Hitotsubashi University
Institute of Innovation Research

Vectran:Development of High-Functionality Fiber and its
Applications at Kuraray Co., Ltd.

Keisuke Hori
Yusuke Hoshino
Hiroshi Shimizu
IIR Working Paper WP#14-06

Oct. 2014

Institute of Innovation Research
Hitotsubashi University
Tokyo, Japan
http://www.iir.hit-u.ac.jp

Vectran: Development of High-Functionality Fiber and its
Applications at Kuraray Co., Ltd.1
Keisuke Hori,
Yusuke Hoshino,

Fuji University,

Musashino University,

Department of Economics

Graduate School of Political Science andEconomics

Hiroshi Shimizu,

Hitotsubashi University,

Institute of Innovation Research

1. Introduction
Kuraray Co., Ltd. (hereafter ‘Kuraray’) began production of the high-strengthpolyarylate fiber VectranTM in February 1990. Vectran is a polyester (polyarylate) fiber
made from polymer with a high degree of crystallinity. It is spun and uniformly treatedat high temperature based on Kuraray’s proprietary technology, which gives the productgreater strength and higher performance.2 As a type of ‘super fiber’ possessing highstrength and high modulus performance, Vectran was developed over the course ofabout four years from research and development (R&D) to commercialization,3 and has
been used in a wide range of applications,4 from fishing nets to a material for airbags
used during the landings of NASA’s Mars landing vehicles and surface rovers. Together
with KuralonTM (PVA fibers), it is a symbol of Kuraray’s proprietary technology in thefiber business.
Vectran is a second-generation super fiber that followed Kevlar® and Twaron®,which are referred to as the first generation of super fibers. 5 One notable point
concerning Vectran is that while the market is small compared with those of other super
fibers, as shown in Table 1 and Table 2, it nevertheless maintains steady sales. Kurarayis the only fiber supplier that commercialized high-strength polyarylate fiber. In thisThe descriptions in this case study were prepared with the purpose of providing material
and a point of view for analysis and discussion, and are not intended to illustrate any
particular skills in enterprise management. When preparing this case, we received
extensive cooperation from Takeshi Fukushima of Kuraray Co., Ltd.’s Fibers and Industrial
Materials Division and Junyo Nakagawa, former chief researcher at Kuraray Co., Ltd. We
would like to express our sincere appreciation for their support. Any errors concerning thematters detailed in this case are the sole responsibility of the authors. This work was
supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A)(No.23243054); Grant-in-Aid for Young
Scientists (B)(No.24730308); Kitano Foundation of Lifelong Integrated Education; andMusashino University.
2 Kuraray Co., Ltd. website (http://www.kuraray.co.jp/products/question/fiber/vectran.html),
accessed July 20, 2013.
3 Ide (2011a).
4 The Sen-i News, January 6, 2004.
5 Japan Chemical Fibers Association website, “Kasen Topics”
http://www.jcfa.gr.jp/fiber/topics/vol09.html, accessed December 20, 2013.
11

case study we will examine the characteristics and applications of Vectran, which wasdeveloped using Kuraray’s proprietary technology, recount the details of the path fromthe R&D phase to commercialization, and describe the management issues encounteredwhen developing applications for the product.

Table 1. Production capacity and sales volume of main high-function fibers.

High-function Fiber

Company or GroupName
DuPont-Toray Co.,

Para-aramid

Ltd.

Teijin Group
Meta-aramid

Annual
Product Name

Production
Capacity (t)Annual Sales

Selling Price

Volume (t)(Yen/kg)

3,000–6,000

Kevlar

2,500

1,800

Twaron25,00016,500Technora

2,000

1,300

Teijinconex

2500

1450

2,000

Dyneema

3,200

2,500

5,000–7,000

Tsunooga

300

300

3,000–4,000

Zylon

300

220

15,000–25,000

Procon / Torcon

3,100/3,200

2,900/3,2001200

Vectran

1,000

700

4,000–5,000

3,000–6,000

Ultra High Molecularweight PolyEthylene PE(UHMwPE)High Molecular weight

Toyobo Co., Ltd.

PolyethylenePE(HMwPE)PBO
PPSPolyarylate

Toyobo Co., Ltd. /Toray
Kuraray Co., Ltd.

Source: Partial excerpt from Yano Research Institute, Ltd. (2012). Sales volume figures for2011 are estimates.

2

Table 2. Size of market for main high-function fibers.
High-function Fiber

Company orGroup Name
DuPont-Toray

Para-aramidCo., Ltd.

Financial

Financial

Financial

Year2009

Year2010

Year2011

89,82590,05089,500Teijinconex

3,300

3,300

2,900

Dyneema

10,40015,60015,000

Tsunooga

400

800

1,050

Zylon

3,600

4,000

4,400

Procon/ Torcon

7,080

7,320

7,320

Vectran

2,925

3,375

3,150

Product Name

KevlarTwaronTeijin Group
Meta-aramid

Technora

Ultra High Molecularweight PolyEthylene(UHMwPE)High Molecular weight

Toyobo Co., Ltd.

PolyEthylene (HMwPE)
PBO
PPS
Polyarylate

Toyobo Co., Ltd. /Toray
Kuraray Co., Ltd.

Source: Partial excerpt from Yano Research Institute, Ltd. (2012). Unit: Million yen.

2. Characteristics and Uses of Vectran(1) Vectran’s performance
Although the term ‘super fiber’ lacks a precise definition, it is generally a fiber
possessing high strength and high modulus performance: fibers must have a strength ofat least 2GPa(16g/d) and a modulus of 50GPa(400g/d) or greater to be considered super
fibers.6 In contrast to these, fibers possessing high functionality such as heat resistanceor flame resistance are called high-function fibers. The main super fibers produced byfiber manufacturers in Japan are shown in Table 3.

Based on materials obtained from the Japan Chemical Fibers Association website,
http://www.jcfa.gr.jp/fiber/super/what.html, accessed July 21, 2013; and materials obtained
from Junyo Nakagawa.

6

3

Table 3. List of main super fibers produced in Japan.
Japanese Company,

Name of Fiber

Characteristics

Uses

High strength, high modulus,

Tire cords, belts, body armor,(Technora)

heat resistance, chemical

protective clothing, aircraft(Twaron)resistance, abrasion resistancematerials, concrete

Trademark, etc.

Para-aramid fiber

Teijin Techno Products Ltd.

reinforcement, asbestos

DuPont-Toray Co., Ltd.

substitute(Kevlar)Ultra High Molecularweight PolyEthylene fiber

Toyobo Co., Ltd.

High strength , high modulus,

Ropes, protective clothing,(Dyneema)

low specific gravity, abrasion

sports and leisure goods, fishingresistance, chemical resistance,lines, fishing nets

abrasion resistance, impact
resistance, weather resistance
Polyarylate fiber

Kuraray Co., Ltd.
(Vectran)High strength, high modulus,

Ropes, fishing nets, sports andheat resistance, abrasion

leisure goods, electricalresistance, acid resistance, lowmaterials, protective clothing,ductility, high creep resistance,molded products

low moisture absorption, highvibration damping
PBO fiber

Toyobo Co., Ltd.

High strength, high modulus,

Protective materials, belts,(Zylon)high heat resistance, high flame

ropes, sailcloth, various

retardancy, abrasion resistance,

reinforcement materials, heat

impact resistance, high creep

resistant cushion material

resistance, low moistureabsorption
Carbon fiber

Toray Industries, Inc.
(Torayca)
Toho Tenax Co., Ltd.
(Tenax)High strength, high modulus,Sports and leisure goods,

heat resistance, flame

aeronautic and space materials,

retardancy, impact resistance

automobile materials, wind
generator blades

Mitsubishi Rayon Co., Ltd.
(Pyrofil)

Source: Prepared based on material from the Japan Chemical Fibers Association website,
http://www.jcfa.gr.jp/fiber/super/summary.html, accessed July 20, 2013. The tableshows only the super fibers manufactured by member companies of the Japan
Chemical Fibers Association: Technora® is a registered trademark of Teijin Techno
Products Ltd; Twaron® is a registered trademark of Teijin Twaron BV; Tenax® is a4

registered trademark of Toho Tenax Co., Ltd.; Torayca® is a registered trademark of
Toray Industries, Inc.; Kevlar® is a registered trademark of E. I. du Pont deNemours and Company in the United States; VectranTM is a registered trademarkof Kuraray Co., Ltd.; Dyneema® and Zylon® are registered trademarks of Toyobo
Co., Ltd.

Vectran has a broad range of characteristics, including: high strength and highmodulus (tensile properties); low moisture absorbency; high dimensional stability (creep
properties); excellent thermal properties; fiber-to-fiber abrasion resistance; excellent
flex fatigue and bending resistance; impact resistance; high vibration damping; cut
resistance; chemical resistance; and ultraviolet light resistance.7
Table 4.

