China’s National Defensein the New Era
The State Council Information Office of
the People’s Republic of China
July 2019

First Edition

2019ISBN 978-7-119-11925-0© Foreign Languages Press Co. Ltd., Beijing, China, 2019
Published by Foreign Languages Press Co. Ltd.
24 Baiwanzhuang Road, Beijing 100037, China
Distributed by China International Book Trading Corporation
35 Chegongzhuang Xilu, Beijing 100044, China
P.O. Box 399, Beijing, China
Printed in the People’s Republic of China

Contents
Preface1

I. International Security Situation

2

II. China’s Defensive National Defense Policy in the New Era

7III. Fulfilling the Missions and Tasks of China’s Armed Forcesin the New Era

14

IV. Reform in China’s National Defense and Armed Forces

22

V. Reasonable and Appropriate Defense Expenditure

35

VI. Actively Contributing to Building a Community with a Shared
Future for Mankind

42

Closing Remarks

52

Appendices53

Acronyms

67

PrefaceToday, with their interests and security intertwined, people across the world are
becoming members of a community with a shared future. China is at a critical stage ofcompleting the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects andembarking on the new journey of building a modernized socialist country in an
all-round way. Socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a new era.

The Chinese government is issuing China’s National Defense in the New Era to
expound on China’s defensive national defense policy and explain the practice,
purposes and significance of China’s efforts to build a fortified national defense and astrong military, with a view to helping the international community better understandChina’s national defense.

I. International Security Situation
The world today is undergoing profound changes unseen in a century. As economic
globalization, the information society, and cultural diversification develop in an
increasingly multi-polar world, peace, development and win-win cooperation remain
the irreversible trends of the times. Nonetheless, there are prominent destabilizing
factors and uncertainties in international security. The world is not yet a tranquil
place.
The International Strategic Landscape Is Going Through Profound Changes
As the realignment of international powers accelerates and the strength of
emerging markets and developing countries keeps growing, the configuration ofstrategic power is becoming more balanced. The pursuit of peace, stability anddevelopment has become a universal aspiration of the international community withforces for peace predominating over elements of war. However, international security
system and order are undermined by growing hegemonism, power politics,
unilateralism and constant regional conflicts and wars.
International strategic competition is on the rise. The US has adjusted its national
security and defense strategies, and adopted unilateral policies. It has provoked andintensified competition among major countries, significantly increased its defense
expenditure, pushed for additional capacity in nuclear, outer space, cyber and missile
defense, and undermined global strategic stability. NATO has continued its
enlargement, stepped up military deployment in Central and Eastern Europe, andconducted frequent military exercises. Russia is strengthening its nuclear andnon-nuclear capabilities for strategic containment, and striving to safeguard its
strategic security space and interests. The European Union (EU) is accelerating its
security and defense integration to be more independent in its own security.
Global and regional security issues are on the increase. International arms control
and disarmament efforts have suffered setbacks, with growing signs of arms races.
The non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction remains problematic. The

international non-proliferation regime is compromised by pragmatism and double
standards, and hence faces new challenges. Extremism and terrorism keep spreading.
Non-traditional security threats involving cyber security, bio-security and piracy are
becoming more pronounced. The Iranian nuclear issue has taken an unexpected turn,and there is no easy political solution to the Syrian issue. The security of individual
countries is becoming increasingly intertwined, interlinked and interactive. No
country can respond alone or stand aloof.
The Asia-Pacific Security Situation Remains Generally Stable
Asia-Pacific countries are increasingly aware that they are members of acommunity with shared destiny. Addressing differences and disputes through dialogue
and consultation has become a preferred policy option for regional countries, making
the region a stable part of the global landscape. The Shanghai Cooperation
Organization (SCO) is forging a constructive partnership of non-alliance andnon-confrontation that targets no third party, expanding security and defense
cooperation and creating a new model for regional security cooperation. The
China-ASEAN Defense Ministers’ Informal Meeting and the ASEAN Defense
Ministers’ Meeting Plus (ADMM-Plus) play positive roles in enhancing trust among
regional countries through military exchanges and cooperation. The situation of theSouth China Sea is generally stable and improving as regional countries are properly
managing risks and differences. Steady progress has been made in building acoordinated counter-terrorism mechanism among the militaries of the regionalcountries. A balanced, stable, open and inclusive Asian security architecture continues
to develop.
As the world economic and strategic center continues to shift towards the
Asia-Pacific, the region has become a focus of major country competition, bringing
uncertainties to regional security. The US is strengthening its Asia-Pacific military
alliances and reinforcing military deployment and intervention, adding complexity toregional security. The deployment of the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense(THAAD) system in the Republic of Korea (ROK) by the US has severely
undermined the regional strategic balance and the strategic security interests ofregional countries. In an attempt to circumvent the post-war mechanism, Japan has
adjusted its military and security policies and increased input accordingly, thus
becoming more outward-looking in its military endeavors. Australia continues tostrengthen its military alliance with the US and its military engagement in the
Asia-Pacific, seeking a bigger role in security affairs.
Regional hotspots and disputes are yet to be resolved. Despite positive progress,
the Korean Peninsula still faces uncertainty. South Asia is generally stable while
conflicts between India and Pakistan flare up from time to time. Politicalreconciliation and reconstruction in Afghanistan is making progress in the face ofdifficulties. Problems still exist among regional countries, including disputes overterritorial and maritime rights and interests, as well as discord for ethnic and religious
reasons. Security hotspots rise from time to time in the region.
China’s Security Risks and Challenges Should Not Be Overlooked
China continues to enjoy political stability, ethnic unity and social stability.
There has been a notable increase in China’s overall national strength, global
influence, and resilience to risks. China is still in an important period of strategic
opportunity for development. Nevertheless, it also faces diverse and complex security
threats and challenges.
The fight against separatists is becoming more acute. The Taiwan authorities, led
by the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), stubbornly stick to “Taiwan
independence” and refuse to recognize the 1992 Consensus, which embodies theone-China principle. They have gone further down the path of separatism by steppingup efforts to sever the connection with the mainland in favor of gradual independence,pushing for de jure independence, intensifying hostility and confrontation, andborrowing the strength of foreign influence. The “Taiwan independence” separatist
forces and their actions remain the gravest immediate threat to peace and stability in
the Taiwan Strait and the biggest barrier hindering the peaceful reunification of thecountry. External separatist forces for “Tibet independence” and the creation of “EastTurkistan” launch frequent actions, posing threats to China’s national security andsocial stability.
China’s homeland security still faces threats. Land territorial disputes are yet tobe completely resolved. Disputes still exist over the territorial sovereignty of someislands and reefs, as well as maritime demarcation. Countries from outside the region
conduct frequent close-in reconnaissance on China by air and sea, and illegally enter
China’s territorial waters and the waters and airspace near China’s islands and reefs,
undermining China’s national security.
China’s overseas interests are endangered by immediate threats such as
international and regional turmoil, terrorism, and piracy. Chinese diplomatic missions,enterprises and personnel around the world have been attacked on multiple occasions.
Threats to outer space and cyber security loom large and the threat of non-traditional
security issues posed by natural disasters and major epidemics is on the rise.
Global Military Competition Is Intensifying
Major countries around the world are readjusting their security and military
strategies and military organizational structures. They are developing new types ofcombat forces to seize the strategic commanding heights in military competition. The

US is engaging in technological and institutional innovation in pursuit of absolute
military superiority. Russia is advancing its New Look military reform. Meanwhile,
the UK, France, Germany, Japan and India are rebalancing and optimizing thestructure of their military forces.
Driven by the new round of technological and industrial revolution, theapplication of cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), quantum
information, big data, cloud computing and the Internet of Things is gathering pace inthe military field. International military competition is undergoing historic changes.
New and high-tech military technologies based on IT are developing rapidly. There isa prevailing trend to develop long-range precision, intelligent, stealthy or unmanned
weaponry and equipment. War is evolving in form towards informationized warfare,and intelligent warfare is on the horizon.
Great progress has been made in the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) with
Chinese characteristics. However, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has yet tocomplete the task of mechanization, and is in urgent need of improving its
informationization. China’s military security is confronted by risks from technology
surprise and growing technological generation gap. Greater efforts have to be invested
in military modernization to meet national security demands. The PLA still lags far
behind the world’s leading militaries.

II. China’s Defensive National Defense Policy in the
New EraThe socialist system of China, the strategic decision to follow the path ofpeaceful development, the independent foreign policy of peace, and the best ofcultural traditions – considering peace and harmony as fundamentals – determine that
China will pursue a national defense policy that is defensive in nature.
Resolutely Safeguarding China’s Sovereignty, Security and Development
Interests
This is the fundamental goal of China’s national defense in the new era.
China’s national defense aims:• to deter and resist aggression;• to safeguard national political security, the people’s security and social
stability;• to oppose and contain “Taiwan independence”;

