Electric Current Based Power Line Communication
for Plug-Load Device Auto Identification
Hiroyuki Ikegami∗, Manabu Tsukada∗, Hideya Ochiai∗, Hideaki Nii† and Hiroshi Esaki∗∗ the University of Tokyo, Japan

Email: {ikegam, tsukada, jo2lxq}@hongo.wide.ad.jp, hiroshi@wide.ad.jp† IIJ Innovation Institute, Japan
Email: h-nii@iij.ad.jp
Abstract—A smart building has an outlet-level power meters
for managing the energy consumption of plug-load devices – thedevices or appliances connected to the outlets. Identification of
the connected devices used to be made by system operators in
the traditional building energy management systems (BEMS),
but it is no more realistic for such fine-grained power monitoring
applications. This paper proposes a new communication method –electric current based power line communication (ECPLC), whichenables automatic identification of plug-load devices without
the intervention of system operators. Using ECPLC, a device
transmits bit sequences that show its identifier on the electric
current flow, which propagates only to the outlet from theconnected device. We have designed a transmitter and a receiverof ECPLC with studying the electric model that enables thecommunication. We have also implemented them, and carried out
experiments on varieties of cases. The results show that ECPLC
performs very well in typical application scenarios, indicatingthat it is useful for automatic identification of plug-load devices.
Keywords—Power Line Communication, Smart Buildings,
Building Energy Management System.

I.

I NTRODUCTION

A smart building has outlet-level power meters to allow
fine-grained monitoring of energy consumption of devices orappliances – which are called “plug-load devices” in this paper.
Smart building needs identification of the plug-load devices
connected to the outlets to manage the consumption. Building
operators used to put the connection information by hand in a
traditional building energy management system (BEMS), however this approach reaches the limit. Some devices are portable,
which may connect to any outlets and BEMS cannot follow
the change without intervention of the building operators.
Automatic identification of plug-load devices is necessary
to outlet-level energy management. Inspired by the works
of non-intrusive load monitoring (NILM[10][12]), researchers
have studied on the “features” of energy consumption [3][9](i.e., pattern of energy usage), trying to identify the device
connected to the outlet. We call this approach as passive
scheme. Passive approach can estimate the types of the devices
by the observation of the energy consumption. However, theapproach cannot easily “identify” the device itself if they
have many similar devices. Active identification schemes areprobably essential so as to precisely perform auto identificationin such a scenario.
In this paper, we propose a new power line communication, named electric current based power line communication(ECPLC). ECPLC can transmit bit sequences using “electric

current”, which propagates on a closed circuit – making a loop.
In the proposal, each device periodically transmits its identifier
on its power line, and the outlet can receive the identifier ofthe connected device. In this way, we can achieve automatic
identification of plug-load devices.
ECPLC is totally different from the well-known
PLCs[1][8][7]. They transmit signals on the voltage ofthe power line, which we say electric voltage based PLC(EVPLC). EVPLC cannot be used due to the nature of thevoltage propagation. The signals of EVPLC transmitted froma device would reach all the outlets, therefore we would not beable to identify where it is connected. The signals of ECPLC
from a device will reach the sole outlet, and we can recognizethat the device is connected to the outlet. The proposed
ECPLC enables immediate and precise identification.
This paper focuses on the basic principles of ECPLC. We
assume one-to-one (device-to-outlet) simplex communication,
propose the design of the transmitter and the receiver of
ECPLC and develop a signal propagation model. We have
implemented the ECPLC transmitter and the receiver and evaluated the performance considering typical building deployment
scenario. The following other practical works are out of focus
in this paper: collision avoidance, duplex communication,
design of identifiers and system implementation.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II
highlights the works related to the domain of plug-load auto
identification and power line communication. Section III explains the proposal, ECPLC. the ECPLC transmitter and the
ECPLC receiver are also introduced. Section IV provides theevaluation of ECPLC. In Section V, we discuss the result of
the experiment and lists the future work. Finally, Section VI
concludes the paper.
II.

