2nd Workshop on Linguistic and Cultural Diversity
in the Northeast India ‐ Myanmar ‐ Southwest China region,
JSPS‐NTU/NUS Joint Research ProjectDec 29, 2021

On the homeland of Karenic languages:
from the perspective of plant names
Atsuhiko Kato
Keio University

Karenic is a branch of Tibeto‐Burman.
The ethnic groups that speak Karenic
languages (called “Karenic peoples”
here) include many groups, such as:
Geba, Gek(h)o, Kayah, Kayaw, Kayan,
Manu, Monebwa, Mopwa (Mobwa),
Paku, Pa‐O, Pwo Karen, Sgaw Karen,
Thalebwa, Yeinbaw, Yintale, and others(listed in alphabetical order).
2Karenic peoples have a very wide range of cultures andlifestyles. There are Buddhists, Christians, andanimists. Some of them live in the plains, while someothers live in the mountainous areas. Some of thegroups, especially Sgaw Karen and Pwo Karen, areengaged in an armed struggle against the Myanmar
government. Even a single ethnic group can have ahigh degree of diversity.

Cited from U Min Nain (ဦးမင်း င်ိ )တိတိ့ င်းရင်းဖွား ြပည်ေထာင်စသား,1960, Yangon, Myanmar.

Pwo Karen (left)
Sgaw Karen (right)
The ethnic “Karen”,
in the narrowest
sense, is comprisedof Pwo and Sgaw.

↑ Not Pao, but Pwo (or Poe)

4

Pa‐O

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)↑ Not Pwo, but Pa‐O (Taungthu)

5

Zayein

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)

6

Yinbaw

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)

7

Bre

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)

8

Padaung (one of the groups of Kayan)

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)

9

Yintale

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)

10

KayahCited from U Min Nain (1960)

11

Bwe

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)

12

Paku

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)

13

Mopwa (Mobwa)

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)

14

Palaychi (one of the groups of Mopwa)

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)

15

Geba

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)

16

Manumanaw

Cited from U Min Nain (1960)

17

GekhoCited from U Min Nain (1960)

18

Ethnologue (22nd edition) lists 21
Karenic languages:
Bwe; Geba; Geko; Mobwa; Paku; Phrae
Pwo; Eastern Pwo; Northern Pwo;
Western Pwo; Sgaw Karen (spelled as“S’gaw” in Ethnologue); Kawyaw; Eastern
Kayah; Western Kayah; Kayan; Kayaw;
Lahta; Pa‐O; Wewaw; Yinbaw; Yintale;
and Zayein.
19According to Ethnologue (22nd edition),the populations of these language‐
speaking groups are:Sgaw (2,250,000)
Pwo (1,326,000)
Pa‐O (858,740)
Kayah (178,000)
Kayan (133,180)
Geba (40,000)
Kayaw (20,100)
Bwe (17,200)
Geko (17,000)
Zayein (11,800)
Kawyaw (10,000)

Lahta (9,550)
Yinbaw (9,240)
Paku (6,710)
Mobwa (4,000)
Yintale (1,000)
Wewaw (extinct)

20

Karenic languages are of SVO‐type. Below
are Eastern Pwo Karen examples:

From Kato (2021)

já phàdʊ́ jɛ̄ béiɴjòfish big
five NC[flat] this‘these five big fish’

21

22

Mitani, Yasuyuki [三谷恭之] (1984)23

Karenic
languages

Mitani, Yasuyuki [三谷恭之] (1984)24

Genealogical relationships within the Karenic languages

Shintani, Tadahiko L. A. (2003) Classification of Brakaloungic (Karenic)
languages in relation to their tonal evolution. In Shigeki Kaji (ed.)
Proceedings of the Symposium Cross‐linguistic Studies of Tonal
Phenomena, pp.37‐54. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages andCultures of Asia and Africa.
25

Genealogical relationships within the Karenic languages

Manson, Ken. 2002. Karenic Language Relationships: A Lexical andPhonological Analysis. Chiang Mai: Department of Linguistics, Payap
University.