• to crack down on proponents of separatist movements such as “Tibet
independence” and the creation of “East Turkistan”;• to safeguard national sovereignty, unity, territorial integrity and security;• to safeguard China’s maritime rights and interests;• to safeguard China’s security interests in outer space, electromagnetic spaceand cyberspace;• to safeguard China’s overseas interests; and• to support the sustainable development of the country.
China resolutely safeguards its national sovereignty and territorial integrity. The
South China Sea islands and Diaoyu Islands are inalienable parts of the Chinese
territory. China exercises its national sovereignty to build infrastructure and deploy
necessary defensive capabilities on the islands and reefs in the South China Sea, andto conduct patrols in the waters of Diaoyu Islands in the East China Sea. China iscommitted to resolving related disputes through negotiations with those states directly
involved on the basis of respecting historical facts and international law. China
continues to work with regional countries to jointly maintain peace and stability. It
firmly upholds freedom of navigation and overflight by all countries in accordancewith international law and safeguards the security of sea lines of communication(SLOCs).
To solve the Taiwan question and achieve complete reunification of the country
is in the fundamental interests of the Chinese nation and essential to realizing national
rejuvenation. China adheres to the principles of “peaceful reunification”, and “onecountry, two systems”, promotes peaceful development of cross-Strait relations, andadvances peaceful reunification of the country. Meanwhile, China resolutely opposes
any attempts or actions to split the country and any foreign interference to this end.
China must be and will be reunited. China has the firm resolve and the ability tosafeguard national sovereignty and territorial integrity, and will never allow thesecession of any part of its territory by anyone, any organization or any political party
by any means at any time. We make no promise to renounce the use of force, andreserve the option of taking all necessary measures. This is by no means targeted at
our compatriots in Taiwan, but at the interference of external forces and the very small
number of “Taiwan independence” separatists and their activities. The PLA will
resolutely defeat anyone attempting to separate Taiwan from China and safeguard
national unity at all costs.
Never Seeking Hegemony, Expansion or Spheres of InfluenceThis is the distinctive feature of China’s national defense in the new era.
Though a country may become strong, bellicosity will lead to its ruin. The
Chinese nation has always loved peace. Since the beginning of modern times, theChinese people have suffered from aggressions and wars, and have learned the valueof peace and the pressing need for development. Therefore, China will never inflict
such sufferings on any other country. Since its founding 70 years ago, the People’s
Republic of China (PRC) has never started any war or conflict. Since the introductionof reform and opening-up, China has been committed to promoting world peace, andhas voluntarily downsized the PLA by over 4 million troops. China has grown from apoor and weak country to be the world’s second largest economy neither by receiving
handouts from others nor by engaging in military expansion or colonial plunder.
Instead, it has developed through its people’s hard work and its efforts to maintainpeace. China has made every effort to create favorable conditions for its development
through maintaining world peace, and has equally endeavored to promote world peace
through its own development. China sincerely hopes that all countries will choose thepath of peaceful development and jointly prevent conflicts and wars.
China is committed to developing friendly cooperation with all countries on thebasis of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. It respects the rights of all
peoples to independently choose their own development path, and stands for thesettlement of international disputes through equal dialogue, negotiation andconsultation. China is opposed to interference in the internal affairs of others, abuse of
the weak by the strong, and any attempt to impose one’s will on others. China
advocates partnerships rather than alliances and does not join any military bloc. It
stands against aggression and expansion, and opposes arbitrary use or threat of arms.
The development of China’s national defense aims to meet its rightful security needs
and contribute to the growth of the world’s peaceful forces. History proves and willcontinue to prove that China will never follow the beaten track of big powers inseeking hegemony. No matter how it might develop, China will never threaten any
other country or seek any sphere of influence.
Implementing the Military Strategic Guideline for a New Era
This is the strategic guidance for China’s national defense in the new era.
The military strategic guideline for a new era adheres to the principles of defense,
self-defense and post-strike response, and adopts active defense. It keeps to the stancethat “we will not attack unless we are attacked, but we will surely counterattack if
attacked”, places emphasis on both containing and winning wars, and underscores theunity of strategic defense and offense at operational and tactical levels.
Implementing the military strategic guideline for a new era, China’s armed forces
strive to keep in alignment with and contribute to the general strategies of theCommunist Party of China (CPC) and the country, adopt a holistic approach tonational security, strengthen the awareness of potential dangers, crises and wars, andactively adapt to the new landscape of strategic competition, the new demands ofnational security, and new developments in modern warfare, so as to effectively fulfill
their tasks and missions in the new era.
To respond to the security threats facing the country, China’s armed forces takesolid steps to strengthen military preparedness and comprehensively enhancecombat capabilities for the new era. Efforts have been made to build the military
strategy into a balanced and stable one for the new era, which focuses on defense
and coordinates multiple domains. Based on the idea that China’s national defenseis the responsibility of all Chinese people, China’s armed forces give full play to theoverall power of the people’s war by innovating in its strategies, tactics andmeasures.
China is always committed to a nuclear policy of no first use of nuclear
weapons at any time and under any circumstances, and not using or threatening touse nuclear weapons against non-nuclear-weapon states or nuclear-weapon-freezones unconditionally. China advocates the ultimate complete prohibition andthorough destruction of nuclear weapons. China does not engage in any nuclear
arms race with any other country and keeps its nuclear capabilities at the minimum
level required for national security. China pursues a nuclear strategy of self-defense,
the goal of which is to maintain national strategic security by deterring othercountries from using or threatening to use nuclear weapons against China.
Continuing to Strengthen the Military in the Chinese Way
This is the path forward for China’s national defense in the new era.
Building a fortified national defense and a strong military commensurate with thecountry’s international standing and its security and development interests is a
strategic task for China’s socialist modernization. Drawing lessons from history,
China strengthens its national defense and military to provide security guarantee forits peaceful development.
To strengthen China’s national defense and military in the new era, it isimperative to comprehensively implement Xi Jinping’s thinking on strengthening themilitary, thoroughly deliver on Xi Jinping’s thinking on military strategy, continue toenhance the political loyalty of the armed forces, strengthen them through reform andtechnology, run them in accordance with the law, and focus on the capabilities to fightand win. Efforts will be made to advance the integrated development of mechanizationand informationization, speed up the development of intelligent military, create amodernized military force structure with Chinese characteristics, improve and develop
socialist military institutions with Chinese features, and constantly enhance thecapabilities to fulfill the missions and tasks in the new era.
The strategic goals for the development of China’s national defense and military
in the new era are:• to generally achieve mechanization by the year 2020 with significantly
enhanced informationization and greatly improved strategic capabilities;• to comprehensively advance the modernization of military theory,organizational structure, military personnel, and weaponry and equipment in step withthe modernization of the country and basically complete the modernization of national
defense and the military by 2035; and• to fully transform the people’s armed forces into world-class forces by themid-21st century.
In the Service of Building of a Community with a Shared Future for
MankindThis is the global significance of China’s national defense in the new era.
The dream of the Chinese people is closely connected with the dreams of peoples
around the world. Peace, stability and prosperity in China present opportunities andbenefits to the rest of the world. A strong military of China is a staunch force forworld peace, stability and the building of a community with a shared future formankind.
China’s armed forces advocate common, comprehensive, cooperative andsustainable security, uphold justice while pursuing shared interests, and actively
participate in the reform of global security governance system. Efforts are made to
deepen bilateral and multilateral security cooperation, promote a coordinated,
inclusive and complementary cooperation among security mechanisms, and contributeto a security architecture featuring equality, mutual trust, fairness, justice, joint
contribution and shared benefits.
Committed to the principle of win-win cooperation, China’s armed forces will
fulfill their international responsibilities and obligations, and provide more public
security goods to the international community to the best of their capacity. They
actively participate in the UN peacekeeping operations (UNPKOs), vessel protection
operations, and international efforts in humanitarian assistance and disaster relief(HADR), strengthen international cooperation in arms control and non-proliferation,
play a constructive role in the political settlement of hotspot issues, jointly maintainthe security of international passages, and make concerted efforts to respond to global
challenges such as terrorism, cyber security and major natural disasters, thus making a
positive contribution to building a community with a shared future for mankind.

III. Fulfilling the Missions and Tasks of China’s Armed
Forces in the New Era

In the new era, to meet the strategic demands of national security anddevelopment, China’s armed forces firmly implement the missions and tasks entrusted
by the CPC and the people. They endeavor to provide strategic support for
consolidating the leadership of the CPC and the socialist system, safeguarding
national sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity, protecting China’s overseasinterests, and promoting world peace and development.
Safeguarding National Territorial Sovereignty and Maritime Rights andInterests
China has a land border of more than 22,000 km and a coastline of over 18,000
km, China surpasses most of countries in the number of neighboring countries, thelength of land border, and the complexity of maritime security. Therefore, it is adaunting task for China to safeguard its territorial sovereignty, maritime rights andinterests, and national unity.
China’s armed forces maintain a rigorous guard against encroachment,
infiltration, sabotage or harassment so as to safeguard border security and stability.
China has signed border cooperation agreements with 9 neighboring countries and set
up border meeting mechanisms with 12 countries. China’s armed forces haveestablished mechanisms for exchanges with neighboring countries at three levels:
national defense ministry, Theater Commands (TCs), and border troops. They conduct
regular friendly mutual visits, working meetings, joint patrols and joint exercises
targeting transnational crime with their foreign counterparts. They work together with
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan to implement the border disarmament
treaty. They strive to promote stability and security along the border with India, andtake effective measures to create favorable conditions for the peaceful resolution of
the Donglang (Doklam) standoff. They enhance control along the border with
Afghanistan to guard against the infiltration of terrorists. They strengthen security
management along the border with Myanmar, so as to secure stability and public
safety in the border areas. Since 2012, China’s border troops have completed over
3,300 joint patrols and conducted over 8,100 border meetings with their foreigncounterparts. They have cleared mines from 58 square kilometers of land, closed 25
square kilometers of landmine area, and disposed of 170,000 explosive devices suchas landmines along the borders with Vietnam and Myanmar.
China’s armed forces defend important waters, islands and reefs in the East
China Sea, the South China Sea and the Yellow Sea, acquire full situation awarenessof adjacent waters, conduct joint rights protection and law enforcement operations,
properly handle maritime and air situations, and resolutely respond to security threats,
infringements and provocations on the sea. Since 2012, China’s armed forces have

deployed vessels on over 4,600 maritime security patrols and 72,000 rights protection
and law enforcement operations, and safeguarded maritime peace, stability and order.
China’s armed forces conduct air defense, reconnaissance and early warning,monitor China’s territorial air and peripheral air space, carry out alert patrols andcombat takeoff, and effectively respond to emergencies and threats to maintain orderand security in the air.
Aiming at safeguarding national unity, China’s armed forces strengthen military
preparedness with emphasis on the sea. By sailing ships and flying aircraft aroundTaiwan, the armed forces send a stern warning to the “Taiwan independence”
separatist forces.
Maintaining Combat Readiness
Maintaining combat readiness is an important assurance of effective response to
security threats and fulfillment of tasks. The Central Military Commission (CMC) andthe TCs’ joint operations commands perform combat readiness duties strictly, andconduct regular inspections and drills to ensure combat readiness at all times.
Consistent efforts are made to improve the capabilities of joint operations command to
exercise reliable and efficient command over emergency responses, and to effectively
accomplish urgent, tough and dangerous tasks. In 2018, the CMC conducted surpriseinspections throughout the armed forces and organized readiness drills for the units,
covering 21 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under thecentral government, and parts of the East China Sea and South China Sea.
The PLA and the People’s Armed Police Force (PAP) give greater priority tocombat readiness. Efforts are made to strictly act on relevant regulations and procedures,
fulfill readiness duties, conduct targeted exercises and training, and maintainstandardized order, with a view to staying ready to act when required and effectively
carrying out readiness (combat) duties.
Carrying Out Military Training in Real Combat Conditions
Military training is the basic practice of the armed forces in peacetime. China’s
armed forces put military training in an important position and take combat
effectiveness as the sole and fundamental criterion. In order to enhance realistic
training, they optimize the policy framework and criteria in this respect, establish andimprove the relevant supervision system, conduct supervision on military training for
emergencies and combat across the services, implement the responsibility system fortraining and readiness, and organize extensive contests and competitions to encourage
officers and soldiers to step up military training.
Military training in real combat conditions across the armed forces is in fullswing. Since 2012, China’s armed forces have carried out extensive mission-oriented

training tailored to the specific needs of different strategic directions and exercises ofall services and arms, including 80 joint exercises at and above brigade/division level.
The TCs have strengthened their leading role in joint training and organizedserial joint exercises codenamed the East, the South, the West, the North and theCentral, to improve joint combat capabilities.
The PLA Army (PLAA) has organized training competitions and conducted live
exercises codenamed Stride and Firepower. The PLA Navy (PLAN) has extended
training to the far seas and deployed the aircraft carrier task group for its first far seas
combat exercise in the West Pacific. It has organized naval parades in the South China
Sea and the waters and airspace near Qingdao, and conducted a series of live
force-on-force exercises codenamed Mobility and systematic all-elements exercises.
The PLA Air Force (PLAAF) has strengthened systematic and all-airspace training
based on operational plans. It has conducted combat patrols in the South China Sea
and security patrols in the East China Sea, and operated in the West Pacific. It hascompleted a series of regular system-vs.-system exercises such as Red Sword. The
PLA Rocket Force (PLARF) has organized force-on-force evaluation-oriented training
and training based on operational plans at brigade and regiment levels, strengthened
training for joint strikes, and completed regular exercises such as Heavenly Sword.
The PLA Strategic Support Force (PLASSF) has made active efforts to integrate into
the joint operations systems. It has carried out confrontational training in new domains
and trained for emergencies and combats. The PLA Joint Logistic Support Force(PLAJLSF) has striven to align itself with the joint operations systems, and conducted
exercises such as Joint Logistics Mission 2018. The PAP has developed to meet therequirements of nationwide coverage, effective connectivity, all-area response andintegrated functions, and conducted a series of exercises including Guard.
Safeguarding Interests in Major Security Fields
Nuclear capability is the strategic cornerstone to safeguarding nationalsovereignty and security. China’s armed forces strengthen the safety management of
nuclear weapons and facilities, maintain the appropriate level of readiness and enhancestrategic deterrence capability to protect national strategic security and maintaininternational strategic stability.
Outer space is a critical domain in international strategic competition. Outer
space security provides strategic assurance for national and social development. In theinterest of the peaceful use of outer space, China actively participates in international
space cooperation, develops relevant technologies and capabilities, advances holistic
management of space-based information resources, strengthens space situation
awareness, safeguards space assets, and enhances the capacity to safely enter, exit andopenly use outer space.

Cyberspace is a key area for national security, economic growth and social
development. Cyber security remains a global challenge and poses a severe threat toChina. China’s armed forces accelerate the building of their cyberspace capabilities,
develop cyber security and defense means, and build cyber defense capabilities
consistent with China’s international standing and its status as a major cyber country.
They reinforce national cyber border defense, and promptly detect and counter
network intrusions. They safeguard information and cyber security, and resolutely
maintain national cyber sovereignty, information security and social stability.
Countering Terrorism and Maintaining Stability
China firmly opposes all forms of terrorism and extremism. As mandated by law,
China’s armed forces participate in operations for maintaining social order, preventand combat violence and terrorism, safeguard political security and social stability,
and secure the public’s right to live and work in peace.
The PAP fulfills missions such as guarding key targets, on-site security
protection, setting check points on key passages, and armed urban patrols. In
accordance with the law, the PAP supports civil authorities in law enforcement
operations to combat criminal gangs and terrorist activities, actively participates in themaintenance of public order, and prevents and responds to potential threats to China’s
political security and social order, thus making a significant contribution to thePeaceful China initiative. Since 2012, the PAP has deployed large numbers of troops
annually in security duties, counter-terrorism, emergency response, and maritime
rights protection and law enforcement. It has completed around 10,000 security
assignments during major events such as the G20 Summit, the APEC Economic
Leaders’ Meeting, the Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, the BRICS
Leaders Meeting, and the SCO Qingdao Summit, and participated in the response to671 hostage situations, incidents of severe violence, and terrorist attacks. Since 2014,
the PAP has assisted the government of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in taking
out 1,588 violent terrorist gangs and capturing 12,995 terrorists.
The PLA supports the civil authorities in maintaining social stability, provides
security for major events, and responds to emergencies in accordance with the law. It
is mainly tasked with missions such as counter-terrorism, NBCE detection and test,
medical relief, and transport support. It disposes of potential safety hazards in thewaters and protects security in the air over and around major event venues.
Protecting China’s Overseas Interests
Overseas interests are a crucial part of China’s national interests. One of themissions of China’s armed forces is to effectively protect the security and legitimate
rights and interests of overseas Chinese people, organizations and institutions.

