DEFENSE INTELLIGENCE AGENCY

CHALLENGES TO

SECURITY IN SPACE

Committed to Excellence in Defense of the Nation

This report is available online at www.dia.mil/Military-Power-Publications
For media and public inquiries about this report, contact DIA-PAO@dodiis.mil
For more information about the Defense Intelligence Agency, visit DIA's website at www.dia.mil
Information cutoff date, January 2019.
Cover image source: Shutterstock

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARYSpace-based capabilities provide integral support to military, commercial, and civilian applications.
Longstanding technological and cost barriers to space are falling, enabling more countries and commercial
firms to participate in satellite construction, space launch, space exploration, and human spaceflight.
Although these advancements are creating new opportunities, new risks for space-enabled services
have emerged. Having seen the benefits of space-enabled operations, some foreign governments aredeveloping capabilities that threaten others’ ability to use space. China and Russia, in particular, havetaken steps to challenge the United States:• Chinese and Russian military doctrines indicate that they view space as important to modern warfare
and view counterspace capabilities as a means to reduce U.S. and allied military effectiveness. Bothreorganized their militaries in 2015, emphasizing the importance of space operations.
• Both have developed robust and capable space services, including space-based intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance. Moreover, they are making improvements to existing systems,
including space launch vehicles and satellite navigation constellations. These capabilities provide
their militaries with the ability to command and control their forces worldwide and also withenhanced situational awareness, enabling them to monitor, track, and target U.S. and allied forces.
• Chinese and Russian space surveillance networks are capable of searching, tracking, andcharacterizing satellites in all earth orbits. This capability supports both space operations andcounterspace systems.
• Both states are developing jamming and cyberspace capabilities, directed energy weapons, on-orbit
capabilities, and ground-based antisatellite missiles that can achieve a range of reversible tononreversible effects.
Iran and North Korea also pose a challenge to militaries using space-enabled services, as each has
demonstrated jamming capabilities. Iran and North Korea maintain independent space launch capabilities,
which can serve as avenues for testing ballistic missile technologies.
The advantage the United States holds in space—and its perceived dependence on it—will drive actors to
improve their abilities to access and operate in and through space. These improvements can pose a threat
to space-based services across the military, commercial, and civil space sectors.

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CONTENTS
Introduction.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 7Key Space Concepts .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 8Key Counterspace Concepts.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  9
Space-based Services.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  11
Orbit Types and Uses .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 12

China .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  13
Strategy, Doctrine, and Intent .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .14Key Space and Counterspace Organizations .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .14Space and Counterspace Capabilities.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .16Space Launch Capabilities.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  16
Human Spaceflight and Space Exploration .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 18
ISR, Navigation, and Communications Capabilities.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  18
Counterspace Capabilities .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 20

Russia .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 23
Strategy, Doctrine, and Intent .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  23
Key Space and Counterspace Organizations .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  24
Space and Counterspace Capabilities.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  25
Space Launch Capabilities .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 25
Human Spaceflight and Space Exploration .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 26
ISR, Navigation, and Communications Capabilities .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  26
Counterspace Capabilities .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  28

Other Space Challenges .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  31
Iran .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .31North Korea .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 32

Outlook.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 33
Appendix A: Implications of Debris and Orbital Collisions .  .  .  .  .  .  35
Appendix B: Counterspace Threats .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 36
Appendix C: Glossary of Acronyms .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  37

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INTRODUCTION
Although the United States and the former Soviet Union dominated early space activities, space capabilities
have proliferated over the past six decades as technological and cost barriers have fallen. These capabilities
provide important support to many of society’s daily activities, including communications, navigation,
financial transactions, and weather monitoring. As of 2018, over 1,800 active satellites are on orbit, which
are owned and operated by over 50 countries and multinational organizations.1 Nine countries and one
international organization can independently launch spacecraft: China, India, Iran, Israel, Japan, Russia,
North Korea, South Korea, the United States, and the European Space Agency (from French Guiana).2
Space has also become more commercialized. The commercial space sector is involved in space launch,communications, space situational awareness, remote sensing, and even human spaceflight. These firms
not only supply products to governments, but they also compete commercially.3
The number of objects on orbit—both active satellites and orbital debris—will continue to increase rapidly
with the wider availability of lower cost, small satellites and with the prospect of large constellations
consisting of thousands of satellites. The challenge of space congestion will grow, and actors will needbetter capabilities to track and identify objects and prevent collisions in space.4,5Space capabilities have become central to many military operations, including missile warning, geolocationand navigation, target identification, and tracking of adversary activities. The military and intelligencecollection capabilities that government and commercial remote sensing satellites provide is reducing theability of all countries to remain undetected while performing sensitive testing and evaluation activities or
military exercises and operations.6,7Some actors are seeking ways to deny the effectiveness of the United States, having witnessed morethan 25 years of U.S. military successes enabled by space capabilities.8 China and Russia, in particular, aredeveloping a variety of means to exploit perceived U.S. reliance on space-based systems and challenge theU.S. position in space.9 Iran and North Korea also have demonstrated some counterspace capabilities that
could pose a threat to militaries using space-based services.
While China and Russia are developing counterspace weapons systems, they are promoting agreements at
the United Nations that limit weaponization of space. Their proposals do not address many space warfare
capabilities, and they lack verification mechanisms, which provides room for China and Russia to continue
to develop counterspace weapons.10,11 The 1967 Outer Space Treaty prohibits placing weapons of mass
destruction on orbit and on any celestial body and it prohibits using celestial bodies for military bases,
testing, or maneuvers. 107 states have ratified the treaty, including the United States, China, North Korea,
and Russia. Iran is one of 23 states that have signed, but not ratified, the treaty.12

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7Key Space Concepts
Communication Satellites: Communication satellites provide voice communications, television broadcasts, broadband internet, mobile services, and data transfer services for civil, military, and commercial
users worldwide.13
Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR): ISR satellites support civil, commercial, and military purposes. Civil and commercial ISR satellites provide remote sensing data, which includes data on
the Earth’s land, sea, and atmosphere. ISR satellites support a variety of military activities by providing
signals intelligence, warning (including of ballistic missile activity), battle damage assessments, and military force disposition.14,15
Missile Warning: Missile warning uses space-based and terrestrial sensors to notify countries of missile attacks
and can enable defensive or offensive operations in response. Space-based sensors usually provide the firstindication of a launch and ground-based radars provide follow-on information and confirm the attack.
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT): Satellite navigation constellations provide PNT data thatenable civilian, commercial, and military users to determine their precise location and local time. The
European Union, Russia, and the United States’ satellite navigation constellations offer global coverage,
and Japan and India operate regional systems. China operates both a regional and worldwide satellite
navigation system.16
Satellite Command and Control (C2) Architecture: The satellite C2 architecture is how users control
and communicate with satellites. The control center uses the uplink to the spacecraft to deliver commands. The spacecraft downlink is how data is sent from the spacecraft to a ground station that has thenecessary antennas, transmitters, and receivers to receive the data. Some satellite constellations use
relay satellites, which enable communication between satellites outside the reception area of a groundstation.17 Any component of the architecture is vulnerable to attack, ranging from physical vulnerabilities of a ground site to electronic warfare (EW) disrupting the connection between the space segment
and the operator.

up

lin
k

Primary Satellite

Tracking SIte

Relay Satellite

dow

nlin

Control Centerk

Tracking SIte
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Space Launch: Space launch is the ability to deliver payloads into space. Space launch vehicles (SLV) can
deploy, sustain, augment, or reconstitute satellite constellations in support of military, civilian, or commercial customers.18

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Key Counterspace Concepts
Cyberspace Threats: Cyberspace pervades all other warfighting domains, including space, and many
space operations depend on cyberspace and vice versa.19 With sophisticated knowledge of satellite C2
and data distribution networks, actors can use offensive cyberspace capabilities to enable a range ofreversible to nonreversible effects against space systems, associated ground infrastructure, users, andthe links connecting them.
Directed Energy Weapons (DEW): DEW use directed energy to disrupt, damage, or destroy enemy equipment and facilities.20 These weapons, which can have effects ranging from temporary to permanent, include
lasers, high-power microwaves, and other types of radiofrequency weapons. It can be difficult to attributethe origin of a DEW attack, depending on the type.

