静岡県立大学
短期大学部
研究紀要第 13-1 号
1999 年度

Collocational Problems in EFL Learning.

45

Collocational Problems in EFL Learning.

Mika Higuchi
1. Introduction
In this paper I will discuss how teachers can help students in acquiring collocation, 'patterns of co-occurrence in a language'（Carter 1992:47）, in EFL（English as a foreign language）learning.
1. 1 Intended students
My argument here is targeted at teaching my students whose L 1 is Japanese and aged 18 to 20, who havelearned English under formal instruction for about seven years. Their levels of general English are assessed as being from high-beginning to lower-intermediate.
1. 2 Statistics of students' errors and problems
First I investigated to what extent collocation is a problem for my students. I collected thirty sets of written
texts（short essays and personal letters）by my students. I divided all errors and problems into three
categories: grammatical errors, word-choice errors and collocational problems. As a result, among all theerrors and the problems, 68 percent are related to grammar, 23 percent word-choice and 9 percent collocation. Thus, the collocation is seemingly not a big problem for them, but it actually reveals that they have
not reached the level where collocation is seen as a major problem in their performance in writing.
1. 3 Students' level and collocational problem
Currently my students stay at elementary level in writing, hense they only produce simple phrases andsentences. Having examined those students' written texts, I have realised that collocational problems arelargely connected to the students' attempts to write creatively in L2. My students still need to improve theirgrammar as the framework in writing, which seems to be a part of their incapacity for allowing creativeness now.
Yet as many researchers argue, disproportional emphasis on grammar and neglect of vocabulary andcollocation in EFL learning lead students to be unable to produce sentences in communication（Rudzka etal. 1986:i）. As McCarthy says that 'collocation is an important organising principle in the vocabulary'（1990:12）, focusing on collocation acquisition is an appropriate perspective to enrich vocabulary and alsoenable them to produce naturally sounding sentences from the early stage.
1. 4 Raising consciousness of collocation
In consideration of my students' current ability in writing, my argument in this paper is how to raise theirconsciousness of collocation. To examine the problems and devise some exercises to develop their senseof collocation, I take up three examples with collocational problems from the students' written texts, and an
example phrase from a short story written in authentic English in sections 3 and 4 . In discussing problems
in each example, I will consult the Cobuild Corpus data. In section 4 , I will devise exercises made bysimplifying the data-driven learning approach（Johns 1991）. In section 2, I will review how collocation
has been discussed so far.

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Mika Higuchi

2. Background of collocation
In this section I will discuss how collocation has been treated to date.
2. 1 Origins of collocation
Let us first review from where the term collocation has come. Carter and McCarthy（1988:32）and Sinclair（1987:319）say that J. R. Firth first introduces the term, and develops the notion in which lexis is looked
at in syntagmatic, left-to-right unfolding of language. This tendency was the concern of a group of British
linguists in 1960s and 1970s（Carter and McCarthy 1988:32）.
2. 1. 1 Definition of collocation
Collocation is defined as 'how words typically occur with one another'（Carter and McCarthy 1988:32）,'a group of words which occur repeatedly in a language'（Carter 1992:47）, and 'the ways in which words
regularly occur near each other'（Diegnan et al. 1998:35）.
2. 2 Vocabulary teaching and collocation
Looking at general tendency of EFL teaching so far, as Rudzka et al. point out, vocabulary has been
considered as 'the area where relatively little has been done'（1981:i）. Carter and McCarthy claim that'vocabulary study has been neglected by linguists, applied linguists and language teachers'（1988: 1）.
Nevertheless, McCarthy tells us that 'in vocabulary teaching there is a high importance of collocation', anddescribes that 'the relationship of collocation is fundamental in the study of vocabulary, and collocation is
an important organising principle in the vocabulary of any language'（1990:12）. Next let us examine why
collocation was not or could not be a major area in EFL teaching in the past.
2. 2. 1 Collocation and native speaker's competence
McCarthy explains that 'knowledge of collocational appropriacy is part of native speaker's competence'（1990:13）, and 'knowledge of collocation is based on years of experiences of masses of data... Statements
about collocation, namely typical patterns of co-occurrence of words, can never be absolute'（1990:15）.
Therefore, Gairns and Redman see that 'there are inevitably differences of opinion as to what represents an
acceptable collocation in English'（1986:37）. These views reveal it is very difficult or in a sense even
impossible to gain universal recognition of acceptability in collocation among adult native speakers ofEnglish.
2. 2. 2 Challenges for non-native teachers
Because it takes years of exposure to the language for its native speakers to get the competence sufficientto acquire acceptable collocational knowledge, and that competence of collocational knowledge belongs
to native speaker's intuition（McCarthy 1990:15）, it may be natural for L2 learners to have this area
remain tricky and unmanageable for quite a long time. McCarthy says that 'even very advanced learners
often make inappropriate or unacceptable collocations'（1990:13）. Since EFL students mostly live outside English-speaking countries, many of their teachers are also non-native English speakers, who can be
regarded as very advanced learners, but not someone equipped with native-like competence. These views
may suggest that non-native English teachers generally do not have sufficient competence in this area;consequently they are unable to teach it to their students, hence they even sometimes avoid tackling thismatter.