The PLA actively promotes international security and military cooperation andrefines relevant mechanisms for protecting China’s overseas interests. To address
deficiencies in overseas operations and support, it builds far seas forces, develops
overseas logistical facilities, and enhances capabilities in accomplishing diversified
military tasks. The PLA conducts vessel protection operations, maintains the security ofstrategic SLOCs, and carries out overseas evacuation and maritime rights protection
operations.
In August 2017, the PLA Djibouti Support Base entered service. The base has
provided equipment for the maintenance of four escort task groups, offered medical
services for over 100 officers and sailors on board, conducted joint medical exerciseswith foreign militaries, and donated over 600 teaching aids to local schools.
When the security situation in Yemen deteriorated in March 2015, a PLAN escort
task group sailed to the Gulf of Aden, berthed for the first time directly in an
engagement area, and evacuated 621 Chinese citizens and 279 foreign citizens from15 countries including Pakistan, Ethiopia, Singapore, Italy, Poland, Germany, Canada,
the UK, India and Japan.
Participating in Disaster Rescue and Relief
Participating in national development and protecting the public’s rights to workin peace are the responsibilities of China’s armed forces mandated by the Constitutionof the PRC. As stipulated in the Regulations on Participation in Emergency Rescueand Disaster Relief by China’s Armed Forces, China’s armed forces are mainly tasked
with rescuing, transferring and evacuating trapped populations; ensuring the securityof important targets; salvaging and transporting important materials; conducting
specialized operations such as restoration of transport facilities including roads,
bridges and tunnels, maritime search and rescue, NBC rescue, epidemic control andmedical relief; eliminating or controlling other major threats, dangerous situations anddisasters; and supporting civil authorities in post-disaster reconstruction.
Since 2012, the PLA and the PAP have deployed 950,000 soldiers, 1.41 million
militia, 190,000 vehicles and items of equipment, and sortied 26,000 vessels and 820
aircraft in emergency response and disaster relief. They have participated in rescue
and relief efforts such as the earthquake in Ludian County of Yunnan Province, therainstorm and flood in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and theremoval of the barrier lake in the Yarlung Zangbo River. They have assisted local
governments to rescue and transfer over 5 million people, treated over 210,000 patients,
transported over 360,000 tons of goods, and reinforced over 3,600 km of levees. In
2017, the PLA Macao Garrison sent 2,631 soldiers and over 160 vehicles to assist the
government of Macao Special Administrative Region in its relief efforts in the wakeof Typhoon Hato.

IV. Reform in China’s National Defense and Armed
Forces
The history of the people’s armed forces is a history of reform and innovation. In
the new era, China is advancing defense and military modernization across the board
and deepening reform in national defense and armed forces in all respects, with afocus on removing institutional barriers and solving structural and policy-related
problems to adapt to the trends of worldwide RMA and the demands of national
security. Historic strides have been made in strengthening the armed forces.
Reforming the Leadership and Command System
The reform in the leadership and command system is a significant measure in
response to the call of a modern and specialized military capable of fighting andwinning wars in the information age, aiming to improve the operational effectivenessand development efficiency of the military. Adhering to the general principle of “theCMC exercising overall leadership, the TCs responsible for military operations andthe services focusing on developing capabilities”, the PLA endeavors to enhance the
CMC’s centralized and unified leadership and its functions of strategic command andstrategic management. The PLA has dismantled the long-established systems ofgeneral departments, military area commands (MAC) and the force composition with adominating land force, and established new leadership, management and operationalcommand systems.
Reorganizing and establishing new CMC functional organs. To optimize thefunctional and institutional setup of the CMC organs, the former General Staff
Headquarters, General Political Department, General Logistics Department and General
Armaments Department have been reshuffled into 15 organs under the centralized
CMC leadership to advise, execute and serve. Thus, the chains of command,development, management and supervision are more streamlined, and the
responsibilities of decision-making, planning, execution and assessment are more
properly delegated.
Improving the leadership and management system for services and arms. The
PLA has:• Established the PLAA leading organs by integrating the functions of theformer general departments concerning the development of the land force;• Established the PLASSF by combining strategic support forces across theservices and CMC organs;• Renamed the Second Artillery Force the PLARF; and• Established the PLAJLSF by integrating strategic and campaign level forces
mainly for general-purpose support.
Thus, a CMC-Services-Troops leadership and management system has been put
in place.

Figure 1: Leadership and Management Structur e of the PLA

CMC

PLAA

PLAN

PLAAF

PLARF

PLASSFPLAJLSF

TroopsEstablishing and improving the joint operations command system. By improving
the joint operations command organ of the CMC and setting up those at the theaterlevel, the PLA has established a lean and efficient joint operations command systemcomposed of permanent and specialized commanding establishments for bothpeacetime and wartime operations. The former Shenyang, Beijing, Lanzhou, Jinan,
Nanjing, Guangzhou and Chengdu MACs have been reorganized into 5 TCs: Eastern
Theater Command (ETC), Southern Theater Command (STC), Western Theater
Command (WTC), Northern Theater Command (NTC), and Central Theater
Command (CTC). Thus, a CMC-TCs-Troops operations command system has been
established.

Figure 2: Operational Command Structure of the PLA

CMC
ETC

STC

WTC

NTC

CTC

TroopsBuilding and improving the law-based supervision system. The Chinese military
has established the CMC Discipline Inspection Commission (CMCDIC, also the CMC
Supervision Commission, CMCSC) under the direct leadership of the CMC, anddispatched disciplinary inspection teams to the CMC functional organs and all TCs. It
has set up the CMC Politics and Law Commission (CMCPLC) and establishedregional military courts and procuratorates. It has put into place the CMC Audit Office(CMCAO), reformed the audit-based oversight system, and implemented PLA-wide
resident auditing. Thus, power is exercised in a way that decision-making, execution andsupervision check each other and function in coordination.
Optimizing Size, Structure and Force Composition
Reform in size, structure and force composition is a pivotal step to optimizing
military organizational structure and establishing a modern military force structurewith Chinese characteristics. Following the instruction to optimize structures, develop
new-type forces, adjust proportions and reduce sizes, the PLA is striving to transformfrom a quantity-and-scale model to that of quality and efficiency, as well as frombeing personnel-intensive to one that is S&T-intensive.
Adjusting scale and proportion, and restructuring force composition. 300,000
personnel have been cut to keep the total active force at 2 million. Reform measures
have been taken to transfer more officer positions to non-commissioned officers andcivilian staff, downsize the leading organs at all levels by reducing their subordinate
sections, leadership hierarchies and staff, and streamline the institutions and personnel
in arts, sports, press, publication, logistical support, medical facilities, depots, andeducational and research institutes. Thus, the number of personnel in the leadingorgans at and above regiment level has been cut by about 25%, and that ofnon-combat units by almost 50%. The PLA has significantly downsized the active
force of the PLAA, maintained that of the PLAAF at a steady number, moderatelyincreased that of the PLAN and PLARF, and optimized the force structures of allservices and arms. The PLA has restructured the defense reserves. The deployment of
combat forces has been adjusted for a strategic configuration that meets the demandsof safeguarding China’s national security in the new era.
Reorganizing the troops and rebuilding new-type combat forces. The previous 18
group armies have been reorganized into 13 new ones. All major combat units of the
PLA follow a group army-brigade-battalion system. Reform measures have beentaken to reinforce the combat capacity of the arms, reduce the command hierarchies
and combine the troops at lower levels. New types of combat forces have beenenhanced to conduct special operations, all-dimensional offense and defense,
amphibious operations, far seas protection and strategic projection, aiming to makethe force composition complete, combined, multi-functional and flexible.
Rebalancing and reorganizing military educational and research institutions.
The PLA and the PAP have restructured the previous 77 universities and colleges
into 44. The National Defense University (NDU) and the National University of
Defense Technology (NUDT) have been reorganized. China’s armed forces haveestablished the CMC Steering Committee on Military Scientific Research andreorganized the Academy of Military Sciences (AMS) and the research institutes ofthe services. Thus, the military scientific research forces have been rebalanced with
the AMS as the lead, the research institutes of the services and arms as the main forces,
and the research components in educational institutions and the troops as supplements.
Reforming Military Policies and Institutions
China’s armed forces take combat effectiveness as the criterion in the reform of
military policies and institutions and encourage the initiative, enthusiasm andcreativity of all members of the armed forces. Reform is designed to build andimprove the system of socialist military policies and institutions with Chinesecharacteristics.
They have deepened reform in the institutions for Party building in the military to
uphold the authority of the CPCCC and its centralized and unified leadership, andensure the absolute leadership of the CPC over the military. Rules and regulations
including the Decision of China’s Armed Forces on Strengthening Party Building in
the Military in the New Era have been formulated to improve the Party’s institutionsin the military in order to enhance its political and theoretical buildup, consolidate
organizations, improve conduct, and enforce discipline.
They have innovated in policies and institutions for military force employment ina bid to effectively perform all missions and tasks in the new era. Rules andregulations have been formulated including the Regulations on Vessel Protection
Operations (Trial). The institutions of military strategic guidance, regulations oncombat readiness duties, and rules and regulations on joint operations have all been
optimized.
They have reformulated policies and institutions to further develop combat
capabilities. Laws and regulations have been formulated and amended including theLaw of the People’s Republic of China on National Defense Transportation, the Lawof the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Military Installations and theRegulations on Civilian Personnel in the Military. Newly-updated military training
regulations and outlines have been promulgated. They have made progress inestablishing the career officers system, optimizing the institutions of military welfare
and support, improving the military honors system, and refining policies andinstitutions in training, equipment development, logistics, military research andnational defense mobilization. Meanwhile, bigger legislative steps have been taken in
relation to military officers and military service.
They have reformed the policies and institutions for military management toelevate the efficacy of military systems and boost quality development of themilitary. Rules and regulations have been formulated including the newly-updated
Regulations on Routine Service of the People’s Liberation Army (Trial), theRegulations on Discipline of the People’s Liberation Army (Trial), the Regulations on
Formation of the People’s Liberation Army (Trial), and the Regulations on Military
Legislation. China’s armed forces are enhancing institutional innovation in strategic
management, defense expenditure management, and the military judicial system.
They have suspended all paid services. As of June, 2018, paid services provided
by leading organs, operational units, and military-affiliated public institutions at alllevels had been basically suspended, involving 15 sectors such as real estate lease,agricultural and associated products, and hospitality. Over 100,000 such projects havebeen suspended as scheduled, accounting for 94% of the total. The armed forces haveachieved the goal of withdrawing from running businesses.
Reshuffled PLA and PAP Troops
The PLAA plays an irreplaceable role in maintaining China’s nationalsovereignty, security and development interests. It comprises maneuver operation,
border and coastal defense, and garrison forces. Under the PLAA, there are 5 TC army
commands, the Xinjiang military command, and the Tibet military command. The
ETC Army has under it the 71st, 72nd, and 73rd group armies; the STC Army has the74th and 75th group armies; the WTC Army has the 76th and 77th group armies; theNTC Army has the 78th, 79th and 80th group armies; and the CTC Army has the 81st,
82nd and 83rd group armies. In line with the strategic requirements of maneuver
operations as well as multi-dimensional offense and defense, the PLAA is speeding up
the transition of its tasks from regional defense to trans-theater operations, andimproving the capabilities for precise, multi-dimensional, trans-theater,
multi-functional and sustained operations, so as to build a new type of strong andmodernized land force.
The PLAN has a very important standing in the overall configuration of China’s
national security and development. It comprises submarine, surface ship, aviation,
marine, and coastal defense forces. Under the PLAN, there are the ETC Navy
(Donghai Fleet), the STC Navy (Nanhai Fleet), the NTC Navy (Beihai Fleet), and thePLAN Marine Corps. Under the TC navies there are naval bases, submarine flotillas,surface ship flotillas and aviation brigades. In line with the strategic requirements ofnear seas defense and far seas protection, the PLAN is speeding up the transition of its
tasks from defense on the near seas to protection missions on the far seas, andimproving its capabilities for strategic deterrence and counterattack, maritime
maneuver operations, maritime joint operations, comprehensive defense, andintegrated support, so as to build a strong and modernized naval force.
The PLAAF plays a crucial role in overall national security and military strategy.
It comprises aviation, airborne, ground-to-air missile, radar, ECM, andcommunications forces. Under the PLAAF, there are 5 TC air force commands andone airborne corps. Under the TC air forces, there are air bases, aviation brigades(divisions), ground-to-air missile brigades (divisions) and radar brigades. In line withthe strategic requirements of integrating air and space capabilities as well as
coordinating offensive and defensive operations, the PLAAF is accelerating thetransition of its tasks from territorial air defense to both offensive and defensive
operations, and improving its capabilities for strategic early warning, air strikes, airand missile defense, information countermeasures, airborne operations, strategic
projection, and integrated support, so as to build a strong and modernized air force.
The PLARF plays a critical role in maintaining China’s national sovereignty andsecurity. It comprises nuclear missile, conventional missile and support forces, andsubordinate missile bases. In line with the strategic requirements of having both
nuclear and conventional capabilities and deterring wars in all battlespaces, the
PLARF is enhancing its credible and reliable capabilities of nuclear deterrence andcounterattack, strengthening intermediate and long-range precision strike forces, andenhancing strategic counter-balance capability, so as to build a strong and modernizedrocket force.
The PLASSF is a new type of combat force for safeguarding national security
and an important driver for the growth of new combat capabilities. It comprises
supporting forces for battlefield environment, information, communications,information security, and new technology testing. In line with the strategic
requirements of integrating existing systems and aligning civil and military endeavors,