26

Genealogical relationships within the Karenic languages

Manson, Ken. 2017. The characteristics of the Karen branch of Tibeto‐
Burman. (In) Picus Sizhi Ding & Jamin Pelkey (eds.) Sociohistorical
Linguistics in Southeast Asia: New Horizons for Tibeto‐Burman
Studies in Honor of David Bradley, pp. 149–168. Leiden/Boston:
Brill.
27

Language names and sources
Northern Pa‐O

Shintani (2020b)

Southern Pa‐O

Shintani (2020b)

Eastern Kayah Li

Solnit (1997)

Zayein

Shintani (2014)

Nangki

Shintani (2016)

Yingtalay

Shintani (2018a)

Thaidai

Shintani (2018b)

Sonkan Kayan

Shintani (2018c)

Dosanbu Kayan

Shintani (2018d)

Thamidai

Shintani (2020a)

Pekon Kayan

Manson (2010)

Bwe

Henderson (1997)

Blimaw

Shintani (2017)

Western Pwo KarenMy data

Eastern Pwo KarenMy data

Sgaw KarenMy dataIn this study, I will use plantnames from 16 languages listed inthis table. The sources are shownin the right column.

*Note that Shintani’s (2017) Blimaw is adifferent language from Henderson’s(1997) Bwe, which is also called Blimaw.

28

Language names

Shintani (2003)

Northern Pa‐O
Southern Pa‐O
Eastern Kayah Li
ZayeinNangki
Yingtalay
Thaidai
Sonkan Kayan
Dosanbu Kayan
Thamidai
Pekon Kayan
Bwe
Blimaw
Western Pwo Karen
Eastern Pwo Karen
Sgaw Karen

29

Language names
Northern Pa‐O

Manson (2002)

Southern Pa‐O
Eastern Kayah Li
ZayeinNangki
Yingtalay
Thaidai
Sonkan Kayan
Dosanbu Kayan
Thamidai
Pekon Kayan
Bwe
Blimaw?

Western Pwo Karen
Eastern Pwo Karen
Sgaw Karen

30

Language names
Northern Pa‐O

Manson (2017)

Southern Pa‐O
Eastern Kayah Li
ZayeinNangki
Yingtalay
Thaidai
Sonkan Kayan
Dosanbu Kayan
Thamidai
Pekon Kayan
Bwe
Blimaw
Western Pwo Karen
Eastern Pwo Karen
Sgaw Karen

31

Language names
Northern Pa‐O
Southern Pa‐O
Eastern Kayah Li

Pao
Kayah

ZayeinNangkiIf we based on Shintani’s (2003)
classification, the sample languages
belong to these branches or sub‐branches. I separated Mobwa from
Sgaw‐Pwo because it seems slightly
distant from either Sgaw or Pwo.

Yingtalay
Thaidai
Sonkan Kayan

Pado‐Thaidai‐Gekho

Dosanbu Kayan
Thamidai
Pekon Kayan
Bwe

Bweba‐KayoBlimaw

Mobwa

Western Pwo Karen
Eastern Pwo Karen
Sgaw KarenSgaw‐Pwo
32

The plants treated in this study are:banyanbamboopine

palmyra palm

rattanbananateakbetel palm

coconut

sugar cane

Photos cited from:
Useful Tropical Plants Database
https://tropical.theferns.info/

mango
tamarindjackfruit33

We will see the relationships
and origins of the names ofthese plants in the Karenic
languages.

34bambooNorthern Pa‐O

wa34

Southern Pa‐O

wa44

Eastern Kayah Live

Zayeinva42

Nangkiva31

Yingtalayva55

Thaidaihua45

Sonkan Kayan

hua55

Dosanbu Kayan

hua55

Thamidaihua42

Pekon Kayan

hwâ

Bwe

hʊ

Blimaw

wa̤33

Western Pwo Karenwà [11]

Eastern Pwo Karenwá [55]

Sgaw Karenwâ [51]

All of the words are related to eachother, and a Proto‐Karen form can bereconstructed.
*hwa (Matisoff 2003, 2015)*hwaB (Luangthongkum 2019)35

banyan
Northern Pa‐Oŋɔŋ34Southern Pa‐O

kloŋ44Eastern Kayah Li---

Zayeinʁo̤̤ṳn42

Nangkisa31 klɔ31

Yingtalay

klou55

Thaidaikhlao45

Sonkan Kayan

khlou55

Dosanbu Kayan

khlou55

Thamidaikhlao42

Pekon Kayan

kʰlôn (STEDT)

Bwe

klo

Blimawxlɔ55

All of the words except the Northern
Pa‐O form are related to each other,and a Proto‐Karen form can bereconstructed.
*khloB (Luangthongkum 2013;
cited by Manson 2019)
Notes:• I assume *khluŋ2 for Proto‐Karen.
• Manson (2019) reconstructs *kʰloɴB
for Proto‐Kayan.

