3ISSN 2188-8612

ISSN 2188-8612

JACET International Convention
Selected Papers
Volume 3

The JACET 54th (2015) International Convention
Theme: Intercultural Communicative Competence and English Language Education
in a Globalized World

August 29 – 31, 2015
Kagoshima University

JACET International Convention Selected Papers, Volume 3
Published by the Japan Association of College English Teachers (JACET)JACET Selected Papers Committee
Senior Director-in-Charge
NOGUCHI, Judy Tsutae (Kobe Gakuin University)

Director-in-Charge
KAWANO, Madoka (Meiji University)

Editorial Board
Chair
KANAOKA, Masao (Kagoshima University)

Deputy Chair
HIRAMOTO, Satoshi (Yasuda Women’s University)

KAWAI, Yasushi (Hokkaido University)

DALSKY, David (Kyoto University)

KANEKO, Emiko (University of Aizu)

HAENOUCHI, Hiroko (Nihon University)

PENG, Virginia (Ritsumeikan University)

HARA, Takayuki (Kagoshima University)

TAKAHASHI, Sachi (Kyoto University)

HIGUCHI, Akihiko (Kagoshima University)

TOMITA, Kaoru (Yamagata University)

INGULSRUD, John Eric (Meisei University)

TSUDA, Sanae (Professor Emerita, Tokaigakuen

IRIE, Kimihiro (Shigakukan University)

University)

KANAMARU, Toshiyuki (Kyoto University)

YOKOYAMA, Yoshiki (Hokkaido University of
Education)

Advisory Board
KINGINGER, Celeste (Pennsylvania State University)
KRAMSCH, Claire (University of California, Berkeley, President of AILA)PERRIN, Daniel (Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Vice President of AILA)

JACET Prize & Academic Publication Selection Committee
Director-in-Charge
OZEKI, Naoko (Meiji University)

Head
IWAI, Chiaki (Hiroshima City University)

Vice-Head
TAJINO, Akira (Kyoto University)

Reviewers
ANTHONY, Laurence (Waseda University)

SAKAI, Hideki (Shinshu University)

CHUJO, Kiyomi (Nihon University)

TAKAHASHI, Kiyoshi (Miyagi University of

HINO, Nobuyuki (Osaka University)

Education)

HIROMORI, Tomohito (Meiji University)

TAKAHASHI, Satomi (Rikkyo University)

KANZAKI, Takaaki (Kwansei Gakuin University)

TAKEUCHI, Osamu (Kansai University)

KOMIYA, Tomiko (Okazaki Women’s University)

TSUDA, Sanae (Professor Emerita, Tokaigakuen

MATSUMOTO, Hiroyuki (Hokkai Gakuen University)

University)

NAKATANI, Yasuo (Hosei University)

UEMURA, Toshihiko (University of Nagasaki)

OKADA, Nobuo (Kansai Gaidai University)

YOSHIKAWA, Hiroshi (Chukyo University)

Cover Design
KASUNO, Shin-ichi
Editorial Office
The JACET Office
Address: 55 Yokotera-machi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-0831 JAPAN
Phone: +81-3-3268-9686/ Fax: +81-3-3268-9695

E-mail: jacet@zb3.so-net.ne.jp

First published in August, 2016
ISSN 2188-8612
Copyright © 2016 by JACET
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or republished in any form without
permission in writing from JACET.
The articles published herein do not reflect the opinions of JACET.

Contents
Message from the Editorial Board Chair ··························································· V

Invited Papers

English Language Education in the Global World: Overview of JACET’s History andChallenges for its Next Step························································ Hajime Terauchi

2

Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplace: Applied Linguistics as Researchon, for, and with Practitioners························································ Daniel Perrin
26Japanese Students Learning English Abroad in an Era of Globalization························································ Celeste Kinginger

52

Selected Papers

Higher Education Internationalization Needs a New Instructional Focus, New Attitudes
and New Curricula for the Teaching of English························································ Siusana Kweldju

68

The Relationship Among Students' Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction inClass: A Study of a Corpus Approach························································ Yukiko Ohashi
98
The Ideal Intercultural Self Framework: A Way to Motivate Students to Develop Intercultural
Communicative Competence···································Robinson Fritz, Sumiko Miyafusa 123

Submission Guidelines ············································································· 154

Message from the Editorial Board Chair
With utmost pleasure and honor, we present the third issue of Selected Papers from theJapan Association of College English Teachers [JACET] 54th International Convention,
which was held at Kagoshima University, Japan, from August 29 to 31, 2015. Following the
tradition of many successful JACET Conventions over the years, the 54th Convention also
ended with great success, boasting a large number of participants who visited the venue frominside and outside Japan (approximately 750 in total). Highly productive and diversified
sessions were held for three days, including plenary sessions, invited lectures, presentations,
symposiums, and workshops.
The six articles included in this volume represent an international collection of selected
papers from the convention. They are three invited papers written by the President of JACET
and two plenary speakers, followed by three papers by conference presenters. Professor
Hajime Terauchi, the 8th president of JACET, addresses action plans and future prospects for
JACET as the newly inaugurated president. He overviews the trajectory of JACET since its
establishment in 1962, while noting the current situation of English language education in
Japan in an era of globalization. Professor Daniel Perrin, with complicated global contexts
and necessary professional communication in mind, presents multimodal research methods inapplied linguistics with a focus on transdisciplinarity, and then concludes with the importanceof employing empirically-based measures for research leading to the development of boththeory and practice. Professor Celeste Kinginger presents an extensive study pertaining to theimpacts of study abroad programs, focusing on her current research targeting Japaneselearners of English in Anglophone settings. In acquiring pragmatic and social interactive
abilities in globalized communities, she addresses the importance of reconsidering/redefining
what expertise means in English today in pursuit of well-organized research, pedagogy, andthe design of study abroad programs.
The three papers from convention presenters include one from overseas (SEAMEORELC). The first manuscript by Professor Siusana Kweldju, using the coined term language
branding, sheds light on emergent requirements of demonstrating evidence of an adequatelevel of native-speaker-based conceptions of proficiency. They are imperative in order tov

participate in international mobility, in particular for language learners and scholars fromexpanding circle countries. The second paper by Professor Yukiko Ohashi explores andpresents evidence on the effectiveness of language teachers’ L2 feedback in the developmentof language learners’ spontaneous L2 utterances, uptake, and interaction in class. Results fromvarious quantitative analyses suggest the importance of enriching and empowering feedback
in order to promote the learners’ uptake performance. Teacher scaffolding and peer learnercollaboration are also noted as being crucial for the enhancement of individual learners’
spontaneous L2 utterances. The final article by Professor Robinson Fritz and Professor
Sumiko Miyafusa introduces the Ideal Intercultural Self (IIS), a unique concept andframework developed by the authors, then explored for the effects of utilizing IIS with theaim of developing international communicative competence (ICC). Employing Japanesecollege students in the research, the authors suggest that a pedagogically significant challenge
lies in how college L2 learners can become adept at filling the gap between their present self
and future IIS.
In publishing this volume, our mission was to demonstrate the highest quality inselection. For the benefit of JACET and its members, it is our desire that this volume of
Selected Papers provide a top-notch scholarly presence by offering thought-provoking andacademically inspiring work from the convention for all to access online. Accordingly, ourstringent review process resulted in the publication of a limited number of articles.
As the Chair of the Editorial Board, I would like to express my cordial gratitude to eachof the reviewers, the Editorial Board members, and all of those who contributed to publishing
the third volume of the JACET International Convention Selected Papers. It is my sincere
desire that this collection be utilized and contribute to advancing the development of English
language education.

Masao Kanaoka, Ed.D.
Chair, The Editorial Board of the JACET International Convention Selected Papers, Volume 3vi

Invited Papers

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25

English Language Education in the Global World:
Overview of JACET’s History and Challenges for its Next Step

Hajime Terauchi
Takachiho University
President of JACET

Abstract
The Presidential Speech at the JACET 54th (2015) International Convention at Kagoshima
University presented an overview of the history of JACET from its inception in 1962,
reviewed the current situation of English language education in Japan as well as around theworld, and introduced action plans and future prospects for JACET. The need is recognized
for more effective language teaching and learning in preparation for active participation in the
global community.

Keywords: action plans, future prospects, global community, JACET history, JACET
principles

Introduction
I am Hajime Terauchi, the 8th president of JACET as of June 21st, 2015. It is with great
excitement that I take on my duties for this two-year term of office until June 2017. Today, atthis JACET 54th (2015) International Convention at Kagoshima University, I will be talking
about three things. The first is an overview of the history of JACET from its inception in 1962.
In the second part, I will review the current situation of English language education in Japan
as well as around the world. This includes concepts related to the need for more effective
language teaching and learning in preparation for active participation in the global community.

2Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global WorldIn the third part, I will introduce three action plans for JACET in 2015 and present future
prospects for this organization.

Overview of JACET History up to 2015
First of all, to remember the spirit with which this association was begun, I would liketo briefly look back at the history of JACET since its birth. In 1962, members of the Institutefor Research in Language Teaching, attending the general council meeting on college English
education during the annual conference, decided to establish a new association.
Approximately 120 joined in its founding, and in 1963, Professor Natsuo Shumuta was
appointed as the first president (April 1963 to September 1968). The summer seminar, a
tradition which continues today, was started at this time. During the term of the second
president (September 1968 to October 1984), Professor Yoshio Ogawa, the board of directors
set up a research committee to plan and manage the association’s activities. The committee
also organized the Tohoku, Chubu, Kansai, Chugoku-Shikoku, and Kyushu-Okinawa chapters(subsequently, the Hokkaido chapter was established in 1986 and the Kanto chapter in 2006).
During this period, JACET conducted a survey supported by grants for research from theJapan Society for the Promotion of Science to understand the situation of college English
education. The association also joined the International Association of Applied Linguistics
and started an active international exchange of scholars. During the term of office of the thirdpresident (October 1984 to August 1991), Professor Ryuichi Kajiki, the number of JACET
members exceeded 2,160, eighteen times that at the time of its founding.
The fourth president was Professor Ikuo Koike. During his term (August 1991 toSeptember 2001), AILA’99 was held at Waseda University in 1999, attracting 2,350
participants from all over the world, and the JACET Principles, described below, wereannounced. During this period, the Deregulation of University Act was promulgated. Also,
research in areas of applied linguistics increased, and JACET added these research areas to3

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25

those of English literature and English linguistics. For the first time, JACET membership was
dominated by researchers of English education and applied linguistics.
The fifth president (September 2001 to December 2004), Professor Yoji Tanabe,
worked on the association’s charter and organizational reform. Unfortunately, Professor
Tanabe passed away during his term, and Professor Mamoru Morizumi became the sixthpresident (December 2004 to March 2010), continuing Professor Tanabe’s initiatives. During
Professor Morizumi’s term, the association reviewed its statutes and finances and became anincorporated entity. The comprehensive knowledge base of JACET members was published as
A Series of Studies on English Education, in thirteen volumes, by Taishukan Publishing
Company. During the term of the seventh president, Professor Hisatake Jimbo, in accord withthe revision of the law, JACET was restructured as a general incorporated association in April
2013. Since the JACET 50th Commemorative International Convention held in 2011 at
Seinan Gakuin University, all annual conventions have been held as international conventions.
JACET is now officially affiliated with ten associations and institutions. Association
Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée (AILA); China English Language Education
Association (CELEA), China; English Teachers’ Association-Republic of China (ETA-ROC),
Taiwan; Thailand TESOL (Thai-TESOL), Thailand; The Applied Linguistics Association of
Korea (ALAK), South Korea; The Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT), Japan;
The Korea Association of Teachers of English (KATE), South Korea; The Malaysian English
Language Teaching Association (MELTA), Malaysia; The Pan-Korea English Teachers
Association (PKETA), South Korea; The Regional Language Centre (RELC), Singapore.
JACET honorary members are shown in Table 1.

4

Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global World

Table 1JACET Honorary Members (The Japan Association of College English Teachers, 2015, pp.
126-127)
Dr. Andrew D. Cohen

Dr. Alister Cumming

Dr. Bates L. Hoffer

Dr. David Crystal

Dr. Dan Douglas

Dr. David McNeil

Dr. Derek Bickerton

Dr. Douglas Stout

Dr. Ema Ushioda

Dr. Fredricka L. Stoller

Dr. Gabriele Stein

Dr. George Lakoff

Dr. Henry G. Widdowson Prof. John C. Wells

Dr. John F. Fanselow

Dr. John G. Bordie

Dr. John McCormick

Dr. John W. Oller, Jr.

Dr. Kellogg W. Hunt

Dr. Leon A. Jakobovits Dr. Lily W. Fillmore

Dr. Mark Lester

Dr. Mark Pegrum

Dr. Michael McCarthy

Dr. Paul Fletcher

Dr. Paul Kei Matsuda

Dr. Rebecca L. Oxford

Dr. Randolph Quirk

Dr. Razika Sanaoui

Dr. Richard A. Spears

Dr. Richard W. Schmidt

Dr. Roderick A. Jacobs Dr. Roy Lyster

Dr. Simon Borg

Dr. Thomas Scovel

Dr. Vivian Cook

Dr. Wallace L. Chafe

Dr. William Grabe

Dr. William LabovThe Current Situation of JACET in a Global World
JACET Convention and Summer Seminar
JACET has held annual conventions since 1962. The convention themes and keynote
speakers since 2001 are as follows:
JACET convention themes and keynote speakers since 2001.


2001: English Education in the 21st century: New Challenges
Guy Cook (University of Reading)
Carol A. Chapelle (Iowa State University)
Ikuo Koike (JACET President, Meikai University)

5

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25



2002: Integrated English Education: from Primary through Tertiary
Yoji Tanabe (JACET President, Waseda University)
Geoffrey K. Pullum (University of California, Santa Cruz)
Mineo Nakajima (Secretary General, University Mobility in Asia and the Pacific)



2003: ‘National Policy’ for Foreign Language Education: Searching for the Ideal
Takashi Yoshimoto (President of Tohoku University)
David Crystal (Professor Emeritus, University of Wales)David Ingram (Griffith University)

2004: English as an ‘International Language’: Educational Goals and Standards
Saran Kaur Gill (Kebangsaan Malaysia University)
Andy Curtis (Queen's University)
Katsuhiko Tanaka (Chukyo University)
Alan Davies (Professor Emeritus, University of Edinburgh)
Ravinder Gargesh (University of Delhi)

2005: Exploring the Evolving Goals of English Education
Mamoru Morizumi (JACET President, J. F. Oberlin University)
Michael Rundell (University of Brighton)
David Charles Nunan (University of Hong Kong)
Michael Stuart Byram (Durham University)

2006: Pedagogical Considerations for University English Instruction in a New Era ofOpen Admissions
Moses Samuel (University of Malaya)
Donald Freeman (School for International Training)
Kazuo Nishimura (Kyoto University)
Jack C. Richards (SEAMEO RELC)

2007: English Education at the Tertiary Level - in Search of a Consistent Curriculum

6Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global World

from Elementary School through University
Mamoru Morizumi (JACET President, J. F. Oberlin University)
David Little (Trinity College Dublin)
Toshiaki Ozasa (Fukuyama Heisei University)

2008: What is Global English Communicative Competence? : A Reconsideration ofEnglish Education in Japan
Jennifer Jenkins (University of Southampton)
Katsuhiko Shirai (President of Waseda University)
Yasukata Yano (Waseda University)
Takashi Sakamoto (Accreditation Council for Practical Abilities)
Salikoko S. Mufwene (University of Chicago)2009: College English Curriculum Innovation in the 'New' Age of International ExchangeMark Warschauer (UC Irvine)
Anthony Green (University of Bedfordshire)Toshimitsu Asakura (President of Hokkai-Gakuen University)
Amol Padwad (J. M. Patel College)

2010: Tomorrow's Learners, Tomorrow's Teachers: Autonomous Development in College
English Language Learning and Teaching
Hisatake Jimbo (JACET President, Waseda University)
Barbara Sinclair (University of Nottingham)
Simon Borg (University of Leeds)
Kiyomi Akita (University of Tokyo)

2011: Challenges for Tertiary English Education-JACET's Role in the Next Fifty Years
Rod Ellis (University of Auckland)
Joseph Lo Bianco (University of Melbourne)
Ernesto Macaro (University of Oxford)

7

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25

Aya Matsuda (Arizona State University)
Peter Skehan (University of Auckland)
Vijay Bhatia (City University of Hong Kong)
Ikuo Koike (JACET Special Advisor)
Adele Scott (Massey University)
Paul Matsuda (Arizona State University)
Lawrence Jung Zhang (Nanyang Technological University)

2012: The Application of Contemporary Language Theories to Higher English
Education: Focusing on the Importance of Content-based and Context-based Approaches
Ewa Dabrowska (Northumbria University)
Yoshihiko Ikegami (Showa Women’s University)
David Singleton (Trinity College Dublin)
Stephen J. Andrews (University of Hong Kong)
Ian Roberts (Downing College, University of Cambridge)

2013: Collaboration and Relativization in English Language Education
Susan Bassnett (University of Warwick)
Alan Hirvela (Ohio State University)
Ken Hyland (University of Hong Kong)
Toru Iiyoshi (Kyoto University)

2014: Fostering English Communicative Competence for Peace and Friendship
Craig Smith (Kyoto University of Foreign Studies)
Kip A. Cates (Tottori University)

2015: Intercultural Communicative Competence and English Language Education in a
Globalized World
Hajime Terauchi (JACET President, Takachiho University)
Claire Kramsch (University of California, Berkeley, President of AILA)8

Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global World

Daniel Perrin (Zurich University of Applied Sciences)
Celeste Kinginger (Pennsylvania State University)

JACET summer seminar themes and main lecturers since 2001
JACET has held Summer Seminars since 1962. The themes and main lecturers since2001 are as follows:

2001: Language Learning Strategy
Rebecca Oxford (University of Alabama)
Chisato Furuta (Aoyama Gakuin University)
Osamu Takeuchi (Kansai University)

2002: New Perspectives on ESPDan Douglas (Iowa State University)
Thomas Orr (University of Aizu)
Judy Noguchi (Mukogawa Women’s University)
Atsuko Umesaki (Tezukayama University)

2003: Pragmatics in Second Language Acquisition: A Focus on Speech Acts
Andrew D. Cohen (University of Minnesota)
Michiko Nakano (Waseda University)
Susumu Kubo (Matsuyama University)
Sayoko Yamashita (Tokyo Medical and Dental University)

2004: Facilitating Vocabulary Acquisition
Michael McCarthy (University of Nottingham)
Asako Yamazaki (Musashi Institute of Technology)
Kazumi Aizawa (Tokyo Denki University)
Brent Wolter (Okayama University)

9

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25



2005: Psycholinguisitics and Second Language Acquisition
Thomas Scovel (San Francisco State University)
Peter Robinson (Aoyama Gakuin University)
Shuhei Kadota (Kwansei Gakuin University)
Yuko Goto Bulter (University of Pennsylvania)

2006: Issues in L2 Reading Instruction
William Grabe (Northern Arizona University)
Fredricka Stoller (Northern Arizona University)

2007: Issues in L2 Writing Instruction
Alister Cumming (University of Toronto)
Razika Sanaoui (York University)

2008: Perspectives on Language Teacher Development
Simon Borg (University of Leeds)
Tsuneo Takanashi (Professor Emeritus, Hirosaki University)
Tim Murphy (Kanda University of International Studies)2009: English Grammar 1900―2000 and Politeness in English
Geoffrey Leech (Lancaster University)
Masanori Toyota (Kansai Gaidai University)

2010: Theory and Practice in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)-- The Role of
the European Language Portfolio (ELP) -David Newby (Graz University)
Ken Hisamura (Den-en Chofu University)
Noriko Nagai (Ibaraki University)

2012: Advanced EFL and ESP Reading
William Grabe (Northern Arizona University)
Hiroko Tajika (Tsuda College)

10Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global World

Fredricka Stoller (Northern Arizona University)
Judy Noguchi (Mukogawa Women’s University)

2013: Motivation and autonomy: Research and Methodological Perspectives in Language
Learning
Ema Ushioda (University of Warwick)
Osamu Takeuchi (Kansai University)
Yasuo Nakatani (Hosei University)

2014: CLIL and Content-based Language Teaching: New Global Perspectives on
Bilingualism and Immersion
Roy Lyster (McGill University)
Makoto Ikeda (Sophia University)
Carol Inugai-Dixon (International Baccalaureate Organization)

2015: Mobile Learning in and out of the Classroom: Balancing Blended Language
Learner Training
Mark Pegrum (University of Western Australia)
Glenn Stockwell (Waseda University)
Hiroyuki Obari (Aoyama Gakuin University)

Note. The above information was taken from The Japan Association of College English
Teachers (2012) for the years from 2001 to 2011 and the JACET website for the remaining
years.

JACET Research Activity
JACET-Special Interest GroupIn 1999, AILA’99 was held at Waseda University, attracting 2,350 participants from allover the world. Since then research in areas of applied linguistics has increased, and as ofAugust 1st, 2015, 42 JACET-SIGs are actively conducting research in their areas.

11

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25



Hokkaido Chapter
CALL Hokkaido; Classroom-centered Research; Discourse Analysis Circle of Hokkaido(DACH); ESP Hokkaido Chapter



Tohoku Chapter
Autonomous Learning

Kanto Chapter
English Education; SLA; Testing; Language Contact; Discourse-Pragmatics SIG; English
Lexicography; Oral Communication Study Group; Global Education/Education forInternational Understanding; Bilingualism and Bilingual Education; ESP Kanto Chapter;
Language Policy; Critical Thinking; English Vocabulary Research; Language Teacher
Cognition; Developmental Education Kanto Chapter; Teaching Materials; English for
Academic Purposes

Chubu Chapter
Politeness Research Group; ESP Chubu Chapter; The Writing Research Group; World
Englishes and Cross-cultural Understanding; Multicultural Coexistence and English
Education; Applied English Grammar based on the Latest Linguistic Theories;
Developmental Education Chubu Chapter



Kansai Chapter
JACET Materials Development Group; Foreign Language Education Abroad;
Pedagogical English Grammar; Listening; Literature in Language Education; Special
Interest Group on Reading; The Writing Research Group, the JACET Kansai Chapter;
ESP Kansai Chapter; English for Japanese Scientists; Developmental Education Kansai
Chapter

Chugoku-Shikoku Chapter
Oral Presentation & Performance; SIG on Academic & Teaching Portfolio

Kyushu-Okinawa Chapter

12

Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global WorldThe Study Group for English Education in East Asia; ESP Kyushu-Okinawa Chapter;
Applied Cognitive Linguistics

I will introduce two very important academic publications from JACET. One is the
JACET 8000, a list of the 8000 basic words which should be acquired by learners of English.
This list is being revised as a new update version which will be published as the New JACET
8000. The other major JACET publication is the 13-volume set of A Series of Studies on
English Education from Taishukan Publishing Company published in 2012 (Table 2).

Table 2
A Series of Studies on English Education (13 Volumes) Edited by JACET. Refer to The Japan
Association of College English Teachers (2011) for further information
Vol. 1:

A Study on University English Education

Vol. 2:English Language Education Policies

Vol. 3:English Education and Culture

Vol. 4:

ESP in the 21st Century

Vol. 5:

Second Language Acquisition

Vol. 6:

Learner Development in English Education

Vol. 7:Developing Professional Competences of English Language Teachers

Vol. 8:English Studies and English Education

Vol. 9:Listening and Speaking

Vol. 10: Theory and Practice in Reading and WritingVol. 11: Lesson Design for Learning EFL
Vol. 12: Media Use in English Education
Vol. 13: Language Testing and Assessment

13

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25

As has been previously mentioned, since 1962, JACET has continued to try to improve
English language education not only at the college level but at all levels of the education
system. In October 2013, three institutions of English language teaching, LET, JASELE and
JACET together announced the following document: “On the revision proposal for university
entrance examinations (English) of the Educational Reform Working Committee (August 29th,2013)”:On the revision proposal for university entrance examinations (English) of the
Educational Reform Working Committee (August 29th, 2013)
The Japan Association for Language Education and Technology (LET, approved on
August 8th, 2013)
Japan Society of English Language Education (JASELE, approved on August 10th,2013)
The Japan Association of College English Teachers (JACET, approved on August 29th,
2013)
1. Introduction
We recognize the need for reform of the university entrance examination system withrespect to English.
However, the reform should be in accord with the situation in Japan where English istaught as a foreign language (EFL) and should be the result of evidence-based
discussion.
2. University entrance examinations(1) The examinations should evaluate the achievement levels stated in the MEXTHigh School Curriculum Guidelines and the scores should be used for the selection
procedure.
(2) The examinations should test the four integrated skills (including speaking and14

Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global World

writing) given in the High School Curriculum Guidelines.
(3) The examinations should have a positive washback effect on high school
education and academic achievement.
(4) The examinations should test the English achievement level of the examinees(high school students) in a manner that is reliable, appropriate, fair and practical(including cost concerns).
(5)

If possible, the examinees should have several opportunities to take theexamination.
(6) The English section of the examinations should be compatible with those of othersubjects.
3. On the introduction of TOEFL® and other external tests
Based on the above considerations, the use of TOEFL® and other external tests can beused for some forms of entrance examinations (such as the AO system) but would not
be suitable for others, such as the general entrance examination. Another issue is thatusing only one test to judge the English proficiency of Japanese high school students
needs to be carefully examined to find whether or not it is suitable for accurate
judgment.
4. Proposal(1) As a first step, the existing National Center Test for University Admissions(foreign language) should be revised to become an integrated test of the four skills.
(2) The second step would be to develop and implement a four-skill test based on the
MEXT Curriculum Guidelines (for example, NEAT, or the National English
Achievement Test, adopted by the Republic of Korea).
(3) To develop such a test, research from the fields of second language acquisition,
applied linguistics, e-learning (ICT, information and communications technology), andtesting should be carefully considered. Also, in order to meet the recommendations

15

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25

given in Section 2, Item 4 above, the reliability of the test should be examined and theeducational measurement and evaluation subjected to careful consideration.
(4) Our academic organizations are ready to actively cooperate in the development ofsuch a test.
Notes
1) The value of using TOEFL® or other external tests at graduation should beconsidered.
2) Learning another foreign language in addition to English at the high school level isrecommended for Japan from a strategic viewpoint.
3) Making test items available to the public should be reconsidered from the viewpointsof item bank accumulation and the reuse of test items to raise test reliability.
4) Consideration should be paid to the testing of examinees with disabilities.

