Squadrons,” http://www.cvw11.navy.mil/; U.S. Navy, “COMCARAIRWING Seventeen:
Our Squadrons,” http://www.public.navy.mil/airfor/cvw17/Pages/OURSQUADRONS.aspx; California Air National Guard,

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APPENDICES
146th Air Lift Wing, “Home,” http://www.146aw.ang.af.mil/index.asp; National Guard Association of the United States,“State National Guard Information,” http://www.ngaus.org/state-national-guard-information; Washington State Military
Department, “Units of the 141st Air Refueling Wing,” http://mil.wa.gov/national-guard/air-guard/141st-air-refueling-wing/
units-of-the-141st-air-refueling-wing; U.S. Air Force, Fairchild Air Force Base, “Units,” http://www.fairchild.af.mil/units/index.asp; Joint Base Lewis-McChord, “Air Force,” http://www.lewis-mcchord.army.mil/airforce.html; U.S. Air Force, Beale
Air Force Base, “Units,” http://www.beale.af.mil/units/index.asp; U.S. Air Force, Travis Air Force Base, “Units,” http://www.
travis.af.mil/units/index.asp; Phone interview with Oregon National Guard headquarters, August 14, 2015.
101
Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, United States-Japan Roadmap for Realignment Implementation (Tokyo: MFA,
2006), http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/n-america/us/security/scc/doc0605.html.
102
Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Joint Statement of the Security Consultative Committee (Tokyo: MFA, 2012),
http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/n-america/us/security/scc/pdfs/joint_120427_en.pdf.
103
Berteau and Green, U.S. Force Posture Strategy in the Asia Pacific Region.
104
U.S. Forces Korea, J5 Strategic Communication Division, Strategic Digest 2015, 40.
105
Ibid., 42.
106
Ibid., 40.
107
Ibid., 42.
108Adm. Harry B. Harris, cited in Robert Burns and Christopher Bodeen, U.S. Commander Says Sailing Past Chinese Isles
Not a Threat, Associated Press, Nov. 3, 2015.
109
Martin Dempsey, testimony before Senate Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on the Defense Authorization
Request for Fiscal Year 2016 and the Future Years Defense Program, 114th Cong., 1st sess., March 3, 2015, http://www.
armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Dempsey_03-03-15.pdf.
110This includes 8,800 troops that remained in Afghanistan until the end of 2015, 4,550 troops deployed to support
Operation Inherent Resolve against ISIL (3,550 deployed in Iraq and 1,000 deployed in the CENTCOM AOR for the
Syria Train and Equip effort), 2,800 troops deployed to Operation United Assistance to fight Ebola in West Africa, and
600 paratroopers and 300 airmen deployed to the Baltics and Poland as part of new rotational deployments under
the European Reassurance Initiative. See “Most DOD Personnel to Return from West Africa,” DOD News, February 11,2015, http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=128154; White House, “European Reassurance Initiative andOther U.S. Efforts in Support of NATO Allies and Partners,” (press release, June 3, 2014), https://www.whitehouse.gov/
the-press-office/2014/06/03/fact-sheet-european-reassurance-initiative-and-other-us-efforts-support-; Michael R.
Gordon and Julie Hirschfeld Davis, “In Shift, U.S. Will Send 450 Advisers to Help Iraq Fight ISIS,” New York Times, June
10, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/11/world/middleeast/us-embracing-a-new-approach-on-battling-isis-iniraq.html?_r=0.
111
White House, “U.S.-Afghanistan Joint Statement” (press release, March 24, 2015), https://www.whitehouse.gov/thepress-office/2015/03/24/us-afghanistan-joint-statement.
112
Vanda Felbab-Brown, Blood and Hope in Afghanistan: A June 2015 Update (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution,2015), http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2015/05/26-isis-taliban-afghanistan-felbabbrown; Azam Ahmed
and Joseph Goldstein, “Taliban Gains Pull U.S. Units Back into Fight in Afghanistan,” New York Times, April 29, 2015,
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/30/world/asia/more-aggressive-role-by-us-military-is-seen-in-afghanistan.html;
David J. Lynch, “Afghan Realities Prompt Obama to Slow the U.S. Withdrawal,” Bloomberg, March 24, 2015, http://www.
bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-24/afghan-realities-prompt-obama-to-slow-plans-for-u-s-withdrawal.
113
Jonathan Schroden et al., Independent Assessment of the Afghan National Security Forces (Arlington, VA: Center forNaval Analyses, 2014): 30–32.
114
Lloyd J. Austin, testimony before Senate Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on U.S. Central Command, U.S. Africa
Command, and U.S. Special Operations Command Programs and Budget, 114th Cong., 1st sess., March 26, 2015,
http://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Austin_03-26-15.pdf.
115
White House, “Statement by the President on Afghanistan” (press release, October 15, 2015), https://www.whitehouse.
gov/the-press-office/2015/10/15/statement-president-afghanistan.
116
Christopher M. Blanchard et al., The “Islamic State” Crisis and U.S. Policy, CRS Report R43612 (Washington DC: Congressional Research Service, 2015): 14; White House, “Statement by the President on ISIL” (press release, September 10,2014), https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/09/10/statement-president-isil-1.
117
Julian E. Barnes, “Air Force Says Mideast Bombing Worsens Maintenance-Staff Shortage,” Wall Street Journal, October 24, 2014, http://www.wsj.com/articles/air-force-says-mideast-bombing-worsens-maintenance-staff-shortage-1414627741; Deborah Lee James, “Charting a Future for U.S. Air Power” (speech, Council on Foreign Relations,
Washington, DC, March 24, 2015), http://www.cfr.org/defense-and-security/charting-future-us-air-power/p36292.
118
U.S. Air Forces Central Command, “Combined Forces Air Component Commander 2010-2015 Airpower Statistics”(unclassified slides, September 30, 2015), http://www.afcent.af.mil/Portals/1/Documents/Airpower%20summary/30%20
September%20%202015%20Airpower%20Summary.pdf.
119
Ibid.

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ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
Ashton B. Carter, testimony before Senate Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on United States Military Strategy in
the Middle East, 114th Cong., 1st sess., October 27, 2015, http://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Carter_10-27-15.pdf.
121
Missy Ryan and Greg Jaffe, “Obama Weighs Moving U.S. Troops Closer to Front Lines in Syria, Iraq,” The Washington
Post, October 27, 2015.
122
U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense Chief Financial Officer, Department of Defense
Fiscal Year 2016 Budget Request: Overview (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2015): 71-72.
123
Lloyd J. Austin, Hearing on U.S. Central Command, U.S. Africa Command, and U.S. Special Operations Command Programs and Budget; Kenneth M. Pollack, Building a Better Syrian Opposition Army: The How and The Why (Washington,
DC: Brookings Institution, 2014), http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2014/10/building-syrian-opposition-army-pollack/building-a-better-syrian-armyweb.pdf.
124
Cost data as of September 15, 2015. See U.S. Department of Defense, Operation Inherent Resolve: Targeted Operations
against ISIL Terrorists, http://www.defense.gov/News/Special-Reports/0814_Inherent-Resolve.
125
Chuck Hagel, testimony before House Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on Administration’s Strategy and Military Campaign against the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), 113th Cong., 2nd sess., November 13, 2014, http://
www.defense.gov/News/Speeches/Speech-View/Article/606632/statement-on-the-administrations-strategy-and-military-campaign-against-isil-be.
126
Deployment to Turkey will end in the fall of 2015. North Atlantic Treaty Organization, “Spain Joins PATRIOT Missile
Defence Mission in Turkey,” January 26, 2015, http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_116890.htm; Joe Gould, “US
Lawmakers Urge Obama to Boost Aid to Jordan,” Defense News, February 21, 2015, http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/show-daily/idex/2015/02/21/jordan-us-idex-sales-isis-abdullah-predator-dsca/22933293/.
127
White House, National Security Strategy (Washington, DC: White House, 2015), 11, https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/
default/files/docs/2015_national_security_strategy.pdf.
128
The U.S. forward-deployed presence in the Middle East is largely funded by Overseas Contingency Operations funding.
Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, The Gulf Security Architecture: Partnership with the Gulf Cooperation Council,
report prepared by majority staff, 112th Cong., 2nd sess., 2012, Committee Print 112–35, http://www.parstimes.com/
history/security_challanges_persian_gulf.pdf.
129
Bilal Y. Saab and Barry Pavel, Artful Balance: Future U.S. Defense Strategy and Force Posture in the Gulf (Washington,
DC: Atlantic Council, 2015), http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/images/publications/ACUS_ArtfulBalance_WEB.pdf.
130White House, “U.S.-Gulf Cooperation Council Camp David Joint Statement” (press release, May 14, 2015), https://www.
whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/05/14/us-gulf-cooperation-council-camp-david-joint-statement.
131
Ibid.
132
Michael E. O’Hanlon, Obama the Carpenter: The President's National Security Legacy (Washington, DC: Brookings
Institution, 2015).
133
U.S. European Command, “Fact Sheet: Operation Atlantic Resolve—2014 Overview,” January 29, 2015, http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/features/2014/0514_atlanticresolve/Operation_Atlantic_Resolve_Fact_Sheet_2014.pdf. See also Ivo
Daalder et al., Preserving Ukraine’s Independence, Resisting Russian Aggression: What the United States and NATO Must
Do (Washington, DC: Atlantic Council, 2015), http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Research/Files/Reports/2015/02/
ukraine-independence-russian-aggression/UkraineReport_February2015_FINAL.pdf?la=en.
134“Baltic Military Chiefs to Call for Permanent NATO Presence,” Reuters, May 14, 2015.
135
U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense Chief Financial Officer, “European Reassurance
Initiative” (slides, February 2015), http://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/Documents/defbudget/fy2016/FY2016_
ERI_J-Book.pdf; Philip M. Breedlove, testimony before Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Hearing on UnitedStates European Command Programs and Budget, 114th Cong., 1st sess., April 30, 2015, http://www.armed-services.
senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Breedlove_04-30-15.pdf.
136
U.S. officials have indicated that a nuclear agreement with Iran will not change the EPPA. See James A. Winnefeld,“Adm. Winnefeld’s Remarks at the Center for Strategic and International Studies” (speech, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington, DC, 2015), http://www.jcs.mil/Media/Speeches/tabid/3890/Article/589289/adm-winnefelds-remarks-at-the-center-for-strategic-and-international-studies.aspx; Paul Sonne, “Russia Threatens NATO overMissile Shield,” Wall Street Journal, April 16, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/russia-threatens-nato-over-missileshield-1429185058.
137
The EPPA also encompasses a radar system in Tukey and plans for two land-based sites in Poland and Romania.
138
Jonathan W. Greenert, testimony before House Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on Fiscal Year 2015 National
Defense Authorization Budget Request from the Department of the Navy, 113th Cong., 2nd sess., March 12, 2014, http://
docs.house.gov/meetings/AS/AS00/20140312/101892/HHRG-113-AS00-Wstate-GreenertJ-20140312.pdf.
139
Stephen Castle, “Britain Pledges to Hit NATO Military Spending Target,” New York Times, July 8, 2015; Denitsa Raynova
and Ian Kearns, The Wales Pledge Revisited: A Preliminary Analysis of 2015 Budget Decisions in NATO Member States(London: European Leadership Network, 2015), http://www.europeanleadershipnetwork.org/the-wales-pledge-revisited-a-preliminary-analysis-of-2015-budget-decisions-in-nato-member-states_2472.html.
120

253

APPENDICES
Kyle Maclellan, “Britain Calls on NATO Allies to Help in Submarine Hunt: Media,” Reuters, December 10, 2014. The United Kingdom no longer possesses maritime patrol aircraft capable of antisubmarine warfare after it retired its fleet andcanceled its replacement in 2010. See Andrew Dorman, “United Kingdom,” in The Implications of Military Spending Cuts
for NATO’s Largest Members, ed. Clara Marina O’Donnell (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2012), 11.
141
Katie Simmons, Bruce Stokes, and Jacob Poushter, NATO Publics Blame Russia for Ukrainian Crisis, but Reluctant toProvide Military Aid: In Russia, Anti-Western Views and Support for Putin Surge (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center,2015), http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2015/06/Pew-Research-Center-Russia-Ukraine-Report-FINAL-June-10-2015.pdf.
142
White House, “Fact Sheet: European Reassurance Initiative and Other U.S. Efforts in Support of NATO Allies and Partners” (press release, June 3, 2014), https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/06/03/fact-sheet-european-reassurance-initiative-and-other-us-efforts-support-.
143
F. Stephen Larrabee, Peter A. Wilson, and John Gordon IV, The Ukrainian Crisis and European Security: Implications for
the United States and U.S. Army (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2015), 1, http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/
pubs/research_reports/RR900/RR903/RAND_RR903.pdf.
144
John Vandiver, “Pentagon Lays out Significant Cuts to U.S. Forces in Europe,” Stars and Stripes, February 16, 2012,
http://www.stripes.com/news/pentagon-lays-out-significant-cuts-to-u-s-forces-in-europe-1.168861.
145
Of this 65,000, only 55,000 directly support EUCOM, while 9,000 support other combatant commands such as AFRICOM. Breedlove, Hearing on United States European Command Programs and Budget.
146“Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between Japan and the United States of America,” January 19, 1960, Treaties and Other International Acts Series, no. 4509, http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/n-america/us/q&a/ref/1.html.
147
Japanese National Security Council and Cabinet, National Security Strategy (Tokyo: Cabinet Secretariat, 2013), http://
www.cas.go.jp/jp/siryou/131217anzenhoshou/nss-e.pdf.
148
Japanese Ministry of Defense, National Defense Program Guidelines for JFY 2014 and Beyond (Tokyo: MOD, 2013),
http://www.mod.go.jp/j/approach/agenda/guideline/2014/pdf/20131217_e2.pdf.
149
Japanese National Security Council and Cabinet, Medium Term Defense Program (JFY 2014–2018) (Tokyo: MOD,2013), http://www.mod.go.jp/j/approach/agenda/guideline/2014/pdf/Defense_Program.pdf.
150
Shinichi Kitaoka, “A New Role for Japan’s Military,” New York Times, June 4, 2015, http://www.nytimes.
com/2015/06/05/opinion/shinichi-kitaoka-a-new-role-for-japans-military.html?_r=0.
151
Paul Kallender-Umezu, “Japanese Bills Expand Self Defense Parameters,” DOD News, July 16, 2015, http://www.
defensenews.com/story/defense/policy-budget/warfare/2015/07/16/japanese-bills-expand-self-defense-parameters/30260333/.
152
Koichi Nakano and Nancy Snow, “The Abe Administration’s Arrogance of Power Moment,” Japan Times, July 16,
2015, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2015/07/16/commentary/japan-commentary/abe-administrations-arrogance-power-moment/#.Va02raQw_VI.
153
Michael J. Green and Nicholas Szechenyi, Japan Takes a Step Forward on Defense Policy Reform (Washington DC:
Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2014), http://csis.org/publication/japan-takes-step-forward-defense-policy-reform.
154“Chapter Six: Asia,” in The Military Balance 2015, 257–61.
155
Japanese National Security Council and Cabinet, Medium Term Defense Program (JFY 2014–2018).
156
U.S. Department of Defense, The Guidelines for U.S.-Japan Defense Cooperation (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2015), http://
www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/20150427_--_GUIDELINES_FOR_US-JAPAN_DEFENSE_COOPERATION.
pdf.
157
Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, United States-Japan Roadmap for Realignment Implementation.
158
Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Joint Statement of the Security Consultative Committee.
159
Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Consolidation Plan for Facilities and Areas in Okinawa” (slides, April 2013), http://
www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/usa/hosho/pdfs/togo_20130405_en.pdf.
160“Government to Halt Futenma Work for a Month,” Japan News, August 4, 2015, http://the-japan-news.com/news/article/0002333891.
161“Japan’s Government Sues Okinawa Governor in Feud over U.S. Base,” Reuters, November 16, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-japan-okinawa-base-idUSKCN0T60BN20151117.
162
Berteau and Green, U.S. Force Posture Strategy in the Asia Pacific Region.
163
U.S. Department of Defense, “Consolidation Plan for Facilities and Areas in Okinawa” (slides, April 2013), http://www.
defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/Okinawa%20Consolidation%20Plan.pdf.
164“Implementation of Bilateral Plans for Consolidating Facilities and Areas in Okinawa,” U.S.-Japan Joint Press Release,
December 4, 2015, http://japan.usembassy.gov/e/p/tp-20151204-02.html.
165
Permanent Mission of the Republic of Korea to the United Nations, “Peacekeeping Operations,” http://un.mofa.go.kr/
english/am/un/bilateral/policy/activities/.
140