the PLASSF is seeking to achieve big development strides in key areas and accelerate
the integrated development of new-type combat forces, so as to build a strong andmodernized strategic support force.
The PLAJLSF, as the main force for joint logistics as well as strategic andcampaign level support, is an important component of the modern military force with
Chinese characteristics. It comprises the support forces for inventory and warehousing,
medical services, transport, force projection, oil pipelines, engineering andconstruction management, reserve assets management, and procurement. Under the
PLAJLSF, there are 5 joint logistic support centers located respectively in Wuxi
(Jiangsu Province), Guilin (Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region), Xining (Qinghai
Province), Shenyang (Liaoning Province), and Zhengzhou (Henan Province), as wellas the PLA General Hospital and the PLA Center for Disease Prevention and Control.
In line with the requirements of joint support for joint operations and joint training,
the PLAJLSF is being integrated into the joint operations system to enhance thecapabilities of integrated joint logistics, so as to build a strong and modernized joint
logistic support force.
The PAP shoulders important responsibilities in safeguarding national security,social stability and public wellbeing. China has adopted a CMC-PAP-Troops
leadership and command system with the basic duties and nature of the PAP
unchanged. The PAP is not in the force structure of the PLA. The PAP border defense,
firefighting and security guard forces have been decommissioned. The coast guard
under the leadership of State Oceanic Administration has been transferred to the PAP.
PAP goldmine, forest and hydroelectricity forces have been reorganized into
specialized forces of non-active service under corresponding state authorities.
Meanwhile, the PAP customs guard forces have been withdrawn. In this way, theleadership, management, command and employment of the PAP has become more
coherent. Following adjustment and reorganization, the PAP is mainly composed of
the internal security corps, the mobile corps, and the coast guard. In line with thestrategic requirements of performing multiple functions and effectively maintaining
social stability, the PAP is enhancing capacity in guard duties, emergency response,
counter-terrorism, maritime rights protection, administrative enforcement and disaster
relief, so as to build a strong and modernized armed police force.
Promoting Defense and Military Development in All Respects
Placing theoretical and political buildup at the top of the agenda of the armed
forces. China’s armed forces unswervingly take Xi Jinping’s thinking onstrengthening the military as the guidance, firmly uphold General Secretary Xi Jinping
as the core of the CPCCC and the whole Party, firmly uphold the authority of the
CPCCC and its centralized and unified leadership, and follow the CMC Chairmanresponsibility system, in an effort to further strengthen the consciousness of the needto maintain political integrity, think in big-picture terms, follow the leadership core
and keep in alignment. In accordance with the Decision on Issues Relating to the
Military Political Work in the New Era issued in December 2014, China’s armed
forces have improved their political work and embarked on a new journey ofdevelopment. In order to fully strengthen the Party leadership and Party building of
the military in the new era, a CMC meeting on party building was held in August,2018. Great efforts are being made to cultivate revolutionary officers and soldiers of
the new era with faith, ability, courage and integrity, and build troops with iron-likefaith, conviction, discipline and commitment.
Promoting innovation in defense S&T and military theory. China’s armed forces
are accelerating the implementation of the strategy to develop the military throughS&T in a bid to maintain and enhance the strength of the areas where they lead, andintensify innovation in emerging areas. They have made great progress in independent
innovation in some strategic, cutting-edge and disruptive technologies, and succeeded
in developing strategic hi-tech products such as the Tianhe-2 supercomputer. Focusing
on war and fighting wars, China’s armed forces have innovated in military doctrinesand delivered outcomes in military strategy, joint operations and informationization,
which have provided a theoretical support to defense and military development.
Establishing a modernized weaponry and equipment system. China’s armed
forces are optimizing the overall composition of weaponry and equipment,
coordinating the efforts of all services and arms in this regard, promoting the balanced
development of main battle equipment, information systems, and support equipment,with a view to comprehensively raising standardization, serial development andinteroperability. Old equipment is being phased out, and a system created that mainlycomprises new and high-tech weaponry and equipment. Type 15 tanks, type 052D
destroyers, J-20 fighters, and DF-26 intermediate and long-range ballistic missiles
have been commissioned.
Building a combat-oriented modern logistics system. China’s armed forces are
putting in place a support mechanism combining centralized and decentralized support,
as well as general and special-purpose supplies, with PLAJLSF as the backbone force
and service logistics units as supplements. They are also building a joint, lean andefficient logistic support system with the strategic and campaign level forces as themain force, the affiliated forces as the support, and the civil sectors as supplements.
Logistics units have been incorporated into TC-level joint training, trans-theatertraining by services and arms, and joint exercises and training with foreign militaries
to strengthen the integrated training of logistical and operational forces. China’s
armed forces have acquired a rapid, multi-dimensional and precise support capability.

Strengthening strategic management. Adopting demand-oriented planning andplanning-led resource allocation, China’s armed forces have established and improved
thestrategic
management
procedures
ofdemand-planning-budgeting-execution-evaluation. They have completed a system ofstrategic plans and programs composed of the development strategies of the military
as a whole, and its key areas, branches, and the PAP. They have regulated military
strategic planning, promulgated and implemented the Outline of the 13th Five-Year
Plan for Military Development, and optimized the mechanisms for evaluation,
supervision and control.
Governing the military with strict discipline and in accordance with the law.
China’s armed forces are building a military legal system with Chinese characteristics
and pressing ahead with a fundamental transformation in how the military is run. They
are strengthening oversight and supervision in military training and combat readiness
to uproot peacetime ills. They are promoting legal awareness through public
communication and education campaigns, establishing and improving the support
mechanism of legal consultation and service, and advancing law-based managementin the military. China’s armed forces are striving to manage the troops more strictly inall respects. They have fully implemented military rules and regulations, restored andimproved the traditional mechanism of using bugles to communicate and command,
carried out safety inspections to identify and tackle potential problems, stepped up
garrison military policing, strengthened the management of military vehicles bytargeted measures, and set up a mechanism of regular notification on garrison military
policing. These efforts have contributed to maintaining the positive image of thearmed forces.
Improving Party conduct, upholding integrity and continuing the fight against
corruption. China’s armed forces are tightening political discipline and rules,
investigating and dealing strictly with grave violations of CPC discipline and state laws
as in the cases of Guo Boxiong, Xu Caihou, Fang Fenghui, and Zhang Yang. China’s
armed forces punish corruption in strict accordance with CPC discipline and relevantlaws, and rectify any malpractice in key construction projects and the procurement ofequipment and material. Points-of-contact for discipline supervision have been
designated at the small-unit level to investigate and combat “micro corruption” andmisconduct in all its forms among service members. China’s armed forces haveintensified political inspection by completing disciplinary inspections andre-inspections over all CMC functional organs, the TCs, services, AMS, NDU, NUDT
and the PAP. They have worked to implement full-spectrum audit, intensify the auditof major fields, projects and funds, and perform strict audits over the economic
liabilities of officers in positions of leadership. Active efforts have been made tomonitor the cost-effectiveness of applied funds, conduct whole-process audit, andcombine civil and military efforts in auditing. Since 2012, they have carried out audits
over 39,000 units and 13,000 PLA and PAP officers in positions of leadership at andabove regiment level. As a result, notable achievements have been made in the fightagainst corruption in China’s armed forces, and a healthy political atmosphere of
integrity has formed.
Modernizing national defense mobilization. China has refined the system ofnational defense mobilization to enhance the development of its defense reserves.
China is streamlining the number of primary militia nationwide, driving deeper reformof militia and reserve forces in their size, structure and composition, promoting
integrated development and employment of the reserve and active forces, andextending the function of national defense mobilization from mainly supporting theland force to supporting all branches at a faster pace.
In the process of deepening the reform of the CPC and governmental institutions,
the Ministry of Veterans Affairs of the PRC has been set up. Through a series ofpreferential measures, the veteran support system is progressing at provincial,prefectural, county, town and township (sub-district), and village (community) levels.
Substantial steps have been taken to enhance the government’s efforts to support the
military and their families, and to strengthen the military’s support to the government
and the people. China’s armed forces play an active role in poverty alleviation. The
relationships between the military and the government and between the military andthe people are getting even closer. There is a growing consensus across communities
to respect and give preferential treatment to all service members.

V. Reasonable and Appropriate
Defense Expenditure
China attends to both development and security. It is making an integrated effort
to build a prosperous country and a strong military, and striving for the coordinateddevelopment of national defense and the economy. Following the principle of building
the armed forces through diligence and thrift, China takes into consideration thedevelopment of the economy and the demands of national defense, decides on theappropriate scale and composition of defense expenditure, and manages and applies
these funds in accordance with law.
Since reform and opening-up, China has increased its defense expenditure from alevel of sustainability to moderate growth. On the whole, defense expenditure has

grown in tandem with the growth of the national economy and government
expenditure. Defense expenditure as a percentage of GDP has fallen from a peak of
5.43% in 1979 to 1.26% in 2017. It has remained below 2% for the past three decades.
Defense expenditure as a percentage of government expenditure was 17.37% in 1979
and 5.14% in 2017, a drop of more than 12 percentage points. The figures are on aclear downward trend.

China’s Defense Expenditure Since 2012
In the new era, to keep pace with the country’s modernization, China is focusing
on building a fortified national defense and a strong military commensurate with thecountry’s international standing, and its national security and development interests.