Vectran’s general properties.
Polyarylate fiber

Para-aramid fiber

Vectran

PPTA

High strength

High modulus

High strength

High modulus

Characteristic

Unit

HT

UM

(regular)Density(g/cc)

1.41

1.40

1.44

1.44

(°C)

>400

>400

>400

>400

Decomposition temperature(Decomposition)(Decomposition)(Decomposition)(Decomposition)

Moisture regain

(%)

<0.1

<0.1

7.0

3.5

Flame retardancy (LOI)

(%)

28

30

30

30

Yarn

Fiber structure(dtex/f)

1670/300

1580/200

1670/1000

1670/1000

Tenacity (standard state)(cN/dtex)

24.2

21.5

20.3

20.8

Elongation at break

(%)

4.0

2.8

3.6

2.4

Young’s modulus(cN/dtex)

530

740

490

781

WSr (boiling water 100°C × 30 minutes)

(%)

0.15

0.04

0.1

0.04

DSr (180°C × 30 minutes)

(%)

0.15

0.01

0.15

0.04

Tenacity in wet(cN/dtex)

24.0

21.4

18.3

18.7

Dry/wet strength ratio

(%)

99

100

90

90

Shrinkage

Source: Ide (2011a).

As shown in Table 4, the strength and elastic modulus of Vectran equal or exceed
7

The following descriptions are taken from Nakagawa (2003) and Ide (2011a).

5

those of para-aramid fibers. One important characteristic in particular is that Vectran
suffers no decline in physical properties under low-temperature atmospheres because ofits molecular structure. While its strength under a 20°C atmosphere is about 24cN/dtex,
Vectran significantly demonstrates its performance as the temperature is lowered,having strength of about 29cN/dtex in a –70°C atmosphere. In addition, because its
decomposition temperature is above 400°C, Vectran possesses high heat resistance anddoes not easily burn. Although para-aramid fibers have equally high flame retardancy,
the toxic gases are generated when these fibers are burned. On the contrary, Vectran
does not produce toxic gas when it burns. One further characteristic of Vectran is low
moisture absorption: Vectran’s mechanical properties under wet conditions are nearly
identical to those under dry conditions. As a result, because Vectran does not retain
moisture under a high moisture atmosphere, it maintains stable physical properties
when used as a reinforcement material, and this low moisture absorption can be said tobe Vectran’s strongest point when compared with aramid fibers.
(2) Vectran grades and development of uses
There are two types of Vectran fibers: regular (high-strength) HT type andhigh-modulus UM type. Like polyester and nylon, Vectran is spun by the melt spinning
method. One advantage of this spinning method is the comparative ease of producing
yarns with various thicknesses, from very fine to coarse. Consequently, among
high-strength fibers Vectran has the biggest grade variety of 27, making it possible tomeet the requirements of various products, especially to enhance grades of 560dtex or
less. An additional advantage is that small production runs can be handled easily.8
Sales volume and market size are shown in Table 5.
Table 5.

Vectran sales volume and market size.

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Volume

600

800

650

600

750

700

Sales

3,550

4,800

3,700

3,300

3,375

3,150

Source: Prepared based on data from Fuji-Keizai Group (2008, 2010), for 2006‐2009; andYano Research Institute, Ltd. (2012) for 2010‐2011. Unit: Tons; Amount: Million
yen.

The following can be enumerated as the main uses of Vectran9: (1) marine uses
89

Yano Research Institute, Ltd. (2012).
Nakagawa (2003).

6

(fishing lines, long line ropes, fishing nets, marine ropes); (2) non-marine ropes andslings (lead rope for restringing power lines and railway wiring); (3) cords and tension
members (window blind cords, wire replacement cords, optical fiber cables, earphonecords, gut cords, screen door cords, etc.); (4) civil engineering and construction materials(used together with other materials such as Kuralon); (5) safety and protective
materials (protective clothing such as work gloves and boots, protective materials,
fire-resistant cable cloth, etc.); (6) sheet and membrane materials (floating roofs forbuilding sites, sails for competitive yacht racing, airbags for the Mars explorer vehicles,etc.); (7) molded products and fiber reinforced plastics, or FRPs 10(speaker cones, skis,
golf clubs, table tennis paddles, etc.); (8) papers and nonwoven clothes (motor insulation
papers, base cloth for printed circuit boards).
Sales volume and total sales by use for Vectran products are shown in Table 6.

Table 6.

Vectran demand by use (global market).
2006

2007

2008

VolumeSales

VolumeSales

VolumeSales

Marinen ropes and cables

220

1,310

250

1,500

200

1,100

Fishing nets

150

850

200

1,150

150

800

Nets and cords

50

280

50

290

50

300

Others

180

1,110

300

1,860

200

1,100

Total

600

3,550

800

4,800

600

3,300

Source: Prepared based on data from Fuji-Keizai Group (2008, 2010). Unit: Tons; Amount:
Million yen.

When Vectran was initially developed, its main uses (demand) were marine
applications, but recently changes in the product’s applications have been notable.
Viewed on a monetary basis, a breakdown of the global market in 2006 by use showedmarine applications were the core business, with marine ropes and cables and fishingnets accounting for 36.9% and 23.9% of sales respectively, followed by net cords for
sporting goods at 7.9% and other uses at 31.3%. By 2011, a change in demand could beseen, with electrical and electronic applications newly accounting for 35% of total
demand, followed by ropes and cable at 25%, fishing and other nets at 15% and other

10

Abbreviation for Fiber Reinforced Plastics.
7

uses at 25%.11 Due to Vectran’s unique characteristics, such as electrical insulation
properties, low moisture absorbency and dimensional stability, the fiber is being used asa reinforcement material for products such as earphone cords and tension members(optical fiber cables), and sales for electrical and electronic uses have become the main
application supporting total Vectran sales. According to Yano Research Institute, Ltd.
(2012), in the electrical and electronics sector where demand has been increasing
recently, finer fibers are constantly required, making it necessary to maintain earnings
with such fibers.
From a price and functionality aspect, Vectran competes with para-aramid fibers
and Ultra High Molecular weight PolyEthylene fibers (UHMwPE).12 While most of
Vectran’s applications are not overlapped with UHMwPE fibers because of the property
differences, para-aramid fibers are Vectran’s largest competitors since they havealready

penetrated

numerous

industrial

sectors.

Moreover,precisely

becausepara-aramid fibers have already established a position in so many industrial sectors,
capturing or regaining these established markets would be difficult. Kuraray therefore
is seeking to differentiate from its competitors by fibers of 560dtex or less thickness. It
is because Vectran is manufactured using the melt spinning method. Achieving
cost-effectiveness will be relatively easy, because compared with para-aramid fibers, themelt spinning method can easily produce fine yarns. Takeshi Fukushima of Kuraray’s
Fibers and Industrial Materials Division commented on this point as follows:
At least compared with the process for making aramids such as Kevlar,
it’s easy for us to produce fine yarns. If you look at where Vectran’s costcompetitiveness lies, it’s in fine yarns. With just 1,000 tons of capacity at most,no matter how you measure it, we wouldn’t be cost competitive at all, comparedto Kevlar or Twaron. Under such circumstances, fine yarns are what enables us
to be comparatively cost competitive.13
As of 2013, ropes are Vectran’s so-called ‘plain vanilla’ application, but Fibers andIndustrial Materials Division has adopted the policy of increasing added value with‘specialty items’, such as fine yarns or spun yarns, while continuing to maintain acertain volume of this ‘plain vanilla’ application.14 As mentioned above, the size of themarket for Vectran is limited, and annual production capacity is about 1,000 tons.
Accordingly, it is difficult to use a business model of generating earnings at a low priceYano Research Institute, Ltd. (2012).
Ibid.
13 From the authors’ interviews with Takeshi Fukushima.
14 The Sen-i News, August 8, 2013.
11
12

8

through mass production and a high volume of sales. In the case of Vectran, Kurarayemploys a business model in which it generates earnings from fine yarn applications
such as earphone cords and membranes for airship, while covering fixed costs by coarse
yarns for applications such as fishing nets and ropes.15
Table 7. Varieties of Vectran and typical applications.
Product mode
Multifilament yarn

Type (Desitex, type, etc.)
8300dtex(7500Dr)
5000dtex(4500Dr)

HT: High tenacity

UM: Ultra-high modulus

Main Uses

3300dtex(3000Dr)

T-101

1670dtex(1500Dr)

T-506

Woven fabrics, FRP, tension members, generalindustrial materials

1110dtex(1000Dr)
560dtex(500Dr)

NT: Medium strength, Easy fibrillated

Dope-dyed yarner (black, red, blue, green, other)

280dtex(250Dr)
220dtex(200Dr)

T-117

110dtex(100Dr)

T-147

Fishing nets, ropes, other

56dtex(50Dr)
28dtex(25Dr)
20 count (cotton count), 30 count,

Spun yarn

other

Chopped fiber

1,3,6mm, other

Pulp

Foundation cloth, protective clothing, other
FRP, other
High-performance paper, asbestos substitutes, other

Woven fabrics and knitting
Prepreg

Various
UDPP, cloth PP

General industrial materials
FRP, other

Source: Vectran pamphlet. Denier amounts are shown in parentheses.