254

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
U.S. Peace Corps, “Peace Corps Announces Collaboration with Republic of Korea on Volunteer Service and Global
Development” (press release, September 26, 2013), http://www.peacecorps.gov/media/forpress/press/2279/.
167
ROK Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “First Batch of the Korea Disaster Response Team (KDRT) Dispatched to Fight Ebola Returns Home” (press release, January 26, 2015), http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/press/pressreleases/index.
jsp?menu=m_10_20&sp=/webmodule/htsboard/template/read/engreadboard.jsp%3Fboardid=302%26typeID=12%26tableName=TYPE_ENGLISH%26seqno=314825.
168
White House, “Joint Fact Sheet: The United States-Republic of Korea Alliance; A Global Partnership” (press release,
April 25, 2014), https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/04/25/joint-fact-sheet-united-states-republic-korea-alliance-global-partnershi.
169
Curtis Scaparrotti, testimony before Senate Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on U.S. Pacific Command and U.S.
Forces Korea, 114th Cong., 1st sess., April 16, 2015,
http://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Scaparrotti_04-16-15.pdf.
170
U.S. Department of Defense, Joint Communiqué: The 46th ROK-U.S. Security Consultative Meeting (Arlington, VA:
DOD, 2014), http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/46th_SCM_Joint_Communique.pdf.
171
U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Relations with South Korea,” February 5, 2015, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2800.
htm.
172
Choi Kyung-hwan, “Keynote Speech” (speech, Foreign Correspondents’ Club, Seoul, August 21, 2015),
http://125.60.24.140/mini/view.do?bcd=M0002&seq=2016.
173
Scott Snyder and See-won Byun, “South Korea’s Diplomatic Triangle,” Comparative Connections 17, no.1 (2015), http://
csis.org/files/publication/1501qchina_korea.pdf.
174
Mitsuru Obe and Kwanwoo Jun, “Japan, South Korea to Let Currency Swap Program Expire,” Wall Street Journal, February 16, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/japan-south-korea-to-let-currency-swap-program-expire-1424088419.
175
Green and Szechenyi, Power and Order in Asia.
176
Jiyoon Kim, John K. Lee, and Kang Chungku, Measuring a Giant: South Korean Perceptions of the United States (Seoul:
ASAN Institute for Policy Studies, 2015), http://en.asaninst.org/contents/measuring-a-giant-south-korean-perceptionsof-the-united-states/.
177
U.S. Department of Defense, Trilateral Information Sharing Agreement Concerning the Nuclear and Missile Threats
Posed by North Korea among the Ministry of National Defense of the Republic of Korea, the Ministry of Defense ofJapan, and the Department of Defense of the United States of America (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2014), http://www.defense.
gov/pubs/Trilateral-Information-Sharing-Arrangement.pdf.
178
Bruce Klingner, Washington Should Urge Greater South Korea-Japanese Military and Diplomatic Cooperation (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, 2012), http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2012/09/washington-should-urge-greater-south-korean-japanese-military-and-diplomatic-cooperation#_ftn8.
179
U.S. Forces Korea, J5 Strategic Communication Division, Strategic Digest 2015, 27.
180
Ibid., 28.
181
ROK Ministry of National Defense, Defense White Paper 2014, 261.
182
Ibid., 85.
183
U.S. Forces Korea, J5 Strategic Communication Division, Strategic Digest 2015, 28.
184
Oh Seok-min, “S. Korea to Raise Defense Spending by 2020,” Yonhap News, April 20, 2015, http://english.yonhapnews.
co.kr/national/2015/04/17/61/0301000000AEN20150417009700315F.html.
185
ROK Ministry of National Defense, Defense White Paper 2014, 91–94.
186“South Korea, Procurement,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment: China and Northeast Asia, July 23, 2015.
187
ROK Ministry of National Defense, “미사일 지침(NMG) 개정” [New Missile Guideline Revision], October 7, 2012,
http://www.mnd.go.kr/user/boardList.action?boardId=O_46470&siteId=mnd&page=48&search=&column=&boardType=02&listType=&id=mnd_020401000000&parent=&boardSeq=o_1000000021285&command=albumView&chkBoxSeq=&chkBoxId=&chkBoxPos=&chkBoxDepth=&chkBoxFamSeq=&warningYn=N&categoryId=&categoryDepth=.
188
U.S. Defense Manpower Data Center, “Total Military Personnel and Dependent End Strength (U.S.)—Quarterly Updates,
By Service, Regional Area, and Country,” June 30, 2015, https://www.dmdc.osd.mil/appj/dwp/dwp_reports.jsp.
189
U.S. Department of Defense, Joint Communiqué: The 46th ROK-U.S. Security Consultative Meeting.
190
Ashley Rowland, “US, South Korea Activate 1st-Ever Combined Division,” Stars and Stripes, June 3, 2015, http://www.
stripes.com/news/pacific/korea/us-south-korea-activate-1st-ever-combined-division-1.350251.
191
Gail McCabe, “ROK Troops Train at NTC,” Army.mil, July 29, 2014, http://www.army.mil/article/130810/ROK_Troops_
Train_at_NTC/.
192
Staff Sgt. John Healy, “It’s Our Fight Now,” Army.mil, July 13, 2015, http://www.army.mil/article/152154/It_s_our_fight_
now/.
166

255

APPENDICESInterview with U.S. officials.
Mark E. Manyin, U.S.-South Korea Relations, CRS Report R41481 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service,2014), 17, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R41481.pdf. For text of the agreement, see “Agreement between the UnitedStates of America and the Republic of Korea for Special Measures Relating to Article V of the Agreement under Article IVof the Mutual Defense Treaty,” February 2, 2014, Treaties and Other International Acts Series 14–618, http://www.state.
gov/documents/organization/230337.pdf.
195
Lockheed Martin, “Republic of Korea: F-X III Competition,”
https://www.f35.com/global/participation/republic-of-korea.
196
See Alex Oliver, Lowy Institute Poll 2015 (Sydney: Lowy Institute for International Policy, 2015),
http://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/lowy-institute-poll-2015.
197
Private discussions with Australian policymakers.
198“ ‘China Land Grab a Danger for All’: Dennis Richardson,” The Australian, May 28, 2015, http://www.theaustralian.com.
au/national-affairs/defence/china-land-grab-a-danger-for-all-dennis-richardson/story-e6frg8yo-1227371948850.
199
John Garnaut, “Australia Will Stand Up to China to Defend Peace, Liberal Values and the Rule of Law: Julie Bishop,”
Sydney Morning Herald, July 9, 2014, http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/australia-will-stand-upto-china-to-defend-peace-liberal-values-and-the-rule-of-law-julie-bishop-20140709-zt1rf.html.
200
See Malcolm Fraser and Cain Roberts, Dangerous Allies (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2014); Hugh White,
The China Choice: Why We Should Share Power (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).
201
John Garnaut, “ ‘Fear and Greed’ Drive Australia's China Policy, Tony Abbott Tells Angela Merkel,” Sydney Morning
Herald, April 16, 2015, http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/fear-and-greed-drive-australias-chinapolicy-tony-abbott-tells-angela-merkel-20150416-1mmdty.html.
202
Peter Jennings et al., Guarding against Uncertainty: Australian Attitudes towards Defence (Canberra: External Panel ofExperts on the 2015 Defence White Paper, 2015), 117.
203
Jennings et al., Guarding against Uncertainty, 124; Oliver, Lowy Institute Poll 2015.
204
Kanupriya Kapoor, “Indonesia Executes Drug Traffickers, Sparks Anger from Australia,” Reuters, April 29, 2015, http://
www.reuters.com/article/2015/04/29/us-indonesia-executions-idUSKBN0NI2F820150429.
205
Oliver, Lowy Institute Poll 2015.
206
Michael Bachelard and David Wroe, “Indonesia Recalls Ambassador to Australia over Spying Claim,” Sydney Morning Herald, November 18, 2013, http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/indonesia-recalls-ambassador-to-australia-over-spying-claim-20131118-2xr5x.html.
207
See Ristian Atriandi Supriyanto, Waves of Opportunity: Enhancing Australia–Indonesia Maritime Security Cooperation(Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 2014), https://www.aspi.org.au/publications/waves-of-opportunity-enhancing-australia-indonesia-maritime-security-cooperation/SI79_Aus_Indon_maritime_cooperation.pdf; Rob Taylor,“Australia, Indonesia Sign a Code of Conduct over Intelligence,” Wall Street Journal, August 27, 2014,
http://www.wsj.com/articles/australia-indonesia-sign-a-code-of-conduct-over-intelligence-1409125163.
208
Oliver, Lowy Institute Poll 2015.
209
Julie Bishop, “Address to 2015 Annual Dinner” (speech, Sydney Institute, Sydney, 2015),
http://foreignminister.gov.au/speeches/Pages/2015/jb_sp_150427.aspx.
210
Australian Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Review of Australia's Counter-Terrorism Machinery (Canberra: PM&C, 2015), 35, https://www.dpmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/publications/190215_CT_Review_1.pdf.
211
Australian Department of Defense, Defence White Paper 2013 (Canberra: DOD, 2013), 28,
http://www.defence.gov.au/whitepaper/2013/docs/WP_2013_web.pdf.
212
Australian Department of Defense, Defence White Paper 2014 (Canberra: DOD, 2014), 33, http://www.defence.gov.au/
whitepaper/docs/defenceissuespaper2014.pdf.
213
Ibid., 35.
214
Australian Department of Defense, Defence Issues Paper 2014, 31; “The Fleet,” Navy.gov.au,
http://www.navy.gov.au/fleet.
215
Royal Australian Navy, “Amphibious Assault Ship (LHD),” http://www.navy.gov.au/fleet/ships-boats-craft/lhd.
216
Royal Australian Navy, “Frigate Helicopter (FFH),” http://www.navy.gov.au/fleet/ships-boats-craft/ffh.
217
Rob Taylor, “Australia to Accelerate Naval Buildup,” Wall Street Journal, August 4, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/article_
email/australia-to-accelerate-naval-buildup-1438670512-lMyQjAxMTE1OTAyNDcwOTQyWj.
218
Royal Australian Navy, “Guided Missile Frigate (FFG),” https://www.navy.gov.au/fleet/ships-boats-craft/ffg.
219
Taylor, “Australia to Accelerate Naval Buildup.” For a discussion of basing the Future Submarine on a Japanese design,see Andrew Davies and Benjamin Scheer, The Strategic Dimension of ‘Option J’, Strategic Insights no. 85 (Canberra:
Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 2015), https://www.aspi.org.au/publications/the-strategic-dimension-of-option-j-australias-submarine-choice-and-its-security-relations-with-japan/SI85_Submarines_option_J.pdf.
193

194

256

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
Australian Department of Defense, Defence Issues Paper 2014, 31–32; Royal Australian Navy, “The Fleet,” http://www.
navy.gov.au/fleet; Australian Hydrographic Service, “LADS II (Laser Airborne Depth Sounder),” http://www.hydro.gov.au/aboutus/lads.htm.
221
Australian Department of Defense, Defence Issues Paper 2014, 36.
222
Ibid., 38.
223
Royal Australian Air Force, “F-35A Lightning II,” http://www.airforce.gov.au/Technology/Future-Acquisitions/F-35A-Lightning-II/?RAAF-ZRnYQhJUh1u0e44uR32olOT1rt+Ym4K3. Also see Andrew Davies and Harry White,
Taking Wing: Time to Decide on the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, Strategic Insights no. 70 (Canberra: Australian Strategic
Policy Institute, 2014), https://www.aspi.org.au/publications/taking-wing-time-to-decide-on-the-f-35-joint-strikefighter/SI70_F35_decision.pdf.
224
Australian Department of Defense, Defence Issues Paper 2014, 38; Royal Australian Air Force, “MQ-4C Triton Unmanned Aircraft System,” http://www.airforce.gov.au/Technology/Aircraft/MQ-4C-Triton-Unmanned-Aircraft-System/?RAAF-BYjCaU6eHptQ3E2EiHw9jKOLJvauES8Y.
225
See Green and Szechenyi, Power and Order in Asia, 8, http://csis.org/files/publication/140605_Green_PowerandOrder_WEB.pdf.
226
Jennings et al., Guarding Against Uncertainty, 111.
227
Ibid., 113.
228
James Massola, “John Kerry Is ‘Preoccupied’ with the Middle East and Climate Change in Asia: Kim Beazley,” Sydney
Morning Herald, December 19, 2014, http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/john-kerry-is-preoccupied-with-the-middle-east-and-climate-change-in-asia-kim-beazley-20141216-128tv1.html.
229
Peter Varghese, “Lowy Institute Address” (speech, Lowy Institute, Sydney, August 20, 2015), http://www.lowyinstitute.
org/files/peter_varghese_lowy_institute_address.pdf.
230
On these points and much of the discussion that follows, see Michael J. Green et al., The ANZUS Alliance in an Ascending Asia, Centre of Gravity Series no. 23 (Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, 2015), http://ips.cap.anu.
edu.au/sites/default/files/COG%20%2323%20Web.pdf.
231
Nigel Pittaway, “New Australian Leadership Pledges to Boost Defense Spending,” Defense News, September 14,
2013, http://archive.defensenews.com/article/20130914/DEFREG03/309140007/New-Australian-Leadership-Pledges-Boost-Defense-Spending.
232
Australian Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, “Delivering a World Class Defence Force” (press release, April
4, 2014), https://www.pm.gov.au/media/2014-04-04/delivering-world-class-defence-force-0.
233
See Mark Thompson, The Cost of Defence: ASPI Defence Budget Brief 2015–2016 (Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 2014), https://www.aspi.org.au/publications/the-cost-of-defence-aspi-defence-budget-brief-2014-2015/
CostofDefence2014.pdf.
234“Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States and the Philippines,” August 30, 1951, Treaties and Other International Agreements no. 2529, art. 5, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/phil001.asp.
235
Republic of the Philippines, Agreement between the Government of the Philippines and the Government of the UnitedStates of America on Enhanced Defense Cooperation (Manila: Official Gazette, 2014), http://www.gov.ph/2014/04/29/
document-enhanced-defense-cooperation-agreement/.
236
Manny Galvez, “Gov’t Urged to Tap Benham Rise as New Gas Field,” Philippine Star, May 10, 2015, http://www.philstar.
com/headlines/2015/05/10/1453180/govt-urged-tap-benham-rise-new-gas-field.
237
For up-to-date information on Chinese island reclamation and construction activities, see “Island Tracker,” Asia Maritime Transparency Institute, http://amti.csis.org/island-tracker/.
238
Dario Agnote, “PH to Build Helipad on Rusting Ship on Ayungin Shoal,” Kyodo News, September 16, 2015, http://www.
abs-cbnnews.com/nation/07/15/15/ph-build-helipad-rusting-ship-ayungin-shoal.
239
Lachlan Carmichael, “PH Appeals for U.S. Help in Building Armed Forces,” Agence-France Presse, May 1, 2012, http://
www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/05/01/12/ph-appeals-us-help-building-armed-forces.
240
Chiara Zambrano, “New Army Chief Vows to Crush Communist Insurgency,” ABS-CBN News, July 15, 2015, http://
www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/07/15/15/new-army-chief-vows-crush-communist-insurgency.
241“Philippines Military Strength,” Global Firepower, July 30, 2015, http://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=philippines.
242
Congress of the Philippines, An Act Amending Republic Act No. 7989, Establishing the Revised AFP Modernization
Program and for Other Purposes, Republic Act No. 10349, 15th Cong., 3rd sess., December 11, 2012, http://www.gov.
ph/2012/12/11/republic-act-no-10349/.
243
Manuel Mogato, “Philippines Ramps up Military Spending in Face of China Threat,” Reuters, July 7, 2015, http://www.
reuters.com/article/2015/07/07/us-philippines-military-idUSKCN0PH0VT20150707.
244
Butch Fernandez and Ashley Manabat, “Aquino Assures Delivery of Additional Air Force Assets,” Business Mirror, July 1,
2015, http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/aquino-assures-delivery-of-additional-air-force-assets/?utm_source=Arang220