Kinetic Energy Threats

Directed Energy Weapons
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Electronic Warfare: EW includes using jamming and spoofing techniques to control the electromagnetic spectrum.21 EW can be challenging to attribute and distinguish from unintentional interference. Uplink jamming isdirected toward the satellite and impairs services for all users in the satellite reception area. Downlink jamming has
a localized effect because it is directed at ground users, such as a ground forces unit using satellite navigation todetermine their location. Spoofing deceives the receiver by introducing a fake signal with erroneous information.
Uplink Jamming

Downlink Jamming

Communications Satellite

Communications Satellite

JammerTransmitter
Jamming signal

JammerReceiverTransmitter

Intended communications signal

Satellite Downlink SiteTelephone
Jamming combined with theintended communications signal

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9Kinetic Energy Threats: Kinetic energy threats, or antisatellite (ASAT) missiles, are designed to destroy satellites without placing the weapon system or any of its components into orbit. These systems typically consistof a fixed or mobile launch system, a missile, and a kinetic kill vehicle. These weapons could also be launchedfrom aircraft. Once released, the kinetic kill vehicle uses an onboard seeker to intercept the target satellite.
Ground-based ASAT missile attacks are more easily attributed than some other counterspace weapons,such as DEW, and their effects can create orbital debris.
Orbital Threats: Orbital or space-based systems are satellites that can deliver temporary or permanent
effects against other spacecraft. These systems could include payloads such as kinetic kill vehicles, radiofrequency jammers, lasers, chemical sprayers, high-power microwaves, and robotic mechanisms. Some ofthese systems, such as robotic technology for satellite servicing and repair and debris removal, have peaceful uses but can also be used for military purposes.

High-power Microwaves

Radiofrequency Jammers

LasersKinetic Kill Vehicles

Chemical Sprayers

Robotic Mechanisms
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Space Situational Awareness (SSA): SSA is having current knowledge of a space object’s location and theability to track and predict its future location; it also incorporates understanding of an actor’s intent for theirspacecraft.22 SSA is necessary for space operations, including the ability to successfully target space objects
and assess the effectiveness of an attack. Space object surveillance and identification sensors, which can
include telescopes, radars, and space-based sensors, provide the data for SSA.23

Space-based

Radar

OpticsLaser

Signals
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Space-based Services
Since the late 1950s, space-enabled technologies have come to provide critical, yet often unrecognized,
support to many of modern society’s daily activities. Technological advancement and lower-cost barriers mean society is increasingly reliant on these technologies, and losing access to space-based services
would have far-reaching effects.
Space-enabled applications heavily impact our daily lives in four areas: navigation, communications,remote sensing, and science and exploration.24
Space-based PNT services, such as GPS, provide position and navigation data that enables the use of satellite navigation for directions for routine activities. Positioning and navigation services support sea, ground,and air transportation services, such as by helping plan more efficient routes and managing route congestion. For militaries, PNT data, among other things, allows for the precise targeting for munitions and air,land, and sea navigation.
PNT signals, especially precise timing, also provide critical support to modern infrastructure. Without precise
timing, financial institutions would be unable to create timestamps for transactions, impacting the public’s
ability to use ATMs and credit cards, and utility companies would be unable to efficiently transmit power.25
Communications satellites—which comprise the majority of satellites on orbit—support global communications and complement terrestrial communications networks.26 Losing these satellites can havewide-ranging impacts, which was illustrated in 1998 when a U.S. communications satellite suffered acomputer failure—people were unable to pay for gas, hospitals were unable to contact physicians who
relied on pagers, and television stations were unable to deliver programming.27 For militaries, satellite
communications improve situational awareness and allow forces greater mobility by eliminating theneed for ground-based infrastructure.28
Without remote sensing satellites—which provide data on the Earth’s land, sea, and atmosphere—society would be unable to benefit from weather forecasting, including preparing for weather emergencies.
These satellites provide data about the terrain and environment, which range from assisting businesses
in determining areas with mineral resources to assisting farmers in identifying potential agricultural
disasters. These satellites also support the military by providing ISR data that enables militaries to identify adversary capabilities, track troop movements, and locate potential targets.29
An inability to access space for scientific purposes could impact technological innovation. In addition toproviding insights into the nature of Earth and the universe, society has benefitted from technologicaladvances enabled by space research and space exploration activities. These advancements include cell
phone cameras, better metal alloys for jet engine turbines, solar panels, memory foam, portable computers, and compact water purification systems.30,31

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11Orbit Types and Uses

32,33

HEO

MEO

GEO

LEO

Orbits are notional and for illustrative purposes only.

ORBIT

ALTITUDE*

USES- Communications

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

Up to 2,000 km- ISR- Human Spaceflight †Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO)

Geosynchronous Earth
Orbit (GEO)

Approx. 2,000 to 35,000 km- Communications- Position, Navigation, and Timing

LEO altitudes at perigee(nearest to Earth)- Communications

Approx. 40,000 km at apogee(farthest from Earth)- Missile Warning- ISR- Communications
Approx. 36,000 km- ISR- Missile Warning* The advantages of higher orbits for communications and ISR are near-persistent coverage of most of the Earth in view of the satellite, but limitedaccess to polar regions. LEO satellites cover all parts of the world, including the poles, but for shorter periods based on the speed of the satellite.
† With the exception of nine U.S. Apollo missions to the Moon, all human spaceflight has been completed in LEO.
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CHINA“To explore the vast cosmos, develop the space industry, and build China into a space power is a
dream we pursue unremittingly.”—China’s Space White Paper, December 26, 201634

Beijing now has a goal of “[building] China into aspace power in all respects.”36 Its rapidly growing
space program—China is second only to the UnitedStates in the number of operational satellites—isa source of national pride and part of President Xi
Jinping’s “China Dream” to establish a powerful andprosperous China. The space program supports
both civil and military interests, including strengthening its science and technology sector, international
relationships, and military modernization efforts.
China seeks to achieve these goals rapidly throughadvances in the research and development of spacesystems and space-related technology.37,38,39,40,41
China officially advocates for peaceful use of space,and it is pursuing agreements at the United Nations

on the nonweaponization of space.42 Nonetheless,
China continues to improve its counterspace weapons capabilities and has enacted military reforms
to better integrate cyberspace, space, and EW into
joint military operations.

Image Source: AFP

China has devoted significant economic and political resources to growing all aspects of its space program, from improving military space applications todeveloping human spaceflight and lunar exploration programs. China’s journey toward a space capability began in 1958, less than 9 months after thelaunch of Sputnik-1. However, China’s aspirations tomatch the Soviet Union and the United States soon
faced self-imposed delays due to internal political
dynamics that lasted until the late 1960s. China did
not launch its first satellite until April 1970. In theearly 1980s, China’s space program began moving
with purpose.35

China launched the Shenzhou-9 in June 2012, which was
the first crewed spacecraft to dock with the Tiangong-1
space laboratory.

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13Strategy, Doctrine,and Intent
China’s Military Strategy
In 2015, Beijing directed the People’s Liberation
Army (PLA) to be able to win “informatized local
wars” with an emphasis on “maritime military
struggle.” Chinese military strategy documents
also emphasize the growing importance ofoffensive air, long-distance mobility, and spaceand cyberspace operations. China expects thatits future wars mostly will be fought outside its
borders and will involve conflict in the maritime
domain. China promulgated this through its mostrecent update to its “military strategic guidelines,”
the top-level directives that Beijing uses to define
concepts, assess threats, and set priorities forplanning, force posture, and modernization.
The PLA uses “informatized” warfare to describe
the process of acquiring, transmitting, processing, and using information to conduct joint military operations across the domains of land,sea, air, space, cyberspace, and the electromagnetic spectrum during a conflict. PLA writings
highlight the benefit of near-real-time sharedawareness of the battlefield in enabling quick,unified effort to seize tactical opportunities.43
The PLA views space superiority, the ability to control the information sphere, and denying adversaries the same as key components of conducting modern “informatized" wars.44,45,46,47,48,49 Since
observing the U.S. military’s performance during
the 1991 Gulf War, the PLA embarked on an effort
to modernize weapon systems and update doctrine
to place the focus on using and countering adversary information-enabled warfare.
Space and counterspace operations will form integral components of PLA campaigns, given China’s
perceptions of the importance of space-enabled

14

operations to U.S. and allied forces and the growing
importance of space to enable beyond-line-of-sight
operations for deployed Chinese forces. The PLA alsosees counterspace operations as a means to deterand counter a possible U.S. intervention during a
regional military conflict.50,51 PLA analysis of U.S. andallied military operations states that “destroying or
capturing satellites and other sensors” would makeit difficult to use precision guided weapons.52 Moreover, PLA writings suggest that reconnaissance, communications, navigation, and early warning satellites
could be among the targets of attacks designed to“blind and deafen the enemy.”53