China is striving to narrow the gap between its military and the world’s leading
militaries, and make up the deficiencies in the military’s capabilities in modern
warfare. Defense expenditure is growing steadily and the breakdown of spending isbeing continuously optimized.
In terms of usage, China’s defense expenditure is assigned to three sectors –personnel, training and sustainment, and equipment. Personnel expenses mainly cover
the salaries, allowances, food, bedding, clothing, insurance, subsidies and pensions forofficers, non-ranking officers, soldiers and contracted civilians, as well as retirees
supported from the defense budget. Training and sustainment expenses mainly covertraining of the troops, institutional education, construction and maintenance ofinstallations and facilities, and other expenditure on routine consumables. Equipment
expenses mainly cover R&D, testing, procurement, repairs, maintenance, transport
and the storage of weaponry and equipment. In terms of scope, defense expenditure
covers all active forces, reserve forces and militia.
Since 2012, the increase in defense expenditure has been primarily spent for thefollowing purposes:
1. Adapting to national economic and social development, improving thewellbeing of service personnel, ensuring regular increases in military salaries, andbettering the working, training and living conditions of the troops;
2. Increasing input in weaponry and equipment development, phasing out theoutdated, upgrading the old, and developing and procuring the new, such as aircraft
carriers, fighters, missiles and main battle tanks, to steadily modernize weaponry andequipment;
3. Deepening national defense and military reform, supporting major reforms in
military leadership and command systems, force structure and composition, andpolicies and institutions;
4. Supporting training in real combat conditions, enhancing strategic-leveltraining, joint training at TCs’ level and training of services and arms, and improving
the conditions for simulated, networked and force-on-force training; and5. Supporting diverse military tasks including the UNPKOs, vessel protection
operations, humanitarian assistance operations and disaster relief efforts.
From 2012 to 2017, China’s defense expenditure increased from RMB669.192
billion to RMB1,043.237 billion. China’s GDP and government expenditure grew ataverage rates of 9.04% and 10.43% respectively, calculated on the price of theindicated years, while its defense expenditure increased by an average of 9.42%.
Defense expenditure accounted for 1.28% of GDP and 5.26% of government
expenditure on average. The percentage of China’s defense expenditure in GDP

remained stable and grew in coordination with the increase of government
expenditure.
China applies strict mechanisms of fiscal allocation and budget management on
its defense expenditure. It pursues a level of defense spending that is demand-oriented,
planning-led and consistent with its capacity. It endeavors to strengthen unified
management, coordinate existing and incremental expenditure, gradually practicecost-effectiveness management, and steadily press ahead with reform that is centeredon efficacy and efficiency. To improve and strengthen budget management, China’s
armed forces are extending reform of the centralized collection and payment ofmilitary funds, accelerating standardization in relation to defense expenditure, andimproving the management of assets and funds.
Comparison of Defense Expenditure in the International Context
Among countries ranking high in defense expenditure in 2017, China’s share ofdefense expenditure in GDP and government expenditure, as well as per capita andper-serviceperson defense spending, are all at a relatively low level.
China has become the world’s second largest economy. The fact that China’s
defense expenditure ranks second in the world is determined by the demands of its
national defense, the size of its economy, and the defensive nature of its national
defense policy. In terms of total spending, China’s defense expenditure in 2017 wasless than a quarter of that of the US.
As a percentage of GDP, from 2012 to 2017, China’s average defense
expenditure was about 1.3%. Comparative figures were: the US about 3.5%, Russia
4.4%, India 2.5%, the UK 2.0%, France 2.3%, Japan 1.0%, and Germany 1.2%. Chinaranks 6th among these countries in terms of defense expenditure as a percentage of
GDP on average and is the lowest among the permanent members of the UN Security
Council (UNSC).

Figure 5 Average Ratio of Defense Expenditure to
GDP by Country (2012-2017) (%)
Russia
4.4

5.0
4.0

US
3.5
India
2.5

3.0
2.0

UK
2.0

France
2.3

China
1.3

Germany
1.2

Japan
1.0

1.0
0.0
Countries Ranking High in Defense Expenditure in 2017

Figure 6 Average Ratio of Defense Expenditur e toGovernment Expenditure by Country (2012-2017) (%)

US 9.8China 5.3
Russia 12.4
India 9.1
UK 4.8
France 4.0
Japan 2.5
Germany 2.8

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

Countries Ranking High in Defense Expenditure in 2017

As a ratio of spending to government expenditure, from 2012 to 2017, China’s
average defense expenditure was 5.3%. Comparative figures were: the US about 9.8%,
Russia 12.4%, India 9.1%, the UK 4.8%, France 4.0%, Japan 2.5%, and Germany
2.8%. China ranks 4th among these countries in terms of defense expenditure as apercentage of government expenditure on average.

China’s per capita defense expenditure in 2017 was RMB750 – 5% of the US,
25% of Russia, 231% of India, 13% of the UK, 16% of France, 29% of Japan, and
20% of Germany. China’s per-serviceperson defense expenditure was RMB521,600 –15% of the US, 119% of Russia, 166% of India, 27% of the UK, 38% of France, 35%
of Japan, and 30% of Germany. China’s defense expenditure ranks 7th and 6th in percapita and per-serviceperson terms respectively among these countries.
China reports and releases its defense expenditure through various mechanisms.
Since 1978, the Chinese government has submitted annual budget reports to the
National People’s Congress and released the total amount of defense budget. In 1995,
the Chinese government issued a white paper, China: Arms Control and Disarmament,
releasing data concerning its defense expenditure to the world. Since 2007, China has
joined the UN Standardized Instrument for Reporting Military Expenditures and has
submitted annually to the UN the basic data on its defense expenditure for the latest
fiscal year, reporting total spending as well as personnel expenses, training andsustainment expenses, and equipment expenses for the active force, reserve force andthe militia respectively, along with an explanation of the application of China’s
defense expenditure and its ratio to GDP.
All in all, China’s defense expenditure is open and transparent, and its spending
is reasonable and appropriate. Compared to other major countries, the ratios ofChina’s defense expenditure to GDP and to government expenditure, as well as the
per capita defense expenditure of the country, remain at a relatively low level.
As the only major country yet to be completely reunified, and one of thecountries with the most complex peripheral security environment, China faces serious
challenges in safeguarding national sovereignty, territorial integrity, and maritime
rights and interests. China is moving closer to the center of the world stage, and theinternational community expects more international public security goods from the
Chinese military. In addition, China’s armed forces are moving towards
informationization and shouldering arduous tasks in following the trends of worldwide
RMA and speeding up RMA with Chinese characteristics. There is still a wide gap
between China’s defense expenditure and the requirements for safeguarding
national sovereignty, security and development interests, for fulfilling China’s
international responsibilities and obligations as a major country, and for China’s
development. In step with national economic development, defense expenditure of
China will maintain a moderate and steady growth.

VI. Actively Contributing to Buildinga Community with a Shared Future for Mankind

Building a community with a shared future for mankind conforms to the trends ofthe times for peaceful development, and reflects the common aspirations of all peoples
throughout the world. China’s armed forces have responded faithfully to the call for acommunity with a shared future for mankind. They are actively fulfilling theinternational obligations of the armed forces of a major country, comprehensively
promoting international military cooperation for the new era, and striving for a betterworld of lasting peace and common security.
Resolutely Upholding the Purposes and Principles of the UN Charter
As a founding member of the United Nations and a permanent member of the
UNSC, China unswervingly endorses the central role of the UN in international affairs,
and resolutely upholds international law and the basic norms governing international
relations based on the purposes and principles of the UN Charter. It firmly maintains
multilateralism, advances democracy in international relations, participates
extensively in global security governance, actively engages in arms control anddisarmament, and endeavors to offer Chinese proposals for resolving major issues andformulating important rules.
China has played a constructive role in the political settlement of regional
hotspots such as the Korean Peninsula issue, the Iranian nuclear issue and Syrian issue.
China opposes hegemony, unilateralism and double standards, promotes dialogues andconsultations, and fully and earnestly implements UNSC resolutions. China has
actively participated in multilateral dialogues and negotiations on cyberspace andouter space, and pushed for the formulation of widely accepted international rules thatare fair and equitable.
China actively participates in international arms control, disarmament andnon-proliferation. China objects to arms race and strives to protect global strategicbalance and stability. To this end, China has signed or acceded to dozens of relevant
multilateral treaties including the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.
In 2015 China announced the establishment of the USD1 billion China-UN Peace andDevelopment Fund in the following decade, which was officially put into operation in
2016.
Building a New-Model Security Partnership Featuring Equality, Mutual
Trust and Win-Win Cooperation
China actively develops constructive relationships with foreign militaries. A new
configuration of foreign military relations which is all-dimensional, wide-ranging andmulti-tiered is taking shape. China has engaged in military exchanges with more than150 countries and set up 130 offices of military attachés and military representatives
at Chinese diplomatic missions abroad, while 116 countries have established militaryattaché’s offices in China. In addition, China has put in place 54 defense consultationand dialogue mechanisms with 41 countries and international organizations. Since
2012, high level Chinese military delegations have visited over 60 countries, anddefense ministers and commanders-in-chief from over 100 countries have visited
China.
The military relationship between China and Russia continues to develop at ahigh level, enriching the China-Russia comprehensive strategic partnership of
coordination for a new era and playing a significant role in maintaining global
strategic stability. The Chinese and Russian militaries have continued the sounddevelopment of exchange mechanisms at all levels, expanded cooperation in
high-level exchanges, military training, equipment, technology and counter-terrorism,
and realized positive interaction and coordination on international and multilateraloccasions. Since 2012, Chinese and Russian militaries have held 7 rounds of strategic
consultations. From August to September 2018, at the invitation of the Russian side,
the PLA participated in Russia’s Vostok strategic exercise for the first time.
China actively and properly handles its military relationship with the US inaccordance with the principles of non-conflict, non-confrontation, mutual respect andwin-win cooperation. It strives to make the military-to-military relationship astabilizer for the relations between the two countries and hence contribute to the
China-US relationship based on coordination, cooperation and stability. In 2014,
China’s Ministry of National Defense (MND) and the US Department of Defense
signed the Memorandum of Understanding on Notification of Major Military
Activities and Confidence-Building Measures Mechanism and the Memorandum ofUnderstanding Regarding the Rules of Behavior for Safety of Air and Maritime
Encounters. In 2015, the two countries agreed on the annexes on the military crisis
notification mechanism and the rules of behavior for safety in air-to-air encounters. In
2017, the two countries established a diplomatic and security dialogue and joint staff
dialogue mechanism with a view to actively strengthening strategic communicationand managing risks and differences. The two militaries carry out institutionalizedexchanges between the defense authorities, armies, navies and air forces, as well aspractical cooperation in HADR, counter-piracy, and exchanges between academic
institutions. China resolutely opposes the wrong practices and provocative activities of
the US side regarding arms sales to Taiwan, sanctions on the CMC Equipment
Development Department and its leadership, illegal entry into China’s territorial
waters and maritime and air spaces near relevant islands and reefs, and wide-range
and frequent close-in reconnaissance. However, in China-US relations, themilitary-to-military relationship remains the generally stable one.

With a commitment to building a community with a shared future in its
neighborhood, China endeavors to deepen military partnership with its neighbors. The
PLA keeps close contacts with the military leaderships of the neighboring countries.
Given more than 40 reciprocal military visits at and above service commander level
every year, high-level military exchanges have covered almost all of China’s
neighbors and contributed to growing strategic mutual trust. China has set up defense
and security consultations as well as working meeting mechanisms with 17
neighboring countries to keep exchange channels open. In recent years, China has
regularly held serial joint exercises and training on counter-terrorism, peacekeeping,search and rescue, and tactical skills with its neighboring countries, and carried out
extensive exchanges and practical cooperation on border and coastal defense,
academic institutions, think tanks, education, training, medical science, medical
service, and equipment and technology. In addition, defense cooperation with ASEAN
countries is moving forward. The military relationships between China and its
neighboring countries are generally stable.
China is actively developing its military relations with European countries.
Exchanges and cooperation in all areas are making sound progress. Targeting a
China-Europe partnership for peace, growth, reform and civilization, China conducts
security policy dialogues, joint counter-piracy exercises and personnel training with
the EU. In 2016, China held a desktop exercise on non-combatant evacuation with the
UK and a joint military medical exercise with Germany. In 2018, China and the EU
held the third China-EU high-level seminar on security policy.
China is strengthening military exchanges with developing countries in Africa,
Latin America, the Caribbean and the South Pacific by carrying out personnel training,
conducting exchanges between mid-and-junior level officers, and providing assistancein military development and defense capabilities. In Beijing in 2018 China hosted the
China-Africa Defense and Security Forum, the China and Latin-America High-level
Defense Forum, and the Forum for Senior Defense Officials from Caribbean and South
Pacific Countries.
The PLA adheres to the principles of mutual trust, mutual benefit and win-win
cooperation in carrying out pragmatic exchanges and cooperation with foreign
militaries. Since 2012, China has held over 100 joint exercises and training with morethan 30 countries. These engagements have covered traditional and non-traditional
security fields, in locations extending from China’s periphery to the far seas, and theparticipating forces have expanded from land forces to multiple branches including
the army, navy and air force. Cooperation and exchanges in personnel training haveintensified. Since 2012, the PLA has sent over 1,700 military personnel to study inmore than 50 countries. Over 20 Chinese military educational institutions have