3．Technology for Making Fiber from Thermotropic Liquid Crystal Polymer16
The following section explains the characteristics of the Vectran polymer and the
manufacturing process.
(1) Thermotropic liquid crystal polymers

In this respect, it is similar to the business model for Dyneema at DSM and Toyobo Co.,
Ltd. For more on Dyneema, see Hoshino (2012).
16 The following descriptions concerning polyarylate fibers rely extensively on Nakagawa(1992, 1994, 2000, 2003); Nakagawa and Sanefuji (1993); and materials from the Japan
Chemical Fibers Association website,
http://www.jcfa.gr.jp/fiber/word/category.html#origin04, accessed July 21, 2013.
15

9

While the development and commercialization of super fibers was pursued
vigorously from the 1970s through to the 1990s, their production was enabled by two
technological innovations. The first innovation was the gel spinning method formaterials such as Ultra-High Molecular weight PolyEthylene (UHMwPE). The gel
spinning method is a process that enables a high degree of orientation by minimizing
entanglement of the molecules, using a dilute solution, and drawing the material in agel state; that is, gel spinning is a method for manufacturing filament by stretchingflexible polymers at extremely high drawing ratio. The second innovation is atechnology for making fibers from liquid crystal polymers. Liquid crystal spinning,which uses straight, rod-like polymers that have no entanglement, is a method forspinning while using shear stress to give the molecules a high degree of orientation.
Liquid crystal polymers can be divided into two categories: lyotropic liquid
crystals that show liquid crystal state within a certain concentration range in solution;and thermotropic liquid crystals that show liquid crystal state within a certain
temperature range in solution. Lyotropic liquid crystal polymers include aromaticpolyamides and aromatic poly(azomethines), and most of thermotropic liquid crystal
polymers are aromatic polyesters. An example of a fiber produced from a lyotropic liquid
crystal polymer is aramid fiber, perhaps best represented by Kevlar®, which ismanufactured by DuPont-Toray Co., Ltd. This is made of p-phenylene terephthalamide(PPTA), an aromatic polyamide, in liquid crystal state under a sulfuric acid solution,
which is then formed to fibers by dry and wet spinning. In contrast to this, Vectran is an
example of a fiber produced from a thermotropic liquid crystal polymer, a whollyaromatic polyester (polyarylate) fiber examined in this case study. While a number ofthermotropic liquid crystal polymers have been developed and marketed in the past as
resins, Vectran is the only product to have been commercialized as a fiber using thetechnology of Hoechst Celanese. The following section looks briefly at thecharacteristics of thermotropic liquid crystal polymers while following the Vectran
manufacturing sequence.
For the development of super fibers, the fibers themselves must be given greater
strength. The basic point in enhancing strength is how to parallel the long molecules (aslong as possible) in the direction of the fiber axis. The requisites for giving polymers
high strength and high modulus are: (1) strong bonds to form the polymer chain; (2) asmall area occupied by the polymer chain; and (3) formation of a molecular structure
having little elongation. This is achieved by “designing an aromatic polymer comprisedof a highly symmetric, rigid rod-like structure”. The basic structure of this aromatic
polyester is formed of self-condensation polyester from p-HydroxyBenzoic Acid (HBA,
10see Figure 1) and polyester comprising of Terephthalic Acid (TA) and HydroQuinone(HQ); see Figure 2.

Figure 1.

Molecular configuration of self-condensation polyester from HBA.
Source: Reprinted from Nakagawa (1994).

Figure 2.

Molecular configuration of polyester formed from TA and HQ.
Source: Reprinted from Nakagawa (1994).

Because the molecules of these polymers are too rigid, their melting points17 arehigher than their decomposition points,18 making them difficult to process in a liquid
crystal state. Consequently, one of following three methods is used to sacrifice either the
rigidity or crystallinity of the polymer and bring the melting point below thedecomposition point: (1) introduce a flexible alkyl group into the main chain; (2)copolymerize19 different types of rigid molecules; or (3) introduce a substituent group
into the aromatic ring of the main chain. These methods have made it possible todevelop thermotropic liquid crystal polymers that can be injection molded or melt spun
into fibers as engineering plastics.
Vectran was developed by applying the second methodology. The liquid crystal
polymer formed from the molecular structure shown in Figure 3—that is, thethermotropic liquid crystal polymer obtained through the melt polymerization of
p-HydroxyBenzoic Acid (HBA) and 2-Hydroxy-6-Naphthoic Acid (HNA)—was turned
into fiber by melt spinning. The molecular chain of this liquid crystalline polymer has ahigh degree of orientation in the direction of the fiber length, which gives it excellent
The temperature at which solids melt and become liquids. For the first polymer, HBA, it
is 610°C; for the latter, TA and HQ, it is 600°C.
18 The temperature at which melting and a decomposition reaction occur. Here, it is 400–
450°C.
19 Polymerization carried out using two or more kinds of monomers.
1711physical properties.

Figure 3.

Molecular structure of Vectran’s main polymer.

Source: Reprint from Kuraray’s Fibers and Industrial
Materials Division pamphlet.

Figure 4.

Image diagrams of fiber structures.

Source: Reprint from Kuraray’s Fibers and Industrial
Materials Division pamphlet.

Description in this figure was translated into English by the authors.
(2) Creating fibers from thermotropic liquid crystal polymers
To turn thermotropic liquid crystal polymers into fibers, pelletized polymer is firstdried, then, after being melted in an extruder, it is turned into fibers using the melt
spinning method.20 When thermotropic liquid crystal polymer is spun under high shear
stress, a high degree of molecular orientation takes place when the material passes
A method to melt raw materials by heat and form fibers by extruding them from a device
called spinneret, then quench for hardening.

20

12through nozzles; this structure (orientation) is maintained until the fibers are cooled
and solidify because of the lengthy relaxation time. If the fiber is ordinary polyester, it
must be stretched to improve its strength. On the other hand, because Vectran’smolecules are already in a rod-like and aligned state at the spinning phase, there is noneed to stretch the spun fibers again at a high draw ratio. The concept for thisproduction of fiber is shown in Figure5, compared with the one used for the
manufacture of flexible polymers such as polyester and nylon.

Figure 5.

Fiber production concepts.

Source: Reprinted from Nakagawa and Sanefuji (1993).

Description in this figure was translated into English by the authors.
(3) Heat-treatment
Although spun fiber already possesses considerable strength and elastic modulus,
which means stretching is unnecessary for fiber formation because the molecularorientation has already been achieved (the polymer chain is arranged in a certain
direction) in the spun state, heat treatment is performed to enhance further
performance. The goal of heat treatment is to increase the strength and elastic modulus,
and improve heat resistance.21 This is achieved by continuously removing by-productmaterials in one of the following conditions: (1) reduced-pressure; (2) inert gas
21

Nakagawa (2001).

13

atmosphere; and (3) active gas, including air atmosphere. Fibers are afterwards turned
into products by the further application of oiling agents or surface treatments
depending on the use.
Super fibers developed before Vectran were made by melting resin in a solvent(lyotropic liquid crystals); because solvents such as sulfuric acid were used, themanufacturing process was complex and costly.22 As Vectran is manufactured by themelt spinning method, this difficulty is eliminated. Moreover, the spun yarns can beproduced with thickness ranging from fine to coarse comparatively easily,23 giving theprocess the added advantage of being suited to a variety of small-lot orders such as finemulti-filaments and dope-dyed yarns.24

4. Vectran’s Development – Background and Issues(1) Background to development
Liquid crystal polymers, the polymer material for high-performance fibers, firstcame to the attention of the fiber industry in 1971 when E. I. du Pont de Nemours andCompany (hereafter DuPont) discovered that P-Phenylene TerephthalAmide (PPTA), an

aromatic polyamide (aramid), forms liquid crystals in solvent, and subsequently used
this discovery to begin producing Kevlar®, a high-strength, high-modulus fiber spunfrom this solution using the dry and wet method. 25 Because of Kevlar’s superior
performance, including high strength and elastic modulus, the demand expanded
significantly, and production is believed to have reached 10,000 tons in 1985. In addition,in 1986 Akzo Nobel N.V. in the Netherlands began producing Twaron®, the same kind ofpara-aramid fiber, followed in 1987 by the start of the commercial manufacture ofTechnora® by Teijin Limited.26 As stated previously, Kevlar and Twaron are referred toas the first generation of super fibers, and in that sense, Vectran, which enteredproduction in 1990, can be said to belong to the late entrants’ group in the super fiber
sector.27.
At that time, engineers like Junyo Nakagawa, who had played a central role in theIde (2011b).
Nakagawa (2000).
24 Yorimitsu (2010).
25 Ueda (1988).
26 Teijin Ltd. website, “Para-aramid Fiber Twaron®,”http://catalog.teijin.co.jp/template.phtml?id=186&pid=5; “Para-aramid Fiber Technora®,”http://catalog.teijin.co.jp/template.phtml?id=184, both accessed January 13, 2014.
27 Japan Chemical Fibers Association website, “Kasen Topics,”
http://www.jcfa.gr.jp/fiber/topics/vol09.html, accessed December 20, 2013.
22
23