Key Space andCounterspace
Organizations
China’s space program has a complex structure
and comprises organizations in the military, political, defense-industrial, and commercial sectors.
The PLA historically has managed China’s space
program, and it continues to invest in improving
China’s capabilities in space-based ISR, satellite
communication, and satellite navigation, as well as
human spaceflight and robotic space exploration.54
State-owned enterprises are China’s primary civilian
and military space contractors, but China is placing
greater emphasis on decentralizing and diversifying
its space industry to increase competition.55
As part of the military reforms announced in 2015,
China established the Strategic Support Force (SSF)
to integrate cyberspace, space, and EW capabilities
into joint military operations.56,57,58 The SSF forms thecore of China’s information warfare force, supports
the entire PLA, and reports directly to the Central
Military Commission. The SSF likely is responsible
for research and development of certain space andcounterspace capabilities. The SSF’s space function
is focused primarily on satellite launch and operations to support PLA ISR, navigation, and communication requirements.59

Image Source: XINHUA/AFP

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In December 2015, President Xi conferred a military flag to the new Strategic Support Force Commander Lt. Gen.
Gao Jin (left), who was later promoted to general.60 Gen. Gao previously served as the head of the PLA think tank,
the Academy of Military Sciences, which publishes documents on PLA doctrine.61

Currently, the State Council’s State Administration for Science, Technology, and Industry for
National Defense (SASTIND) is the primary civilorganization that coordinates and manages China’s space activities, including allocating spaceresearch and development funds.62 It also maintains a working relationship with the PLA organization that oversees China’s military acquisitions.
SASTIND guides and establishes policies forstate-owned entities conducting China’s space
activities, whereas the State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission provides
day-to-day management.63,64
The China National Space Administration (CNSA)
serves as the public face of China’s civil spaceefforts.65 China is increasingly using these efforts

to bolster relationships with countries aroundthe world, providing opportunities to lead thespace community.66,67,68 In April 2018, CNSA statedthat China had signed 21 civil space cooperationagreements with 37 countries and four international organizations.69
In the commercial space sector, mixed-ownership enterprises such as Zhuhai Orbita, Expace,and OK-Space offer remote sensing, launch, andcommunication services.70,71,72 Many of these spacetechnologies can serve a civilian and military purpose and China emphasizes “civil-military integration”—a phrase used, in part, to refer to theleveraging of dual-use technologies, policies, andorganizations for military benefit.73

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15Space and Counterspace Capabilities
Space Launch Capabilities
China is improving its space launch capabilities toensure it has an independent, reliable means toaccess space and to compete in the international
space launch market. Recent improvements reducelaunch timelines, increase manufacturing efficiencies, and support human spaceflight and deep-space
exploration missions.74 These improvements include

new, modular SLVs that allow China to tailor an SLV
to the specific configuration required for each customer. Using modular SLVs can lead to increases
in manufacturing efficiency, launch vehicle reliability, and overall cost savings for launch campaigns.75
China is also in the early stages of developing a superheavy-lift SLV similar to the U.S. Saturn-V or the
newer Space Launch System to support proposedcrewed lunar and Mars exploration missions.76
China has developed a “quick response” SLV to
increase its attractiveness as a commercial small
satellite launch provider and to rapidly reconstitute LEO space capabilities, which could support

Chinese Space Launch Vehicles
Meters
120
LM-9*

110
100
90
80

Light Lift
<2 metric tons

LM-5

LM-7

LM-3B

LM-3C

LM-2F
LM-4C

LM-2D
LM-11

10

Long March (LM)-620

Kaituo-2*

30

Kuaizhou (KZ)-1*

40

LM-2C

50

LM-4B

60

LM-3A

70

Medium Lift
2–20 metric tons

Heavy Lift Super Heavy Lift
20–50
>50
metric tons
metric tons

* Developmental
Depicted payload capacity is approximate and varies depending on planned orbit.
The launch vehicles depicted are representative of China’s launch capabilities. Additional light-, medium-, and heavylift vehicles are in development. China uses its light-lift vehicles to place small payloads into LEO and its medium lift toplace larger satellites in MEO and smaller satellites in GEO. The LM-5 heavy-lift SLV supports launching crewed spacestation components to LEO and heavy payloads to GEO. The developmental LM-9 primarily will support missions to theMoon and Mars.
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Chinese Space Launch Sites and Key Satellite Control Centers

Beijing

Jiuquan

NORTH
KOREA

Beijing

CHINA

Taiyuan

CHINA
Yellow
Sea

SOUTH
KOREA

Xian

Xichang

BHUTAN

East
China
Sea

INDIA

BANGLADESH

Taiwan

BURMA

South
China
Sea

VIETNAM
Wenchang

Hainan Island
0

400

800

1,200 Kilometers

Satellite Control Center

All locations are approximate. Boundary representation is not necessarily authoritative.
Depiction of claims on this map is without prejudice to U.S. non-recognition of any such claims.

Space Launch Site

China has four launch sites. The newest, Wenchang on Hainan Island, has a launch latitude closer to the Equator,
which provides a more efficient path to launch satellites into GEO. China’s main satellite control center is in Xianand its primary control center for human spaceflight and lunar missions is in Beijing.77
Visualization: DIA, D3 Design • 1811-19969

military operations during a conflict or civilian
response to disasters. Compared to medium- andheavy-lift SLVs, these quick response SLVs arecapable of expedited launch campaigns because
they are transportable via road or rail and canbe stored launch-ready for longer periods. Currently, due to their limited size, quick response
SLVs such as the KZ-1, LM-6, and LM-11 are only
capable of launching relatively small payloads
into LEO.78,79,80

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17Human Spaceflight andSpace Exploration
In 2003, China became the third country to achieve
independent human spaceflight, when it successfully
orbited the crewed Shenzhou-5 spacecraft, followedby space laboratory Tiangong-1 and -2 launches in2011 and 2016, respectively. By 2022, China intends
to assemble and operate a permanently inhabited,
modular space station that can host Chinese and foreign payloads and astronauts.81,82

China is also the third country to have landed a roveron the Moon and performed the first-ever landingon the lunar far side with its Chang’e-4 rover andlander in January 2019.84,85 Because it is not possible
to communicate directly with objects on the far sideof the Moon, China launched a lunar relay satellite
in May 2018 to enable communication between the
Chang’e-4 and the Earth.86,87
Additionally, China announced plans in March2018 to assemble a robotic research station on
the Moon by 2025 and has started establishing
the foundation for a human lunar exploration
program to put astronauts on the Moon in the
mid-2030s.88,89

Image Source: XINHUA/AFP

ISR, Navigation, andCommunications Capabilities

In December 2013, China conducted the first “soft-landing” on the Moon since 1976.83 The lunar rover, Yutu, took
this image of the Chang’e-3 lunar lander that month.

Chinese Satellites on Orbit, as of 1 May 2018

China employs a robust space-based ISR capability designed to enhance its worldwide situationalawareness. Used for military and civil remote sensing and mapping, terrestrial and maritime surveillance, and military intelligence collection, China’s ISR
satellites are capable of providing electro-optical andsynthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery, as well as
electronic intelligence and signals intelligence data.90
91,92

150
124

120
90

60

60
30

34

28
4

0
Communications

Relay†
Military

ISR
Civil

Navigation

Science &Technology‡

Commercial† Relay satellites enable communication between satellites outside the reception area of a ground station.
‡ Science and technology satellites are used for scientific research or testing new space technologies.
Visualization: DIA, D3 Design • 1811-19938

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Image Source: XINHUA/AFP

C H A L L E N G E S T O S E C U R I T Y I N S PAC E

China launched the world’s first quantum communications satellite in 2016, and this composite time-lapse photo showsa ground-to-space link to enable the quantum teleportation of data in a quantum state. The red light emanating fromthe ground station is the uplink laser beacon, which is connecting with the satellite. Due to the time-lapse photo, lightfrom the downlink beacon traces the path of the satellite, shown by the white, dashed line. China has included quantum
communications and computing as one of its focus areas for research and development for 2016-2020.93