established and maintained inter-collegiate exchanges with their counterparts from
more than 40 countries. Meanwhile, more than 10,000 foreign military personnel fromover 130 countries have studied in Chinese military universities and colleges.
China’s armed forces work to improve mechanisms for information release inorder to comprehensively and objectively explain China’s national defense andmilitary development to domestic and international audiences. In April 2011, China’s
MND started to convene monthly press conferences to release important information
on national defense and the military. Since 2012, multiple thematic press conferences
have been held to brief on important events such as national defense and militaryreform and downsizing the PLA. The MND has organized multiple visits to andinterviews with PLA units and academic institutions for nearly 100 domestic andforeign media. Since they were launched in May 2015, the official Weibo and WeChat
accounts of the MND Information Office have attracted over 6 million followers.
Building a Regional Security Cooperation Architecture
In June 2001, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan
co-founded the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The SCO has now grown into a
new type of comprehensive regional cooperation organization covering the largest
area and population in the world. The Shanghai Spirit featuring mutual trust, mutual
benefit, equality, consultation, respect for diverse civilizations and pursuit of common
development has come into being. With its commitment to building an SCO
community with a shared future and developing a new model of international relations,the organization has made a new contribution to regional peace and development. In
June 2017, the SCO expanded for the first time and admitted India and Pakistan as
member states. In April 2018, China hosted the first SCO Defense Ministers’ Meeting
since the organization expanded its membership. The member states continue tostrengthen defense and security exchanges and cooperation, including Peace Mission
exercises, and Fanfare for Peace military tattoos, to further promote
good-neighborliness and strategic mutual trust, increase military cultural exchanges,
and enhance unity and friendship.
China actively supports the institutional development of the Conference on
Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA), advocates common,comprehensive, cooperative and sustainable security in Asia, and plays an importantrole in building an Asian security cooperation architecture.
In the principles of openness, inclusiveness and pragmatic cooperation, China
actively participates in multilateral dialogues and cooperation mechanisms including
the ADMM-Plus, ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), Shangri-La Dialogue, Jakarta
International Defense Dialogue and Western Pacific Naval Symposium, regularly
holds China-ASEAN defense ministers’ informal meetings, and proposes andconstructively promotes initiatives to strengthen regional defense cooperation. The
China-ASEAN Maritime Exercise-2018, the first between Chinese and ASEAN
militaries, was held in October 2018 and demonstrated the confidence anddetermination of the countries in maintaining regional peace and stability.
China has initiated the Xiangshan Forum, a platform of exchange based in
Beijing, in the spirit of equality, openness, inclusiveness and mutual learning. In 2014,
the Xiangshan Forum was upgraded to a track-1.5 platform of international security
and defense dialogue. In October 2018, the Xiangshan Forum was renamed the
Beijing Xiangshan Forum. More than 500 participants from 67 countries and 7
international organizations attended the forum and exchanged new ideas andapproaches for addressing regional security threats and challenges. Their discussions
have played an active role in promoting security dialogue and mutual trust in the
Asia-Pacific region.
Properly Coping with Disputes over Territory and Maritime Demarcation
Upholding amity, sincerity, mutual benefit and inclusiveness in its neighborhood
diplomacy, China is committed to building an amicable relationship and partnershipwith its neighbors, and peaceful resolution of disputes over territory and maritime
demarcation through negotiation and consultation. China has settled its border issues
with 12 of its 14 land neighbors and signed treaties on good-neighborliness, friendshipand cooperation with 8 countries on its periphery.
China holds it a priority to manage differences and enhance mutual trust in
maintaining the stability of its neighborhood. China has proposed a China-ASEAN
defense ministers’ hotline and established direct defense telephone links with Vietnam
and the ROK. It has kept contact through telephone or fax, and conducted border
meetings and joint patrols, with the militaries of the countries on its land borders on
regular or irregular basis. Since 2014, five high-level border meetings between China
and Vietnam have been held. To implement the important consensus reached by theleaders of China and India, the two militaries have exchanged high-level visits andpushed for a hotline for border defense cooperation and mechanisms for bordermanagement and border defense exchanges. Since the second half of 2016, China andthe Philippines have increased dialogue on maritime security, bringing the two sides
back on track in addressing the South China Sea issue through friendly consultation.
In May 2018, the defense authorities of China and Japan signed a memorandum of
understanding on maritime and air liaison and put it into practice in June.
China and the ASEAN countries have comprehensively and effectively
implemented the DOC, and actively advanced the consultations on the COC. They arecommitted to extending practical maritime security cooperation, developing regional

security mechanisms and building the South China Sea into a sea of peace, friendshipand cooperation.
Actively Providing International Public Security Goods
China actively supports the UNPKOs. It is a major contributor to the UN
peacekeeping budget and the largest troop contributing country among the permanent
members of the UNSC. As of December 2018, China has participated in 24 UN
peacekeeping missions and has contributed more than 39,000 peacekeepers. 13
Chinese military personnel have sacrificed their lives in the UNPKOs. In the missions,
China’s peacekeepers have built and repaired over 13,000 kilometers of roads, clearedand disposed of 10,342 mines and various items of unexploded ordnance, transported
more than 1.35 million tons of materials over a total distance of more than 13 million
kilometers, treated over 170,000 patients, and fulfilled over 300 armed escorts andlong or short-distance patrols.
In September 2015, China joined the UN Peacekeeping Capability Readiness
System (PCRS) and built a peacekeeping standby force of 8,000 troops. In September
2017, China completed the registration of PCRS Level 1. In October 2018, 13 Chinese
PCRS Level 1 units scored high in the UN assessment and were elevated to PCRS
Level 2. Five among these units were elevated from Level 2 to Level 3 in February
2019. China has made active efforts to train international peacekeepers and trained
over 1,500 individuals from dozens of countries. In December 2018, 2,506
peacekeepers from the PLA served in 7 UN missions and in the UN Department of
Peacekeeping Operations.
In line with relevant UNSC resolutions, since December 2008, the Chinese
government has dispatched naval ships to carry out regular vessel protection
operations in the Gulf of Aden and the waters off the coast of Somalia. Chinese
PLAN task groups cooperate with multiple naval forces in the area to safeguardinternational SLOCs. In the past decade, over 100 vessels and 26,000 officers andsailors have been regularly deployed in 31 convoys, each consisting of three to fourships, in vessel protection operations. They have provided security protection forover 6,600 Chinese and foreign ships, and rescued, protected or assisted over 70 ships
in distress.
China’s armed forces take an active part in the international efforts for HADR.
Military professionals are dispatched to conduct disaster relief operations in affected
countries, provide relief materials and medical aid, and strengthen international
exchanges in this respect. Since 2012, China’s armed forces have participated in the
search for the missing Malaysian Airliner MH370, and in the relief operations for
Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines, the Ebola epidemic in West Africa, the water
scarcity in Maldives, the earthquake in Nepal, and the flood caused by a dam collapse

in Laos. Since it entered service a decade ago, the PLAN’s hospital ship Ark Peacehas fulfilled 7 voyages coded as Mission Harmony and visited 43 countries. During
these visits, it provided medical services to the local communities, organized medical
exchanges, and helped over 230,000 people.
China is active in international and regional counter-terrorism cooperation. It has
strengthened such cooperation within the framework of the SCO. China hosts andparticipates in joint counter-terrorism exercises, cracks down on illegal trafficking of
weapons, ammunition and explosives, cooperates with SCO members to identify andcut off channels for terrorist infiltration, and promotes international counter-terrorism
intelligence exchange and information sharing. It hosts the Great Wall International
Forum on Counter-Terrorism, and actively participates in multilateralcounter-terrorism mechanisms such as the APEC Counter-Terrorism Working Groupand the Global Counter-Terrorism Forum. Bilateral counter-terrorism consultations
have been held with certain countries. China initiated the establishment of the
Quadrilateral Cooperation and Coordination Mechanism (QCCM), a counter-terrorism
cooperation and coordination mechanism by the militaries of Afghanistan, China,
Pakistan and Tajikistan. The QCCM has convened two military leaders’ meetings andconducted counter-terrorism exchange and cooperation, actively safeguarding regional
security.

Closing Remarks
Peace is an aspiration for all peoples, and development is an eternal theme ofhumanity. Faced with global security challenges that are becoming ever more intricate
and choices that have to be made at a crossroads of human development, China firmly
believes that hegemony and expansion are doomed to failure, and security andprosperity shall be shared. China will remain committed to peaceful development andwork with people of all countries to safeguard world peace and promote common
development.
Guided by Xi Jinping’s thinking on strengthening the military, China’s national
defense in the new era will stride forward along its own path to build a stronger
military and endeavor to achieve the great goal of developing world-class forces in an
all-round way. China’s armed forces have the determination, confidence andcapability to prevail over all threats and challenges. They stand ready to provide
strong strategic support for the realization of the Chinese Dream of national

rejuvenation, and to make new and greater contributions to the building of acommunity with a shared future for mankind.

Appendices
Table 1 CMC Functional Organs
CMC Functional Organs

DutiesGeneral Office

Mainly responsible for comprehensive coordination, consultation on
decision-making, military legal affairs, information service, supervision andinspection

Joint Staff Department

Mainly responsible for combat planning, command and control, combat
command support, studying and formulating military strategy andrequirements, combat capability assessment, organizing and guiding joint
training, construction for combat readiness, and day-to-day combat readinessdutiesPolitical Work
Department

Mainly responsible for Party building in the military, organization work,
political education, and military human resources management

Logistic Support
Department

Mainly responsible for the planning, policy making,standardization, inspection and supervision of logistic support

research,

Equipment Development Mainly responsible for planning, R&D, testing, authentication, procurement
Department
management, and information system buildup in equipment development
Training and
Administration
Department

Mainly responsible for organizing and guiding military training, training
supervision, troops administration, and management of educational
institutions

Mainly responsible for organizing and guiding national defense mobilization
National Defense
and defense reserves development, and commanding and managing
Mobilization Department
provincial military commands
Discipline Inspection
Commission

Mainly responsible for the Party’s discipline supervision and inspection in
the military

Politics and Law
Commission

Mainly responsible for organizing and guiding political and legal work as
well as security protection

Science and Technology
Commission

Mainly responsible for the strategic management of national defense S&T,
organizing and guiding cutting-edge technological innovation, andpromoting the CMI of S&T

Office for Strategic
Planning

Mainly responsible for strategic planning of national defense and themilitary, organizing the formulation of development plans, and coordinating
resource allocation

Office for Reform andOrganizational Structure

Mainly responsible for planning and coordinating national defense andmilitary reform, guiding and promoting the implementation of the reforms inmajor areas, and the organizational structure management of the armed
forces

Office for International
Military Cooperation

Mainly responsible for international military exchanges and cooperation, andmanaging and coordinating the work of the armed forces related to foreign
affairsAudit Office

Mainly responsible for audit, supervision as well as organizing and guiding
the audit of the armed forces

Agency for Offices
Administration

Mainly responsible for serving and supporting the CMC’s functional organs

Table 2 Breakdown of China’s Defense Expenditure (2010-2017)(in RMB billion yuan)
Personnel Expense

Item
Year

Training andSustainment Expense

Equipment Expense
Total

AmountPercentage(%)

AmountPercentage(%)

AmountPercentage
(%)

2010

185.93134.9

170.04731.9

177.35933.2

533.3372011

206.506

34.3

189.94331.5

206.34234.2

602.7912012

195.57229.2

232.99434.8

240.62636.0

669.1922013

200.23127.0

269.97136.4

270.86036.6

741.0622014

237.23428.6

267.98232.3

323.73839.1

828.9542015

281.86331.0

261.53828.8

365.38340.2

908.7842016

306.001

31.3

266.99427.4

403.58941.3

976.5842017

321.05230.8

293.35028.1

428.835

41.1

1043.237

Sources: Data on China’s defense expenditure submitted to the UN by the Chinese government

Table 3 China’s Defense Expenditure Since 2012

Year

GDP
(RMB
billion)DefenseTotal
GrowthGrowth Defense Expenditure Real Defense
DefenseCPI
Rate ofRate of ExpenditoExpenditure
Expendit (Previo Governme
Defense ture to Governmen Growth Rateure
us Yearnt
ExpendiGDPt(Inflation-ad(RMB= 100) Expenditur
ture (%)(%)
Expenditure justed) (%)
billion)e (%)(%)