Adaptation in the IT era differs in terms of quality as it is for digesting massive amounts
of information and not only accessing Western knowledge and Chinese classics. The
population targeted for English education also differs as it is now the mass population and nota selected group. To Japan’s rapidly aging society, English education, in particular at thetertiary level, is an urgent problem that must be addressed in the 21st century. In particular,“Global Human Resource” is defined (The Council on Promotion of Human Resource for
Globalization Development, 2011, p.9) as follows:Global Human Resources
Factor 1: Linguistic and communication skills
Factor 2: Self-direction and positiveness, a spirit for challenge, cooperativeness andflexibility, a sense of and responsibility and mission
Factor 3: Understanding of other cultures and a sense of identity as a Japanese

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Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global World

Others: Broad and well cultivated mind and profound expertise, willingness to find andsolve problems, team-work and leadership skills (to bring together persons of various
backgrounds), public-mindedness, moral sensibilities, and media-literacy.

In order to reply to the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology’s
expectations, the JACET Global Human Resource Development Special Committee has been
conducting research in the following three subjects since 2014:
Group 1: Investigation on the university use of external examinations

Group 2: External examinations

Group 3: Proficiency level standards

On August 31st, a special symposium was held on “College English Education for Global
Human Resource Development: Findings from the Special Committee on Global Human
Resource Development”. The panelists were Prof. Naoko Ozeki (Meiji University), Prof.
Michiko Nakano (Prof. Emerita of Waseda University), and Prof. Hisako Yamauchi. I
moderated the session. The final report will be submitted the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology in March 2016.

JACET’s Future Directions in a Global Society
Within an ever-changing context, JACET celebrates the 54th anniversary of its
establishment. As I assume the office of the 8th president of this historic organization, I would
like to share again the JACET Principles established by the board of directors in March 2001.
The primary principle is that although JACET is an academic research association, it alsoendeavors to contribute to the improvement of English education through the research of its
members on theory and practice. I would like to emphasize the importance of reaffirming thatthe association is founded on the two wheels of research and teaching with responsibility and17

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25

ambition to support the next generation through foreign language education. Here, I would
like to cite the JACET Principles (Table 3):

Table 3
JACET Principles (Translated from The Japan Association of College English Teachers, 2001,
p.106)
As we proceed into the 21st century, JACET reconfirms the spirit of its founding
principles and our desire to contribute to human society.

Objectives
1. JACET conducts research on theories and practices of English language education
and related areas and aims to contribute to the improvement, progress, anddevelopment of college English education.
2．JACET regards the 21st century with wide and long-term perspectives and steadily
strives to develop activities for Japan and the world.
3．JACET aims to reform college English education and other foreign language
education in Japan.

Spirit
4．JACET accepts the responsibility for teaching of the next generation through foreign
language education in Japan.
5．JACET is not only interested in research but also in the development of educational
materials and teaching practices. Members are always aware of working with and forstudents.
6．JACET members maintain an enthusiasm and a sense of solidarity to lead the18

Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global World

association in its mission of Service and Sacrifice.

Activities
7．JACET cooperates with related domestic institutions to pursue the improvement offoreign language education.
8．JACET collaborates with other overseas institutions in related fields and actively
cooperates with the international community for mutual development.
9．JACET members pursue research and teaching in a positive and cooperative mannerin association activities based on mutual trust.
10. JACET maintain close contacts among the headquarters and chapters to advancethese activities.
March 31st, 2001

With our 55th anniversary at hand, how should JACET realize what is listed in the
JACET Principles? Recently, the Internet, the World Wide Web and technology have beendeveloping rapidly, and globalization has advanced faster than expected. Because of this, theenvironment surrounding English has dramatically changed. Improving the four language
skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing is still important for smooth communication;
however, the required quality has not remained the same. In the digital and business worlds,
the ratio of English used by non-native speakers of English has increased. Use of e-mail andthe Internet has become a daily routine, presentation and discussion skills are required bysociety, the dissemination of tablet devices has led to rapid changes in teaching and learning
skills required in the classroom. The modes of communication have been shifting.
Faced with these advancements in technology and globalization, what concrete actions
should we take based on the JACET Principles? Here, as president, I would like to propose aStandard (basic policy) and three Action Plans.

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25

The JACET Standard (Revising and Rearranging the JACET Principles)
Following the philosophy of the JACET Principles, let us share and advocate thecommon understanding that JACET is an evolving research and teaching body thatencourages all of its members to raise their awareness as teachers and researchers who workwith students and contribute to improving their English abilities and fostering global humanresources. Here are three Action Plans that embody JACET’s principles:1.

Improve the level of individual and group research and teaching practices,2.

Activate and create venues for collaboration among groups and organizations, and3.

Activate JACET activities.

Action Plan 1: Improve the research level and promote output of research andteaching outcomes
Research: JACET is first a research group and an organization of researchers. We will
actively provide places for not only individual research projects but also for research groups
and special committees. To begin with, we will publish research outcomes of our researchgroups online this year and offer the opportunity for them to share their activities via poster
presentations at the 54th International Convention at Kagoshima University. During the next
international convention in 2016, we plan to organize workshops on writing articles forinternational journals to help graduate students and young researchers. We also plan a seriesof State of the Art lectures to learn about up-to-date research in selected areas of applied
linguistics and language education.
Education: Many JACET members successfully apply research results to their teaching.
We will visualize good teaching practices to share and disseminate them among members,
with the ultimate aim of contributing to college English education as a whole. As a first step,
we will call for presentations on teaching and classroom practices at the next international

20

Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global World

convention.

Action Plan 2: Activate and create venues for collaboration among groups andorganizations
Research: Taking advantage of the fact that our members belong to tertiary educational
institutions across the nation, we will promote large-scale survey research. JACET has been
conducting surveys on English education at approximately ten-year intervals. To accurately
grasp the English abilities of Japanese university students and the English education programsof the universities, we will conduct a questionnaire and interviews. We will also consider
reports from our members to comprehensively understand the current situation. We also hope
to conduct joint research with supporting institutions and other organizations throughindustry-academia collaboration. In addition, since last year, associations of applied
linguistics in East Asia—JACET (Japan), CELEA (China), and ALAK (Korea)—havecollaborated to start AILA East-Asia. The three organizations will take turns holding a
symposium at their annual conventions. This year, JACET will hold a symposium at
Kagoshima University. We will pursue collaborative work with these affiliated associations
and seek to conduct joint research through research groups of the various associations. We
will also pursue cooperation with domestic associations as promised at the 52nd International
Convention at Kyoto University.
Education: To offer various research outcomes to actual education situations, we willplan government/industry/academia projects so that JACET can offer suggestions not only at
the tertiary level but also throughout the education milieu, from primary school to university.

Action plan 3: Activate and clarify activities as JACET
Website: We will renovate our website, the face of the association, to allow us to rapidlytransmit information in this globalized era. The new website design is to be introduced at this21

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25

54th (2015) International Convention.
Journals: JACET publishes JACET Journal, JACET International Convention Selected
Papers, and the Chapter journals. The first two are classified as JACET International to berecognized, read, and cited by researchers around the world. The Chapter journals areclassified as JACET Domestic to increase opportunities for many members, including young
scholars, to submit their articles.
Events: The International Convention, Summer Seminar, and English Education Seminar
are widely acknowledged as good JACET traditions. We plan to refresh the content of these
events to meet the needs of our members in this globalized era. Also, the roles of JACET
headquarters and chapters will be clarified to renovate management in order to attract evenmore participants.
I have briefly reviewed the history of JACET and proposed three Action Plans.
Henceforth, we need to develop the details of the plans and implement them. For that tohappen, we need active discussion and participation of the board members as well as of eachmember of JACET. With the continued understanding and cooperation of all members, I will
strive to do my best for JACET.
Lastly, by indicating JACET’s future direction, I would like to close my Presidential
speech with a preview of JACET projects to suggest how to improve the quality and quantityof global human resources by involving JACET members all over Japan.

Concluding Remarks: JACET for Tomorrow
I would like to conclude the present paper by presenting the following four statements
to guide JACET’s future.
1.

We are collecting the results of previous field surveys in response to the MEXT request to
suggest comprehensive policies for improving university students’ communication skills.
The data will be analyzed and presented as a report.

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Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global World

2.

JACET is an institution dedicated to research and education. Using both our researchdatabase (including ICT and the study of pedagogy) and our nationwide and international
network, we will propose achievement goals and curricula for students and departments
at universities.

3.

JACET will address complex problems at the tertiary level by accessing the insights andefforts of all those involved in English-language education, from the elementary, middle,
and high school to the university.

4.

We will work in collaboration with other organizations to suggest language policies, suchas developing guidelines for university English education, that are well adapted to
globalization.
Finally, I wish great happiness, good health, and much success to all JACET members.

References
The Council on Promotion of Human Resource for Globalization Development. (2011). An
interim report of the Council on Promotion of Human Resource for Globalization
Development. Retrieved fromhttp://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/global/1206011interim_report.pdf.
The Japan Association of College English Teachers. (2001). JACET membership list. The
Japan Association of College English Teachers.
The Japan Association of College English Teachers. (2011). Abstract in English: A series ofstudies on English education (13 volumes). The Japan Association of College English
Teachers.
The Japan Association of College English Teachers. (2012). Fiftieth anniversary overview.
The Japan Association of College English Teachers.
The Japan Association of College English Teachers. (2015). JACET membership list. The
Japan Association of College English Teachers.

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 2-25

Appendix（通称「京都アピール」）
教育再生実行会議で提案された大学入試制度（英語）の改革案についてLET(8 月 8 日総会承認)，JASELE(8 月 10 日総会承認)，JACET(8 月 29 日理事会承認)
外国語教育メディア学会(LET) ・全国英語教育学会(JASELE)・
一般社団法人大学英語教育学会(JACET) （順不同）

１．前提
入学試験制度（英語）に改革が必要なことは認識する。ただし，その改革の方向は，日本の EFL（外国語としての英語）教育環境に適したものであるべきで，また，科学的なデータの蓄積に基づいて議論されるべきであるとの立場をとる。

２．大学入試のあり方(1) 高等学校学習指導要領にそった英語教育の到達度を確認すると共に，その得点情報が選抜目的に利用できる必要がある。
(2) 学習指導要領の方針に基づき，4 技能総合型（話す力，書く力を含む）である必要がある。
(3) 高等学校における教育改善や学力形成につながる波及効果をもたらす必要がある。
(4) 対象学習者（高校生）の英語力測定において，信頼性と妥当性，公平性と実用性（費用を含む）のバランスを兼ね備えたものであることが望まれる。
(5) 可能ならば，複数回の受験機会を与える方式を採ることが望まれる。
(6) 英語以外の他教科の入試とも整合性をとる必要がある。

３．TOEFL 等外部試験の導入に関して
以上に示したあり方を満たすためには，TOEFL 等の外部試験の導入を積極的に行うべき入試部門（たとえば AO 入試など）と，そうでない部門（たとえば一般入試）を切り分ける必要がある。
また，資格試験の 1 つとして導入するような柔軟な立場をとり得るが，その場合でも，日本人高24

Terauchi, H.
English Language Education in the Global World

校生の英語能力が正しく測定できているのかを検証しておくことが必要不可欠である。

４．提案(1) 第一段階として，現行の大学入試センター試験（外国語）を 4 技能総合型のテスト形式へと移行させていく。
(2) 第二段階として，学習指導要領の内容と学生の英語力レベルを考慮に入れた 4 技能テスト（たとえば，韓国で導入された NEAT〈国家英語能力試験〉のようなもの）を国が主導して開発し，導入する。
(3) この試験の開発段階においては，言語習得，応用言語学，e-Learning （ICT），テスト研究の知見を十分に活用していく。また，２．
（4)を可能にするためには，テスト問題の質保証の観点か
らもテスト研究等に加えて，教育測定・評価に関する知見が必要になる。
(4) 当三学会はこのような新しいテストの開発に関して積極的に協力する。
追記：1）大学卒業時に，各大学の学部・学科に応じて TOEFL 等の外部試験を活用することは検討に値する。
2）英語教育だけでなく，英語以外の外国語教育も振興し，高等学校において，英語ともう１つの外国語を学ぶような改革を行うことも，我が国にとって戦略的に見て重要である。
3）アイテム・バンク（項目集積）の開発やテスト項目の再利用の観点から，テスト問題の開示の是非を検討する。
4）障がい者などへの配慮・補完措置についても検討する。

25

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplace:
Applied Linguistics as Research on, for, and with Practitioners

Daniel Perrin
Zurich University of Applied Sciences

Abstract
This article explains how research on practitioners can be turned into research with and forpractitioners (Cameron, Frazer, Rampton, & Richardson, 1992, 22). Methodologically, itdraws on two decades of multimethod research and knowledge transformation at the interface
of applied linguistics and transdisciplinary action research on professional communication(Perrin, 2013). Empirically, it is based on large corpora of data collected in multilingual andmulticultural workplaces. First, the article outlines transdisciplinary action research as atheoretical framework that enables researchers and practitioners to collaboratively develop
sustainable solutions to real-world problems in which language and languages play asubstantial role. Then, progression analysis is explained as a multimethod approach toinvestigate text production practices in the workplace. Examples from four domains(education, finance, translation, and journalism) illustrate what value applied linguistics can
add to professional practice. For the case of journalism in increasingly global contexts,
in-depth analyses offer step-by-step understanding of the trajectory from a real-world problem
to a sustainable solution. The article concludes by suggesting empirically-based measures forresearch that contribute to the development of both theory and practice.

Keywords: transdisciplinarity, education, translation, journalism, finance26

Perrin, D.
Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplace

1. Applied linguistics and transdisciplinarity
In an increasingly globalized and interconnected world, workplace communicationentails the transgressing of boundaries between “discourse systems” (Scollon, Scollon, &Jones, 2012) such as linguistic varieties, natural languages, and entire semiotic systems usedby discursive cultures rooted in regions, professions, and societal groups. Applied linguists
thus find themselves in the comfortable position of being in growing demand not only inside
but also outside the classroom. Society-at-large expects us to identify and analyze sociallyrelevant “practical problems of language and communication” (AILA mission statement,
www.aila.info) and to contribute to sustainable solutions. Such solutions are consideredsustainable because they add long-term value from the perspectives of researchers,
practitioners, and society-at-large.
In developing sustainable solutions, applied linguistics can draw on knowledge
developed in transdisciplinary research in general (Apostel, Berger, Briggs, & Michaud,1972) and in the research framework of transdisciplinary action research (TDA) in particular(e.g., Stokols, 2006). TDA aims at facilitating theoretically grounded and systematic
collaboration between researchers and practitioners, such as applied linguists andcommunication researchers on the one hand and teacher educators, financial analysts,
translators, journalists, and policy makers, on the other. Not surprisingly, the methodologicalprinciples and practices of TDA have included, from the very beginning of TDA, language
awareness as the key success factor of a systematic collaboration between practitioners andresearchers (e.g., Klein, 2008, p. 407).
If this collaboration succeeds, the TDA research framework enables researchers andpractitioners to jointly develop sustainable solutions to complex practical problems of, in ourcase, language use. In the next section, I describe the methods we have used within the TDA
framework to analyze and finally solve problems of communication in increasingly
multilingual and globally connected workplaces (section 2). Four examples, from the domains

27

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

of education, finance, translation, and journalism, illustrate what it means to identify andsustainably solve practical problems (section 3). In-depth analyses from an exemplary project
can help us understand the trajectory from the problem to the solution step-by-step (section 4)
and the value that such research can add to the development of both theory and practice(section 5).

2. The multi-method approach of Progression Analysis
In all of our research projects, we apply progression analysis, which is a multimethod
approach that combines ethnographic observation and interviews (a), computer recording (b),and cue-based retrospective verbal protocols (c). Progression analysis has proven valuable inunderstanding the writing processes of practitioners such as journalists, communication
professionals, financial analysts, and translators. It allows data to be obtained on three levels
in order to investigate collaborative writing as a situated activity in organizational and societal
frameworks.

a) Ethnographic observation and interviews
The first level of progression analysis considers the writers and the writing situation,
including the writers’ professional socialization and economic, institutional, and technologicalinfluences on the work situation as well as the specific writing task that the writers must
accomplish. Data on the writers’ self-perceptions are obtained in semi-standardized interviews
that focus on their writing and professional experience and their workplaces. Ethnographic
data are collected through unstructured participatory observations of organizational practices
as well as interviews about them. Findings on this level include, for example, writers’ generallanguage awareness in the area of coherence problems.

b) Computer recording28

Perrin, D.
Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplace

The second level of progression analysis records every keystroke and writing
movement in the emerging text with programs that run in the background behind the text
editors that the writers usually use, for instance behind the user interfaces of their company’s
editing systems. The recording can follow the writing process over several workstations anddoes not influence the performance of the editing system or the writer. The computer
recordings provide information about what writers actually do during the text production
process, with every movement and revision step representing intermediate text versions in thewriting process. Findings on this level can reveal, for example, the writing activities that
result in a specific text coherence problem.

c) Cue-based retrospective verbal protocol
The third level of progression analysis, the socio-cognitive conceptualization orreconstruction, draws on verbal data to infer the mental structures that might have guided thewriting activities observed on the second level. After finishing a text production process,writers view a playback of their process and watch as their text emerges. While doing so, they
are prompted to continuously comment on what they did while writing. An audio recording is
made of this verbalization and transcribed in a cue-based retrospective verbal protocol (RVP).
The RVP is then encoded with respect to aspects of language awareness, writing andtranslation strategies, and conscious practices. Findings on this level can provide insights into,
for example, a writer’s conscious decisions that resulted in a coherence problem in his or her
text.
In sum, progression analysis enables researchers to consider all of the revisions to thetext as well as all of the electronic resources accessed during the production process; to trace
the development of the emerging text; and finally to reconstruct the writers’ considerations
from different perspectives. The multiple levels of progression analysis allow the strategies
and practices that writers articulate in their cue-based retrospective verbalizations to be placed

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

in relation to the situational analysis and the data from the computer recordings. Productfeatures such as coherence problems in final texts become understandable as resulting fromsituated activity, i.e. as the results of complex writing activities in dynamic contexts.

3. Examples from education, finance, translation, and journalism
In this section, I outline how transdisciplinary research teams have used progression
analysis to understand and improve text production in various domains and workplaces. In
order to provide comparable examples across research projects and domains, I focus on one
narrow subtopic of analysis: the coherence problems in evolving texts. By coherence, I
understand the syntactic and semantic, as well as the explicit and implicit pragmaticconnectivity within and across text elements of all sizes, ranging from single words to entire
paragraphs, texts, and intertextual chains in discourse (e.g., Campbell, 1995; Kehler, 2003,
Rickheit, Günther, & Sichelschmidt, 1992).
Aspects of this phenomenon are illustrated in the next four subsections with data fromfour projects: the MYMOMENT project that tracked children’s essay writing in order to improveteacher education (a); the NATIONALBANK project, where the production of financial analysts’
recommendations for investors was analyzed to improve stakeholder communication (b); the
CAPTURING TRANSLATION PROCESSES project with its focus on the use of information sourcesand decision-making (c); and the IDÉE SUISSE project, in which journalists’ collaborative news
production was investigated to foster the Swiss public service broadcaster’s contribution to
public discourse and understanding (d).

a) MYMOMENT: Tracking writing behavior to improve teacher education
Children perform a variety of writing tasks using computers, with word processing
programs quickly becoming their natural writing environment. The development of keystroke
logging programs has enabled researchers to track the process of writing without changing the30Perrin, D.
Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplace

writing environment for the writers concerned. In a research project called MYMOMENT and
its follow-up projects (e.g., Gnach, Wiesner, Bertschi-Kaufmann, & Perrin, 2007), hundredsof children in primary school grades one to five were provided with a web-based interactive
writing environment for reading and writing stories and for making comments in class and at
home. Writing processes were recorded automatically with progression analysis.
In the following example, the 4th-grader Doris (pseudonym) writes a German text
entitled “Der Regenbogen” (English: The Rainbow) as a piece of free composition; she wasable to determine both the form and the content herself. Extract 1 shows the production of thefirst 5 (of 30) sentences of Doris’ text. The notation system used in the extract is called
S-notation (Severinson-Eklundh & Kollberg, 1996), which marks insertions and deletions andindicates their sequence in the writing process. Wherever the writing is interrupted to delete
or add something, S-notation inserts the break-character |n in the text. Deleted passages are inn[square brackets]n and insertions in n{curly braces}n, with the subscript and superscript
numbers n indicating the order of these steps.
Doris writes the first two sentences fluently, immediately correcting typos (deletions 1
and 4) and making a conceptual change (deletion 2).

Als es an einem Sonntag 1[ndie| 1 ]1 die ganze Zeit regnete und dann wieder die Sonneschien beschloss ich in den Wald zu gehen. 2[Ich| 2 ]2 Die frische Luft tat mir sehrg4[uet|4]4ut.
As it rained 1[nthe| 1 ]1 the whole time one Sunday and then the sun shone again I
decided to go for a walk in the wood. 2[I| 2 ]2 The fresh air did me a lot ofg4[oed| 4 ]4ood.

Extract 1. First two sentences of a 4th-grader’s composition
She begins the third sentence by saying that she saw a lot of animals. Then she deletes the
beginning of the sentence and writes the converse (i.e. she didn’t see as many animals as last
week; deletions 5 and 6, insertion 7 in Extract 2).

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

Ich sah 5[viele Tie| 5 ]5 nicht so viele Tiere wie let6[s]2| 6 7[z]7te Woche
I 5[saw many ani| 5 ]5 didn’t see as many animals as la6[z]6| 6 7[s]7t week

Extract 2. Third sentence of the 4th-grader’s composition
Once she writes the third sentence, Doris moves back through the text, correcting thespelling of a word (i.e. letste to letzte). She then continues to write about her experience in thewoods (Extract 3). Doris then immediately deletes the last part of the previous sentence andmakes what will become a significant turning point in her story (deletion 8).

Aber plötzlich stand ich wie angewurzelt stehen. Ich sah einen 8[toten Igel vor
m| 8 ]8 halb toten Igel vor mir
But suddenly I stood rooted. I saw a 8[dead hedgehog in front of m| 8 ]8half deadhedgehog in front of me

Extract 3. Fourth and fifth sentence of the 4th-grader’s composition
The rest of the story is written in the same linear way. The reader learns that thenarrator wanted to take the hedgehog home but then decided to leave it because she was afraidof her mother’s reaction. While going home under a rainbow, she felt sad and guilty. But
when she came back the next day she saw the hedgehog alive, fully recovered – which was, in
her understanding, what the rainbow had promised.
This story only works because Doris changed the description of the hedgehog fromdead to half dead. As it turns out, this local change ensures the dramaturgical coherence of thenarration. The girl’s decisive conceptual change in revision 8 illustrates epistemic writing:typing is used as a means to understand what she wants (and does not want) to say in her text
to make it a coherent story. But in contrast to many adult experienced writers’ behavior,global coherence seems to be established on the fly, while typing, not by planning key
elements in advance. The 4th-grader Doris tells her story in a linear way, correcting typos andaltering far-reaching dramaturgical decisions by deleting all the characters on her way back to

32Perrin, D.
Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplace

the stretch she wants to change.
All in all, the MYMOMENT project suggests that analyses of text production processes
can provide teacher education with detailed empirical information about how children at
specific stages of development think, write, and, in this particular case, ensure narrative
coherence – and how they are, by doing so, influenced by their writing environment, peers’
feedback, and teachers’ instructions. The approach fosters both an age-specific understandingof essay writing and the design of writing education in central questions such as how toestablish narrative coherence in a text. By doing so, it facilitates communication between
generations that have different discursive cultures (linear vs. top-down planning).

b) NATIONALBANK: Analyzing financial analysts’ recommendations for investors
Another strand of transdisciplinary projects investigates text production in the domain
of finance (e.g., Whitehouse & Perrin, 2015). Because they are constantly writing
recommendations for investors, financial analysts can be considered professional writers
without a professional writer’s background – their professional education mostly focuses ontechnical knowledge about banking and finance and neglects language awareness and writing
skills. In the NATIONALBANK project and its follow-up projects, analysts’ text products,
writing processes, and workflows in financial institutions such as banks have been
investigated in order to raise individual and organizational language awareness and an
orientation towards addressee’s communicative needs.
In this article, I briefly highlight one particular outcome of this transdisciplinary
research: the insight that coherence breaks in text products tend to emerge between phaseshifts in writing processes (e.g., Perrin & Wildi, 2012). Put simply, when writers switch fromlinear progression to jumping back and forth in the emerging text, they risk losing control
over their text and its coherence. The correlation between phase shifts and coherence
problems is so strong that the latter can almost be predicted from the former. In Figure 1, the33

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

two graphs illustrate writing processes with and without such phase shifts.
In both graphs, the x-axis shows the order of deletions and insertions over time, fromthe beginning to the end of the writing process. The y-axis, in contrast shows in which orderthese deletions and insertions appear in the final text, from the top to the bottom of the text
product. The graph visualizes the progress of a writer working through an emerging text –how she or he moves back and forth in the text produced so far while writing. We havetherefore termed this type of visualization a progression graph (Perrin, 2003). In Figure 1, a
straight line from the upper left to the lower right in the left graph indicates a completely
linear writing process. In the right graph, however, shifts between more linear and more
fragmentary phases are visible. This is where text coherence problem tends to occur.

Figure 1. Linear progression (left) and multi-phase progression with phase shifts (right).

Such knowledge can help transdisciplinary research teams design measures for
professional writing education for domain experts in institutions such as banks. The goal ofthe measures in the NATIONALBANK project is to enhance the comprehensibility andcomprehensiveness of analysts’ recommendations, among other ways by improving text
coherence, in order to provide investors with a better basis for their decisions. In other words,
such measures can help members of an expert community transgress their discursive culture’s

34Perrin, D.
Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplaceboundaries and communicate with lay people. Given the low average financial literacy ofinvestors (e.g., Guiso & Viviano, 2013) and the (polito-)economic importance of investment
decisions, improving the communicative potential of analysts’ recommendations is relevant
not only in an economic but also in a societal context.

c) CAPTURING TRANSLATION PROCESSES: Revealing translators’ use of resources
In an extension to progression analysis, eye-tracking can be used in the laboratory toinvestigate at a micro level how writers confirm or supplement their domain knowledge whenworking on texts in an unfamiliar area. The focus of attention can be tracked as writers ortranslators access and read through digital sources and their emerging texts. This is what
transdisciplinary projects such as CAPTURING TRANSLATION PROCESSES do (e.g.,
Ehrensberger-Dow & Perrin, 2009; 2013). In Figure 2, the purple spots show the foci andintensity of attention while a professional translator searched with Google for an acronym thatappeared in a text about a military sonar detection system that had recently been banned in the
US (see Massey & Ehrensberger-Dow, 2011). The translator was grappling with the task ofadequately translating the acronym “MoD” for a German-language target readership thatmight be unaware of the differences between these two countries’ military systems and what
relevance a US judge’s decision might have for the UK.