As of May 2018, the Chinese ISR and remote sensing
satellite fleet contains more than 120 systems—aquantity second only to the United States.94
The PLA owns and operates about half of these
ISR systems, most of which could support monitoring, tracking, and targeting of U.S. and allied forces
worldwide, especially throughout the Indo-Pacificregion. These satellites also allow the PLA to maintain situational awareness of potential regional
flashpoints, including the Korean Peninsula, Taiwan,
and the South China Sea.95,96,97
China also owns and operates over 30 communications satellites, with 4 dedicated to military use.98
China produces its military-dedicated satellites
domestically and its civil communications satellites
incorporate off-the-shelf commercially manufactured components.99

Additionally, China has embarked on several ambitious plans to propel itself to the forefront of the
global satellite communications (SATCOM) industry.100,101,102 China is testing multiple next-generation
capabilities, such as quantum-enabled communications, which could supply the means to field highly
secure communications systems.103
China is continuing to improve its indigenous
satellite navigation constellation. China offers
regional PNT services and achieved initial operating capability of its worldwide, next-generation
BeiDou constellation in 2018.104,105 In addition toproviding PNT, the BeiDou constellation offers
unique capabilities, including text messaging anduser tracking through its short messaging service, to enable mass communications between
BeiDou users and provide additional C2 capabilities for the PLA.106,107

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19China also exports its satellite technology globally, including its indigenously-developed communications satellites. China intends to provide SATCOM support to users worldwide and has plans
to develop at least three new communications
constellations.108,109,110 China also intends to use its
BeiDou constellation to offer additional services
and incentives to countries taking part in the “Beltand Road Initiative.” BeiDou supports that initiative’s emphasis on building strong economic ties
with other countries and shaping their interests toalign with China’s.111,112

Counterspace Capabilities

Image Source: Wikimedia CommonsSpace Situational Awareness. China has a robust
network of space surveillance sensors capable ofsearching, tracking, and characterizing satellites in all
Earth orbits. This network includes a variety of telescopes, radars, and other sensors that allow China
to support missions including intelligence collection,

This Chinese Yuan Wang space tracking ship, which
supports space launch operations from positions in the
Pacific, is part of China’s SSA network.115

counterspace targeting, ballistic missile early warning, spaceflight safety, satellite anomaly resolution,and space debris monitoring.113,114
Electronic Warfare. The PLA considers EW capabilities
key assets for modern warfare and its doctrine emphasizes using EW weapons to suppress or deceive enemy
equipment.116 The PLA routinely incorporates jamming
and anti-jamming techniques against multiple communication, radar systems, and GPS satellite systems inexercises.117 China continues to develop jammers dedicated to targeting SAR aboard military reconnaissance
platforms, including LEO satellites.118,119 Additionally,
China is developing jammers to target SATCOM over arange of frequency bands, including military protected
extremely high frequency communications.120,121
Directed Energy Weapons. China likely is pursuinglaser weapons to disrupt, degrade, or damage satellites and their sensors and possibly already has
a limited capability to employ laser systems against
satellite sensors. China likely will field a ground-basedlaser weapon that can counter low-orbit space-based
sensors by 2020, and by the mid-to-late 2020s, it may
field higher power systems that extend the threat tothe structures of non-optical satellites.122,123,124,125,126
Cyberspace Threats. China emphasizes offensive
cyberspace capabilities as key assets for integrated
warfare and could use its cyberwarfare capabilities
to support military operations against space-based
assets.127,128 For example, the PLA could employ its
cyberattack capabilities to establish information
dominance in the early stages of a conflict to constrain an adversary’s actions, or slow its mobilization

Chinese International SSA Cooperation
China leads the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization—a multilateral organization with rotating
leadership whose members include emerging spacefaring nations such as Iran—that oversees a spacesurveillance project known as the Asia-Pacific Ground-Based Optical Space Object Observation System(APOSOS). As part of the project, China provided three 15 cm telescopes to Peru, Pakistan, and Iran thatare capable of tracking objects in LEO and GEO. All tasking information and subsequent observation datacollected is funneled through the Chinese Academy of Science’s National Astronomical Observatory of
China. APOSOS has near full coverage of GEO and LEO. The organization is planning on improving opticalsystem capabilities, coverage, and redundancy.129,130

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and deployment by targeting network-based command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR),
logistics, and commercial activities.

Orbital Threats. China is developing sophisticatedon-orbit capabilities, such as satellite inspection
and repair, at least some of which could also function as a weapon. China has launched multiple satellites to conduct scientific experiments on space
maintenance technologies and it is conducting
space debris cleanup research.133,134,135,136
Kinetic Energy Threats. The PLA has an operational
ground-based ASAT missile intended to target LEO
satellites. China has also formed military units thathave begun training with ASAT missiles.137,138,139

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

The PLA also plays a role in cyberespionage targeting foreign space entities, consistent with broader
state-sponsored industrial and technical espionage
to increase the level of technologies and expertiseavailable to support military research and development and acquisition. The PLA unit responsible
for conducting signals intelligence has supported
cyberespionage against U.S. and European satellite
and aerospace industries since at least 2007.131,132
China’s 2007 test of its ground-based ASAT missile
destroyed one of its own defunct satellites in LEO.140,141
The graphic depicts the orbits of trackable debris generated by the test 1 month after the event. The white line
represents the International Space Station’s orbit.

a ballistic trajectory with a peak altitude above
30,000 km. No new satellites were released fromthe object, and the launch profile was inconsistent
with traditional SLVs, ballistic missiles, or sounding rocket launches for scientific research.142

Other Counterspace Technology Development.
China probably intends to pursue additional ASAT
weapons capable of destroying satellites up to GEO.
In 2013, China launched an object into space on

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RUSSIA“Only with support from space will it be possible for the Armed Forces to reach maximum effectiveness…The Russian President has repeatedly stressed that our army and navy must not only meet therequirements of today, but to [sic] be prepared for tomorrow’s means of conducting armed struggle.
The solution of this problem doubtlessly depends directly on the availability of a modern orbital
constellation of military satellites.”–Russian Defense Minister Sergey Shoygu, March 6, 2018143

Russia’s space program is robust but more narrowly
focused and its budget more limited than China’s
because of competing priorities with broader military modernization efforts.145 Nonetheless, over thelast two decades, Moscow has been developing asuite of counterspace weapons capabilities, including EW to deny, degrade, and disrupt communications and navigation and DEW to deny the use of
space-based imagery.146,147 Russia is probably alsobuilding a ground-based missile capable of destroying satellites in orbit.148,149 Similar to China, Russia
supports space arms control agreements to prevent
weaponization of space, even as it views space as a
warfighting domain.150

Image Source: AFP

Russia views its space program as a longstanding
example of its leadership on the international stage.
Russia is a pioneer of space, dating back to its launchof the first satellite, Sputnik-1, and placing the first person into orbit around Earth, Yuri Gagarin. The International Space Station’s reliance on Russian launchvehicles to send astronauts to and from the station
reinforces Moscow’s perspective that it remains a
global leader in space. In the years following the endof the Cold War, a combination of budgetary constraints and technological setbacks caused a decayof Russian space capabilities including space-based
remote sensing and satellite navigation.144
Sputnik-1, the world’s first manmade satellite, launched
in 1957 and was part of the competition between the
United States and Soviet Union for dominance in space.