R ELATED WORK

Plug-load device identification is a necessary task for power
consumption measurement as described in the introduction.
Administrator of power measurement equipment manually
writes up the association such as which plug-load device ismonitored by which point of power metering typically. For
instance, power distribution unit (PDU) in a data center andsmart power strip (SPS) in a building employ the manualmanner. Contrary to manual, some automatic technologies arealso proposed. Electric vehicle (EV) and Smart Plug have theauto identification functionality by design such as [2] and [11].
These dedicated systems have another communication channel

for the identification by modification of AC plug and power
outlet.
Some researchers focused power metering itself to identify
plug-load device based on time-series voltage, current andphase data. They are trying plug-load device auto identification
with data analysis technology. This is a hot research topic,
called as non intrusive load monitoring (NILM), includes
plug-load auto identification function typically [10][12]. Other
works such as [3], [4] and [9] also focus on plug-load auto
identification from time-series data analysis.
Power line communication is conventionally voltage based,
which modulates data to high frequency electric voltage anduses a power line system of a building as a bus network(electric voltage based power line communication, EVPLC).
EVPLC is widely operated such as X10, HD-PLC[1] and G3PLC[8]. There are an enormous number of studies[7]. EVPLC
easily expands the in-building computer network because of
the nature of electric voltage. Wall outlets are connected asparallel, therefore voltage signal of EVPLC propagates alloutlets. However EVPLC does not aim the issue of plug-load
device identification.
TWACS[6][5] is one of PLC technology and TWACS
uses current flow for data communication on a power line.
TWACS focuses on transmission distance of current based
communication because TWACS is designed for auto power
metering from the power company to their customer. Inboundcommunication of TWACS, from the power meter to a masterdevice, uses current flow to transmit data in order to enablelong-distance transmission around tens kilometers.
III.

E LECTRIC C URRENT BASED P OWER L INE
C OMMUNICATIONThis section explains the proposal, electric current-based
power line communication (ECPLC). ECPLC is a new typeof communication method designed for plug-load device auto
identification system. The proposal includes circuit designs of
ECPLC transmitter and receiver. An electrical model of the
ECPLC communication system is also introduced.
A. Plug-load device auto identification system with ECPLCThe overview of the proposed system is shown at Fig. 1.
All of plug-load devices transmit an own device identifier suchas an IPv6 address and Ethernet MAC address to smart power
strips, a smart outlet or smart meters by electric current flow.
These smart devices receive the identifier and then identify
own target devices. The result of this identification may send
to a center storage server, which saves power consumption data
and the server keeps association correctly.
This paper uses terminologies, which are smart meter,
smart outlet and smart power strip, for the following contents.
The Smart meter indicates a power consumption metering unit
for the root of power lines, which is located on the electrical
panel typically. Smart outlet indicates a wall outlet with power
consumption metering and smart power strip is an extension
power cable with the metering function.
ECPLC is suitable for the system, because signals of
ECPLC propagate to upstream of a power line by consuming
electricity in ECPLC transmitter and other power outlets which

Fig. 1. Plug-load device auto identification system based on electric current
flow based communication

V/I

IC

AC voltage
Current

Ih

t

t
Td
Fig. 2.

Tw

ECPLC waveform: Current pulse at voltage zero crossing point

are connected as paralell do not receive signals based on
physics of current flow unlike EVPLC.
B. ECPLC waveform
Fig. 2 shows a fundamental idea to represent binary value(1 or 0) on current flow and the parameters, Td , Tw and
Ih . ECPLC makes a short term current pulse at voltage zerocrossing point to send “1” and no pulse at the point means “0”.
In another word, it is binary coded pulse width modulation on
voltage zero crossing point. Using a zero crossing point makes
good signal-to-noise ratio, because almost none of the plugload devices consume electricity at the time range.
This proposed waveform has three parameters, which are
Td , Tw and Ih in Fig. 2. Td stands for a delay before startinga pulse. Tw and Ih are the pulse width and height.
C. ECPLC Transmitter
The proposed transmission method is based on the constantcurrent source circuit. Fig. 3 shows an important part of the
proposed transmitter circuit. An AC plug is a power source
and an AC input capable photocoupler is placed on the AC line
in order to catch zero crossing point for a micro computing
unit (MCU). A diode bridge is placed on same AC line andAC voltage is converted to full rectified wave. The output ofthe diode bridge connects to GND and the gate of Tr1 , an
NPN transistor. An operational amplifier (op-amp), Tr1 and a
resistor compose the constant current source circuit. The MCU
controls the constant current source circuit based on the outputof the photocoupler.
Vin , V+ , V− and VR stand for the input voltage of theconstant current source, the positive input voltage of the opamp, the negative input voltage of the op-amp and the output
voltage of the op-amp respectively as shown in Fig. 3. The
op-amp makes constant current flow by Vin . The op-amp
controls own output voltage to maintain V+ = V− . Vin
directly connects to V+ and V− also directly means VR , thus,
VR = Vin . Finally, Ih is determined as Vin /RC because of
VR = Vin .