14

development of Vectran, clearly recognized that under such circumstances Kurarayneeded to proceed with the development of super fibers in order not to fall behind theircompetitors. 28 The direct opportunity for Nakagawa to be involved in fibers forindustrial uses instead of those for textiles was a polymer liquid crystal symposium29
held at Kyoto University in 1983. Numerous researchers from around the world
working with liquid crystals attended this symposium, including Stephanie Kwolek, thedeveloper of Kevlar at DuPont, as a prominent participant. Through participation inthis symposium, Nakagawa came to feel strongly the need to switch from fibers forapparels to fibers for industrial uses. This was also the period when sales of Kuralon asa replacement for asbestos was expanding in Europe, and Kuraray aimed to advancesuch industrial applications not only of Kuralon, but also the combination of Kuralon
and other fibers. Because its rivals had pushed ahead with sales of super fibers at thatpoint, Kuraray had misgivings that it would end up at a distinct disadvantage in the
future if it did not have some super fibers of its own. Nakagawa described theatmosphere within the company at the time in the following words:
The mood at that time, really, was one of, ‘Jeez, isn’t there anything we can do?’Because all we had was Kuralon.
Moreover, from 1983 to 1985, Kuraray conducted a screening survey of anisotropic
thermotropic polyesters (wholly aromatic polyester fibers) at its Central ResearchLaboratory in Kurashiki. The result gained from this effort was an anisotropic
thermotropic polyester fiber formed from HBA and HNA which demonstrated thehighest performance. On that occasion, Kuraray received information on a polyarylate
resin developed by Hoechst Celanese, and based on the resin’s physical properties,
Kuraray believed it must be able to create a highly heat resistant, high-strength fiber
comparable with rival Kevlar.30 The reason, it is surmised, why Celanese focused on thedevelopment of thermotropic liquid crystal fiber rather than lyotropic liquid crystal
fiber like Kevlar is because the company judged the latter to be superior in terms of thefiber’s productivity.31 Beginning in the 1970s, Celanese had conducted research into
new thermotropic liquid crystal polymers which incorporated monomers, such as thenaphthalene monomer into which a 2,6-functionalized substituent had been introduced,
The following description is taken from the authors’ interview with Junyo Nakagawa.
This symposium was not open to the public. Thus, the number of the participants waslimited.
30 Soma (2009).
31 Ueda and Kanamaru (1986).
28
29

15

as one of their components. As a result, they found that wholly aromatic polyesters
formed from HBA and HNA possess various outstanding characteristics as engineering
plastics resins, and in 1984 had proceeded with market deployment under the name
Vectra® in collaboration with Polyplastics Co., Ltd.32 Also, Celanese had successfully
developed Vectran, a high-function fiber that, like Vectra, is formed from thermotropic
liquid crystal polymers of the HNA/HBA group.33
Given that Celanese had the best among the technologies surveyed by Kuraray,
and Kuraray lagged behind other companies at that time in patents for super fibers,
Kuraray broached the idea of a joint development with Celanese to turn the productinto a fiber.34 Despite its reluctance to enter the fiber business because a giant market
for Kevlar already existed,35 Celanese judged that Kuraray’s spinning technology would
be necessary for it to undertake the application development in the future,36 and thus
in 1985 the two firms began joint development based on collaboration.
Meanwhile, because DuPont and other companies in the same industry had
already staked out markets to a certain extent, Kuraray felt the need to develop fibers
with unique characteristics in order to achieve differentiation. Therefore from the start,
Junyo Nakagawa’s approach was to develop with the intention of creating a fiber withsmall thickness which also could be dope-dyed.
Kuraray, which had agreed to proceed with trial sales and the application
development of Vectran in cooperation with Celanese, undertook a feasibility study.
Kuraray initially adopted a stance of setting up a test plant (annual production 40–50
tons) at its Kurashiki Plant and proceeded with the application development by using
polymer supplied by Celanese. Then, as the development progressed steadily with thisplan so that steady demand could be anticipated in many sectors in the future, andfurther spurred by the fact that Celanese started operation of the polymer plant withthe capacity of 2,000 tons per year, in 1989 Kuraray decided to construct a full-scale
Vectran plant.37
Despite the two firms’ joint development work for two years, Celanese ultimately
decided to abandon the manufacture of Vectran. Although Celanese had intended fromthe start of the development to supply Vectran for use in tires, the fact that Vectran
Ueda (1988).
Ibid. The developer was a Celanese researcher named G. W. Calundann. According toJunyo Nakagawa, however, Vectran Celanese had developed at this phase corresponded to apilot version.
34 From the authors’ interviews with Junyo Nakagawa.
35 From the authors’ interviews with Junyo Nakagawa.
36 Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun, May 15, 1986.
37 The Chemical Daily, February 3, 1989 and The Chemical Daily, February 14, 1990.
32

33

16

proved unsuitable for uses with rubber materials—its bonding to rubber and fatigue
resistance were relatively low compared with Kevlar—is assumed to have been a major
reason why Celanese abandoned commercialization of the fiber for a second time.38 As aresult, Kuraray was left to seek commercialization on its own. In the end Kuraray
produced fibers alone, while the sales rights for the Americas and Europe were granted
to Celanese and Kuraray retained the rights to sell the product in Japan andthroughout Asia.39(2) Issues during the development and production stages
According to Junyo Nakagawa, the greatest difficulties during development werefelt with regard to the heat treatment technology. Normally, heat treatment ofthermotropic liquid crystal fiber is performed by continuously removing by-productmaterials developed in the condition of either reduced-pressure or inert gas atmosphere.
Kuraray was confronted with the problem of how to solve removal and recovery on acommercial scale.
Because the basic patent concerning heat-treatment technology in an inert gas(fiber strength is increased by more than 50% in an inert atmosphere) was held by
DuPont,40 Kuraray approached that company and expressed its willingness to acquire
the patent.41 As DuPont answered that it would respond to Kuraray’s request only inthe form of a cross-licensing agreement, Kuraray presented several USP patents it held.
However, as Kuraray’s technology did not meet DuPont’s demands, in 1987 Kurarayabandoned the idea to exchange licensing agreement and instead performed the heatprocessing using its own technology to avoid the violation of the competing patent,
which specifically means manufacturing fibers in an activated gas atmosphereincluding oxygen. However, while the values for abrasion and heat-resistance properties
when processing in active gases are superior to those obtained when processing underinert gases atmosphere, the process had the disadvantage of causing an oxidizing
reaction that turned the yarns to a yellowish tea color, and also the strength was
weaker than in the case of processing in an inert gas environment (19cN/dtex).
As the DuPont patent for heat treatment was effective until May 1995, Kuraray
From the authors’ interviews with Junyo Nakagawa.
As described below, in 2005 Kuraray would acquire the Vectran fiber business of
U.S.-based Celanese Advanced Materials, Inc.
40 E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company. A method to improve the strength of molded
products (Japanese Examined Patent Publication No.55-20008). In 1980 the “scope of
patented claims” for this technology was revised, and words relating to the processing
method were added to what was claimed.
41 From the authors’ interviews with Junyo Nakagawa.
38
39

17

was able to switch to a processing method using inert gas after that. While the greater
strength of 24-26cN/dtex was to be obtained as a result, this change led to the need toremove by-product materials (as mentioned earlier)—namely, the acetic acid, phenols,and various oligomers generated during heat treatment. It was necessary to remove
these first and foremost for pollution-abatement measures. 42 Moreover, while fiber
strength is enhanced by the solid phase polymerization43 reaction that occurs as aresult of performing the heat treatment, to obtain this high strength the heat treatment
had to be performed for a lengthy period of time under inert gas or certain gas density
conditions. Consequently, the pronounced jump in the cost, as a result of the gas raw
material expense, electricity, and other utility charges, became a major obstacle toindustrial production.44 Finally, because of the large amount of gas required for theheat treatment, Junyo Nakagawa and the development team adopted a method to
reduce costs by reusing the gas by circulation. However, the phenols and otherby-product materials hindered the polymerization reaction, and adhered to thecirculation pipes and blocked the filters during heat recovery, which made it necessary
to circulate and re-use the inert gas while continuously removing by-products.
When grappling with these issues, the developers were able to overcome theunwanted by-product elimination problem by installing filters made of nonwoven clothand by using washing and absorbents to remove the contaminants.45 Furthermore,according to Nakagawa, the most difficult challenge was appropriately establishing thevarious conditions, including the air speed and air volume, when blowing heated gas
around the fibers. If these settings are not correct, it results in phenomena such as
irregular fiber strength or insufficient strength because of increased density of the
by-product materials in the outer layer portion of the fibers wound around the bobbins(cylinders for winding the fibers).46 The setting of these optimal values became possible
only through repeated trial and error, accounting for the majority of the time expended
during the Vectran development period.
A major issue during the production stage was establishment of the spinningtechnology for mass production.47 While the temperature must be raised to about 300°C
to melt the raw material, the issue in this case was which molecular arrangement to be
Ibid.
The polymerization progresses to a solid phase state.
44 Kuraray Co., Ltd. “Heat-treatment Method for Thermotropic Anisotropic Fibers.”
Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 03-119110.
45 Ibid.
46 Ibid.
47 The following descriptions concerning the establishment of mass production technology
are based on Ide (2011b), Sugishima (1991), and Yamane (2004).
42
43

18

applied to the polymer, and its molecular length. As we have explained, the polymer
used for Vectran is obtained through the copolymerization of HBA (p-HydroxyBenzoic
Acid) and HNA (6-Hydroxy 2-Naphthoic Acid), but the composition ratio is determined
comprehensively by considering the melting point, melt viscosity, spinnability (ability to
be spun into fiber), and fiber performance. When the molecule is too long, the viscosity
becomes so high that the nozzles will be blocked during spinning, yet fibers cannot be
formed if it is too short. Moreover, when the temperature is raised the liquid crystals
sometimes break before forming fibers. The optimal molecular structure andtemperature combination must therefore be judged from the viscosity when thefilaments are extruded from the nozzles as they are spun. The form in which thepolymer melts, and the viscosity when melted, can only be understood when thepolymer is extruded from the spinneret nozzles; the individuals responsible for theprocessing technology have established the spinning conditions by taking steps toimprove the raw materials and optimize the nozzles, as well as adjusting the spinning
conditions of temperature, pressure, and resin extrusion speed. It is assumed that asthey did so they put to use the know-how they had cultivated for manufacturing
polyester fibers.