Western Pwo Karen khlòuɴ [11]Eastern Pwo Karenkhlóʊɴ [55]Sgaw Karenkhlə̂ [51]
36

pine
Northern Pa‐O

ŋo31Southern Pa‐O---

Eastern Kayah Li---

Zayeinɲu55

Nangkimei31 ŋou232

Yingtalay

ta33 ŋo53

Thaidaithin33 ju33

Sonkan Kayan

ŋou31

Dosanbu Kayan

ŋou42

Thamidai---

Pekon Kayan

nó

Bwe

---

Blimawthi55 ju44

The Thaidai and Blimaw forms areborrowings from Burmese.
Cf. Burmese /thíɴyú/ ထင်း း
A number of languages have words
beginning with [ŋ], but the etymologyof these words is unknown.
We cannot reconstruct a proto‐
form for ‘pine’.

Western Pwo Karen --Eastern Pwo Karenchàʊpənâiɴ [11.1.51]

Sgaw Karenshɣó [55]37

rattan
Northern Pa‐O

rei53

Southern Pa‐O---

Eastern Kayah Li

rì (Solnit 2013)

Zayeinʁe̤i̤42

Nangkiʔað232

Yingtalayrɯi31

Thaidairei33

Sonkan Kayan

re̤i̤33

Dosanbu Kayan

re̤i̤31

Thamidairi55

Pekon Kayan

rē

Bwe

wɪ

Blimaw

ɣi̤33

These words (except Nangki) are
related to each other, and a proto‐
form can be reconstructed.
*reB (Solnit 2013)*reB (Luangthongkum 2019)

Western Pwo Karen ɣê [51]Eastern Pwo Karenɣī̱ [33]

Sgaw Karenɣè [21]38

coconut
Northern Pa‐O

mok34 ʔun31

Southern Pa‐O

moʔ32 ʔon42

Eastern Kayah Li---

Zayeinmak33 qa33 ʔoan42

Nangkiʔou31

Yingtalay

ma53 ʔouŋ55

Thaidaima33 ʔon42

Sonkan Kayanʔouŋ31

Dosanbu Kayanʔouŋ55

Thamidaiʔon42

Pekon Kayan

ʔōŋ

Bwe

u

Blimaw

ʔou55

Western Pwo Karen phláu [55]Eastern Pwo Karen
Sgaw Karenphlɔ̀ [11]xɔ̄ [33]

The Northern Pa‐O, Southern Pa‐O,
Zayein, Yingtalay, and Thaidai forms
are borrowings from Shan.
Cf. Shan maak2 ʔun1
(Transcription follows
Hudak 2000)
The Nangki, Sonkan, Dosanbu,
Thamidai, Pekon Kayan, Bwe, andBlimaw forms are borrowings from
Burmese or Shan. These borrowings arevery new because the tones do notshow a regular correspondence. (cf. Kato2018) Cf. Burmese /ʔóuɴ/ အန်းThe Western Pwo, Eastern Pwo, andSgaw forms are borrowings from Mon.
Mon ဗဴ <brau> /prɛ̀a/ (Shorto 1962)

These can be old borrowings because
the tones show a regularcorrespondence.
We cannot reconstruct a protoform.
39

teak
Northern Pa‐O

mai22 sak34

Southern Pa‐O---

Eastern Kayah Lilehʌ

Zayeinmai42 sak42

Nangki---

Yingtalayla55 hai55

Thaidai

cu42

Sonkan Kayan

kiao31

Dosanbu Kayan

kla55

Thamidaicun55

Pekon Kayan

cú

Bwe

bahi

Blimawla11 hei55

Some languages use Shan borrowings.
Cf. Shan may5 shak4 (Hudak 2000)
Some languages use Burmese
borrowings.
Cf. Burmese /cúɴ/ က န်း
The origins of the other forms are
unknown.
We cannot reconstruct a proto‐
form for ‘teak’.