2012 54036.74

669.192

102.6

15.29

11.02

1.24

5.31

8.42

2013 59524.44

741.062

102.6

11.32

10.74

1.24

5.29

8.14

2014 64397.4

828.954

102.0

8.25

11.86

1.29

5.46

9.86

2015 68905.21

908.784

101.4

15.87

9.63

1.32

5.17

8.23

2016 74358.55

976.584

102.0

6.75

7.46

1.31

5.20

5.46

2017 82712.17 1043.237

101.6

8.17

6.83

1.26

5.14

5.23

Sources: Statistical yearbooks and government documents released by the Chinese government and dataon China’s defense expenditure submitted to the UN by the Chinese government

Table 4 Major Multilateral Treaties on Arms Control, Disarmament and
Non-Proliferation Joined by China
Category

Treaties

Time

Signed in May 2014, approved
Protocol to the Treaty on a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Apr. 2015 by the Standingin Central Asia
Committee of the National
People’s CongressProtocol Additional to the Agreement Between the
People’s Republic of China and the International Atomic Signed in Dec. 1998, entered
Energy Agency for the Application of Safeguards in into force in Mar. 2002
China
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

Signed in Sep. 1996

Signed
in
Apr.
1996,
Protocol I and II to the African Nuclear-Weapon-Free
instrument of ratification
Zone Treaty
deposited in Oct. 1997

NuclearConvention on Nuclear Safety

Signed in Sep. 1994, ratified
in Apr. 1996

Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

Acceded in Mar. 1992

Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear
Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Acceded in Feb. 1991
Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil Thereof
Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear
Acceded in Feb. 1989
Material
Agreement Between the People’s Republic of China andSigned in Sep. 1988, entered
the International Atomic Energy Agency for the
into force in Sep. 1989
Application of Safeguards in China
Signed
in
Feb.
1987,
Additional Protocol II and III to the South Pacificinstrument of ratification
Nuclear-Free Zone Treaty
deposited in Oct. 1988
Signed
in
Aug.
1973,
Additional Protocol II to the Treaty for the Prohibition of
instrument of ratification
Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean
deposited in Jun. 1974
Chemical

Biological

Convention on the Prohibition of Development, Signed
in
Jan.
1993,
Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons instrument of ratificationand on Their Destruction
deposited in Apr. 1997
Convention on the Prohibition of the Development,
Production and Stockpiling of BacteriologicalAcceded in Nov. 1984
(Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their
Destruction
Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Statement
issuedto
Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of acknowledge the Protocol in
Bacteriological Methods of Warfare
Jul. 1952

Conventional Protocol on Explosive Remnants of War (Protocol V) of Instrumentof

ratification

Category

Treaties

Time

Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of deposited in Jun. 2010
Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed
to Be Excessively Injurious or Have Indiscriminate
Effects
Protocol Against the Illicit Manufacturing of andTrafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components andSigned in Dec. 2002
Ammunition, Supplementing the United Nations
Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime
Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons Annexed to theConvention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of
Instrument of ratification
Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed
deposited in Nov. 1998
to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate
Effects (Protocol IV)
Amended Protocol on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the
Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices Annexedto the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Instrument of ratification
Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be deposited in Nov. 1998
Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have
Indiscriminate Effects (Amended Protocol II)
Signed
in
Sep.
1981,
instrument of ratification
Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of deposited in Apr. 1982;
Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed amendment of Article 1 of theto Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Convention ratified in Jun.
Effects and Protocols I-III
2003,
instrumentof
ratification deposited in Aug.
2003
Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other
Acceded in Jun. 2005
Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques
Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into
Acceded in Dec. 1988
Outer Space

OthersAgreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of
Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Acceded in Dec. 1988
Outer Space
Convention on International Liability for Damage
Acceded in Dec. 1988
Caused by Space Objects
Treaty on Principles Concerning the Activities of Statesin the Exploration and Use of Outer Space Including the Acceded in Dec. 1983
Moon and other Celestial Bodies
The Antarctic Treaty

Acceded in Jun. 1983

Table 5 Major Multilateral Counter-Terrorism Treaties Signed by China
TreatyDate of
Signature

Effective Date

Agreement on Quadrilateral Cooperation and
Coordination Mechanism in Counter Terrorism
by the Ministry of Defense/ Armed Forces/ Aug. 2017 Aug. 2017
Military of Afghanistan, China, Pakistan, andTajikistan

Participation orStatement by China

Signed in Aug. 2017,
effective in China

Convention of the Shanghai
Organization Against Terrorism

Cooperation

Jan. 2012

Signed in Jun. 2009,
ratified in Dec. 2014

Agreement on Cooperation in Combating Illicit
Trafficking in Arms, Ammunition and
Explosives between the Governments of the Aug. 2008 May 2010
Member States of the Shanghai Cooperation
Organization

Approved by the StateCouncil in May 2012,
instrument of approvaldeposited in Jul. 2012,
effective in China

Agreement on the Procedure for Organizing andConducting Joint Anti-Terrorism Exercise
Aug. 2008 Nov. 2013
within Territories of Member States of the
Shanghai Cooperation Organization

Approved in Jun.
2013, effective in
China since Nov. 2013

Cooperation Agreement in the Sphere of
Identifying and Cutting off the Channels Usedby the Individuals Involved in Terrorist,
Jun. 2006
Separatist and Extremist Activities to Enter the
Shanghai Cooperation Organization Member
StatesApproved by the StateCouncil in May 2012,
instrument of approvaldeposited in Jul. 2012,
effective in China

Jun. 2009

Nov. 2008

Table 6 Major Joint Exercises and Training by the PLA and
the PAP with Foreign Counterparts Since 2012
No.

States/Organizations

Codename

1

Belarus

United Shield-2017 Joint
Anti-Terrorism Training

Held in Minsk, Belarus in Jul. 20172

Germany

Joint Rescue-2016 Joint
Medical Exercise

Held in Chongqing, China in 2016

3

India

Hand in Hand
Anti-Terrorism Joint
Training

Held in Sichuan, China in Nov. 2013; inMaharashtra, India in Nov. 2014; in Yunnan,
China in Oct. 2015; in Maharashtra, India in
Nov. 2016; in Sichuan, China in Dec. 2018

4

Malaysia

Peace and Friendship Joint
Military Exercises

Tabletop exercise held in Malaysia in Dec.
2014; in Malaysia in Sept. 2015; in Malaysia
in Nov. 2016

Friendship Joint
Anti-Terrorism Training

Held in Ningxia, China in Dec. 2015; at
National Counter Terrorism Center Pabbi,
Pakistan in Oct. 2016

Eagle/Shaheen Joint
Training

A total of 6 training sessions held in China andPakistan from 2013 to 2018

Joint Sea Exercises

Held in the Yellow Sea waters near Qingdao in
Apr. 2012; in Peter the Great Gulf in Jul. 2013;
in the north maritime and air space of the East
China Sea to the east of Yangtze River Estuary
in May 2014; in the east of the maritime andair space of the Mediterranean in May 2015; inPeter the Great Gulf, off the coast of
Vladivostok, and the maritime and air space of
Sea of Japan in Aug. 2015; in Zhanjiang andthe east of the maritime and air space of
Zhanjiang in Sep. 2016; in the Baltiysk, St.
Petersburg and southeast Baltic Sea in Jul.
2017; in Vladivostok and the designated area

5

6

Pakistan

RussiaLocation and TimeNo.

States/Organizations

Codename

Location and Timebetween Peter the Great Gulf and the south
Okhotsk Sea in Sep. 2017

Aerospace Security
Computer-Enabled
Anti-Missile
Command-and-Staff
Exercises

Held in Russia in May 2016, and in China in
Dec. 2017

Saudi Arabia

Explore-2016 Joint
Anti-Terrorism Training ofSpecial Forces

8

Sri Lanka

Silk Road Cooperation-2015
Joint Counter Terrorism
Held in Colombo, Sri Lanka in Jun. 2015
Training for Special
Operation Units

9

Tajikistan

Cooperation-2016 Joint
Anti-Terrorism Exercise

Held in Badakhshan, Tajikistan in Oct. 2016

10

Thailand

Falcon Strike Joint Training

Held in Thailand in Nov. 2015; in Thailand in
Aug. 2017; in Thailand in Sep. 2018

11

UK

7

Held in China in Oct. 2016

Non-Combatant Evacuation
Held in Nanjing in 2016; in London in 2017
Operation Desktop Exercises

12

US

The US-China Disaster
Management Exchange

Held in Beijing, Kunming and Chengdu in2012; in Hawaii in 2013; in Guangzhou andHaikou in 2015; in Seattle in 2015; in Kunmingin 2016; in Portland in 2017; in Nanjing in
2018

13

VietnamChina-Vietnam Joint Naval
Patrols in the Beibu Gulf

Held in the shared fishing zone in the Beibu
Gulf for 13 times from 2012 to 2018

14

Malaysia,
ThailandPeace and Friendship 2018
Joint Military Exercise

Held in Malaysia in Oct. 2018 by militaries ofChina, Malaysia and Thailand

15

ASEAN

Maritime Exercise-2018

Held in Zhanjiang and the maritime and air
space to the east in Oct. 2018

16

EU

Cooperation-2018.10.EU
Joint Medical Exercise

Held in the west Gulf of Aden in Oct. 2018

17

SCO

Held in Khujand, Tajikistan in Jun. 2012; inZhurihe Training Base in Inner Mongolia,
Peace Mission Joint
China, in Aug. 2014; in the Edelweiss Training
Counter-Terrorism Exercises Area in Balykchy, Kyrgyzstan, in Sep. 2016;
in Chebarkul, Chelyabinsk, Russia, in Aug.
2018

Table 7 Major Regional Security Dialogues andCooperation Platforms Joined by the PLA and the PAP(Up to Dec. 2018)
Platform

Year of
Inception

Description

China-Africa Defense
and Security Forum2018

Hosted by China’s MND, the forum was held in Beijing from 26th
Jun. to 10th Jul., 2018. With the theme of “cooperation and mutualPlatform

Year of
Inception

Description
assistance”, in-depth discussions were held on topics including
China-Africa defense and security cooperation and Africa’s
security situation. 50 representatives attended from defense
departments or militaries of African countries and African Union,
including 12 chiefs or deputy chiefs of General Staff. It is thelargest and highest-level mechanism for China-Africa defense andsecurity dialogue and cooperation.

QCCM among theMilitary Forces of
Afghanistan, China,
Pakistan and Tajikistan

Great WallCounter-Terrorism
International Forum

China and Latin
America High-Level
Defense ForumASEAN Defense
Ministers’ Meeting
Plus

Beijing Xiangshan
Forum

Shangri-La
Dialogue

2016

The QCCM was built to provide coordination and mutual support
in situation evaluation, evidence verification, intelligence sharing,
capacity building, and training. China has always emphasized thatthe mechanism is not targeted against any other country orinternational organization and is ready to join all parties in
expanding cooperation, increasing counter terrorism capacity, andsafeguarding regional peace and stability. To date, two militaryleaders’ meetings have been held.

2016

The inaugural session of the forum was held in Beijing in Nov.
2016 with the theme of “counter-terrorism in urban areas”.
Representatives from 25 countries including Russia, France, Egypt
and Brazil participated. The second forum was held in Beijing inMay 2018 with the theme of “counter-terrorism in mountainous
areas”. Representatives from 27 countries including France,
Nigeria, Chile and Pakistan participated.

2012

The biennial forum is hosted by China’s MND. With the theme of“enhancing mutual understanding and collaboration”, the forum
aims to promote Latin-American militaries’ understanding of andtrust in China and its military, and facilitate continued militaryexchanges and cooperation between the Chinese andLatin-American militaries. The forum is represented by defense
and military leadership from major Spanish and Portuguese
speaking countries.

2010

ADMM-Plus is the largest and highest-level dialogue andcooperation mechanism on defense and security in the
Asia-Pacific region. Since 2016, under the mechanism, the PLA
has participated in a joint exercise on peacekeeping and demining
in India, and exercises on maritime security and counter-terrorism
in both Brunei and Singapore. From 2017 to 2020, China andThailand co-chair the counter-terrorism expert working group.

2006

This annual forum is co-hosted by the China Association for
Military Science and the China Institute for International Strategic
Studies. The Xiangshan Forum was upgraded to a track-1.5
platform of international security and defense dialogue in 2014. It
was renamed the Beijing Xiangshan Forum in 2018. The forum
advocates the principles of equality, openness, inclusiveness andmutual learning. In Oct. 2018, the 8th Beijing Xiangshan Forum
was held with the participation of over 500 representatives from67 countries and 7 international organizations. The forum injected
strong positive energy into regional and international security
cooperation.