Collocational Problems in EFL Learning.

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2. 3 Computer corpora
Nowadays, due to the remarkable development in computer technology, many sorts of and huge amount oflanguage data is computerised, which can compensate for non-native teachers' inability in this area. Cartersays that 'computers can supply helpful information at all levels [stylistic, syntactic, collocational andsemantic］'（1992:181）. He further states 'computer corpora give obvious utility to learners to know themost frequent words and, in pragmatic uses, where there are preferred patterns rather than absolute rules,
to know the most frequent collocational and stylisitc patterns'（1992:181- 2 ）. I will investigate someeffective ways to teach/learn collocation using the Cobuild Corpus data in section 4 .
2. 4 Reading activity with stories
Another reason which could produce collocational problems in EFL teaching/learning particularly in Japan is that we choose stories and novels more often than newspaper or magazine articles as lesson materials in language classrooms. Diegnan et al. say that 'novelists sometimes break usual collocational conventions in order to create special effects'（1998:45）. If students exclusively read novels and stories and theteacher does not point out each of the instances of unusualness and untypicalness in patterns of co-occurrence, it is natural for the students to come to have a poor sense of collocation; they cannot distinguishwhat are typical and what are not. Teachers ought to draw students' attention to collocations while readinga variety of genres of texts. The training in the receptive phase like this can be a starting point to become
conscious about collocation. I will present a device to suit this purpose in section 4 .
2. 5 Content words and grammatical words
Rudzka et al. mention that 'even after several years of strenuous effort students of foreign languages oftenknow many grammatical frames but have very little to put into them'（1981:i）. Now we ought to explore
the way to effectively teach vocabulary, which are put into the grammatical frames.
2. 5. 1 Features of content words
When we teach grammar, there are a certain number of grammatical rules and the total number of items toteach is never dramatically increased or changed. Likewise, grammatical words such as pronouns, articles
and conjunctions fall into a limited number of closed sets（Diegnan et al. 1998: 1）. On the contrary,'content words such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs fall into the category of open sets because
these words can be added to and they can change. Content words are used to provide content of the message and bear information.'（Diegnan et al. 1998: 1 - 2）. Hence, a teacher might be overwhelmed becauses/he understands that teaching content words is essential to make students able to convey and exchange
information using L2 , but there exist countless and fluxing numbers of content words; vocabulary teaching seemingly lacks a system needed to teach it. However, collocation can be the important organisingprinciple in teaching content words（McCarthy 1990:12）.
2. 5. 2 Teaching content words
We usually associate a word with its meaning. In addition, we should notice that 'what a word occurs with,i. e. collocation, is just as important as any other kind of statement about its meaning'（Carter and McCarthy
1988:33）. This comment clearly emphasises that we can explore an effective way of teaching vocabulary
through focusing on collocation patterns. To reinforce the importance of the notion of collocation in relation to grammar, Carter and McCarthy quote McIntosh who considers that recurring lexical patterns, i. e.
collocations, to be just as important as regular grammatical ones（Carter and McCarthy 1988:33）. CarterMika Higuchi