Strategy, Doctrine,and Intent
Russian military doctrine and authoritative writings clearly articulate that Russia views space as a
warfighting domain and that achieving supremacy
in space will be a decisive factor in winning future
conflicts.151,152,153,154 Russian military thinkers believe
the importance of space will continue to expand

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23As Russia continues to modernize its military, it
will increasingly incorporate space-provided services across its forces. Russia possesses a robust
space program with a strong foundation of technical knowledge and expertise fostered by over 60
years of experience in space. However, Moscow
wants to avoid becoming overly reliant on space
to carry out its national defense mission.160,161,162
Moscow views space as a key enabler of U.S. precision strike and military force projection capabilities. When paired with U.S. missile defense
systems, Russia believes U.S. space-enabled,
conventional precision strike capabilities undermine strategic stability.163,164 At the same time,
Russia views America’s perceived dependence
on space as the “Achilles heel” of U.S. military
power, which can be exploited to achieve Russian conflict objectives.165 Russia is therefore
pursuing counterspace systems to neutralize
or deny U.S. space-based services, both militaryand commercial, as a means of offsetting a perceived U.S. military advantage and is developing
an array of weapons designed to interfere withor destroy an adversary’s satellites.166,167
Russian counterspace doctrine involves employing
ground, air, and space-based systems to target anadversary’s satellites, with attacks ranging from
temporary jamming or sensor blinding to destruction of enemy spacecraft and supporting infrastructure.168,169,170,171 Moscow believes developing
and fielding counterspace capabilities will deter
aggression by adversaries reliant upon space.172 If
deterrence fails, Russia believes its counterspaceforces will offer its military leaders the ability tocontrol escalation of a conflict through selective
targeting of adversary space systems.173,174

24

Key Space and Counterspace Organizations
In 2015, Moscow reorganized its military and civilian space programs. Russia created the Aerospace
Forces by merging the former Air Force and Aerospace Defense Troops. This new force includes Russia’s
space forces, who have the mission to conduct spacelaunches and maintain the ballistic missile early warning system, the satellite control network, and the spacesurveillance network.175,176,177 The defense minister
stated the change was “prompted by a shift in the center of gravity… towards the aerospace sphere” and as acounter to the U.S. Prompt Global Strike doctrine.178,179
Image Source: Russia Ministry of Defense/Creative Commons 4.0 Copyrightbecause of the growing role of precision weaponsand satellite-supported information networks in all
types of conflict.155,156 Meanwhile, Russia regularly
expresses concern over the weaponization of space
and is pursuing legal, binding space arms control
agreements to curb what it sees as U.S. weaponization of outer space.157,158,159

The Russian Space Force Commander, Gen-Col Aleksandr Golovko, oversaw the launch of a GLONASS-M
navigation satellite in November 2018.180 Gen-Col
Golovko is the first commander of the Space Forces,
which are subordinate to the Aerospace Forces. 181

Russia’s reorganization of its civil space program wasdesigned to improve upon inefficiencies across thesector, and now Russia’s space industry is almost
exclusively owned by the Russian state.182 State corporation Roscosmos is the executive body responsible for overall management of the space industry
and carries out Russia’s civil space program. The
space industry is primarily composed of 75 design
bureaus, enterprises, and companies that carry out
research, design, and production of its space technologies, satellites, and space launch vehicles forboth civil and military purposes.183,184

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Space and Counterspace Capabilities
Space Launch Capabilities
Russia is updating and improving its space launchcapabilities to enhance reliability, alleviate environmental concerns, increase manufacturing efficiencies, and support future human spaceflightand deep-space exploration missions.185,186

Russia’s updates to its medium- and heavy-liftlaunch fleets include modular SLVs, which allow
Russia to tailor SLVs to the specific configuration
required for each customer. Unlike China, Russia has not focused on new light-lift SLV designs,
usually choosing to launch small satellites on
multi-payload launches. Russia is also in theearly stages of developing a super heavy-lift SLV
similar to the U.S. Saturn-V or the newer Space
Launch System to support proposed crewed
lunar and Mars exploration missions.187

Russian Space Launch Vehicles

80

20

Proton-M

Angara-A5

Soyuz-5*

Zenit-3SL

Soyuz-2.1V

Soyuz-2.1B

Soyuz-2.1A

30

Rokot

40

Angara-1.2*

50

Soyuz-FG

60

Zenit-3F

70

Energia-5*

Meters10

Light Lift
<2 metric tons

Medium Lift
2–20 metric tons

Heavy Lift
20–50 metric tons

Super Heavy Lift
>50 metric tons

* Developmental
Depicted payload capacity is approximate and varies depending on planned orbit.

Russia has focused on maintaining its own military and civil satellites on orbit and selling launch services commercially. Russia usually launches small satellites as multiple payloads on heavier rockets but sometimes uses the Rokot
light-lift vehicle to launch smaller payloads into LEO. Russia’s heavy-lift vehicles are mostly used for launching into
GEO or HEO. The developmental Energia SLV, designed to boost the Russian space shuttle into orbit, was discontinued in the 1980s and revived in 2016 to support proposed lunar missions.
Visualization: DIA, D3 Design • 1811-19985

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Russian Space Launch Sites and Key Satellite Control Centers
Satellite Control Center

VENEZUELASpace Launch Site
Leased Site
Barents
Sea

KourouPlesetsk

RUSSIA

Moscow

Moscow

Laptev
Sea

Kara
Sea

AT L A N T I C

OCEANGUYANASURINAME
FrenchGuiana(France)

YakutskBRAZIL

Yaniseysk

Dombarovskiy

AstanaVostochnyy

0250

500 Kilometers

KAZAKHSTAN
Baikonur
All locations are approximate. Boundary representation is not necessarily authoritative.
Depiction of claims on this map is without prejudice to U.S. non-recognition of any such claims.

0

1,000 2,000 Kilometers

Russia owns three of its launch sites and leases one from Kazakhstan. The European Space Agency has also contracted Russia to conduct launches from Kourou, French Guiana. Russia’s space control sites are spread acrossRussia to enable effective satellite C2.
Visualization: DIA, D3 Design • 1811-19970

Russia’s human spaceflight program started in thelate 1950s and saw its first major milestone with thelaunch of Yuri Gagarin aboard the Vostok-1 spacecraft in 1961. Since that historic launch, the Soviet
Union and then the Russian Federation has launched
the Salyut, Almaz, and Mir Space Stations. As of
2018, Russia is a major player in human spaceflightthrough their work with the International Space Station, which is completely reliant on Russian support
to launch astronauts to the station.188,189,190,191

Image Source: AFP

Human Spaceflight andSpace Exploration

Russia’s Soyuz MS-07 carries astronauts to the International Space Station, December 2017.

ISR, Navigation, andCommunications Capabilities
Russia numbers third in the world, behind the UnitedStates and China, in terms of operational satellites, withover 140 in various orbits.192 These systems provide Rus-

26

sia’s military with satellite communications, high-resolution imagery, navigation, ballistic missile early warning,
electronic intelligence, and meteorological services.

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Russian Satellites on Orbit, as of 1 May 201880

193,194,195,196

77

70
60
50
40
28

30

24

20
12
10

5

0
Communications

Relay†

ISR

Military

Civil

Navigation

Science &Technology‡

Commercial† Relay satellites enable communication between satellites outside the reception area of a ground station.
‡ Science and technology satellites are used for scientific research or testing new space technologies.
Visualization: DIA, D3 Design • 1811-19937

Since the end of the Cold War, Russia has sought
to sustain its atrophying ISR and remote sensing
satellite fleet, despite funding shortfalls, economic
sanctions, and technological setbacks. Thoughpossessing fewer satellites than China, the individual capabilities of Russian ISR and remote sensing
satellites can surpass China’s. The Russian military owns and operates about half of those, but
the military may also be able to leverage civil andcommercial ISR and remote sensing satellites tosupplement military-dedicated capabilities. Thesesystems currently support ongoing military operations in Syria but can also monitor U.S. and NATO
forces operating globally.197,198
Russia maintains a SATCOM fleet that provides resilient communications services to civil, government,
and military users within its borders and worldwide.

Russia continues to lag behind other worldwide providers, even though it has taken some steps toward
SATCOM modernization, such as establishing partnerships with European satellite manufacturers to
improve satellite reliability and capabilities.199,200
Russia views its Global Navigation Satellite System(GLONASS) as supporting its economic development and national security interests.201 The constellation currently provides PNT services worldwide. Following the constellation’s deterioration in
the late 1990s, Russia committed to reconstituting
GLONASS during the 2000s and regained full operating capability in 2011.202 Russia now maintains its
GLONASS constellation with launches as satellites
become inoperative while it continues development of next-generation GLONASS satellites, promising higher accuracy.203

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27Image Source: Russia Ministry of Defense/Creative Commons 4.0 CopyrightRussian Aerospace Forces monitor GLONASS satellites at the Titov Main Test and Space Systems Control Center in
Krasnoznamensk outside Moscow.204

Counterspace Capabilities
Space Situational Awareness. Russia’s space surveillance network, composed of a variety of telescopes,
radars, and other sensors, is capable of searching for,tracking, and characterizing satellites in all Earth orbits.
This network allows Russia to support missions including intelligence collection, counterspace targeting,spaceflight safety, satellite anomaly resolution, andspace debris monitoring. Some of these sensors also
perform a ballistic missile early warning function.205

Electronic Warfare. The Russian military views EW as
an essential tool for gaining and maintaining information superiority over its adversaries, allowing Russia toseize the operational initiative by disrupting adversarycommand, control, communications, and intelligencecapabilities. Russia has fielded a wide range of groundbased EW systems to counter GPS, tactical communications, satellite communications, and radars.206
Mobile jammers include radar jammers and SATCOM
jammers. Russia has aspirations to develop and fielda full spectrum of EW capabilities to counter Western

Russian International SSA Efforts
Russia leads the nongovernmental organization International Scientific Optical Network (ISON), which
has the largest foreign network of ground-based optical space surveillance sensors. ISON can trace its
existence back to 2001, and participants now include international academic and scientific organizations
and government entities such as Roscosmos. The Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics coordinates
sensor tasking and fuses information from nearly 100 ground-based optical sensors on 40 observatories
spread across 16 countries.207,208

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Image Source: Russia Ministry of Defense/Creative Commons 4.0 Copyright

C4ISR and weapons guidance systems with new technology, data transfer, and capabilities for peacetime
and wartime use by 2020.209,210

Russia has invested heavily in developing sophisticated electronic warfare capabilities, including this
Krashuka-4 jammer.