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

Figure 2. Eye-tracking visualization of a professional translator’s use of digital resources.

The eye-tracking visualization shows that the translator skimmed through the first threehits, barely fixating on the descriptions in the snippet texts. The whole process took only 7
seconds before the translator returned to work on the emerging target text. In the subsequent
RVP, as he viewed his translation process, he remarked that he actually knew that MoD mustmean “Ministry of Defence” in that context but that he had just wanted to check. This
purposeful confirmation by the professional is in stark contrast to the behavior of a student
translator with much less domain knowledge and experience who seems to have little idea ofwhat to look for and even though her gaze falls on the solution to this particular translation
problem in the list of hits that she checks, she fails to recognize it as such (for more details,

36Perrin, D.
Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplacesee Massey & Ehrensberger-Dow, 2011).
Progression analysis provides a framework that allows comparative investigations into
the decision-making involved when translators shape their texts to meet the linguistic andcultural needs of their target audiences. Efficient exploitation of the appropriate digital
resources is one of many indicators of translation expertise that have been identified in suchresearch, which has fed into empirically-based improvements in the education andprofessional development of translators (e.g., Massey & Ehrensberger-Dow, 2013).

d) IDÉE SUISSE: Investigating collaborative and multimodal newswriting
The use of digital resources has also become an important aspect of the interculturalcommunication evinced by multimodal newswriting as journalists work as gatekeepers inincreasingly digitized global newsflows. Transdisciplinary research into news production canhelp the media improve their contributions to public discourse (Perrin, 2013). The IDÉE SUISSE
and its follow-up projects (e.g., Zampa & Perrin, 2016) have involved public and private
broadcasting and publishing companies as well as media policy makers, although the IDÉESUISSE project itself focused a public service broadcaster.

Public service broadcasting companies are among the most important broadcasting
companies in Europe. In Switzerland, there is only one such company: SRG, previously
known as SRG Idée Suisse. As a media enterprise, SRG is subject to market and competitive
forces. As a public service institution, though, SRG has a federal, societal, cultural andlinguistic mandate to fulfill. We reconstructed this mandate from a socio-linguistic
perspective as being to promote social integration by promoting public understanding.
Promoting public understanding in a highly multilingual country such as Switzerland
means, at first sight, promoting discourse across the language boundaries: discourse between
the German, French, Italian and Rumantsch parts of Switzerland. From a sociolinguistic pointof view, however, the ‘language boundaries’ concept has to be refined. Urban and rural, poor

37

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

and rich, lay persons and experts, immigrants and residents – all of these form different
speech communities with their own cultures and views of the world, as reflected in their
linguistic varieties. Thus, promoting public understanding means linking speech communities
both between and within the German-, French-, Italian-, and Rumantsch-speaking regions andcultures of Switzerland.
However, the various stakeholders of public broadcasting regulation might not share a
corporate view of the societal and linguistic mandate. Our interest in this project was to
examine stakeholders’ practices to determine how they do what they do and how they want to
do it. The findings show that policy makers, management and journalists interpret the
mandate in different and partially contradictory ways, in some cases due to a lack ofawareness and in others because of specific interests and cultural backgrounds.
According to most media policy-makers under investigation, the mandate of promoting
public understanding is a commitment for media in general and SRG in particular; according
to SRG managers, it is a commitment for media other than SRG or societal agents other thanthe media. Managers’ statements tend towards the following propositional reconstruction:‘Public media are not the right institutions to solve social and pedagogical problems’. This
would suggest that SRG fails to do what it says it will and what it is expected to do –essentially neglecting its mandate. However, by looking more closely at the situated activity,
at the writing processes of the journalists under investigation, we were able to identify
emerging practices — ways out of the conflicts, towards language use meant to meet bothpublic and market expectations.
We identified these good practices and their most important counterparts, the criticalsituations. Whereas critical situations denote exemplary findings of which circumstances
could lead to a failure to promote public understanding, good practices represent potential
success in terms of the journalists’, chief editors’, managers’ and politicians’ criteria
reconstructed in the project. One example of good practice is what we call the38Perrin, D.
Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplacebackground-recency split which emerged in one experienced journalist’s conflict of basic
practices. This is explained in more detail in the next section.

4. An exemplary trajectory from the problem to the solution
An in-depth analysis of an exemplary case from the corpus of the IDÉE SUISSE project
explains a conflict and its emergent solution. In the UN ELECTIONS case, the journalist is a
professional with over 20 years of experience as a foreign correspondent and news editor for
Scandinavian and Swiss print media and television. He criticizes the loss of influence ofjournalists in the newsroom, feels underestimated by his boss and colleagues, and dares tochallenge existing policies (“doing forbidden things”) if he thinks this will enhance thequality of the news. At the time of the study, he was working for the TAGESSCHAU, SRG’s
German-speaking flagship television newscast. In the following subsections, the trajectoryfrom problem to solution is demonstrated through the journalist’s collaborative text
production practices (a), the strategies beyond the practices (b) and the solution that emerged
from the situated activity (c).

a) The collaborative text production practices
In the news production process analyzed in detail here, the journalist first viewed thevideo sources he had at his workplace – most of which were in English – and took notes byhand. He then took the pictures he had chosen to the cutter’s workplace and they compiled thevideo together. Before the journalist started writing, he had a clear idea of how to start – andhe counted on getting other ideas for the rest of the text while writing it. His idea of how tostart was that he would split the story in an unusual way. The idea and the corresponding
practice emerged when the journalist tried to solve the problem of contextualizing recent
events with the pictures he had available – as can be seen in the cue-based retrospective
verbal protocol (Figure 3).

39

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

0076

und was ich jetzt da versuche ist eigentlich die geschichte
and what I’m trying to do here actually is (to give) the story0077

die schlicht mal einfach eine wahl ist in den sicherheitsrat sozusagen
which is simply just an election to the security council as it were0078

in den kontext zu setzen
to provide a context for it…

0092

das sind zwei verschiedene geschichten
there are two different stories

0093

die man da erzählt
to tell here

0094

und mit den bildern
and with the pictures0095

kann ich natürlich die zweite geschichte schlecht erzählen
I can’t tell the second story very well of course

0096

das sind konkrete bilder
these are the pictures we have0097

auf denen man den wahlablauf sieht
which show the election procedure0098

wo die quotes sindwhere the quotes are

0099

die sich wohl nur indirekt auf das beziehen
which really only relate indirectly to it

0100

das heisst in der moderation muss ich jetzt versuchenthat means that now in the anchor’s introduction I have to try

0101

den kontext sozusagen zu umschreiben
to sort of describe the context

0102

und weil wir ja sehr aktualitätsbezogen sind40Perrin, D.
Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplaceand because we really focus on current topics
0103

muss ich irgendwie schauen
I have to somehow make sure0104

dass es eine aktualität hatthat there is a connection to recent events…

0113

chavez das ist noch schwierig in zwei drei sätzen
chavez this is quite difficult in two or three sentences

0114

für leute die nicht wissen
for people who don’t know

0115

was chavez für eine rolle spielt
what chavez’s role isFigure 3. Excerpts of the RVP from the UN ELECTIONS case (original German andtranslation).

b) The strategies beyond situated activity
The propositional analysis of the retrospective verbal protocol of the journalist led tothe description of the repertoire of the journalist’s conscious activities. In the UN ELECTIONS
case, the key activities consist of practices (doing X) and strategies (doing X in order toachieve Y, or doing X because Y is true; e.g., Perrin, 2013, p. 258) that help the journalist deal
with background and recent information in a dramaturgically new way we called thebackground-recency split:–

Distinguish between two stories: the recent story and the background story (seeFigure 1, e.g., line 92).

–

Tell the recent story in the news text because it matches the recent pictures available(e.g., lines 94–99).

–

Tell the background story because not all of the audience is up-to-date on this item (e.g.,

41

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

lines 113–115).
–

Tell the background story in the anchor’s text because there are no pictures (e.g., lines
94–95).

Having researched the core sources and decided to split the story, the journalist sees one
clear thematic focus for each of the two short stories he will write. This writing can beevaluated visually in the progression graphs of the two writing processes. It becomes visible
as he produces the introduction for the anchorwoman first and the news text next. The
progression graphs in Figure 4 show that the journalist writes his ideas fluently in the order
they will be read or heard. The background story for the anchor is generated in a single linear
sweep. The recent story is written in a linear composing sequence followed by a second,
revising sequence.

Figure 4. Progression graphs of the background story (left) and the recent story (right).

c) The emerging solution
The background-recency split practice emerged in the journalist’s conflict with twobasic requirements: He had to meet market demands and policy demands at the same time. On
the one hand, the pictures he had only covered recent events, on the other hand, he needed toprovide background information. However, he decided not to compromise – neither tooverburden the pictures with inappropriate text nor to sacrifice background information due to42Perrin, D.
Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplace

the lack of appropriate pictures.
Instead, the journalist opted for an emergent third way: reaching both goals properly by
writing two different texts, each of them internally coherent and contributing to adramaturgically coherent ensemble. For the text of the news item, he took into account recent
events, the market for short and well-illustrated news, and the pictures available. For theanchorwoman’s introduction, he supplied the background information he expected to be
useful for the less informed of the audience. This is how he practiced promoting public
understanding.
However, this goes against unwritten policies in his newsroom. Normally, TAGESSCHAU
journalists leave most recent information to the anchor and keep the background story for
their news items. In another case study from the IDÉE SUISSE project, a journalist explained
this policy as enabling the editorial teams to pick up on the latest information in the
introduction even immediately before broadcasting. Whereas the item with its complex
interplay of prerecorded text and pictures cannot be instantly rewritten and recut, theanchorman or anchorwoman can adapt his or her introduction on the spot to recent
developments.
Thus, the background-recency split is part of this journalist’s tacit knowledge (Polanyi,1966) that includes collaboration modes, text-picture ratios, storytelling, and combining
public and market needs. By allowing the journalist to do what the media policy expects him
to do, it belongs to a set of good practices of experienced but isolated professionals, as
identified in the IDÉE SUISSE and similar projects. It deserves to be detected and transferred to
the knowledge of the whole organization of the media company, as a situational alternative tothe widespread practice of always leaving the production of the introduction to an anchor who
might have less thematic competence.

5. Organizational learning from tacit knowledge

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

In our research on, for, and with practitioners, we have analyzed “local” practices(Pennycook, 2010) of text production at workplaces in various domains. Cases such as the UN
ELECTIONS in the IDÉE SUISSE project demonstrate how experienced practitioners in the role of“positive deviants” (Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2004; Pascale, Sternin, & Sternin, 2010) manage
to find emergent solutions that overcome the conflict between seemingly contradictory
expectations from their environments.
I conclude by suggesting measures for systematic knowledge transformation that allow
experienced practitioners’ “tacit” knowledge (Polanyi, 1966) to be made available to theentire organization, domain, and society at large. At the same time, they contribute to thedevelopment of theory in and across scientific disciplines. The following catalogue groups themeasures around the key conceptual aspects of transdisciplinary action research: trans- (a),action (b), and research (c).

a) The trans aspect
Transdisciplinary action research (TDA) transgresses boundaries on three levels: between
domains such as science, education, finance, translation, and journalism; between disciplines
such as applied linguistics and communication studies; and between institutions such asuniversities and banks or broadcasting companies. This aspect of TDA is covered by thegeneral methodological principle of integrating instead of excluding relevant stakeholders
throughout a project. It is reflected in specific measures such as:–getting support from the relevant parties – instead of glossing over the work of
institutions that structure “the ways in which research is funded, organized, conducted,
and evaluated” and that are still strongly rooted in disciplinary paradigms (Pohl,
Kerkhoff, Hirsch Hadorn, & Bammer, 2008, p. 417);–

overcoming the apparent incompatibility of goals – instead of over-compromising,perhaps by sacrificing theoretical precision to a customer’s interests in practical

44

Perrin, D.
Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplacesolutions (Hammersley, 2004);–

resolving differences in timescales – instead of struggling over them, perhaps by being
torn between “quick answers” (Agar, 2010, p. 8) and well-grounded theories;–

fostering communication and mutual learning – instead of neglecting them, perhaps by
failing to organize regular workshops for all the stakeholders during a research project.

All the research projects mentioned in the previous sections required a substantial phaseof collaborative preparation. The first year of the IDÉE SUISSE project, for example, was usedmainly to build trust between the journalists and the researchers and establish a consensus
about shared goals. Both the managers and the journalists participated in the transdisciplinary
process from the beginning. Editors-in-chief, training managers, and representatives from thenewsroom staff were able to bring in their ideas during the project planning phase, and eachjournalist was invited to discuss the project with the research team before any computer orvideo recordings were made. From experience with previous similar, albeit smaller research
projects, the head of the research team was able to provide convincing evidence that thejournalists involved would benefit from feedback sessions about their individual andorganizational practices.

b) The action aspect
TDA is oriented to solving practical problems by taking action. Science strives for “true”
mid-range theories about situated activity; practitioners look for “authentic” insights into theirown circumstances and practices; and society at large aims for “prudent” measures for solving
practical problems (Kemmis, 1988, p. 46, based on Habermas, 1974). This aspect of TDA iscovered by the general methodological principle of solving problems instead of shifting them.
It is reflected in specific measures such as:–

observing organizational power – instead of shifting it, such as by encouraging

45

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

practitioners to amplify conflicts between management and employees (Jones & Stubbe,2004);–

motivating practitioners’ superiors – instead of threatening them, such as whentranslating “what was learned from lower levels” (Agar, 2010, p. 12) and“organizational enthusiasm” into “actual and enduring organizational change” thatfrightens conservative management (Agar, 2010, p. 24);–collaborating with practitioners – instead of exploiting them, perhaps as cheap sourcesof scientific data (Davies, 2007, p. 23);–

putting tacit knowledge to use – instead of wasting it, perhaps by destroying positive
deviants’ incentive to be one step ahead (McNamara, 2010).

In the projects outlined in the previous sections, the problems were solved by carefully
mediating between the expectations of the stakeholders, by developing a shared language toreflect on shared goals such as promoting public understanding, by identifying crucial tacitknowledge at the bottom of the organization, and by jointly implementing knowledge transfer
measures such as coaching and training.

c) The research aspect
TDA, after all, is research, a theoretically-based enterprise. In contrast to disciplinary
research, it is oriented towards a “quadrangulation of disciplinary depth, multidisciplinary
breadth, interdisciplinary integration, and transdisciplinary competencies” (Klein, 2008, p.
406). This aspect of TDA is covered by the general methodological principle of developing as
adequately as possible a multiperspective reconstruction of the interplay between layered
structures and situated activity. It is reflected in specific measures such as:–

grasping the complexity of problems – instead of missing it, perhaps by limiting
research to “the bleeding obvious” (Harcup, 2012) or by overlooking the diversity of46

Perrin, D.
Investigating Intercultural Communication in the Workplacescientific and societal views of questions, problems, and approaches;–

exploiting disciplinary focus – instead of losing it, perhaps by abandoning precise
knowledge and rigorous methods (Arber, 1964; Denzin, 2010; Hirsch Hadorn et al.,2008);–

integrating practitioners’ views – instead of simply reproducing them, perhaps by
uncritically reformulating everyday concepts in more complicated words (Bergman,2010, p. 11; Kühl, 2008, p. 178);–

generalizing the findings – instead of failing to do so, perhaps by not linking casespecific information to abstract knowledge (Hammersley, 2004).

In all of our research projects, the findings from case studies such as UN ELECTIONS
were generalized according to principles of grounded theory (e.g., Perrin, 2013, pp. 181–188)
to develop a model of the dynamic system of situated text production. This model contributes
to both theory and practice in the field of professional writing by foregrounding the dynamics
and complexity of collaborative text production. Most of the earlier models of writing andtext production, in contrast, neglected aspects of collaboration since they had been developedin experimental settings where individual writers were told to solve pre-defined problems inindividual writing processes – which is quite the opposite of a writing task in naturalprofessional settings (Perrin, 2013, pp. 150–152).
To put it simply, combining applied linguistics with principles and measures fromtransdisciplinary action research requires communication across discursive cultures of
stakeholders – which, on the one hand, raises project workloads and slows down research. On
the other hand, TDA-informed research projects allow applied linguists to–enact their key competence of mediating between languages of academic andprofessional disciplines and their discursive cultures;–provide evidence of their societal relevance by finding sustainable solutions to socially

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 26-51

relevant problems in which language and communication play key roles;–

and contribute to the development of empirically grounded theories on language use in
an increasingly complex, dynamic and interconnected world.

This yields a threefold benefit. Language matters, more than ever, and we are in an
excellent position to do language research that matters – research on, for, and withpractitioners.

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 52-66

Japanese Students Learning English Abroad in an Era of Globalization

Celeste Kinginger
Pennsylvania State University

Abstract
Research clearly demonstrates that study abroad can facilitate language development inevery domain, and that it is particularly useful for the development of pragmatic and social
interactive abilities. However, most studies reveal important individual differences both in
the quality of these experiences and in their outcomes. Much depends not only upon theways in which learners are received by their host communities, but also upon the personaldesires and dispositions students themselves bring to their experiences. This paper will
provide an overview of recent research involving Japanese learners of English in
Anglophone settings. Most of the outcomes-oriented research examines the development ofspecific interactive capabilities such as speech act realization or mastery of formulaic
language typical of expert English language use, usually defined by default as Native
Speaker usage. The limited qualitative inquiry suggests that, like other students, Japaneselearners may struggle for access to engagement in local communities. Meanwhile, however,their imagined communities appear to be changing with the times. While some students arevery much attached to notions of English as access to specifically Western values andworldviews, others imagine themselves belonging to international, translingual communities
where English functions as a lingua mundi, and native speaker values or norms do not apply.
Strikingly, it is engagement in non-local communities, from which native speakers can infact be excluded, that is most relevant to these latter students. The paper will conclude withsome questions about the definition of expertise in English today, and their implications forresearch, pedagogy, and the design of study abroad programs.

Key words: Study abroad, globalization, social interaction

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Kinginger, C.
Japanese Students Learning English Abroad in an Era of Globalization

Introduction
In the aftermath of World War Two, the celebrated author Shusako Endo was among
the first Japanese students to study abroad, leaving Keio University for a sojourn in France.
His work of autobiographical fiction, Foreign Studies (1965), includes a description of his
emotional state at the beginning of his sojourn. Kudo, the protagonist, has been sponsoredby a Christian association for a summer stay in Rouen with the devout and very bourgeois
Veleaux family whose company would presumably help to enhance his mastery of Frenchand understanding of French culture. Kudo maintains an appearance of patient gratitude as
he endures increasingly humiliating episodes at the dinner table. He receives instruction on
basic table manners and in return, demonstrates the use of chopsticks, a practice his hosts
declare barbaric. When asked to explain whether or not the Japanese do indeed sleep on
straw, his limited French proficiency prevents him from describing tatami mats, and hishosts conclude that his compatriots behave like animals in barns. Like many other students
entering a new society as guests, Kudo longs for the ability to defend his identity, his home
and its culture, but as yet cannot do so, and is occasionally overwhelmed with suppressedanger.
Endo’s story is in some ways an artifact of its time, a period piece that should be readas such. Since the mid-20th century, the practice of study abroad has certainly changed,with globalization exerting a profound impact on the qualities of students’ experiences.
Now that individuals control their own communicative environments to an unprecedented
extent, one’s actual location has become far less relevant than it once was. Now that travel
has become relatively reliable and accessible to most middle-class families, even a distantrelocation of one family member does not spell complete separation, and “helicopter parents”
often interpret their children’s travel as an occasion for their own. With the rise ofneoliberalism and consumerist approaches to education, students like Kudo might appeal to
the notion of “customer service” to be reassigned to a more impartial host family. Yet, at thesame time, the story illustrates the perennial difficulties experienced by novice interactants

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in study abroad settings. When students do in fact enter into discussions of culture or
identity with their hosts, has globalization reduced the likelihood that they will encounter
ethnocentrism, bias, or prejudice? Has globalization expanded students’ own tolerance ofdifference and ability to adopt an analytical rather than a judgmental stance? The
contemporary literature suggests that the Veleaux families of today are not necessarily
better informed than those of yesterday; for example, in an ethnographic study of Chinese
students in Britain (Jackson, 2008), one of the host families did not know the difference
between Hong Kong and Japan, and continually assigned the wrong nationality to theirguest. In Kinginger (2008), I illustrated the tendency of some American students to recoil
into a sense of national superiority whenever they were queried about their politicalopinions. Clearly, the problems illustrated in Endo’s story are still to be addressed and,
whenever possible, overcome.
The expansion of study abroad as an educational practice has been accompanied by aparallel growth in the amount and variety of associated research. Today, the literature on
this phenomenon includes both a significant body of work aimed at documenting outcomes,
and a considerable investment in ethnographic and other qualitative scholarship intended toilluminate the nature of the experience. In a nutshell, the outcomes-oriented literature showsthat study abroad can have a positive impact on every domain of language learning, whether
focus is on global proficiency, on specific aspects of communicative competence, or on
skills such as speaking or reading (Kinginger, 2009, 2011). Much of the learning that takes
place during study abroad is situated outside the classroom, in interactions with genuine
consequences; this means that, in comparison to instructed learning, study abroad exhibits
significant potential to enhance the development of social or interactive abilities such associolinguistic, discursive or pragmatic awareness, and performance. At the same time,
findings of this research typically reveal important individual differences in achievement.
Qualitative research has begun to reveal some of the sources of these differences both in thevariable ways in which students can be received and in the range of dispositions students
themselves may adopt when they encounter challenges such as Kudo’s.

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In this paper, I provide a specialized update on the state-of-the-art in research on
language learning in study abroad, focusing on materials in which the outcomes or qualities
of Japanese students’ study abroad are featured and that have been published since thecompletion of my general review (Kinginger, 2009) After a brief consideration of changing
demographics, namely the decline in the number of Japanese students opting for study
abroad, I first review selected studies examining outcomes, including fluency, writing
ability, speech act repertoires, and proficiency. I then examine selected recent studies oflanguage learning processes in classrooms, homestays, and social networks.. In conclusion,
I offer some reflection on pedagogical implications, and the role that study abroad mightplay for Japanese students in an era of globalization, including the spread of English as
lingua mundi and the decreasing relevance of native speaker norms.

Demographics
Citing figures from the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, andTechnology (MEXT), Lassegard (2013) examined the recent decline in study abroad by
Japanese students. Whereas the number of incoming international students and the numberof outgoing Japanese students was approximately equal in the year 2001, since that time
there has been a steady rise in the former population and a remarkable decline in the latter.
The most recent figures available at the time showed that 66,833 Japanese students went
abroad in 2008, 11 percent fewer than in 2007, and 20 percent fewer than the peak of
82,945 students in 2004.
In an initial attempt to explain this phenomenon, Lassegard takes into account larger
demographic and economic issues, corporate characteristics, institutional factors, andstudent attitudes, none of which suffice on their own to provide an adequate explanation.
For example, one of the most frequently cited reasons for the decrease in study abroad is theoverall decline in the general population; however, total enrollment in tertiary education has
continued to grow, and Japan has one of the highest university matriculation rates in theworld. The worldwide economic downturn may certainly have affected students’ motives,

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but the number of Japanese students abroad began to decline even when the economic
outlook was positive. The traditional practice of corporate recruiting during students’ thirdyear of study no doubt contributes to the decline, as does the relative difficulty of credit
transfer from universities outside Japan. Finally, Lassegard notes that media portrayal ofJapanese youth as “inward thinking” and “risk averse” has made its way into popular
discourse.
To achieve a more systematic understanding of student attitudes, Lassegard
administered a questionnaire to 328 non-language majors at a large medium-academic
university in the Tokyo area. In this study a surprising majority of students (56%) indicatedsome interest in study abroad. Thirty-nine percent of the respondents specifically desired topursue a sojourn abroad. However, a number of factors limit these students’ ability toundertake such a sojourn. Chief among these is lack of financial resources (64%), followedby the perception of low language ability (34%), insufficient grades (26%), delayed
graduation (21%), and fear of difficulties in searching for a job (16%). Thus, at least in thissample, the most significant obstacle to study abroad is not lack of interest, but insufficientfunding. The author therefore argues for a “nuanced and balanced vision of university
internationalization … which both values and supports the international study experiencesof domestic students” (p. 377).