Western Pwo Karen pəjì [1.11]
Eastern Pwo Karenpəjí [1.55]

Sgaw Karenpəhî [1.51]
40

palmyra palm (toddy palm)
Northern Pa‐O

than34Southern Pa‐O

thæn42Eastern Kayah Li---

Zayein---Nangki---Eastern Pwo Karen and Sgaw Karenuse Mon borrowings.

Yingtalay---

Cf. Mon တာ <tā> /ta/ (Shorto 1962)

Thaidaithan45

Sonkan Kayan---

Dosanbu Kayan

thaŋ55

Thamidaina42 thɛn42

Pekon Kayan

---

Bwe

thá

Blimaw

tho55

Many languages use Burmese
borrowings.
Cf. Burmese /tháɴ/ ထန်းThese Mon borrowings can be old
because Eastern Pwo and Sgaw show aregular tonal correspondence.
These words are all borrowings,
and we cannot reconstruct a
protoform for ‘palmyra palm’.

Western Pwo Karen thàɴ [11]Eastern Pwo Karentà [11]

Sgaw Karentá [55]41

banana
Northern Pa‐O

thaʔ34 thi34

Southern Pa‐O

θa42 thi44

Eastern Kayah Li

dīklwí

Zayeinle42 ɲa̤42 le42

Nangki---

Yingtalayθa55 kloi53

Thaidaicə33 kuai42

Sonkan Kayan

khlui31

Dosanbu Kayan

khlui42

Thamidai

cu42 kui55

Pekon Kayan

kʰlwí

Bwe

yà

Blimawla11 kwe11

Western Pwo Karen
Eastern Pwo Karenθaʔklɯ́ [51.55]
θàkwì [11.11]

Sgaw Karentəkwí [1.55]

Manson (2019) reconstructs *kʰlwiA
for Proto‐Kayan.
Similar forms are found in several
other languages. Probably, these are
related to Proto‐Mon‐Khmer *t1luuy[ ](Shorto 2006). Thus, it is possible that
Proto‐Karen borrowed a word for‘banana’ from some Mon‐Khmer
language, and a protoform such as*khlwi1 can be reconstructed for it.
However, this issue needs further
consideration because these forms do
not always show regular phonologicalcorrespondences.
The Bwe form yà is related toanother etymon. (Next slide)42

From Solnit (2013)
Pk=Pekon Kayan; KyE=Eastern Kayah Li; Kyw=Kayaw;
Bl=Blimaw (Henderson’s Bwe); Pl=Palaychi; P=Pwo Karen;
S=Sgaw Karen; pK=Proto‐Karen
These words can evidently be traced back to Proto‐Karen. Solnit (2013) reconstructs*ŋakD for Proto‐Karen. Therefore, it is certain that a word for ‘banana’ existed inProto‐Karen, even if the form such as *khlwi1 did not exist.
Manson glosses Proto‐Kayan *kʰlwiA as ‘banana fruit’, and *ŋa̤ʔD ‘banana plant’.

43sugar caneNorthern Pa‐O

toŋ34 lai31

Southern Pa‐Otoŋ44 lai42

Eastern Kayah Li

dīklɛ bōZayeinqiŋ42 kwai55 bɔŋ55

Nangkihe31 kli232

Yingtalay

khi53

Thaidaidin42 khle42

Sonkan Kayan

khle31 boŋ31

Dosanbu Kayan

khlai42 boŋ42

Thamidaicɛn55 khlæ55

Pekon Kayan

dèŋkʰláibú

Bweɗákhlɛ́
chi11 ɗou55

Blimaw

It is not possible to reconstruct a
protoform of these words in Proto‐
Karen.

Western Pwo Karen shìphoʔ [11.51]
Eastern Pwo Karencìphó [11.55]

Sgaw Karenthípoʔ [55.11]
44

betel palm
Northern Pa‐O

mok34 mu53

Southern Pa‐O

maʔ32 mu44

Eastern Kayah Li---

Zayeinma̤̤ŋ42 mṳ33

Nangkimouʔ53

Yingtalay

ma53

Thaidaikun42

Sonkan Kayan

ni31 mo̤ṳ31

Dosanbu Kayanmo̤ṳ31

Thamidai

kwen55

Pekon Kayan

bamò

Bwe

màmú

Blimawla11 ma11

Manson (2019) reconstructs*bəmo̤A for Proto‐Kayan.