48

also quotes Hasan who describes lexis as more delicate grammar（1992:48）. Carter sees that their starting
point is to seek to study lexis in the same way as grammar; in the study of lexis, patterns of chaining isregarded as collocation, while in grammar it is structure（1992:48）.
Since we have gained relatively good results in teaching grammar, we should be able to well develop theway to teach vocabulary in terms of collocation, in which the point of view is nearer to our treatment ofgrammar. In this paper my argument is limited to problems of lexical collocations. In sections 3 and 4 I
will discuss how we can instil and develop collocational sense in students' L2 principles and competence.
3. Students' written production and problem analysis
In sections 3 and 4 , I will take up my students' written production to investigate in terms of collocation. In
section 3, I will study collocational problems from the viewpoint of communicative competence and social
contexts. In section 4, I will devise three exercises to develop students' sense of collocation.
There are four types of skills generally recognised in language learning: reading, listening, speaking
and writing. The former two are called receptive skills and the latter two productive skills（Brown
1994:217）. In sections 3 and 4 , I will mainly discuss collocational problems in learner's production inwriting, as Brown says that 'production data is publicly observable and is reflective of a learner's
underlying competence'（1993:204）.
3. 1 Hymes's four parameters of communicative competence
According to Hymes, 'competence is the ability to do something; to use language. And there are fourparameters of communicative competence: possibility, feasibility, appropriateness, and attestedness inactual performance'（Widdowson 1989:129）. Here I apply his four parameters in terms of writing ability,and examine students' vocabulary learning and collocational problems referring to the four parameters.
3. 2 The aim of problem analysis
Brown says that 'the study of the speech and writing of learners is largely the study of the errors of learners'（1993:204）. He also defines errors as 'a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of native speaker,
reflecting the inlerlanguage competence of the learner'（1993:204）. We can regard a collocational problem as a noticeable deviation from the adult collocation of a native speaker in terms of Brown's view of
error analysis.
The merit of error analysis is finding some keys to the understanding of the process of second language
acquisition because a learner's errors provide the researchers evidence of how language is learned andacquired（Brown 1993:205）. Thus, also in the area of collocation, obtaining the keys and pieces of evidence through problem analysis can enable us to find out students' inner system of L2 collocational acquisition and create effective strategies to a more native-like system.
3. 3 Interlanguage
Like many other aspects of EFL learning, collocational problems can be seen as revealing of interlanguage.
However, after examining a good number of students' written texts, I can say that only those students who
have reached upper-intermediate level seem to make clear-cut collocational problems. Collocational problems seem to be related to students' attempts to creatively express their thoughts by using their own words
in L2 . While students remain at the elementary level, their L2 texts are written mostly copying lesson
materials: there are a few collocational problems and likewise there is very little creativeness. AlthoughCollocational Problems in EFL Learning.