Orbital Threats. Russia continues to researchand develop sophisticated on-orbit capabilities
that could serve dual-use purposes. For example,
inspection and servicing satellites can be capable ofclosely approaching satellites to inspect and potentially fix issues causing malfunctions; this same
technology could also be used to approach anothercountry’s satellite and conduct an attack that resultsin temporary or permanent damage.217 In 2017,
Russia deployed what it described as an “inspector
satellite capable of diagnosing the technical condition of a Russian satellite from the closest possible
distance”; however, its behavior is inconsistent withon-orbit inspection activities or space situationalawareness capabilities.218,219,220
Ground-based Kinetic Energy Threats. Russia
likely is developing a ground-based, mobile missile system capable of destroying space targets in
LEO and ballistic missiles.221,222 This weapon system is likely to be operational within the next several years.223

Image Source: SPUTNIK/AFP

Directed Energy Weapons. Russia likely is pursuing laser weapons to disrupt, degrade, or damage satellites and their sensors. Prior to July 2018,
Russia began delivering a laser weapon system
to the Aerospace Forces that likely is intended
for an ASAT mission. In public statements, President Vladimir Putin called it a “new type of strategic weapon,” and the Russian Defense Ministry
asserted that it is capable of “fighting satellites inorbit.”211,212,213,214 Russia is also developing an airborne ASAT laser weapon system to use against
space-based missile defense sensors.215

Cyberspace Threats. Since at least 2010, the Russian
military has prioritized the development of forces
and capabilities, including cyberspace operations,for what it terms “information confrontation,” which
is a holistic concept for ensuring information superiority. The weaponization of information is a key
aspect of this strategy and is employed in times ofpeace, crisis, and war. Russia considers the information sphere to be strategically decisive and has taken
steps to modernize its military’s information attackand defense organizations and capabilities.216

Russian laser weapon likely intended for use against satellites, July 2018.

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OTHER

SPACE

CHALLENGES
Iran
Iran recognizes the strategic value of space andcounterspace capabilities and will attempt to denyan adversary use of space during a conflict. Tehran has publically acknowledged it has developed
capabilities to jam communications and GPS signals.224,225,226 Tehran may also contribute to the proliferation of jamming equipment. Since 2010, IranElectronics Industries has marketed several GPS
jammers on its website.227

Tehran states it has developed sophisticated capabilities, including SLVs and communications andremote sensing satellites, but its SLVs are only able
to launch microsatellites into LEO and have provenunreliable. Nonetheless, Iran has had a few successful launches of the two-stage Safir SLV since its
first attempt in 2008. It has also revealed the larger
two-stage Simorgh SLV, which could serve as a test
bed for developing intercontinental ballistic missile(ICBM) technologies. Because of the inherent overlap in technology between ICBMs and SLVs, Iran’s

Image Source: AFP

Tehran’s pursuit of a national space program supports both civilian and military goals, including
boosting national pride, economic development,
and military modernization.228 The Iran Space Agency
and Iran Space Research Center—which are subordinate to the Ministry of Information and Communications Technology—along with the Ministry of
Defense and Armed Forces Logistics oversee thecountry’s SLV and satellite development programs.
Iran is also seeking to improve its space object tracking capabilities and, in 2005, joined the Asia-PacificSpace Cooperation Organization.229,230,231,232,233

Iran launched its first satellite on its Safir space launchvehicle in February 2009.234

development of larger, more capable SLV boosters
remains a concern for a future ICBM capability. Also,these advancements could be applied to developing a basic ground-based ASAT missile, should Iranchoose to do so in the future.235,236,237,238

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31North Korea
North Korea’s space program is administered by astate-run civilian agency, the National Aerospace
Development Administration.239 North Korea’s spacelaunch complex on the west coast, the Sohae Satellite Launching Station and associated space tracking facilities in Pyongyang both supported satellite
launch cycles in 2012 and 2016.240,241 An older spacelaunch site on the east coast has not been used for alaunch since 2009.242

Although North Korea placed two satellites inorbit and has in the past articulated further space
ambitions, their program enabled them to test
technology used in ballistic missiles under theguise of peaceful use of space.247,248,249 These systems provided North Korea with valuable dataapplicable to the development of long-range,
multistage ballistic missiles.250

32

Image Source: AFP

Similar to Iran, North Korea will try to deny anadversary use of space during a conflict. North
Korea has demonstrated non-kinetic counterspacecapabilities, including GPS and satellite communication jamming.243,244,245 North Korea also has ballistic missiles and space launch vehicles that canreach orbit and could, in theory, be used to target
satellites in a conflict.246

A Taepo Dong 2/Unha-3 space launch vehicle preparing
for launch, April 2012. The launch failed, but an attempt
later that year was successful.251

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OUTLOOK
Today, space has become a seamless part ofmany military and civilian activities. The advantages the United States holds in space capabilities
will drive some nations to improve their abilities
to access and operate in space. Moreover, someactors will seek counterspace capabilities thattarget the perceived United States and allied reliance on space, including the ability to use securesatellite communications, precision strike capabilities, and ISR assets.
China and Russia will continue to improve theirspace programs, including ISR, communications,space launch, and human spaceflight. Commercially, both will compete internationally to build
satellites and supply space launch, navigation,and ISR services.
Beijing and Moscow will continue to see space asintegral to winning modern wars. They are developing systems that pose a threat to freedom of actionin space. Both will continue their efforts to enhancetheir space and counterspace capabilities, and better integrate them into their respective militaries.

Iran and North Korea will avail themselves ofspace-based services, such as ISR, communications, and navigation, to increase their capabilities
in civil and military domains.252 Both will maintaintheir ability to conduct EW against adversaries
and theoretically could use their missile and SLVadvancements to target orbiting satellites.
Globally, the space industry will continue toexpand as technological and cost barriers fall
and international partnerships for joint production grow. State, non-state, and commercial
actors increasingly will have access to information from space.253 The number of satellites anddebris on orbit will grow concurrently, making
tracking satellites, discriminating threats from
non-threats, and predicting and preventing collisions a greater challenge.254,255
As the number of spacefaring nations grows andas some actors integrate space and counterspacecapabilities into military operations, these trends
will pose a challenge to U.S. space dominance andpresent new risks for assets on orbit.

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APPENDIX A: Implications of Debris
and Orbital Collisions
Approximately 21,000 large objects—which are atleast 10 cm in size—are tracked and cataloguedin Earth’s orbit, and only about 1,800 of them are
active satellites. The remaining objects are debris,which includes derelict spacecraft, upper stages of
SLVs, and remnants from explosions or collisions.
The length of time debris remains in orbit depends
on the altitude, ranging from a few years for objects
below 600 kilometers to over a century for objects
at higher orbits. The vast majority of debris harmlessly burns up in the atmosphere upon reentry.256

Space debris can cause damage and destruction
to satellites and spacecraft, as well as increase
costs if satellite manufacturers add additionalshielding and fuel to allow for more frequent
avoidance maneuvers. Between 1998 and 2017,
the International Space Station, which is in LEO,
has maneuvered at least 25 times to avoid potential orbital collisions.258 With an expected increasein large constellations of satellites and spacedebris, there is higher potential for satellite collisions, particularly in LEO.259
The increase in number of objects on orbit has implications for policymakers worldwide and is encouraging the development of space debris removal
technology.260 This technology is dual-use because
it could be used to damage another satellite.261

Image Source: NASA

Prior to 2007, most debris was from explosions ofupper stages of SLVs. Today, more than one thirdof all catalogued debris is from two major events:
China’s destruction of a defunct satellite in 2007
and the accidental collision between a U.S. communications satellite and a defunct Russian satellite in2009.257 Breakups, collisions, and explosions fromderelict objects will continue to add to the amountof space debris on orbit.