257

APPENDICES
kada+News+Clips&utm_campaign=94523a31de-Arangkada_News_Clips_07_14_2015&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_08e85a2ab1-94523a31de-45555133.
245“Philippines Defence Ministry Rejects Long-Range Patrol Aircraft Proposals,” Airforce Technology, August 12, 2015,
http://www.airforce-technology.com/news/newsphilippines-defence-ministry-rejects-long-range-patrol-aircraft-proposals-4341431.
246
Jon Grevatt, “Philippines Looking to Acquire Ex-Japanese P-3Cs,” IHS Jane’s 360, June 25, 2015, http://www.janes.
com/article/52577/philippines-looking-to-acquire-ex-japanese-p-3cs.
247
Mogato, “Philippines Ramps Up Military Spending.”
248
Ibid.
249
Philippine Department of Transportation and Communication, “Japanese Firm to Build Ten 40-Meter Vessels for
Philippine Coast Guard—DOTC” (press release, April 20, 2015), http://www.dotc.gov.ph/index.php/2014-09-02-05-0141/2014-09-03-06-43-32/123-japanese-firm-to-build-ten-40-meter-vessels-for-philippine-coast-guard-dotc.
250“U.S. Raises Military Assistance to the Philippines,” Reuters, July 31, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/31/
us-philippines-usa-idUSBRE96U0IG20130731.
251“Philippines Gets Canadian Helicopters, Korean Landing Craft,” Rappler, July 3, 2015, http://www.rappler.com/nation/98231-philippines-canadian-helicopters-south-korean-landing-craft.
252
Gigi Grande, “PH, US Eye 8 Military Bases under EDCA,” ABS-CBN News, April 24, 2015, http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/
nation/04/24/15/ph-us-eye-8-military-bases-under-edca.
253
Trefor Moss, “5 Philippine Bases Where the U.S. Military Will Look to Gain a Footing,” Wall Street Journal,
April 28, 2014, http://blogs.wsj.com/indonesiarealtime/2014/04/28/5-philippine-bases-where-the-u-s-military-will-look-to-gain-a-footing/.
254
Mogato, “Philippines Ramps Up Military Spending.”
255
Ibid.
256
Republic of the Philippines, Official Gazette, “Briefer: National Coast Watch Center” (press release, April 28, 2015),
http://www.gov.ph/2015/04/28/briefer-national-coast-watch-center/.
257
Interview with officials.
258
Interview with officials.
259
Philippine National Security Council, National Security Policy 2011–2016: Securing the Gains of Democracy (Manila:
NSC, 2015), http://www.nsc.gov.ph/attachments/article/29/NSP-2011-2016.pdf.
260Interview with Philippine officials.
261
Interview with officials.
262
Mogato, “Philippines Ramps Up Military Spending.”
263
Alexis Romero, “28 AFP Modernization Projects Face Delay,” Philippine Star, May 28, 2015, http://www.philstar.com/
headlines/2015/05/28/1459559/28-afp-modernization-projects-face-delay; Rouchelle R. Dinglasan, “P600B Needed for AFP Modernization—Defense Usec,” GMA News, January 7, 2015, http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/400002/news/nation/p600b-needed-for-afp-modernization-defense-usec.
264
U.S. State Department, Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, “U.S. Relations with Thailand,” September 4, 2014,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2814.htm.
265
Desmond Walton, “The Importance of U.S.-Thai Security Cooperation Pre-Coup, Post-Coup, & Beyond,” cogitASIA,
July 13, 2015, http://cogitasia.com/the-importance-of-u-s-thai-security-cooperation-pre-coup-post-coup-beyond/.
266
Off-the-record interviews with Thai experts.
267
Off-the-record interviews with U.S. officials.
268
Off-the-record conversations with Thai officials.
269“Thailand, China Agree to Closer Military Ties during Senior Official’s Visit,” The Nation (Thailand), April 25, 2015,
http://www.nationmultimedia.com/politics/Thailand-China-agree-to-closer-military-ties-durin-30258749.html; Amy
Sawitta Lefevre and Yesum Dikmen, “Thai PM Defends Decision to Send Uighurs Back to China,” Reuters, July 9, 2015,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/07/09/us-thailand-uighurs-turkey-idUSKCN0PJ18620150709?utm_source=Sailthru&utm_medium=email&utm_term=%2AMorning%20Brief&utm_campaign=New%20Campaign.
270
Emma Chanlett-Avery and Ben Dolven, Thailand: Background and U.S. Relations, CRS Report RL32593 (Washington
DC: Congressional Research Service, 2012), https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32593.pdf.
271
Off-the-record interviews with Thai officials.
272
Jon Grevatt and Craig Caffrey, “Thailand Increases Defence Budget by 7%,” IHS Jane's Defence Weekly, April 28, 2015,
http://www.janes.com/article/51042/thailand-increases-defence-budget-by-7.
273
Off-the-record interview with U.S. official.
274“Janes Defense Reports Thai Army Take Delivery of 5 Ukraine Made Main Battle Tanks,” Thai Intel News Center, October 17, 2013, https://thaishortnews.wordpress.com/2013/10/17/janes-defense-reports-thai-army-take-delivery-of-258

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 20255-ukrain-made-main-battle-tanks/; “Enhancing the Royal Thai Army,” Defense Update, November 6, 2013, http://dev.
defense-update.com/20131106_rt.html.
275“S100B Argus Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) Aircraft, Sweden,” airforce-technology.com, http://www.
airforce-technology.com/projects/s100b_argus/; “Modernizing the Royal Thai Air Force,” Defense Update, November 6,
2013, http://dev.defense-update.com/20131106_rta.html.
276“Modernizing the Royal Thai Air Force.”
277“Upgrading the Royal Thai Naval Capabilities,” Defense Update, November 5, 2013, http://dev.defense-update.
com/20131105_rtn.html.
278
Wendell Minnick, “Thai Chinese Sub Buy Challenges US Pivot,” Defense News, July 12, 2015, http://www.defensenews.
com/story/defense/naval/submarines/2015/07/12/thailand-china-submarines-us-pivot/29904545/.
279“Bangkok Suspends Buying Submarines from China over US concern: Expert,” The Nation (Thailand), July 17, 2015,
http://www.nationmultimedia.com/politics/Bangkok-suspends-buying-submarines-from-China-over-30264646.html.
280
Chanlett-Avery and Dolven, Thailand.
281
Armin Rosen, “US Cuts Military Aid to Thailand following Coup,” Business Insider, May 23, 2014, http://www.businessinsider.com/cutting-military-aid-after-thailands-coup-2014-5#ixzz3i9hexMWX.
282
Chanlett-Avery and Dolven, Thailand, 8.
283
Walton, “The Importance of U.S.-Thai Security Cooperation Pre-Coup, Post-Coup, and Beyond.”
284
Ibid.
285
Ibid.
286
U.S. Department of State, Under Secretary for Arms Control and International Security, Bureau of Political-Military
Affairs, Office of Plans and Initiatives, Security Assistance Team, “Foreign Military Financing Account,”
http://www.state.gov/t/pm/ppa/sat/c14560.htm.
287
Chanlett-Avery and Dolven, Thailand, 7.
288“Modernizing the Royal Thai Air Force.”289
Off-the-record conversations with Thai military officials
290
Walton, “The Importance of U.S.-Thai Security Cooperation.”
291
White House, “Statement on the Next Steps in Strategic Partnership with India” (press release, January 12, 2004), http://
www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-2004-01-19/pdf/WCPD-2004-01-19-Pg61-2.pdf.
292
Parliament of India, “Alphabetical Party Position in the Rajya Sabha,” September 11, 2015, http://164.100.47.5/Newmembers/partymemberlist.aspx.
293
Sachin Parishar, “India’s Sensational Cross-Border Raid,” Times of India, June 9, 2015, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.
com/india/Indias-sensational-cross-border-raid/articleshow/47605306.cms.
294
Dhanya Ann Thoppil and Eric Bellman, “Indian Police Arrest Man over Pro-Islamic State Twitter Account,” Wall Street
Journal, December 13, 2014, http://www.wsj.com/articles/indian-police-arrest-man-over-pro-islamic-state-twitter-account-1418474209.
295
Indian Ministry of Home Affairs, Department of Border Management, International Borders (New Delhi: MHA, 2015),
http://www.mha.nic.in/hindi/sites/upload_files/mhahindi/files/pdf/BM_Intro_E_.pdf.
296
Chalmers Kumar, “India: Text Message Threats, Rumors Came from Pakistan,” Reuters, August 18, 2012, http://www.
reuters.com/article/2012/08/19/us-india-violencbite-idUSBRE87H08J20120819.
297
Salman Masood, “Civilians Killed in Disputed Kashmir Region between India and Pakistan,” New York Times, July 16,
2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/17/world/asia/violence-flares-in-disputed-kashmir-region-between-india-and-pakistan.html?_r=1.
298
Syed Shoaib Hasan, Saeed Shah, and Siobhan Gorman, “Al Qaeda Militants Tried to Seize Pakistan Navy Frigate,” WallStreet Journal, September 16, 2014, http://www.wsj.com/articles/al-qaeda-militants-tried-to-seize-pakistan-navy-frigate-1410884514.
299“Most Cyber Attacks on India Show Chinese IP Address: NTRO,” Economic Times, November 13, 2014, http://articles.
economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-11-13/news/56060485_1_cyber-espionage-cyber-attacks-cyber-space.
300
Pieter D. Wezeman and Siemon T. Wezeman, Trends in International Arms Transfers, 2014 (Solna, Sweden: StockholmInternational Peace Research Institute, 2014), http://books.sipri.org/files/FS/SIPRIFS1503.pdf.
301
PRC Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of Asian Affairs, “China and Pakistan,” http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/
wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/yzs_663350/gjlb_663354/2757_663518/.
302
Indian Ministry of Commerce, “Export Import Data Bank Version 7.2,” http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/iecnttopnq.asp.
303
Indian Ministry of External Affairs, “External Affairs Minister and Overseas Indian Affairs Minister Smt. Sushma Swaraj’s
Suo-Motu Statement in Lok Sabha on ‘Recent Developments in the Republic of Yemen and Efforts Made for Safe
Evacuation of Indian Nationals from There’ ” (press release, April 20, 2015), http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=118364; Indian Navy, “Anti-Piracy Operations,” http://indiannavy.nic.in/operations/anti-piracy-operations; U.S.

259

APPENDICES
Embassy in New Delhi, Defense Relations: Shared Strategic Future, 38–46, http://newdelhi.usembassy.gov/uploads/
images/7tIuOzAx8UV0mdK5nGCpJw/wwwfpppdef.pdf; “North Korea Missile Milestones-1969-2011” (Washington,
DC: Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control, 2011), http://www.wisconsinproject.org/countries/nkorea/north-korea-missile-milestones.html.
304
White House, “U.S.-India Joint Strategic Vision for the Asia-Pacific and Indian Ocean Region” (press release, January
25, 2015), https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/01/25/us-india-joint-strategic-vision-asia-pacific-andindian-ocean-region.
305
U.S. Department of Defense, Framework for the U.S.-India Defense Relationship (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2015), http://
www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2015-Defense-Framework.pdf.
306
Laxman K. Behere, India’s Defense Budget 2015–16 (New Delhi: Institute for Defence Studies and Analysis, 2015),
file:///C:/Users/jdouglas/Downloads/IB_IndiasDefenceBudget201516_lkbehera020315.pdf.
307
Amitav Ranjan, “Govt Admits Cyber Attacks, but Says Can’t Identify Culprits,” Indian Express, February 12, 2015, http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/govt-admits-cyber-attacks-but-says-cant-identify-culprits/.
308
J. R. Wu, “Taiwan Offers South China Sea Peace Plan,” Reuters, May 26, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/05/26/us-taiwan-south-china-sea-idUSKBN0OA16420150526.
309
J. R. Wu, “Taiwan Coast Guard Launches New Ships as South China Sea Tensions Rise,” Reuters, June 6, 2015, http://
www.reuters.com/article/2015/06/06/us-taiwan-southchinasea-idUSKBN0OM07A20150606.
310
Maxx Dilley et al., Natural Disaster Hotspots: A Global Risk Analysis (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2005), http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2005/04/6433734/natural-disaster-hotspots-global-risk-analysis.
311
Quoted in Andrew Jacobs, “Taiwan’s Leader Faces Anger over Storm Response,” New York Times, August 23, 2009,http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/24/world/asia/24taiwan.html.
312
Joseph Yeh, “Resolution Postpones Push for Military Downsize,” China Post, March 10, 2015, http://www.chinapost.
com.tw/taiwan/national/national-news/2015/03/10/430721/Resolution-postpones.htm.
313
Jason Pan, “Legislators Slam Military Downsizing,” Taipei Times, March 16, 2015, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/
taiwan/archives/2015/03/16/2003613669.
314
ROC Ministry of National Defense, 2013 Quadrennial Defense Review (Taipei, MND, 2013), http://qdr.mnd.gov.tw/
file/2013QDR-en.pdf; “Ministry of Defense Gets New Look for the New Year,” Taipei Times, January 1, 2013,
http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2013/01/01/2003551479.
315
Paul Beckett and Charles Hutzler, “Q&A: Taiwan’s President Ma Ying-jeou on China Ties, Policy and His Legacy,” WallStreet Journal, May 10, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/q-a-taiwans-president-ma-ying-jeou-on-china-ties-policyand-his-legacy-1431309939.
316
SIPRI Military Expenditure Database (Solna, Sweden: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2015), http://
www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex/milex_database; ROC Office of the President, “Changqi gaige: Guofang
zhuanxing” [Long-Term Reform: Defense Transformation] 長期改革: 國防轉型, http://www.president.gov.tw/Default.
aspx?tabid=1079.
317
Tsai Ing-wen, New Generation of Soldiers, Defense Policy Blue Paper no. 6 (Taipei: New Frontier Foundation, 2014),
http://www.ustaiwandefense.com/tdnswp/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/20140822_DPP_Defense_Blue_Paper_6.pdf.
318“Recruits Subject to New Military Service Rules,” Taipei Times, February 20, 2013, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/
taiwan/archives/2013/02/20/2003555254.
319“Taiwan Says to Buy Two U.S. Frigates despite China Anger,” Reuters, December 9, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/12/09/us-taiwan-usa-idUSKBN0JN0CI20141209.
320“Taiwan Kicks off Plan to Build Its Own Submarines,” Agence France-Presse, December 29, 2014, http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/naval/submarines/2014/12/29/taiwan-kicks-plan-build-submarines/21011553/.
321
Sam LeGrone, “Taiwan Kicks off Domestic Attack Sub Program,” USNI News, January 2, 2015, http://news.usni.
org/2015/01/02/taiwan-kicks-off-domestic-attack-sub-program.
322
Wendell Minnick, “Taiwan Pushes for New Weapons on All Fronts,” Defense News, May 27, 2015, http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/policy-budget/warfare/2015/05/27/taiwan-requirements-submarine-frigate-destroyer-helicopter-budget-china/26860647/.
323
Ian Easton and Randall Schriver, Standing Watch: Taiwan and Maritime Domain Awareness in the Western Pacific(Washington, DC: Project 2049 Institute, 2014), http://www.project2049.net/documents/141216_Taiwan_Maritime_Domain_Awareness_Easton_Schriver.pdf.
324James Hardy and Gavin Phipps, “Taiwan to Deploy P-3CS to Spratlys,” IHS Jane’s 360, April 20, 2015, http://www.janes.
com/article/50829/taiwan-to-deploy-p-3cs-to-spratlys.
325
A Dossier on the Pave Paws Radar Installation on Leshan, Taiwan (Washington, DC: Federation of American Scientists,2013), https://fas.org/man/eprint/leshan.pdf.
326
Wendell Minnick, “Taiwan’s BMD Radar Gives Unique Data on China,” Defense News, November 26, 2013, http://archive.defensenews.com/article/20131126/DEFREG03/311260013/Taiwan-s-BMD-Radar-Gives-Unique-Data-China.