Recent Studies of Linguistic Outcomes
What, then, can be learned from the recent literature about the language-related
achievements of Japanese students learning English abroad? This section reviews fourstudies examining fluency, writing ability, speech act repertoires, and overall proficiency.
The study of fluency has traditionally been carried out using various quantitative measuresof performance, such as speech rate or pause length, applied to samples of learner speech.
More recently, in examining fluency, applied linguists have begun to profit from thefindings of corpus linguistics, specifically the realization that both speech and writing are toa large degree formulaic in nature. According to Boers and Lindstromberg (2009), “one56Kinginger, C.
Japanese Students Learning English Abroad in an Era of Globalization

thing that distinguishes native speakers and highly proficient learners from less proficientlearners is their mastery of a large stock of semi-fixed lexical phrases, also known as‘chunks’” (p. 1). For example, the English expression “to take someone by the nose” is not
such a semi-fixed phrase and would therefore require a literal interpretation, whereas “tolead someone by the nose” is such a phrase with a commonplace metaphorical meaning. In
order to explore the role of study abroad in the development of fluency via formulaic
language, Taguchi (2013) recruited 64 Japanese students enrolled at an English-medium
university. The researcher designed a computerized oral Discourse Completion Task
specifically eliciting routines, such as “I’m just browsing/ looking” in response to asalesperson’s offer of help. The participants included four groups: students with low
proficiency and no experience abroad, students with high proficiency and no experienceabroad, students with both high proficiency and one academic year in an Anglophone
environment, and native speakers, to provide baseline data. The findings of the study are notsurprising: students of high proficiency who had studied abroad outperformed the others, inpart because, as the author noted, many routines “have a strong association with specificcultural situations” (p. 117).
Sasaki (2011) is a longitudinal study examining the effects of study abroad on writing
skills and motivation, reconsidered in this project as “imagined communities” within which
students could anticipate successful interaction. The study followed 37 Japanese students
over three and a half years, during which 28 of the participants spent between 1.5 and 11
months in English-speaking countries. The findings show that all of the students’ writing
abilities improved over time, but study abroad participants outperformed their classmates
who remained in Japan. Furthermore, only study abroad led to the development of imaginedcommunities of English users with whom students could identify. Four months or morespent abroad conveyed a significant advantage, but only eight months or more led to theformation of intrinsic motivation and wholly voluntary writing practice.
The domain of speech acts is explored in another longitudinal study by Matsumura(2007) involving 15 Japanese students at a private university in Kyoto. Data were collected57

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 52-66

before, during, and up to one year after the eight months that these students spent learning
English in Canada. The study’s main instrument was a multiple-choice questionnaire inwhich the participants were to imagine offering direct or mitigated advice to persons ofhigher, similar, or lower status than their own. During their time in Canada, where direct,
unmitigated advice is commonly offered to superiors, the participants improved their ability
to perform in native-like ways. However, one year later, back in Japan, they adapted their
responses to local norms and no longer proposed to give direct advice to anyone above themin a hierarchy. The author argued that this decrease in native-like performance does not
represent a loss of pragmatic capability. Rather, study abroad had increased the flexibility oflearners’ repertoires, as well as their adaptability to and perception of variation in social
situations.
Another notable recent study of outcomes is Yashima and Zenuk-Nishde (2008), an
investigation of high school students’ proficiency and international posture. The study was
carried out in a high school offering a content-based EFL curriculum focusing on global
studies. A total of 73 participants were enrolled in an entirely content-based program, while
the remaining 88 were in a program with a focus on grammar, translation, and explicit
preparation for university entrance examinations. All of the participants were required toinclude a short-term sojourn abroad in their study plan, and 16 spent an entire academic
year abroad. The main constructs informing the study were: 1) second language Willingness
to Communicate (WTC); 2) proficiency as measured by TOEFL scores; and 3) international
posture. This third construct was proposed by the authors as an alternative to the classic
notion of “integrative motivation” more suitable for learners of English for international
communication. International posture is defined as “a tendency to see oneself as connectedto the international community, to have concerns for international affairs, and a readiness tointeract with people other than Japanese” (p. 568). The overall findings show a significant
advantage for study abroad, which fosters higher TOEFL scores, more WTC, and moreinternational posture. However, a cluster of students, mostly from the entirely content-based
program, displayed a profile similar to that of the study abroad veterans, a finding the58

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authors attribute to the school’s efforts to foster imagined international communities within
its local program.

Recent Studies of Learning Processes
In addition to research on the outcomes of study abroad, recent scholarship includes anumber of qualitative studies illuminating both the advantages and the challenges thatJapanese students may face in school, at home, and in informal interaction when they
venture abroad. Churchill (2006) focuses on the varieties of school- and classroom-based
experiences for high school students in the United States for a short-term visit. The cohortthat Churchill observed was divided into two groups, with one group hosted by a small, elite,
private school (“St. Martin’s”) and the other by a much larger public school (“BellevilleHigh”). At St. Martin’s the Japanese students’ arrival had been prepared well in advance,with photos and names of the individual students posted in a highly visible area, and aschedule arranged for each student based upon their interests and backgrounds. Eachstudent was also assigned a local companion upon whom they could rely for guidance, andwith whom that could begin to interact in English immediately. In the classroom, Japanese
students were encouraged to shine despite their limited proficiency in English, for example
through invitations to publically solve math problems well beyond the level of their local
classmates. At Belleville High, no such welcome had been arranged, and the visitors were
instructed to choose a local student at random and follow that student’s schedule throughout
the day. In the classroom, the presence of the Japanese guests did not occasion any changes
in business as usual; in fact, because they were often confused, they tended to consult witheach other during class, a behavior that was interpreted as disruptive.
Churchill (2009) later carried out a case study of an individual student within thesame cohort. Since the language-focused school curriculum attracted a majority of female
students, until the group went abroad “Hiro’s” male gender had appeared to be adisadvantage, isolating him from his classmates. At St. Martin’s, however, Hiro wasimmediately invited to participate in the track and field team, and even to compete on behalf

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of the school. During practice sessions and on bus trips to track meets, he quickly developed
a wide circle of friends with whom to interact in English in informal settings. He also
became a broker of social relationships between the Japanese group and their teenage hosts,
especially when the young men he met wished to be introduced to Hiro’s female classmates.
Although Hiro’s English speaking proficiency was among the lowest in the group prior tothis experience, by the end of the stay he was performing at the same level as the mostaccomplished female students. Churchill’s studies are both quite intriguing for the ways inwhich they portray the influence of social class and gender on study abroad experiences.
A recent study of Japanese students’ experiences in an American university setting
was conducted by Sato and Hodge (2015). The project involved semi-structured interviews
with eight students, of whom four were male and four female. Among the main sources ofdifficulty cited was the expectation that students display critical thinking rather than rotememorization both in class and in written work. The participants also commented on thequalities of teacher-student relationships, noting that American professors do not adopt any
sort of parental role and do not dispense advice about personal matters or guidance onquestions of morality. Furthermore, the norms for classroom interaction appeared to thesestudents to sanction and even to encourage public arguments with professors. Had theauthors delved a bit more deeply into the local interpretation of these last two perceptions inparticular, they might have come closer to the source of intercultural misunderstanding inthis case. Firstly, American professors occasionally do provide moral or personal advice,
but only if this advice is explicitly requested or if they enjoy long-term, trusting
relationships with students. Otherwise, laws protecting student privacy might easily appear
to have been violated, with potentially quite negative consequences for teachers interpreted
as having inappropriately overstepped the boundaries of their professional role. Secondly,
American students, especially in classes of small size, are routinely graded on the quality of
their in-class participation. Participation can include proposing novel interpretations oroffering counterevidence to claims made by authority figures such as textbook authors or

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Kinginger, C.
Japanese Students Learning English Abroad in an Era of Globalizationteachers, with knowledge itself construed as an emergent process taking place throughinteraction.
Another setting that has been scrutinized in recent research is the homestay family
dinner table. Pryde (2014) conducted a longitudinal study involving 19 Japanese students of
pre-intermediate proficiency in English spending an entire year living with host families in
New Zealand. To study the quality of the interactions taking place at home, and its
evolution over time, Pryde collected recordings of informal conversations involving
students and hosts at 5 weeks, 5 months, 7 months, and 11 months into the sojourn.
Findings indicate that these interactions were not and never became particularly
conversational in nature. Rather, all parties adhered to classroom-style interactional norms,
including both the infamous IRE (Initiation-Response-Evaluation) turn structure and asignificant proportion of display rather than referential questions. We can see an example ofthis interaction in the example below, from Pryde’s unpublished data. Here the student Mikiis instructed by her host father (HF) to name the foods in plain view on the table in a waythat cannot be considered entirely appropriate for interaction with a young adult. Following
a series of Initiations and Responses, Miki is explicitly evaluated as a “good girl” andoverall performance assessed as “very good.”

HF: what are we having for dinner, today?
Miki: meat pie
HF: meat pie, yes
HM: ((laughs))
HF: meat pie, not meet the pie
Miki: mince pie
HF: good girl, yes, andMiki: carrot
HF: yes
Miki: potatoes

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HF: and
Miki: broccoli((two response tokens))
HF: very good

Most alarming among Pryde’s findings is the absence of change of over time in theseinteractions. All parties appeared to have good intentions, with the hosts hoping to teachand the students to learn. However, “ ‘conversations’ were progressively reduced toformulaic patterns on common topics that were initiated and controlled by the parents and inwhich students gave short responses, did not elaborate on their responses, and may evenhave expected their responses to be evaluated” (pp. 502–503). Moreover, the data became
progressively difficult to collect as the study proceeded, because students gradually
withdrew from family interactions and host parents grew weary of transforming their dinnerhours into tedious instructional sessions. Pryde’s study offers considerable insight into thepotential reasons for modest achievements in proficiency gain during some homestays.
Tanaka (2007) examined the extent to which Japanese students abroad enjoy contact
with English in informal settings outside the classroom. Twenty-two students taking 12week courses at a private school in New Zealand were interviewed post-sojourn, and five of
these also provided written diaries. Most of the participants reported limited opportunities tointeract with native speakers, and a strong preference for “cozy Japanese” environments (p.
50) where they could express their feelings and find support for their attempts to learn
English. Opinions about the value of the homestay were mixed, with some students
claiming to have enjoyed many occasions to learn, and others disappointed in theirexperience. Although the author notes that the sojourn may have led to enhanced confidence
in using English for many of the participants, overall Tanaka’s study suggests that, just likestudents of other origins, Japanese students abroad struggle to foreground their languagelearning agenda.

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Summary and Conclusion
What can we conclude about the role of study abroad for Japanese learners of English
in an age of globalization? The outcomes-oriented research suggests that, to the extent thatlearners’ goals continue to include emulating native speaker norms, study abroad offers
unique opportunities, for example to acquire semi-fixed lexical phrases appropriate foreveryday settings. In general, study abroad can enhance pragmatic performance andawareness, change students’ language-relative motives, and upgrade their international
posture. However, it may not be strictly necessary to send students to an Anglophonecountry if imagined international communities are available at school or in other settings(e.g., social networking). Further, study abroad in so-called “inner circle” English speaking
countries (Kachru, 1986) is not necessary if the goal is to develop language ability forinternational communication. Qualitative inquiry reveals that the challenges Japanese
students face while abroad are similar to those of other sojourners (Kinginger, 2013). They
can be received in various ways by host families; even when these families’ intentions are
good, these intentions do not necessary translate into productive learning environments.
They struggle to understand local norms and academic practices, interpreting these throughtheir own, home-based ideologies. They often find it difficult to access local social
networks, and sometimes, in any case, prefer the company of their own co-nationals overthe vagaries of intercultural communication in English.
Several practical implications emerge from this review of selected literature. First,
program choice and design should include careful consideration of the ways in which
students are likely to be received by the institutions they frequent and the families whose
homes they visit. In the case of well-intentioned host families, there is a potential need toprovide some information about language learning processes and how to foster these during
everyday communication. Secondly, to the extent possible, students should be informed
about the local meaning of host country practices they are liable to encounter, such as norms
for classroom interaction and associated values. If this information cannot be provided prior
to a sojourn abroad, ideally students will have access to mentoring and guidance to help

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them to maintain an analytical rather than a judgmental stance as they explore thesepractices. Thirdly, since from the point of view of language learning, the principle
advantage of study abroad is exposure to non-pedagogical social interactive practices,
students should develop awareness that these practices are an important component oflanguage ability. Some practice in non-pedagogical communication prior to study, forexample through the use of telecollaborative pedagogies, may ease the transition to informal
communication while abroad. Finally, and most importantly, educators should be aware of
the relationship between English as a Lingua Franca and related constructs, such as“international posture” (Yashima & Zenuk-Nishide, 2008) orienting students toward
openness toward linguistic and cultural difference.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Michael Pryde for graciously sharing some samples of his
unpublished data. This research is funded by the United States Department of Education(CFDA 84.229, P229A020010-03), through CALPER (Center for Advanced Language
Proficiency Education and Research), a National Foreign Language Resource Center at thePennsylvania State University. However, the contents do not necessarily reflect the policyof the Department of Education and one should not assume endorsement by the federal
government.

References
Boers, F., & Lindstromberg, S. (2009). Optimizing a lexical approach to instructed second
language acquisition. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Endo, S. (1965). Foreign studies (M. Williams, Trans.). Boston, MA: Tuttle Publishing.
Churchill, E. (2006). Variability in the study abroad classroom and learner competence. In
M. A. DuFon, & E. Churchill (Eds.), Language learners in study abroad contexts(pp. 203–227). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.

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Japanese Students Learning English Abroad in an Era of Globalization

Churchill, E. (2009). Gender and language learning at home and abroad. JALT Journal, 31,
141–158.
Jackson, J. (2008). Language, identity, and study abroad: Sociocultural perspectives.
London, UK: Equinox.
Kachru, B. (1986). The alchemy of English: The spread, functions, and models of nonnative Englishes. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
Kinginger, C. (2008). Language learning in study abroad: Case studies of Americans inFrance. Modern Language Journal, 92, 1–124.
Kinginger, C. (2009). Language learning and study abroad: A critical reading of research.
Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kinginger, C. (2011). Enhancing language learning in study abroad. Annual Review ofApplied Linguistics, 31, 58–73.
Kinginger, C. (2013). Identity and language learning in study abroad. Foreign Language
Annals, 46, 339–358.
Lassegard, J. (2013). Student perspectives on international education: An examination into
the decline of Japanese studying abroad. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 33, 365–
379.
Matsumura, S. (2007). Exploring the aftereffects of study abroad on interlanguage
pragmatic development. Intercultural Pragmatics, 4, 167–192.
Pryde, M. (2014). Conversational patterns of homestay hosts and study abroad students.
Foreign Language Annals, 47, 487–506.
Sasaki, M. (2011). Effects of varying lengths of study abroad experiences on Japanese EFL
students’ writing ability and motivation: A longitudinal study. TESOL Quarterly, 45,
81–105.
Sato, T., & Hodge, S. (2015). Japanese exchange students’ academic and social struggles at
an American university. Journal of International Students, 5, 208–227.
Taguchi, N. (2013). Production of routines in L2 English: Effect of proficiency and studyabroad experience. System, 41, 109–121.

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Tanaka, K. (2007). Japanese students’ contact with English outside the classroom during
study abroad. New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics, 13, 36–54.
Yashima, T., & Zenuk-Nishide, L. (2008). The impact of learning contexts on proficiency,
attitudes, and L2 communication: Creating an imagined international community.
System, 36, 566–585.

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 68-97

Higher Education Internationalization Needs a New Instructional Focus,
New Attitudes and New Curricula for the Teaching of English

Siusana Kweldju
SEAMEO-RELC

Abstract
Higher education internationalization in Kachruvian expanding circle countries faces
linguistic challenges that never take place in inner circle countries. The term language
branding is coined in this paper to describe the competitive identity of English in HEIs.
WhatsApp interviews were conducted to discover parents’ perceptions about place branding
and language branding. To participate in international mobility, more often than not students
and scholars from expanding circle countries have to demonstrate evidence of an adequatelevel of native-speaker-based conceptions of proficiency. This requirement is fast becoming anorm even for short-term international academic exchange programs/events. Based on theanalysis of the 2015 international short-course academic flyers available online, this paperclassifies four major types of English proficiency requirements specifications for short-term
academic mobility: the stated condition, the minimum mandatory, the implied condition, andthe ultimate preferential condition. If this norm persists, HEI in EC countries tends to benefit
mainly English-major students and the privileged minority. This will not adequately equip a
new generation of productive and resourceful citizens who are ready to solve domestic issues.
This paper, therefore, questions the validity of this requirement, and highlights the importanceof new attitudes, a new instructional focus, and a student-driven approach to curriculum.

Keywords: English as a lingua franca (ELF), Higher education institution (HEI), language
branding, expanding circle countries

68Kweldju, S.
Higher Education Internationalization Needs a New Instructional Focus

Introduction
In globalization a country cannot afford competitiveness without promoting their higher
education institutions’ (HEIs’) competitiveness. HEIs in both developed and developing
countries become more concerned with the future of their graduates, especially in their effort
to create modern knowledge-based society. They have to prepare their graduates to function
effectively in a research-based and innovation-based economy. Compared to other sectors,
HEIs have to be more open to cross-border relationships and global flows of people,
information, and knowledge. Global student mobility and academic mobility become more
important than ever.
Internationalization has led to the interconnectivity of universities around the world forsharing the ideals of intellectual freedom (Marginson, 2007), and English has become thebranded language. When HEIs are connected, it has ushered in the practice of bench-making
and university ranking around the world. Since global ranking began in 2003 by the Shanghai
Jiao Tong University, HEIs worldwide have increasingly consulted ranking indicators for
improving their performance. As each country wants to have a certain number of world-classuniversities, all prestigious universities within each country are competing to have desired
places in the ranking list. Rankings and accreditations are key factors of the university status
and strategic priorities when it comes to brand reputation. In regard to this trend, faculty
members today receive more constraints to compromise to the criteria and the norms set by
the national and world university ranking agencies. Along with this, English proficiency
becomes a greater requirement for academics.
The DGHE in Indonesia, for example, facilitates universities to take part in THE-QSWorld University Ranking, which uses four indicators as the pillars of wold class universities:
research quality, teaching quality, graduate employability and international outlook. It is truethat not all universities have the capacity to maximize their performance to meet the criteria of69

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 68-97

world class universities, but all universities want to internationalize themselves. One strategy
is promoting mobility and building extensive international collaboration. In Indonesia,
thousands of academic staff and more than five thousand students each year obtain national
and provincial government grants and scholarships to go overseas for short-term and longterm academic activities.
This paper discusses about the challenges faced by Universities in Kachruvian
Expanding Circle Countries (henceforth, expanding circle universities) regarding the position
and the influence of English language in HE internationalization, and proposes potential
solutions to the problem. In 1982 Kachru pioneered and classified speakers of English aroundthe world in his three-concentric-circle model. The first is The Inner Circle, which is made upof those speakers who are native speakers of English, such as those living in the UK, USA,
Canada, New Zealand and Australia. They are traditionally used for English norms by the
speakers of the other two circles of countries. The Outer Circle countries refer to the former
colonies of the members of the inner circle; for examples, Singapore, Brunei Darussalam,Nigeria, the Philippines, Bangladesh, and Kenya. Most of those countries were the colonies of
the UK or the USA. Finally, the Expanding Circle countries are those where English plays nohistorical or governmental role, but it is learned as a foreign language for its importance inbusiness, science, technology and education. It is the largest circle which includes countries
such as Japan, Indonesia, China, Denmark, and Iran.

English: The Branded Language in HE Internationalization
English is a necessary entry qualification for academic internationalization. It is an
important element for HEI branding--a function of showing how well an HEI performs inmeeting the needs of its clients (Temple, 2006, p.17). As most universities venture tointernationalize themselves, HE internationalization is an important contributor to thestrengthening of the privileged position of English.

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Higher Education Internationalization Needs a New Instructional Focus

English Language is an advantage for inner circle HEIs, but it is a challenge for
Expanding Circle ones. HEI internationalization brings in revenue for inner circle universities,
but a cash outflow and a challenge for the expanding circle ones. HEI internationalization
does not only depend on place branding (Reketye & Pozsgai, 2014), but also language
branding--a term coined in this paper. Due to the advantage, inner circle HEIs become very
expansive in introducing themselves abroad. The most recent strategy is establishing offshore
campuses around the globe for earning higher reputation and generating income. The themeof the advertisement is that they give full training and teaching in English, a marker of theprocess of globalization (Cenoz & Gorter, 2008, p. 57). Students can learn both content andEnglish in their universities. This theme of advertisement also strengthens the branding ofEnglish as the academic lingua franca, and the most common second and foreign language
world-wide.
There is a two-way relationship between English as academic lingua franca and thereputation of inner circle HEIs. According to the nation branding theory, individual
products/corporate brands enhance the image of the overarching nation brand, and vice versa.
As long as HEIs are concerned, English has enhanced inner-circle universities, and innercircle universities have also enhanced the global use of English in the academic life (Dinnie,
2008). This position causes a great challenge for expanding circle universities in their practiceof HE branding.
As an important branded language, English plays an important role for HE
Internationalization and HEIs branding. English becomes the academic lingua franca inconferences, publications, courses for international students, professional development, crossnational comparative studies and different kinds international education and research projects.
HEIs in Francophone countries, on the contrary, are seriously under-represented partly due tothe language barrier (Bashier, 2007). Inner-circle countries are aware of their advantage
position. Therefore, they invest largely in their HE trading. The United Kingdom, Australia,

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the United States and Canada are the main countries exporting their HEIs through this mode.
……English language skill is one of the main causes of financial and linguistic challenges for
HEIs in expanding circle countries. Scott (1998) indicates that globalization makes someuniversities become the subjects, while the others become the objects or the victims.
Regarding English, the inner circle universities are the subject, and the expanding circle ones
are the victims, or the market to be exploited. English is one of the main obstacles for thefaculty members and students from expanding circle universities to participate in international
exchanges, including the short-term ones. Most academic staff and students find that therequirement of English for short courses is discouraging. Intelligent and established academic
staff, especially, who can function with subtleties and details in his own native language,suddenly has to submit the results of their English proficiency test, and to speak English
correctly with native-like proficiency.

University Branding, Language Branding, Nation Branding, and Parents’ Views
A brand or a reputation of a university is a tool to differentiate itself from its
competitors. English is a powerful brand for a university, while university branding also
strengthens nation brand. Nation-brand identities are found in successful branded exports(Dinnie, 2008, p. 48). One important export today is education. Education export is a way ofnation branding strategy to strengthen national identities and to transform national identity
into intellectual property (Gade, 2014). In other words, promoting HEIs is a strategy tocultivate the positive image of symbolic soft power of a country, especially the sustainable
competitiveness of a nation in the domain of innovation and scientific discoveries.
Brand state or the outside world’s ideas about a particular country, and good branding
strategies give a major edge for international recognition (van Ham, 2001). This is naturally
enjoyed by inner circle universities to reach out to the global market. A brand is not only aname; it is a psychological phenomenon that resides in the customer’s mind, thoughts,

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feelings, perceptions, beliefs, attitudes and behaviour (Webster & Keller, 2004). Consumers
will tell each other about a brand. For expanding circle countries, to launch a university brandto this direction, English is the basic component in the reputation management, especially inthe online world for a high degree of internationalization.
The branding of a university is also closely related to its place. The place also indicateswhat language is used, and what opportunities and life style are offered. Indonesian parents,for example, considered that Japan and China with their modern cities are promising
destinations for their children. Besides English is already adopted as the medium of
instruction in international programmes, studying in China or Japan helps their children tolearn Chinese or Japanese language outside the classroom. This linguistic experience will give
their children more opportunities for their long term career development. Today cities andcountries are branding themselves. A country or a city which has its own uniquecharacteristics is also an important factor to attract international students. This magnet-likevision creates place branding (Widler, 2007). A brand city or a brand country can make auniversity more attractive (Popescu, 2012), and vice versa.
Branding today is not only concerned with the concrete and functional properties of
products and services, but also with experience and lifestyle (Klein, 2000). Place branding isvery close to experience and lifestyle. The use of English is also part of experience andlifestyle. The uniqueness of a university’s location has the potential to create a positive image
to the university and to make it stand out and a destination in the global place-product market(Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2005). In the case of Singapore, for example, place branding andlanguage branding merge together. As an outer circle country, English is the medium of
instruction in all universities, the first language taught in school and the main language usedin the workplace. In terms of place branding, Singapore is also known for its businessenvironment, its fame as a garden city, and as a modern city with excellent public
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project in 2002, and it has attracted over 86,000 international students. There is a correlation
between countries that have produced strong brands and those that are strong brands
themselves (Fan, 2005, p.9).
To know parents’ responses to language branding and place branding, WhatsApp
interviews were conducted to 70 college-educated employees of a foreign company which
employs 14 thousand people in East Java, Indonesia, to discover how place branding andlanguage branding influenced their choices for the destinations of their children’s overseas
studies. Those parents were, among others, doctors, dentists, accountants, lawyers, andengineers. Twenty-six (26) of them preferred the USA, 22 Japan, 12 China, 8 UK, and 2
Thailand. Although USA was still the most favourable destination, expanding circle countries
such as Japan, China and Thailand were also preferable, because those countries also
provided courses taught in English. Japan was a good option because of its high technology,
discipline and politeness, and a lot of Japanese corporations are found in Indonesia. China
was an alternative because of the discipline, lower cost, ease to obtain visas, oriental medicine,and business opportunities. Thailand was also an option because of the close distance andbusiness opportunities.

Inner Circle Countries: Education Exports and English
As a matter of fact, all inner circle countries are developed countries with English
language environment. International students are attracted to study in inner circle countries
because of the English environment, the reputation, standard of living, and the courses tooffer. One main activity of internationalisation for them is exporting education to developing
countries (Bennell & Pearse, 1998). They even internationalize the curricula and adapt themto the needs of the importing countries. The goal is to keep attracting much greater numbersof foreign students to their campuses. Besides building off-shore campuses, they keep finding
university partners in outer and expanding circle countries to set up double degree and74

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twinning programmes. Various kinds of short-term tailored partnership programmes withexpanding circle universities are established to generate bench fees and tuitions fees. This
promotion has persisted unchallenged, and it has reinforced and strengthened the position andthe use of English. This irresistible expansion made Phillipson (2013) give his readers areminder about the opportunities and the threat of English expansion to HEIs in Europe andmany other parts of the world, especially for linguistic and cultural diversity, social andpolitical stability, social engineering, and social class hierarchy.
Top research universities today are still dominated by USA and UK. University
rankings have officially made those world-class universities enjoy high level of acceptance.
The UK and USA combined have over a third of all international students in the world. When
all inner circle countries are combined together they account for around 46% of allinternational students (Graddol 2006, p.76). In fact, about 70 percent of the world’s mostprestigious universities in 2015 are still in the inner circle countries, i.e. USA, UK, Canada,
and Australia. University rankings have strengthened those countries’ nation branding, theirposition in the HE domain, and the perceived quality of those universities.
In UK English has made a huge contribution to the British economy. This is the reason
why Britain continues to support new and long-established British schools and colleges tooperate overseas, and to continue to promote ESL training. In the USA, the export ofAmerican HEIs becomes more important because of the declining American economy.
President Obama emphasized the need of more goods and services to export. Following thispolicy, one of the targets is to double the export of US education to $26.2 billion for tuition
and fees by 2020; about 1.38 million international students will be attracted to US accredited
institutions. Presently HE is the US’s fifth largest export, and is more important thanexporting entertainment such as Film, TV, and arts (Douglas et al, 2013). In 2013
international students contributed about USD 22 billion to the US economy (Farrugia, 2014).
In Australia, HEIs contribute at least A$2.0 billion per annum. It is the third largest source of75

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income for the country. The amount exceeds the total value of wheat exports, which havetraditionally been one of the country's staple exports. The funds are used to employ staff, tofund research and to invest in new buildings and infrastructure. As reported by the Group of
Eight in March 2014, education export also generates significant spill-over benefits including
job creation, increased tourism and a key source of skilled migration.