49

Brown considers that 'interlanguage falls between L1 and L2 ', my analysis has convinced me that theinterlanguage system of a student who makes relatively many collocational problems is closer to L2 .
3. 4 Collocation in social clichés
Next, I will analyse an inappropriate collocation used as a social cliché in students' production.
3. 4. 1 A closing expression
Let us look at an example written by a student（1）Take care of your health.
There are totally 1175 instances of the node for take care, including inflected forms, but none of take careof your health in the Cobuild Corpus data. However, I have seen（1）as a closing expression in mystudents' personal letters several times.（1）is grammatically acceptable but collocationally problematic.
Each writer obviously confuses（1）with（2）Take care of yourself. Or more frequently and colloquially,（3）Take care.
As Cambridge International Dictionary of English tells,（2）and（3）are used when 'people are saying
goodbye'（Procter et al. 1996:196）. Thus,（2）and（3）are seen as 'social clichés'（Carter 1992:61）.
3. 4. 2 Treatment in dictionaries
Next, let us examine why the students wrongly combine take care and health in a chunk.
The noun care is defined in the Newbury House Dictionary of American English as 'supervision ofsomeone's health or well-being'（Rideout et al 1996:110）. In addition, students often memorise that thephrasal verb take care of is nearly equal to look after somebody/oneself, which is defined in Oxford
Advanced Learner's Dictionary as 'to make sure that one/somebody is safe and well'（Crowther etal. 1995:695）. If students understand（2）and（3）with these explanations, they will come to produce（1）. This indicates that social clichés like（2）and（3）are 'restricted collocations which cannot normally be understood from the literal meaning of words which make them up'（Carter 1992: 58）.
3. 4. 3 Social cliché for EFL learners
According to Carter, cliché is one of these fixed expressions, 'which can most obviously cause difficulties
for non-native learners of a language'（1992:58）. He further explains that 'language production consistsof piecing together such ready-made 'pre-fabricated' units appropriate to a situation and that lexical acquisition may involve the learning of complete collocational chunks of language'（1992:59）. Concerning
clichés, he points out that 'clichés will only occur in specific situations and will be accompanied by clarifying gestures and paralinguistic expressions'（1996:61）. Thus, another reason for producing（1）can bethat students who study English outside English-speaking countries do not have enough opportunities tolearn social clichés in real situations. Also with regard to social clichés, without social contexts, it may be
impossible to acquire them with appropriateness and attestedness in actual performance from the viewpoint of Hymes（Widdowson 1989:129）.
3. 4. 4 Audio-visual material
Audio-visual material can compensate the lack of real contexts in acquiring such clichés. For example,
there is an fixed expression（4）This is very nice of you（as a reply when one is given something）,
from a coursebook accompanied by a videotape, Out of the Blue（Dawson 1993:11）. Not being provided

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Mika Higuchi

the contexts and the visual aid, students often mistak（4）as that the giver is a very nice person. However,with the contexts and the visual aid, students can smoothly understand the cliché as a variation of thankyou, not so much about the givers' character. Thus, videotapes can be useful to teach social clichés or
restricted collocations with social contexts. Therefore, these materials can prompt the students to gain not
only possibility and feasibility but also appropriateness and attenstedness in actual performance in terms ofHymes's four parameters of communicative competence（Widdowson 1989:129）.
4. Devising exercises for collocation acquisition
In section 4 , I will devise exercises to help students in collocational problems and develop their sense ofcollocation. The first example phrase is picked up from a short story written for native English readers.
The second and the third examples are from written texts by my students. In all the three exercises thestudents are to consult the printed data from the Cobuild Corpus. The students are at the levels of highbeginning to lower-intermediate and most of them do not have knowledge about collocation. Thus, theyshould be explained the definition of collocation before starting the following tasks.
4. 1 Collocational exercise in reading activity
From the viewpoint of vocabulary acquisition, many researchers believe that comprehension should precede production（Nattinger 1988:62）. Most activities in comprehension phase is related to listening andreading. Hence, exercise of collocation in reading activity will be effective to initially raise the students'
consciousness about the collocation.
4. 1. 1 Mixture of usual and unusual collocations
The following is a phrase from a short story 'Daphne'（Maitland 1993）.
（4）a bright and cheerful morning（pp. 27-28）
Firstly, the teacher tells the students that（4）has collocational problems, and let the students think about
them for a while. Next, the teacher tells them that authors use unusual collocations in order to create
special effects（Diegnan et al. 1998:45）. In（4）the author mixes usual and unusual collocations. Thenthe teacher adds the following on the chalkboard, and asks the students which of them are usual andunusual collocations among（4） to（7）.
（5）a bright morning（6）a cheerful morning（7）bright and cheerful
4. 1. 2 Presenting the Cobuild Corpus data
After the students think about each case individually or in groups, the teacher first tells the collocationallyappropriate patterns according to the Cobuild Corpus data, namely（5）and（7）. As for（5）, there aretotally 3636 examples for the node bright including inflected forms, and there are two examples of brightmorning in the Cobuild Corpus data. Thus, bright morning can be seen as a normal collocation, if not very
common. Bright has strong collocability with sun and sunshine according to the Cobuild Corpus data,
hence bright morning has relatively the same meaning as sunny morning. As for（7）, there are totally ten
examples of bright and cheerful（totally 439 examples for the node cheerful）, therefore this can also beseen as a normal collocation.