5. Application development(1) Application development during the 1990s
To develop uses for Vectran, Kuraray began shipping samples in 1986. Because ofVectran’s high strength, high elastic modulus, and other unique characteristics such as
low water permeability and abrasion resistance, the product was adopted as ropes
substitute for wire, fishing nets, and tension members. Also, Vectran’s high vibration
damping and impact resistance characteristics led to its use in goods such as sports
equipment.48 Although Vectran was still in the R&D phase in 1987,49 as progress wasmade during 1988–1989, the product moved partially into the industrial researchphase.50 By 1988, samples Kuraray had shipped were being used in products such as
ropes to replace crane wires, fishing nets, optical fiber tension members, core wire forelectric carpets, reinforcement materials for FRP, speaker cones, FRC (Fiber Reinforced
Cement), and ACM (Advanced Composite Materials). For the purpose of ensuring sales
volume, Kuraray considered the rope sector to be an especially promising market among

48
49
50

The Chemical Daily, February 3, 1989.
Kuraray Co., Ltd. Securities Report.
Kuraray Co., Ltd. Securities Report.

19them. 51 In 1990, Kuraray completed its Vectran manufacturing facility (Ehime
Prefecture Saijo Plant; annual production: 400 tons), and from February 1990 enteredfull-scale mass production mode.52
To ensure immediate sales volume, from 1991 the company developed its businessby focusing primarily on marine uses and sports composites.53 Before Vectran was
introduced, synthetic fibers such as polyester and nylon accounted for the major shareof marine uses such as ropes and fishing nets. Vectran’s strength and cutting resistanceearned the material high marks and thus the sales volume expanded. In addition, whenused for various composites Vectran demonstrates energy absorption and high vibration
damping properties, and because of its resistance to failure under compression andbending stress, various applications that take advantage of these characteristics weredeveloped, ranging from skis, golf clubs, and tennis rackets to audio speaker materials.
At that point, Kuraray had not made a full-fledged foray into the tension member
market, where manufacturers of para-aramid fibers including Kevlar had carved out asubstantial market share, as para-aramid fibers at the time possessed a superior elastic
modulus, the most required characteristic in that field.
In 1992, Kuraray set its sights on further volume expansion and pursued thedevelopment of Vectran FRP for use in general industrial applications. 54 The firstindustrial use was the frame of brush cutters/trimmers, which made use of Vectran’s
excellent vibration damping. For this application Vectran was turned into a composite
with carbon fiber or glass fiber. Although Kuraray found their earliest FRP uses in
sporting goods, as carbon fiber was the leading product in this sector and as it wasdifficult to link to an expansion of volume because the containing ratio of Vectran was
not so high, Kuraray sought to expand industrial applications.
In 1994, Kuraray began working on the development of new uses such as for
clothing.55 Prior to this, applications had been limited to products such as marine uses
because dyeing Vectran was difficult; once the technology for dyeing woven fabrics had
been established, Kuraray began making proposals to sporting goods manufacturers touse Vectran for outdoor sports items such as mountaineering wear. In addition, in 1995
a trunk rope for long lines using Vectran was developed, and Kuraray began supplying
the yarn in earnest to several rope manufacturers.56 This product took advantage of

The Chemical Daily, July 14, 1988.
The Chemical Daily, May 7, 1990.
53 The Chemical Daily, April 3, 1991.
54 The Chemical Daily, April 10, 1992.
55 Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun, September 19, 1994.
56 Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun, October 20, 1995.
51
52

20

two of Vectran’s characteristics: low moisture absorbency, which means that the rope
does not become heavier when it is rolled up, and high tensile strength which makes therope diameter smaller.
In 1997, Kuraray developed a new grade based on Vectran called VECRYTM for
precise print screens.57 VECRY, a monofilament with a double layer structure that uses
Vectran’s liquid crystalline polymer raw material as a core,58 is characterized by highstrength and high elastic modulus despite being an ultrafine fiber at the micron level.
Despite being more than three times stronger than the high-strength fibers obtained
from general-purpose polymers, and having an elastic modulus more than five times
greater, traditional super fibers were difficult to manufacture into high-density woven
fabrics or knitted fabrics with detailed stitching because the molecules are highlyoriented, making the yarns highly susceptible to fibrillation (fluffiness) when subject toabrasion.59 VECRY controlled fibrillation by using the same thermotropic liquid crystal
polymer as Vectran in the core constituent of the fiber and a flexible polymer for the
sheath constituent, blending the liquid crystal polymer also in the sheath to eliminate
the problem of flaking at the core/sheath boundary surface. By forming a robust
structure, the rigors of printing can be endured, and in addition to Vectran’scharacteristics such as high strength, heat resistance, and low water permeability,
Kuraray made possible the manufacture of screens whose performance in terms of print
dimension accuracy and durability, for example, are superior to those of new stainlesssteel screens for high-precision printing. These screens were developed jointly by
Kuraray and NBC Meshtec Inc., and sold under the name of ‘V-Screen’; use of thisproduct gave firms the advantage of not only being able to achieve a cost reduction ofroughly 15% during plate-making and printing processes, but also labor savings andlower running costs during printing processes. The development of VECRY had notbeen undertaken based on requests or proposals from customers, but pursued as aresult of Junyo Nakagawa’s projection, from the phase when Vectran was developed,that Vectran’s uses would expand further if Kuraray were able to compensate for its
shortcomings.60
Because the Vectran business had achieved profitability in the 1998 financial year,
and because repeated demand had emerged in the main market in the marine uses in

57

The Chemical Daily, November 5, 1997.

Kuraray Co., Ltd. website, “VECRY,”
http://www.kuraray.co.jp/products/question/medical/polymer_film2.html, accessed July23, 2013.
59 Nakagawa et al. (2004); Nakagawa (2005).
60 From the authors’ interviews with Junyo Nakagawa.
58

21

1999, Kuraray decided to adopt a more proactive strategy for expanding sales that
included replacement of other fibers.61 In addition, in the electronics area the company
decided to pursue developments of fabrics for printed circuit boards, where it could takeadvantage of Vectran’s high strength, heat resistance, and low water permeability, andbegan the development of fine-denier yarns that could meet the need for light woven
fabrics arising from the slimming and miniaturization of printed circuit boards.
(2) The 2000s
As noted in the Introduction, in 2004 Vectran was used for the airbags forNASA’s unmanned Mars explorer vehicles and received greater coverage from various
media. In 2013, the German chemical giant BASF and Samsung Heavy Industries Co.,
Ltd. of Korea developed blankets that used Basotect®, a melamine resin foam product.62
Cubes made of Basotect, covered by Vectran textile cover, and secured to each otherwith Vectran belts, create a blanket that makes it possible to prevent sloshing inside thecontainers of liquefied natural gas tankers. As a result, more economical transport ofliquefied natural gas is feasible because transport safety is improved and loads can be
set freely. As this illustrates, new applications have been developed in addition toconventional uses since the start of the twenty first century as well. The following will
look at two examples of the latest trends in the cultivation of markets and developments
of applications that deserve special mention.

① High-performance rope for mooring oil drilling vessels
In July 2013, together with Tokyo Rope Mfg. Co., Ltd., a leading rope
manufacturer, Kuraray made a new proposal via the Japan Industrial Standards
Committee (JISC) to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)concerning the testing methods and performance evaluations of high-performance ropesthat use Vectran, which was approved as a new formal proposal.63 If approved as aninternational standard, the proposal is expected to facilitate and encourage the6162

The Chemical Daily, May 18, 1999.
The Chemical Daily, August 5, 2013; BASF website, “LNG tanka– ni okeru meraminjushi happou hin Basotect® no shin youto” (“New Uses for Basotect® Open-Cell Foam Madefrom Melamine Resin in LNG Tankers,” in Japanese),
http://www.japan.basf.com/apex/Japan/ja/upload/new/Press2013/2013_08_01_basotect_
LNG, accessed December 23, 2013.
63 Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry website, “toppu sutanda–do seido ni yoru aratana kokusai hyoujun teian ga shounin saremashita,” (“Approval of New International
Standard Proposed by Japan through the Top Standard Scheme,”in Japanese),
http://www.meti.go.jp/press/2013/10/20131009001/20131009001.pdf, accessed January 25,
2014.