Computer rendering of tracked large objects in Earth’s orbit. Roughly 90 percent of the objects are orbital debris,
not active satellites.

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APPENDIX B: Counterspace Threats
Counterspace Continuum

D&D
Denial andDeception

Directed Energy
Weapons

Ground Site
Attacks

REVERSIBLE

NONREVERSIBLE

Space Situational
Awareness
Electronic
WarfareOrbital Threats

Cyberspace
Threats

Nuclear Detonationin Space
Kinetic Energy
Threats
Visualization: DIA, D3 Design • 1811-20013

The counterspace continuum represents the rangeof threats to space-based services, arranged fromreversible to nonreversible effects. Reversible effects
from denial and deception and EW are non-destructive and temporary, and the system remains capableof resuming normal operations after the incident.
DEW, cyberspace threats, and orbital threats cancause temporary or permanent effects. Nonreversible effects from kinetic energy threats, physicalattacks against space-related ground infrastructure,and nuclear detonation in space result in degradation or physical destruction of a space capability. In
addition to counterspace capabilities already discussed, several others can be used to deny, degrade,or destroy space systems.

36

Denial and Deception: Actors can use knowledgeof when satellites pass overhead to camouflage andconceal their activities on the ground.
Ground Site Attack: An actor could attack a groundsite using physical means, disrupting an ability tocommunicate with and operate satellites.
Nuclear Detonation in Space: Countries that canlaunch a nuclear weapon with a long range rocket,
such as an ICBM or SLV, likely are capable of conducting a high-altitude nuclear detonation. Both theUnited States and Soviet Union detonated nuclear
weapons above the atmosphere in the early 1960s.262

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APPENDIX C: Glossary of Acronyms
APOSOS

Asia-Pacific Ground-Based Optical Space Object Observation System

ASAT

Anti-satellite

C2

Command and control

C4ISR

Command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance

CNSA

China National Space Administration

DEW

Directed energy weapon

EW

Electronic warfare

GEO

Geosynchronous Earth orbit

GLONASS

Global Navigation Satellite System

GPS

Global Positioning System

HEO

Highly elliptical orbit

ICBM

Intercontinental ballistic missile

ISRIntelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance

KZ

Kuaizhou space launch vehicle

LEO

Low Earth orbit

LM

Long March space launch vehicle

MEO

Medium Earth orbit

PLA

People's Liberation Army

PNT

Position, navigation, and timing

SAR

Synthetic aperture radar

SASTIND

China's State Administration for Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense

SATCOM

Satellite communications

SLVSpace launch vehicle

SSA

Space situational awareness

SSF

Strategic Support ForceD E F E N S E

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37

I NT ENTIONA LLY LEFT B LA NK

C H A L L E N G E S T O S E C U R I T Y I N S PAC E

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159 “MFA Website Provides Overview of Policy on Prevention ofPlacement of Weapons in Outer Space”; Moscow Ministry of Foreign
Affairs of the Russian Federation; 6 July 2017; http://www.mid.ru.
160 “Impact of Information and Space Superiority on High-Tech
Military Operations”; Vozdushno-Kosmicheskaya Oborona; 14 July
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176 “Russia's Space Troops: Armaments and Facilities”; Voyennoye
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177 Durnovo, Aleksey; "Aerospace Defense Troops Space Com¬mand's Primary Mission Is to Ensure Russia's Security in Space";
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178 Golts, Alexander; “Russia's Aerospace Forces Will Never TakeOff”; The Moscow Times Online; 10 August 2015; http://www.
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179 “New branch of Armed Forces, Aerospace Forces, created in
Russia – Shoygu”; Interfax; 3 August 2015; http://www.interfax.com/.

161 “Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation, approved by RussianFederation President V. Putin”; Official website of Russian Federation
President; 31 December 2014.

180 “Aerospace Forces successfully launch Soyuz-2 vehicle from
Plesetsk Cosmodrome”; Russian Ministry of Defense; 4 November
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162 Col. S.G. Chekinov and Lt. Gen. S.A. Bogdanov; “Russia:
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181 “Shoigu: a new kind of armed forces was created in Russia - Air
and Space Forces”; TASS; 3 August 2015.

163 “Missile Defense Missiles and Visas - The US Refused Russian

General Staff Officers Entry Into the Country”; Moscow Rossiyskaya
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164 “The Clowns Are Demolishing the Circus: US Missile Defense andthe International Security System in Crisis”; Moscow Izvestiya Online;
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165 “This is the Achilles’ Heel of Washington’s Military Power”; Sputnik News Online; 30 January 2016; https://sputniknews.com/military/
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166 “How They Will Wage War in the Future: Tanks Rumbled Acrossthe Sky”; Moscow MK Online in Russian; 9 August 2016.
167 “Star Wars: Will Russia Find an Antidote to the X-37; the Space
Arms Race Enters a New Orbit”; Moscow Svobodnaya Pressa;
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168 “RF, US, and PRC Antisatellite Weapons and Jammers as Space
Arms Race Heats Up”; Svobodnaya Pressa; 28 October 2018; http://
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169 Selivanov, V.V.; “Choosing Priorities in Developing Kinetic Energy
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170 “Space Is a Battlefield: Krasukha-2 Counter-Space Broadband
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171 “Russian Missile Defense Advances, Status of A-235 NUDOL

Advanced Missile Defense System”; Gazeta; 31 August 2016; http://
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172 Selivanov, V.V.; “Choosing Priorities in Developing Kinetic Energy

182 “Putin Approves Roscosmos Merger with Conglomerate”; Space
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183 “State Space Corporation to Hire 500 Staff”; Interfax; 16

November 2015.
184 “State Corporation Organizations”; State Corporation Roscosmos Website; www.roscosmos.ru/24028/.
185 “Russian Space Launch Vehicles”; GlobalSecurity.org; https://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/russia/launch.htm.
186 “The future of the Russian space program”; Sputnik News;
30 November 2011; https://sputniknews.com/infographics/20111130169141926/.
187 “2017 Energia Annual Report”; Energia Corporation; https://www.energia.ru/en/corporation/inf_shareh.html.
188 “Yuri Gagarin: First Man in Space”; NASA; https://www.nasa.gov/
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189 “Origin of the Vostok Spacecraft”; Russian Space Web; http://
russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_manned_first.html.
190 “Russian space program in the first half of the 20th century”; Russian
Space Web; http://russianspaceweb.com/russia_2000_2010.html.
191 “A History of Manned Space Missions”; Windows 2 the Universe;
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192 “Satellite Database”; Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS);
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193 “Luch-5B”; Gunter’s Space Page; https://space.skyrocket.de/
doc_sdat/luch-5b.htm.

Weapons for Military Conflicts”; Military Thought, Volume 4: 2017; 31

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194 “Satellite Database”; Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS);
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195 “Garpun (14F136)”; Gunter’s Space Page; https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/garpun.htm.
196 “Luch-5A”; Gunter’s Space Page; https://space.skyrocket.de/
doc_sdat/luch-5a.htm.
197 “Military Expert Anton Lavrov Documents Need for Optical Re-

connaissance Satellite Array”; Izvestiya Online; 22 September 2017.
198 “Russia involves 10 reconnaissance satellites in Syria operation– General Staff”; TASS; 17 November 2015; http://tass.com/science/837273.
199 “Russian communications satellites”; Russian Space Web; http://

www.russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_comsats.html.
200 Russia Military Power: Building a Military to Support Great Power
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ww.dia.mil.
201 “GLONASS Status Update”; 39th Annual Precise Time and TimeInterval (PTTI) Meeting; November 2007; https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/
fulltext/u2/a485520.pdf.
202 “Glonass-K Project;” ISS-Reshetnev; 12 October 2018; https://www.iss-reshetnev.ru/projects.
203 “GLONASS Programme Update;” International Committee on