260

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
Wendell Minnick, “US Might Tap into Taiwan Early Warning Radar,” Defense News, May 8, 2014,
http://www.defensenews.com/article/20140508/DEFREG03/305080026/.
328
Bonnie Glaser and Jacqueline Vitello, Taiwan’s Marginalized Role in International Security: Paying a Price (Washington,
DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2015), http://csis.org/files/publication/150105_Glaser_TaiwanMarginalizedRole_WEB.pdf.
329
Deliveries of the nine Boeing CH-47SD Super D Chinook helicopters began in the early 2000s. Boeing, “Boeing Completes FMS Contract for Taiwanese Chinooks” (press release, January 5, 2000), http://boeing.mediaroom.com/200001-05-Boeing-Completes-FMS-Contract-for-Taiwanese-Chinooks.
330
Tim Ferry, “Taiwan’s Defense Strategy: Maintaining Deterrence,” Taiwan Business TOPICS, May 15, 2015, http://www.
amcham.com.tw/topics/2015/05/taiwans-defense-strategy-maintaining-deterrence/.
331
Ian Easton, testimony before U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, Hearing on China’s Relations
with Taiwan and North Korea, 114th Cong., 1st sess., June 5, 2014, http://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Easton_
USCC_Taiwan_Hearing_Statement_2014.pdf.
332“Taiwan’s Force Modernization: The American Side,” Defense Industry Daily, July 21, 2015, http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/taiwans-unstalled-force-modernization-04250/.
333“Taiwan Tells US It Wants to Buy F-35 Jets for Defense,” Taipei Times, July 12, 2013, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/
taiwan/archives/2013/07/12/2003566936.
334
Wendell Minnick, “Taiwan Pushes for New Weapons on All Fronts.”
335“Taiwan’s Force Modernization: The American Side”; “PATRIOT TMD Deployment,” Global Security, http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/PATRIOT-unit.htm; J. Michael Cole, “Taiwan Places US$921m Order for PAC-3 Missiles,”Taipei Times, February 2, 2012, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2012/02/02/2003524483.
336
Ian Easton, Taiwan’s Naval Role in the Rebalance to Asia (Washington, DC: Project 2049, 2015), http://www.project2049.net/documents/150303_Easton_Taiwans_Naval_Role_in_the_Rebalance.pdf.
337“Kee Lung (Kidd) Class Destroyers, Taiwan,” http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/keelungkiddclassdest/; Raytheon, “Standard Missile 2,” http://www.raytheon.com/capabilities/products/sm-2/.
338
Robert Farley, “Should America Fear China's ‘Carrier-Killer’ Missile?,” National Interest, September 22, 2014, http://nationalinterest.org/feature/should-america-fear-chinas-carrier-killer-missile-11321.
339
ROC Ministry of National Defense, 2013 Quadrennial Defense Review; Zachary Keck, “China Can Attack Taiwan by
2020, Taipei Says,” The Diplomat, October 9, 2013, http://thediplomat.com/2013/10/china-can-attack-taiwan-by2020-taipei-says/.
340
Jason Pan, “Military Unveils Plan to Construct New Submarines,” Taipei Times, October 1, 2014, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2014/10/01/2003601004.
341
Tom Wright and Simon Clark, “Investigators Believe Money Flowed to Malaysian Leader Najib’s Accounts Amid 1MDB
Probe,” Wall Street Journal, July 2, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10130211234592774869404581083700187014
570.
342
Off-the-record conversations with U.S. officials.
343
Jethro Mullen, “Malaysia Launches Attack on Filipino Intruders in Borneo,” CNN, March 5, 2013, http://www.cnn.
com/2013/03/04/world/asia/malaysia-philippines-standoff/.
344
Off-the-record interviews with Malaysian officials.
345
Off-the-record interviews with Malaysian officials.
346
Jason Ng and Trevor Moss, “Malaysia Toughens Stance with Beijing over South China Sea,” Wall Street Journal, June 8,
2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/malaysia-toughens-stance-with-beijing-over-south-china-sea-1433764608.
347“Malaysia Pursuing Oil Tanker Hijacked by Pirates off the Coast of Vietnam,” Vice News, June 18, 2015, https://news.
vice.com/article/malaysia-pursuing-oil-tanker-hijacked-by-pirates-off-the-coast-of-vietnam.
348
Off-the-record interviews with Malaysian officials; “Hishammudin: Further Expansion of Joint Patrols to Ensure Safetyof Vessels,” Sunday Daily, August 9, 2015, http://www.thesundaily.my/news/1513799.
349
Off-the-record interviews with Malaysia and U.S. officials.
350
Off-the-record interviews with Malaysia analysts.
351
Dzirhan Mahadzir, “Defence Minister Details Plans for Upgraded Security in East Malaysia,” IHS Jane’s Defence Weekly,
Jan 26, 2015, http://www.janes.com/article/48310/defence-minister-details-plans-for-upgraded-security-in-east-malaysia.
352
Off-the-record interviews with Malaysian and U.S. officials.
353
Off-the-record interviews with Malaysian officials.
354
Off-the-record interviews with Malaysian officials.
355
Dzirhan Mahadzir, “Malaysia Is a Country Split into Two Halves,” Defence Review Asia, March 7, 2013, http://www.defencereviewasia.com/articles/208/Malaysia-is-a-country-split-into-two-halves.
327

261

APPENDICES
Ibid.
Off-the-record interviews with U.S. officials.
358
Off-the-record interviews with U.S. officials.
359“Malaysia’s Defense Plans in Jeopardy,” Maritime Executive, March 19, 2015, http://www.maritime-executive.com/article/malaysias-defense-plans-in-jeopardy.
360
Ibid.
361
Ibid.
362
Off-the-record interviews with Malaysian officials
363
Off-the-record interviews with U.S. and Malaysia officials.
364
Off-the-record interview with U.S. official.
365
Off-the-record interview with U.S. official.
366
Interview with officials.
367
Kelly Ng, “SAF Reorganizing to Tackle Challenge of Hybrid Warfare,” TODAY, June 30, 2015, http://www.todayonline.
com/singapore/spore-modernising-defence-systems-meet-future-challenges.
368“Singapore Will Join Coalition against Islamic State,” Channel News Asia, November 3, 2014, http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/specialreports/parliament/news/singapore-will-join/1450248.html.
369
Xue Jianyue, “Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia Could Extend Joint Patrols in South China Sea,” TODAY, May 11, 2015,
http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/singapore-malaysia-and/1838338.html?cid=TWTCNA.
370
Singapore Ministry of Defence, “SAF Deploys Fifth Task Group to the Gulf of Aden” (press release, March 17, 2014),
http://www.mindef.gov.sg/imindef/press_room/official_releases/nr/2014/mar/17mar14_nr.html#.VcphO_lViko.
371“Singapore Military Strength,” Global Firepower, http://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.
asp?country_id=singapore.
372
Interviews with analysts and officials.
373
Interview with analyst.
374
Interview with analyst.
375
Koh Swee Lean Collin and Bernard Fook Weng Loo, “Exposed: Singapore’s Aircraft Carrier in Disguise,” National Interest, March 18, 2015, http://nationalinterest.org/feature/exposed-singapores-aircraft-carrier-disguise-12438.
376
Interview with officials.
377
Interviews with Singaporean and U.S. officials.
378
Nigel Pittaway, “US Program Chief: Singapore Nearing F-35 Buy,” Defense News, February 25, 2015, http://www.
defensenews.com/story/defense/show-daily/avalon/2015/02/24/avalon-australia-f35-fms-bogdan-deeble-singapore/23927983/.
379
Kelly Ng, “SAF Reorganizing to Tackle Challenge of Hybrid Warfare,” TODAY, June 30, 2015, http://www.todayonline.
com/singapore/spore-modernising-defence-systems-meet-future-challenges.
380
Interview with analyst.
381
Interview with analyst.
382
Interview with analyst.
383
Interview with analyst.
384
Ristian Atriandi Supriyanto, “ ‘Exercise Komodo’ and the South China Sea,” Jakarta Post, March 29, 2014, http://www.
thejakartapost.com/news/2014/03/29/exercise-komodo-and-south-china-sea.html.
385
Adelle Neary, “Jokowi Spells out Vision for Indonesia’s ‘Global Maritime Nexus,’ ” Commentary 5, no. 24 (Washington,
DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, November 2014), http://csis.org/publication/jokowi-spells-out-vision-indonesias-global-maritime-nexus.
386
Kanupriya Kapoor and Randy Fabi, “Indonesia to Create New Coastguard, Boost Defense Spending,” Reuters, November 13, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/11/13/us-indonesia-security-idUSKCN0IX10220141113.
387
Moeldoko, “China’s Dismaying New Claims in the South China Sea,” Wall Street Journal, April 24, 2014, http://www.wsj.
com/articles/SB10001424052702304279904579515692835172248.
388
Kanupriya Kapoor and Linda Sieg, “Indonesian President Says China's Main claim in South China Sea Has No Legal Basis,” Reuters, March 23, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/03/23/us-indonesia-china-southchinasea-idUSKBN0MJ04320150323.
389
Richard C. Paddock and I-Made Sentana, “Fears Grow over Islamic State’s Influence in Southeast Asia,” Wall Street
Journal, July 17, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/fears-grow-over-islamic-states-influence-in-southeastasia-1437106924.
390
Ibid.
391
The Expanding Role of the Indonesian Military, IPAC Report No. 19 (Jakarta: Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict,
356
357

262

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
2015), 8–11, http://file.understandingconflict.org/file/2015/05/IPAC_19_Expanding_Role_of_TNI.pdf.
“Indonesia Military Strength,” Global Firepower, http://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.
asp?country_id=indonesia.
393
Iis Gindarsah and Adhi Priamarizki, Indonesia’s Maritime Doctrine and Security Concerns (Singapore: S. Rajaratnam
School of International Studies, 2015), 9, http://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/PR150409_Indonesias-Maritime-Doctrine.pdf.
394
Ibid.
395
“Indonesia Will Receive German Tanks Soon,” Jakarta Post, November 15, 2013, http://www.thejakartapost.com/
news/2013/11/15/indonesia-will-receive-german-tanks-soon.html.
396
Ina Parlina, “New Chiefs Promise Big Things,” Jakarta Post, July 9, 2015, http://www.thejakartapost.com/
news/2015/07/09/new-chiefs-promise-big-things.html.
397
Roni Bintang, “Indonesia to Review Aging Air Force Fleet after Deadly Crash,” Reuters, July 1, 2015, http://www.reuters.
com/article/2015/07/01/us-indonesia-military-crash-idUSKCN0PA0M120150701.
398
Ibid.
399
Interview with analyst.
400
Interviews with analysts and officials.
401
Interviews with analysts and officials.
402
Interviews with analysts and officials.
403
Moeldoko, “China’s Dismaying New Claims in the South China Sea”; Interview with analysts.
404
Ibid.
405
Interview with analysts.
406
Interview with analysts.
407
Gindarsah and Priamarizki, “Indonesia’s Maritime Doctrine and Security Concerns.”
408
Interview with analysts.
409
Gindarsah and Priamarizki, “Indonesia’s Maritime Doctrine and Security Concerns.”
410
Interview with analyst.
411
Abraham M. Denmark, Rizal Sukma, and Christine Parthermore, Crafting a Strategic Vision: A New Era of U.S.-Indonesia
Relations (Washington, DC: Center for a New American Security, 2010), http://www.cnas.org/files/documents/publications/CNAS_Crafting%20a%20Strategic%20Vision_Denmark.pdf.
412
Robert Gates, “Statement by Secretary Gates at Presidential Palace in Jakarta, Indonesia” (speech, Presidential Palace,
Jakarta, Indonesia, July 22, 2010), http://www.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=4662.
413
U.S. Department of State, “United States-Indonesia Comprehensive Partnership,” October 8, 2013, http://www.state.
gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2013/10/215196.htm.
414
U.S. Department of State, “Indonesia-U.S. Third Joint Commission Meeting,” September 20, 2012, http://www.state.
gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2012/09/197980.htm.
415
Interviews with officials.
416“Japan Signs Defence Pact with Indonesia, Offers S$1.6b Loan,” TODAY, March 24, 2015, http://www.todayonline.com/
world/asia/japan-signs-defence-pact-indonesia-offers-s16b-loan.
417Interviews with officials and analysts.
418
Nina Afrida, “US to Get Involved in RI Military,” Jakarta Post, January 8, 2015, http://www.thejakartapost.com/
news/2015/01/08/us-get-involved-ri-military.html.
419
Interviews with officials.
420
Interviews with officials.
421
Interviews with officials.
422
Off-the-record interviews with Vietnamese officials.
423
Jeremy Page, “Vietnam Accuses Chinese Ships,” Wall Street Journal, December 3, 2012, http://www.wsj.com/articles/
SB10001424127887323717004578157033857113510; “Vietnam Accuses China in Seas Dispute,” BBC News, May 30,
2011, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13592508.
424
John Boudreau and Diep Pham, “Chinese Navy Arrests Vietnam Fishermen in Disputed Seas,” Bloomberg, July 4, 2014,
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-07-04/chinese-navy-arrests-vietnam-fishermen-in-disputed-seas.
425
Kate Hodal and Jonathan Kaiman, “At Least 21 Dead in Vietnam Anti-China Protests over Oil Rig,” The Guardian, May
15, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/15/vietnam-anti-china-protests-oil-rig-dead-injured.
426
Off-the-record interviews with Vietnamese officials.
427
Off-the-record interviews with U.S. and Vietnamese officials.
428
Carl Thayer, “Can Vietnam’s Maritime Strategy Counter China?,” The Diplomat, September 29, 2014. http://thediplomat.com/2014/09/can-vietnams-maritime-strategy-counter-china/.
392