22

development of overseas markets.
This high-performance rope is used as a mooring cable to secure Floating
Production, Storage, and Offloading systems (FPSO) when drilling for offshore oil.64 In
ocean regions where depth exceeds 2,000 meters, the steel cables used in shallower
waters have problems from a strength perspective. On the other hand, polyester ropes
have substantial elongation, causing vessels to pitch considerably and leading toconcerns that pipelines used to draw up oil will be damaged.65 Consequently, there is astrong need for mooring rope that possesses the characteristics of light weightresistance to low temperature, low water permeability, and dimensional stability.
Several fibers and raw material suppliers are competing for this market.
When promoting products in other countries, Japan Industrial Standards (JIS)alone are often inadequate to persuade buyers.66 In addition, it is difficult to show
objective numerical values to persuade customers in foreign countries in case there are
no international evaluation criteria.67 Despite having received an inquiry from Brazil’s
state-owned oil company for this high-performance rope, it is almost impossible to get
the business without international standards, since the delivery terms usually requireinternational standard conformity.68
The Top Standard system is a system established in 2012 in Japan to allow thesubmission of a prompt international standardization proposal to the ISO or theInternational Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). In the past, proposals forinternational standards submitted by a single firm or multiple firms would be always
reconciled by an industry group that JISC specified. The problem was that given therequired time and effort, it was difficult to incorporate state-of-the-art technology into
international proposals, and also difficult for small and medium-scale enterprises andventure firms to make proposals. 69 Enterprise groups are now able to makestandardization proposals to an international organization promptly without going
through industry reconciliation, by utilizing this Top Standard system. Kuraray andTokyo Rope submitted a request to use the Top Standard system to the Japan Industrial
Standards Committee, which acts as the corresponding organization to the ISO, in May

This description of FPSO is taken from the Mitsui Ocean Development & Engineering Co.,
Ltd. website, “FPSO/FSO to wa,” (in Japanese),
http://www.modec.com/jp/business/fpso/index.html, accessed January 25, 2014.
65 Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry website.
66 Senken Shimbun July 19, 2013.
67 Senken Shimbun May 30, 2013.
68 Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun October 9, 2013. Takeshi Fukushima also remarked that:“Without this (international standard), we probably won’t be selected.”
69 The Chemical Daily. October 23, 2012.
64

23

2013; and in July of the same year the JISC submitted an international standard
proposalconcerningthetesting

methods

andperformance

evaluationsforhigh-performance rope for mooring oil exploration vessels to the ISO, which wasapproved as a new proposal.70 If a consensus among countries is obtained by the ISO’s
Technical Committee in the future, the high-performance rope technology using Vectran
will be issued as an international standard.71 Kuraray and Tokyo Rope are the firstfirms to have used this system for a fiber-related standard; we can view this case as one
example of how Kuraray is developing overseas markets through a cooperative effort
with the manufacturers that are its customers.

Issuance of international standard

Formation of international consensus
ISO・IEC(A)(B)
Traditional system:

Top Standard system:

Proposal created throughPromptly create international standard based on

traditional process

policy judgment without necessarily passing
through domestic reconciliation

Domestic discussion committee

Proposal group(A): Proposal from existing domestic discussion committee(B): Proposal group possessing the technology and desire to make a proposal to establish
a new technical committee, sub-committee and project committee if the appropriate
study venue does not exist
Figure 6.

Overview of the Top Standard system.

Source: Prepared based on information from the Ministry of Economy, Trade, andIndustry website.

70
71

Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry website.

Senken Shimbun May 30, 2013.

24

② FRP (Fiber Reinforced Plastics)
The increase in inquiries from customers regarding FRP can be cited as another ofKuraray’s new Vectran application developments seen in recent years. Kuraray has
analyzed market expansion of composite products made of carbon fiber which are thebackground of such increase.72 The expanding applications include energy-absorbing
materials for sports equipment such as golf club shafts and rackets, and Vectran’s
properties, such as high vibration damping, shock resistance, and energy absorption,
have attracted attention to such products.73 Takeshi Fukushima made the following
comment on this point:
Vectran can be one of the fibers that might compensate for the shortcomings ofcarbon as a composite by combining the strength of carbon with Vectran’senergy absorption or vibration damping property. In spite of various hurdles,
FRP is a sector that looks attractive for us. So the more carbon is used, themore we get inquiries from quite a few fields. People say Vectran looks
interesting as a material that could possibly make up for carbon’s weaknesses
in certain aspects.74
Whether or not such application development will advance, particularly whenused as a composite, does not depend on the properties of Vectran alone. Although it
partly abandoned the development of uses of FRP around 2006, Kuraray has been
pursuing such development again since 2012. The reason for this is that obstacles
encountered previously can be overcome through technical innovations from use of the
product. For example, while holes can be easily and clearly opened in glass and carbon
fiber reinforced plastics, holes are difficult to open in plastics reinforced by organic
fibers such as Kevlar and Vectran because of fiber toughness. There are indeed cases
where application development progresses again after a number of years; as a result of
the obstacles encountered when organic fibers are used for FRP being overcome throughtechnical innovations and changes in the cutting tools used to open holes. Yet, this is aparameter that cannot be easily controlled by one firm alone. It can be said to be one
factor that makes the development of uses extremely difficult.

72
73
74

The Sen-i News August 20, 2012.

From the authors’ interviews with Takeshi Fukushima.
Ibid.

25

6. Management of Application Development
In this section we will look at the characteristics of the management of application
development for Vectran while focusing on three points: (1) Kuraray’s salesorganization; (2) process from development to commercialization; and (3) factors
influencing success or failure of application development.
(1) Kuraray’s sales organization① Domestic sales
As of 2013, Kuraray introduced an in-house company structure. Fibers andTextiles Company deals fiber businesses. Vectran is handled by Fibers and Industrial
Materials Division, one of the divisions in Fibers and Textiles Company. In Industrial
Materials Division, Functional Materials Department is responsible for Vectran
business, while other sales departments, namely Fibers and Materials Department II,
and Functional Textile Department, are also dealing with Vectran as well.
From the time Vectran production was begun in 1990 until now, Vectran sales
have not been carried out by a specific department alone, but the departments thought
to be the most appropriate based on criteria (axes) such as application, material, andsales region.75 While Functional Materials Department (Location; Osaka) is in chargeof comprehensive Vectran sales, applications such as ropes, marine uses, and nets arehandled by Fibers and Materials Department II Section II (Osaka), and sales tocustomers in eastern Japan are the responsibility of Fibers and Materials Department
II Section II Section I (Tokyo). Functional Textiles Department (Tokyo) deals mainlywith government and municipal office-related customers.
Furthermore, application development is currently handled by Industrial
Material Research and Development, a department under Fibers and Industrial
Materials Division in Okayama, while the development of yarns themselves is mainly
undertaken by Fiber Materials Planning and Development Department under the
Fibers and Textiles Company’s Production and Technology Management Division in
Kurashiki. Although Osaka and Tokyo are geographically separated from Okayama andKurashiki, each sales department is in daily contact with the Industrial Material
Development Department and Fiber Materials Planning and Development Department
so that it can respond to requests from customers. While the need for such integration
between sales and development was specified by (then) Kuraray Chairman Hiroto
Matsuo,76 this is not limited to the Fibers and Industrial Materials Division, but can be
75

76

From the authors’ interviews with Takeshi Fukushima.
Nikkei Business, February 16, 2004.

26

viewed as a common characteristic within Kuraray as a firm.
Moreover, when we examine past transitions of the Vectran sales organization,
Vectran Promoting Department was established within Industrial Materials and Living
Goods Division in 1990, directly after the start of Vectran production.77 With the goal ofincreasing sales volume, Vectran Promotion Department was upgraded to the Vectran
Sales Department in 1992 and the number of staff including dedicated, full-time sales
staff was doubled.78 This department was abolished in 1994, however, and its functions
were transferred to Fibers and Industrial Materials Department I within the division.79
Afterward, in 2007, a cross-operating division Vectran project team was established andthe R&D team tasked with application development and quality enhancement(described earlier) was set up at the Okayama Plant, Kurashiki Plant, and Saijo Plant,
respectively, in order to strengthen the sales organization in tandem with the increasein Vectran production capacity.80 As is evident from these changes, the form of theorganizational structure for Vectran sales can be said to have been altered very flexibly
in response to the conditions and development phase at each point in time.
② Overseas sales
While the departments outlined above are involved in Vectran sales in Japan, fourindividuals handle sales in the United States as Vectran Division in Kuraray America,
Inc. As touched upon in Section 4, the Vectran sales rights in the Americas and Europe
had been granted to Celanese, but in 2005 Kuraray acquired all of the Vectran
business-related assets owned by Celanese Advanced Materials Inc. (CAMI), for nearly
500 million yen.81 CAMI’s Vectran sales for the fiscal year 2004 amounted to roughly
six million dollars, and as a result of the acquisition Kuraray America, Inc., awholly-owned subsidiary of Kuraray, took over the sales rights for this business inNorth America, Latin America, and Europe, as well as the warehouses and employees(at that time total seven individuals).
There are two reasons why Kuraray decided to acquire CAMI’s Vectran business.
First, the objectives of the two firms did not always correspond when production
function and sales function were separated.82 Kuraray and CAMI were independent
firms, so while Kuraray had the production function and tended to focus on sales
77

Kuraray Co., Ltd. Securities Report.

The Chemical Daily, July 21, 1992.
79 The Chemical Daily, June 3, 1994. Currently, the Functional Materials Department has
78

succeeded to this function.
80
81
82

Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun, November 27, 2007.
The Chemical Daily, April 8, 2005.

The following information is taken from interviews with Takeshi Fukushima.