HE Internationalization in Expanding Circle Countries
and Short-Term Academic Mobility
According to place branding for HE internationalization, there are two kinds ofexpanding circle countries. One is the developed, high-income expanding circle countries, andthe other is the developing, lower-income expanding ones. The former mainly has a challengewith language branding, but they do not have a problem with place branding, like Japan andEuropean countries. As long as they can cope with language branding, such as setting up
programmes in English, they have an advantage to attract international students. The lower
income expanding countries have the challenge for both the place and language branding.
To internationalize the students and the academics, however, both types of HEIs of
expanding circle countries have to face the linguistic challenge. However short the academic
mobility the students and the academics plan to participate in, they have to submit the resultsof the English proficiency test.

HE Internationalization in the High Income Expanding Circle Countries
and in the Developing Ones
According to the IAU 4th Global Survey (2014) the main obstacle for advancing HEinternationalization in 131 countries was the limited funding. One reason is becauseinternationalizing a university is almost identical with recruiting students from a wide rangeof cultures and nationalities (Ritzen, 2004, p.36). The challenge of limited funding faced by76

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developing expanding countries is certainly more intense than the developed ones. The
developed expanding countries may not have any problem with their place branding. The only
problem they have is to overcome the challenge of language branding. Equipped by theirfinancial advantage, English-Medium Instruction (EMI) programmes can relatively be easy tooffer as one of their main strategies (Altbach & Knight, 2007). When they find that they do
not have enough English speaking faculty members to teach in English, they can hire lecturers
from inner-circle countries to deliver the lessons. They also have more facilities to help theirstudents to develop their English proficiency.
For example, although Japan has its nation brand for the advancement of science andtechnology, it cannot fully attract international students without offering EMI programmes.
Although more Japanese young people speak good English today, the story of Toshihide
Maskawa proves that without being equipped with English and having a passport before, one
in Japan can be a Noble prize winner for physics. However, to attract more international
students to study in Japan, part of Education Ministry’s policy is to encourage universities tobegin to offer courses in English. Japanese proficiency is not a requirement any more.
Lecturers and professors are trained to teach their classes in English (Hino, 2011).
HEIs in OECD countries also offer their courses in English to attract more international
students, and to avoid using a wide range of European languages (Doiz et al., 2011). This
trend makes Brumfit (2004) claim that English has become the language of higher educationand has replaced Latin. This is also confirmed by UNESCO (Tilak, 2011). Even a country likeFrance, which always domestically safeguards the use of the French language, should
consider the use of EMI in HEIs. Salomone (2013), for example, lamented “The End of
French” in one of her articles, because the French Assembly was about to vote for thelegalization of the use of English in French universities. In the Netherlands, more than 75% of
their 1,500 international study programmes available are offered in English. The Netherlands
has the highest number of postgraduate degrees taught in English. Denmark, the second

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highest number in Europe, has more than 25 percent of master’s degrees taught in English.
German HEIs also set up international programmes taught in English medium and provided
job opportunities for international students. Without considering the use of English in HEIs,
no matter how impressive the quality of the education, the career opportunities, and the sociocultural environment a country can offer, HEIs cannot be successful enough to attract
international students and to raise the profile of the institutions (Doiz et al, 2011).
Most universities in developing expanding countries have to face the challenge of placebranding and language branding. In spite of good marketing efforts, even the most ready
universities in developing expanding countries have a problem to attract international students.
Pajajaran University in Bandung, Indonesia, for example, is mainly successful to attract
international students for the medical and pharmacological departments, in spite of its efforts
to attract more international students for other departments. One of the main reasons is thehigh cost of attending medical and pharmacological schools in their countries.

Native-like Proficiency Requirement should not be Stringently Imposedon Applicants for Short-Courses: They are not Absolute Beginners
Basically all academics and students know some English. They are not absolutebeginners. Although they may fail to initiate and expand difficult conversation, at least they
can understand simplified language, ask and answer questions. They have learned English as
a compulsory subject in school through the major part of their schooling years. In somecountries students start to learn English from primary school, and in some others from juniorhigh school.
International mobility is believed to enhance academics and students with new ideas
and to help them to be more aware of various perspectives of domestic and international
issues. Therefore, more funding and grants are provided for international mobility andexchange programmes. However, only a small proportion of HE academics and students can78

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use them, because even short courses, training, seminars and workshops require them tosubmit their English proficiency test results. This is the linguistic challenge faced byacademics and students in expanding circle countries. The impacts of this requirement is that,first, English Department students and teaching staff have more opportunities to participate ininternational activities as long as they can meet other program requirements. Second, those
who have obtained a degree in inner-circle or outer-circle countries have repetitive chances toparticipate in the mobility. Third, only a small minority coming from elite, upper- and middle
class families can apply for the activities, because their parents are wealthy enough to affordenrichment bilingual education programs for their children, or to provide long-standing andintensive tuition in English language teaching centers.
In the mid-1980s HE internationalization was dominated by long-term study abroad.
Today, in the 21st century, HE has put more focus on short-term academic mobility. A wide
range of international activities are advertised every day (Marginson & Sawir, 2005; Knight,
2008). This paper proposes that the English proficiency requirement for attending shortcourses or short-term international activities should be different from attending degree
programs, because to attend short-courses the participants do not need to make a special
adjustment to host country norms and institutions. It is universally agreeable that one of theentry requirements for all applicants to a degree program conducted in English is thesubmission of internationally-recognized English proficiency test results. This is to ensurethat the applicant’s English proficiency is sufficient for him to follow lectures, write exam
answers and essays, and take part in discussions and seminars. However, there are only lessthan 1 percent of students and academic staff worldwide planned to study for a complete
degree program overseas, and to equip themselves with internationally recognized English
Proficiency test results. The rest 99 percent are educated in their home countries. Today,
when the acceleration of the internationalization of higher education and research for world
rankings and accreditations spurs short-term academic staff and student mobility, the 99

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percent home grown staff and students also need to improve themselves through their active
participation in international conferences, workshop and training. They might not speak fluent
English, but they compensate it with their considerable knowledge. They may have written
books and articles containing a great deal of professional values in their own language.
Having an excellent command of English is an unfair requirement for applicants ofshort-term activities. According to Hakuta et al. (2000) non-native children learning English
in the immersion programme in the inner-circle countries need 3 to 5 years to develop theiroral proficiency and it takes 4 to 7 years to develop their academic English proficiency.
Learning English in expanding circle countries can be a lot harder and take considerable workand full-time study. Students have already had a host of school pressure and time constraints
to learn content subjects in a crowded curriculum. No matter how much time is invested,essentially it is very difficult for one to develop high-level competency of two languages.
Even balanced bilingual can also be problematic because sometimes a speaker can only havea low level of competence in the two languages.
According to the World Bank (2000) half of today’s higher education students live indeveloping world, and they also have the urgency to participate in HE mobility. They are
aspired young people who need to develop their professional knowledge in their own fields ofstudies. In spite of their limited English, their HE mobility can still inspire theirinnovativeness to create knowledge and to make patriotic transformation at home.
English has been a lingua franca of the academic world. It is true that native-likeproficiency is ideal, but it is not necessary to require all dedicated scholars from expanding
circle countries to show a high score of English proficiency test to participate in short-term
international activities. All academics and students understand the facilitative role of English
in the academic world. Most of them know some skill of reading English textbooks andjournal articles. They also have the access to international digital library providers. Even80

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when they have to present a paper—in spite of initial obstacles--through proper practice,rehearsal and prepared notes, they can improve their PowerPoint presentation performance.
Scholars do know some English. They have learned it from primary school. For
examples, in Taiwan English is officially compulsory from Grade 3. When they reach
universities they have learned English for at least 10 years. In Japan students learn English
from Grade 5, in Iran and Indonesia from Grade 7. Totally, they have learned English from 6
to 12 years before they go to universities. When they are in universities English courses arestill offered and compulsory for all students. In Indonesia, for example, English courses areoffered for at least 1 semester, 2-6 hours a week. In Thailand English is also offered for atleast 2 semesters.
That students have the problem of speaking skill is because that the teaching of English
is more focused on reading skill. Both in Indonesia and in Thailand English reading skill istaught at least twice as much as the speaking skill. What the academics and students need is apractice to use the language in real oral communication, and the need to overcome the feelingthat that they have little command of the language, and suffer from foreign language anxiety
syndrome. Actually they may understand sophisticated academic and technical vocabulary intheir field of study, and be able to understand basic conversations. However, they haveproblems when they have to be involved in using high level of proficiency required by thosepursuing academic degrees.
If we need to give all academics and students more opportunities to play their roles ascitizens of global academic world in spite of their limited English, it is not necessary to use
the near-native standard to screen them out. To be involved in short-term international
activities they need not have the proficiency to speak with high accuracy and fluency in alengthy conversation on various topics in formal and informal settings.

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English Proficiency Requirements for International Short-Term Academic Activities:
Four Types of Conditions
English is used as the main international official language. English proficiency
requirement is not only for visiting academic staff and students entering English speaking
countries, but also for entering non-English speaking countries, where the people do not speak
English themselves in their normal day-to-day activities.
Analyzing the 2015 international short-course academic flyers available online, almost
all international short courses require English language skills. This paper classifies four major
types of English proficiency requirements specifications: the stated condition, the minimum
mandatory/recommended condition, the implied condition, and the ultimate preferentialcondition, as follows:(a) The Stated Condition: English proficiency is required to attend a conference but key
performance indicators are not defined as the mandatory minimum such as:• The International Youth Conference 2015 in Pakistan; although a score of English
Proficiency Test is not stated, but it is clearly stated that the applicants’ level ofEnglish proficiency will play a role in the selection process. The complete flyer isavailable at: http://www.edu-active.com/conferences/2015/ may/28/internationalyouth-conference-2015-pakistan.htm.
• A 2015 one-week workshop on climate applications for food security conducted in
Niamey, Niger; the workshop is conducted by the Abdus Salam International Centre
for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Italy, in collaboration with the AGRHYMET Regional
Centre, Niger. The submission of English proficiency test result is not required, but
stated, “All lectures and training sessions will be held in the English language andproficiency in English is a requirement for selection.”(b) The Minimum Mandatory/Recommended Condition: Minimum Scores of English
proficiency requirements or recommendations are definitively provided. Various short-82

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term international activities require applicants’ English proficiency scores. They can vary
greatly from Japanese Studies to acting, bioinformatics to agricultural engineering.
• In the Japanese Study course delivered in English, offered by Rikkyo University, forexample, non-English native speaker applicant is required to have a TOEFL score of
PBT 500 or iBT61 or TOEIC score of 700 or higher. The complete flyer is available
at http://english.rikkyo.ac.jp/support/ international/foreigner/ special/programme.
• A score of 89 on the TOEFL New Internet-based is required for the two-month 2015
training in Israel on Agricultural Challenges in a Changing World. The complete flyer
is available at http://embassies.gov.il/nairobi /mashav/Documents/
Mashav%202015%20 Course%202.pdf.
Another version is that although a test score is not required, it is still recommended
to be submitted. It can be exemplified by the two-week 2015 Frontier Market Scouts
Training, Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey. It is stated that
“While test scores are not required, non-native English speaking FMS candidates should
be proficient in English to fully benefit from the certificate training,” It is continued withrecommended minimum of TOEFL score: “Internet-based test: 79, writing sub-score: 23,
and no sub-scores below 19”; available at http://www.miis.edu/academics/ short/frontiermarket-scouts.
(c) The Implied condition: The straightforward requirements of English proficiency are notstated, but there is an implied condition as suggested in the paper writing guideline. One
example is the requirement of English in the 8th International Conference of the WorldCouncil for Psychotherapy Asia 2015 in Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. The requirementof English proficiency is not stated, but it is printed, “Abstract body is limited to 300
words…. Abstracts are to be submitted in English only.” The complete flyer is available
at http://counselingmalaysia.com/

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 68-97(d) The Ultimate Preferential Condition: English proficiency is not written as a requiredcondition, but a higher working skill is expected as indicated by the ultimate preferential
result:• One example is the requirement of English to attend the 2015 International Conference
on Learning and Teaching (ICLT 2015), Singapore. English proficiency requirement is
not stated, but attractive outcome that requires English proficiency is offered:“Conference papers can be selected and published according to the paper theme in
the following journals: International Journal of Learning and Teaching (IJLT).” Thecomplete flyer is available at http://www.conferencealerts.com/show-event?id=141513.
• Another example is the ASEAN 2015 International Joint conference on Nursing
Science at Chulalongkorn University, organized by Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia, and Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. English proficiency requirement
is not stated, but it is stated that “Committee facilitates publication of full papers in an
International Journal indexed by Doaj, Google Scholar, Ulrich Web, Scopemed, index
Copernicus. The complete flyer is available at http://www.inc.nurs. chula.ac.th/English Proficiency Screening: J-1 Exchange Visa and Grant Applications
The English proficiency requirement for academics and students to participate in shortterm international activities is also formalized as one of the requirements for visa and grantapplication. For instance, J-1 exchange visitor visa to enter the USA is mandatory for allprospective visiting academic staff—short term scholars, research scholars, lecturers andprofessors. To obtain the visa, an applicant has to complete an English proficiency form, inwhich they are given the options to demonstrate the results of various recognized tests, i.e.
TOEFL-iBT/IELTS/PTE/TOEIC/CAE/CPE/Berlitz test of speaking skills. The minimum
required score for TOEFL-iBT is 80, and IELTS is 6.5, which are considered to be theobjective and transparent standards to become exchange visitors in the USA.

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This requirement is also formalized in the grant or other funding application
opportunities, including for activities conducted in non-English speaking countries. One
example is the requirement of TOEFL iBT score of 79 or above, for applying for theInternational Conference Travel Support offered by Kyoto University Asian Studies Unit toyoung researchers, i.e. students in a doctoral degree programme, post-doctoral research
fellows, assistant professors, part-time lecturers, and teaching assistants. The activities are
preferably in Asian countries although countries in other continents are also possible.

Short-Term Mobility: Attitude Change toward the Requirement of
Idealized Notion of Native-Based Proficiency
International mobility is part of the effort for improving university performanceaccording to the performance indicators issued by university rankings and accreditation
agencies. However, if there is a rigid requirement of native-like proficiency, international
mobility cannot be optimized. To solve this issue, attitude change is necessary.

Changing the Ideal of the Past
There are many reasons why non-native speakers are expected to speak as correctly as
the native speakers. One reason can be traced back to the past. Only the children of theeducated and the elite minority received education and spoke English. Historically, in Indiaand in many places in the world, English proficiency is a measure of socio-economic status,
intelligence, and a source of pride. Later, initiated by the Ford Foundation and the Danforth
Foundation starting from 1964, all non-native speakers of English should successfully pass
the TOEFL to obtain the post-war scholarships. English is always associated with theeducated and has to be spoken correctly. In Indonesia, for example, Balinese vendors along
Seminyak Beach and Kuta Beach are always successful to use English for making

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transactions, but their pidginized English is regarded as a variety of lower degree which will
not be spoken by educated people, and will not be used by learners in school.
The customary aspiration of speaking like the native speaker is one of the reasons whylearners of English are always judged to fail to speak English. In Japan, for example, where
culturally people are not supposed to make mistakes or being embarrassed in public, theexpectation of correctness makes learners not to try to speak the language.

Learning Goals: Focus on Oral Communication and Vocabulary Development
English is taught in expanding circle countries because of its functional role such as ineducation, business and scientific exchanges. Therefore, the learning and teaching of English
in formal educational institutions should primarily lead to academic and occupational
purposes, although it starts from social English of everyday communication. Occupational
English, which covers the students’ knowledge in content areas, is the skill emphasized by the
US Department of Labour as the essential skills for career development in the 21st century;that is how to effectively research, conceptualize, organize and present ideas and arguments.
One reason why the teaching of English in expanding circle countries does not help
learners to speak was because vocabulary was not properly taught and learned as a productive
skill. General Service vocabulary alone is not enough for Academic English. Students need todevelop their academic and technical vocabulary, as well. Also, vocabulary is not identicalwith the collection of individual words. It includes idioms, proverbs, expanded phrases, andlexico-grammatical units that students have to internalise as individual items. One effective
way to teach a foreign language is lexically-based (Kweldju, 2004).
Another main reason why students were hesitant and lost to speak is because oral
communication was not the focus of the teaching of English. As a matter of fact, oral
language is a major platform from which literacy skills develop for interaction, transaction
and performance. Without giving a greater focus on oral communication and developing86

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students’ oral skills at the initial stage, students will experience the frustration of the feelingthat after learning English for 10 years, they cannot use the language in a real situation.
Students in expanding circle countries usually have sufficient reading skill but they may failin using the language for loosely structured discussions.
In the past the focus of foreign language teaching was to improve reading skill, andlater it was shifted to the four skills which were taught in a balance. Regarding the former, theway English was taught was more for the convenience of the institutions or the instructors,
than for the outcome or the success of the course. This is mainly because in the past there
were limited resources for oral English, and students had a lack of opportunities to be exposed
to oral English. Today video sharing websites, such as YouTube, online videos, and otherinternet-based resources and children’s e-books provide students with abundant supply of
resources to help them develop their oral communication skills.
Because of time constraint, all skills cannot be taught in a good balance, and priority has
to be made. Since it has been well documented that oral language has an important role in thedevelopment of literacy skills (Scarborough, 1998), oral communication skills should be used
as a good grounding for the teaching of the overall oral and written communication skills in abetter balance. Ugla et al. (2013), for example, also stress the importance for shifting the
focus of the teaching of English to oral communication before students were exposed to theintegrated four language skills. It does not mean, however, that written form should becompletely absent from the classroom, because oracy in the classroom does not develop in a
vacuum. It is still inextricably intertwined with the other language skills (LeLoup & Ponterio,2005). Another priority to make is what aspect of oral skills to be developed first and in which
context. It is hardly the case that one can make his both languages well developed acrossvarious contexts. Singapore―an outer circle country―for example, although generally all
Singaporeans are fluent speakers of English, only 20 percent (at least) are expected to attain ahigh degree of proficiency in English, They belong to the tier which is not different from the87

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best speakers in the English speaking countries (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2010).
Rarely will a bilingual be equally competent across all situations (Fishman, 1971). To selectwhat is more useful and urgent to teach, Academic English for presentation can be the firstpriority to teach.
The oral communication focus must be implemented as early and as frequent as possible
both for daily conversational and academic related aspects of language competence. Show andtell activities which are common in first language learning are very useful for both children
and adults to learn English as a foreign language. When students cannot bring in the real
objects to the classroom, they can bring the pictures or they can use power point slides. Olderchildren and adults usually like to share their experience and ideas instead of showing special
items. They can use posters or videos to demonstrate their most recent progress ordevelopments.

Developing Academic Skills for Mobility
To prepare students to be involved in academic mobility, oral presentation skills shouldbe the focus of the teaching of English in expanding circle countries, before a better balanceof all four skills of English are taught to the students. Mahfoodh (2014) discovered that oralpresentation skills in English were one of the main challenges faced by international students
in Malaysian Universities.
Even English Department students still need a lot of improvement in their oral academic
skills such as oral class presentation. Kawasaki (2008), for example, discovered that 95
percent of the English Department students in Thailand had poor presentation skills. Cheng etal. (2004) showed that the most difficult but important skills for non-English speaking
students in Canadian Universities were—according to the order of difficulty: (a) giving talks,seminars and presentations, (b) leading class discussions, (c) participating in class discussions(d) discussing issues with peers in small-group discussions, collaborative projects, or out of88

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the class study group, (e) understanding classroom interactions, and (f) understanding small
group discussions.
At the HE level the teaching of English should be focused on what is important but
procedurally too difficult for students to learn without teachers’ special guidance in academic
environment, such as the need to learn how to research, to express their opinion, to provide
evidence, to interpret and to provide current, accurate and relevant information. This skill is
not easy to attain, especially when students are prepared for international academic activities
which may cover a wide range of topics and subjects.
Through this process they can also discover their individual long-term goals, priorities
and experiences that they want to pursue, and what they are really interested in and are goodat. The teaching of academic English, then, will truly establish self-sufficiency andindependence to help students to solve local problems that interest them, and develop theiroral communication skills to internationalize themselves. The curriculum that guides students
to learn independently this way is called by Ananyeva (2014) as the student-driven ESL
curriculum. Pigeonholing students to one activity without considering students’ long term
goals and interest cannot help them to participate in the rapid-changing world. Student-driven
learning revolves around identifying problems that they believe are important to solve andcreatively find ways to solve them.

Conclusion
Most of the top global universities in the world rankings are located in countries andcities which are well-known for their country brands and place brands. Mostly they belong toKachruvian inner circle countries, which operate in English. University branding is
inextricably intertwined with English. Developed expanding circle countries like Germany,
The Netherlands, and Japan, which have developed their place brands, should still offer
programmes and courses in English to attract international students. As reported by the 70

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Indonesian respondents, there was no more concern for them as to which country the children
wanted to study, even to the expanding circle ones, because outstanding universities in theworld offer courses and programmes in English. Place is a brand, but it is insufficient to
attract international students. Regarding this, this paper coins the term language branding
which is used as a strategy in HE internationalization.
Internationalization for inner circle universities is similar to education export whichsignificantly contributes to their economy. In contrast, it is a cash outflow for developing
expanding circle countries, especially for building a great deal of collaborations with wellknown universities in the world, and for promoting mobility for their academics and students.
However, only to participate in short-term academic mobility, the academics and students
have to submit the results of their English proficiency tests. This paper proposes that unlike
for those who are pursuing a degree, it should be unnecessary for those who plan toparticipate in short term academic mobility to submit their English proficiency test results.
Actually they know some English. English is taught in all schooling systems in the world.
Generally they have learned English from 6 to 12 years before entering universities, andcontinue learning it for a few years at universities. They can be intelligent and establishedfaculty members who can function very well in their own mother tongues. When strict
selection based on English proficiency level is enforced for participating in short-term
activities, this will widen the class disparity of universities in the world, because it is more
likely the same few scholars can repeatedly take advantage of the mobility programmes.
Change of attitude is a step to solve the problem.
Analysing the 2015 international short-course academic flyers available online, theEnglish proficiency requirement for academic short courses seems to be prevalent. There are
four major types of specifications: the stated condition, the mandated condition, the implied

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Higher Education Internationalization Needs a New Instructional Focus

condition and the ultimate preferential condition. The English proficiency screening is also
administered to an exchange scholar, lecturer or professor to obtain USA J-1 Exchange visa.
Another solution is to improve the way how the language is taught. English is taught inexpanding circle countries for its importance in science, technology and business. With
respect to this goal, the focus of the teaching of English should be on oral communication first
before it shifts to the integrated four skills. Fluency must come before accuracy, and English
should be taught lexically-based. As students are prepared to participate in international
mobility, the teaching of English at the tertiary level should be focused on developing thestudents’ oral presentation skills, and the instruction should be student-driven.

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The Relationship Among Students' Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake,and Interaction in Class: A Study of a Corpus Approach

Yukiko Ohashi
Yamazaki Gakuen University

Abstract
This study examined the relationship among students' spontaneous second language (L2)utterances, uptake, and interaction in class when a corpus approach to teaching English isused. The materials for the analyses are based on: a) a part of the classroom corpora compiled
by Ohashi (2014); and b) uptake data gathered from participating students completing a
student uptake questionnaire. Correlation and regression analyses identified a close
relationship between the students’ spontaneous L2 utterances and the teachers’ L2 feedback.
Following on from the results of this study, further investigations were undertaken to
determine whether the amount of students’ uptake varied according to the amount of teacher
feedback given. Kruskal-Wallis H tests and Mann-Whitney U tests were conducted tocompare students’ uptake among classes where the amount of feedback from the teachers wasdifferent. The results indicated that the more feedback given by the teachers, the more English
sentences students tended to remember. Qualitative considerations showed that the feedback
with teachers’ scaffolding as well as students’ collaboration might possibly help students tospontaneously speak up.

Key words: feedback, interaction, students’ spontaneous L2 utterances, corpus

Introduction
The importance of global communication in English has been discussed and98

Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in Class

consequently more attention has been paid to the application of better methods for teaching
English. One of the aims of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology-Japan is to foster more Japanese people capable of using English andcommunicating well in a globalized society. To communicate well using English, junior andsenior high school students are required to learn to speak up in class using practicalknowledge. However, they tend to be passive about speaking up in class. Observing theclassroom corpus compiled by Ohashi (2014), the token of students’ initiated talk is low andthe amount of teacher talk is much larger than students’ talk, which means that even now,
speaking English in classes is mostly initiated by teachers. If students are expected tocommunicate in English internationally, they need to learn to actively utter the target language
in class so that they can practice communicating in English. Thus, this study explored what
can contribute to an increase in the students’ spontaneous second language (L2) utterances
through interaction in class when a corpus approach is used.

Literature Review
The possibilities of connecting corpus techniques with language education are pointed
out in Ishikawa (2008) and Akano, Hori, and Tono (2014). Ohashi (2014) implied that thecontext in the classroom influences students’ learning and showed the classroom context bycorpus approach. The contextual factors are: teacher talk; student talk; interactions; activities;
and languages. Teacher talk is comprised of teachers’ core utterances in class such as
grammar explanation or instruction, and discourse functions involving feedback, questions,and directions. If the teachers and students share the same native language (L1), native
language, teachers tend to use both languages.
Ellis and Shintani (2014) stated that ‘teaching speaking’ is closely related to interaction,
which implies that interactions occurring in class have a role in students’ speaking. Withreference to Ellis (2015), Figure 1 shows the structure of what is happening after interactions99

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 98-122

occur. Interactionally-modified input occurs “when learners signal their failure to comprehend– for example, by requesting clarification – the input may be modified to accommodate them”(Ellis, 2015, p.145). Through this process of interaction, the teachers try to simplify their own
instruction so that the learners can comprehend the instruction. Additionally, Ellis (2015)
stated that learners are given the opportunity to speak up in the course of interaction. Theiroutput is unmodified if there are no signs of the learners’ attempt to modify their own
utterances. Modified output, Ellis explains, “often occurs following some kind of feedback”(2015, p.145).

interactionally-modified input
interaction
outputunmodified
interactionally modified

Figure 1. Interaction constructs that Ellis (2015) introduced.
Adapted from “Understanding Second Language Acquisition,” by Ellis. R., 2015, p.144.