263

APPENDICES
Ibid.
Off-the-record conversations with U.S. and Vietnamese officials.
431
Off-the-record discussions with Vietnamese officials.
432“Vietnam Air Force Purchased 3 Transport Aircraft C-295,” Defence Blog, June 13, 2014, http://defence-blog.
com/?p=1583.
433
Murray Hiebert and Phuong Nguyen, “Vietnam Ramps up Defense Spending, but Its Challenges Remain,” Asia Maritime
Transparence Initiative, March 18, 2015, http://amti.csis.org/vietnam-ramps-up-defense-spending-but-its-challengesremain/.
434
Off-the-record interviews with Vietnamese officials.
435
Thayer, “Can Vietnam’s Maritime Strategy Counter China?”
436
Ibid.
437
Aaron Mehta, “New US-Vietnam Agreement Shows Growth, Challenges,” Defense News, June 2, 2015, http://www.
defensenews.com/story/defense/policy-budget/budget/2015/06/01/us-vietnam-joint-vision-statement-signed-in-hanoi/28291963/.
438
David Alexander, “Vietnam, U.S. Discuss Land Reclamation in South China Sea,” Reuters, June 1, 2015, http://uk.reuters.
com/article/2015/06/01/uk-vietnam-usa-defense-idUKKBN0OH1L320150601.
439
Off-the-record interviews with U.S. officials.
440
Michael R. Gordon, “U.S. Eases Embargo on Arms to Vietnam,” New York Times, October 2, 2014, http://www.nytimes.
com/2014/10/03/world/asia/us-eases-embargo-on-arms-to-vietnam.html?_r=0.
441
Off-the-record interview with Vietnamese officials.
442
Off-the-record interview with U.S. officials.
443
Off-the-record interview with U.S. officials.
444
Off-the-record briefing by U.S. officials.
445
Off-the-record briefing by U.S. defense officials.
446
Off-the-record interview with U.S. officials.
447
Off-the-record briefing by U.S. defense officials.
448
Ridzwan Rahmat, “Philippines, Vietnam Hold First Defence Policy Dialogue,” IHS Jane's 360, April 14, 2015, http://www.
janes.com/article/50677/philippines-vietnam-hold-first-defence-policy-dialogue.
449
Frank Jack Daniel, “India Tightens Vietnam Defence, Oil Ties Ahead of China’s Xi’s Visit,” Reuters, September 15, 2014,
http://in.reuters.com/article/2014/09/15/india-vietnam-pranab-mukherjee-visit-xi-idINKBN0HA1X520140915.
450
Ashton Carter, “The United States and Challenges of Asia-Pacific Security” (speech, IISS Shangri-La Dialogue, Singapore, May 30, 2015), https://www.iiss.org/en/events/shangri%20la%20dialogue/archive/shangri-la-dialogue-2015862b/plenary1-976e/carter-7fa0.
451
U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Institutional Support for ASEAN,” September 2012, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/
ps/2012/09/197278.htm.
452
ASEAN Regional Forum, “Joint ADMM, ADMM-Plus and ARF Calendar 2015,” http://aseanregionalforum.asean.org/
events.html?id=629; Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “ASEAN Regional Forum,” September 13, 2012,
http://dfat.gov.au/international-relations/regional-architecture/asean/Pages/asean-regional-forum-arf.aspx.
453
Interviews with officials.
454
ASEAN, “About the ASEAN Defence Ministers’ Meeting,” January 14, 2015, https://admm.asean.org/index.php/
about-admm/about-admm-plus.html.
455
Chuck Hagel, “Speech to the Malaysian Institute of Defense and Security” (speech, Malaysian Institute of Defense andSecurity, Kuala Lumpur, August 25, 2013), http://archive.defense.gov/Speeches/Speech.aspx?SpeechID=1799.
456
Cheryl Pellerin, “Panetta Meets with Southeast Asian Counterparts,” American Forces Press Service, November 16,
2012, http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=118569.
457
ReCAAP Information Sharing Centre, “About ReCAAP: Background Information.”
458“U.S. Joins ReCAAP Anti-Piracy Organization,” Government Security News, October 2, 2014, http://gsnmagazine.com/
article/42655/us_joins_recaap_anti_piracy_organization; U.S. Pacific Fleet, Maritime Liaison Unit Pacific, “History of the
Maritime Liaison Unit- Pacific (MARLU PAC),” http://www.marlupac.navy.mil/index_files/Page359.htm.
459
Tom Kelly, “U.S. Foreign Policy and Diplomacy” (speech, Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies, Honolulu, Hawaii,
April 17, 2014), http://www.state.gov/t/pm/rls/rm/2014/225003.htm; House Committee on Foreign Affairs, HR 2848 Department of State Operations and Embassy Security Authorization Act for FY 2014: Section-by-Section Summary, 113th
Cong., 1st sess., 2013, 4, http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/sites/republicans.foreignaffairs.house.gov/files/State%20bill%20
section-by-section.pdf.
460
Ted Kemp, “It’s Official: US Joins Fight against Asia Pirates,” CNBC, September 23, 2014, http://www.cnbc.
com/2014/09/16/y-us-to-enter-fight-against-pirates-in-asia.html.
429

430

264

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
Haji Hassanal Bolkiah, “Chairman’s Statement of the 8th East Asia Summit” (speech, 8th East Asia Summit, Bandar Seri
Begawan, Brunei, October 10, 2013), http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/files/000016962.pdf.
462
Interviews with officials.
463
Interviews with officials.
464
Miha Hribernik, Countering Maritime Piracy and Robbery in Southeast Asia: The Role of the ReCAAP Agreement (Brussels: European Institute for Asian Studies, 2013) http://www.eias.org/sites/default/files/EIAS_Briefing_Paper_2013-2_
Hribernik.pdf.
465“Separating Facts from Fiction” (proceedings of ReCAAP ISC Piracy and Sea Robbery Conference 2015, Singapore, April
23, 2015), 1, http://www.recaap.org/Portals/0/docs/Piracy%20and%20Sea%20Robbery%20Conference%202011/2015/
ReCAAP%20ISC%20Piracy%20and%20Sea%20Robbery%20Conference%202015%20Report.pdf.
466
Hribernik, Countering Maritime Piracy and Robbery in Southeast Asia.
467
Steven L. Basham and Nelson D. Rouleau, “A Rebalance Strategy for Pacific Air Forces: Flight Plan to Runways andRelationships,” Air & Space Power Journal, January-February 2015, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/digital/pdf/articles/2015-Jan-Feb/SLP-Basham_Rouleau.pdf.
468
U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, National Military Strategy of the United States of America 2015 (Washington, DC: DOD, 2015),
http://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Publications/2015_National_Military_Strategy.pdf.
469
Chuck Hagel, “The U.S. Approach to Regional Security” (speech, IISS Shangri-La Dialogue, Singapore, June 1, 2013),
http://www.iiss.org/en/Topics/shangri-la-dialogue/chuck-hagel-862d.
470
John A. Warden III, The Air Campaign: Planning for Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press,
1988).
471
Department of Defense, Quadrennial Defense Review 2014, March 2014.
472
U.S. Air Force, Global Vigilance, Global Reach, Global Power for America, 2014.
473
John A. Warden, III, The Air Campaign: Planning for Combat (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press,
1988).
474
Steven L. Basham and Nelson D. Rouleau, “A Rebalance Strategy for Pacific Air Forces: Flight Plan to Runways andRelationships,” Air & Space Power Journal 29, no. 1 (2015), 15.
475“Eielson AFB Selected as Preferred Alternative for First Overseas-based F-35As,” U.S. Air Force News, August 7, 2014,
http://www.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid/223/Article/493979/eielson-afb-selected-as-preferred-alternative-forfirst-overseas-based-f-35as.aspx.
476
Colin Clark, “China Will Soon Face Arc of U.S. F-35s, Other Fighters, Bombers,” Breaking Defense, July 29, 2013, http://
breakingdefense.com/2013/07/china-will-soon-face-arc-of-us-f-35s-other-fighters-bombers/.
477
Roger Cliff, Shaking the Heavens and Splitting the Earth: Chinese Air Force Employment Concepts in the 21st Century(Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2011), 59.
478
Eric Heginbotham, The U.S.-China Military Scorecard: Forces, Geography, and the Evolving Balance of Power, (Santa
Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2015), xxiii
479
Thomas Schelling, in Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decisions, Roberta Wohlstetter (Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962), Foreword.
480
U.S. Department of Defense, Military Power of the Republic of China – 2009 (Washington: Office of the Secretary of
Defense, 2009), 48.
481
Robert Davis, “Forward Arming and Refueling Points for Fighter Aircraft: Power Projection in an Anti-Access Environment,” Air & Space Power Journal 28, no. 5 (2014), http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/digital/pdf/issues/2014/ASPJSep-Oct-2014.pdf.
482
Robert Davis, “Forward Arming and Refueling Points for Fighter Aircraft: Power Projection in an Anti-Access Environment,” Air & Space Power Journal, September-October 2014, 12.
483
Ibid., 5.
484David Eshel, “Israel Will Be First Non-U.S. Customer to Fly F-35,” Aviation Week, June 26, 2013, http://aviationweek.
com/defense/israel-will-be-first-non-us-customer-fly-f-35.
485
Joint Staff, Command and Control of Joint Air Operations (Washington, DC:DOD, 2014), III–19
486
U.S. Navy, A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower (Washington, DC: DOD, 2015), 14, http://www.navy.mil/
local/maritime/150227-CS21R-Final.pdf.
487
Jim Garramone, “Greenert Discusses Maritime Strategy Shift,” DOD News, November 4, 2014, http://www.defense.
gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=123561.
488
Samuel J. Locklear III, testimony before House Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on the Risk of Losing MilitaryTechnology Superiority and its Implications for U.S. Policy, Strategy, and Posture in the Asia-Pacific, 114th Cong., 1stsess., April 15, 2015, http://docs.house.gov/meetings/AS/AS00/20150415/103307/HHRG-114-AS00-Wstate-LocklearUSNS-20150415.pdf.
461

265

APPENDICES
Jonathan Greenert, testimony before Senate Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Defense, Hearing on
FY16 U.S. Navy & Marine Corps Budget Hearing, 114th Cong., 1st sess., March 4, 2015, http://www.appropriations.senate.
gov/sites/default/files/hearings/DEF%20Admiral%20Greenert%20Dept.%20of%20Navy%20Posture%20Statement%20
030415.pdf.
490
Locklear, Hearing on the Risk of Losing Military Technology Superiority.
491
Ibid.
492
Ibid.
493
Congressional Budget Office, An Analysis of the Navy’s Fiscal Year 2015 Shipbuilding Plan (Washington, DC: CBO,2014), https://www.cbo.gov/publication/49818.
494
Ronald O’Rourke, Navy Ohio Replacement (SSBN[X]) Ballistic Missile Submarine Program: Background and Issues forCongress, CRS Report R41129 (Washington DC: Congressional Research Service, 2015), https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/
weapons/R41129.pdf.
495
U.S. Chief of Naval Operations, “Optimized Fleet Response Plan,” OPNAV Instruction 3000.15A, November 10, 2014,
http://doni.daps.dla.mil/Directives/03000%20Naval%20Operations%20and%20Readiness/03-00%20General%20Operations%20and%20Readiness%20Support/3000.15A.pdf.
496
U.S. Navy, A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower, 14; Harry B. Harris Jr., testimony before Senate Committee on Armed Services, Nomination of ADM Harry B. Harris, Jr., USN, for Reappointment to the Grade of Admiral andto Be Commander, U.S. Pacific Command, 114th Cong. 10, December 2, 2014, http://www.armed-services.senate.gov/
imo/media/doc/Harris_12-02-14.pdf.
497
Lance Bacon, “CNO Says Ship Basing in Australia under Consideration,” Navy Times, February 14, 2015, http://www.
navytimes.com/story/military/2015/02/14/australia-basing-looked-at-cno-confirms/23344415/.
498
U.S. Navy, Report to Congress on the Annual Long-Range Plan for Construction of Naval Vessels for Fiscal Year 2016
(Washington, DC: DOD, 2015), http://news.usni.org/2015/04/03/document-navys-30-year-shipbuilding-plan-to-congress-for-fiscal-year-2016.
499
Lance Bacon, “BMD Mission Demands Outstrip Fleet’s Capabilities,” Navy Times, April 13, 2015, http://www.navytimes.
com/story/military/2015/04/13/navy-unable-to-meet-growing-bmd-demand/25463331/.
500
Ian Rinehart, Steven Hildreth, and Susan Lawrence, Ballistic Missile Defense in the Asia-Pacific Region: Cooperation
and Opposition, CRS Report R43116 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2015) https://www.fas.org/sgp/
crs/nuke/R43116.pdf.
501
Government Accountability Office, Defense Acquisitions: Assessments of Selected Weapon Programs, GAO-15- 342SP,(Washington, DC: GAO, 2015) http://www.gao.gov/assets/670/668986.pdf.
502
Ronald O’Rourke, Navy DDG-51 and DDG-1000 Destroyer Programs: Background and Issues for Congress, CRS Report RL32109 (Washington DC: Congressional Research Service, 2015), https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32109.
pdf.
503
Sam LaGrone, “NAVSEA on Flight II Arleigh Burkes,” USNI News, June 7, 2014, http://news.usni.org/2013/06/07/navsea-on-flight-iii-arleigh-burkes.
504
Scaparrotti, Hearing on U.S. Pacific Command and U.S. Forces Korea.
505
Valerie Insinna, “Low Inventory, Low Readiness Plague Amphibious Ship Fleet,” National Defense Magazine, August
2014, http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2014/August/Pages/LowInventoryLowReadinessPlagueAmphibiousShipFleet.aspx.
506
U.S. Navy, Report to Congress on the Annual Long-Range Plan for Construction of Naval Vessels for Fiscal Year 2016.
507
Megan Echstein, “Dunford: Marines Must Fundamentally Rethink Deployment Strategies, Training,” USNI News,
June 25, 2015, http://news.usni.org/2015/06/25/dunford-marines-must-fundamentally-rethink-deployment-strategies-training.
508
James K. Sanborn, “Marines Prep for Unpredictable Amphibious Operations,” Marine Corps Times, January 15, 2015,
http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/story/military/2015/01/14/marine-corps-general-outlines-successes-challenges-for-future-amphib-ops/21771873/; Kris Osborn, “Navy Sees Broader Role for Joint High Speed Vessel,” DOD Buzz,
June 29, 2015, http://www.dodbuzz.com/2015/06/29/navy-sees-broader-role-for-joint-high-speed-vessel/.
509
Maren Leed, Amphibious Shipping Shortfalls: Risks and Opportunities to Bridge the Gap (Washington, DC: Center for
Strategic and International Studies, 2014), http://csis.org/files/publication/140902_Leed_AmphibiousShipping_WEB.pdf.
510
Greenert, Hearing on FY16 U.S. Navy & Marine Corps Budget Hearing.
511
Samuel J. Locklear, testimony before Senate Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on U.S. Pacific Command andU.S. Forces Korea, 114th Cong., 1st sess., April 16, 2015, http://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Locklear_04-16-15.pdf.
512Locklear, Hearing on the Risk of Losing Military Technology Superiority.
513
Kelvin Wong, “USN Showcases SSGN Capabilities with USS Michigan in Latest Asia-Pacific Deployment,” IHS
Jane’s Defence Weekly, September 8, 2014, http://www.janes.com/article/42996/usn-showcases-ssgn-capabilities-with-uss-michigan-in-latest-asia-pacific-deployment.
489