Peiros (1989) reconstructs*mɔ̄B for Proto‐Karen.
However, it is uncertain
whether a Proto‐Karenform can be reconstructed.

Western Pwo Karen θeʔ [51]Eastern Pwo Karenθè [11]

Sgaw Karenθɛ́ʔ [43]45mangoNorthern Pa‐O

ta31 khoʔ34

Southern Pa‐O

θa42 khoʔ32

Eastern Kayah Li
Zayeintəkhɛ́
θa33 khwa42

Nangkikhu31

Yingtalay

ta33 khɔ53

Thaidaikho45

Sonkan Kayankhɔ53

Dosanbu Kayankhaoʔ53

ThamidaikhaoʔPekon Kayan

kʰàu

Bwe

---

Blimawla11 hu11

All the words we have here
can be traced back to Proto‐
Karen.
Solnit (2013) reconstructs*khok for Proto‐Karen.
Luangthonkum (2019)reconstructs *khɔʔD for
Proto‐Karen.

Western Pwo Karen khoʔ [51]Eastern Pwo Karenkhò [11]

Sgaw Karentəkhóʔ [1.43]
46

tamarind
Northern Pa‐O

mok34 kreŋ34

Southern Pa‐Omoŋ42 kreŋ44

Eastern Kayah Li---

Zayeinmə33 ʁe̤a̤ŋ42

Nangkiʔa232 klai53

Yingtalay

mi55 piaŋ53

Thaidaibun42 klein33

Sonkan Kayan

ma31 klaiŋ53

Dosanbu Kayanŋkla̤i̤ŋ31

Thamidaima42 klen55

Pekon Kayan

---

Bwe

màklé

Blimaw

mṳ11 kle55

Western Pwo Karen máɴkhláuɴ [55.55]
Eastern Pwo Karenmàɴkhlōɴ [11.33]

Sgaw Karenmɔ̀klɔ̀ [21.21], mɔ̄klē [33.33]

It is highly possible that all thewords listed here can betraced back to Proto‐Karen.
Manson (2019) reconstructs*makʰlɛŋBsaB
for Proto‐Karen.
Two points must be kept inmind here:• The tones do not exhibit aperfect correspondence.
• Sgaw Karen has two forms
for ‘tamarind’.
There might have been two
or more allophams of a single
etymon denoting ‘tamarind’
in Proto‐Karen.
Cf. Mon မင်ေဂၠါန် <man glon>/mɛ̀aŋ klòn/47

jackfruit
Northern Pa‐O

mok34 klaŋ22

Southern Pa‐O

maʔ32 klaŋ53

Eastern Kayah Li---

Zayeinla̤ŋ42

Nangkiʔa232 laŋʔ53

Yingtalay---

Thaidaidi42 ne33

Sonkan Kayan

ba31 laŋ31

Dosanbu Kayan

ba42 la̤ŋ31

Thamidaipe55 nen55

Pekon Kayan

balāŋ

Bwe

tɔbəne, thɔbənɪ

Blimawtɔ11 ɲi̤11

Manson (2019) reconstructs *bəl̥aɴB
for Proto‐Kayan.
However, for the Proto‐Karen stage,
it seems to difficult to reconstructa protoform.

Western Pwo Karen nwê [51]Eastern Pwo Karennwɛ̄ [33]Sgaw Karenpənwɛ̀ [1.21]
48

Summary for Karenic plant names
For the words meaning ‘bamboo’, ‘banyan’, ‘rattan’, ‘banana’,‘mango’, and ‘tamarind’, protoforms can be reconstructed inProto‐Karen. For the other plant names treated in this study, it isdifficult to reconstruct Proto‐Karen forms. This is especially true
for the words meaning ‘coconut’ and ‘palmyra palm’; they are all
loanwords. Therefore, we can assume that the bamboo, banyan,
rattan, banana, mango, and tamarind existed in the area where
Proto‐Karen was spoken, but that the coconut and palmyra palm
did not.
The coconut and palmyra palm are typical tropical plants. They
do not grow well in the subtropics. The bamboo, banyan, rattan,
banana, mango, and tamarind can grow in the subtropics.
Therefore, the area where the Proto‐Karen was spoken was
subtropical, not tropical.