AC
Plug
V+
+
V-

Vin

0 1 0 1 1・・・

Voltage

Trigger

-

Tr2

VR

MCU

TriggerIC

Resistor (RC)Photocoupler

Zero Crossing Detector

Constant Current Source

Full Rectifier

ECPLC Transmitter: the transmitter makes current pulse at voltage zerocrossing timing to represent data to be transmitted.

The MCU makes V+ = 0 except zero crossing timing by
turning on Tr2 . Light emitting diodes (LED) of the photocoupler are connected to the AC line. On the low voltage
timing, LEDs do not emit light and the photo transistor goesto turn off. When the MCU caches the zero crossing from thephotocoupler, the MCU waits Td and turns off Tr2 to makeconstant current flow as Ih in Tw period.

〜
Trigger

Photocoupler

D. ECPLC Receiver
We propose two types of ECPLC receivers, which arewith voltage (normal receiver) and without voltage (simple
receiver), because of the real situation on deployment of smart
outlets, smart plug strips and smart meters. Smart outlets andsmart plug strips have a voltage sensing unit to calculate power
consumption accurately. However, at the smart meter level,some conventional smart meters do not have voltage sensing.
The smart meters assumes that power factor = 1 and simply
provides apparent power (VA).
The receivers’ circuit is shown at Fig. 4. The receivers
measures current flow by a current transformer (CT) and catchs
the edges of current flow in order to detect current pulses. The
conditions to accept a pulse are that height of the edge is Ih
with under 30% errors and the time difference between twoedges is Tw with under 10% errors. Detecting a pulse means
the receiver gets 1.
The simple receiver measures current flow only as shownas Fig. 4. Therefore, to receive 0, the receiver interpolates 0
based on the time difference between “1“ to “1“. For instance,
if the receiver receives two current pulses at t and t + 32
milliseconds. Two ”0” are interpolated on between 1 on t and
1 on t + 32 milliseconds, because there are two times zerocrossing on 50 Hz power systems. The normal receiver does
not have this function because the receiver detects the time slotof ECPLC transmission by the voltage zero crossing detector.
E. Model of ECPLC signal transmission
Here, we introduce an electrical model of the ECPLC
communication system shown at Fig. 5. RP 1 stands for resistances on in-building power lines and RP 2 stands for theextension power cable from the ECPLC receiver to the ECPLC
transmitter. RIN T is an internal resistance of the transmitter.

MCU

Cut out on simple receiver

I Conditions to accept Pulse
Tw

Ih

Burden Resistor

Fig. 3.

Ih

Tr1

IC

Data

Plug-load
DeviceIh :－30% errort T :±10% error

Fig. 4. ECPLC Receiver: Receiver measures current flow by the current
transformer and detects transmitted pulse based on the conditions. Simple
receiver does not have the zero crossing detector.

The transmitter consists of the switch, the constant current
source and the internal resistance. The current source makes
Ih in Td < t < Td +Tw period. VAC (t) is determined as Eq. 1.
The ECPLC signal transmission can be considered on this resistance only model circuit without capacitance and inductanceof cables, because of frequency of ECPLC. The width of thecurrent pulse is assumed from 100 to 500 microseconds andthis corresponds 5 kHz to 1 KHz, therefore the model canignore them.