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4. 1. 3 Cheerful morning
There are no instances of co-occurrence of cheerful and morning in the Cobuild Corpus data. However,some of my students consider that（4）and（6）sound natural to them, thinking that these may mean sucha nice day as the brightness and the sunshine cheer you up. This explanation is understandable, yet（4）and（6）are not collocationally appropriate either from the Cobuild Corpus data or adult native speakers'
norm. The teacher explains the students that the author blends the usual collocations bright morning andbright and cheerful and unusual collocation cheerful morning in order to make an unusual collocationbright and cheerful morning, which has the author's own flavour and effect in the story.
This kind of exercise will be appropriate to raise the students' interest to collocation at the early stages,
and eventually enable them to distinguish collocationally usual and unusual patterns.
4. 1. 4 Short stories for collocation learning
I have looked through many short stories written in last thirty years, and noticed that authors seldom use
unusual collocations in their work. Instead, they use usual and typical collocations most of the time. If fact,（4）is the only example of unusual pattern in 'Daphne'（Mailtland 1993）. Hence, it can be said that shortstories are generally suitable authentic texts for EFL learners from the viewpoint of gaining appropriate
collocations in comprehensive phase.
4. 2 Collocationally problematic content words
A student of mine wrote（8）I cannot appreciate the movie intensely.
This sentence is grammatically well-formed but the co-occurrence of the three content words appreciate,movie and intensely is problematic. I will devise a simplified version of data-driven learning（Johns 1991）
using（8）to develop the students' sense of choosing collocationally natural content words.
4. 2. 1 Data-driven learning
The approach called data-driven learning（DDL）has come from the notion that 'the language learner isessentially a research worker whose learning needs to be driven by access to linguistic data'（Johns 1991:
1）. Johns states that 'the task of language learner is ... to recover the rule from the examples'（1991: 3）. He
considers this approach to be 'student-initiated research'（1991: 3）because the lesson material is 'promptedby student's queries'（1991: 4）.
I will incorporate the idea and simplify it to make it suitable to my students' levels（high-beginning tolower-intermediate）, and also to fit it to raise their consciousness about collocation. Therefore, the example is picked up from a student's written text. The students do not use computers to access data bythemselves. Instead, I（the teacher）prepare and print out the data which is needed for this exercise fromthe Cobuild Corpus in advance.
4. 2. 2 Brainstorming activity
First, the teacher draws two figures modelled on what Gairns and Redman show in Working with Words（1986:39）. Figure 1 in APPENDIX 1 is devised to test what kind of nouns can collocate with appreciate,and Figure 2 also in APPENDIX 1 is devised to test what kind of adverbs can collocate with the verb. At
this stage the teacher does not tell the students the most likely answers, but this activity will be an effective
brainstorming opportunity before they tackle the collocational problems in（8）consulting the Cobuild
Corpus data.

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After the tests, the teacher presents the students（8）and explains that this sentence is grammatically
acceptable but has problems with the three content words. The students may need to have it explained that
content words bear information and message（Diegnan 1998: 1 - 2）.
4. 2. 3 Appreciate and its collocates
Next, the teacher hands out a subset of the printed data of collocates list from the Cobuild Corpus data forthe node appreciate, including inflected forms. The teacher explains that there are totally 2276 examples
in the Cobuild Corpus data, but no instances of appreciate intensely. The teacher then asks the students to
examine the collocates list to find what adverbs frequently collocate with appreciate. They may answer
that in the list there are adverbs like really, fully, greatly and certainly, which can be seen as collocates ofappreciate.
With regard to the relationship of appreciate and movie, the teacher prepares the example of this pattern
and also appreciate and film, which is a synonym of movie, from the Cobuild Corpus data. There is one
example for each among totally 2276 examples for the node appreciate, totally 5738 examples for the node
movie, and totally 13694 examples for the node film（all include inflected forms）. Hence, the students
will recognise that the co-occurrence of appreciate and movie is rather rare, i. e., collocationally unusual.
Next, the teacher asks the students to look at the collocates list for the node appreciate again to find thenouns which are likely to appear frequently with this verb. They may find nouns such as importance,
support, relationship. Here the teacher explains that appreciate mostly collocates with the abstract nouns
like the ones above, which is defined as 'having no physical or visible substance'（Aitchison 1996: 2）.
Contrary to this, nouns such as movie are categorised into the concrete words, which is defined as 'signifying physical, material realities'（Aitchison 1996: 2）.
4. 2. 4 Intensely and its collocates
According to the Cobuild Corpus data, the adverb intensely is very frequently used to modify adjectives.
There are totally 324 examples for the node intensely, and the teacher looks though all of them to pick up
the ones where intensely is used to modify verbs. The teacher writes down several of such verbs on the
chalkboard.
（A）annoy, dislike, hate（B）examine, focus, stare
The students may be able to recognise that the verbs in group A indicate extremely bad feelings, and theverbs in group B indicate static action with high concentration. Thus, verbs which has collocability withintensely have a tendency to imply action with extreme emotional or mental involvement. In this sense
appreciate is unlikely to appear with intensely. This simplified style of DDL will develop students' adequacy for choosing collocationally natural content words.
4. 3 Subtle difference among synonyms
Students of mine wrote（9）hearty message（10）warm message
Both can be seen as being collocationally unusual, and（11）heartwarming message
can be a usual collocation to idicate what the writers intended to convey. The difference among heart-Collocational Problems in EFL Learning.