49

Next, we will see where thelargest number of Karenic
languages are spoken.

50

51

Bwe, Geba, Gek(h)o, Kayah,
Kayaw, Kayan, Manu,
Monebwa, Mopwa, Paku,
Pa‐O, Sgaw Karen,
Thalebwa, Yinbaw, Yintale,
ZayeinPwo Karen,
Sgaw Karen
Pwo Karen, Sgaw Karen,
Pa‐O
Pwo Karen,
Sgaw Karen52

To put it plainly, in the circled area, all
Karenic languages except Pwo Karen are
spoken (cf. Moseley and Asher 1994).
According to linguistic migration theory,
the area where the largest number ofrelated languages are spoken is thehomeland of the languages (see Campbell
and Mixco 2007, for example). Therefore,
the homeland of the Karenic languages
can be located in the circled area.
This circled area also has a subtropicalpart. The following map shows the
Köppen‐Geiger climate zones in
Myanmar.
53

Cited from:
Myanmar Information
Management Unit (MIMU)
http://www.themimu.info/

54

Cited from:
Myanmar Information
Management Unit (MIMU)
http://www.themimu.info/

The circled area has a large
portion of the Cwa climate,and it is subtropical.

55

The important points are:
• The circled area shows thehighest diversity of Karenic
languages.
• The circled area has a large
subtropical part.

Therefore, the last homeland of
Karenic languages is likely to havebeen located in the circled area.
56

Today, many
Pwo Karens andSgaw Karens livein the tropics.
The climates of
their villages arevery tropical.

A Pwo Karen village in the Ayeyarwady Delta
57

A Pwo Karen village in the Ayeyarwady Delta
58

A Pwo Karen village in the Ayeyarwady Delta
59

A Pwo Karen village in the Ayeyarwady Delta

60

Ayeyarwady Delta

61

Hpa‐an, the capital of Karen State62

A Pwo Karen village near Hpa‐an

63

A Buddhist temple near Hpa‐an64

A Buddhist temple near Hpa‐an

65

A Pwo Karen village near Hpa‐an

66

A Pwo Karen village near Hpa‐an

67

A forest near Hpa‐an

68

A Pwo Karen village near Hpa‐an

69

A Pwo Karen village near Hpa‐an

70

A Pwo Karen village near Hpa‐an

71

A Pwo Karen village near Hpa‐an72

A Pwo Karen
village in Mon
State

73

A Pwo Karen village in Mon State74

A Pwo Karen village in Mon State75

A Pwo Karen village in Mon State76

A Pwo Karen village in Mon State77

A Pwo Karen village in Mon State78

A Pwo Karen
village in Mon
State

79

A Pwo Karen village in Mon State

80

The climate of the circled area issubtropical.

A view in Southern Shan State81

A Pa‐O village in Southern Shan State82

A Pa‐O village in Southern Shan State83

A Pa‐O village in Southern Shan State84

A Pa‐O village in Southern Shan State85

A Pa‐O village in Southern Shan State86

A Pa‐O village in Southern Shan State87

A Pa‐O village in Southern Shan State

88

The climate of Northern Karen Stateis subtropical.

Thandaungyi Town in Northern Karen State
From Wikipedia:Thandaunggyi Townshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thandaunggyi_Township89Thandaungyi is situated on one of the tops of thesemountains. These are subranges of the Shan Hills.

A view of the Karen Hills from Taunggoo90

Conclusion• The last homeland of Karenic languages is likely tohave been located in the circled area, i.e., the areaaround the borders of Shan State, Kayah State, andKaren State, because this area shows the highest
diversity of Karenic languages and has a large
subtropical part.

In addition, let us consider what route the speakers ofProto‐Karen took to reach this homeland. Considering
the availability of water, it is highly likely that theycame down along the Thanlween (Salween) River. The
route is shown in the map on the next page.

91

Possible route of
migration by theancestors of
Karenic peoples

92References
Campbell, Lyle & Mauricio J. Mixco. 2007. linguistic homeland. A Glossary of Historical Linguistics, pp. 106–108.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons & Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2019. Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Twentysecond edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
Hudak, Thomas John. 2000. Cushing’s Shan-English Dictionary: A Phonetic Version. Tempe: Arizona State University.
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