266

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
Milan Vego, “On Littoral Warfare,” Naval War College Review 68, no. 2 (2015): 38–43.
Bruce Einhorn, “Submarines: Asia’s Underwater Arms Race,” Bloomberg Businessweek, April 23, 2015, http://www.
bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-04-23/submarines-china-leads-asia-s-underwater-arms-race.
516
O’Rourke, Navy Ohio Replacement (SSBN[X]) Ballistic Missile Submarine Program.
517
Kris Osborn, “Navy Wants 28 More Tomahawks on Virginia-Class Submarines,” DoD Buzz, March 16, 2015, http://www.
dodbuzz.com/2015/03/16/navy-wants-28-more-tomahawks-on-virginia-class-submarines/.
518“NSSN Virginia Class Attack Submarine, United States of America,” Naval Technology, http://www.naval-technology.
com/projects/nssn/; Osborn, “Navy Wants 28 More Tomahawks on Virginia-Class Submarines.”
519
Locklear, Hearing on the Risk of Losing Military Technology Superiority.
520
Berteau and Green, U.S. Force Posture Strategy in the Asia Pacific Region.
521
Christopher Cavas, “World Events, F-35 Delays Drive Hornet Push,” Defense News, March 15, 2015, http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/naval/naval-aviation/2015/03/12/navy-carriers-aircraft-fighters-strike-fighters-f-18-fa18-super-hornet-boeing-f-35-joint-strike-fighter-jsf/70243170/.
522
William K. Lescher, “Department of Defense Briefing by Rear Adm. Lescher on the Fiscal Year 2016 Navy Budget in
the Pentagon Briefing Room” (briefing, Pentagon, Washington, DC, February 2, 2015), http://www.defense.gov/News/
News-Transcripts/Article/607006; Senate Committee on Armed Services, Hearing to Receive Testimony on the Postureof the Department of the Navy in Review of the Proposed Fiscal 2016 Defense Authorization Request for Fiscal Year2016 and the Future Years Defense Program, 114th Cong., 1st sess., March 10, 2015, http://www.armed-services.senate.
gov/imo/media/doc/15-21%20-%203-10-15.pdf.
523
U.S. Marine Corps, Department of Aviation, Marine Aviation Plan (Washington, DC: DOD, 2014), https://marinecorpsconceptsandprograms.com/concepts/service-campaign-plan-2014-2022/2015-aviation-plan.
524
Dave Majumdar, “UCLASS Could Be Used as Tanker for Carrier Air Wing,” USNI News, April 1, 2014, http://news.usni.
org/2014/04/01/uclass-used-tanker-carrier-air-wing.
525
Sam LaGrone, “Navy Not Following Marines’ Lead in Developing V-22 Osprey Tanker,” USNI News, May 4, 2015, http://
news.usni.org/2015/05/04/navy-not-following-marines-lead-in-developing-v-22-osprey-tanker.
526
Samuel Branne and Michael Horowitz, “Beyond UCLASS: Preparing the Navy for Next Generation Warfare,” War on
the Rocks, July 22, 2014, http://warontherocks.com/2014/07/beyond-uclass-preparing-the-navy-for-next-generation-warfare/.
527
Jeremiah Gertler, History of the Navy UICLASS Requirements: In Brief, CRS Report R44131 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2015), http://news.usni.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/R44131.pdf#viewer.action=download.
528
J. Randy Forbes, “Commentary: Where Is Unmanned Carrier Aviation Heading?,” Defense News, March 21, 2015, http://
www.defensenews.com/story/defense/commentary/2015/03/31/carrier-uclass-navy-air-wing-penetrate-denial-refuel-x47b-ucasd/70663440/.
529
Ray Maybus, “Future Platforms: Unmanned Naval Operations,” War on the Rocks, January 21, 2014, http://warontherocks.com/2014/01/future-platforms-unmanned-naval-operations/.
530
Thomas A. Horlander and Davis S. Welch, “FY 2016 Army Budget Overview” (slides, February 2015), http://asafm.army.
mil/Documents/OfficeDocuments/Budget/budgetmaterials/fy16//overview.pdf; Joint Base Lewis-McChord, “I Corps:
History: 1980-Present,” http://www.lewis-mcchord.army.mil/ICorps/icorps-history.html.
531
U.S. Navy, “Department of the Navy FY 2015 President’s Budget” (slides, March 2014), http://www.secnav.navy.mil/fmc/
fmb/Documents/15pres/DON_PB15_Press_Brief.pdf; Janine Davidson and Lauren Dickey, “How Serious Is the Rebalance? U.S. Military Record Tells (Part of) the Story,” CFR Defense in Depth, April 16, 2015, http://blogs.cfr.org/davidson/2015/04/16/how-serious-is-the-rebalance-u-s-military-record-tells-part-of-the-story/.
532
Audrey Mcavoy, “4-Star General Takes Command of U.S. Army Pacific,” Associated Press, July 3, 2015, http://archive.
armytimes.com/article/20130703/CAREERS03/307030006/4-star-general-takes-command-U-S-Army-Pacific.
533
Robert B. Brown and Jason N. Adler, “I Corps: U.S. Pacific Command’s Newest Asset,” Joint Force Quarterly 77 (2ndQuarter 2015), http://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/jfq/jfq-77/jfq-77_114-119_Brown-Adler.pdf.
534
Sydney J. Freedberg Jr., “Reinventing the Army via ‘Pacific Pathways,’ ” Breaking Defense, February 13, 2015, http://
breakingdefense.com/2015/02/reinventing-the-army-via-pacific-pathways/.
535
Vincent K. Brooks, “Perspectives on East Asia” (speech, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington, DC,
March 4, 2015), http://csis.org/event/perspectives-east-asia.
536
Rajiv Chandrasekaran, “Army’s ‘Pacific Pathways’ Initiative Sets Up Turf Battle with Marines,” Washington Post, December 29, 2013, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/armys-pacific-pathways-initiative-sets-upturf-battle-with-marines/2013/12/29/11c948c8-69b1-11e3-a0b9-249bbb34602c_story.html.
537
Kimberly Field, James Learmont, and Jason Charland, “Regionally Aligned Forces: Business Not as Usual,” Parameters
43, no. 3 (2013): 56, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/Parameters/issues/Autumn_2013/5_Field.pdf;
Kimberly Field and Stephan Pikner, “The Role of U.S. Land Forces in the Asia-Pacific,” Joint Forces Quarterly 74 (3rd
514
515

267

APPENDICES
Quarter 2014), http://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/jfq/jfq-74/jfq-74_30-37_Field-Pikner.pdf.
Rob McIvaine, “Odierno: Regional Alignments to Begin Next Year,” Army News Service, May 16, 2012, http://www.army.
mil/article/79919/.
539
Jacqueline Fennell, “I Corps to Re-focus on Asia-Pacific,” Northwest Guardian, November 15, 2012, http://www.nwguardian.com/2012/11/15/14337/i-corps-to-re-focus-on-asia-pacific.html.
540
Robert B. Brown and Jason N. Adler, “I Corps: U.S. Pacific Command’s Newest Asset,” Joint Force Quarterly 77 (2ndQuarter 2015), http://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/jfq/jfq-77/jfq-77_114-119_Brown-Adler.pdf.
541
Samuel J. Locklear, testimony before Senate Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on U.S. Pacific Command andU.S. Forces Korea, 113th Cong., 2nd sess., March 25, 2014, http://www.pacom.mil/Media/SpeechesTestimony/tabid/6706/Article/565155/pacom-senate-armed-services-committee-testimony.aspx.
542
The authored generated these figures using Google Earth distance data combined with average top speeds of MC130Js for Okinawa based units and C-17s for Joint Base Lewis-McChord based units. Speed data taken from U.S.
Air Force, “C-17 Globemaster III,” October 27, 2004, http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/224/Article/104523/c-17-globemaster-iii.aspx; U.S. Air Force, “MC-130J Commando II,” September 15, 2011, http://www.af.mil/
AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/224/Article/104510/mc-130j-commando-ii.aspx.
543
U.S. Navy, “Guided Missile Submarines—SSGN,” http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=4100&tid=300&ct=4.
544“U.S. Central Command, U.S. Africa Command and U.S. Special Operations Command Programs and Budget,” Statement before the Senate Armed Services Comm. 114th Cong. (2015) (statement of Joseph L. Votel, Commander, UnitedStates Special Operations Command).
545
David Cenciotti, “The Mysterious Helicopter Involved in the Osama bin Laden Raid,” The Aviationist, May 3, 2011, http://
theaviationist.com/2011/05/03/mysterious-helicopter/.
546
Jim Thomas and Chris Dougherty, Beyond the Ramparts: the Future of U.S. Special Operations Forces (Washington
DC: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessment, 2013), 99–100, http://csbaonline.org/publications/2013/05/beyond-the-ramparts-the-future-of-u-s-special-operations-forces/.
547
Lockheed Martin, “Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense,” http://lockheedmartin.com/us/products/aegis/aegis-bmd.html.
548
Lance Bacon, “Missile Defense Ships Face Arms Race, High Op Tempo,” Navy Times, January 31, 2015, http://www.
navytimes.com/story/military/2015/01/31/bmd-ships-cruisers-optempo-navy/22538847/.
549
Cheryl Pellerin, “Hagel: U.S. to Send 2 More Aegis Ships to Japan,” DOD News, April 6, 2014, http://www.defense.gov/
news/newsarticle.aspx?id=121992.
550
Tim Kelly and Nobuhiro Kubo, “Exclusive: Japan Interested in Joining NATO Missile Consortium,” Reuters, July 9,2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/07/09/us-japan-nato-missile-exclusive-idUSKCN0PJ2RV20150709?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews.
551“Lockheed Martin Investor Conference” (presentation, Lockheed Martin Electronic Systems, Washington, D.C., May 11,2011), 25.
552
Amy Butler, “China’s Hypersonic Ambitions Prompt THAAD-ER Push,” Aviation Week Network, January 8, 2015, http://
aviationweek.com/defense/china-s-hypersonic-ambitions-prompt-thaad-er-push; Marcus Weisgerber, “Lockheed
Working to Extend Range of U.S. Missile Interceptors,” Defense One, http://www.defenseone.com/threats/2015/01/
pentagon-wants-extend-range-one-its-missile-interceptors/102444/; Sydney J. Freedberg Jr., “Non-Standard: Navy
SM-6 Kills Cruise Missiles Deep Inland,” Breaking Defense, August 19, 2014, http://breakingdefense.com/2014/08/nonstandard-navy-sm-6-kills-cruise-missiles-deep-inland.
553
Daniel B. Allyn, “Army Priorities for the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) Program to Inform the MDA’s
Program Budget Review Fiscal Year 2016” (memorandum, October 8, 2014).
554
Ibid.
555
James D. Srying, testimony before Senate Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on Ballistic Missile Defense Programs, 114th Cong., 1st sess., March 25, 2015, 5, http://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/15-35%20-%20
3-25-15.pdf; David Mann, testimony before Senate Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on Ballistic Missile Defense
Programs, 114th Cong., 1st sess., March 25, 2015, 18, http://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Mann_0325-15.pdf.
556
Ronald O’Rourke, Navy Aegis Cruiser and Destroyer Modernization: Background and Issues for Congress, RS22595(Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, October 22, 2009), 19.
557
Lance Bacon, “Missile Defense Ships Face Arms Race, High Op Tempo,” Navy Times, January 31, 2015, http://www.
navytimes.com/story/military/2015/01/31/bmd-ships-cruisers-optempo-navy/22538847/.
558
Sydney Freedberg, “Aegis Ambivalence,” Breaking Defense, June 30, 2015, http://breakingdefense.com/2015/06/aegis-ambivalence-navy-hill-grapple-over-missile-defense-mission/.
559
Ronald O’Rourke, Navy Lasers, Railgun, and Hypervelocity Projectile: Background and Issues for Congress, CRS Report
R44175 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2015), http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/R44175.pdf.
538

268

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
Ibid.
Ibid.
562
Ibid.
563
U.S. Department of Defense, Missile Defense Agency, “Fiscal Year (FY) 2016 Budget Estimates Overview” (slides, January 26, 2015), http://www.mda.mil/global/documents/pdf/budgetfy16.pdf; Michael J. Green, Kathleen H. Hicks, andZack Cooper, Federated Defense in Asia (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2014), 23.
564
Jaganath Sankaran, “The Resilience of U.S. Military Space Power,” Space News, July 28, 2014, http://spacenews.
com/41408the-resilience-of-us-military-space-power/.
565
Stephen Clark, “Air Force General Reveals New Space Surveillance Program,” SpaceFlight Now, March 3, 2014, http://
www.space.com/24897-air-force-space-surveillance-program.html.
566
Frank A. Rose, “Ballistic Missile Defense and Strategic Stability in East Asia” (speech, Federation of American Scientists,
Washington, D.C., February 20, 2015), http://www.state.gov/t/avc/rls/2015/237746.htm.
567
Mike Gruss, “U.S. to Consolidate Control of Missile Warning Assets,” Space News, March 9, 2015, http://spacenews.
com/u-s-to-consolidate-control-of-missile-warning-assets/.
568
U.S. Department of Defense, Missile Defense Agency, “Ballistic Missile Defense System: Elements,” http://www.mda.
mil/system/sensors.html.
569
U.S. Department of Defense, Missile Defense Agency, “Fiscal Year (FY) 2016 Budget Estimates Overview.”
570
Zachary Keck, “China’s Next Super Weapon Revealed: Satellite Destroyers,” National Interest, April 15, 2015, http://
www.nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/chinas-next-superweapon-revealed-satellite-destroyers-12640.
571“NRO Confirms Chinese Laser Test Illuminated U.S. Spacecraft,” Space News, October 3, 2006, http://spacenews.com/
nro-confirms-chinese-laser-test-illuminated-us-spacecraft/.
572
Brian Weeden, “Through a Glass, Darkly: Chinese, American, and Russian Anti-Satellite Testing in Space,” Space Review,
March 17, 2014, http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2473/1; Zachary Keck, “China's Next Super Weapon Revealed:
Satellite Destroyers,” National Interest, April 15, 2015, http://www.nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/chinas-next-superweapon-revealed-satellite-destroyers-12640.
573
Colin Clark, “Chinese ASAT Test Was ‘Successful’: Lt. Gen. Raymond,” Breaking Defense, April 14, 2015, http://breakingdefense.com/2015/04/chinese-asat-test-was-successful-lt-gen-raymond/.
574
Colin Clark, “US Military Losing Edge In Space: Kendall,” Breaking Defense, March 17, 2015, http://breakingdefense.
com/2015/03/us-military-losing-edge-in-space-kendall/; Jim Garamone, “Air Force Will Defend, Boost Space Assets,
General Says,” DOD News, April 28, 2015, http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=128687.
575
Stew Magnuson, “U.S. Forces Prepare for a ‘Day without Space,’” National Defense Magazine, February 2014, http://
www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2014/February/pages/USForcesPreparefora%E2%80%98DayWithoutSpace%E2%80%99.aspx.
576
Union of Concerned Scientists, UCS Satellite Database, “2-1-15 Satellite Database Update,” http://www.ucsusa.org/
nuclear-weapons/space-weapons/satellite-database.html.
577
David Cenciotti, “U.S. Air Force Disclosed Some Details about Gigantic Global Hawk Unmanned Aircraft Operations
against ISIS,” The Aviationist, March 13, 2015, http://theaviationist.com/2015/03/13/eq-4-op-inherent-resolve/.
578
Lance Menthe et al., The Future of Air Force Motion Imagery Exploitation: Lessons from the Commercial World (Santa
Monica: RAND Corporation, 2012), 5.
579
Michael T. Flynn, Matt Pottinger, and Paul D. Batchelor, Fixing Intel: A Blueprint for Making Intelligence Relevant in
Afghanistan (Washington, DC: Center for a New American Security, 2010), http://www.cnas.org/files/documents/publications/AfghanIntel_Flynn_Jan2010_code507_voices.pdf.
580
U.S. Air Force, “Air Force Distributed Common Ground System,” http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/224/Article/104525/air-force-distributed-common-ground-system.aspx.
581
Government Accountability Office, Defense Acquisitions: Assessments of Selected Weapon Programs, GAO-15-342SP(Washington, DC: GAO, April 2015), 115, http://www.gao.gov/assets/670/668986.pdf,.
582
Aaron Mehta, “General: DOD Needs ISR Fleet for Contested Environments,” Defense News, September 18, 2013, http://archive.defensenews.com/article/20130918/DEFREG02/309180019/General-DoD-Needs-ISR-Fleet-Contested-Environments.
583
David Axe, “7 Secret Ways America’s Stealth Armada Stays off the Radar,” Wired, December 13, 2012, http://www.wired.
com/2012/12/steath-secrets/?pid=1688.
584
Stephen Tremble, “Sierra Nevada fields ARGUS-IS upgrade to Gorgon Stare,” FlightGlobal, July 2, 2014, http://www.
flightglobal.com/news/articles/sierra-nevada-fields-argus-is-upgrade-to-gorgon-stare-400978/.
585
Amado Cordova et al., Motion Imagery Processing and Exploitation (MIPE) (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2013), 3,
http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR154.
586
U.S. Air Force, RPA Vector: Vision and Enabling Concepts 2013–2038 (Washington, DC: DOD, 2014), http://www.defenseinnovationmarketplace.mil/resources/USAF-RPA_VectorVisionEnablingConcepts2013-2038_ForPublicRelease.pdf.
560
561