53

warming, hearty and warm seem to be very subtle. Namely, these three are in an overlapping semantic
field. Here I devise two grids modelled on what Rudzka et al. present in Words You Need（1981）as an
exercise to understand the subtle collocational differences among the synonyms.
4. 3. 1 Collocational partnerships and componential analysis
Grid 1 in APPENDIX 2 shows predictable collocational partnerships, and Grid 2 also in APPENDIX 2
shows a componentional analysis. The teacher hands out the sheets with the two grids and also about ten
English-English EFL dictionaries to the students.
In Grid 1 the teacher asks the students to put "+" when they find the collocation in the dictionary（ies）
or they can judge it would be a normal collocation according to the dictionaries. In Grid 2 the teacher asksthem to put "+" when they find any given features can be considered as components of each of the threeaccording to the dictionaries. The students can do this exercise either individually or in groups.
After completing the grids, they show their own answers in front of the class, then the teacher elicits thestudents' interpretation of each collocational probability and componential analysis, and corrects students'
answers if needed. When the students have the two grids with the most likely answers, the teacher tells
them to look at Grid 1 , and asks them what can be the reason（s）of the possible problems of（9）and（10）. The students may be able to notice that neither hearty nor warm can usually collocate with things
identified as written texts. The teacher will add that greeting is seen as a spoken text most of the time. Also
in Gird 1 the teacher asks the students to examine the collocates of hearty. Some may notice that only
hearty can collocate with food. In fact, 40 instances（23 percent）among all the 177 examples indicate
things to eat. The teacher explains the students that there is a strong collocability between hearty andthings to eat so that some English native speakers associate hearty with food, which makes（9）soundunusual to the natives.
Next the teacher tells the students to look at Grid 2 , and asks them to find the features of the componentsof hearty. Some of them may recognise that hearty implies loudness and noisiness, which also makes（9）sound untypical.
4. 3. 2 Variable collocational acceptability
With regard to warm in Grid 2 , the students are not sure why（10）is not normal. Small numbers ofEnglish native speakers actually regard that warm message is collocationally non-problematic, saying that（10）conveys more about the sender of the message than the way it is received. Therefore,（10）will be
an interesting example of the fact that collocational acceptability in English can more or less vary evenamong adult native speakers（Gairns and Redman 1986:37）.
5. Conclusion
Researching the collocational problems and devising exercises, I recognise that the teachers should train
students in collocation from the early stages. It is actually very difficult for the students at high-beginninglevel to tackle the exercises I devised and draw rules from the Cobuild Corpus data. Nevertheless, thestudents can notice what natural collocation is from these activities and become conscious about this area.
It seems for me that one big reason why so many Japanese EFL learners stay at elementary level for soa long time（nearly forever）in spite of their eagerness for acquiring English is that they dislike making
errors and problems in their production, hence they always write simple sentences in order to avoid making