VAC (t) =√2Vsys sin(2πfsys t)(1)

A time-series ECPLC current flow function, IC (t), can be
determined as Eq. 2. Vsys and fsys stands for the AC power
supply voltage and its frequency respectively. RP 1 is under
1.5 Ω in 100 V power system like Japan because voltage must
be between 90 to 110 V with maximum current 15 A. 10 V
voltage drop with 15 A means 1.5 Ω. RIN T depends on thetransmitter implementation. For instance, in the experimental
implementation of this paper, the resistance is 0.5 Ω.

IC

A

RP1

〜

RP2

Turned on(Td < t < Td + Tw)< 1.5 Ω↓VAC(t)

Wall Outlet(100 V, 50 Hz)

NormalReceiver

RINT
(a)

(b)

(c)

Extension Cable (RP2)(d)

Plug-load
Device(a) In-building power cable (under 1.5 Ω)(b) ECPLC Receiver(c) Extension power cable(d) ECPLC Transmitter
Fig. 5.

SimpleReceiverTransmitter

AC Motor, Vacuum Cleaner,
AC/DC Converter,
Filament Bulb

Electrical model circuit for ECPLC communication system
Fig. 6. Experiment system: the transmitter connects two receivers, normal
receiver and simple receiver, via the extension power cable.

0
IC (t) = 0
VAC (t)min {
RIN T +RP 1 +RP 2 , Ih }(t < Td )(Td + Tw < t) (2)(otherwise)

The maximum pulse height is capped by Td . Td is determined from Ih as Eq. 3, This equation is deformed from
Eq. 2 with IC (t) = Ih . From the equation, for instance, thecase of 5.5 A for Ih requires 250 microsecond delay as Td
with RP 2 = 0, RIN T = 0.5 Ω and RP 1 = 1.5 Ω.

Td ≥1
RIN T + RP 1 + RP 2√
Ih )arcsin(
2πf
2Vsys

(3)

Tw is considered from the receiver’s analog-to-digitalconverter (ADC) sampling frequency, fADC , as shown in
Eq. 4. For instance, if the frequency is 60 kHz, Tw is over
167 microseconds, because of the receiver design. We defined
the acceptable error rate is 10% as defined in the previous
section. ± 16.7 microseconds error should be occurred by
60 kHz sampling, thus Tw should be over 167 microseconds.

Tw ≥

1
× 10
fADC

(4)

Ih is decided by the designed power consumption to send“1” of the transmitter. The maximum power consumption, Wh ,is calculated from Eq. 5. The reason of the multiplication by
2fsys is that the time range from Td to Td +Tw is for a half partof a wave. From the equation, Ih can be determined by power
consumption. For instance, on the case of power consumption
should be under 3 W, the ADC frequency of the receiver is 60
kHz and the other parameters are same as above paragraphs,
hence up to 6 A can be used.

IV.

E VALUATIONThis section describes the prototype implementation of
ECPLC and experimentation to evaluate characteristics of ECPLC. We conducted two experiments. First one is to investigate
the effect of the resistance of the extension cable, RP 2 . Second
one is impact of load current flow of the plug-load device itself
to the communication success rate.
A. Experiment Setting
Experiment system is a one-to-one connection of the transmitter and two receivers, normal receiver and simple receiver,as shown in Fig. 6. The power cable drum between thetransmitter and the receivers is the extension power cable for
RP 2 . The power source is the wall outlet of our building (50Hz and 100 V).
Hardware configurations of the experimentation are summarized in TABLE. I. MCUs (model: ATMEL ATmega328P)
is used for the receivers. The MCU takes a current value fromthe ADC and demodulates binary data. The receivers use a
CT (model: U RD CTL-10-CLS) with 1 kΩ burden resistor
as the current sensor. The normal receiver uses a photocoupler (model: Fairchild Semiconductor FOD814A300W) as thezero crossing detector. The transmitter makes constant current
by the op-amp (model: HTC LM358N) and two transistors(model: TOSHIBA 2SC5200, 2SC3421) as a Darlington pair.
The output of the op-amp connects to the Darlington circuit
to make current pulse. The MCU (same as receivers) connects
to the op-amp and works as the binary pulse width modulator.
To evaluate the ECPLC experiment system, here, we
determine example parameters as Td = 250 microseconds,
Ih = 5.5 A and Tw = 350 microseconds. To calculate
a success rate, the transmitter sends pseudo-random 32bit
sequence 200 times, 800 bytes. Success rate is defined as if thereceiver demodulates the 32bit chunk correctly that it means
success, but if there is any bit errors that it is fail. In addition,
throughput of the implementation is 100 bps because of thepower system frequency 50 Hz.
B. Pulse width decreasing on extension power cables