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (ICG): Annual Meeting 2016; 12
October 2018; http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/icg/2016/icg11/01.pdf.
204 “Titov Main Test and Space Systems Control Centre marks 60th
anniversary”; Ministry of Defence of the ww Russian Federation; 4October 2017; http://eng.mil.ru.
205 Griesbach, Jacob and Vallado, David; “Simulating Space Sur-veillance Networks”; Proceedings from the American AstronauticalSociety (AAS) Conference; 4 August 2011.
206 Russia Military Power: Building a Military to Support Great Power Aspirations; Defense Intelligence Agency; 28 June 2017; http://ww.dia.mil.
207 Agapov, Vladimir; “Second Fragmentation of Titan 3C Transtage
SSN#2692”; IAA Space Debris Committee Meeting; 27 March 2018.
208 Mokhatkin, A., I. Molotov, V. Voropaev, G. Borovin, S. Andrievsky,

N. Dorokhov, and V. Agletdinov; “Performance Analysis of the Large
Space Debris Tracking Telescope in the North Caucasus After theSecond First Light”; Proc. 7th European Conference on Space Debris, Darmstadt, Germany; 18-21 April 2017.
209 “Radioelectronic Warfare Assets have been Developed that canHide Topol Launch Positions from Space Surveillance"; Militarynews.
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210 "Russia tests satellite jammer system"; UAWire; 28 October
2018; https://uawire.org/russia-tests-mobile-anti-satellite-system.
211 O’Connor, Tom; “Russia’s Military Has Laser Weapons That
Can Take Out Enemies In Less Than A Second”; Newsweek; 12
March 2018; http://www.newsweek.com/russia-military-laser-weapons-take-out-enemies-less-second-841091.

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214 “Peresvet combat laser can fight satellites - Russian Defense
Ministry”; Interfax-AVN; 5 December 2018.
215 “Statement for the Record: Worldwide Threat Assessment of the
US Intelligence Community”; Office of the Director of National Intelligence; 13 February 2018.
216 Russia Military Power: Building a Military to Support Great Power Aspirations; Defense Intelligence Agency; 28 June 2017; http://ww.dia.mil.
217 Mizokami, Kyle; “Is Russia’s Mysterious New Satellite a Space
Weapon?”; Popular Mechanics; 16 August 2018; https://www.popularmechanics.com.
218 Poblete, Yleem D.S.; “United States Remarks at the Conference
on Disarmament as Delivered by Assistant Secretary of State forArms Control, Verification and Compliance”; U.S. Mission Geneva; 14
August 2018.
219 “Russia Tests Military Satellite Capable of Approaching other
Spacecraft – Newspaper”; Interfax; 26 October 2017.
220 “Russia develops co-orbital anti-satellite capability”; IHS Jane’s; 2018.
221 “Statement for the Record: Worldwide Threat Assessment of
the U.S. Intelligence Community”; Office of the Director of National
Intelligence; 11 May 2017; p.9.
222 Yaroslav Vyatkin; “Prompt Global Strike’ Russian-Style”; Argumenty Nedeli Online; 21 April 2015; http://argumenti.ru/; p.1.
223 “Statement for the Record: Worldwide Threat Assessment of the
US Intelligence Community”; Office of the Director of National Intelligence; 13 February 2018.
224 “Iran: Official Says Satellite Jamming Signals, Radio Frequency
Radiation Levels Not Health Concern”; IRNA; 21 July 2018; URL:
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225 "Iran Unveils New Achievements in Drone Industry"; Fars News
Agency; 26 September 2018; http://en.farsnews.com.
226 Harrison, Todd, et al; Space Threat Assessment 2018; Center
for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS); 12 April 2018; https://www.csis.org/analysis/space-threat-assessment-2018; p. 16-18.
227 "Products"; ieimil.ir; 12 January 2011.
228 “DM: Iran To Give Crushing Response To Enemies' Space
Threats”; Fars News; 13 November 2018.
229 Chow, Tiffany; “Iranian Space Launch Capabilities Fact Sheet”;
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230 "Republic space - Iran's satellite programe accelerates”; Jane'sIntelligence Review; 14 April 2011.
231 "Don't Count Iran's Nascent Space Capabilities Out"; World
Politics Review; 29 September 2016; www.worldpoliticsreview.com/
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232 "Iran Plans to Join 2 APSCO Projects”; Financial Tribune; 18 September 2017; financialtribune.com/articles/economy-sci-tech/72519/
iran-plans-to-join-2-apsco-projects.

212 “Space Forces Get Combat Laser System”; Interfax; 19 July
2018; www.interfax.com.

233 “Signing of APSCO Convention”; Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation
Organization; http://www.apsco.int/.

213 “U.S. warns on Russia's new space weapons”; Reuters; 14
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234 “Iran Successfully Launches Satellite Into Space, First Since2012”; Sputnik News; 2 February 2015.

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235 “Official: Iran Among 9 Top Satellites Manufacturers”; Fars News
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the US Intelligence Community”; Office of the Director of National
Intelligence; 13 February 2018.

236 Harrison, Todd, et al; Space Threat Assessment 2018; Center
for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS); 12 April 2018; https://www.csis.org/analysis/space-threat-assessment-2018; p. 16-18.

255 “Space Congestion Threatens to ‘Darken Skies’”; National
Defense Magazine; 28 June 2018; http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2018/6/28/viewpoint-space-congestion-threatensto-darken-skies.

237 "Republic space - Iran's satellite programe accelerates”; Jane'sIntelligence Review; 14 April 2011.
238 "Don't Count Iran's Nascent Space Capabilities Out"; World

256 “Frequently Asked Questions”; NASA Orbital Debris Program
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Politics Review; 29 September 2016; www.worldpoliticsreview.com/
trend-lines/20067/don-t-count-iran-s-nascent-space-capabilities-out.

257 “Frequently Asked Questions”; NASA Orbital Debris Program
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239 Kooser, Amanda; "North Korea Names Space Agency 'NADA,'
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258 Dr. Liou, J.-C.; “U.S. Space Debris Environment, Operations, andResearch Updates”; UN Office on Outer Space Activities; 9 February
2018; http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2018/
tech-14E.pdf.

240 “N. Korea Confirms Imminent Satellite Launch”; Agence France
Presse; 2 February 2016.

259 “Space Debris and Space Traffic Management”; The Aerospace
Corporation; https://aerospace.org.

241 Dominguez, Gabriel; “'Increased activity' spotted at North Korea's Sohae rocket launch site: 38 North”; Jane’s Defence Weekly;
10 October 2016.

260 “How to Collect Space Junk”; The Economist; 21 November 2018.

5 August 2016.

261 “Statement for the Record: Worldwide Threat Assessment of
the US Intelligence Community”; Office of the Director of National
Intelligence; 13 February 2018.

243 Waterman, Shaun; “North Korean Jamming of GPS shows system’s weakness”; The Washington Times; 23 August 2012.

262 Global Nuclear Landscape 2018; Defense Intelligence Agency;
February 2018; www.dia.mil.

242 “Corrections and Amplifications”; Wall Street Journal;

244 Williams, Martyn; “Report: DPRK Jams South Korean Satellite Comms”; North Korea Tech; 17 November 2012; http://www.northkoreatec.
org/2012/11/17/report-dprk-jams-south-kireab-satellite-comms/.
245 Shim, Elizabeth; "North Korea Jamming GPS Signals inSouth; Can Affect Planes, Cellphones"; UPI; 31 March 2016;
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246 Harrison, Todd, et al; Space Threat Assessment 2018; Center
for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS); 12 April 2018; https://www.csis.org/analysis/space-threat-assessment-2018.
247 Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea 2015; Office of theSecretary of Defense; 5 January 2016.
248 Harrison, Todd, et al; Space Threat Assessment 2018; Center
for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS); 12 April 2018; https://www.csis.org/analysis/space-threat-assessment-2018; p. 16-18.
249 Lotto Persio, Sophia; “Star Wars: North Korea Unveils Five-YearPlan to Conquer Space”; Newsweek; 30 October 2017.
250 “Ballistic and Cruise Missile Threat 2017;” Defense Intelligence
Ballistic Missile Analysis Committee/National Air and Space Intelligence Center; June 2017; p. 27.
251 Choe, Sang-Hun; “North Korea Sets Launch of a Long-Range
Rocket”; The New York Times; 3 February 2016.
252 “Statement for the Record: Worldwide Threat Assessment of
the US Intelligence Community”; Office of the Director of National
Intelligence; 13 February 2018.
253 “Statement for the Record: Worldwide Threat Assessment of
the US Intelligence Community”; Office of the Director of National
Intelligence; 13 February 2018.
254 “Statement for the Record: Worldwide Threat Assessment of

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