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errors and problems. Since this investigation has convinced me that writing creatively is strongly related
to solving collocational problems, students should be encouraged and given opportunities to write creatively without caring so much about errors and problems. Teachers can utilise such problems to improvetheir collocational sense as the exercises in section 4 can actually increase students' interests in collocation.
To conclude this paper, I note that EFL teachers, especially non-natives, should consult computer corpora such as the Cobuild Corpus data, to provide students unbiased perspectives of the real usage ofEnglish. Examining these data is difficult for high-beginning students, yet these activities surely raise theirconsciousness about collocation and lead them to gain naturalness in this area afterwards.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Data from The Bank of English has been used with permission of Collins COBUILD.
REFERENCES
Aitchison, J.（1996）Dictionary of English Grammar. London: Cassell.
Brown, H. D.（1993）Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Englewood Cliff, N. J. : PrenticeHall Regents.
Carter. R.（1992）Vocabulary: Applied Linguistic Perspectives. London: Routledge.
Carer, R. and M. McCarthy.（1988）Vocabulary and Language Teaching. Harlow: Longman.
Crowther, J. et al.（1995）Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, 5th ed. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Dawson, N.（1993）Out of the Blue （Blueprint One Video） and The Winning Team（Blueprint Two
Video）（teacher's book）. Harlow: Longman
Diegnan, A. et al.（1998）MA TESL/TEFL Open Learning Programme Lexis.
Birmingham: The Centre for English Language Studies, the University of Birmingham.
Gairns, R. and S. Redman.（1986）Working with Words: A guide to teaching and learning vocabulary.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Johns, T. F.（1991）'Should You Be Persuaded - Two Samples of Data-Driven Leaning Materials' inJohns and Kings（eds）, Classroom Concordancing ELR.（pp. 1 -16.）Birmingham: the University of Birmingham.
Maitland, S.（1993）'Daphne' in Yamauchi, T. and K. Miyazawa.（eds）.（1996.）
Side by Side: British and American Short Stories.（pp.22-33.）Tokyo: Sanshusha.
McCarthy, M.（1990）Vocabulary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nattinger. J.（1988）'Some Current Trends in Vocabulary Teaching' in Carter, R. and M. McCarthy（eds）
Vocabulary and Language Teaching, pp.62-82, Harlow: Longman.
Procter, P. et al.（1996）Cambridge International Dictionary of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rudzka, B. et al.（1981）The Words You Need（student's book）. London: MacMillan.
Rideout, P. M. et al.（1996）The Newbury House Dictionary of American English. Boston, Mass.: Heinleand Heinle.
Sinclair, J. McH.（1987）'Collocation: a progress report' in Steele and Threadgoald Essays in honour ofCollocational Problems in EFL Learning.

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Michael Halliday, pp.319-331, Amsterdam: John Benjamin.
Widdowson, H. G.（1989）'Knowledge of language and ability for use' in Applied Linguistics 10, pp.128137. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
〔1999 年 10 月 27 日

受理〕

APPENDIX 1

Activity 1
Look at the circle below. Do you know which noun you can use with the verb in the box? Cross out theones which you think are not correct.

beautyfriendfriendshipappreciate

importance

supportFigure 1

Activity 2
Look at the circle below. Do you know which adverb you can use with the verb in the box? Cross out theones which you think are not correct.

suddenly
fully

generally
appreciate

greatlyproperly
reallyFigure 2

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56
APPENDIX 2

（a）

（b）

（c） （d）

heartwarming

（e）

（f）

（g） （h）+

hearty

+

+

+

warm

+

+

+

+

（a）welcome（b）greeting（c）support（d）laugh（g）food（h）letter（i）story（j）taleGrid 1

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（i）

（j）

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（e）smile（f）person

Predictable Collocational Partnerships（1） （2） （3） （4） （5） （6） （7） （8） （9） （10）（11）（12）heartwarming++

hearty
warm

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（1）kindness（2）generosity （3）friendliness（4）happiness （5）pleasure（7）energy（8）enthusiasm （9）affection（6）comfort（10）cheerfulness（11）noisiness （12）loudness

Grid 2 Componential Analisis+