2002

The dialogue is hosted by the International Institute for Strategic
Studies, a think tank based in London, and co-hosted by the
Ministry of Defense of Singapore. It is held in early June every
year in the Shangri-La Hotel in Singapore. At the 17th Shangri-La
Dialogue in 2018, the Chinese delegation, on the topic ofYear of
Inception

Platform

Description“Strategic Implications of Military Capability Development in the
Asia-Pacific”, explained the important proposals of President Xi
Jinping on building a new model of international relations and acommunity with a shared future for mankind, and actively
promoted a joint effort with relevant countries to maintainregional security and stability.

SCO

Chiefs of Defense
Conference

ASEAN Regional
Forum

2001

Established in 2001 on the basis of the Shanghai Five (China,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan) mechanism, theSCO aims to enhance mutual trust, good-neighborliness andfriendship among the member states, encourages the member
states to effectively cooperate in such fields as politics, economy,
culture and education. The organization is committed tomaintaining and safeguarding regional peace, security andstability and building a new international political and economicorder that is democratic, fair and equitable. The member states
have signed important documents including the Treaty on
Long-term Good-neighborly Relations, Friendships andCooperation among the Shanghai Cooperation Organization
Member States. From 9th to 10th Jun. 2018 in Qingdao, President
Xi Jinping presided over the first Council of Heads of State of the
SCO with an expanded membership, and stressed that member
states will continue to uphold the Shanghai Spirit, make joint
efforts to build an SCO community with a shared future, andpromote a new model of international relations.

1998

Initiated by the US PACOM, the conference is held annually andalternates between the US and other Asia-Pacific countries. China
has participated every year since 2014. At the conference in Sep.
2017, the Chinese side focused on explaining President Xi
Jinping’s vision of building a community with a shared future formankind and the new proposals on security, and advocated that
relevant countries should enhance strategic mutual trust andcooperate to meet global challenges.

1994

The forum has a membership of 27 countries and is the official
multilateral platform for security dialogue and cooperation in the
Asia-Pacific. Since 2015, China has hosted important meetingsand events including the ARF Peacekeeping Experts’ Meeting, theARF Defense Officials’ Dialogue, the ARF Heads of Defense
Universities/Colleges/Institutions Meeting, and the ARF Security
Policy Conference.

Table 8 Main UNPKOs the PLA Participated(Up to Dec. 2018)
Starting Date

Jan. 2014

Mission Area

Mali
(MINUSMA)

TroopsMission Description

Force protection unit In Mali, the engineering unit built andof170
troops, repaired 2,900 m of roads, leveled 400,000
engineering unit of m² of ground, and installed 667
155 troops, and prefabricated houses; the force protection
medical unit of 70 unit conducted 2,710 armed patrols andtroopssecurity tasks; and the medical unit treated
8,120 patients.

South Sudan(UNMISS)In South Sudan, the engineering unit built
and maintained 5,365 km of roads, repaired
Infantry battalion of
7 bridges, and installed 72 prefabricated700
troops,houses; the medical unit treated 21,000
engineering unit ofpatients; the infantry battalion conducted 63
268 troops, andlong/short-distance patrols, and carried out
medical unit of 63
216 armed escorts and 42 inspections introopsrefugee camps, covering a total mileage of
1,020,000 km.

Sudan(UNAMID)

In Darfur, Sudan, the engineering unit built
Engineering unit of and repaired 89 km of roads, installed 400
225
troops, prefabricated houses and drilled 14 wells;
helicopter unit of the helicopter unit flew 800 sorties totaling
140 troops
1,150 hours, transporting 5,500 persons and230 tons of materials.

Apr. 2006

Lebanon(UNIFIL)

Multi-functional
engineering unit of
In Lebanon, the engineering unit cleared
180
troops,
10,342 mines and items of unexploded
construction
ordnance; completed maintenance tasks onengineering unit ofhouses and equipment; and received and200 troops, andtreated 78,900 patients.
medical unit of 30
troopsApr. 2003

DR Congo(MONUSCO)

Engineering unit of In the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
175 troops and the engineering unit built 4,650 km of roads
medical unit of 43 and 214 bridges; and the medical unit
troopstreated 35,000 patients.

Jan. 2012

Nov. 2007

Notes: In addition to the units, the PLA has sent over 80 military observers, staff officers and military
officers under UN contract to the 5 above-mentioned UNPKOs, UNTSO, MINURSO and UN
Headquarters.

Table 9 Major International HADR Operations Participated by the PLA Since 2012
Starting Date Countries Concerned

Jun. 2018

Jul. 2018

Mission Description

Papua New Guinea,
Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga,
Venezuela, Grenada,
The Commonwealthof Dominica, Antigua
and Barbuda, The
Dominican Republic,
Ecuador and Chile

The PLAN hospital ship Ark Peace sailed over 30,000 nautical
miles for the tasks of Mission Harmony-2018, diagnosed andtreated 50,884 people, hospitalized 288 people, performed 288
surgical operations, and provided auxiliary examinations formore than 20,000 people.

Laos

After the collapse of the Xe Pian-Xe Namnoy hydropower
dam, under construction in southern province Attapeu of Laos,the PLA sent its medical unit participating in the Peace
Train-2018 humanitarian medical relief joint exercise to thedisaster-hit area by land and air, taking ambulances, epidemic
prevention vehicles, first-aid equipment and medicine withthem, to join the rescue, medical treatment and epidemic
prevention efforts.

Starting Date Countries Concerned

Mission Description

Aug. 2017

Sri Lanka

The PLAN task group visited Sri Lanka at a time when the
country had been hit by a severe flood. The task group
participated immediately in the disaster relief efforts bysending a medical team to the affected area to provide medical
services and epidemic prevention, and donating relief materials
including rubber boats.

Jun. 2016

Vietnam

After the air crash in Vietnam, the PLA sent naval vessels andaircraft to assist in searching for the crashed plane and rescuing
the crew.

Aug. 2015

MyanmarIn the severe flood in Myanmar, the PLA deployed 2 transport
aircraft to deliver 3 batches of tents, blankets and generators.

May. 2015

Nepal

After the strong earthquake in Nepal, the PLA sent 8
specialized teams totaling 1,088 people including rescue teams,
medical and epidemic prevention teams, and transport teams to
the affected area. They treated 5,294 people, decontaminated anarea of 940,000 m2, airlifted 690 tons of relief materials andrestored over 330 km of roads.

Jan. 2015

Malaysia

After the severe flood in Malaysia, the PLAAF sent aircraft totransport relief materials such as tents, water pumps and water
purification facilities.

Maldives

In the severe water scarcity in Male, the capital city ofMaldives, the PLAN submarine support ship Changxingdao
used its ship borne desalting devices to provide fresh water forthe affected population. The PLAAF provided emergency
delivery of over 40 tons of bottled water by an IL-76.

Dec. 2014

Aug. 2014

After the outbreak of Ebola in west Africa, the PLA sent 524
The Republic of
medical staff in 7 groups to conduct epidemic prevention
Guinea, Liberia, Sierra
operations. They built a treatment center, hospitalized 938
Leone andsuspected patients and trained more than 3,000 local medical
Guinea-Bissau
staff.

Mar. 2014

Malaysia, Australia

After the Malaysian Airliner MH370 lost contact, the PLAN
sent 9 surface vessels, 6 ship borne helicopters and 2,185service members to the search missions in the Malacca Strait,
the Adman Sea, and waters in southwest and west to Australia.
The vessels sailed 98,000 nautical miles in 7,679 sailing hours
and searched 744,000 km2 of sea. The PLAAF sent 2 IL-76 and1 Y-8C to Malaysia and Australia on multinational joint searchand rescue missions. The PLAAF organized 35 search flightsorties totaling 267 hours and 3 minutes, and covering a total
flight distance of 167,000 km.

The Philippines

After Typhoon Haiyan struck the Philippines, the PLAN
hospital ship Ark Peace was sent to conduct medical aid
operations. In total, it treated 2,208 injured people, hospitalized
113 people, performed 44 surgical operations, transported 757
people in 76 helicopter sorties and 718 people in 104 boatsorties.

Nov. 2013

Table 10 Participation of the PLA in the Fanfare for Peace Military Tattoos
No.

Date

Location

Participating Bands

Activities

1st

The opening ceremony and marching
performance in China’s National Indoor
9 military bands from
Stadium, a parade and a pageant
China, Kazakhstan,
20th-29th Beijing and Innerperformance at the Olympic Center, andKyrgyzstan, Russia
Aug. 2014 Mongolia, China
the closing ceremony of the military
and Tajikistan, 660
tattoo and of the Peace Mission-2014
people in total
joint counter-terrorism exercise inZhurihe Training Base in Inner Mongolia

2nd

St. Petersburg,
Russia12 military bands
fromRussia, A concert and a parade at the Palace
Kazakhstan, China, Square of Russia and a pageant
Tajikistan
and performance in the Peter and Paul
Kyrgyzstan, over 300 Fortresspeople in total

Astana,Kazakhstan

A concert in the concert hall of the
7 military bands fromMilitary Museum of Kazakhstan, aKazakhstan, China,
pageant performance at Bayterek Square,
Kyrgyzstan, Russia
and a parade for the defense ministers on
and Tajikistan, nearly
the square in front of the National Opera
350 people in total
House29th-30th
Jun. 2015

7th-8thJun. 2016

3rd

4th

26th-28th
Aug. 2017

6 military bands from The opening ceremony and marching
China, Kyrgyzstan, performance in Yuanshen Gymnasium, aShanghai, China Pakistan, Russia and pageant performance at the Expo Park of
Tajikistan, 426 people Shanghai, and a second performance inin total
the Yuanshen Gymnasium

21st-25th
Apr. 2018

8 military bands fromThe opening ceremony and marching
China, Kyrgyzstan,
performance at the Juyongguan Pass of
Tajikistan,the Great Wall with the defense ministers
Uzbekistan,
India,
in the audience, a parade in the Beijing’s
Pakistan, Russia andOlympic Park and a second performance
Belarus, over 400
at the Juyongguan Pass of the Great Wallpeople in total

5th

Beijing, China

Acronyms
ADMM-Plus

ASEAN Defense Ministers’ Meeting PlusAI

artificial intelligence

AMS

Academy of Military Sciences

ARF

ASEAN Regional Forum

ASEAN

Association of Southeast Asian Nations

BRICS

Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa

CICA

Conference on Interaction and Confidence-BuildingMeasures in Asia
CMC

Central Military Commission

CMCAO

CMC Audit Office

CMCDICCMC Discipline Inspection Commission

CMCPLC

CMC Politics and Law Commission

CMCSC

CMC Supervision Commission

CMI

civil-military integration

COC

Code of Conduct in the South China Sea

CPCCommunist Party of China

CPCCC

CPC Central Committee

CPI

consumer price index

DOC

Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China
Sea

ECM

electronic countermeasures

EU

European Union

GDP

gross domestic product

HADR

humanitarian assistance and disaster reliefIT

information technology

MAC

Military Area Command

MINURSO

United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western
SaharaMINUSMA

UnitedNations
Multidimensional
Stabilization Mission in Mali

MND

Ministry of National Defense

MONUSCO

United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in
the DR Congo

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNBC

nuclear, biological and chemical weapons

NBCE

nuclear,biologicalandchemicalIntegrated

weaponsandexplosives
NDU

National Defense University

NUDT

National University of Defense Technology

PACOM

Pacific Command

PAP

People’s Armed Police

PCRS

Peacekeeping Capability Readiness System

PLA

People’s Liberation Army

PLAA

PLA Army

PLAAF

PLA Air ForcePLAJLSF

PLA Joint Logistic Support Force

PLAN

PLA Navy

PLARF

PLA Rocket ForcePLASSF

PLA Strategic Support Force

PRC

People’s Republic of China

QCCM

Quadrilateral Cooperation and Coordination Mechanism

RMA

Revolution in Military Affairs

R&D

research and development

SCO

Shanghai Cooperation Organization

SLOCs

sea lines of communication

S&T

science and technology

TC

Theater Command

ETC

Eastern Theater Command

STC

Southern Theater Command

WTC

Western Theater Command

NTC

Northern Theater Command

CTC

Central Theater Command

THAAD

Terminal High Altitude Area DefenseUN

United Nations

UNMISSUN Mission in South Sudan

UNAMID

UN-African Union Hybrid Operation in Darfur

UNIFILUN Interim Force in Lebanon

UNSC

UN Security Council

UNPKO

UN peacekeeping operation

UNTSO

UN Truce Supervision Organization