Wh =Z Td +Tw
Td

IC (t)VAC (t) · dt × 2fsys(5)Fig. 7(a) shows shapes of current pulse on the three cables
which are 100 m (0.98 Ω), 60 m (0.64 Ω) and 4 m (0.10 Ω)TABLE I.

H ARDWARE CONFIGURATIONS OF THE EXPERIMENTATION

Simple Receiver
MCU
ADC
Current sensing
Burden resistor

ATMEL ATmega328P, 16MHz, 2KB SRAM
MCU internal, 60 kHz
CT, U RD CTL-10-CLS
1 kΩ

Normal Receiver
MCU
ADC
Current sensing
Burden resistor
Voltage sensing

ATMEL ATmega328P, 16MHz, 2KB SRAM
MCU internal, 60 kHz
CT, U RD CTL-10-CLS
1 kΩ
Fairchild Semiconductor FOD814A300W

Transmitter
MCU
Voltage sensing
Constant current source
RC

ATMEL ATmega328P, 16MHz, 2KB SRAM
Fairchild Semiconductor FOD814A300W
HTC LM358N, TOSHIBA 2SC5200, 2SC3421
0.39 Ω

0

175

350

0 m (0 Ω)
60 m (0.64 Ω)(b) Resistance vs success rate
100

Success Rate [%]IC[A](a) Pulse shapes on the cables
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

525
700
[microseconds]
4 m (0.10 Ω)
100 m (0.98 Ω)

50
0
0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5
RP2[Ω]

Simple Receiver
Normal ReceiverFig. 7. (a) Shapes of current pulse on different cables. (b) Communication
success rate versus the resistance of extension cable.

respectively. We changed RP 2 on Fig. 5 by the three cables.
The series named as 0 m means that the transmitter connects
to the receiver without an extension cable. The width of thecurrent pulse is decreased on longer power cable because of
RP 2 . 60 m and 100 m data indicate the error of pulse width
increases on the longer cable (higher resistance).
This result follows proposed ECPLC communication modelin Section III, because the pulse width decreasing is caused
only by the resistance of the cable. i.e., Inductance andcapacitance are negligible.
We inserted a variable resistance between the extension
cable and changed RP 2 intentionally so as to measure successrate versus resistance as shown at Fig. 7(b). There is no majordifference between the two receivers. The result shows that
communication success rate has rapidly decreased from around1.1 Ω. This value corresponds to the cable length between
100 m to 200 m.
C. Communication with various plug-load devices
Fig. 8 shows current waveforms from the ECPLC transmitter with four different plug-load devices which are AC
motor, filament bulb, vacuum cleaner and AC/DC switching
converter without the extension cable, RP 2 . Purple line shows
the voltage on the AC power line and blue lines show current
flows, IC . The current pulses of ECPLC are modulated ataround voltage zero crossing timing.
The four devices are chosen to investigate ECPLC characteristics with various plug-load devices power consumption
pattern. In order to examine characteristics of low power factor
device, a 70 W AC motor (Motor) is selected. The AC motor
has mechanical impedance and the magnetic thing inside it