Rhonda and Philp (2014) described interaction in class as a vital part in pedagogy.
They introduced features of interactions contributing to students’ learning. Showing theexamples of interaction that actually happened in class, Rhonda and Philp (2014) pointed out
the importance of students’ scaffolding for their learning. Swain (2005) also highlights theimportance of students’ collaboration as a source of pushing each other to express themselvescorrectly in the target language. Gass and Mackey (2007) defined the process of learners’
learning through interaction as an “Interaction Approach”. In this approach, as learners are
given input, they engage in interaction and receive feedback, and they are helped to produce
output. As Gass and Mackey (2007) stated, interactions in class involve teachers’ feedback,which is classified by Ellis (2009) as ‘positive feedback’ and ‘negative feedback’. According
to Ellis (2009), positive feedback affirms learners’ response, such as ‘good’ or ‘great.’ Positive100

Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in Class

feedback provides affective support for the learners but it is said to be ambiguous. On theother hand, negative feedback can signal that the learners’ statements have errors and provide
opportunities to correct their statements. Ellis (2009) described negative feedback by teachers
as techniques contributing to language learning. Negative feedback types are explained by
Ellis (2008) as negotiating strategies. They are: a) request for clarification; b) confirmation
check; c) recast; d) repetition; e) metalinguistic feedback; f) elicitation; and g) explicit
correction. Request for clarification, confirmation check, recast, and repetition are described
as implicit feedback types, while others are explicit feedback types. Using these strategies,
teachers can provide input or promote output from students. Table 1 shows the negotiation
strategies and description of each type introduced by Ellis (2008).

Table 1
Negotiation Strategies Introduced by Ellis (2008)

Negotiation strategy
Request forclarification

Description

Implicit / Explicit Negotiation typeAn utterance that elicits clarification of the precedingutterance

An utterance immediately following the previous
Confirmation check speaker’s utterance intended to confirm that theutterance was understood.

implicit

output-prompting

implicit

input-providing

RecastAn utterance that rephrases the learner’s utterance bychanging one or more components

implicit

input-providing

Repetition

An utterance that repeats the learner’s erroneousutterance highlighting the error.

implicit

output-prompting

Metalinguistic
feedback

An utterance that provides grammatical comments,
information, or question to the learners’ utterances

explicit

output-prompting

Elicitation

A question aimed at eliciting the correct form after alearner has produced an erroneous utterance

explicit

output-prompting

Explicit correction

An utterance that provides the learner with correct
form

explicit

output-prompting

Ohashi (2013) examined what type of corrective feedback can facilitate students’ talking. The

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results implied that teachers’ elicitation and confirmation check facilitated students’ L2
speaking the most, supporting Walsh’s (2002) statements that confirmation facilitates students’utterances. Although these studies focus on the interactions between teachers and students,
few studies focus on the entire classroom context which could be the factors of eliciting
students’ speaking the L2.
There is a variation in the classroom context among classes (Ohashi, 2014) and theamount of each contextual factor might influence learners’ attitudes as well as their speaking
opportunities. As Rhonda and Philp stated, “some teachers may not like their students talking
during class time, others will actively plan for students to talk as part of their lessons”(Rhonda & Philp, 2014, p. 3). Observing students’ learning attitudes in Ohashi’s (2014) study
and comparing these with an earlier study by Kaneko’s (1991), which involved classroom
observation, Japanese students’ passive attitudes still remain, although in some classes,
students’ initiation was seen. Students’ participation is what should be noted in class forlearning (Kaneko, 1991; Scrivener, 2005; Mohr and Mohr, 2007). Referring to Weaver and Qi,“students who actively participate in the learning process learn more than those who do not”
(2005, p.570). It is important to examine what kind of approach, or which type of input, canhelp students get motivated to speak up in class. Thus, to explore what kind of input,
especially interactions, can actually help students speak up in class, this study conducted
quantitative as well as qualitative research making use of the corpus compiled by Ohashi(2014). A classroom corpus provides classroom data such as a whole amount of utterances
seen in class, making it possible to conduct a variety of studies such as examining therelationship between students’ understanding and the classroom context. Based on thecompiled corpus, Ohashi (2015) suggested that teachers should use the target language morebecause it can facilitate students’ vocabulary uptake and sentence uptake. Following theresults of that study, an examination was undertaken of the difference in uptake quantity
according to the features of input in the classroom context, which influence students’102Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in Class

spontaneous L2 speaking.
The term ‘uptake’ has several definitions. For example, the learners’ moves or
responses after having feedback are described as ‘uptake’ (Ellis, 2008; Lyster & Ranta, 1997).
‘Uptake’ used in the present study refers to Allwright’s (1984) and Kaneko’s (1991) definition,
which means what students claim to have learned after class.
This study aimed to investigate the following two research questions (RQs) by the
corpus approach.
RQ 1: What can facilitate students’ spontaneous L2 utterances in class?
RQ 2: Does the amount of students’ uptake vary according to the factors that influence theamount of students’ spontaneous L2 utterances?

MethodThis study is based on: a) some elements of the classroom corpora compiled by Ohashi(2014); and b) uptake data gathered from participating students completing a students’ uptake
questionnaire. The numbers of tokens in the compiled classroom corpora were used for the
analysis. Ohashi (2014) recorded twenty-two EFL (English as a foreign language) classes inJapan and transcribed all those classes. All the utterances in the transcription were classified
into the same category, which constitutes classroom context. Those categories include
teachers’ L1, L2 utterances, and mixed utterances as well as students’ L1 or L2 utterances.
Each of those utterances also have the subcategories: ‘read aloud’; ‘translation’;‘explanation’; ‘presentation’; ‘practice’; ‘warm up’; and ‘others.’ There are ensuingsubcategories comprised of ‘question’; ‘response’; ‘feedback’; ‘direction’; and ‘repetition.’
Each utterance has tags attached depending on the type of utterance. Figure 2 shows anexample of tagged utterances. All the utterances were compiled into classroom corpus in
Ohashi (2014). Tables 2 and 3 show the tokens used for the analysis of the present study
referred from Ohashi’s classroom corpora.

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To count the tokens of each utterance, the freeware corpus analysis tools, AntConc,
Version 3.4.3. (Anthony, 2014); and KH Coder, introduced in Higuchi (2014) were used.
AntConc was used to count the tokens of English utterances and KHCoder was used to countthe tokens of Japanese utterances. Because the author hoped to use a variety of tools, thesedifferent tools were used to count English utterances and Japanese utterances.

Figure 2. Example of tagged utterances.
In the context of classroom corpus, the teachers’ L2 utterances token; the teachers’
mixed utterances token; the teachers’ L1 utterances token; the teachers’ question utterances
token; and teachers’ feedback utterances token were extracted to explore what can facilitate
students’ spontaneous L2 utterances.
Because the purpose of this study was to examine which type of utterance can facilitate
students’ spontaneous L2 speaking, this study used the tokens of ‘spontaneous’ L2 utterances
both from teachers and students for the analysis. Thus, reading aloud, repetition utterances
tokens were extracted from the teachers’ and students’ total L2 utterances because in ‘read
aloud’ activity, students and teachers were just reading sentences written in the textbook and104

Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in Class

those utterances do not occur in natural conversation. Table 4 shows the tokens used for the
analysis. Overall total tokens, which were not used for the analysis, cover both spontaneousand nonspontaneous utterances. Tokens of each category in teacher talk shown in Table 4
were used to explore what can account for students’ spontaneous L2 utterances as a dependent
variable. The tokens of teachers’ L2, L1 and mixed utterances; teachers’ feedback; andteachers’ question were used as independent variables.
Regarding the students’ uptake, the author asked the teachers of the twenty- two classes
involved in the study to have students fill in the uptake questionnaire sheet after each class. To
examine students’ uptake quantity, students were required to write their answers in three parts:a) write the vocabulary you think you learned in class; b) write the sentences you learned inclass and remember after class; and c) write the grammar points you think you learned in class.
The total numbers of words or sentences written in each question were counted as vocabulary
uptake, sentence uptake, and grammar uptake.
Table 5 shows the example of a part of an excel sheet used to count the frequency ofstudents’ uptake in one class. There were thirty-three students in this class. Table 5 shows thedata of eight out of thirty-three students and it shows the number of vocabulary, sentence andgrammar points that students wrote in the questionnaire sheet, which was counted as uptake
frequency. For example, as student number one wrote five words as vocabulary uptake, thecorresponding number in vocabulary uptake frequency is 5. For the analysis, total uptake
numbers of all students in each class were used. Regarding students’ uptake, Ohashi (2014)
conducted ‘uptake check tests’ and showed that what students wrote as their uptake turned out
to be their learning. Also, what students wrote correlated with what they understood.

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Table 2Type and Token of Direction, Question, Feedback, Response, and Initiation in Junior HighSchool Classes

JuniorClass 1

JuniorClass 2JuniorClass 3JuniorClass 4

JuniorClass 5

JuniorClass 6

JuniorClass 7

JuniorClass 8Speaker
Teacher
Student
CD
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
CD
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
CD
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
CD
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
CD
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
CD
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
CD
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
CD
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student

Language
EnglishEnglishEnglishJapaneseJapanesemix
mixEnglishEnglishEnglishJapaneseJapanesemix
mixEnglishEnglishEnglishJapaneseJapanesemix
mixEnglishEnglishEnglishJapaneseJapanesemix
mixEnglishEnglishEnglishJapaneseJapanesemix
mixEnglishEnglishEnglishJapaneseJapanesemix
mixEnglishEnglishEnglishJapaneseJapanesemix
mixEnglishEnglishEnglishJapaneseJapanesemix
mixOverall Totals
Type
Token
530
1269
203
803
0
0
136
263
64
93
173
314
0
0
224
660
94
514
25
31
171
258
32
37
41
49
0
0
74
102
38
51
182
632
396
1403
43
46
137
192
0
0
678
1407
147
460
164
610
372
726
3
4
153
248
0
0
246
628
163
453
20
25
370
949
40
71
119
192
0
0
586
1342
158
493
0
0
199
441
91
143
155
274
0
0
187
591
92
608
25
31
154
188
27
31
47
65
0
0
32
35
10
11
230
557
435
609
29
32
145
193
0
0

Read aloudType Token
96
363
92
454
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
80
356
45
393
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
22
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
48
124
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
96
284
92
333
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
66
235
107
318
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
65
360
46
527
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Direction
Type Token
182
398
0
0
0
0
25
34
0
0
0
0
0
0
70
128
0
0
0
0
34
44
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
4
0
0
0
0
87
128
0
0
8
8
0
0
186
532
0
0
0
0
29
40
0
0
0
0
0
0
33
46
0
0
0
0
91
155
0
0
30
38
0
0
192
426
0
0
0
0
64
95
0
0
36
52
0
0
60
96
0
0
0
0
25
28
0
0
0
0
0
0
14
14
0
0
0
0
84
120
0
0
0
0
0
0

Question
Type Token
68
122
1
2
0
0
28
38
6
6
21
29
0
0
36
76
0
0
0
0
49
63
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
45
53
7
7
32
35
0
0
126
277
0
0
0
0
21
28
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
25
0
0
0
0
81
129
0
0
0
0
0
0
77
159
2
2
0
0
35
51
0
0
31
38
0
0
28
58
8
8
0
0
25
32
0
0
32
59
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
39
49
0
0
65
79
0
0

Feedback
Type Token
29
49
0
0
0
0
5
5
0
0
11
13
0
0
11
12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
50
73
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
15
0
0
17
17
0
0
13
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Note. Type = a word form; Token = an occurrence of any given word.

106

Response
Type Token
1
1
39
76
0
0
2
2
13
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
38
75
0
0
0
0
15
17
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
20
30
33
0
0
0
0
0
0
167
277
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
5
0
0
0
0
24
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
21
30
0
0
0
0
20
25
0
0
0
0
8
8
15
37
0
0
0
0
19
22
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
12
0
0
0
0

Student initiation
Type
Token
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in Class

Speaker
Teacher
Student
CD
JuniorTeacherClass 9Student
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
CD
JuniorTeacherClass 10Student
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
CD
JuniorTeacherClass 11
Student
Teacher
Student

Language
EnglishEnglishEnglishJapaneseJapanesemix
mixEnglishEnglishEnglishJapaneseJapanesemix
mixEnglishEnglishEnglishJapaneseJapanesemix
mixOverall Totals
Type
Token
591
1372
273
498
120
421
320
703
0
0
135
222
0
0
211
402
78
242
42
174
455
922
29
32
81
152
0
0
685
1591
375
643
112
421
391
879
0
0
140
232
0
0

Read aloudType Token
9
13
59
160
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
22
42
31
171
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
59
167
47
82
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Direction
Type Token
161
479
0
0
0
0
34
46
0
0
0
0
0
0
11
11
0
0
0
0
152
337
0
0
0
0
0
0
165
457
0
0
0
0
20
25
0
0
11
17
0
0

Question
Type Token
125
298
0
0
0
0
10
10
0
0
7
7
0
0
67
166
0
0
0
0
83
153
0
0
14
17
0
0
151
332
0
0
0
0
8
10
0
0
0
0
0
0

Feedback
Type Token
33
60
0
0
0
0
5
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
17
0
0
0
0
7
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
39
60
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
8
0
0

Response
Type Token
0
0
81
111
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
22
70
0
0
0
0
20
21
0
0
0
0
0
0
93
146
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

(continued)
Student initiation
Type
Token
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Table 3
Type and Token of Direction, Question, Feedback, Response, and Initiation in Senior HighSchool Classes

SeniorClass 1

SeniorClass 2

SeniorClass 3

SeniorClass 4

SeniorClass 5

Speaker Language
Teacher English
Student English
CD
EnglishTeacher JapaneseStudent Japanese
Teacher Mix
Student Mix
Teacher English
Student English
CD
EnglishTeacher JapaneseStudent Japanese
Teacher Mix
Student Mix
Teacher English
Student English
CD
EnglishTeacher JapaneseStudent Japanese
Teacher Mix
Student Mix
Teacher English
Student English
CD
EnglishTeacher JapaneseStudent Japanese
Teacher Mix
Student Mix
Teacher English
Student English
CD
EnglishTeacher JapaneseStudent Japanese
Teacher Mix
Student Mix

Overall Totals
Read aloudType Token Type Token
138
262
92
152
120
197
92
152
0
0
0
0
599
1229
0
0
54
65
0
0
191
370
0
0
0
0
0
0
51
51
22
22
120
252
28
47
109
555
0
0
194
410
0
0
11
11
0
0
95
151
0
0
0
0
0
0
343
696
99
212
81
170
24
54
0
0
0
0
614
1817
0
0
60
114
0
0
91
160
0
0
0
0
0
0
755
1993 212615
417
1991 208 1567
205
390
0
0
21
26
0
0
32
44
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
174
438
15
33
59
108
17
33
0
0
0
0
813
1781
0
0
33
48
0
0
128
228
0
0
0
0
0
0

Direction
Question
Feedback
Response
Student initiation
Type Token Type Token Type Token Type Token Type Token
11
19
15
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
4
5
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
54
72
139
231
31
36
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
47
55
0
0
0
0
39
59
6
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
62
115
11
11
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
26
28
30
55
11
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
124
215 104
158
11
11
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
12
0
0
15
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
71
133 126
216
36
47
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
67
87
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
22
33
57
21
32
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
21
32
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
71
115
90
175
1
1
10
14
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

107

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 98-122

SeniorClass 6

SeniorClass 7

SeniorClass 8

SeniorClass 9SeniorClass 10

SeniorClass 11

Speaker Language
Teacher English
Student English
CD
EnglishTeacher JapaneseStudent Japanese
Teacher Mix
Student Mix
Teacher English
Student English
CD
EnglishTeacher JapaneseStudent Japanese
Teacher Mix
Student Mix
Teacher English
Student English
CD
EnglishTeacher JapaneseStudent Japanese
Teacher Mix
Student Mix
Teacher English
Student English
CD
EnglishTeacher JapaneseStudent Japanese
Teacher Mix
Student Mix
Teacher English
Student English
CD
EnglishTeacher JapaneseStudent Japanese
Teacher Mix
Student Mix
Teacher English
Student English
CD
EnglishTeacher JapaneseStudent Japanese
Teacher Mix
Student Mix

Overall Totals
Read aloudType Token Type Token
821
2191 232
618
368
2760 232 1904
226
445
0
0
8
9
0
0
22
32
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
36
74
0
0
24
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
469
1362
0
0
36
47
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
47
77
0
0
26
26
0
0
0
0
0
0
418
1184
0
0
11
11
0
0
44
55
0
0
0
0
0
0
420
1226 112
178
160
349
103
228
0
0
0
0
577
1344
0
0
95
144
0
0
76
116
0
0
0
0
0
0
380
654
86
138
169
389
91
273
0
0
0
0
628
1160
0
0
184
255
0
0
75
96
0
0
0
0
0
0
232
534
232
529
349
1260 349 1260
129
204
0
0
365
658
0
0
193
351
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Direction
Type Token
102
199
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
36
65
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
54
106
0
0
0
0
0
0
60
80
0
0
0
0
45
65
0
0
0
0
0
0
29
39
0
0
0
0
95
154
0
0
8
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
158
340
0
0
0
0
0
0

Question
Feedback
Type Token Type Token
129
309
76
106
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
37
68
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
29
43
8
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
128
279
6
7
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
60
70
0
0
26
49
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
94
187
18
22
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
113
177
10
15
25
28
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

(continued)
Response
Student initiation
Type Token Type Token
50
63
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
18
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
16
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
21
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
45
73
0
0
28
32
0
0
0
0
0
0
46
62
0
0
16
16
7
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
44
65
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
37
54
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

The analyses were conducted in two phases. In each phase, different materials wereused for the analysis. In the first phase, tokens gained from the compiled corpora were used.
The first analysis was to explore what can facilitate students’ spontaneous utterances. Using
the token figures gained by the corpus, correlation analysis and regression analysis wereconducted. In the second phase, students’ uptake frequency was used. Kruskal-Wallis H
nonparametric tests were conducted to explore the difference in the amount of students’
uptake, depending on the amount of input types that facilitate students’ spontaneous L2
utterances.

108

Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in Class

Table 4
Tokens of Items in Junior and Senior High School Classes Used for the Analysis
JH1 JH2 JH3 JH4 JH5 JH6 JH7 JH8 JH9 JH10 JH11 SH1 SH2 SH3 SH4 SH5 SH6 SH7 SH8 SH9 SH10 SH11
Overall totals Teachers' L2

Dependent
variable1269 660 102 1407 628 1342 591

35 1372 402

1591 262

51

696 1993 438 2191

74

77

1226

654

534

Students' L2

803 51451

460 453 493 608

11

498

242

643

197

252

170 1991 108 2760

27

26

349

389

1260

Students'
spontaneous
L2 utterances

349 12151

336 120 175

11

338

71

561

45

205

116

856

27

26

121

389

0

Teachers'
spontaneous
L2 utterances

906 304

80 1405 344 1107 231

1424 11029

484 1378 435 1573

74

77

1048

516

5

Teachers' L1utterances

263 258 1403 726 949 441 188 609 703

1362 1184 1344 1160

658

Independent Teachers' mix
314
variables
utterances

81

35 1359 360

424

75

922

879 1229 410 1817

26

1781

9

49

192 248 192 274

65

193 222

152

232

370

151

160

0

228

0

0

55

116

96

0

Teachers' L2
feedback

49

12

0

73

0

13

0

0

60

17

60

0

0

13

47

32

106

5

0

7

22

0

Teachers' L2question

122

76

0

277

25

159

58

0

298

166

332

15

0

55

216

57

309

0

0

279

187

0

JH = Junior high school class; SH = Senior high school class.
Table 5
A Part of Excel Sheet from Senior High School Class 1

student ID

Vocabulary uptake

Sentence uptake

Grammar uptake

Vocabulary
uptakefrequency

Sentence
uptakefrequency

Grammaruptakefrequency

He does love old women.

関係代名詞非限定用法
強調のdo, does

5

1

2

強調のdo, does

1

0

1

関係代名詞非限定用法
強調のdo, does

1

1

1

1

spin, playground, complete,axis, equator2

actually

3

pole

4

right, on the other hand,
distance

強調のdo, does

3

0

1

5

spin, playground, though,ride, complete, notice

強調のdo, does

6

0

1

6

actually, North pole,
South pole, fling

強調のdo, does

4

1

1

7

notice, North pole

関係代名詞非限定用法
強調のdo, does

2

0

1

8

fling, distance, pole, right

4

1

1

He does love old women.

the earth did spin

No matter where we are, we
強調のdo, does
can know the position.

Correlation and regression analyses were chosen to examine the relationship between
students’ spontaneous utterances and teachers’ input types, and also to examine what can

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actually influence students’ speaking up among those teachers’ input types. The author also
wanted to compare the difference in students’ uptake amount among the classes with different
amounts of teachers’ input, which is considered one of the variables eliciting students’spontaneous L2 utterances. Nonparametric tests were chosen with the results of normality
tests (p =.000), which indicated that all students’ uptake data (vocabulary, sentence, andgrammar uptake) were non-normal in distribution.

Results
Correlation and Regression Analyses Results
Correlation analysis and regression analysis were conducted using the token numbers ofdependent and independent variables in Table 4 to explore what can mostly facilitate students’spontaneous L2 utterances. Table 6 shows the relationship between students’ L2 utterances
and teachers’ input types observed from correlation analysis.
On the one hand, positive correlations were seen between students’ L2 utterances andteachers’ spontaneous L2 utterances, teachers’ L2 feedback, and teachers’ questions in the L2.
On the other hand, negative correlation was seen with teachers’ L1 utterances. This implies
that the more teachers use the L1, the less students tend to utter the target language
spontaneously. Following these results, stepwise regression analysis was done to examine
whether types of teachers’ input which showed the positive correlation could be the factors
influencing students’ spontaneous L2 utterances.
Table 7 shows the regression analysis results. Stepwise regression excludes variables
that have little effects on the dependent variable, that is, students’ spontaneous L2 utterances.
As a result, four variables were excluded: the teachers’ spontaneous L2 utterances; theteachers’ mixed utterances; the teachers’ L1 utterances; and the teachers’ questions given in
the L2. The table also shows that the predictor, that is, the teachers' L2 feedback, accounted
for the significant amount of the dependent variable, students' spontaneous L2 utterances by110

Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in Class

78 % (R2 = .78, F (1, 20) = 76.47, p < .001). The results imply that teachers’ feedback givenin the L2 mostly influences students’ spontaneous L2 utterances. While a strong correlation
between teachers’ L2 utterances and students’ spontaneous L2 utterances was observed,
regression analysis results showed that the amount of the teachers’ L2 utterances was not apredictor. The results could imply that even though students are exposed to a significant
amount of the teachers’ L2 utterances, teachers’ L2 utterances with little amount of feedback
might fail to elicit students’ L2 utterances.

Table 6
Correlation Between Students’ L2 Utterances and Input Types
Scale

1

1. Students' spontaneous L2
utterances
2. Teachers' spontaneous L2
utterances

2

3

4

5

6

.827**-

3. Teachers' mixed utterances

.091

.237

-

4. Teachers' L1 utterances

-.449

*

-.208

.220

-

**

**

.168

-.214

-

**

.127

-.296

.841

5. Teachers' feedback

.763

**

6. Teachers' questions in the L2

.810

.883
.934

**

** p <.01 (2-tailed).
* p <.05 (2-tailed).

Table 7
Stepwise Regression Analysis Results
B

SE B

β

t

p

R

Teachers' L2 feedback

6.4

.731

.890

8.745

.000

.782

Teachers' Spontaneous L2
Utterances

-.001

.132

-.004

-.010

.992

Teachers' mixed Utterances

-.149

.217

-.075

-.685

.503

Teachers' L1Utterances

-.060

.046

-.150

-1.298.213

Teachers' L2 question

.337

.514

.188

.656

.521

Dependent variable: Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances.

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 98-122

Students’ Uptake Influenced by Teachers’ Feedback
The correlation and regression analyses results showed that the amount of students’spontaneous L2 utterances were influenced by teachers’ L2 feedback. The second purpose ofthis study was to examine whether the amount of students’ uptake varies depending on thevariable that mostly influences students’ spontaneous L2 utterances. Therefore, nonparametrictests were done to examine whether the amount of the students’ uptake is different dependingon the amount of the teachers’ L2 feedback. First, all twenty-two classes (see Table 4) wereclassified into three groups. Classes with a large amount of the teachers’ feedback are Group
1; classes with no feedback are in Group 2; and classes with little amount of feedback areincluded in Group 3. Tables 8 and 9 show descriptions of all groups. Each student’s
vocabulary, sentence, and grammar uptakes were counted in all groups (following the way
shown in Table 5) and Kruskal-Wallis H tests were conducted to compare uptake amountamong the groups. While there was no significant difference in vocabulary uptake among
three groups (H =.620, χ2 (2, N = 534) = .620, p =.734), differences were seen in bothsentence uptake and grammar uptake, (H =. 76.240, χ2 (2, N = 534) = 76.24, p = .000; H =.
26.538, χ2 (2, N = 534) = 26.54, p = .000).
Following these results, Mann-Whitney U tests were conducted in order to observe
between which groups differences exist in sentence and grammar uptake. Table 10 shows theresults. For sentence uptake, significant differences were observed between groups 1 and 2 (Z= -8.161, p = <. 01) and between groups 1 and 3 (Z = -7.233, p = <.01), while no statisticaldifferences were seen between groups 2 and 3 (Z = -1.076, p = .282). The results signify thatthe amount of sentence uptake in group 1, classes with a large amount of feedback, was larger
than other two groups. About grammar uptake, statistical differences were also seen between
groups 1 and 2 (Z = -4.667, p = <. 01) and between groups 1 and 3 (Z = -4.647, p = <.01),
while no significant differences were seen between groups 2 and 3 (Z = -.041, p = .967).

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Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in Class

Table 8Class Classification for the Analysis
Group 1
Junior high school

Classes 1, 4, 9, 11

Senior high school Classes 4, 6Group 2

Group 3

Classes 3, 5, 7, 8Classes 2, 6, 10

Classes 1, 2, 8,11

Classes 3, 5, 7, 9, 10Group 1: Classes with a large amount of feedback; Group 2: Classes with no feedback;Group 3: Classes with little feedback.
Table 9Group Description
UptakeVocablary uptake

Sentence uptake

Grammar uptake

Group
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3

n
123
200
211
123
200
211
123
200
211

M
260.69265.29273.56365.39230.55245.46211.70284.07284.33

Group 1: largest feedback; Group 2: no feedback; Group 3: little feedback.

Table 10Mann-Whitney U Tests ResultsGroup 1 and 2

Group 1 and 3

Group 2 and 3

Sentence uptake

U = 6062, p = .000, r = -.46

U = 7174, p = .000, r = -.40

U = 19947, p = .282, r = -.05

Grammar uptake

U = 8943, p = .000, r = -.26

U = 9469.5, p = .000, r = -.26

U = 21056, p = .967, r = -.02

Group 1: classes with largest feedback; Group 2: classes with no feedback; Group 3: classes
with little feedback.