269

APPENDICES
Isaac R. Porche III, Bradley Wilson, and Erin-Elizabeth Johnson, “How Do We Deal with a Flood of Data?,” Future Force,June 16, 2014, http://futureforce.navylive.dodlive.mil/2014/06/how-do-we-deal-with-a-flood-of-data/.
588
Hearing on China’s Space and Counterspace Programs, before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 114th Cong. (2015) (statement of Kevin Pollpeter), http://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Pollpeter_Testimony.
pdf.
589
U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Secretary of Defense, “Military and Security Developments Involving thePeople's Republic of China 2015,” Annual Report to Congress, April 2015, http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2015_China_Military_Power_Report.pdf.
590Mark Hosenball and Jim Finkle, “Update 1-U.S. Suspects North Korea Had Help Attacking Sony Pictures-Source,”
Reuters, December 29, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/12/30/northkorea-cyberattack-idUSL1N0UD1IB20141230.
591
Defense Science Board, “Resilient Military Systems and the Advanced Cyber Threat,” Office of the Under Secretary of
Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics, January 2013, http://www.acq.osd.mil/dsb/reports/ResilientMilitarySystems.CyberThreat.pdf.
592
Lieutenant General Edward C. Cardon, “Operationalizing Cyberspace for the Services,” Statement before the Senate
Armed Services Committee, Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities, 114th Cong., April 14, 2015, http://
www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Cardon_04-14-15.pdf.
593
Brett T. Williams, “The Joint force commander's Guide to Cyberspace Operations,” Joint Force Quarterly 73, no. 2(2014): 12–19.
594
Joint Statement of the U.S.-Japan Cyber Defense Policy Working Group, May 30, 2015, http://www.mod.go.jp/j/press/
news/2015/05/30a_1.pdf;
U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, “An Open and Secure Internet: We Must Have Both,” Remarks at the Korea University,
Seoul, South Korea, May 18, 2015, http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2015/05/242553.htm;
The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, “The United States and Australia: An Alliance for the Future,” Fact Sheet,
June 12, 2014, https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/06/12/fact-sheet-united-states-and-australia-alliance-future.
595
U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Electronic Warfare, Joint Publication 3-13.1 (Washington, DC: DOD, 2007), v, http://fas.org/
irp/doddir/dod/jp3-13-1.pdf.
596
Robert O. Work quoted in Aaron Mehta, “Pentagon Launches New EW Council,” Defense News, March 17, 2015, http://
www.defensenews.com/story/defense/policy-budget/warfare/2015/03/17/pentagon-ew-council-electronic-warfare-airborne-attack/24896183/.
597
Sydney J. Freedberg Jr., “Army Electronic Warfare Goes on the Offensive: New Tech Awaits Approval,” Breaking Defense, January 29, 2013, http://breakingdefense.com/2013/01/army-electronic-warfare-new-tech/; Electronic Warfare:
The Changing Face of Combat (Alexandria, VA: Association of Old Crows, 2008), 7, https://www.myaoc.org/eweb/images/aoc_library/Government_Affairs/AOC%20report.pdf.
598
Lescher, “Department of Defense Briefing by Rear Adm. Lescher on the Fiscal Year 2016 Navy Budget in the Pentagon
Briefing Room.”
599
Graham Warwick, “Raytheon Flies Prototype Next-Generation Jammer Pod,” Aviation Week, November 19, 2014,
http://aviationweek.com/military-government/raytheon-flies-prototype-next-generation-jammer-pod.
600
Tyler Rogoway, “The Navy Has Retired the EA-6B Prowler after 45 Years of Service,” Foxtrot Alpha, July 30, 2015,
http://foxtrotalpha.jalopnik.com/the-navy-has-retired-the-ea-6b-prowler-after-45-years-o-1715596340.
601
Jeff Schogol, “Rep. McSally Tries to Save the EC-130H Compass Call,” Air Force Times, June 12, 2015, http://www.
airforcetimes.com/story/military/capitol-hill/2015/06/12/mcsally-amendment-on-compass-calls/71060742/.
602
Raytheon, “Miniature Air Launched Decoy (MALD),” http://www.raytheon.com/capabilities/products/mald/.
603
Tyler Rogoway, “The Pentagon’s Flying Decoy Super Weapon Is about to Get Much Deadlier,” Foxtrot Alpha, December
11, 2014, http://foxtrotalpha.jalopnik.com/the-pentagons-flying-decoy-super-weapon-is-about-to-get-1669729445.
604
Sydney J. Freedberg Jr., “Navy Forges Ahead with New Surface Ship Electronic Warfare: SWEIP,” Breaking Defense,
March 20, 2015, http://breakingdefense.com/2015/03/navy-forges-ahead-with-new-surface-ship-electronic-warfaresewip/.
605
Dave Majumdar and Sam LaGrone, “Navy’s Next Generation Radar Could Have Future Electronic Attack Abilities,” USNI
News, January 17, 2014, http://news.usni.org/2014/01/17/navys-next-generation-radar-future-electronic-attack-abilities.
606
Colin Clark, “Why the Navy Really Wants 22 More Growlers,” Breaking Defense, March 26, 2014, http://breakingdefense.com/2014/03/why-the-navy-really-wants-22-more-fa-18gs/.
607
Sam LaGrone, “Navy Growler Study Complete, Awaiting Pentagon Review,” USNI News, June 3, 2015, http://news.usni.
org/2015/06/03/navy-growler-study-complete-awaiting-pentagon-review.
608
Bill Sweetman, “Sizing up the U.S. Air Force’s Next Bomber,” Aviation Week, August 27, 2015, http://aviationweek.com/
defense/opinion-sizing-us-air-force-s-next-bomber.
587

270

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
U.S. Air Force, RPA Vector: Vision and Enabling Concepts 2013–2038, 44.
U.S. Navy, Office of Naval Research, “Integrated Topside: Innovative Naval Prototype Program,” October 2012, http://
www.onr.navy.mil/~/media/Files/Fact-Sheets/31/INTOP-Integrated-Topside-INP.ashx.
611
Majumdar and LaGrone, “Navy’s Next Generation Radar.”
612
James Drew, “USAF Nominates JASSM Missile to Host New Computer-Killing Weapon,” Flightglobal, May 14, 2015,
https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/usaf-nominates-jassm-missile-to-host-new-computer-killing-412348/.
613
Mark Gunzinger and Bryan Clark, Sustaining America’s Precision Strike Advantage (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessment, 2015), 48–51, http://csbaonline.org/publications/2015/06/sustaining-americas-precision-strike-advantage/.
614
Data on North Korean forces from International Institute of Strategic Studies, Military Balance 2015 (London, UK: Europa Publications, 2015), 262–63.
615
Eric Lindsey, Beyond Coast Artillery: Cross-Domain Denial and the Army (Washington DC: Center for Strategic andBudgetary Assessment, 2014), http://csbaonline.org/publications/2014/10/beyond-coast-artillery-cross-domain-denial-and-the-army/.
616
U.S. Department of Defense, DoD Non-Lethal Weapons Program, Non-Lethal Weapons: Annual Review (Arlington,
VA: DOD, 2013), http://jnlwp.defense.gov/Portals/50/Documents/Press_Room/Annual_Reviews_Reports/2013/DoD_
Non-Lethal_Weapons_Program_Annual_Review_11.19.2012_HTML_format_v1.pdf.
617
Jonathan Greenert, testimony before House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Defense, Hearing on FY
2016 Department of the Navy Posture, 114th Cong., 1st sess., February 26, 2015, http://docs.house.gov/meetings/AP/
AP02/20150226/102992/HHRG-114-AP02-Wstate-GreenertA-20150226.pdf.
618
Sydney J. Freedberg Jr., “Work Elevates Electronic Warfare, Eye on Missile Defense,” BreakingDefense, March 17, 2015,
http://breakingdefense.com/2015/03/raid-breaker-work-elevates-electronic-warfare-eye-on-missile-defense/.
619
U.S. Department of Defense, Joint Staff, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 214–15.
620
U.S. Department of Defense, Sustaining U.S. Global Leadership: Priorities for 21st Century Defense (Arlington, VA: DOD,
2012), http://archive.defense.gov/news/Defense_Strategic_Guidance.pdf .
621
U.S. Department of Defense, Mobility Capabilities Assessment: Executive Summary (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2013), 3, 7.
622
U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Transportation Command, “Executive Summary,” in Mobility Capabilities and Requirements Study 2016 (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2010), 4; Michelle D. Johnson, testimony before House Committee on Armed
Services, Subcommittee on Air and Land Forces, Hearing on Air Mobility Programs, 11th Cong., 2nd sess., April 28, 2010,
http://democrats.armedservices.house.gov/index.cfm/files/serve?File_id=9ef3dda3-93ea-4e32-a7d3-a33f8485c89d.
An Institute for Defense Analyses study came to a similar conclusion: “We found that the POR [Program of Record] fleet
is adequate in meeting the benchmark requirements identified in the MCS [Mobility Capability Study] for moderate acceptable risk.” W.L. Greer, G.M. Koretsky, and J. P. Woolsey, Study on Size and Mix of Airlift Force: Unclassified Synopsis,
IDA Paper P-4428 (Alexandria, VA: Institute for Defense Analyses, 2009).
623
Government Accountability Office, Defense Transportation: Additional Information Is Needed for DOD’s Mobility Capabilities and Requirements Study 2016 to Fully Address All of Its Study Objectives, GAO-11-82 (Washington, DC: GAO,2010), http://www.gao.gov/assets/100/97219.pdf.
624
Samuel J. Locklear, testimony before the House Appropriations Committee, Remarks on U.S. Pacific Command, 114th
Cong., 1st sess., March 18, 2015, http://www.pacom.mil/Media/SpeechesTestimony/tabid/6706/Article/581146/pacom-before-the-house-appropriations-committee-remarks.aspx.
625
U.S. Department of Defense, Joint Staff, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 214–15.
626
Government Accountability Office, Sequestration: Observations on the Department of Defense’s Approach in Fiscal
Year 2013, GAO-14-177R (Washington, DC: GAO, 2013), http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/658913.pdf; Ashton Carter andJames A. Winnefeld Jr., joint testimony before the House Committee on Armed Services, Hearing on Initial Conclusions
Formed by the Defense Strategic Choices and Management Review, 113th Cong., 1st sess., August 1, 2013, http://docs.
house.gov/meetings/AS/AS00/20130801/101242/HHRG-113-AS00-Wstate-CarterA-20130801.pdf.
627
Jonathan Greenert, testimony before House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Defense, Hearing on FY
2016 Department of the Navy Posture, 114th Cong., 1st sess., February 26, 2015, http://docs.house.gov/meetings/AP/
AP02/20150226/102992/HHRG-114-AP02-Wstate-GreenertA-20150226.pdf.
628
Lt. Gen. Mark Ramsay, cited in “McCord: Budget deal not a ‘net contributor’ to services’ readiness,” Inside the Pentagon, November 19, 2015.
629
U.S. Department of Defense, Joint Staff, Joint Logistics, Joint Publication 4-0 (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2013), x–xii, http://
www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp4_0.pdf.
630
Government Accountability Office, Warfighter Support: DOD Needs Additional Steps to Fully Integrate Operational
Contract Support into Contingency Planning, GAO-13-212, February 2013, http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/652052.
pdf; E. Cory Yoder, William E. long, and Dayne E. Nix, “Phase Zero Contracting Operations—Strategic and Integrative
Planning for Contingency and Expeditionary Operations,” Defense Acquisition Review Journal, October 2013, http://
dau.dodlive.mil/2013/10/01/phase-zero-contracting-operations-strategic-and-integrative-planning-for-contingency-and-expeditionary-operations/.
609
610

271

APPENDICES
Inquiry Into Cyber Intrusions Affecting U.S. Transportation Command Contractors, prepared by the Senate Armed Services Committee, 113th Congress (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2014).
632
The 2014 Quadrennial Defense Review identifies HA/DR as part of the three pillars of the Defense Department’s strategy and as a core mission, albeit the lowest of 12 missions. U.S. Department of Defense, Quadrennial Defense Review
2014 (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2014), http://archive.defense.gov/pubs/2014_Quadrennial_Defense_Review.pdf.
633
From 1994 to 2013, the Asia-Pacific region accounted for 40 percent of global natural disasters. United Nations
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2014 (Herndon,
VA: United Nations Publications, 2014), 23, http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/ESCAP-SYB2014_0.pdf.; United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Disasters in Asia and the Pacific: 2014 Year in Review.
634
HA/DR operations are resourced on a contingency basis and use forces not conducting ongoing operations or
higher-priority missions. Yet the political and strategic incentives behind HR/DR operations can quickly change thesepriorities. In 2010, the United States diverted six helicopters from Afghanistan at the height of the fighting season to
support flood relief in Pakistan until additional U.S. assets could arrive in the region. See Karen DeYoung, “Fearing Unrest,
Pakistan Seeks More U.S. Flood Aid,” Washington Post, August 10, 2010, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/
content/article/2010/08/09/AR2010080905769.html; Sagar Meghani, “Amphib, Helos Join Pakistan Flood Relief Effort,”
Navy Times, August 11, 2010, http://archive.navytimes.com/article/20100811/NEWS/8110314/Amphib-helos-join-Pakistan-flood-relief-effort; Griffe Witte, “U.S. Army Joins Flood Relief, Rescue Efforts in Pakistan,” Washington Post,
August 5, 2010, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/08/05/AR2010080501280.html; Rhoda
Margesson and Maureen Taft-Morales, Haiti Earthquake: Crisis and Response, CRS Report R41023 (Washington, DC:
Congressional Research Service, 2010), 19, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R41023.pdf; U.S. Southern Command,“Operation Unified Response: Support to Haiti Earthquake Relief 2010,” http://www.southcom.mil/newsroom/Pages/
Operation-Unified-Response-Support-to-Haiti-Earthquake-Relief-2010.aspx.
635
Andrew Feickert and Emma Chanlett-Avery, Japan 2011 Earthquake: U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) Response,
CRS Report R41690 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2011), 1, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/
R41690.pdf; National Bureau of Asian Research, “Chronology of Operation Tomodachi: March 11-April 8, 2011,” http://
www.nbr.org/research/activity.aspx?id=121.
636
Green, Hicks, and Cooper, Federated Defense in Asia, 14–15.
637
U.S. Department of Defense, Joint Staff, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 214–15.
638
Clinton, “America’s Pacific Century.”
639
Locklear, Hearing on the Risk of Losing Military Technology Superiority, 11–12.
640
Ibid., 18.
641
The Marine Rotational Force, Darwin, successfully completed its third rotation last year, increasing its presence from
250 to 1,177 U.S. Marines in Darwin and Northern Australia. The announced intent of these rotations in the coming years
is to establish a rotational presence of up to a 2,500-person Marine Air Ground Task Force to exercise and train with theAustralian Defense Force in the Northern Territory. The U.S. Air Force is also increasing its rotation of aircraft to Northern
Australia to increase bilateral cooperation and combined training and exercises.
642
Locklear, Hearing on the Risk of Losing Military Technology Superiority, 10.
643
Ibid., 12.
644
Ibid., 13–14.
645
Ian E. Rinehart, Malaysia: Background and U.S. Relations, CRS Report R43505 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2014), 13–14, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R43505.pdf.
646
Emma Chanlett-Avery, Singapore: Background and U.S. Relations, CRS Report RS20490 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2013), 3, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS20490.pdf.
647Mark E. Manyin, U.S.-Vietnam Relations in 2014: Current Issues and Implications for U.S. Policy, CRS Report R40208(Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2014), 22, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40208.pdf.
648
Locklear, Hearing on the Risk of Losing Military Technology Superiority, 14.
649
Ashton Carter, “A Regional Security Architecture Where Everyone Rises” (speech, IISS Shangri-La Dialogue, Singapore,May 30, 2015), http://www.defense.gov/Speeches/Speech.aspx?SpeechID=1945.
650
Defense Security Cooperation Agency, “Building Partner Capacity,” in Security Assistance Management Manual, chap.
15, http://www.samm.dsca.mil/chapter/chapter-15.
651
Ibid., 16–17.
652
Ibid., 18–19.
653
Ibid., 20–21.
654
Ibid., 22–23.
655
Ibid., 24–25.
656
Alexis Fitts, “Unearthing Warming Soil’s Toxic Secrets,” Barents Observer, July 2, 2013, http://barentsobserver.com/en/
nature/2013/07/unearthing-warming-soils-toxic-secrets-02-07.
631