and the power factor is around 60% to 80%. To evaluate with
the nonlinear, conventional consumer electronics device, an
AC/DC switching converter (ACDC Con.) with a resistor istested. Quite a few numbers of consumer electronics device
require DC power and these devices use the converter. For
evaluation with huge power consuming device, a filament bulb
(Bulb) and a vacuum cleaner (Vacuum) are selected.
We evaluate success rates versus pulse width and heightwith the four plug-load devices and no device as shown as
Fig. 9. The NL series means that there is no plug-load device,i.e. direct connection of the transmitter and the receivers. Bothreceivers get transmitted data correctly even the low power
factor device or the AC/DC switching converter, with thedefault parameters, Td = 250 microseconds, Tw = 350 microseconds and Ih = 5.5 A. Moreover, with lower pulse
height around 2 A, the normal receiver obtains data correctly.
However the simple receiver does not collect enough data withthe vacuum cleaner or with lower pulse height. The receiving
process in the receiver is compromised because of vibrationsof load current of the devices. For instance, the vibration of
the vacuum cleaner is quite huge around ± 4 A. The processtries to catch 4.62 A (70% of 5.5 A) up/down edge of thepulse. The threshold value is nearly closed to the vibration,
therefore the receiving process does fail. With lower pulse
height, the process is also damaged because of the same reason.
The normal receiver only works on zero crossing points and,thus, can avoid the vibrations.

V.

D ISCUSSION AND F UTURE WORK

Many-to-one connection is a future work of this research.
In this paper, we tested the ECPLC system on the one-to-one
connection between the transmitter and the receiver in orderto evaluate characteristics. On the deployment of the power
metering device, there are some granularity levels, which aresmart power strips, smart outlets and smart meters. All plugload devices monitored by an individual smart power strip are
the novel scenario and the scenario is just one-to-one connections. However, in the practical environment, smart power
strips and smart outlets are extended by conventional power
strips and some plug-load devices connect to one receiver andthe connection must be many-to-one. ECPLC needs a methodof collision management to treat the many-to-one connection.
Deep analysis and design of the detailed electric model ofcommunication is surely important tasks. This paper introduces
new communication mechanisms and provides some results
based on the prototype to prove our concept. To discuss
ECPLC mechanism more deeply, detailed electric model andnew definitions of communication perspective are required. For
example, to draw a graph of BER (Bit Error Rate) versus noiselevel requires a definition of noise of ECPLC.
ECPLC receiver may be implemented on conventional
smart metering devices from the results of the experimentation
because the pulse width is around 100 microseconds and thewidth is enough to measure by conventional ADC samplingrate. Considerations of developing the ECPLC communication
system with the conventional deployed smart metering system
is also a fancy future work.

Y: 2 A/div
X: 4 ms/div

Vacuum Cleaner
1000W

AC Motor
70W

0A
Y: 10 A/div
X: 4 ms/div
Y: 2 A/div, 250 V/div
X: 4 ms/div

Filament Bulb
270W

Y: 2 A/div, 250 V/div
X: 4 ms/div

AC/DC
Switching Converter
50W

0A

0V
Fig. 8. ECPLC current pulse on plug-load devices current flows; Four images are screenshots from an oscilloscope (model: Tektronix MDO3014) and theseries is centered by a downside edge of a pulse. The y-axis of the top-right one is different with others.

Simple Receiver

Normal Receiver
100(a) Pulse Height(b) Pulse Width
Success Rate [%]

100
80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20
0

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

100

100

80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

2

3

4

5

6

Ih [A]

00
150 200 250 300 350 400

150 200 250 300 350 400

Tw [microseconds]
NL

ACDC Con.

Motor

Bulb

VacuumFig. 9. Success rate versus pulse width and height: (a) pulse height, Ih , andTw is fixed to 350 microseconds; (b) pulse width, Tw , and Ih = 5.5 A.

VI.

C ONCLUSION

This paper presents electric current based power line
communication (ECPLC). Feature of ECPLC is propagation
range – transmitted signals limited on the connected smart
power meters against conventional voltage based power line
communication (EVPLC). The experimentation with working
prototype shows ECPLC works well and characteristics are
suitable for typical building environments. Throughput of
ECPLC is achieved at 100 bps, which is enough for the target
application, plug-load device auto identification system. The
result of the experimentation shows that plug-load device auto
identification system with ECPLC is feasible.
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