Looking back the results implied by Ohashi (2015), students’ uptake amount is
influenced by the main language used by the teachers. Considering the language variable that

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could influence students’ uptake, the author picked up classes where the main language usedby the teachers was the same and reexamined whether students’ uptakes vary depending onteachers’ feedback amount with the same way and same procedures. Then, to exclude othervariables affecting students’ uptake, two classes were chosen for the analysis: junior highschool Class 6, and senior high school Class 6 (from Table 1 and 2). In these two classes, themain language used by the teachers was the same, L2, but the feedback amount given to
students was different. A large amount of feedback was seen in senior high school Class 6,
while low amount of feedback was seen in junior high school Class 6. Table 11 shows classdescriptions and Mann-Whitney U tests results are shown in Table 12.
Significant difference was seen in only sentence uptake, (Z = -5.783, p <.01), whichshows senior high school Class 6 (with larger feedbacks) had larger sentence uptake. No
significant differences were seen in vocabulary and grammar uptake. In the former analysis(shown in Table 10), all classes where the main language used by the teachers varied wereused. The results also indicated that students’ sentence and grammar uptakes were higher inthe class with a large amount of teachers’ feedback. Considering the results shown in Tables
10 and 12, it can be implied that whichever language is mainly used by the teachers, students’sentence uptake could be more facilitated by teachers’ feedback.
Table 11
L2 Classes Description
UptakeVocabulary uptake
Sentence uptake
Grammar uptake

Class

n

M

J. Class 6

30

23.48

S. Class 6

17

24.91

J. Class 6

30

15.77

S. Class 6

17

38.53

J. Class 6

30

24.40

S. Class 6

17

23.29

J. Class 6 = feedback amount low (junior high school, Class 6)
S. Class 6 = feedback amount large (senior high school, Class 6)114

Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in Class

Table 12L2 Classes Mann-Whitney U Tests ResultsUpr

Vocabulary uptake

239.500

.725

-0.05

Sentence uptake

8.000

.000

-0.84

Grammar uptake

243.000

.752

-0.05

Discussion and Conclusion
The first research question was to examine the factors that could facilitate students’spontaneous L2 utterances. Positive correlation was observed between the students’spontaneous L2 utterances and the teachers’ spontaneous L2 utterances; the teachers’ L2
feedback; and the teachers’ L2 questions. However, the stepwise regression analyses results
showed that the only predictor that showed significant relationship with the students’spontaneous L2 utterances was the teachers’ L2 feedback. Considering these statistical results,
the answer to this question is “It is the teachers’ feedback given in the L2 to the students thatcan most influence the amount of students’ spontaneous L2 utterances.”
This study supported the statement conducted by Ohashi (2013), which qualitatively
suggested that the teachers’ elicitation and confirmation check have possibilities in regard tofacilitating students’ speaking the target language. Additionally, the results of this study imply
that the students’ sentence uptake could also be facilitated by the teachers’ L2 feedback.
Statistically, the teachers’ feedback is considered to facilitate the students’ spontaneous
L2 utterances. As well, there are also some features seen in the transcription, which could
qualitatively elicit the students’ spontaneous L2 utterances. They are: a) the interactions
involving topics that students can get interested in; b) the interactions including topics thatcan make students laugh or the topics all students in class can share together. In thoseinteractions, the teachers were trying to use the L2, such as giving example sentences inEnglish.

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In beginner classes, helping students speak up is sometimes difficult even thoughteachers try to elicit their utterances using feedback techniques. Whether teachers can elicit
students’ L2 utterances or not depends on the teachers’ techniques of talking. Rhonda andPhilp (2014) pointed out the importance of scaffolding between the students’ as well as theteachers’ scaffolding. They introduced the concept of the teachers’ questions serving as a
scaffold in that those questions helped students describe what they wanted to convey.
Supporting the statements by Rhonda and Philp (2014), this study also focused on theteachers’ role of eliciting the interactions with feedback or questions that can lead to thestudents’ willingness to utter the L2. Depending on students’ proficiency level, the teachers’
scaffolding in addition to feedback could be effective. Moreover, among Japanese classroom
settings, the teachers’ feedback also facilitates the students’ scaffolding. Excerpt 1 shows
students’ scaffolding in the course of interaction.

Excerpt 1
Teacher: MOSHI ANATAGA ‘I did like you.’ TO IWARETARA URESHIIKA
URESHIKUNAIKA?
(If you were said ‘I did like you.’ are you happy or not?)Student A: URESHIKUNAI. (I’m not happy.)
Student A: He do like a TOSHIUE. (elder women)
Teacher: What? He…..? (elicitation)
Student A: He likes.
Teacher: He, DO JYANAKUTE.

(not ‘do’)Student A: He likes? He…
Student B: does.
Student A: He does likes?
Teacher: Oh, he does like a young, beautiful girl! (recast)

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Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in Class

Students A: No, he does like old woman.

In this interaction, student A was helped by another student’s scaffolding in addition to theteachers’ feedback.
The results of the present study also imply that even though teachers frequently use theL2, the teachers’ random talk will not lead to students’ spontaneous L2 utterances. Accurate
and appropriate interactions are necessary to foster the students’ own willingness to speak up.
Thus, the teachers need to manage their classes so that they can establish an atmosphere that
fosters the students’ willingness to use the L2 and actively speak up in class.
The second research question concerned whether or not factors which influence
students’ spontaneous L2 utterances might affect the amount of students’ uptake. The
examination has two phases: the analysis using all classes, and the analysis using the classes
where the main language the teachers used was almost the same. The results of the first
analysis using the Kruskal-Wallis H tests showed that higher sentence uptake was observed in
the classes with the largest amount of teacher feedback compared with the classes with noteacher feedback or the classes with little amount of teacher feedback. Regarding grammar
uptake, classes with little amount of teacher feedback had a higher uptake than other classes.
The second analysis was conducted to compare the amount of students’ uptake, excluding theclasses where the main language used in classes was different. This was because the language
used in class could be considered the variable which influences students’ uptake. The results
using the Mann-Whitney U tests on the classes where the L2 was mainly used, showed thathigher sentence uptake was seen in the class with large amount of feedback than in the classwith little amount of feedback. No significant difference was seen in grammar uptake. It could
be acknowledged that regardless of the language mainly used in class, the more feedback in
the L2 the teachers give to students trying to elicit their spontaneous L2 utterances, the more
English sentences students tend to remember as uptake.

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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 98-122

Statistically, the teachers’ feedback only influences the students’ sentence uptake.
However, qualitatively, it might influence other types of uptake as well. Excerpt 2 shows theinteraction with the teachers’ feedback, which led to the students’ vocabulary uptake.

Excerpt 2
When’ NARATTA DESHO? (You learned ‘when’ didn’t you?) What’s the meaning?
S: ITSU.
T: ITUS? SOREJYA NAI YATSU. (Different one.)
T: Well, for example, the big earthquake, do you remember?
S: Yes.
T: I was in the teachers’ room then. I was in a teachers’ room when the earthquake happened.
S: Ah, JISHIN NO TOKI? SYOKUINSHITU NI ITANO? (You were in a teachers’ room
when the earthquake happened?) I see!
T: What about you? You were….? (elicitation)
S: I….I am..
T: You were…..? (recast)
S: You were?
T: I….. (elicitation)
S: I was in a ROUKA. (I was in a hallway.)
T: I was in a hallway (recast)….earthquake….? (elicitation)
S: I was in a hallway when?
T: Yes. When?
S: Earthquake…..happen.
T: KAKO DAKARA (It should be the past form.) happened. (Explicit correction)

This class is a ‘L1 and L2 mixed class,’ where the teacher used almost the same amount of118

Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in Class

both Japanese and English. In this class ten out of twenty-seven students wrote ‘earthquake’and five students wrote ‘hallway’ as vocabulary uptake. Also, eight students wrote a sentence
including ‘when the earthquake happened’ as one of their sentence uptakes. In other classes as
well, students tended to write vocabulary or sentences which occurred during interactions
with feedback.
Ellis pointed out controversies concerning corrective feedback (CF) and one of thosewas ‘whether CF contributes to L2 acquisition’ (2009, p.2). The results of the present study
showed positive effects on students’ uptake, which could provide the possibilities that theteachers’ feedback influences the students’ learning processes. These implications show that
although there could be other variables affecting the students’ uptake, the teachers’ feedback
works to facilitate students’ sentence construction. Also, vocabularies included in the sentence
might stay in the students’ memory as uptake.
One of the limitations of this study to be concerns the students’ uptake data. Despite
Ohashi ’s (2014) statement that the students’ uptake correlated with what they showed they
understood in the check-tests results, what students write as ‘uptake’ in the uptake
questionnaire might vary. For example, some students might write only the vocabulary in one
English sentence they learned without writing a whole sentence, or, some might understandthe vocabulary included in the sentence uptake, which would not be counted as vocabulary
uptake unless it is written as vocabulary uptake. There could be some other variables whichmight influence the students’ uptake. Further research needs be conducted to provide an
accurate definition of students’ uptake.
Looking at the transcription, students’ spontaneous L2 utterances can be considered to
be closely related to students’ uptake, which supports Kaneko’s (1991) statement. For
example, in some classes, students noticed their own errors while talking, and that noticing
led to the uptake of several students in class as well as the speaker’s uptake. Also, students
might pay more attention when their classmates are talking than teachers’ talking. In some119

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 98-122

senior high school classes, during students’ talking, another student’ scaffolding led to their
uptake.
If the teachers’ feedback contributes to both the students’ spontaneous L2 utterances
and their uptake, it is suggested that teachers should try to enhance interactions with L2
feedbacks in their classes. Suggestions considering the results are: a) teachers are encouraged
to give students feedback in which other students’ collaboration occur, which might lead to
students’ talking and learning; b) the teachers’ feedback sometimes works as scaffolding,helping students notice and correct their own mistakes; c) with sufficient L2 input, teachers
should try to elicit students’ talking by mixing explanation, questions, and feedback; d) it isnecessary to find topics that all students can share in class or issues that they can get
interested in; and e) teachers need to develop interactions where not only one but otherstudents can participate.
The present study pointed out the importance of teachers’ using feedback to help
students willingly talk and the possibilities of students’ spontaneous L2 utterances leading to
uptake. The importance of classroom context should also be noted in the classroom context
could influence the students’ performance, including their wiliness to talk in class as well as
their learning. Depending on the goal in each class, teachers should manage classes
appropriately considering what input or feedback should be given to the students, or how they
can provide interaction that can interest students.
It is worth conducting further corpus based studies study to explore the relationshipbetween what is happening in class and students’ performance. In compiling a classroom
corpus, it is possible to observe a whole context in class including the amount of teachers’ orstudents’ talk, or what interactions occur during class. Further studies can be possible bymaking the existing classroom corpus larger, which the author hopes would contribute toteachers’ choice of statements or activities to carry out in class.

120

Ohashi, Y.
The Relationship Among Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterances, Uptake, and Interaction in ClassAcknowledgement
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the anonymous reviewers for theirvaluable comments and suggestions to improve this paper. Also, I would like to thankProfessor Yukio Tono, who gave me valuable advice and assisted me in compiling a corpus
used in this paper.

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hypothesis. In D. Singleton & D. Little (Eds.), Language Learning in Formal andInformal Contexts, (pp.3-18). Dublin: Irish Association for Applied Linguistics.
Anthony, L. (2014). AntConc (Version 3.4.3) [Computer Software]. Tokyo, Japan: Waseda
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Ellis, R. (2009). Corrective feedback and teacher development. L2 Journal 1(1). 3-18.
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Ellis, R. and Shintani, N. (2014). Exploring Language Pedagogy through Second Language
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Ishikawa, S. (2008). Eigo corpus to gengo kyoiku data to shiteno text [English corpus and121

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language education, text as data]. Tokyo: Taishukan.
Kaneko, T. (1991). The role of first language in foreign language classrooms (Unpublished
PhD dissertation). Temple University, Philadelphia.
Lyster, R. & L. Ranta. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: negotiation of form incommunicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 37-66.
Mohr, K.J., and Mohr, E. S. (2007). Extending English-language learners classroom
interactions using the response protocol. The Reading Teacher 60 (5), 440-50.
Ohashi, Y. (2013). Teacher Talk and Facilitation of Students’ Spontaneous L2 Utterance.
Showa Women’s University Language Education and Communication Research, 8,
1-16.
Ohashi, Y. (2014). A Corpus-Based Study on the Relationship Between the Foreign Language
Classroom Context and Learners’ Uptakes (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Showa
Women’s University Graduate School.
Ohashi, Y. (2015). A Corpus-Based Study on the Relationship Between the Language Used in
Junior High School Classrooms and Learners’ Uptake. KATE Journal, 29, 29-42.
Rhonda, O. and Philp, J. (2014). Focus on Oral Interaction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Scrivener, J. (2005). Learning Teaching: A Guidebook for English Language Teachers.
Oxford: Macmillan Education.
Swain, M. (2005). The output hypothesis: Theory and research. In E. Hinkel (Eds.), The
Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. (pp. 471-83).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlaum.
Walsh, S. (2002). Construction or obstruction: teacher talk and learner involvement in EFL
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Weaver, R. R., and Qi, J. (2005). Classroom organization and participation: College students’
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JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 123-152

The Ideal Intercultural Self Framework: A Way to Motivate Students to
Develop Intercultural Communicative Competence

Robinson Fritz
Nagasaki University
Sumiko Miyafusa
Showa Women’s University

Abstract
Researchers and educators have argued that successful intercultural communication requires
individuals to possess intercultural communicative competence (ICC). These individuals havethe mindset, flexibility and cognitive skills to construct meaning for understanding other andself. However, a popular question is how can foreign language educators effectively develop
the ICC of students within the classroom? To answer this question, this paper will introduce
the Ideal Intercultural Self (IIS), a unique concept and framework developed by the authors of
this paper. This framework was created from ICC research and recent developments in L2
motivation. It approaches intercultural development as an individual endeavor that requires
learners to create and set their own intercultural aims and hopes. Achievement relies on thelearner’s ability to close the gap between their present self and future IIS. To test this theory,the framework was used to develop and teach an intercultural training program at a Japanese
university. This paper will present the theories, findings and limitations of using the IIS
framework as a practical way for educators to develop the ICC of university students.

Key Words: Intercultural Communication Competence, English Learning, JapaneseEnglish Education, Teaching in Higher Education, Intercultural Education

123Fritz, R. & Miyafusa, S.
The Ideal Intercultural Self Framework

Introduction
In recent years, the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT) has created several incentives revolving around themes pertaining tointercultural communication and intercultural development within the Japanese tertiary
educational system. The central aim of these programs has been to nurture university students
who can think, work or act within a global context. However, how can foreign language
educators achieve these ambitious aims within the constraints of one or two semesters? Also,
what theories, models or classroom approaches can influence such a syllabus or curriculum?
The concept of intercultural communicative competence (ICC) has produced various theories
and models to understand intercultural development and foreign language proficiency, and it
has the potential to achieve the foundations of MEXT’s objectives. Yet, developing thenotions put forward in ICC is not an easy task for learners or educators. For example, Diaz(2013) describes the gap between theory and practice in language and culture pedagogy to be“…unbridgeable at times” and this continues to “…mystify theorists and practitioners” (p.
xiii).
Therefore this paper attempts to bridge the gap between theory and practice byintroducing the Ideal Intercultural Self (IIS) framework. The framework brings together thefields of ICC, L2 Motivation and the concept of self to give learners a unique way in creating
their own intercultural and foreign language goals, and to also understand the responsibilities
involved in reaching them. The main outcome of the framework is to give learners themomentum needed to achieve their own intercultural and foreign language goals long after
the period of training has finished. It uses the theory of ICC (i.e., Byram, 1997, 2008, 2012;
Deardorff, 2006, 2009; Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013) as an understanding of interculturaldevelopment and the various traits needed for successful intercultural communication. In
addition, ICC literature highlights the importance of individuality within interculturalcommunication, this is an essential starting point for learners to become aware, understand124

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 123-152

and appreciate (i.e., Byram, 1997, 2012; Corbett, 2010; Deardorff, 2006, 2009;
Gregersen-Hermans & Pusch, 2012; Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013). This has raised the need touse the concept of self in the IIS framework, as a way for learners to comprehend
individuality. This will be explained in more detail in the literature review.
The L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei, 2009; Dörnyei & Hadfield, 2013; Dörnyei& Kubanyiova, 2014), self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987) and possible future selves
theory (Markus & Nurius, 1986) are applied to the IIS framework as a motivating classroom
approach to let learners visualize and create not only their own foreign language goals, butalso their own intercultural development goals. As the IIS framework continues, learners
reflect on their initial goals and understand the various responsibilities involved to achieve
their own goals. Learner motivation arises from the need to close the gap between theirpresent state and their future goals. Motivation has been cited as a vital factor in many ICC
models (Spitzberg & Changon, 2009), however relatively little studies in Japanese EFL haveemphasized intercultural development from a motivation point of view.
The IIS framework is designed for use over a two-semester period, however this paper
introduces an on-going pilot study and the results achieved from the first semester. To begin
with, the influential literature that allowed the development of framework will be presented.
Following this, a deeper explanation of the framework will be explained. The final sections of
this paper present the classroom approaches, data collection methods, findings andsuggestions on how to improve the framework. The main research question of the study was if
the IIS framework could allow participants to develop some ICC traits over a one-semester
period. Furthermore, the main implication of this framework is that it could allow foreign
language educators to develop syllabi or curriculums to meet the requirements of MEXT
initiatives with intercultural development or intercultural communication themes.

125Fritz, R. & Miyafusa, S.
The Ideal Intercultural Self Framework

Literature Review
ICC offers an understanding of the various factors involved in intercultural development
and foreign language proficiency, whereas theories connected to L2 motivation offer anapproach for creating and achieving one’s intercultural and language goals. The definition of
ICC used for this paper is that ICC is a collection of various factors that an individual needs inorder to be effective and successful within intercultural situations. This was derived fromconsidering ICC literature that approaches learners as individuals and that also acknowledge
the internal factors related to cognition, behavior and attitude as being fundamental towards
development (i.e., Byram 1997, 2008, 2012; Deardorff, 2006, 2009; Liddicoat & Scarino,2013). Also, consideration of individuality is important as it allows learners and educators tounderstand and appreciate the personal nature of intercultural development and also thevarious personalities, emotions, social and cultural identities involved within intercultural
encounters.
First of all, Byram's (1997) theories and models of ICC have primarily influenced the
IIS framework. Byram bases ICC on the awareness, understanding and development ofcognitive (knowledge), behavioral (skills) and affective (attitudes) dimensions. Acquiring ICC
results in the individual becoming an “intercultural speaker”, a person who is able to bridge
linguistic and cultural boundaries in whatever situation they find themselves (Byram, 1997,2008). Essentially, the intercultural speaker needs to gain a critical cultural awareness of self
and the ability to handle different interpretations of reality from different perspectives(Coperías-Aguilar, 2007). How and where ICC is acquired is another important consideration
for the IIS framework. Byram (1997) outlines that learners develop ICC in three specific ways
“classroom, fieldwork and independent learning” (p. 65). The teacher's responsibility of alearner’s ICC development steadily decreases within each of these contexts, however theteacher’s role is a flexible one that adjusts between supervisor, meditator and guide. Also,
independent learning plays a vital role on classroom learning as (inter)cultural experiences

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allow one to comprehend the concepts presented within intercultural development training
programs (i.e., Byram 1997; Coperías-Aguilar, 2007; Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013). Therefore,a meaningful intercultural training program needs to encourage learners to reflect,contemplate and value previous (inter)cultural experiences. As a result of all of this, theconsideration of how and where ICC is acquired has influenced the structure of the IIS
framework and syllabus design for this study.
In addition, the point of view that ICC is a continual life-long process where no peakcan be reached (i.e., Byram, 1997; Deardorff, 2006, 2009, 2011), is also an essential
component of the IIS framework. This ongoing notion of development encourages individuals
to become aware of how past, present and future are all interrelated in their development of
ICC. These points are best represented by the circular nature of Deardorff’s (2006) Process
Model of Intercultural Competence (Figure 1). This model also offers an understanding of
which ICC factors to consider in the IIS framework.

Figure 1. The Process Model of Intercultural Competence. Adapted from “Identification andassessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization,”. by
Deardorff, D.K, 2006, Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), p. 256. Copyright2006 by Deardorff, D.K.

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The following points explain the influence of Deardorff’s model on the IIS framework:- The circular representation demonstrates the continual nature of reflection and growth
involved in intercultural development.
- The model focuses on first understanding self (Individual), then other (Interaction). Thisdistinction of internal and external outcomes explicitly shows how internal factors have afundamental influence on the ability to produce effective communication. This is significant
for the foreign language educator, as traditional approaches to language learning often focus
on first developing language output and skills (i.e., pronunciation, fluency, accuracy etc.).
- This model also recognizes cognitive, affective and behavioral factors on interculturaldevelopment. However, attitudes are shown as the starting point of ICC development. Thissignificance highlights the interdependent relationship that exists between affective factors
and second language acquisition (Dörnyei & Hadfield, 2013).
The nature of ICC infers a learner-centered approach towards intercultural and foreign
language development. An educator that has developed a certain amount of ICC can act as arole model or authoritative figure for learners on how and where ICC is acquired. However, as
ICC is an individual and personal endeavor that has already started before the training period
and it is expected to continue after, learners need the chance to create and understand how toachieve their own goals. Thus, research related to the field of motivation and self has
influenced a motivating classroom approach to developing ICC. This is the focus of thefollowing sections.

Motivation, Self and the Link to ICC
Motivation and its relation to second language acquisition has been the center of several
studies (i.e., Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Williams & Burden, 1997), however relatively little
has been written specifically connecting motivation and ICC. This section will describe how

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L2 motivation theories can be applied to intercultural development and how they haveinfluenced the IIS framework. As the IIS framework considers the notion of individuality as amultifaceted, dynamic and interdependent on context, the sense of self is presented to learners,in order to gain awareness and a better understanding of self and other (i.e., Dörnyei &Kubanyiova, 2014; Williams, Mercer, & Ryan, 2015). Three main views of self are considered
for the IIS framework. First, individuals have a relatively stable set of self-perceptions thatthey believe about themselves, i.e. likes, dislikes, talents, roles (Adler & Rodman, 2006).
Second, individuals do not have a single self-concept, but several for different contexts(Williams et al., 2015). Thus, self is partly co-constructed from interactions and influencesfrom the surrounding environment (Dörnyei, 2009). Lastly, all individuals have possible
future selves, and these possible selves have a strong motivational impact on an individual(Dörnyei, 2009; Markus & Nurius, 1986).
This last point is the driving force behind the L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei,2009) and the main inspiration behind the approach of the IIS framework. Dörnyei’s notion
draws from Markus and Nurius’s (1986) belief of possible future selves, where individuals areable to imagine three different states of reality for themselves in the future; what we might
become; what we would like to become and what we are afraid of becoming. Also, the L2
Motivational Self System is inspired by self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987) as Higgins
shows an individual’s self-concept to consist of three domains – the actual self, ideal self andought-to self. The gap between the ought-to self and the ideal self causes the individual tohave positive or negative emotions, behaviors and attitudes. This results in the individual
being motivated to close the gap and achieve their ideal self. The L2 Motivational Self
System consists of a learner creating their own future L2 goals (the Ideal L2 Self), and thenbecoming aware of their own obligations to achieve their future goals (the Ought-to L2 Self).
The immediate learning environment (the L2 Learning Experience) also affects the ability toachieve the Ideal L2 Self. However, the L2 Motivational Self System centers on L2

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The Ideal Intercultural Self Frameworkacquisition and does not explicitly mention intercultural development. The next section will
explain how the L2 Motivational Self System is applied to the IIS framework.

The IIS Framework
The IIS framework combines the concept of ICC (Deardorff, 2006; Byram, 1997, 2008,2012) with the motivation related research (Dörnyei, 2009; Higgins, 1987; Markus & Nurius,
1986) to provide a motivational approach for learners to create their own interculturaldevelopment and foreign language goals. The complexities involved are graduallycomprehended over a two-semester period. In addition, the main implication of thisframework is that it can be used as the basis for an intercultural development themed syllabus
or curriculum. However, the purpose of the IIS framework is to give learners the momentum
needed towards achieving their own intercultural and foreign language, rather than trying toachieve a standardized goal or reach a certain level of ICC.
The IIS framework combines the notion of the intercultural speaker (Byram, 1997) with
the Ideal L2 Self (Dörnyei, 2009) to form the concept of the “IIS”. This is defined as anindividual’s future vision of personal goals and hopes related to becoming an intercultural
speaker. Also, the IIS follows the point of view that developing intercultural competence is alife long task where no peak can be reached (i.e., Byram, 1997; Deardorff, 2006, 2009;
Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013). Therefore, the “ideal state” implies a state that one is continuallyreviewing and seeking to attain. This highlights the understanding and valuing of theintercultural development process, rather than trying to achieve the final product of the ideal
self. Self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987) and future possible selves (Markus & Nurius,
1986) also inform the notion of Ought-to-Self and the IIS in the IIS framework, where
motivation occurs by the learner trying to close the gap between these two concepts.
Dörnyei’s (2009) concept of L2 Learning Experience is expanded to take into account the
local, national and global socio-cultural factors that influence a learner. Lastly, the IIS

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framework recognizes that past (inter)cultural experiences will affect an individual’s current
interests and needs, which will also affect their future vision of self. The IIS framework(Table 1 below) is based on Dörnyei and Hadfield’s (2013) six component motivational
program.

Table 1The IIS Framework
Key strategy

Classroom approaches & methods

Internal outcomes

External outcomes

1. Create

Learners first visualize their IIS.

Understand how

Become aware thatthe vision

Next, reflect and revisit goals andone develops self.

the development, orSemester 1

objectives.

Acquire/evolvelack of, internal

2. Revisit

The focus is on raising awarenessaffective andoutcomes has a

the visionand knowledge of the various

cognitive factors tofundamental effectSemester 1

internal or individual aspects ofdevelop one’s IIS.

on external

ICC.

outcomes.

3. Verify

Learners concentrate on

Understand theUnderstand thethe vision

challenges, potential

significance ofconcept of “other”

Semester 2

complications and realizing theirought-to-self.

within4. Keep thegoals and objectives

vision alive(ought-to-self).

communication.

Semester 2

5.

Contemplate one’s IIS after the

Self-evaluate

course has finished.