27

volume, CAMI only had the sales function, was profit-oriented, and tended to avoid
anything that would lower its profit ratio. In such cases, there was a real possibility
that the actions that were best for Kuraray and the actions that were best for CAMI
would not coincide. So behind the decision to acquire Vectran business-related assets
was the view that, by eliminating this mismatch through the acquisition, and taking
optimal actions as a single organization, earnings could be increased further.
The second reason was to eliminate information asymmetry. Because Kuraray
and CAMI were, as stated, separate organizations, and their objectives did not always
agree, so-called ‘asymmetric’ information concerning sales arose between the twocompanies. Being able to exchange customer information and information regarding
applications between persons in change makes it easier to move successfully toward
product development and strengthens marketing capabilities as well. 83 Junyo
Nakagawa had the following to say on this point:
Of course there’s any number of reasons development doesn’t go well; maybe
the yarn needs to be improved, for example—there are lots of situations likethat. In such cases, provided you understand exactly what’s taking place, it’s
possible to respond, but when the situation is not disclosed, you might not
respond the way you could; that kind of thing can happen, too.84
The organization Kuraray adopted also includes Kuraray Europe GmbH(established 1991), which handles Vectran sales in Europe, as well as the affiliate
Kuraray Trading Co., Ltd., which supports sales in Asia, including Japan.
(2) Process from development to commercialization85① Process until commercialization
Working closely with customers and developing materials for their specific needs
is said to be an ‘ideal’ process in the application development. However, it is not often
the case for the development of Kuraray’s Industrial Fiber business. More common
process is to develop a unique material based on its own core technology at first andthen try to find its suitable applications. This process is generally called ‘product out.’ If
a firm takes this strategy, it is important to develop more advanced materials thanthose of competing firms, which holds true with regard to Vectran. This originated from

Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun, April 8, 2005; Nikkei NEEDS Kigyo Senryaku Jouhou (Japan
Corporate Watcher), May 31, 2005.
84 From the authors’ interviews with Junyo Nakagawa.
83

85

The following description is based mainly on interviews with Takeshi Fukushima.

28

the fact that Kuraray was a late starter in super fiber development, and because of that
position it tried to differentiate its product by developing fiber with some uniquecharacteristics. Junyo Nakagawa made the following comment regarding this point:
Well, certainly we were a late starter. Because Kevlar was already ahead interms of application development, we aimed at things Kevlar can’t do, to usethem as strong points against Kevlar.86
Even if the engineers developed materials based on their technology, they did notnecessarily have a clear vision on its application. In Vectran’s case, ropes for marine
uses, cables, protective clothing, and fishing nets, for example, are sectors in which
Vectran’s use was envisaged from the initial development. Kuraray approachedmanufacturers of these applications from their side soon after the development wascompleted, which consequently resulted in commercialization. On the other hand, incase of applications which were not envisaged in the initial phase of R&D, it was users
who found opportunities to utilize the materials for these applications. Therefore, a firmusually makes accessible its newly developed materials to the public by utilizing suchmethods as websites, trade fairs, and exhibitions, and waits for potential customers’
approach.

Together

with

the

approachingcompanies,

the

firm

proceeds

tocommercialization by customizing the product if necessary. There are some cases where
Kuraray leaves nearly everything until commercialization to the customer once it
provides product samples. Conversely, there are also cases where Kuraray has requests
from customers and repeatedly submits samples and collected data before
commercialization over a number of years. Therefore, it can be said that there is no‘typical’ pattern in the process before commercialization. In many cases, there are
discussions with customers, and through the process of those discussions, products are
created. Because the problem of how to use the materials properly remains to be solvedon the customer side, the role of the sales department is to provide support in solving
that problem. As Takeshi Fukushima noted:
On the way to commercialization, there is a case that customers request some
support to us, for example, “Can’t you improve the abrasion properties of this alittle more?” We are able to realize the business if we succeed to fulfill such
request. It is like you play catch with the customer. But even though we have
our own basic image or idea to fulfill their request, it’s the customer side in the86

From the authors’ interviews with Junyo Nakagawa.

29

end that has to figure out how best to use our yarn to realize the product theywant to develop. To put it the other way around, I think from a certain
perspective our development work involves supporting customer’s request, thatis: “We want to use your yarn in this way, but what would be the best way touse it?”; or “We want to use it, so can you change it a little more like this?” It is
our job to follow such requests as much as possible for helping our customers torealize what they want to develop.87
Wherever a new application is discovered, the people responsible for sales must
acquire a high level of knowledge concerning the application and materials because they
have to make suggestions about products which match the applications and understandcustomers’ requests. Moreover, because application development for Vectran will
progress on a worldwide scale, they must acquire basic linguistic ability to conductbusiness in English, of course, but also basic knowledge concerning each application in
English and the ability to interact with customers based on such knowledge.
② Period until a product is commercialized
In the application development of Vectran, the time period until products arebrought to market is not constant, yet there can be said to be a correlation between thelength of time before a product is commercialized and the length of the product lifecycle.
For example, one of Vectran’s uses is in high-performance mooring lines for securing
undersea oilfield platforms, as noted previously. In such case, it is indispensable toconduct repeatedly simulations and field tests over several years because safety anddurability are heavily emphasized. Consequently, a period of at least three to five years
will be required prior to commercialization. On the other hand, for sports applications,in particular, commercialization must move forward in less time than the case of ropefor platforms because, in addition to functionality, strong fashion parameters come intoplay. A product such as rope in the former case, however, is a so-called heavy-duty
application (i.e. the product must be able to withstand demanding use), so although an
extremely lengthy period of time is required prior to commercialization, once theproduct has been commercialized, it can become a long lifecycle product and othercompanies are not easily granted entry into the market. In contrast to this situation, inthe case of sports and fashion applications, competition can quickly intensify because
competitors can enter the market as easily as the market pioneer, and in many
instances product lifecycles are shortened by fashion tastes.
87

From the interviews with Takeshi Fukushima.

30

③ Product customization
In the case of Vectran, there is little variation in the product customizations madein response to customers’ needs. Developing different oiling agents depending on theuses (agents used for yarns’ surface treatment to improve the processability) is cited asa typical example. More specifically, an oiling agent compatible with rubber is used tobond the yarn with rubber, an oiling agent compatible with plastics is applied for plastic
reinforcement uses, and an agent which provides good abrasion properties and slippage
between fibers is used when applying Vectran for ropes. 88 Development in thismanner—various surface treatment agents corresponding to applications—is a typicalmethod of customization. Sales volume is one criterion whether or not to respond tosuch customization.
(3) Factors influencing the success or failure of application development
According to Takeshi Fukushima, the probability of an application development
project becoming successful is ‘very low’. In many cases, when Vectran is tested as a
substitute for materials used in an existing application such as ropes, cost performance
often becomes a problem. In other words, those who test Vectran judge that theperformance is not what they initially expected, or the performance is as expected but
they conclude Vectran to be unsuitable from a cost perspective because it is too
expensive. Moreover, even if Vectran is used for a completely new application that is
successfully developed, sales are still not secured by the problem of whether thematerial or the system that uses Vectran can be accepted in the market. While the LNG
tanker anti-sloshing application (described in Section 5) was developed as an entirely
new system, what will be watched closely in the future is whether many customers are
attracted to the application in the market (i.e., in this case, whether shipping companies
will adopt the above-mentioned system).
In addition, Takeshi Fukushima recognizes, from his experiences, that theprobability of whether a certain material would be accepted in a specific market is not
so much dependent on materials but more on number of inquiries—the more inquiries
we receive, the more customers we gain as a result. Furthermore, he thinks that the
number of inquiries is determined by three parameters: the extent to which a company
has numerous products with characteristics not found in other companies’ materials;
how broad the scope of these characteristics is; and how the company can present its
products and their characteristics to customers.
88

Yorimitsu (2010).

31Vectran sales are subjected to influence from the first and second parameters
because these are problems stemming from the small size of the market for the material.
As we have already seen, Kuraray was a late starter in super fiber development, and by
the time of the development phase, Kevlar and other competitors’ products had alreadyacquired large markets. When it comes to demonstrating a material’s unique properties
without competing directly with other firms’ products, the company tends to aim at asmaller market. In fact, when developing Vectran, Kuraray’s aim was to develop thematerial by taking advantage of its unique characteristics. 89 Despite the fact that
Vectran itself is produced using highly advanced technology, even departments
responsible for sales recognize that the product will always be shadowed by the problem
of a relatively small market compared with the market for super fibers from othercompanies.90
With regard to the third parameter, namely, how to present products and theircharacteristics, building and maintaining an established network can be highlighted as
the first key issue. More than 70% of the demand for Vectran comes from overseas
markets, with the U.S. market accounting for an especially large proportion. Because
the existing channels and network constructed so far—NASA as a typical example,
which adopted Vectran for the airbags of its Mars explorer vehicles—are recognized as
critical for pursuing application development for Vectran, the resources acquired from
Celanese in the United States occupy an extremely important position. As Takeshi
Fukushima noted:
It is difficult for the Japanese to sell to U.S. companies. Compared with the U.S.
it is relatively easier for us to sell to European market. In North America, well,the hurdles to go into the society, including the language difficulty, are justreally high. My impression is that, whatever the product, the U.S. is an area
where it’s best to let Americans handle it.91
In 2007, Kuraray expanded its Vectran production facility and boosted annual
output from 600 to 1,000 tons; the company’s decision to accelerate application
Interview with Junyo Nakagawa.
As in the case of poval film (used as the base film for polarized film required in the
manufacture of liquid crystal displays) for optics. However, even a material with limited
uses (within only a very narrow scope) can generate substantial earnings if there issignificant demand. Moreover, in the case of golf club shafts, only a tiny amount of Vectran isused per shaft, but the impact from an advertising standpoint can be said to be significant,even though sales volume is low.
91 From the authors’ interviews with Takeshi Fukushima.
89
90