272

ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
U.S. Geological Survey, Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal: Estimates of Undiscovered Oil and Gas North of the Arctic
Circle (Reston, VA: USGS, 2008), 1, http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3049/fs2008-3049.pdf.
658
Ibid.
659
Bjarte Bogstad, “In the Arctic, Rich Fish Stocks Meet Energy Exploration,” National Geographic, November 29, 2013,
http://energyblog.nationalgeographic.com/2013/11/29/in-the-arctic-rich-fish-stocks-meet-energy-exploration/.
660
U.S. Department of State, “Arctic Nations Sign Declaration to Prevent Unregulated Fishing in the Central Arctic Ocean”(press release, July 16, 2015), http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/07/244969.htm.
661
John Vidal, “Russian Arctic City Hopes to Cash in as Melting Ice Opens New Sea Route to China,” The Guardian, February 1, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/01/arctic-city-new-route-china.
662“Atomflot: Traffic on the Northern Sea Route will Reach 15 Million Tonnes per Year by 2020,” Arctic-Info, April 10, 2013,
http://www.arctic-info.com/News/Page/atomflot--traffic-on-the-northern-sea-route-will-reach-15-million-tonnesper-year-by-2020.
663“Number of Ships Transiting Arctic Waters Falls in 2014,” New York Times, January 5, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/
aponline/2015/01/05/us/ap-us-arctic-shipping.html.
664“Denmark Challenges Russia and Canada over North Pole,” BBC News, December 15, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/
news/world-europe-30481309; Andrew E. Kramer, “Russia Stakes New Claim to Expanse in the Arctic,” New York Times,
August 4, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/05/world/europe/kremlin-stakes-claim-to-arctic-expanse-and-itsresources.html.
665
U.S. Department of Defense, “DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011,” April 8, 2011, http://archive.defense.gov/
home/features/2009/0109_unifiedcommand/.
666
U.S. National Geospatial Intelligence Agency, “The World with Commanders’ Areas of Responsibility,” April 6, 2011,
http://www.defense.gov/news/UCP_2011_Map4.pdf.
667
U.S. Pacific Air Forces, Joint Task Force Alaska, “Agreement Signed for Integrated Defense of Alaska” (press release,
June 25, 2009), http://www.pacaf.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid/377/Article/595724/agreement-signed-for-integrated-defense-of-alaska.aspx.
668
U.S. Coast Guard, “Commandant Signs Arctic White Paper with U.S. Northern Command” (press release, March 14,2012), http://www.uscg.mil/seniorleadership/news.asp?id=Wed,%2014%20Mar%202012%2013:36:49%20EST.
669
U.S. Coast Guard Alaska, 17th District, “U.S. Coast Guard in Alaska 2013,” http://www.uscg.mil/d17/images/D17%20
Fact%20Sheet.pdf.
670
Shawn Eggert, “Coast Guard Research & Development Center Conduct Autonomous Recovery of Unmanned Aircraft
System,” U.S. Coast Guard Alaska, 17th Coast Guard District, July 15, 2015, http://alaska.coastguard.dodlive.mil/2015/07/
coast-guard-research-development-center-conduct-autonomous-recovery-of-unmanned-aircraft-system/.
671
Samuel J. Locklear III, “The Future of Asian Security” (speech, Atlantic Council, Washington, DC, March 6, 2014), http://
www.pacom.mil/Media/SpeechesTestimony/tabid/6706/Article/565158/atlantic-council-roundtable.aspx.
672
Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, “Northern Edge 2015,” http://www.jber.af.mil/alcom/northernedge/northernedge2015.asp.
673
Tom Vanden Brook, “Army Plans to Cut 40,000 Troops,” USA Today, July 8, 2015, http://www.usatoday.com/story/
news/nation/2015/07/07/army-plans-to-cut-40000-troops/29826423/.
674
Jeremy Bender, “Senator: The U.S. Is Committing a ‘Strategic Blunder’ by Removing Troops from the Arctic as Russia
Digs in,” Business Insider, July 21, 2015, http://www.businessinsider.com/us-is-committing-a-strategic-blunder-in-arctic-2015-7.
675
Liz Ruskin, “General Says Decision on JBER Cuts Not Final without Arctic Plan,” Alaska Dispatch News, July 21, 2015,
http://www.alaskapublic.org/2015/07/21/general-says-decision-on-jber-cuts-not-final-without-arctic-plan/.
676
Russian Ministry of Regional Development, “Second Arctic International Economic Forum in Murmansk” (press release,
October 1, 2010).
677
Michael T. Klare, “Rushing for the Arctic’s Riches,” New York Times, December 7, 2013, http://www.nytimes.
com/2013/12/08/opinion/sunday/rushing-for-the-arctics-riches.html.
678
B. Brunstad, ed., Arctic Shipping 2030: From Russia with Oil; Stormy Passage, or Arctic Great Game? (Oslo: Econ Poyry, 2007), 14.
679
Ibid.
680
“Russia to Upgrade 50 Military Airfields by 2020,” ITAR-TASS, August 11, 2014, http://en.itar-tass.com/russia/744503.
681
Trude Pettersen, “Third Arctic Search and Rescue Center Opened,” Barents Observer, October 15, 2014, http://barentsobserver.com/en/arctic/2014/10/third-arctic-search-and-rescue-center-opened-15-10.
682“Russia Moves First Troops to Arctic Base near Finnish border,” Alaska Dispatch News, January 15, 2015, http://www.
adn.com/article/20150115/russia-moves-first-troops-arctic-base-near-finnish-border.
683
Marta Carlsson and Niklas Granholm, Russia and the Arctic: Analysis and Discussion of Russian Strategies (Stockholm:
Swedish Defence Research Agency, 2013), 27, http://www.foi.se/ReportFiles/foir_3596.pdf.
657

273

APPENDICES“Russia’s Large-Scale Military Drills Vostok-2014,” TASS, September 25, 2014, http://tass.ru/en/russia/750825.
Roger McDermott, “Vostok 2014 and Russia’s Hypothetical Enemies (Part One),” Eurasia Daily Monitor 11,
no. 167 (2014), http://www.jamestown.org/programs/edm/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=42859&cHash=bb0e68111832039d5c8997b2355b2942#.VYRA1PlVikq.
686
Thomas Grove, “Russia Starts Nationwide Show of Force,” Reuters, March 16, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/03/16/us-russia-military-exercises-idUSKBN0MC0JO20150316.
687
Eliott C. McLaughlin, “Amid NATO exercises, Russia puts Northern Fleet on ‘full alert,’ ” CNN, March 17, 2015, http://
www.cnn.com/2015/03/16/europe/russia-arctic-military-exercises/.
688“Russian Nuclear Submarine to Test Launch Bulava ICBM within Two Days: Source,” RIA Novosti, September 9, 2014,
http://en.ria.ru/russia/20140909/192761908/Russian-Nuclear-Submarine-to-Test-Launch-Bulava-ICBM-Within-Two.
html.
689
U.S.-China Arctic Social Science Forum (proceedings, Shanghai, China, May 15–17, 2015).
690
Yang Jiechi, “China’s View on Arctic Cooperation,” Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, July 30, 2010, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/tyfls_665260/tfsxw_665262/t812046.shtml.
691
Atle Staalesen, “Chinese Icebreaker through Norwegian Waters,” Barents Observer, August 9, 2012, http://barentsobserver.com/en/arctic/chinese-icebreaker-through-norwegian-waters-09-08.
692
Ibid.
693
Andrew Higgins, “Teeing Off at Edge of the Arctic? A Chinese Plan Baffles Iceland,” New York Times, March 22, 2013,
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/23/world/europe/iceland-baffled-by-chinese-plan-for-golf-resort.html.
694“Greenland Lures China’s Miners with Cold Gold,” Caixin Online, December 7, 2012, http://english.caixin.com/2011-1207/100335609.html.
695
Jeremy Page and Gordon Lubold, “Five Chinese Navy Ships Are Operating in Bering Sea off Alaska,” Wall Street
Journal, September 2, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/pentagon-watches-as-chinese-navy-ships-sail-in-beringsea-1441216258.
696
Olesya Astakhova, “Russia May Accept Majority Chinese Control of Big Oil and Gas Fields,” Reuters, February 27, 2015,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/02/27/russia-crisis-energy-china-idUSL5N0W10W420150227.
697
Erica Downs, “In China-Russia Gas Deal, Why China Wins More,” Fortune, June 20, 2014, http://fortune.
com/2014/06/20/in-china-russia-gas-deal-why-china-wins-more/.
698“Yamal LNG Tenders Icebreaking Tanker Fleet,” LNG Shipping News, February 20, 2014, http://www.lngjournal.com/
lng/index.php/downloads/finish/30-2014/268-23lngshippingnewsfebruary20.
699
Anatoly Medetsky, “Construction of New Pipeline from North Siberia to China Kicks Off,” Moscow Times, December
18, 2013, http://www.themoscowtimes.com/business/article/construction-of-new-pipeline-from-north-siberia-to-china-kicks-off/491796.html.
700
Aki Tonami, Arctic Policies of Japan, South Korea, and Singapore (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center for International Scholars, 2014), http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/FINAL%20CI_140915_Tonami_brief_v1.pdf.
701
Local Organizing Committee of Arctic Science Summit Week 2015, “ASSW2015 was held in Toyama, Japan,” http://
www.assw2015.org/.
702
Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Launching of the Arctic Task Force (ATF)” (press release, September 2, 2010),
http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2010/9/0902_01.html.
703
Asari Hideki, “Recommendations on Japan’s Diplomacy,” in Arctic Governance and Japan's Diplomatic Strategy, ed.
Kazuhiro Nakatani (Tokyo: Japan Institute of International Affairs, 2013), https://www2.jiia.or.jp/en/pdf/research/2012_arctic_governance/08e-recommendations.pdf.
704
Tonami, Arctic Policies of Japan, South Korea, and Singapore.
705
Office of the Prime Minister of Japan, Basic Plan on Ocean Policy (Tokyo: OPM, 2013), http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/kaiyou/kihonkeikaku/130426kihonkeikaku_e.pdf.
706
Ibid.
707
Ibid.
708
Mari Iwata and Wayne Ma, “Shipping Firms to Add Arctic LNG Route,” Wall Street Journal, July 9, 2014, http://www.wsj.
com/articles/china-japan-shippers-to-launch-arctic-lng-route-1404905617.
709
Tonami, Arctic Policies of Japan, South Korea, and Singapore.
710
Byong-hyun Lee, “Korea’s Arctic Policy—A Korean Route towards the Arctic Frontier” (speech, 7th Arctic Frontiers
Conference, Tromsø, Norway, January 21, 2013), http://www.arcticfrontiers.com/downloads/arctic-frontiers-2013/conference-presentations/monday-21-january-2013/69-10-byong-hyun-lee/file.
711
Young Kil Park, “South Korea’s Interests in the Arctic,” Asia Policy 18 (July 2014), 60.
712
Ann Koh and Heesu Lee, “Arctic Ice Melt Seen Freeing Way for South Korean Oil Hub,” Bloomberg¸ July 23, 2014,
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-07-22/arctic-ice-melt-seen-freeing-way-for-south-korean-oil-hub;
684
685

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ASIA-PACIFIC REBALANCE 2025
Young Kil Park, Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective (Waterloo, Ontario: Center for International
Governance Innovation, 2013), 5, https://www.cigionline.org/sites/default/files/no3_9.pdf.
713
Park, Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective, 5.
714
Park, “South Korea’s Interests in the Arctic,” 60.
715
Ibid.
716
Park, Arctic Prospects and Challenges from a Korean Perspective, 5.
717
Sam Tan Chin Siong, “State of the Arctic—Singapore’s Perspective” (speech, 9th Arctic Frontiers Conference, Tromsø,
Norway, January 19, 2015), http://www.iarc.uaf.edu/sites/default/files/node/4484/singapore_speech_state_of_the_arctic_singapor_15861.pdf.
718
World Bank, “Merchandise Trade (% of GDP),” http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TG.VAL.TOTL.GD.ZS.
719
Ian Storey, “The Arctic Novice: Singapore and the High North,” Asia Policy 18 (July 2014): 69.
720
Ibid., 66.
721
Ibid., 69.
722
Keppel Offshore and Marine, “Keppel Singmarine—Ice-Class Vessels,” http://www.keppelom.com/en/content.aspx?sid=2581.
723
Tonami, Arctic Policies of Japan, South Korea, and Singapore.
724
Ibid.
725
Storey, “The Arctic Novice: Singapore and the High North,” 68.
726
U.S. Navy, The United States Navy Arctic Roadmap for 2014 to 2030 (Arlington, VA: DOD, 2014), 3–6, http://www.navy.
mil/docs/USN_arctic_roadmap.pdf.
727
From 2009 to 2012, the number of vessels transiting through the Bering Strait nearly doubled from 130 to 250. Alex
DeMarban, “Bering Strait Ship Traffic Grows, with Russia Leading Way and Alaska Lagging,” Alaska Dispatch News, July
14, 2013, http://www.adn.com/article/20130714/bering-strait-ship-traffic-grows-russia-leading-way-and-alaska-lagging.
728
U.S. Navy, The United States Navy Arctic Roadmap for 2014 to 2030.
729
Ronald O’Rourke, Navy Force Structure and Shipbuilding Plans: Background and Issues for Congress, (Washington,
DC: Congressional Research Service, August 10, 2015), Summary, http://news.usni.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/
RL32665_4.pdf#viewer.action=download. Also, Eric J. Labs, An Analysis of the Navy’s Fiscal Year 2015 Shipbuilding Plan,(Congressional Budget Office: December 2014), https://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/113th-congress-2013-2014/
reports/49818-Shipbuilding.pdf.
730
Ronald O’Rourke, Coast Guard Polar Icebreaker Modernization: Background and Issues for Congress, (Washington,
DC: Congressional Research Service, September 25, 2015), 11, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL34391.pdf.
731
Ibid.
732
The White House, National Strategy for the Arctic Region (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2013), https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/nat_arctic_strategy.pdf.
733
Seth Borenstein, “Coast Guard Proposes Bering Strait Shipping Route,” Alaska Dispatch News, December 5, 2014,
http://www.adn.com/article/20141205/coast-guard-proposes-bering-strait-shipping-route.
734
Russia is conducting oil and gas exploration in offshore areas around Sakhalin Island to the south of the Bering Strait,
as well as in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. These energy development activities and higher vessel traffic increase therisks of an oil spill in the Bering Strait area. U.S. Coast Guard Alaska, 17th District, Draft Programmatic Environmental
Assessment: Arctic Operations and Training Exercises (Juneau, AK: USCG, 2014), 3–28, http://www.uscg.mil/d17/docs/
DRAFT%20PROGRAMMATIC%20ENVIRONMENTAL%20ASSESSMENT.pdf.
735
David J. Berteau, Michael J. Green, and Zack Cooper, Assessing the Asia-Pacific Rebalance (Washington, DC: Center
for Strategic and International Studies, 2014), http://csis.org/files/publication/150105_Berteau_AssessingAsiaPacificRebal_Web.pdf.
736
T. X. Hammes, “The Future of Warfare: Small, Many, Smart v. Few and Exquisite,” War on the Rocks, July 16, 2014,
http://warontherocks.com/2014/07/the-future-of-warfare-small-many-smart-vs-few-exquisite/.
737
See, for example, Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011).
738
Philip Tetlock, Expert Political Judgment: How Good Is It? How Can We Know? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 2005).
739
Richard Danzig, Driving in the Dark: Ten Propositions about Prediction and National Security (Washington, DC: Center
for a New American Security, 2011), 15.
740
For detail about the different mechanisms, see Mark Cancian, “War Funding, Sequestration, and the Budget Impasse,”
Center for Strategic and International Studies, June 12, 2015, http://csis.org/publication/war-funding-sequestration-and-budget-impasse.

275