Analyze andUnderstand andevaluate self inpractice skills, andrelation to other.

abilities tocommunicate
effectively.

the vision
Semester 2

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The Ideal Intercultural Self Framework

The IIS framework (Table 1) has five steps for use over a two-semester period.
Deardorff’s (2006) Process Model of ICC (Figure 1) is used to distinguish internal andexternal outcomes of ICC and for learners and educators to understand what areas of ICC
should be acquired first. Therefore, the first and second step of the IIS framework is related to
the Individual stages of the Process Model of ICC. These steps focus on developing learners’
attitudes, curiosity discovery, cultural self-awareness and sociolinguistic awareness. The final
steps concentrate on how to analyze, evaluate and create self in relation to other withinintercultural situations, these steps are based on the Interaction sections of the Process Modelof ICC. At the first step, learners visualize their IIS. After a semester of intercultural training
and language development, they revisit it at the second step. This allows the learners toreconsider their original aims and hopes, and by creating a reevaluated vision they are able towitness their own development. The third, fourth and final steps are done in the second
semester and they are based on the Ought-to-Self, as these steps focus on the responsibilities
and obligations required to achieve the IIS. Step five (self-evaluate the vision) combines
Dörnyei and Hadfield's (2013) fifth and sixth components of keeping learners' visions alive
and counterbalancing their vision with undesired future selves. Moreover, revisiting earlier
steps in the IIS framework is encouraged in order to continually reflect and re-evaluate
learner’s IIS. This is in accordance to the circular nature of Deardorff’s (2006) Process Modelof ICC.
Considering the validation of the IIS framework, Dörnyei and Hadfield (2013) provide a
wealth of classroom approaches and methods for their six component motivational programand describe it as "...[an] effective way of motivating learners to enable them to create an
attractive vision of their future language self" (p. 5). They also argue that the programprovides the opportunity for L2 learners to visualize strengthen, substantiate, and maintaintheir initial future visions. Dörnyei and Kubanyiova (2014) accompany the theoretical132

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principles involved in the six component motivational program with evidence of research
practice involving visual research, interviews and student journals. Furthermore, recent
intervention studies offer some validation of the link between imagery and motivation (i.e.,
Fukada, Fukuda, Falout, & Murphy, 2011; Magid & Chan, 2012), where the authors reported
that visualization tasks to create future self-guides allowed participants to be more invested inlanguage learning. Furthermore, studies using Dörnyei's concept of the L2 Self Motivational
Self System within the Japanese EFL context have shown the benefits and implications ofusing the idea of L2 Self for second language acquisition (i.e., Apple, Da Silva, & Fellner,
2013; Kojima-Takahashi, 2013). However the authors of this paper are not aware of previous
studies that have evolved the L2 Motivational Self System to also incorporate interculturaldevelopment.

MethodObjectives of the Study and Procedure
This study focused on testing the hypothesis of step one and two of the IIS framework.
To do this, a case study was made by focusing on one group of participants over a
sixteen-week period (one semester). Results were collected at the start and end of the course.
The participants would visualize their IIS at the start of the course, and revisit that vision after
receiving one semester of classes aimed at increasing attitudes, openness, curiosity andflexibility - the Individual components of Deardorff’s (2006) Process Model of ICC (seeFigure 1). The intention of the case study approach was to allow the researchers tocomprehend more deeply about the process of intercultural development and gain a better
understanding to developing intercultural themed syllabi. Thus, allowing further revisions of
the IIS framework for future studies. As the authors are not aware of previous studies within
Japanese EFL offering a motivational approach framework to develop foreign language
proficiency and intercultural development, this pilot study intends to fill that gap. The main133

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The Ideal Intercultural Self Framework

research question of this study was:RQ. Is it possible to see students develop some of the traits of ICC by using the IIS
framework?

Participants
The participants for this study were 10 undergraduates (5 female and 5 male) studying
at a Japanese university where one of the authors of this paper currently works. All students
were third grade economics students and agreed to participate in the pilot study. A
non-compulsory English course was used to conduct the study and it was promoted as anintercultural training course. No pre-requisites for registration were given, but all of thestudents already had an intermediate level of English. To understand the backgrounds of theparticipants better, all of them filled out a simple questionnaire to find out about their latest
TOEIC score, length of time learning English and experiences of visiting other countries.
Their questionnaire answers are shown in Table 2 below. Each participant is given a single
letter as a pseudonym to protect his or her privacy.

Table 2
Participants of the Study (N= 10)
Name

Country of

GenderOriginLatestLearnedNumber ofLength of the longest

TOEIC

English sincecountries

trip

score

visited

A

Japan

M

565

JHS

1

Less than a week

B

Japan

F

565

ES

1

2 weeks

C

Japan

F

720

ES

4

1 month

D

Japan

F

680

ES

2

1 month134

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E

China

F

615

JHS

2

More than two years

F

Japan

M

585

JHS

4

Less than a week

G

China

M

565

ES

1

More than three years

H

Japan

M

890

Kindergarten

0

Not applicable

I

Japan

F

700

ES

4

2 weeks

J

Japan

F

565

JHS

3

2 weeks

All of the participants had taken the TOEIC test a few months prior to this study. Also, except
for one participant, all of them had studied or traveled abroad for various reasons and amountsof time. Both of the Chinese participants referred to their study in Japan as their longest trip
abroad. Also, participants B, H and I were planning on studying abroad the following
semester. Everyone else had the desire to study, work or volunteer in other countries after
graduation. The study lasted for one semester (sixteen 90-minute sessions) and the intention
was to continue the framework for the second semester with the same group of participants,
except B, H and I. In addition, all of the participants borrowed an ipad mini for the semester.
This was for completing the research tasks, required homework assignments and presentations
for the class. The syllabus and classroom approaches will be introduced in the next section.

Syllabus Design
A syllabus was created to develop participants’ ICC and self-awareness, whilst using the
motivating approach outlined in the IIS framework section. Participants were graded on classparticipation, homework and a presentation to introduce their IIS. In addition, the participants
were asked to complete research tasks in order to assist with the data collection for this study.
These are introduced in the next section. The units of the syllabus were designed aroundintercultural development topics in textbook “Identity” (Shaules, Tsujioka, & Iida, 2004). This
textbook was chosen as it is learner-centered and encourages intercultural development by135

Fritz, R. & Miyafusa, S.
The Ideal Intercultural Self Frameworkbalancing language development with cultural awareness. Extra content was also created tobring awareness of attitudes, curiosity, flexibility, open-mindedness and other ICC traits
associated to the Individual sections of Deardorff’s (2006) Process Model of ICC. Also,
several classroom tasks were adopted from Dörnyei and Hadfield (2013) to let participantsvisualize and periodically re-visit their future goals. The syllabus is shown below.

Table 3The Syllabus Created for This Study
week Topic

week

Topic

1

Introductions

9

Unit 3: Culture Shock2

About motivation and self

10

Unit 4: Culture in Language

3

Visualize your IIS

11

Unit 4: Culture in Language

4

Unit 1: About Identity

12

Unit 5: Body Language and Customs

5

Unit 1: About Identity

13

Unit 5: Body Language and Customs

6

Unit 2: Values

14

Unit 8: Communication Styles

7

Unit 2: Values

15

Unit 8: Communication Styles

8

Unit 3: Culture Shock16

Revise your IIS

In the first class, the class syllabus and key themes were introduced and different
activities were done to create better group dynamics. In the second class, the concept ofmotivation was explained in more traditional terms associated with L2 Motivation (i.e.,
Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Williams & Burden, 1997). Motivation was described in terms of
inside (intrinsic), outside (extrinsic), integrative and instrumental for the participants to gain
an awareness and a certain degree of understanding involving the needs, attitudes andbehaviors discussed within foreign language learning. In addition, the dynamic view of selfthat was presented in the literature review was also explained, and homework was given for

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further reflection on participants’ motivation and self. Motivation and the concept of self wereperiodically mentioned throughout the semester. In the third class, participants created their
IIS by visualizing their existing intercultural and foreign language goals in relation to what
they had learned in classes one and two. From class four until the penultimate class, thedifferent factors involving the IIS were taught by adapting various units from the Identity
textbook (Shaules et al., 2004) and adding extra materials to raise awareness of self and theIndividual components of Deardorff’s (2006) Process Model of ICC. Also, Units 6 and 7 of
the textbook were left out in favor of Unit 8 (Communication styles) as this unit gave an
opportunity for participants to be introduced to ICC factors associated with the Interaction
areas of the Process Model of ICC.
Several resources were adapted to create pedagogical approaches and homework tasks(i.e., Byram, 1997; Berardo & Deardorff, 2012; Corbett, 2010; Dörnyei & Hadfield, 2013;
Shaules et al., 2004). For example:- The activities in the Identity textbook (Shaules et al., 2004) allowed participants to practiceand develop their writing, reading, listening and conversation skills in group or pair work.
- Participants visualized their IIS, then drew and wrote their visions. This will be further
explained in the data collection tools section.
- Classroom and homework reflective tasks were designed to primarily raise awareness andunderstanding of previous experiences and the influence on their present self. Also, thesetasks aimed to raise awareness of previous local, national or global intercultural experiences,
so that the participants could realize the importance of informal learning on the ability todevelop ICC. Homework journals were also used for participants to regularly comment on
their IIS goals and to encourage review, time scales and action plans to achieve their goals.
- Intercultural critical incidents were designed to increase awareness and understanding of thevital factors of ICC for step one and two of the IIS framework i.e. attitudes, curiosity,
flexibility, cultural self-awareness and open-mindedness.

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The Ideal Intercultural Self Framework

Data Collection Tools
The authors of this paper are not aware of established templates that specifically analyze
intercultural development using theories involving the L2 Motivational Self System. This led
the authors to consult various sources for a suitable approach to collect and analyze the data.
A mixed-methods approach was deemed advantageous, as researchers have commented itallows a way to understand the various phenomena involved within intercultural development(i.e., Corbett, 2010; Deardorff, 2009, 2011; Gregersen-Hermans & Pusch, 2012). Also, as thisstudy is essentially trying to understand development from a complex point of view (dynamic
view of self, the various affective, cognitive and sociocultural factors and ICC development),
Dörnyei (2007) suggests a multi-level analysis allows investigators to obtain data about boththe individual and the broader societal context.
Surveys have influenced various qualitative studies related to the L2 Motivational Self
System (i.e., Apple et al., 2013; Dörnyei, 2009), however visual and narrative methods werepreferred as this would encourage visualization of the IIS in a more creative, interesting andcomplex way. Visual methods include image-based and graphical methods, and can combine
writing and drawing to inform the research questions (Wai-Ling Packard & Conway, 2006).
Also, Ruvolo and Markus (1992) suggest that visual methods are suitable in understanding
and analyzing possible selves theory put forward by Markus and Nurius (1986). Furthermore,
Wai-Ling Packard and Conway (2006) state that narrative methods are useful and frequently
used for studying possible selves. These methods let participants to freely write about the
topic in question and give greater control to express their future selves. Wai-Ling Packard andConway also recommend coding rubrics as a way to analyze data collected from narrative
methods.
Therefore a visual and narrative method was used as a qualitative data collection tool
for this study. In the third class, participants were asked to visualize their IIS, and then138

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produce a one or two page document explaining their vision. This involved an initialreflection and brainstorm of their IIS in terms of past experiences, ways of thinking, culturaland personal identity, communication styles, behavior and motivations for learning and anyother factors they deemed important to themselves. In small groups, the participants further
discussed their visions to gain an awareness of other class members’ IIS. Then, using thetechnique of visualization (Dörnyei & Hadfield, 2013), a prepared script was read to theparticipants to encourage and guide their thoughts for creating their vision of IIS. Finally, theparticipants were asked to express their vision through words and images by using the
Notability application on their borrowed ipad mini. At the time that this study was completed,
the Notability application was available to download free of charge from the Japanese iTunes
application store. This application allows users to freely draw, write and insert media (ownphotos, internet images, videos). They were asked to complete this task and email it as a pdf
to the instructor before the next class. This was their first IIS pdf. For step two of theframework in the final class of the course, the participants were asked to revisit and reassess
their original IIS pdf and produce a second IIS pdf to show their reassessed IIS. The
participants were explicitly told that these research tasks would not contribute to their course
grade.
By comparing the participants’ first and second IIS pdf, the main purpose of this datacollection method was to try and find signs of ICC development related to Deardorff’s (2006)
Individual sections of the Process Model of ICC (see Figure 1). In order to analyze the IIS
pdfs, a four-point scale rubric (see appendix) was designed by using the Individual criteria of
ICC with descriptors for each category reflecting the progression of development from lack ofawareness to awareness, then understanding to deep understanding. Both researchers analyzed
the pdfs’ words and images by checking the appropriate rubric category in turn. If aparticipant’s pdf did not show any evidence related to a specific category, they were awarded
the lowest score (1). The use of a second marker hoped to bring a degree of objectivity, as

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they were not familiar with the group of participants. To construct the rubric, the Assessmentof Intercultural Competence (Fantini & Tirmizi, 2006) and the Intercultural Knowledge andCompetence VALUE Rubric (Association of American Colleges & Universities, 2009) weremainly consulted as a guideline for constructing the questionnaire items. The rubric scores
were collected and analyzed using SPSS.

Results
From the ten participants, only eight produced eligible first (3rd class) and second (16thclass) IIS pdfs that could be analyzed. The results of all participants are shown below. Bothresearchers independently analyzed the pdfs’ words and images by checking the appropriate
rubric category in turn. The scores of both researchers are shown below in Table 4. The
average of first pdfs and last pdfs are calculated in order to prove reliability of this study.

Table 4
Researcher 1’s Evaluation

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Table 5
Researcher 2’s Evaluation

In order to assess inter-rater reliability, the authors of this paper independently scored
the IIS pdfs. Researcher 1 had no prior contact with the participants and Researcher 2 was the
instructor. A Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient test was performed. Theinter-rater correlation (r = 0.94, p = .001) indicated that both researchers evaluated the pdfs
with similar scores. These scores demonstrate reliability and Researcher 2's familiarity withthe participants did not cause bias in the results. In addition, both researchers’ scores for theparticipants' first and last IIS pdfs were used. A one-tailed paired-sample t-test was conducted
to evaluate whether the post-test mean (M = 2.87, SD = .6) was significantly higher than the
pre-test mean (M = 2.21, SD = .46). The result was significant, t = 7.16, d.f = 7, p < .01. These
results indicate that after the intervention of the classes, most of the participants had
developed the Individual traits of Deardorff’s (2006) Process model of ICC.

Analyzing the Participants’ IIS pdfs
All of the participants expressed their IIS visions in slightly different ways. Some participants141

Fritz, R. & Miyafusa, S.
The Ideal Intercultural Self Frameworkpreferred using images of themselves, famous people, places or icons. Others chose to express
themselves using the first-person narrative, but with a variety of verb tenses. Due to space
limitations, the results for participants A and C will be shown as they especially produced IIS
pdfs rich with data, and they were indicative of the general trends in the results. Their original
pdfs with highlights of the researchers comments are presented in this section.
In addition, the reasons for some participants achieving relatively lower scores (i.e.
participants B, F and G) were a) Participant B and F's pdfs lacked data, they seemed to have
hastily made their pdfs, b) Participant G misunderstood the instructions and produced a pdf
that was more abstract, therefore challenging to analyze with the rubrics, c) Participant B had
the lowest English proficiency of the group and expressed their IIS with simple sentences.

Figure 2. Participant A’s First IIS Pdf.

Figure 2 shows participant A to have already developed an amount of ICC at the start ofthe course. Both researchers gave the same scores for the categories of Respect (3); Openness(3); and Flexibility (3). Examples of this are:- “Open mind/not have prejudices/always have appreciative and respect people”(sic)142

JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 123-152- The whole pdf shows that they are willing to develop in order to adapt or change
certain parts of their self (Respect and Flexibility).

Figure 3. Participant A’s Second IIS Pdf.

In the second pdf, participant A shows an overall development in all categories. Bothresearchers gave the same scores for the categories of Respect (4); Openness (4); Curiosity &Discovery (4) and Flexibility (4). Visually, we can immediately see a development due to the
pdf containing more images and words related to intercultural development. The image “Noto Racism” demonstrates their understanding to suspend judgment of stereotypes orgeneralizations of others who are culturally different, hence an ethno-relative view (Respect
and Openness). In addition, they showed evidence of developing Curiosity & Discovery“Make positive efforts to learn or be taught the thing I don’t know” and Flexibility “…if I

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The Ideal Intercultural Self Framework

want to speak English and be a open minded person, I must be willing to do it. If not, I neverachievement this purpose” (sic). Next, participant C’s results are shown.

Figure 4. Participant C’s First IIS Pdf.

In the first pdf, the researchers agreed the same score for the following categories;
Openness (2); Cultural Self-Awareness (2); Knowledge of cultural worldview frameworks (1)and Empathy (2). Examples of this are:- “After I start working this company I changed my way of thinking…I can think
more widely”(sic). This demonstrates the participant’s development of the rightattitude to become more open-minded (Openness).
- “Meeting a lot of people gives me many new experience. I learned not only
English, but many culture and way of thinking” (sic). Participant C infers anawareness (perhaps implicit) of how other cultures may have different values andbeliefs that cause different ways of thinking in intercultural encounters (Cultural
Self-Awareness).

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Figure 5. Participant C’s Second IIS Pdf.

In the second pdf, the researchers agreed the same score for the following categories;
Curiosity and Discovery (4); Cultural Self Awareness (3); Knowledge of cultural worldview
frameworks (3); Empathy (3) and Flexibility (4). An example of curiosity and discovery is:- “Even if take more time to understand well about invisible culture or foreign
humor, to be open mind, I can accept many differences and beyond difficulties” (sic).
The participant shows an understanding of the endeavors, benefits and values related
to intercultural development.
In relation to Knowledge of cultural worldview of frameworks, participant C
demonstrates self-awareness about how political and historical matters influence and relate tothemselves. This is demonstrated in “…Bad relationship between China and Japan, I may
have prejudice for Chinese” and “…relations with other people”.

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The Ideal Intercultural Self Framework

Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to see if the IIS framework could develop
Individual ICC traits associated to Deardorff’s (2006) Process Model of ICC. Also, to see if
the motivational approach influencing the IIS framework was an effective method to allow
participants to visualize their own personal aims and hopes related to intercultural and foreign
language development. The result findings showed that the post-test mean (M=2.87) was
higher than the pre-test (M=2.21) and this shows a slight ICC development from thirteenclasses of instruction. A higher development cannot be expected due to this length of time
being relatively short and ICC development is acquired other the period of one’s lifetime (i.e.,
Byram, 1997; Deardorff, 2006; Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013). The higher post-test standard
deviation (SD=0.6) compared to the pre-test (SD=0.46) also suggests that the participants
developed ICC at different rates and this is to be expected due to the complexity of theirindividuality and the influence it has on their rates of development (i.e., cognition, affective
and socio-cultural factors, past intercultural experiences, wide range of knowledge etc.). In
addition, the participants’ first and second IIS pdfs showed a general lack of awareness ordevelopment in terms of a complex understanding of elements associated to different cultural
frameworks across the world and how it is related to their self. This could be due toparticipants having had relatively few and short travel abroad experiences, or a lack ofopportunities in their lives to gain a wide range of experiences and knowledge. However, as
Byram (1997) points out an interdependent relationship exists between formal and informal
learning, and the informal component is essential for ICC development.
Moreover, this pilot study also correlates with previous L2 Motivational Self System
studies that note the positive effects of learner development and motivation to achievelearners’ goals (Apple et al., 2013; Kojima-Takahashi, 2013; Magid & Chan, 2012). This
study demonstrated that the notion of the IIS pdfs allowed the participants to create their own
intercultural and foreign language goals, and by reevaluating their IIS at the end of the146JACET Selected Papers Vol. 3 (2016), 123-152

semester, they started to close the gap between present and future self. However, as theconcept of Ought-To-Self was not introduced in the first and second step of the IIS framework,a firm claim cannot be made at this stage if the participants were aware or understood theobligations and responsibilities involved in achieving their IIS. This was a limitation of thestudy, and a recommendation for further study would be introduce the notion ofOught-To-Self before the third, fourth and fifth steps of the IIS framework. Other limitations
include the validity of the claims made by the participants in the narratives of the IIS pdfs.
Firm examples of evidence to back up their claims of ICC development are needed and arecommendation would be to have the participants explain further through either asemi-structured interview or in writing.

Conclusion
The purpose of this pilot study was not to try and fully develop the participants ICC orfor the participants to reach a standardized goal. Instead, it was to demonstrate the potential of
the IIS framework as a practical way to create and teach an intercultural training program forundergraduates at a Japanese university. The pilot study showed promising results that the IIS
framework could be used as a motivating approach for students to develop the traits of ICC,
but as this is an on-going pilot study a firm conclusion cannot be given at this stage. Thus, themain implication of this study is that the IIS framework could be used for students to create
their own intercultural development and foreign language goals. The wider implication is thatIIS framework could create a curriculum based on developing global human resources, or as
the basis for a pre-departure course to prepare students for studying or working abroad. The
discussion section highlighted the main limitations of the pilot study and the structure of the
IIS framework, however with any new or unique teaching approach or method, there will
always be challenges to overcome. Least of all is asking a learner to adapt and have faith inteaching approaches or methods that they may have not experienced before. However, if the147Fritz, R. & Miyafusa, S.
The Ideal Intercultural Self Framework

objective of Japanese tertiary education is to produce undergraduates that can think, work or
act within a global context, then new ideas, approaches and methods to education will beneeded. Therefore, it is the hope that the research produced from this study can help to evolve
the IIS framework and also help to make a contribution to intercultural and foreign language
development programs at Japanese universities.

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Berardo, K., & Deardorff, D. K. (2012). Building cultural competence: Innovative activities
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Appendix: Rubric to Assess the IIS pdf
Required
Attitudes

1

2

3

4

Respect(valuing
cultures,culturaldiversity)

Shows little
awareness ofcultural diversity
and little awarenessof own culture.
Negative towards
cultural diversity
and interacting withother.

Shows a surface
level understandingof cultural diversity
and own culture.
Has little interest ofvaluing othercultures. Tolerates
cultural diversity.

Shows an explicit
understanding and,
respect orappreciation ofcultural diversity
and own culture.

Shows a deep
understanding,appreciation or respectof the cultural diversity
and own culture. Has a
positive attitude
towards cultural
diversity andinteracting with other.

Openness(tointercultura
l learning,
does nothave
judgement)

Has an ethnocentric
view ofinterculturallearning (i.e.
close-minded,judgemental ofother). Uses
stereotypes andgeneralisations ofother.

Shows a potential
to become more
open-minded
towards other. Still
has difficulty tosuspend judgementof culturally
different others.
Evidence of awillingness tochange.

Shows anopen-mind withalmost all that areculturally different.
Understands that
others areindividuals, and ismostly able tosuspend judgementwith culturally
different others.

Suspends judgement of
any stereotypes orgeneralisations ofothers who areculturally different.
Understands others areindividuals too. Showsan ethno relative
attitude.

Curiosity
anddiscovery (iswilling tolearn newthings, ok
withuncertainty)

Demonstrates anunwillingness tolearn or discover
new things (about
self or other).
Shows they are not
comfortable withdifferent culturalvalues, beliefs,
customs or

Shows they canlearn or discover
new things, but they
do not know thevalues or benefits to
self. Not
comfortable withsome different
cultural values,
beliefs, customs or

Mostly understands
the benefits andvalues of learningfrom different
cultural values,
beliefs, customs orculturally different
situations. Mostly
understands how
curiosity andUnderstands thebenefits and values oflearning from different
cultural values, beliefs,
customs or culturally
different situations.
Shows evidence thatthey are able tocontinually learn anddiscover independently

151

Has a mostly
positive attitude
towards cultural
diversity andinteracting withother.

Fritz, R. & Miyafusa, S.
The Ideal Intercultural Self Framework

culturally different
situations.

culturally different
situations.

discovery canbenefit self. They
are mostly OK in
uncertain situations.

and are OK in uncertain
situations.

Knowledge&
Comprehen
sion

1

2

3

4

Culturalself-awarene
ss

Shows minimal self
awareness of own
visible and invisible
kinds of culture.

Identifies some
visible and invisible
cultural self
awareness.

Is able to see newperspectives andopinions of theirown visible andinvisible culture.

Recognizes how visible
and invisible culture
has helped to influence
their perceptions of theworld and expectationsof others.

Knowledgeof cultural
worldviewframeworks

Demonstrates asurfaceunderstanding ofelements associatedto different cultural
frameworks acrossthe world and how
it is related to theirself (i.e. politics,
economics, history,
communicationstyles).

Demonstrates apartialunderstanding ofelements associatedto different cultural
frameworks acrossthe world and how
it is related to theirself (i.e. politics,
economics, history,
communicationstyles).

Demonstrates a
betterunderstanding ofelements associatedto different cultural
frameworks acrossthe world and how
it is related to theirself (i.e. politics,
economics, history,
communicationstyles).

Demonstrates acomplex understandingof elements associatedto different cultural
frameworks across theworld and how it isrelated to their self (i.e.
politics, economics,
history, communicationstyles).

Desiredinternal andexternal
outcomes

1

2

3

4

Unable tounderstand theworld through theeyes (and way of
thinking) of theother.

Able to understandthe world throughthe eyes (and wayof thinking) of theother, but still uses
own thoughtprocesses andworldview to reachconclusions.

Able to understandthe world throughthe eyes (and wayof thinking) of theother and their own
eyes. Able to use
own thoughtprocesses and feel
what the otherthinks too.

Able to understand theworld through the eyes
(and way of thinking)of the other and theirown eyes. Able to use
own thought processes
and feel what the otherthinks too.

They understandthe need to think,feel, or behave in
different ways thanthe cultural norm.

They understand thebenefits and values
associated withthinking, feeling or
behaving in other ways
than the cultural norm.

Empathy(internal)

Flexibility(internal)

They show an
inability to think(cognitive), feel or
behave (affective)
another way thanthe cultural norm.

They can think, feelor behave inanother way thanthe cultural norm,
but still find it
uncomfortable.

152

Also understands
individuality, and themany ways to view theworld. Able to think
and act appropriately.

Submission Guidelines

JACET International Convention Selected Papers, Vol. 3
SUBMISSION GUIDELINES

Manuscripts for the JACET International Convention Selected Papers (JACET Selected
Papers) will only be accepted by online submission. Please read the following guidelines
carefully.

Important Dates:
Submission Form Open: October 9, 2015
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http://www.jacet.org/2015convention/spsubmission/submission.html
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corresponding author will be consulted if the changes are substantial.
6. Paper offprints will not be provided.

154

C. Guidelines
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155

F. Copyright
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156