32

development presumably was driven by effects such as much greater clarity of user
information, for example, after Kuraray had acquired CAMI’s Vectran business as
described above.92 Former employees of CAMI, who had connections with the existingcustomer base as well as advanced expertise related to development, are thought tohave played a key role in this turn of events.
The use of trade fairs and exhibitions can be listed as another means of sales
promotion. Kuraray has been participating in Techtextil, the largest trade fair in
Europe dedicated to fibers and nonwoven fabrics for industrial applications, 93 andutilize such trade fairs as a venue not only for product PR, but also for meeting andexchanging information with its existing customers. Holding meetings at this trade fairvenue makes it possible to achieve significant time and cost savings, another major
reason to participate in the exhibition.94
In all, 1,322 companies from 48 countries and regions exhibited at Techtextil 2013(a 10% increase over the event in 2011). Moreover, the number of visitors, including
those to the international trade fair for sewing equipment and related technology, which
was held during the same period, rose by 15% in comparison with the previous event toapproximately 40,000 attendees (from 113 countries and regions).95 When Kurarayparticipated in 2009, it exhibited, in addition to Vectran as the main product, items suchas Kuralon, FELIBENDYTM steam-jet nonwoven fabric, VECRUSTM wet-laid nonwoven
cloth made from Vectran polymer, and TIRRENINATM the next-generation man-madeleathers. Kuraray also set up a space for rooms within its booth that was as large as its
display space, holding meetings with customers in the hall. When it participated in 2011,it also exhibited new materials in addition to setting up a business discussion space,and exhibited an electro-conductive fiber made of Vectran for the first time.96
An additional factor affecting the success or failure of application development is
the compatibility with the inquired firm. When undertaking application development,
there are some firms that ‘click’ and other firms that ‘don’t click’ in terms of ways ofthinking and orientation, which is similar to personal chemistry. Obviously, it is easier

92
93

The Sen-i News, January 23, 2007.
The Sen-i News, June 30, 2009.

From the authors’ interviews with Takeshi Fukushima. In contrast, Kuraray participates
in JEC Europe, a trade show for FRP composites, mainly for the purpose of exhibiting its
products.
95 The Sen-i News, June 13, 2013.
96 Japan Chemical Fibers Association press release “Techtextil 2011 no kaisai gaikyou ni
tsuite,” (“Overview of Techtextil 2011,” in Japanese),
http://www.jcfa.gr.jp/news/press/sonota/110616_techtextil2011.pdf, accessed July 27, 2013;
The Sen-i News June 9, 2011.
9433

to develop products in collaboration with firms that ‘click.’97 Because Kuraray is atechnology-oriented firm, the probability of making a successful development would behigher if the counterpart possesses a similar mentality. In particular, developing a
product for industrial uses often requires a considerable time investment so thatapplication development through collaboration becomes difficult when firms differ intheir approach or thinking regarding time or other factors.

7. Conclusion
In this paper, we have discussed generally the processes and characteristics of
R&D and application development for Vectran since its inception. The key element in
the R&D and application development for Vectran was discovering applications thattake maximum advantage of characteristics not found in products made by othercompanies, within a very narrow range of applications. This can be said to have been adevelopment effort aimed in a direction completely opposite to commoditization. As
Takeshi Fukushima noted:

It is a question of how to find, in any way, points that common products can’t
respond to, and build our stronghold there. If we can’t build such stronghold,the material is useless. If we can ensure a stronghold, in a certain respect, inan area with a size sufficient for us to build it up as a business, we are able tolive within the field.98
This way of thinking also dovetails with top management’s pronouncement:
Products that are highly general in nature are no match for larger competitors
when it comes to volume. Aiming at survival is achieved by specializing inparticular applications.99
This coincides with the remarks made by former development manager Junyo
Nakagawa in Section 4. Despite the problems that accompany any small market,
Vectran can be described as a fiber that was developed as a result of being faithful toKuraray’s tradition of “being a big fish in a small pond.”

From the interviews with Takeshi Fukushima.
Ibid.
99 Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun March 12, 1996.
97
98

34

One characteristic deserving special mention is Kuraray’s orientation toward
technologies and knowledge at a pure research or ‘fundamental’ level. Even though
Kuraray has adopted a new in-house company system and Vectran is administered by
the Fibers and Industrial Materials Division under Kuraray’s Fibers and Textiles
Company, internally, Vectran is understood as “one form of high polymer chemistry
technology” rather than ‘fiber’ business. This was true in the case of Kuralon as well, a
synthetic fiber that Kuraray was the first in the world to commercialize. Takeshi
Fukushima commented on it as follows:
We have vinyl acetate (VA) as one base technology; Poval (PVA resin) is one ofderivatives and one of its forms is fibers. So in that sense, there is a consensus
within the company that we have this base technology, VA, and the resins out
the technology are our key products. Then, we have films and fibers as theirapplications. It is the same story for Vectran. Using the same resin, we produce
films, nonwovens, and fibers. From that viewpoint, fibers are one converting
form of a particular resin.100
In Section 5, we considered the example of the monofilament VECRY, which wasdeveloped as a derivative of Vectran; in this case the base material was a polyarylate
liquid crystal polymer. The molecular orientation technology related to this liquid
crystal polymer was used not only for the development of fiber but also for that of films.
In 2001 Kuraray began marketing VECSTARTM, a highly functional, high-performance
film that was the first in the world to be applied successfully to liquid crystal polymer
film processing,101 and in 2004 VECRUS, a nonwoven fabric made from the same liquid
crystal polymer, for printed circuit boards, was developed. 102 Kuraray’s Japanesecatchphrase Mirabakesso (new materials that transform into the future) can be said toexpress this company’s unique and ideal way of searching for knowledge at afundamental level.

100

From the authors’ interviews with Takeshi Fukushima.

Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun, October 31, 2012.
102 The Chemical Daily, June 2, 2004.
101

35

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Magazines
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Business p.1, February 16, 2004 issue.
Yamane Kazuma, Sugiyama Hiroshi and Tadayoshi Koizumi“metaru kara– no jidai (621) NASA no wakusei tansa wo sasaeta nihon no shinsozai
tekunoroji– (1) 24 ko no eabaggu de kasei shinsaki wo suppori oui chakuriku woseikou saseta kinzoku yori joubu na su–pa– seni ‘bekutoran’ no kaihatsu” (The Age ofthe Metal Collar (621) New Materials Technologies From Japan that Supported
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Super Fiber that Completely Covered the Mars Explorer Satellite with 24 Air Bags
and Brought it to a Successful Landing) (in Japanese) shuukan posuto (Weekly Post)
36(14), 196-199, 2004-03-26
Yamane Kazuma, Sugiyama Hiroshi and Tadayoshi Koizumi“metaru kara – no jidai (622) NASA no wakusei tansa wo sasaeta nihon no shinsozai
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Non-Moisture-Absorbing Molecular Array) (in Japanese)『shuukan posuto (Weekly

Post) 36(15), 196-199, 2004-04-02

Websites
BASF Japan Ltd.
http://www.japan.basf.com/apex/Japan/ja/
Kuraray Co., Ltd.
http://www.kuraray.co.jp/
The Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry
http://www.meti.go.jp/
MODEC, Inc.

http://www.modec.com/jp/
Japan Chemical Fibers Association
http://www.jcfa.gr.jp/fiber/index.html
39

Teijin Limited

http://www.teijin.co.jp/

Interviews
Junyo Nakagawa
Kuraray Co., Ltd. High Performance Materials Division Development Dept.
Development Manager (at that time)
January 31, 2013

At café & gallery Penny Lane (Kurashiki)Interviewers: Shimizu Hiroshi (Associate Professor, Hitotsubashi University Instituteof Innovation Research), Hoshino Yusuke (Lecturer, Faculty of Political Science andEconomics, Musashino University), Hori Keisuke (Associate Professor, Department of
Economics, Fuji University)
December 20, 2013

At café & gallery Penny Lane (Kurashiki)Interviewer: Hori Keisuke (Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Fuji
University)
Takeshi Fukushima
Kuraray Co., Ltd.
Division

Fibers and Textiles Company

Fibers and Industrial Materials

Functional Materials Sales Dept. General Manager

February 26, 2013

At Kuraray Co., Ltd. Osaka headquarters (Osaka)

Interviewers: Shimizu Hiroshi (Associate Professor, Hitotsubashi University Instituteof Innovation Research), Hoshino Yusuke (Lecturer, Faculty of Political Science andEconomics, Musashino University), Hori Keisuke (Associate Professor, Department of
Economics, Fuji University)
December 5, 2013 At Kuraray Co., Ltd.

Osaka headquarters (Osaka)

Interviewer: Hori Keisuke (Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Fuji
University)40